Zingiberaceous Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

ZINGIBERACEOUS MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTSGreen plants synthesise and preserve a variety of biochemical products, many of which are extractable and used as chemical feed stocks or as raw material for various scientific investigations and industrial utilization. Medicinal plants are generally known as “Chemical Goldmines” as they contain natural chemicals, which are acceptable to human and animal systems. All these chemicals cannot be synthesised in laboratories. Many secondary metabolites of plant are commercially important and find use in a number of pharmaceutical compounds. Human beings have been dependent on plants for their health care needs since the beginning of civilistion. Of the 2,50,000 higher plant species on earth, more than 80,000 are medicinal in nature. About 5000 species are extensively used in traditional systems of medicine and are studied in some detail. The Red Data Book of India has 427 entries of endangered species of which 28 are considered extinct, 124 threatened, 81 vulnerable, 100 rare and 34 insufficiently known species (Thomas, 1997). India has one of the richest ethnobotanical traditions in the world with more than 7000 species of plants found in different agro-ecosystems and used by various indigenous systems of medicine and industries. Over 95% of the plants used by the herbal or pharmaceutical industry is collected from wild sources. Given the alarming rate of loss of biodiversity due to other well-known factors alongside the indiscriminate collection of wild medicinal plants, there is a real danger of extinction of many of our medicinal plant species. In the face of serious threat to biodiversity, it is extremely important to take urgent steps to conserve and develop medicinal plant genetic resources alongside their cultural roots in all our diverse agro-ecosystems. Zingiberaceae family constitutes a vital group of rhizomatous medicinal and aromatic plants characterised by the presence of volatile oils and oleoresins of export value. Generally, the rhizomes and fruits are aromatic, tonic and stimulant; occasionally they are nutritive. Some are used as food as they contain starch in large quantities while others yield an astringent and diaphoretic juice. The important genera coming under Zingiberaceae are Curcuma, Kaempferia, Hedychium, Amomum, Zingiber, Alpinia, Elettaria and Costus. In the genus Alpinia, A. galanga is the most important one, which finds varying uses in ayurvedic preparations such as “Rasnadi powder”. Costus speciosus is the only species in the genus Costus that is medicinally important. It is valued very much for its diosgenin content. In Curcuma, C. longa is the most popular one, which has been studied in greater depths already. C. aromatica is used in the treatment of skin diseases and is extensively used in vanishing creams. Kaempferia galanga has become very popular and is identified to have tremendous effect in curing bronchial and gastric diseases. Of late, it is being used in preparations of mouth washes and oral deodorants. K. rotunda is another related crop under this genus which has potential for great exploitation on commercial basis. Systematic Position of Zingiberaceae Family The systematic position of the family Zingiberaceae is as follows. Kingdom : Plantae Sub-kingdom : Phanerogamae Division : Spermatophyta Subdivision : Angiospermae Class : Monocotyledonae Series : Epigynae Order : Scitaminales Family : Zingiberaceae A Botanical Description of the Family Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceous Medicinal and Aromatic Plants are generally herbs, often large, with a pseudostem of convolete leaf-sheaths. Leaves are radial or cauline and usually membranous. Sheaths are generally large, clasping the stem; lamina with a strong central nerve and pinnate close secondary nerves. Petioles are short or nil. Flowers are hermaphrodite, irregular, solitary or spicate, bracts membraneous, bracteoles membranous or nil. Perianth is 2-serrate, superior, outer segments three, calyx free and imbricate or connate in an entire toothed or spathaceous tube. Inner segments are petaloid, connate in a long or short corolla tube, free or adnate to the petaloid staminodes, or 5-perfect with a six imperfect or obsolete. Anthers linear and 2 -celled. Ovary is 3-celled, inferior with many ovules, anatropous and axile. Style is usually slender with 2 short stylodes, crowning the ovary. Stigma is usually entire or sub entire. Fruit is loculicidally a 3-valved capsule, or indehiscent and membranous or fleshy, usually crowned by the remains of the perianth. Seeds are often arillate, albumen floury and embryo small. 2 Zingiberaceae family comprises about 50 genera usually found throughout the warm regions of both hemispheres. Out of these about nine genera are reported to constitute potential medicinal and aromatic plants as listed below. Genus Curcuma Kaempferia Hedychium Amomum Zingiber Alpinia Elettaria Costus Gastrochilus Species C. amada, C. longa, C. zedoaria, C. aromatica K. rotunda, K. galanga H. spicatum, H. coronarium A. subulatum Z. officinale, Z. zerumbet A. galanga, A. calcarata, A. allughas E. cardamomum C. speciosus G. pandurata Biotechnology in Zingiberaceous Plants Mustafa and Hariharan (1998) have developed a new tissue culture method for the large-scale multiplication of Zingiberaceous species. Buds or propagules collected from the underground stems of these plants are sterilized with detergents or suitable sterilizing agents. The sterilized buds are asceptically inoculated in artificial nutrient medium supplied with suitable hormones and are placed under controlled temperature and light. Tissue mass (callus) or multiple buds are induced and subcultured into the media supplied with hormone combination so as to produce in vitro shoots and roots. About 25-30 plantlets are produced per culture tube. The shoots obtained in vitro are transferred to natural outdoor conditions. Plants obtained by this method are free from viruses, fungi and bacteria. They are superior in quality and more plants can be produced with in a shorter period and the progeny is uniform. ALPINIA Importance This plant is cultivated for its rhizome in tropical areas of South and East India. Because of the presence of essential oil, the rhizomes are used in bronchial troubles and as a carminative. It is one of the ingredients of medicated “Pan” used for removing the foul smell of the mouth and getting relief in throat inflammation. In Ayurveda, “Rasna-saptak-kwath” and “Rasna-adikamath” are used as antiinflammatory decoctions. In Unani, it is an ingredient of aphrodisiac preparations, “ Majun Mugawivi ma Mumsik”, “Majun Samagh”, and antispasmodic nervine tonic “Majun Chobchine” and “Lubab Motadil”. It is also used in “Arq Pan” as a cardiac stimulant carminative (Thakur et al, 1989). They are also useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammations, stomatopathy, pharyngopathy, cough, asthma, hiccough, dyspepsia, stomachalgia, obesity, diabetes, cephalalgia, tubercular glands and intermittent fevers (Warrier et al, 1993). Charaka includes rasna (Alpinia) in the Vayasthapana Varya, the group of drugs that are capable of maintaining the youthful vigour and strength. The officinal part is the rhizome which forms a major ingredient of preparations like Rasnadi Kasaya, Rasnadi churna, Rasnadi taila, Asvagandharishta, etc (Sivarajan and Balachandran, 1994). The drug stimulates digestion, purifies blood and improves voice (Chunekar, 1982). Botany In most of the publication on Indian Materia Medica, rasna is equated with an orchid Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook ex Don. Syn. Vanda roxbugrhii R.Br. (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988; Vaidya, 1936; Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al, 1956; Kurup et al, 1979; Kapoor and Mitra, 1979; Dey, 1980). Some others consider Pluchea lanceolata (Asteraceae) as the real source of rasna (Singh and Chunekar, 1972; Sharma, 1983). This is the rasna of Punjab and Gujarat (Vaidya, 1982). But none of them is taken as the drug source in Kerala. Throughout South India, it is the aromatic rhizomes of Alpinia galanga that is accepted as the source of rasna. As the synonyms elaparni and sugandha suit this plant well, this is believed to be the true rasna by South Indian physicians. Some authors equate this plant with Kulanjana or Sugandhavaca (Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al, 1956; Sharma, 1983) giving the Malayalam equivalent of rasna, namely Aratta. Studies on the market samples reveal that two types of rasna are sold in South Indian markets-one with light brown colour and aromatic odour identified as the rhizomes of A. calcarata Rosc. locally called peraratta and the other less aromatic, A.galanga, known as the chittaratha or aratta in vernacular (Nair et al, 1982). The above two species are used as the drug sources in Kerala. 3 1. Alpinia galanga Eng: Greater galangal, Java galangal, Siamese galangal; San:Sugandhamula,Rasna; Hin:Kulainjan; Mal:Aratta, Chittaratha; Tam:Arattai; Guj: Kolinjan; Kan: Dumba-rasmi; Mar: Kosht-Kulinjan; Tel: Pedda-dumparash-tram Alpinia galanga (Linn.) Willd. is a perennial herb, about 2m high with lower portion covered with smooth leaf sheaths. The leaves are broadly lanceolate, 30-60cm long and 10-15cm broad. The flowers are arranged in erect, terminal panicles composed of numerous spreading dichotomous branches each with two to six, pale greenish-white faintly fragrant flowers. Fruits 1.25 cm long, oblong, constricted in the middle or even pear shaped, three sided and deep orange red in colour. Seeds are ash coloured, three angled, finely striated towards the hilum. Both the seeds and rhizomes have pungent aroma (Thakur et al, 1989). The plant is also described by Gamble (1987), Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994), Warrier et al (1993) and Kirtikar and Basu (1987). 2. Alpinia calcarata Mal: Kolinchi. Alpinia calcarata Rosc. is another species of the genus with much medicinal importance. It is shorter in stature but stronger in aroma than Alpinia galanga. It is a perennial herb with non- tuberous root-stock. Stem is slender and 0.6-1.2m high. Leaves are 15-30 x 2.5-5cm; lanceolate, acuminate, green and glossy. Flowers are numerous, large, arranged in dense panicles, 7.5-10cm long, with pubescent rachis and small ovate bracts. Calyx tube is funnel-shaped and 6-8mm long. Corolla segments are 13mm long. Lip is 2.5-3.8cm long, ovate-oblong, sessile, yellow, streaked with purple veins and emarginate. Ovary is densely pubescent with many ovules in each cell. Capsules are globose and red (Kirtikar and Basu, 1987). Developmental studies in A. calcarata show that the placentae intrude into the ovary chamber and fuse at the lower portion of the ovary, leaving the upper portions of the ovary chambers confluent (Mangary and Hamsa, 1991) The botanical description is also done by Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994) and Gamble (1987). 3. Alpinia allughas San: Taraka Hin: Taro Mal: Malayinjikkuva Another species of Alpinia, which has the therapeutic properties, is A. allughas Rosc. It is a stout perennial herb with tuberous, aromatic roots. Leaves are sessile, oblong,-lanceolate, acuminate, cuspidate, glabrate, striate and compressed. Flowers are inodorous, pink, inerect, arranged in dense panicles with pubescent rachis and small ovate cupular bracts. Lip more than 2-5cm long, pink, obovate-cuneate, or suborbicular. Fruit black, thin, globose and irregularly rupturing. Seeds many, small, black and angular (Kirtikar and Basu, 1987). The three species can be distinguished as follows: In A. galanga, flowers are greenish white, lip veined with red. In A. calcarata, flowers are white, lip variegated with red and yellow. In A. allughas, flowers are pink (Gamble, 1987). Agrotechnology Alpinia comes up well in tropical climate. It grows on a wide range of climate and soils. Welldrained hilly areas and places of 1400m high altitude are good for its cultivation. This is commercially propagated vegetatively by rhizomes. The field should be ploughed to a good tilth. All the stones and pebbles should be removed. Organic manures at 10t/ha are applied during land preparation. Seedbeds are prepared with 1m breadth, 2m length and 15cm height. Small pits are made at 25cm spacing above the seedbeds and 5cm long rhizomes are planted. Seedbeds are covered with dried leaves. It is irrigated immediately after planting. Regular weeding is needed during the initial stages of crop growth. This is cultivated also as an intercrop in coconut or rubber plantations. Rhizomes are dug out after cutting the top portions when the crop reaches 1.5-2 years of maturity. The average yield is 10-15 tonnes of fresh rhizomes/ha and the driage is 2530%. The collected rhizomes are washed and cut into pieces of 5cm long and dried in sun for 4 days before sale (Prasad and Joseph, 1997). 5%). caryophyllenol I and II.9%) as major compounds. disinfectant.18 monoterpenes were isolated of which α-pinene (22. comes to normal in a short time.OAc-eugenol-OAc. ceremonial colour and as a magical symbol. CURCUMA Importance Turmeric is mainly used as a condiment. linalool (2. In case of A. calcarata are anti. stomachic. geraniol (19. galangin and alpinin were isolated. terpinen-4-ol (8. Toxicity studies on A.16%) (Rastogi and Mehrotra. pentadecane. From green rhizomes. galangin and alpinin (Sastry.heptadecane and fatty acid Methyl.05%) which contained caryophyllene oxide (23. allughas. over a space showed high knock down values against houseflies. The essential oil from rhizomes yielded 5. which is considered to be an antiseptic.51% in rhizome and 52. revulsive. also caryophyllene. 11. and α-terpineol as minor compounds (Husain et al.75%) and (-terpenol (6. 94.8%) were major and 17-oxygen containing monoterpenes with cineol (69%). Rhizome is CVS and CNS active. stimulant. Activity The rhizomes are bitter.8%). The fall in blood pressure is accompained by a rise in volume of the intra-abdominal organs like the spleen and the intestine showing that dialation of the blood vessels is one of the important constituents of the drug. kaempferide. 7-heptadecane and fatty acid methyl esters. Fresh rhizome yielded 18 monoterpenoids of which α-pinene. cineole and d-pinene and sesquiterpenoids. The rhizomes of A. citronellyl acetate (16. 7. especially in the South (Velayudhan et al. From roots. citronellol (6. The rhizome contains tannins and flavonoids. 1961). expectorant.84%). The effect of A. The major compound is myrcene. 1961). Seeds contain anti ulcer agents. terpinen-4-o1. eudesmol (19.07%). galangin and its 3-methyl ether. galanga was carried out by Qureshi et al (1992). antifungal. Malasia and Polynesia it is used in curries for its musky flavour and yellow colour. Alcohol (50%) extract of rhizome is anti-amphetaminic. n-pentadecane. 1992).esters (Asolkar et al.inflammatory (Asolkar et al.6% Methyl-cinnamate and sesquiterpenes. confectionery and food industries. pentadecane and 7-heptadecane (Rastogi and Mehrotra. a pale yellow oil with a pleasant odour can be obtained on distillation. iso-rhamnetin. rhizomes yielded essential oil (0. Turmeric dyes is used in combination with some alkalies to colour silk and cotton. From fresh rhizomes. aphrodisiac. 1994). aromatic. Farrel (1990) states that turmeric is used in the historic times as a dye. antiinflammatory and tonic (Warier et al.6% cineole. Rhizomes yield essential oil containing methyl cinnamate. however. 1992). some of which have been identified as kaempferide. acrid.93%). antiulcer principles caryophyllenols I and II. kaempferide. calcarata have been described by Rath et al (1994). galanga. galanga produces a sharp fall in blood pressure in experimental animals. 11 -acetoxy chavicol acetate (I) and 11-acetoxcy eugenol acetate (II) isolated from seeds along with caryophyllene oxide. carminative. Fourteen flavanoids were detected by chromatography of which seven were identified as quercetin3-methyl ether. α-pinene (3. medicine.34% in leaves (Charles et al. The blood pressure.5%). The pharmacognosy and toxicology of anti-carcinogenic natural products from galanga root oil has been studied by Zheng et al (1993). Twelve compounds have been characterised by GC/MS in A. ladies anoint their bodies with turmeric paste. 20-30% cineole. Rhizome spray in ether.OAc chavivol-OAc and 11. diuretic. . 1993). 2. broncho-dilator.45%). In India. Itokawa et al (1987) isolated two anti tumour principles from A. Seed is antiulcerative (Husain et al. 1957). It is also used in several countries as a colouring material in pharmacy. The steam volatile oil stimulates bronchial glands when exposed to its vapours (Chopra et al. β-pinene and limonene as major compounds and 17 oxygen containing monoterpenoids with cineol. β-pinene (36.6%) and geranyl acetate (0. febrifuge. hypothermic. 1991). caryophyllenol II. 1992). 1992). camphor and probably α-pinene (Chopra et al. 1992). galanga treatment on cytological and biochemical changes induced by cyclophosphamide in mice have been studied by Qureshi et al (1994). 1957).7%) and limonene (13. 1991). cultural and religious functions and rites in India. and its use as a carminative is suggested (Inamdar et al.93%). Unani physicians consider it good for impotence (Asolkar et al.86%) (-)α-phellandrene (1. nervine tonic. Intravenous injection of a small dose of tincture or an infusion of A. 1992). It is an essential and sacred ingredient of all social. βcaryophyllene (5. In India. The physiochemical characteristics of the essential oils from leaves and roots of A. galanga.4 Chemical constituents Seeds contain 1’-acetoxychavicol acetate and 1’-acetoxy eugenol acetate. The oil contains 48% methyl cinnamate. Purseglove (1968 and 1981) states that it is a condiment and a spice among the rice eating peoples of South East Asia and Indochina. Its rhizomes yield curcumin and also aromatic oils. thermogenic. Turmeric and alum powder in the proportion of 1:20 is blown into the ear in chronic otorrhoea (Nadkarni. Distribution Turmeric is cultivated all over India. Korea. Quite recently C. cordeal. many species belonging to two subgenera of Valeton (1918) and a newly reported unique species such as C. 1979. etc. Tel: Pasapu Importance Turmeric occupies an important position in the life of Indian people as it forms an integral part of the rituals. 1954. Jatyadi taila. conjunctivitis and liver affections (Nadkarni. Considering the great diversity of the genus represented by over 80 species in Indo-Malayan region. In Unani system. . a compound containing powdered turmeric. turmeric has been used as a remedy for all kinds of poisonous affections. ceremonies and cuisine. 1968 and 1981) and it is cultivated in innumerable agro-ecological situations right from the coastal areas to elevations as high as 1880m in the tropics and the sub-tropics of the country. earning Rs. carminative. Kurup et al. laxative. Narayana gula. diuretic and matrient. congestions. C. Ben: Haldi. halda. it is legitimate to consider that the genus originated in this region. boils. Vietnam. (Sivarajan and Balachandran. Hin: Haldi. It is used in Unani systems in treating. anorexia. elephantiasis. East and West African nations. On the whole it is used in the treatment of bronchitis. leprosy and scrofula.20 crores annually as foreign exchange. is used to cure ringworm. vulnerary. It purifies blood by destroying the pathogenic organisms. syn. It is o reported to occur widely in Eastern and Western Ghats. emmenagogue. Purseglove (1968 and 1981) also gives a limited account of its uses. dyspepsia. Kerala and Maharashtra. bitter. eye diseases. In Comboidia it is used as a tonic and antipyretic. ulcers and wounds. oedema.5 Aiyar (1954). cough and flu. fevers. swellings. yields arrow root. Due to the strong antiseptic properties.7% of the world production. diabetes. The genus Curcuma belonging to the family Zingiberaceae has a widespread occurrence in the tropical Asia and Australia. Punjab.4. healing. Bengal. detergent. particularly in W. scabies and bruises. a coating of turmeric is applied to facilitate the process of scabbing. Kirtikar and Basu (1988). Japan. roasted turmeric is an ingredient of “Hab Narkachur”. Philippines. etc. San: Haridra. Kan: Haldi. sprains. Tam: Mancal. Varattumanjal. sugar and many other ingredients is a well-known preparation for cold. Haines (1961) and Holtumn (1950) describe the various uses of Curcuma. Origin and Distribution Purseglove (1968) and Harlan (1975) believed that the genus originated in the Indo-Malayan region. longa was studied by Ammon and Wahl (1991) in detail. 1994). At present the crop is distributed in India. domestica Valeton. small pox. South Pacific Islands. Malasia. Thailand. The drug is also useful in cold. Eng: Turmeric. C. cough. “Haridra Khand”. anaemia. anthelmentic. vertigo. The importance of turmeric has significantly increased due to its usefulness as pesticide. In smallpox and chickenpox. hysteric effects. C. and for skin diseases. The pharmacology of C. The medicinal properties of turmeric are innumerable and very ancient. scabies. astringent. Mal: Manjal.15-7. tonic. Further. 1979). The rhizome is the officinal part and is an important ingredient of formulations like Nalpamaradi taila. used as antidysenteric for children (Thakur et al. ring worm. dropsy. Myanmar. ulcers. eczema and other parasitic skin diseases and in chicken pox and small pox. A paste of turmeric alone. Nepal. India is the largest producer of turmeric in the world accounting for 93. pitta and kapha. jaundice. The smoke produced by sprinkling powdered turmeric over burnt charcoal will relieve scorpion sting when the part affected is exposed to the smoke for a few minutes. Watt (1972). T. obstinate itching. chicken pox. N. Sri Lanka. It is used as a medicine in various kapha and vata diseases of blood. burns. liver infections. 1989). bruises. Pakistan. it is widespread (Purseglove. chronic gonorrhoea. aspirant. Kirtikar and Basu (1988) state that the rhizome is very pungent. vamana having stoloniferous sessile fingers adds to the cause of its Indian origin. In China it is used as a stimulant. alexeteric and emollient. 1994). Indoenasia. About 90%is used internally and the rest exported. or combined with a paste of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves. skin diseases. longa is proved to contain a chemical constituent called turmerin which is anticarcinogenic. China. Kolammal. longa Linn. Arasina. antipyretic and antiallergic. But the fact that over 40 species indigenous to this country. bronchitis. is supportive to its Indian origin. fungicide and bactericide (Velayudhan et al. It gives good complexion to the skin and so it is applied to face as a depilatory and facial tonic. Caribbean Islands and Central America. Turmeric paste mixed with a little limejuice and saltpetre and applied hot is a popular application to sprains and bruises. Malagasy. In India. aromatica Salisb. 1998). Varavarnini. Pachamanjal. scorpion snake and leech bites. The drug cures diseases due to morbid vata. syn. An extract of the crude drug ‘akon’ containing the rhizomes exhibited intensive preventive activity against carbon tetrachloride induced liver injury invivo and invitro. 1992). stigmasterol. 60-90cm in height. and ar-curcumene as major constituents. Essential oil from rhizomes is antiseptic. Essential oils in C. monoenoic and dienoic acids (Rastogi and Mehrotra. the sesquiterpenoids of germacrane. 1973). 6%) is diferuloyl methane (Mathews et al. Stigmasterol. 1980). Anti-oxidant properties of curcuma powder is due to phenolic character of curcumin (Dey. antiparasitic. Major constituents in leaf oil of C. Chemical constituents Essential oil contains ar-turmerone. alcohol and distilled water yielded extracts when administered on 1-7 days of pregnancy at dose levels of 100and 200mg/kg have been found to exhibit significant anti-fertility activity (Garg et al. 1994). β-sitosterol and fatty acids. with a short stem and tufts of erect leaves. Curcumin and related compounds have also been reported as major constituents of the rhizomes. 1978). 1991). C. βbisbolene and β-sesquiphellandrene (Lawrence. petiole as long as the blade. The successive extraction of C. turmerone. longa yield 5. eugenol. 1976). Protective effect of curcuminoids from C.6%) and sabinone (0. oblong-lanceolate. Some of the other compounds are α-and β-pinene. saturated iso. Essential oil (0. borneol. mainly straight chain dienoic acids are reported (Moon et al. 1982). very large. longa. domestica Valeton. eugenol methyl ether and iso-eugenol methyl ether.The rhizomes are also anthelmintic. turmerone (29. therefore. opthalmic and tonic (Warrier et al. CNS active. Leaves are simple. Fatty acids comprised of saturated straight chain. The botanical description is also done by Gamble (1987). The crystalline colouring matter curcumin (0. Campesterol. alexertive. Clinical trials showed that plant definitely reduced cough and dyspnoea (Rastogi and Mehrotra. limonene. The liver protecting effects of some analogs of ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid. Chloretic action of the essential oil is attributed to p-tolymethyl carbinol. viz. The essential oil (5. alkaloid and an essential oil. α-terpinene. anodyne.Comparison of the commercial turmeric and its cultivated plant by their constituents was done by Uehara et al (1992). Zingiberene and sesquiterpene ketones (50%). Curcumin is antiinflammatory. A ketone and an alcohol is obtained from the volatile distillate.6 Botany C.8%) obtained by steam distillation of dry rhizomes have been reported to contain β-phellandrene. expectorant. ar-turmerine (23. longa were isolated by Behur et al (1998). 1991).β-farnesene. Rhizomes are externally effective as insect repellent against houseflies. β-sitosterol. 1983). cholestrol. Anti-inflammatory activity volatile oil of C. Rhizome is antiprotozoal. 1980).8% essential oil. longa from Bhutan was identified by Srimal (1997).6%) have been identified in the ketonic fraction besides p-cymene.. iso-caryophyllene. δ-curcumene. sabinene. antacid and carminative. 1983). spasmolytic. ovoid. the colouring agent and major constituent of C. trans. longa Linn. Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994) and Thakur (1989). longa contains curcumin. Dry rhizomes of C. cholesterol and fatty acids were isolated from rhizomes. not of much importance from therapeutic point of view.1mg/kg ) in rats showed significantly more marked antiinflammatory effect than cortisone acetate (10mg/kg). perillyl alcohol. alterative. Fresh rhizomes yield 0. probable metabolites of the curcuminoids have been also evaluated (Kiso et al. longa. antibacterial. 1992). In the recent analysis of the essential oil. arranged in spikes concealed by the sheathing petioles and flowering bracts are pale green (Warrier et al. myrcene. A comparative study on the pharmacological properties of natural curcuminoids was . iso-eugenol. Activity Curcumin. is a perennial herb. p-cymene. emollient. orange coloured and branched. The uptake. tapering to the base upto 45cm long. 1980). longa leaves was studied by Iyengar et al (1994). Rhizome is cylindric. Essential oil from rhizome showed fungitoxicity (Asolkar et al. C. febrifuge. longa on epidermal skin cells under free oxygen stress was analysed by Bonte et al (1997). d-sabinene. is said to possess local as well as systemic antiinflammatory property which has been found to compare favourably with phenylbutazone (Srimal and Dhawan. antiarthritic (Husain et al. Kirtikar and Basu (1987). 1992). 1994). bisabolane and guainane skeletons (Husain et al. cineole. distribution and excretion of curcumin were also studied. Flowers are pale yellow. It is found to inhibit Clostridium botulinum. Effect of the oil on cardiovascular and respiratory systems is not marked. laxative. Dye-stuff acts as a cholagogue causing contraction of the gall bladder. The study of sesquiterpenes has revealed a new compound curlone (Kisoy et al. Recently a number of sesquiterpenes have been reported from C. antiperiodic. diruretic.longa with petroleum ether.24% oil containing Zingiberine (Chopra. carminative.3%). antispasmodic. 1979). Kan: Kachora Mal: Manjakoova. There is difference of opinion among men of Ayurveda.) Rosc. iso-curcumenol. Nematicidal activity of turmeric was studied by Kinchi et al (1993). Sharma. The identity of the plant sources of the drug Karcura is a matter of debate. it suits the synonymy rather well. 1971. zerumbet Roxb. Chunekar. d-camphene. epi-cuzerenone. both belonging to Zingiberaceae (Kurup et al. C. C. The plant grows wild in the Eastern Himalayas and in moist deciduous forests of coastal tract of Kanara and Kerala. curcumadiol. It is used as an ingredient in Chinese medicine for extradurnal haematomas (Asolkar et al. d-camphor.7 carried out by Anto et al (1994). The description “ The leaf is like that of ginger” also suits C. 1994). Tel: Kacheramu Importance The rhizome of C. a decoction of long pepper (Piper longum). Shati. germacrone. 1988. Cytotoxic and tumour reducing properties of curcumin was analysed by Soudamini and Kuttan (1988). 5epoxide. spicatum is a plant found in the Himalayas with its spikes sometimes reaching a length of 35cm. trigonous. Ethyl-p methoxy-cinnamate has been isolated from the alcoholic extract of the plant (Gupta et al. cineole. 1979. San: Kachura. zedoaria (Kirtikar and Basu. thin smooth and bursting irregularly. furadiene and its iso-derivative. zerumbet Roxb. corolla tube is twice as long as the calyx. used in high fever (Thakur et al. zedoaria (Berg. Flowers are yellow. Ben: Sati. Amomum zedoaria Christm. Root is useful in flatulence and dyspepsia. nor it has been the source of the drug in Kerala. curcumadiol. curcolone. With its yellowish white fragrant rhizomes having a sharp pinching taste. The botanical description of the plant is also given by Sivarajan and Balachandrann (1994). procurcumenol. 1968. 1989). Tubers are palmately branched and camphoraceous (Thakur et al. camphor and sesquiterpenes (more than 50%) (Sanjiva Rao. The novel sesquiterpenoids which have been isolated and characterised are cuzerenone. cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum).) Rosc. (Haridra) in cases of Bronchial asthma ( Tamaka swasa) was carried out by Jain et al (1990). Chemical constituents Essential oil from rhizomes contains α-pinene. Amomum zedoaria Christm. emerging before the leaves. 1992) . This is not available in the south. has 4 -6 leaves with 20-60cm long lamina. dehydrocurdione (Hikino et al. E. 1928). H. curcumol. but goes under the name kua in Malabar. curcumanolides A and B and curcumenone (Shiobara et al. Nirvisham. Decoction of fresh rhizomes is used for blood purification. Kapoor and Mitra. Botany Curcuma zedoaria (Berg. C. 1985). the juice from the tubers is given to children. Eng: Round zedoary. dehydrocurdione and zederone (Asolkar et al. There is some evidence to believe that the tubers of C. A clinical trial of volatile oil of Curcuma longa Linn. 1992). Tam: Kichilikizhangu. 1976). The leaf lamina is oblong-lanceolate. procurcumenol. 1928) Rhizomes yield sesquiterpenes such as curcumol. Toxicity studies on C. zedoaria have been the source of this drug in Kerala in the early times. 1954. and as a corrector of purgatives. However. Some others treat them to be the same and equate it with C. longa are also carried out by Qureshi et al (1992). syn. zedoaria is available in Kerala. while the flowering bract is green tinged with red. and Karcura with C. particularly prescribed to ladies after childbirth. zedoaria. C. Hin: Kakhur. as to whether Sati and Karcura are the same drug or different. the source of Karcura in Kerala in the recent times has been Kaempferia galanga of the same family (Sivarajan and Balachandran. Fresh root checks leucorrhoeal and gonorrhoeal discharges. Many authors consider them different and equate Sati with Hedychium spicatum Smith. 1998). Adavi-kacholam. iso-curcumenol. In Ayurveda it is an ingredient of “Braticityadi kwatha”. Steam distillation of the dried rhizomes yield essential oil containing α-pinene. Distribution The round zedoary or zerumbet is mostly found in India and S. Gamble (1987) and Kirtikar and Basu (1987). sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols (Husain et al. 1982). Flower stalk is 20-25cm long. finely acuminate and glabrous on both the surfaces. 1989). Nadkarni. The starch left after the extraction is purified and sold as a commodity of cottage industry in WestBengal under the name ‘Shoti’ (Sanjiva Rao et al. 1972). Capsule is ovoid. zedoaria is used as appetiser and tonic. isocurcumenol. zedoary and honey is given. 1983). 1936. Asia. In case of cold. Vaidya. curcumenol. germacrone-4. Juice of the leaves is given in dropsy (Nadkarni. 1982. zedoaria well. Root powder is a good substitute for many foreign foods for infants. curcumenol. It is an odoriferous ingredient of the cosmetics used for the cure of chronic skin diseases caused by impure or deranged blood (Nadkarni. germacrone furanodienone. iso-furanogermerene. syn. 1992). Calyx is 8mm long. For worms. Activity Ethyl-p-methoxy cinnamate. anorexia. Kattumanjal. hypothermic and it shows potentiation of amphetamine toxicity. Car-3-ene and cis-ocimene contribute the characteristic mango odour of the rhizome. zedoria was done by Rana and Avadhoot (1992). appetiser. stomachic. The root extracts of C. diuretic. 1991). strangury.1% and safrole 9. halitosis. amada Roxb. Activity Rhizome is CNS active. otalgia and inflammations (Warrier et al. Geotricular candidae and Fusarium oxysporum were inhibited at a concentration of L 50 µg/ml. Experimental evaluation of hepatoprotective activity of C. C. sweet sour. The spores of T. rubrum loose viability or ability to germinate when exposed to its ethanolic solution 30 µg/ml) for 2 hrs (Gupta et al. arranged in spikes in the centre of tuft of the leaves. Hin: Ban-haridra. Flowers are white or pale yellow. sprains. Tuber is trypsin inhibitor and is effective against Vibrio cholerae (Husain et al. 1994). linalyl acetate 9. tapering at both ends. Penicillium purpurogenum. Tel: Adavi -pasupu. A. 1992). U. dyspepsia.zedoria rhizomes were carried out by Joshi et al (1989) and that of hepatic drug inhibitors by Shin et al (1989). chronic ulcers. bronchitis. The rhizomes are bitter.8 Isolation of main component of essential oil-curzerone and its structure elucidation was also done. cuminyl alcohol. 1980) Distribution Mango ginger is cultivated in Gujarat and found wild in parts of West Bengal. Rhizome is stomachic. ocimene 47. amada Roxb. Jangli-haldi. Mal. Microsporum gypseum. isofuranodienone (II) and epicurzerenone-was isolated and their absolute configurations established (Rastogi and Mehrotra. Leaves are long. febrifuge. curzerenone and new furanosesquiterpenoids-furadienone (I). Isolation and structure elucidation of potential active principles of C. cough. diurectic. antiinflammatory and antipyretic (Warrier et al. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Pharmacological activities of sesquiterpenes from the rhizomes were studied by Shin et al (1994). C. 1994). P. English: Mango ginger Mal: Mangainchi San: Amrardrakam. Synthesis of pyrocurzerenone. zedoria tested at concentrations from 1-10mg/ml were found to inhibit the growth of Entamoeba histolytica (Ansari and Ahmad. Karpuraharida Tam: Mankayinci Hin: Ama-haldi Tel: Mamidi Allam Importance The rhizomes of this plant are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta. Aspergillus niger. Sclerotium rolfsii. vulnerary. Tubers rubbed with the leaf-juice of Caesalpinia bonduc is given for worms (Nadkarni. expectorant. The fresh root possesses the smell of green mango and hence the name mango ginger. glabrous and green on both sides.zedoria were identified by Pandji et al (1993). Trignopsis variabilis. Rhizomes yield 1% essential oil containing d-α -pinene 18%. laxative. fumigatus. isolated from C. skin diseases. 1982). 1976). myristic acid and turmerone. camphor. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Epidermophyton floccosum at a concentration of L 10 µg/ml. alexertic.2%. constipations. 1980). demulcent. hiccough. Botany C. fever. carminative. bruises. Vanaharidra. Another sesquiterpene-dehydrocurdione was isolated and characterised. petiolate.2%. oblong-lanceolate. Kan: Kadarasina . aromatica Salisb. zedoria inhibited the growth of Trichophyton rubrum. Chemical constituents The essential oil contains α-pinene.3% (Chopra et al. is a rhizomatous aromatic herb with a leafy tuft and 60-90cm in height. Lip is semi-elliptic. cooling. aromatic. Rhuizome is also used in applications over contusions and sprains (Chopra et al. 1994). colic. 1992). α-and β-curcumene. Ben: Ban Haland. wounds. 1991). linalool 11. yellow. San: Aranyaharidra. gout. and carminative and gastrointestinal stimulant (Husain et al. Tam: Kasturimanjal. Eng: Wild turmeric. aphrodisiac. flatulence. Insecticidal constituents from C. 3-lobbed with the mid lobe emarginate (Warrier et al. pruritus. digestive. The rhizomes are used externally in the form of paste as an application for bruises and skin diseases generally combined with other medicines. The plant is also described by Gamble (1987) and Kirtikar and Basu (1987). 1992). Chemical constituents Rhizomes yield 6. dry place or earthen pits plastered with mud and cowdung (KAU. d-camphene and p-methoxy cinnamic acid. Narayanan and Sulikeri (1996) worked out economics of companion cropping systems in turmeric. aromatica rhizomes contain ar-curcumene (18. Effect of some regulants on sprouting and early seedling in turmeric ( Curcumal longa L. beta curcumene (25. aromatica Salisb. 1992). globose. 1994). lip yellow. The rhizomes have an agreeable fragrant smell and yield a yellow colouring matter like turmeric. The plant is also described by Gamble (1987) and Kirtikar and Basu (1987). Verghese (1990) established the use of mango-ginger as an exotic flavourant. Studies on the growth and development of turmeric (Curcumal longa L.. cough. Chemical fertilizers such as nitrogen. aromatic yellow rhizome which is internally orange-red in colour. by tissue culture was done by Suntibalala et al (1998). states have been discussed by Kutty (1997). 1994). antifungal and antimicrobial activity. Possibilities of turmeric cultivation in the N. Activity Rhizome has effect on respiration. kitchen gardens and interspaces of other crops in areas with high rainfall. healthy and disease free rhizomes are selected.E. The active constituents of oil are curcumol and curdione (Asolkar et al. Application of NPK fertilizers is beneficial and found to increase the yield considerably. Agrotechnology Curcuma species are tropical herbs grown on different types of soils both under irrigated and rainfed conditions. deflexed. It is spasmolytic and shows antagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity.1 and correlation studies on growth.6%). Numerous sesquiterpenoids of germacrone and guaiane skeletons have been identified recently (Husain et al. bracts ovate. Oil also showed inhibitory effect on sarcoma in mice (Asolkar et al. C. 1998). 1992). Several authors as Sastri (1950) and Ayyadurai (1966) described different methods of planting.9 Importance Rhizomes are used in combination with astringents and aromatics for bruises. Planting is done either at the onset of monsoon or after it. 30-60cm long. 1980). hiccough. . The crop is mulched immediately after planting and 50 days after first mulching. Essential oil from rhizomes showed anthelmintic. On receipt of pre-monsoon showers in April. Small pits are taken in the beds in rows with a spacing of 25-40cm. The colouring matter is curcumin. and the fresh root has a camphoraceous odour. 1992). Oil is used for treatment of early stage of cervix cancer (Asolkar et al. bronchitis. Structures of sesquiterpenes were studied by Kuroyanagi et al (1990). It is vegetatively propagated from the rhizomes (root stocks and sessile fingers are known as rounds and fingers respectively). 1994). Propagation of Curcuma longa L. In India. The land is prepared to a fine tilth during February-March. obovate. sprains.) under saline conditions was studied by Singh and Khan (1996).) varieties viz. Botany C. Rhizomes are treated with copper oxychloride fungicides and stored in cool. Essential oil contains α-and . Leaves are elliptic or lanceolate-oblong. 1992). Well developed. 1992).2m with a spacing of 40cm between beds are prepared. is a perennial tuberous herb with annulate. Rich loamy soils having good drainage are ideal for the crop. 55kg P 2O5 and 50-55kg K 2O/ha in two split doses. Rhizome is an anti-dote for snakebite and carminative (Husain et al. 3-valved capsules (Warrier et al. caudate-acuminate. yield and growth of turmeric was done by Subramanian et al (1998). For commercial cultivation FYM at 25t/ha is mixed with soil and the planted material is well covered with decomposed leaves and crop residues to maintain sufficient moisture for regeneration of the rhizome.β-curcumene. more or less tinged with red or pink. petioles as long or even longer.7%) (Zwaving and Bos. leucoderma and skin eruptions (Warrier et al. The best season of planting is during April with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. one at the time of planting and the other afterwards following a weeding (Velayudhan et al. recurved. 1996). phosphorous and potash are applied at 50kg N.1% essential oil (Chopra et al.5%) and xanthorhizol (25. Distribution Wild turmeric or Cochin turmeric or Yellow zeodoary is found wild throughout India and cultivated in Bengal and Kerala. turmeric is commercially cultivated in some states but it is generally grown as a subsistence crop in backyards. The dried rhizome is used as a carminative and aromatic adjunctant to other medicines (Nadkarni. sub-entire or obscurely three lobed. According to Ayyadurai (1966) mother rhizomes are better planting materials than the fingers of the secondary mother rhizomes. BSR-1 and Co. beds of size 3x1. Finger rhizomes are planted flat with buds facing upwards and covered with soil or dry powdered cattle manure. Flowers are pink. Fruits are dehiscent. The pungent. hot. drying and polishing them to obtain turmeric of commerce. The oil is utilized in the manufacture of perfumes and in curry flavouring. Study on rhizome fly Mimegralla coeruleifrons (Macquart) (Diptera:Micropezidae) in turmeric and its management was undertaken by Ramesh et al (1994). Reddy et al (1963) reported the occurrence of resistance to this disease in turmeric. Kachuri Hin : Kacora Tam: Kacholam Ben: Chandumula Tel: Candramula Importance Kacholam. the rhizomes of which yield an essential oil. etc. diuretic and carminative. piles. Rao et al (1975). fever. Effect of storage of fresh turmeric rhizomes on oleoresin and curcumin contents was studied by Zachariah and Nirmal Babu (1992).The most important pest in turmeric is the shoot-borer caterpillar (Cichochrocis punctiferalis Geun.laces and added to bath water for perfume. Other insects of minor importance are Udaspes foleus Cr. The cleaned material is half cooked with some dilute alkali solution and then dried in open sun for about 6-7 days. Harvesting is generally done at about 7-10 months after planting depending upon the species and variety. was reported as a major pest of turmeric by Venkateswara Rao and Subbarami Reddy (1990).) Butl. wounds.10 Response of turmeric to FYM and fertilisation was also studied by Gopalakrishnan et al (1997). The removal of infected shoot is recommended as a control measure by Sastri (1950).) in fresh rhizomes. and Bisty. Dubey et al (1976) and Abraham and Pillai (1974) reported absence of resistance in any of the cultivars they have studied . expectorant. KAEMPFERIA Kaempferia galanga Eng: Black thorn San: Sathi.2% Mancozeb (KAU. 1996). Shoot borers can be controlled by spraying 0. Post-harvest technology The harvested material is cleaned and the roots removed and the fingers and rounds are separated before curing. Pruthy (1975) and Ayyadurai (1966) have described curing and processing of turmeric in India. Quite recently the scale insect is also found to infect the rhizome at maturity in the soil itself. . asthma and rheumatism. It promotes digestion and cures skin diseases. 1996). Effect of seed dressing fungicides and organic amendments on rhizome rot of turmeric was analysed by Sreeraman Setty et al (1994). According to Rao et al (1975) the leaf mites and lacewing bugs were the important pests of standing crop. coughs. sharp. soil conditions.washes.. Weeding is done twice at 60 and 120 days after planting. 1994). The yield of turmeric is obtained as fresh weight or dry weight per ha. Kachoram. 1996). at the complete senescence of the above ground parts (KAU. phantom tumors. Studies on the effect of nitrogen. It is also employed in cosmetics. Varietal response of different levels of nitrogen and phosphorous for quality attributes in turmeric was analysed by Rana et al (1993). hair tonics and toiletries. phosphorous and potassium levels on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L. epilepsy. Sharma and Nambiar (1974) reported the brown rot disease in the rhizomes of C. and thrips ( Panchaetothrips indicus) while Stegolrum panaceum attacks stored product. Varietal difference. Time of harvest usually extends from January-March.025% Quinalphos (KAU.05% Dimethoate or 0.). This probably gives way to secondary infections and rot of rhizomes in storage. mouth. cultural practices. influence the yield of turmeric. Dubey et al (1976) also noticed the attack of dipteran flies (Mimegrella sp. The rhizomes and leaves are attached to neck. also known as Sugandhavacha. Pests and Diseases Purseglove (1981) and Hanzha (1981) reviewed the pests and diseases mainly in India. Chandramulika or Sidhul is a rhizomatous perennial plant. aromatica type of turmeric. oedema. The concentration of the alkali solution used is 0. Changes in the quality of turmeric rhizomes during storage was studied by Goyal and Korla (1993). Polishing the dried turmeric is done before the produce is marketed. The rhizomes are used for protecting clothes against insects and are eaten along with betel and arecanut as a masticatory. The two most important diseases noticed in turmeric are leaf spot caused by Taphrena maculans Butl. agro-ecology. This was associated with Fusarium sp.5-1% which helps to impart good orange colour to the tubers (Velayudhan et al. The rhizome fly Calobata albimana Macq.) in the hill zone of Karnataka was undertaken by Sheshagiri and Uthaiah (1994). and leaf blotch by Colletotrichum capscici (Syd. Karcurah Mal: Kacholam. Several authors such as Krishnamurthy et al (1975). Leaf blotch and leaf spot can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture or 0. splenic disorders. Earthing up is done after 60 days. According to Sharma and Krishnamurthy (1962) the long duration types are free from leaf spot disease. depending upon weed intensity. bitter and aromatic rhizomes find an important place in indigenous medicine as stimulant. Flowers are white with purplish spots in axillary fascicles. Seeds are arillate (Warrier et al. The leaves are used for pharyngodynia. leprosy. It is a handsome glabrous perennial aromatic herb with very fragrant underground parts. It cannot stand water-logging. Asanaeladi taila. and haemorrhoids. wounds and splenic disorders. Smoking of rhizomes prior to planting is beneficial for better germination and establishment of sprouts. strangury. Seed rhizomes are stored in cool dry place or in pits dug under shade. bronchitis and asthma. Burma.5-2 tonnes/ha of dry rhizomes. 1994). sessilis Koenig. etc. Fruits are oblong. sym. The sliced and dried rhizomes are marketed. It promotes digestion. Gamble (1987) and Kirtikar and Basu (1987). 1995). Karnataka. P 2O5 and K2O in 2-3 splits is beneficial (Rajagopalan et al. malarial fever. spreading flat on the ground. The officinal part is the rhizome and it is a constituent of a variety of Ayurvedic preparations like Dasamularista. Mexico and other neighbouring countries. urolithiasis. 3-celled and 3-valved capsules. helminthiasis. 1989). on an average. bronchitis. Postharvest technology The clean rhizomes are sliced to circular pieces of uniform size and dried for 3-5 days. It cures skin diseases. The rhizomes are dug out. The source of Karcura in Kerala in the recent times has been Kaempferia galanga (Sivarajan and Balachandran. K. Wood (1991) has studied biogeography and evolution of Kaempferia galanga. plantaginifolia Salisb. . Valiya narayana taila. Agrotechnology Kaempferia galanga requires a warm humid climate. Valiya rasnadi kasaya. Seed rate is 500-750 kg/ha. removes bad odour of the mouth and destroys pathogenic organisms (Aiyer and Kolammal. rheumatism. 1985). In India it is cultivated mainly in Kerala. The tubers reduced to powder and mixed with honey are given in case of coughs and pectoral infections. ulcers. cleaned and washed to remove the adhering soil particles. The crop is harvested 6-7 months after planting when the leaves start drying up. Frothing is noticed during distillation due to the presence of starch in the rhizome (Bose et al. The plant is supposed to have been originated in East Asia. round-ovate. is 5-8 tonnes/ha of fresh rhizomes which on drying yields 1. and Alpinia sessilis Koenig. The yield. Evaluation of geographical races of Kaempferia galanga for yield was done by Prasannakumari et al (1994). For planting mother rhizomes are better than finger rhizomes (Rajagopalan and Gopalakrishnan. The driage varies from 23 to 28%. banana and other widely spaced perennial crops. K. 1998). 1964). 1998). The botany of the plant is also described by Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994). China. Kaempferia galanga is reported to have great export potential by Thomas et al (1998). asthma. Botany Kaempferia galanga L. The sliced and dried rhizomes on steam distillation for 3 -5 hours yield 2 -3% of essential oil. With the receipt of pre-monsoon showers in May land is ploughed and beds of 1-2 m width. nasal obstruction. swellings. A well distributed annual rainfall of 1500 . The plant is propagated by division of rhizomes. Leaves are two or more. skin diseases. 25 cm height and convenient length are taken and sprouted seeds are planted at 15-30 cm spacing. fever and rheumatism (Warrier et al. The drug is reported to be acrid.5cm long and the connective of anther is produced into a quadrate 2. cephalalgia. arecanut. Application of 50-75 kg each of N. It thrive s well upto an elevation of 1500 m.2500 mm during the growing period and dry spells during land preparation and harvesting are ideal. kaccoradi churna. Laterite soil with heavy application of organic matter is also suited. Leaf spot and rhizome rot diseases occur particularly during the rainy months which could be controlled by drenching and spraying with 1% Bordeaux mixture. The oil in which they are boiled is useful in applying to the stoppages of the nasal organs (Nadkarni. fever. Africa and Australia. ophthalmia. It is grown in India. Kacholam responds well to organic manuring. splenopathy. It is widely distributed in Asia. corolla tube 2. bitter and aromatic. Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. Nigeria. Effect of gamma irradiation in Kacholam (Kaempferia galanga L.lobed appendage. inflammatory tumour. most probably in Burma. 1995). with short channelled petioles. deep green. Weeding is done 45 and 90 days after planting which is followed by fertilizer application and earthing up. is a pentaploid with x=11. halitosis. Application of 30 tonnes/ha of FYM or compost and mulching with leaves or straw at 15-20 tonnes/ha are recommended.11 Karcura (Kacholam) is a reputed remedy for all diseases caused by the morbidity of vata and kapha and is especially useful in respiratory ailments like cough. thin. Insect pests are not commonly reported in this crop.) was studied by Kurian et al (1994). The rhizomes and root-stocks are good for dyspepsia. cough. The identity of the plant sources of the drug Karcura is a matter of debate. Rich loamy soil with good drainage is suitable for the cultivation of the crop. Growth is better in partial shade offering great potential for its cultivation as intercrop in coconut. It is a shade loving plant. Origin and distribution. hot. gastropathy.0 The essential oil is reported to contain over 54 components of which the major constituents are ethyl-trans-p-methoxy. They help to remove blood clots and other purulent matter in the body. oblong or ovate-lanceolate. pmethoxy cinnamate. 1994).7%. tip purple or lilac arranged in crowded spikes opening successively. which has antifungal activity. white. 1998. Baladthatryaditailam. Kondakaluva Mar: Bhuichampa Importance The tubers of Indian crocus are widely used as a local application for tumours. 1984. ethyl cinnamate. Hallakah Hin: Abhuyicampa Mal: Chengazhuneerkizhengu. 1992). 1995). Flowers are fragrant. Asokarishtam.12 Properties and Activity The tuberous rhizome of kacholam contains an alkaloid.8-cineole 5. inflammations. diuretic and carminative (Husain et al.8792-0. borneol. gum. pentadecane 9%. p-methoxy. Kaempferia rotunda Eng:Indian crocus San: Bhumicampaka. Rhizome yields essential oil. 10cm wide. Rhizome is cytotoxic. mental disorders and insomnia (NRF. 1.5-109. belonging to the family Zingiberaceae is an aromatic herb with tuberous root-stalk and very short stem. It grows in gardens and is known for their beautiful flowers and foliage.5-1.5%. Specific gravity at 30 oC 0.4173 to 1. 30cm long. The tubers are useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha.1992). acuminate. Chengazhuneerkuva Tam: Nerppicin Kan: Nelasampiga Tel: Bhucampakamu.3%. cinnamate 16. The decoction is applied with much benefit to wounds with coagulated blood and with any purulent matter (Nadkarni. Bhucampaka.1991. wound. Agrotechnology The plant is a tropical one adapted for tropical climate. tumours and cancerous swellings (Warrier et al. Ethyl-p-Methyl O-trans-cinnamate is the main compound in root (Asolkar. fatty matter with a fragrant liquid essential oil and a solid white crystalline substance and mineral matter. especially in forests in South India. The essential oil has the following properties. Leaves are simple. Kalyanakaghritham. dropsy. The juice causes salivation and vomiting. etc. The plant grows wild in shaded areas which are wet or humid. The rhizome possesses a camphoraceous odour with somewhat bitter aromatic taste resembling that of Hedychium spicatum. the improvement formulations using the herb are Chyavanaprasam.4855 Acid value 0. p-methoxystyrene.7%. blood clots. 1991) Essential oil from rhizomes contain npentadecane. p-Methoxycinnamic acid and its methyl and ethyl esters have been isolated from the essential oil (Rastogi and Mehrotra. The juice of the tubers is given in dropsical affections of hands and feet. It is also cultivated as an intercrop with other commercial crops. expectorant. swellings and wounds. Planting is done in May-June with the receipt of 4 or 5 pre-monsoon showers. The drug “HALLAKAM” prepared from this is in popular use in the form of powder or as an ointment application to wounds and bruises to reduce swellings. starch. Laterite soil with heavy organic manure application is also well suited. The chemistry of Kaempferia was studied in detail by Tuntiwachwuttikul (1991). Wong et al. It also improves complexion and cures burning sensation. The roots have a hot ginger-like taste. The plant produces a subglobose tuberous rhizome from which many roots bearing small oblong or rounded tubers arise (Warrier et al.8914 Optical rotation at 30 oC -2o 36' to –4o 30' o Refractive index at 30 C 1. 1995). ethyl-p-methoxy cinnamate. Tuber is stimulant. few. 1998). Anon.4% (Nerle and Torne. Distribution The plant is distributed in the tropics and sub-tropics of Asia and Africa. Isolation of diterpenes from Kaempferia species was done by Parwat et al (1993). The description of the plant is also undertaken by Gamble (1987). and of effusions in joints. . Insectididal constituents from Kaempferia galanga were isolated by Pandji et al (1993) Cyclohexane oxide derivatives and diterpenes were isolated by Orasa et al (1994). Terpenoid constituents amounted to 16.trans-cinnamic acid and cinnamaldehyde. carene. In Ayurveda. Botany Kaempferia rotunda Linn. Sivarajan and Balachandran. 1992). variegated green above and tinged with purple below. Rich loamy soil having good drainage is ideal for the plant. erect. camphene. They are also given in gastric complaints. ulcers.3 Saponification value 99. γ-carene 3. Kirtikar and Basu (1987) and Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994). and borneol 2. remove dried leaves and roots. having a wide distribution in India. Botany Costus speciosus (Koenig. 1982. Properties and activity The tubers contain crotepoxide and β-sitosterol (Husain et al. Tel: Kashmeeramu Ben: Keu. After planting. Well developed healthy and disease free rhizomes with the attached root tubers are selected for planting. 1980). are some of the preparations using the drug (Sivarajan and Balachandran. 1992). Hin: Kebu. The plant is often cultivated as ornamental (Chopra et al. diabetes. Kust. The taxonomic position of the natural group comprising Costus. 1997).. Keyu. hiccough. Apply fertilisers at the rate of 50:50:50 kg N. antitumour and vulnerary (Warrier et al. astringent. dyspepsia. Juice of stem bark taken in burning sensation on urination. helminthiasis. leprosy and other skin ailments (Chunekar. In India. Whole or split rhizome with one healthy sprout is the planting material. leaf rot disease occurs which can be controlled by drenching 1% Bordeaux mixture. mixed with organic manure at 10-15t/ha. etc.13 The seed rate recommended is 1500-2000kg rhizomes/ha. Manjishtadi churna. Root is rich in starch and also used in snake bite. stimulant and good for the heart. thermogenic aromatic. inflammation and aneamia. flatulence. Pits are made at 20cm spacing in which 5cm long pieces of rhizomes are planted. 1983). P 2O5 and K2O/ha at the time of first and second weeding. 1992). Drying up of the leaves is the indication of maturity. sialagogue. . 1994). a drug formulation containing Costus as the main constituent is one of the twenty eight drugs that constitute the Eladi gana of Vagbhata which subdues vata and kapha. The field is ploughed to a fine tilth. cooling. It is bitter. nepalensis Rosc. fever. Apply FYM or compost as basal dose at 20 t/ha either by broadcasting and ploughing or by covering the seed in pits after planting. They are then covered with rotten straw or leaves. var. The crop can be harvested after 7 months maturity. Dimerocostus.. Kura Mal: Importance Costus is one of the plants. Tuber contains essential oil which give a compound with melting point 149oC which yielded benzoic acid on hydrolysis (Rastogi and Mehrotra. The tuber is cooked and made into a syrup or preserve which is considered to be very wholesome (Nadkarni. the effects of poison and promotes complexion (Sivarajan and Balachandran. Meghalaya. Prolonged storage may cause insect and fungus attack (Prasad and Joseph. Juice of boiled plant is used in earache (Asolkar et al. blood diseases. oedema. asthma. Tripura and Kerala. Channakoova. Pakistan. The tubers are acrid. skin diseases. Canda. Rastogi and Mehrotra (1991) and Asolkar et al (1992) also reported crotepoxide in tubers. Harvest the crop carefully without cutting the rhizome. The rhizomes are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta. Malaysia. 1995) COSTUS Costus speciosus San: Pushkara. burning sensation. digestive. Kemuka. found only in Nepal and Arunachal Pradesh and var. bronchitis. A taxonomic rank controversey regarding Costus was pointed out by Gideon (1991). Rhizomes can be stored in cool dry place or pits dug under shade plastered with mud or cowdung. Asana manjishtadi taila. It cures kapha and pitta disorders. Nepal. fever. 1990). An explanation has also been given for the preferred taxonomic rank for the Costus group. Manjishtadi taila. Distribution The plant is widely distributed in Asia and other tropical countries like India. antiinflammatory. leprosy. it occurs mostly in Arunachal Pradesh. cough and other respiratory diseases. Pits are covered with organic manure. The tuberous root-stock is the officinal part. It is used to make sexual hormones and contraceptives (Warrier et al. Tamil Nadu. Monocostus and Tapeinochilos has been reviewed by him. which contains diosgenin in its rhizome. During heavy rainy months. mulch the beds with dry or green leaves at 15 t/ha.. Mar: Penva. 1994). Wash the rhizome in water. stomachic. 1998). Sri Lanka and China. It is widely used as starting material in the commercial production of steroidal hormones. argycophyllus Wall. consists of two varieties viz. Assam. Nagaland. They are stored in moisture-proof sheds. Tam: Kostam. emetic. In vitro propagation of Kaempferia rotunda has been attempted by Anand et al (1997). One of the constituents of indigenous drug ‘ Amber Mezhugu’ is useful in rheumatism. Kashmeera. Eladi oil. 1994).) Sm. Taiwan. Sharma. Channakkizhangu. Seed beds are prepared at a size of 1m breadth and convenient length. constipation. prosapogenins A and B of dioscin. Differential diosgenin accumulation in Costus speciosus and its tissue cultures have been studied by Indrayanto et al (1994). After an initial ploughing FYM or poultry manure should be applied at the rate of 30t/ha and the field is to be ploughed again irrigated and prepared to obtain a fine seed bed. The thinnest group of rhizomes contained largest amount of sapogenin (2.12%) and tigogenin. silky pubescent beneath with broad leaf sheaths. 1976) Agrotechnology Costus can be raised under a wide range of agroclimatic conditions. 1992). sitosterol. β-amyrin and lupeol palmitates from leaves. 1982. Properties and Activity Tubers and roots contain diosgenin. Propagation is by rhizomes. Mal: Inchi. antispasmodic. The plant is reported to have shell shaped flowers (sankhini) which opens during night (Moosad. The single stamen present is perfect. The botanical description is also given by Gamble (1987). gracillin and quinones. Ardrakamu. equated with Brassica olrracea var. many new aliphatic esters and acids are reported from its rhizomes. C. Saponins from seeds are hypotensive and spasmolytic. Hin: Adarak. Application of 37t/ha of poultry manure and fertilizers. Ardraka . Antifungal activity of steroid saponins and sapogenins from Costus speciosus was analysed by Singh et al (1992). depurative and anthelmintic activities (Husain et al. It prefers sandy loam soil for good growth. stimulant. large. Efficacy in controlling plant disease (s) under field conditions were also discussed. Menon. 1983).speciosus var. cardiotonic. capitata (Brassicaceae) the common cabbage by many (Vaidya. viz. 60kg P2O5 and 40kg K2O /ha as a basal doze. 1987. Alkaloidal fraction from rhizomes showed papaverine like smooth muscle relaxant. 1992). Cost of production of diosgenin ranges from Rs. hydrochloretic.globose seeds (Warrier et al. After 70-75 days about 90-95% sprouting is obtained. spirally arranged. One during the sprouting period of the crop followed by two more keeps the crop fairly free of weeds. 1936. From the various types of tissue culture which have been initiated from the same cluster of plants. diuretic and CNS depressant activities in laboratory animals. Erukkizhangu. necessitating liberal water supply during the period. Various saponins. Cultivation methods. along with 80kg N/ha applied in 3 equal split dozes will take care.. The best season for planting is April-May. Rhizomes yield diosgenin (2. variegatus have also been discussed by Jha et al (1992). San: Ardrakam. ZINGIBER Zingiber officinale Eng: Ginger. The seed rate recommended is 2-2. 271-300/kg (Atal and Kapur. The antifungal activity on six species of plant pathogenic fungi was tested at different concentrations. Rhizomes possess antifertility. Pharmacological studies conducted by Bhattacharya et al (1973) show that the rhizomes of Costus speciosus possess cardiotonic. cutting the aerial shoots and digging out the rhizomes. But kebuka has been mentioned among the bitter vegetable group in the classical literature and so is treated as a different drug (Mooss. 2-3m in height and horizontal rhizomes. oblanceolate or oblong. 5 α-stigmast-9 (11)-en-3β-ol. anticholinestrase. Care is taken to place the eye buds facing upwards. Leaves are simple. As September-November is the period of maximum tuberization at least two irrigations should be given at that time.7%) (Rastogi and Mehrotra. Ben: Adrak . Flowers are white. glabrous above. Saponin B was found to be highly effective against conidial germination of Botrytis cineria and Alternaria sp. The spacing adopted is 50x50cm. arranged in dense terminal spikes. Kirtikar and Basu (1987) and Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994). Bracts are bright red. only shoot leaf cultures and shoots of the plantlet cultures contained diosgenin. contain α-tocopherol. Singh and Srivastava (1980) have studied the pharmacognosy of Costus speciosus (Koen. Seeds.14 The plant is a succulent herb with long leafy spirally twisted stems. hydrochloretic. Tam: Inci. root cultures and roots of the plantlet cultures. Saponins showed estrogen like activity in albino rats similar to stilbestrol. lip large with incurved margins. Some of the later authors have equated this plant with kebuka or kemuka (Kirtikar and Basu. Kan: Haisunti.4t/ha. Furrows are opened and the rhizome pieces are placed horizontally at a depth of 8-10cm and covered with soil.) Sm. antiinflammatory. 1991). 1984). Sharma. fragrant. seeds and roots. 1982). storage. β-amyrin stearate.β-D-glucoside. dioscin. They found out that the diosgenin content of field grown C.1994). Fruits are globose or ovoid capsules with obovoid or sub. speciosus plants used in the study was high in the rhizomes and very low in the other parts of the plant. control of pests and diseases of a wild form of Costus speciosus. Essential oil from rhizome showed antimicrobial activity (Asolkar. Harvesting includes 2 operations. in addition. diuretic and CNS depressant activity. 1983). Chunekar. Crop is harvested at the end of seven months. lifting. Tel: Allamu. Desiccation of the young sprouts have been observed in the hot summer months. The compound was not detected in callus cultures. 1996) It is used as a household remedy for indigestion. etc. flatulence. perennial rhizomatous herb. but it is dried and dusted with sugar. In chronic rheumatism. Tinospora cordifolia. Distribution Ginger is believed to have originated in South Asia. and ginger are given in the fevers. It is a constituent of curry powder. Flowers are yellowish green. the body being covered with blankets so as to produce copious perspiration. Suranadighrta. namely fresh. It is one of the reputed drugs of Ayurvedists and and is employed in indegenous systems of medicine for very long period. 1979). cough. The dry ginger is useful in dropsy. Jamaica. “Majun Izaraqi” as a tonic and “ Qurs Podina” and “Murraba-adrak” as carminatives (Thakur et al. Botany Zingiber officinale Rosc. An oleoresin is also extracted in which the full pungency of the spice is preserved. anorexia. said to clean the tongue and throat. Sierra Leone and Japan. In headache ginger paste applied to the forehead affords relief. dypepsia. known as sunthi. cholera. Clinical studies made by Singhal and Joshi (1983) and Girij et al (1984) prove that Zingiber officinale reduces the serum cholesterol level considerably in hypercholesterolemic rats. colic. etc. swelling. increase the appetite and produce an agreeable sensation (Nadkarni. Africa. Fresh or green ginger is consumed as a vegetable. elephantiasis and dysuria. arranged in oblong. In traditional medicine ardraka is extensively used for its specific action in rheumatism and inflammation of liver (Aiyer and Kolammal. flatulence. Sumatra. 1994). pharyngopathy and inflammations. dypepsia. 1966. Crystallized ginger is produced in the same way. It is used for flavouring purposes and in medicines. The rhizomes are white to yellowish brown in colour. eye diseases and tympanitis. The growing tips are covered by a few scales. Almost similar properties and uses have been attributed to the fresh rhizome called ardraka and also the dried one. Hong Kong. It is a plant of ve ry ancient civilization and the spice has long been used in Asia. Suranadi leha. “ Sufuf Shirin” for dysentery. Ginger with kernal of castor seed is used in paralysis and with asafoetida in indigestion. by adding it to tea. somewhat annulated and laterally flattened. It is also one of the earliest known spices in Europe and is still in large demand. cough. cylindric spikes and ensheathed in a few scarious. cholera. Nigeria. The dried ginger forms an ingredient of preparations like Indukantam kasaya. In the collapse stage of cholera powdered ginger rubbed to the extremities is found to check the cold perspiration. otalgia. Kurup et al. It is also used in diarrhoea. It is also used in the production of ginger beer. anaemia. sessile and glabrous. diabetes. In Unani system. improve the local circulation. Ginger juice produces antimotion sickness action by central and peripheral anticholinergic antihistaminic effects (Qian and Liu. ascites. China. dyspepsia. dyspepsia. Cyperus rotundus. colic. neurological diseases. is often attended with the best results. The surface of the rhizome is smooth and if broken a few fibrous elements of the vascular bundles project out from the cut ends (Warrier et . constipation. cardiopathy. diarrhoea. Australia. Tooth-ache and face-ache are relieved by the same application. glabrous bracts. Visvamrta. elephantiasis and inflammations. Pressed ginger is prepared by boiling tender fleshy peeled rhizomes after which they are boiled and sold in sugar syrup. The dried rhizomes constitute the spice and is esteemed for its flavour. vitiated conditions of vata and kapha. dyspnoea. The raw ginger is useful in anorexia. ginger oil and ginger wine. is a slender. flatulence. nausea. It is widely grown in India. cleanses the throat and tongue. The fresh rhiozome is used to prepare Ardrakaghrta. It is also used in several domestic preparations (Warrier et al. asthma. Mexico. infusion of ginger taken warm just before going to bed. Talisapatravataka. There are 3 primary products of the ginger rhizomes. Juice of fresh rhizome and “ Chaturbhada kvatha” containing Swertia chirayita. Immature ginger preserved in sugar syrup is mainly used as a desert. vomiting. 1989). The same treatment has also been found beneficial in colds or catarrhal attacks and during the cold stage of intermittent fever. but this lacks the pungent principle. 1992). cephalalgia.15 Importance Ginger is a slender perennial herb with robust branched rhizome borne horizontally near surface soil. Valiya cincadi leha. and so tends to relieve the agonising cramps of that terrible disease. Crystallized ginger is used as a sweet meat. It is used in the manufacture of flavouring essences and in perfumery . The rhizome yields an essential oil. Leaves are linear. pungency and aroma. preserved and dried ginger. It promotesdigestive power. vitiated conditions of vata and kapha. anorexia. dispels cardiac disorders and cures vomiting. sore throat. etc. Mahakukkutamamsataila. irregularly branched. pharyngopathy. Ayurvedic attributes of ginger and different useful preparations from it have been discussed by Verma (1993). The largest producer and exporter of ginger is India where it is chiefly produced in the states of Kerala and Assam. 1998). ginger is used rather extensively in such preparations as “Hub-gul-pista” for clearing the respiratory system. Ginger with salt taken before meals is praised as a carminative. fever. (Sivarajan and Balachandran. Wynad local. It prefers a rich soil with high humus content. 1993). Ginger rhizomes are used for planting. Half the quantity of N may be applied 60 days after planting. Thiram 0. digging out affected plants and drenching the beds with Cheshunt compound or 1% Bordeaux mixture to be adopted. For irrigated ginger. with occasional turning. The best time for planting ginger is during the first fortnight of April. first 44-60 days and second 90-120 days after planting. Ernad. this mutant has been recommended for release under the name of Suravi (Mohanty and Panda. High yielding mutant Mutant ginger cultivar VIKI-3 (Suravi) recorded the highest yield of 20.) as influenced by shade and mulch was assessed by Babu and Jayachandran (1994). Prepare the land by ploughing or digging. treating them with copper based fungicides.16 al. 1996). This will help to keep the inoculum level low. Spread uniformly on clean floor and allow to dry for 7-9 days.1% for the latter. Full dose of P and 50% of K may be applied as basal dose. the best suited time for planting is middle of February (this is for vegetable ginger ). the crop can be harvested from 6 months. Repeat mulching with green leaves twice at the rate of 7. Clear the field during February-March and burn the weeds. Grow green manure crops like daincha and sunhemp in the interspaces of beds. For making dry ginger. oleoresin and essential oil percentage.5t/ha. For vegetable ginger. Handle seed rhizomes carefully to avoid damage to buds. The remaining quantity may be applied 120 days after planting. mulch the beds thickly with green leaves at the rate of 15t/ha. Field studies on the effects of irrigation with climatological approach and nitrogen management on content and uptake of NPK by ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizomes were conducted under semiarid climatic conditions.Mark healthy and disease free plants in the field when the crop is 6 -8 months old and still green. Growth rate in area.2% may be sprayed for controlling the leaf spot disease. . along with ginger and harvest the green manure crop during second mulching of ginger beds. dry ginger recovery. The maximum NPK uptake by ginger rhizomes was observed with 80kg N/ha. Immediately after planting. Kirtikar and Basu (1987). P and K contents were unaffected by irrigation at 80 and 100mm CPE. the following method is adopted . Wynad. Treat the seed rhizomes similarly before planting also. Agrotechnology Ginger is a tropical plant adapted for cultivation even in regions of subtropical climate such as the highranges. Remove weeds by hand weeding before each mulching. in situ. stubbles. Sivarajan and Balachandran (1994) and Thakur (1989).05%. The crop cannot withstand water-logging and hence soils with good drainage are preferred for its cultivation. Provide drainage channels for every 25 beds on flat lands. Examine the stored rhizomes at monthly intervals and remove the rhizomes which show signs of rotting. Based on uniformly high yield. Cover the pits with coconut fronds. 25cm high with 40cm spacing between the beds. Kuruppampady (Dry ginger) and Rio-De-Janeiro. China. after receipt of premonsooon showers. Clean the adhering skin.3 t/ha as compared to other cultivars. Provide one or two holes for better aeration. harvest the crop between 245-260 days. Economics of ginger cultivation in Kerala was discussed by Regeena and Kandaswamy (1992).3% to the former and 0. The quality of ginger (Zingiber officinale R. It was found that rhizomes produced on medium containing 12% sucrose gave highest germination upon transfer to soil. ginger is not cultivated continuously in the same field but shifting cultivation is practised. Manantody. production and productivity of the crop as well as its cost of cultivation have been discussed. Plant rhizome bits of 15g weight in small pits at a spacing of 20x20cm to 25x25cm and at a depth of 4-5cm with atleast one viable healthy bud facing upwards. For control of soft rot selecting seed rhizomes from disease free areas. For curing wash the rhizomes in water and remove the skin wi th sharpened bamboo. In vitro induction of rhizomes in ginger was carried out by Bhat et al (1994). from the marked plants. the floor of which is lined with sand or saw dust. For controlling the shoot borer spray Dimethoate or Quinalphos at 0. Store the treated rhizomes in pits dug under shade. Nitrogen content in rhizomes was maximum with irrigation at 60mm CPE. Being an exhausting crop. Select best rhizomes free from pest and disease. Soak the selected rhizomes for 30 minutes in a solution of Mancozeb and Malathion to give terminal concentration of 0. Content and uptake of NPK by ginger rhizomes as influenced by irrigation and nitrogen management was analysed by Pawar and Gavande (1992). 1996). Valluvanad. Earth up the crop during the first mulch and avoid water stagnation. roots. bag and store in cool dry place (KAU. Construct beds of convenient length (across the slope where the land is undulating) 1m wide. Apply FYM at the rate of 30t/ha and NPKfertilizers at the rate of 75:50:75 kg/ha/year. However. Dry the treated rhizomes in shade by spreading on the floor. It was found that volatile oil content increased and fibre content decreased with increasing shade levels. It is advisable to spread layers of leaves of Glycosmis pentaphylla. etc. Tafengiya (Green ginger). For selection and preservation of seeds. Repeat weeding according to weed growth during the fifth and sixth month after planting. The botanical description is also given by Gamble (1987). Some of the popular varieties are Maran. Adopt seed rate of 1500kg/ha. 1972. Monitoring of Mancozeb and Carbendazim residues in ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Activity of volatile and non-volatile substances produced by Trichoderma viride on ginger rhizome rot pathogens was studied by Rathore et al (1992). Methanol extract of rhizome and leaves of ginger showed antioxidative properties (Shoji et al. linalool. 1916. 1976. 1894. Properties and activity The chemistry of Zingiber officinale has been the subject of sporadic study since the early nineteenth century. cuparene. 1953. 1976. Yamagishi et al.Volatile and non-volatile substances produced by T. 2 -heptanol. The methanolic extracts of rhizome of ginger showed potent. 1900.viride in agar culture. leaf production and leaf area decreased with the increase in irradiation dosages. 1960. known as gingerols. Connell and Sutherland. Kami et al. Brooke. β-pinene. Integrated management of root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) infecting ginger was undertaken by Mohanty et al (1992). (n)-paradol. dihydrogingerols. and have antipyretic and analgesic effects and prolonged hexabarbital induced sleeping time. β-farnesene.8. Lapworth and Wykes. myriotylum. geranial. 1879. calamenene. The odour and much of the flavour of ginger is determined by the constituents of its steam volatile oil. β-D-curcumene. Eschenmoser and Schumitz. Interaction of VA mycorrhiza with Meloidogyne incognita and Pythium aphanidermatum affecting ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc. zingerone and ginger diones (Lapworth et al.) following post harvest dip was carried out by Sharma et al (1992). methylheptenone. 1918. The monoterpenes reported so far are 3-carene. Both (6)-Gingerol and (6)-shogaol suppressed gastric contraction in situ and (6)-shogaol was more active than (6)-gingerol (Suekawa et al. Irradiation treatments produced inhibitory effects on sprouting of ginger rhizomes. Soffar et al. Nomura. 1939). A combination of 150+80+60 kg/ha with 20x20 cm spacing produced greater yield. Terhune et al. 1912. plant height and maximum number of leaves but the greater size of rhizome was recorded with spacing of 15x30cm. The plant height. 1982. Connell and Jordan. The major pungent compounds reported are gingerols. Lee et al. 1972. myrcene. (6)-shogaol showed an intensive antitussive effect in comparison with dihydrocordeine phosphate. cumene. though present in trace amounts. Cis-sesquithujene hydrate and Zingiberenol are the two hydrated sesquiterpenes reported (Terhune et al. The monoterpene constituents. Pagutte and Kinney. 1975. 1975. Denniff. contribute most of the aroma of a ginger. Bednarczyk and Kramer. 1982). Bednarczyk et al. positive intropic effects in the guinea pig isolated left atria and cardiotonic principles of ginger were identified as 6 -. 1969. 1901. 1944. The sesquiterpene hydrocarbons constitute thje major fraction of the essential oil.) was studied by Iyer. Other sesquiterpene hydrocarbons are α-Zingiberene. 1917. camphene. β-phellandrene. neral. 1972) (6)-Gingerol and (6)-shogaol produce an inhibition of spontaneous motor activity.63) in neem cake treated plots were observed. desmethylhexahydrocurcumin. nonanal. 1964. The growth of the plants was significant when inoculated with VA mycorrhiza (VAM) fungi whereas Meloidogyne incognita and Pythium aphanidermatum inoculations suppressed the plant growth.and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds. out of which βZingiberene and ar-curcumene are found in high percentages. α-bergamotene. 1970. α-terpineol. αpinene. 2 -nonanol. Nomura and Tsurani. β-isobolane. Herout et al. 1952.. 1975. β-bourbonene.17 Gamma ray induced variability in vegetative and floral characters of ginger was studied by Giridharan and Balakrishnan (1992).and Sundararaju (1993). hexahydrocurcumin. shagaols.cineole. Soden and Rojahn. Mills. Jain et al. 1975. Smith and Robinson. 1900). 1950.and 10-gingerol. Connell. Macleod and Whiting. β-borneol and geraniol (Dodge. Ginger owes its characteristic organoleptic properties to gingerols. 1984). sesquithujene and sesquisabiene (Nigam et al. Soden and Rojahan. bornyl acetate. Maximum yield of ginger (2. Schreiner and Kremers. Diffusable substances were found to inhibit ogonia formation and increase vacuolation and emptying of hyphae in P. tiller production. 8. 1982).53kg/plot) and minimum gall index (2. 1979. Nelson. Bednarczyk and kramer. α-copaene. 1975. 1970. decanal. about 35-40% and 15-20% respectively. Connell and Mclachlan. Thresh. Pilva et al. 1. (6)-shogaol weas more active than (6)-gingerol. Masada et al. 1964. Ruzicka and Van-veen. 1969. sabinene. 1917. 1929. Connell. 1970. Several investigations have been carried out on the non-volatile pungent principles of ginger. Effect of NPK nutrition and spacing on yield attributes in ginger was studied by Singh and Neopaney (1993). 1981. Connell and Sutherland.the essential oil is comprised mainly of mono. βsesquiphellandrene. West. Bertram and Walbaum. 1971. 1905. γ-selinene. 1973. Denniff and Whitting. Schimmel and Co. limonene. Nigam et al. Denniff et al. 1980. gingerdiols. . while the pungency is produced by nonvolatile components. Persistance of Mancozeb was found highest than Carbendazim in post harvest treated rhizomes after steeping in Mancozeb and Carbendazim solutions for 60 minutes to prevent storage rots of ginger. 1927. affected two pathogens but Pythium myriotylum was more affected than Fusarium solani. p-cymene. 1962. Zingiber zerumbet San: Sthulagranthi. d-borneol 2. geraniol 0. gingerol. linalool 1.1%. carbohydrate 12. limonene. Dried ginger contains about 10% moisture and 1-3% of volatile oil of which the chief constituent is a sesquiterpene. Eighty six ginger accessions were evaluated for oleoresin.zerumbone has been isolated from oil of rhizomes. Variability in gingerol and shogaol content of ginger accessions was studied by Zachariah et al (1993). 2 -nonanol 0. zerumbet (L. humulene epoxides I. two 2-α-epoxideshimulene epoxideI (bp. asthma. A sesquiterpene epoxy. base narrowed. arranged on ovoid ontuse spikes. The inter character association pattern showed that oleoresin is positively correlated with gingerol and shogaol. The agrotechnology is same as that of Z. lobes obtuse. fat 1%.8-cineole 1.2%. 1953). Essential oil’s major components are camphene. fibre 2. They were mainly citral (Z and E). has large.8% (Krishnamurthy et al. Specific gravity at 30 oC 0. β-curcumene.1%.6%. protein 2. arcurcume 17. 1992). 1987). 1984). Lip shorter than the corolla lobes and of a darker yellow. linalool. . acuminate. rhinovirus IB in vitro. Zerumbone (mp.8%. It is distributed throughout India in the tropics. worms leprosy and other skin diseases. glabrous. nonanal 0. 6 -gingerol and 6-shogaol. 1972.1%. borneol.2%.viride in agar culture. called zingiberene (C15H24). decanal 0. Amomum spurium Gmel. Z. α-pinene. Leaves are sessile. Capsules are ellipsoid.4% and ash 1-2%. myriotylum. medium and low quality types. menthene. but with some bitterness. Akhila and Tewari.105oC) and humulenol along with β-curcumene (2%) and caryophyllene epoxide (mp. the alcoholic extract containing resinous fractions stimulates the vasomotor and respiratory centres of anaesthetized cats (Husain et al. cineole. The essential oil exhibited remarkable repellent activity against both the kitchen insect Periplaneta americana and the agricultural pest Bruchas pisorum (Garg and Jain.44 micro M vs. gingerol and shogaol and the accessions were classified into high. limonene 1. Stem is cylindric and glabrous. α-terpeneol. caryophyllene. ß-zingiberene 35. geraniol 1.2%.0% and ß -farnesene 9. Others included β-phellandrene . 1992). It is employed as a hot remedy for coughs.and β-pinene. methyl heptanone 0. 1991).2%.4894 Saponification value 20 Fresh ginger contains approximately water 80%.104oC) and humulene epoxide II (bp. citral. borneol. Rhizomes contain free amino acidsasparagine and pipecolic acid .niger (Takahashi et al. 1990). The essential oil contains approximately α-pinene 0. officinale). camphor.1%. 53 chemical constituents were separated and 34 of them were identified by means of GC/MS/DS. ß-bisabolene 0. ß-phellandrene 1.3%. a diepoxide.3%.880 Optical rotation at 20 oC -28o to –45o Refractive index at 30 oC 1. A. 3-fid. zerumbone and α.1%.4%. II and III and humulenols I and II (Husain et al. the pungent constituents of Zingiber officinale were biotransformed by A. Flowers pale sulphur yellow. Stigma is minute and funnel-shaped witrh ciliate mouth. Kattinjikua Tel: Santa pasupu. 1. 1993). two ketones. Karrallamu Hin: Mahabaribach Kan: Kallu Shunti The rhizomes of Zingiber zerumbet are used like the officinal ginger (Z. Diffusable substances were found to inhibit ogonia formation and increase vacuolation and emptying of hyphae in P.3%. Karpoora Haridra Ben: Mahabaribach Mal: Kattinji. Physico-chemical properties of oil The essential oil is a pale yellow liquid with a warm spicy sweet strongly aromatic odour and sharp pungent flavour. two terpenoids-humulene monoxide and humulene dioxide. cineole.ketone.3%.18 Main constituent of essential oil is d-camphene. limonene. ligule truncate and membranous. The botany is also described by Gamble (1987). The most active of these was β-sesquiphellandrene with an IC50 of 0.4%. α -selinene 1. spurium Koen. methylheptenone and linalool.3%. Volatile and non-volatile substances produced by T.66oC). sylvestre Poir. 1970.61oC) has ben isolated from the oil (Rastogi and Mehrotra. myrcene 0. camphene 1.0%. 3 -carene.) Sm. syn. alpha-farnesene and isofenchylalcohol Isolation of antirhinoviral sesquiterpenes from ginger was done by Denyer et al (1994). the midlobe the longest. syn. Anther is glabrous. The oil has the following properties (CSIR. Studies on the constituents of the essential oil of Zingiber officinale was done by Xiuzhen et al (1992).868-0. bornyl acetate 0. Kami et al. oblong-lanceolate. syn. not much branched root stock with a strong aromatic ginger like taste.4840-1.1%. p-cymene 0. seeds oblong and black (Kirtikar and Basu.4%. Z.2%.2%. ß-elemene 1. neral 0. officinale. The pungent principle of ginger is zingerone (C11H14O3) which is present in the oleoresin. Activity of volatile and non-volatile substances produced by Trichoderma viride on ginger rhizome rot pathogens was studied by Rathore et al (1992).1%. alpha-pinene. ß-pinene 0. affected two pathogens but Pythium myriotylum was more affected than Fusarium solani. Hin: Chhoti elachi Kan: Yelakki Mal: Yelam Importance Cardamom is a tall herbaceous perennial with branched subterranean rhizomes from which arise several erect leafy shoots and erect or decumbent panicles. They are visited by bees which bring about cross pollination. has a chromosome number 2n=48. Mysore and Vazhukka are recognized under this variety. a temperature of 10-35oC and an altitude of 600-1200 m with moderate shade and protection from wind. They are used for flavouring curries. oleoresin and tinctures are extensively used in the formulation of compounded mixtures for liquors beverages baked goods.5-5. bread and other culinary purposes. major Thw. 3 m tall. In such areas seedling progenies are advisable as virus disease is not transmitted through seeds. subglobose. with pinkish pseudostems. minor Watt. and erect panicles. ‘ICRI-1’. The plant is propagated vegetatively by divisions of rhizomes or by seed. rhizome. Sri Lanka. Amomum cardamomum L. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Clonal propagation by tissue culture permits large scale planting of high yielding selections but is not advisable where Katte and other virus diseases are prevalent (Nadyanda et al. Seeds more aromatic. the essential oil. 1983). Alpinia cardamomum (L. Dried cardamom fruits are used as a masticatory and in medicine. The dried capsules. more numerous and less aromatic than the var. and ‘PV-1’ are the improved varieties available for cultivation. repens Sonner. with more numerous flowers. sauces and condiments. Agrotechnology Cardamom grows wild in the evergreen rain forests of the Western Ghats in India between 750 m and 1500 m and in Sri Lanka above 1000 m altitude. The panicle is longer.0 cm long. ripe capsules of desired cultivar are collected from high yielding plants during September-October. (2) E. dry matter distribution and harvest index in a randomised block design with four replications in clonal nursery. canned foods. Guatemala has now overtaken Sri Lanka that was the second largest exporter. two botanical varieties are recognized. stimulant. with cultivation mainly confined to the southern states of Kerala. leaves. It is a robust plant.) Roxb. cardamomum Maton var. The oleoresin has similar applications to essential oil in flavouring of processed foods but it is less used. minuscula Burkill). but well drained deep loamy soils abundant in humus is ideal. Its natural habitat is the evergreen forests of Western Ghats. The oil and oleoresins also find use in the preparation of aromatic. syn. Botany The plant cardamom Elettaria cardamomum (L. stomachic and diuretic tinctures. Cardamoms are stimulant.: It is the wild cardamom of Sri Lanka and the southern half of the Western Ghats. panicles and capsules. They occur in the preclimax stage of the forest. minor. yellowish when dried. syn. Guatemala and Thailand. Seed germination is often poor and irregular. cardamomum Thw. Clones differed significantly among themselves for dry matter content and percent dry matter (to total dry matter) distribution to roots. the former is often used for planting small areas. Plants propagated vegetatively come to bearing one year earlier than the seedling propagated plants. fruits trilocular capsule with 15-20 seeds per fruit.. fruits smaller than var. The flowers which open from the base of the panicle upwards over a long period. are said to be self-fertile. (syn. syn. tillers. cakes. For seedling propagation. carminative and flavouring agent. Cardamom is generally grown in forest loamy soils rich in available phosphorus and potassium. ‘ICRI-2’. The essential oil is employed in perfumery and flavourings. Malabar cardamom Tam: Yelakkai Tel: Yelakkaya San: Ela Ben. meats. It is grown in India. Ovary and calyx glabrous. India is the largest producer of cardamom. fruits 2. Flowers bisexual. In cultivation. A. var. As the different races and varieties of cardamom are interfertile. longer and seeds larger. Several races such as Malabar. Twelve selected clones were evaluated along with local check for yield. (1) Elettaria cardamomum Maton var. Origin and distribution The plant has originated in India.) Maton. the variability is so high that some confusion exists with regard to the systematics. the crop requires an annual rainfall of 1500-4000 mm. ovary and calyx subtomentose. drying to a dark brown colour. Generally. There was a significant distribution for harvest index .19 CARDAMOM Elettaria cardamomum Eng: Lesser cardamom. About 80% of the cardamom in the international market come from India.: This includes most of the cultivated types. major. var. broad leaves. Cardamom plantation is fertilized with N. The seeds are sown in primary nursery from where the young seedlings are transplanted 25-30 cm apart in a secondary nursery or in polybags during June-July where they are maintained for one year and the 18 month old seedlings are finally transplanted to the main field at 1. Shade trees like dadap. reduce weed growth and overcome dry situation. Shade regulation is essential to provide optimum shade. repeated drenching and spraying with 1% Bordeaux mixture. Seedlings will take 4-6 weeks to appear above ground. Clones had high harvest index compared to local check (Korikanthimath and Mulge. Hormonal relationship and growth regulator application effect on flowering. low levels of simazine and 2. eucalyptus. Antifungal properties of neem products against rhizome rot of small cardamom ( Elettaria cardamomum Maton). daminozide ethepon and maleic hydrazide on certain vegetative characters of cardamom ( Elettaria cardamomum Maton) seedlings was studied by Siddagangaiah et al (1993). Exogenous application of NAA (40 ppm) and 2. Sel. Myladumpara. Sel. albizzia. jack. thus helping in getting vigorous seedlings for better establishment in the field. Seeds are extracted by gently pressing the capsules and washing 3-4 times with water to remove the mucilaginous coating on the seeds. Forking is necessary in hard soils.5 x 2. Sel. Seeds can be preserved for one month in the capsule form in polythene lined gunny bags. It showed that plants in the early infection stage recorded less reduction in the yield in contrast to the plants in the advanced stages of infection. Initial population of 100 and 500 nematodes consistently produced susceptible reaction in cardamom plants .03% Quinalphos. initial inoculum of 500 nematodes and an exposure period of 3 months have been recommended for evaluation of resistance in cardamom. Aqueous extracts of neem-leaf. daminozide (500 ppm). Mulching is practiced to conserve moisture. neem-seeds and also commercially available neem-based formulations such as neem-oil. C. 1996). red cedar and wild nutmeg are planted.9. Red cedar (Toona ciliata Roem. Sixty gram seeds are sown on well prepared beds of 6 m2. The pest was parasitised by a hymonepteran. ergostim. 1998). Thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi) incidence and green weight of capsules were significantly less in widest spacing of 2. leaf blotch caused by Phaeodactylum venkatesanum and Chenthal disease are frequently observed in cardamom plantations. 4-D significantly increased the yield and dry matter production and also reduced the nursery period. Trashing is carried out during June-July with the commencement of monsoon to prevent spread of diseases and expose panicles for pollination by honey bees.4-D (4 ppm) increased the production of panicles and flowers and decreased the incidence of capsule shedding thereby increasing the yield. (1992)..4 and Sel. High auxin and cytokinin levels were observed after pollination.20 among the clones. The results indicated that biostimulants such as vipul. hesperedium) has been reported to occur in cardamom for the first time by Singh et al (1994). Maintaining four bee colonies/ha during the flowering season is recommended for increased fruit set and capsule production. chloromequat (250 ppm) and ethepon (100 ppm) significantly enhanced tiller production and other vegetative characters when applied on 7 month old seedlings. Azhukal or capsule rot caused by Phytophthora species. Maximum percentage of dry matter distribution towards economic parts (capsules) was observed in selected clones viz. Multifaceted approach consisting of field sanitation. mulched with potha grass or straw and watered regularly. Effect of chloromequat.5-3 m spacing depending on the cultivar and soil conditions. In a nursery experiment conducted at Cardamom Research Institute. use of tolerant cultivars. Sel. fruit setting and capsule shedding in cardamom was studied by Vasanthakumar and Mohanakumaran (1988). In-vitro studies showed 80-100% growth inhibition with all the products tested. Effect of bio-stimulants on the growth and biomass oif secondary nursery seedlings of cardamom was studied by Vadiraj et al.) is an ideal shade tree which sheds leaves during rainy season and thus provides natural shade regulation (KAU.12. five biostimulants at different concentrations were sprayed at 30 days interval for a period of 120 days. clump rot or rhizome rot caused by Pythium aphanidermatum. ceroplastae in the field. Application on pot culture and plants . Katte or mosaic virus disease is transmitted by the aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa. Nematode population was found to be inversely proportional to the initial inoculum level. Maleic hydrazide (250 ppm). Fertilizers are applied in two split doses before and after the South-West monsoon in a circular band 20 cm wide at 30-40 cm away from the base of the clumps and incorporated into the soil.5m in an eight year old plantation of Malabar type cardamom (Sidhartan et al. P 2O5 and K2O at 75:75:150 kg/ha respectively. These treatments were economical on cost-benefit ratios. is to be resorted to for effective disease control. Azabin-BSB and neem-gold were tested against rhizome rot disease caused by Rhizoctonia solanii.2% HCH or 0. Yield loss assessment in Nilgris necrosis infected cardamom was attempted by Sridhar et al (1991). Seeds are dried in shade for 2-3 days and sown in the nursery within a fortnight as the seeds are short-viable. Cardamom thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi) and leaf eating caterpillars are common pests of cardamom which can be controlled by spraying 0. unripened neem fruits. Sickle weeding is required frequently.17. kemisal.10 and minimum was observed in local check indicating their differential yielding ability and superiority of selections (lines). pure folic acid. A methodology for evaluation of resistance in cardamom to root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) was developed by Eapen (1990). 1990) Infestation of soft scale (C. was studied by Dhanpal et al ( 1993). 9%. Then they are uniformly spread and dried on wire net trays for 36-42 hours at 50-60 C. p-cymene 1.3% and heptacosane 0. nerolidol 0. stomachic.1%. the seeds of which are similar in properties to the true cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton. In the sterol fraction β-sitosterone and γ.5 mm and 6 mm sizes. stage of harvest and conditions and duration of storage. 1990). The seeds and essential oil from seeds are extensively used. Seeds are used as a diuretic in cases of gravel of the kidneys and are used in headache.1 o to 44. The harvested capsules are washed in water to remove dust and soil particles. methyl heptanone 0. The outturn of dried capsules is 20-25% of the harvested fruits. A cardamom plantation gives economical yield for 10-15 years after which replanting has to be done. they are prescribed for the treatment of indigestion. Postharvest technology Processing of capsules is done in specially built curing houses. Cardamom capsules with green colour fetch a premium price. 42% carbohydrate. Picking is carried out at an interval of 30 days during September-February and the peak period of harvest is OctoberNovember. sabinene 4. The polished capsules are then graded according to size by passing through a series of 7 mm.3%. For this reason.7%. biliousness. abdominal pains and rectal diseases.4 Cardamom capsules contain 20% water.4%. 6.5%. borneol 0. minuscula as: -pinene 1. Medicinally the seeds are credited with stimulant. Kan: Dodda yelakki Importance Greater cardamom or Nepal cardamom is a tall perennial herb.sitosterol are newly reported.9%. Phytol and traces of eugenyl acetate wrere also identified in cardamom for the first time (Gopalakrishnan et al.9349 Refractive index at 25oC 1. Nigam et al (1965) reported the composition of the essential oil of E. Perelam Tel: Pedda Yelakaya . The dried capsules are rubbed on wire mesh to remove the stalk and other waste particles. linanyl acetate 1. a decoction of the seeds is used as a gargle. Upto 11% oil is available in seeds while it rarely exceeds 1% in husks.9%. α-terpineol 3. limonene 14%. 2% fat. vomiting. AMOMUM Amomum subulatum Eng: Greater cardamom.) for which they are often substituted. The graded produce is stored in polythene lined gunny bags to retain the green colour and to avoid exposure to moisture. linalool 0. A chemical investigation based on 1H NMR and MS studies revealed that the non-saponifiable lipid fraction of cardamom consisted mainly of waxes and sterols. Cardamom oleoresin with 52-58% of oil content is produced on a relatively smaller scale.1%.5%. Rao (1925) has reported the following properties for cardamom oil.8%.4620 Optical rotation at 25oC 15. The fruits are crushed and steam distilled for 4 hours to recover the essential oil. terpineol and limonene.7%. geraniol 0.3 Saponification value 96. Kattelam. nerol 1. The waxes identified were n-alkanes and nalkenes. Bhadraila Ben: Bara Ilachi Hin: Badi Ilayaci.36-1. Nepal cardamom San: Sthulaila. The aroma and therapeutic properties are due to a volatile oil constituting 3-8% in the seeds. Cardamom plants normally start bearing capsules from the third year of planting.7%. In affections of the teeth and gums. Physico-chemical properties of oil Cardamom oil is a greenish-yellow liquid with a warm spicy aromatic odour somewhat pungent and faintly bitter at high concentration. whose main constituents are cineole. The essential oil from the seeds is applied locally to allay eye inflammation. α-terpinyl acetate 28. Bari Ilayici Mal: Peralam Tam: Periya elam.21 in the field showed that extract from neem-seed and neemgold greatly reduced the disease followed by other neem products and garlic. Improvements in the quality of volatile oil and oleoresin of stable cardamom flavour in powder form and product development and application in different foods were presented by Raghavan et al (1991). This is called polishing.0 o Acid value 0.8%.9264-0. cineole 30.2%. The average yield of dried capsules is 200-300 kg/ha/year.5-7% which is dependent on the cultivar. 10% protein. cardamomum var. alexipharmic and astringent properties. 20% fibre and 6% ash.5-156. ß-terpineol 0. In both the . The oil content is 3. neryl acetate 0.4603-1. Specific gravity at 15oC 0. Hence emphasis has to be given on the preservation of green colour during curing and subsequent storage. 1993). glabrous on both surfaces. Patra. 1989). The glycosides-petunidin-3. and A. “Ma’jun Zangibil”. nerolidol. anorexia. West Bengal and Assam. cineole content. Among the capsule traits. densely echinate globose capsules. Other constituents include α.5%) (Husain et al. viz. association among capsule traits and path coefficient analysis among componenets of essentialn oil in large cardamom was done by Karibasappa et al (1989). It is a herb with a leafy stem upto 90-100cm in height. The leaves are oblong-lanceolate. Agrotechnology The cultivation practices are similar to that of cardamom.. Seeds are many and held together by a viscid sugary pulp (Warrier etal. mature seed index. whereas the capsule weight had the reverse effect. leucocyanadin-3-O.β-D-glucopyranoside and subulin. et al. 1993). In Unani. subulatum showed complete inhibition (100%) of Aspergillus flavus at 300 ppm (Mishra and Dubey. cough.and β-pinene. 1978). 1982). The botanical description is also attempted by Gamble (1987).22 indigenous and western medicines. Other important species belonging to the genus Amomum are A. tonic during pregnanacy and as aphrodisiac.β-D-glucopyranoside along with cardamom and alpinetin (Lakshmi and Chauhan. antiphlegmatic and in relieving biliousness. Total anthocyanins. Half-sib progeny obtained from ‘Sawney’ and ‘Golsey’ cultivars was studied during 1985 for major capsule traits. Flowers are white and arranged in globose shortly pedunckled spikes. Structure of a new aurone glycoside-subulin was isolated from seeds (Rastogi and Mehrotra. dysentery. “ Dawa-i. “Arq Gazar Ambari”. Seeds/ capsules. terpinyl acetate and bisabolene (Husain et al. p-cymene.3%) as major components along with several minor mono.3% of the extract while liquid CO2 extraction yielded 2. antidyspepsiac and also in cholera. The maximum production is in Sikkim. anther crest small. petunidin3. halitosis.8-cineole (74%) and limonene (10. xanthioides Wall. flatulence. pruritus. cardiac stimulant and in palpitation of the heart. It is cultivated in North West Bengal. bronchitis. seed mass weights and total anthocyanins showed high heritability coupled with high genetic advance. truncate and entire.and sesquiterpenoids (Lawr ence. filaments very short. colic. seeds/ capsules and total anthocyanins had high positive direct effect on oleoresin content and negative direct effect towards cineole component. liver congestion. The seeds contain a chalcone. lip ovate-cuneate.and β-terpineol. in the form of tincture of powder. 1970. Half-sib progeny analysis for variability. total soluble solids of seed mucilage. bowel tonic and curative of dysentery (Thakur et al. 1976 and1977. 1993). Rao et al. Kirtikar and Basu (1987). Seeds on steam distillation yield an essential oil containing cineole as the principal constituent. 1988). costatum Benth. total soluble solids of seed mucilage and 1000 seed weight were associated positively with oleoresin but negatively with cineole content. emetic. which is used as a liver and stomach tonic. Bracts are reddish brown. used as a cephalic and general tonic.. sabinene. Essential oil from A. Its seed oil was found to be highly active against the growth of keratinophhilic fungi (Jain and Agrawal. terpinene. subulin. preferably along the streams. Mature seed index. this goes into various preparations like “ Jawarish Anarain”. aromaticum Roxb. in uteral pains and as emmenagogue. Fruits are reddish brown. The quality of the essential oil remained unchanged with liquid CO2 extraction while it got deteriorated with steam distillation (Kaur et al. total soluble solids of seed mucilage and seeds/capsules showed high magnitude of phenotypic coefficient of variation. Sikkim and Assam between 500 and 1800m on slopes under chequered shades. “ Naushdarooi-sada”. emarginate. shell weight. 1991). Botany Amomum subulatum Roxb.cardamonin and a flavone-alpinetin. used as a stomachic. Distrbution The plant grows wild in Eastern Himalaya from Nepal to Sikkim.5diglucoside. stomachic. used as a curative for leucorrhoea. 1976).mazmaza” used as an exhilirant. bitters and purgatives. leucocyanidin-3-O. subulatum are rich source of essential oil (2. The seed mass weight. and Thakur (1989). Properties and activity The seeds of A. α. dyspepsia. The composition of the oil has been studied to obtain 1. terpinen-4-ol. The seeds are also useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata. yellowish white. The extract of the seeds has also been reported to afford a few glycosides.5-diglucoside. the seeds are used as a frequent adjunct to other stimulants.1% of the extract. bright green.1990). hyperdepsia and gonorrhoea (Warrier et al. A. the seed . Steam distillation of the seeds yielded 2. 1992). 1979. Karchura. ethyl cinnamate (10.and β-pinene. 1975). cryptomeridol have also been isolated from the rhizomes (Sharma et al. Nepal and Kumaon. d-sabinene (4%). Cineole is the major constituent of the oil (Nigam et al. Karpura kachali kachari Tam: Seemai kichili-kizhangu Kan: Seema kachora Importance Spiked ginger-lily is a leafy plant having camphoraceous horizontal rhizome. The inhibitory activity appears significant against Shigella shigae. Leaves are sessile.23 mass weight . Sharma. its β-D-glucoside and a s esquiterpene. Because of its camphotraceous odour. The drug is an ingredient of some Ayurvedic preparations but rarely used in Unani system. 1:4 cineole (6%) sesqutiterpenes (probably cadinene) (5. carminative. Essential oil obtained from the roots and rhizomes contained α. The fruit is a gl9bose capsule. a furanoid diterpene. The flowrs are fragrant with pale yellow. Escherichia coli.λ-7. Properties and activity The rhizomes yield 4% essential oil containing ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate (67. β-terpeneol. its dihydro derivative and another diterpene identified as 6-oxo.2%). Clostridium welchii.8%). hiccough.The therapeutic activity of the rhizome is due to its essential oil. tranquilising effect and showed anthelmentic activity against tapeworms (Taenia solium) and earthworms (Pheritima posthuma) and was found to be better than piperazine phosphate (Dixit and Varma. spasmolytic. p-cymene and linalool. atiasthmatic and hypotensive (Husain et al. ex Wall. Botany Hedychium spicatum Ham. limonene. ex Smith. The essential oil of rhizomes exhibited inhibitory activity against all the test bacteria and fungi. enclosing white staminodes and red anthers. in liver complaints. γterpenene. 1987). The root stock is useful in inflammations. limonene. HEDYCHIUM Hedychium spicatum Eng: Spiked Ginger lily San: Gandhashati. and anthelmentic.11. 1973. asthma. Essential oil also showed effect on central nervous system.vomiting and ‘tridosha’ diseases of the blood. diarrhoea and pains (Kirtikar and Basu. 1980). Rhizome have sitosterol and its glucoside. syn H. mature seed index and total soluble solids of seed mucilage were effective in contributing for high oleoresin content with its low cineole component. upto 2m tall. 1975. bataticola. 1974. analgesic and hypoglycaemic activities. 1976.5%) and sesquiterpene alcohol (4. stimulant. β-sitosterol. tonic to the brain. β-phellandrene. Dhawan et al. γ-terpinene. up to 5cm long corolla tube. Essential oil from rhizome is anti microbial. 1992). this drug is often considered as a substitute of Curcuma zedoaria (Thakur et al. 1983). The plant is CVS active (Dhar et al. 1977)). 1979). The botanical description of the plant is also given by Gamble (1987) and Kirtikar and Basu (1987). Rhizome is antiinflammatory. Sharma and Tandon.7%) (Chopra et al.8-cineole. Sharma et al. having camphoraceous horizontal rhizome. broadly lanceolate. Alternaria hellanthi. vasodialator. a furanoid diterpene-hedychenone and 7hydroxyhedychenone. 1980). when ripe the three valves are reflexed exposing numerous small seeds embedded in a red aril (Thakur et al. stomachic. The rhizome in powder form is sprinkled as an antiseptic agent and also used as a poultice for various aches and pains. pains. 30-60cm long and upto 10cm wide. 1989). 1989). is a leafy plant. foul breath. β-phellandrene. 1. The flowering spike may be upto25cm long.14-triene-16-oic acid lactone (Sharma et al. Distribution The plant grows wild in subtropical to temperate areas of the Himalayas. The ethanolic extract of the rhizomes possessed antiinflammatory. bronchitis. It is also used as a laxative.album Buch-Ham. hypoglycaemic. Rhizoctonia solani and R. The ethanolic extract of dry rhizomes has yielded hedychenone. It is a carminative and bronchodialator. linalool and β-terpeneol as major constituents. Ben: Kapur kachari Hin: Kapur . p -cymene. 1975. Essential oil contains cineole. nitriles and oximes were found to make a great contribution to the scent of flowers. 1997. 1992). The daily and the seasonal changes of the odour characteristics of H. 47 (3): 281-286. distichous. A. Corolla tube long. 57 (1): 1-7. K. JammuTawi. erect. References Abraham. undulate and white tinged with red.M. and Chakre. It is similar to H.A. spicatum. Qualitative differences of the volatiles obtained by thermal and solvent desorption of the headspace traps were also discussed.. K. L. CSIR. 1984. and Wahl. R. Planta Medica. M.. β-phellandrene. linalool β-caryophellene and its oxide and elemole invarying concentrations. coronarium flowers were considered. eugenol and methylanthranilate.H. and Tewari. decurrent into a long deeply channelled petiole which reaches 15cm long. O. Kaempferia pandurata Roxb.. Hedychenone is antiinflammatory. indole. limonene. Anonymous. Midrib is stout. Anther is erect and recurved (Kirtikar and Basu. Chemistry of ginger: A review. M. Harikrishnan. Ltd.K. Plants. “Indian Crocus. Kuttan. K. P. p. H. Hat Yai.V. eugenol. and Pillai. Med. Flowers are arranged in terminal spikes.cineole. In vitro propagation of Kaempferia rotunda Linn.A. 761. oblong or lanceolate and spreading. Second Supplement to Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants with Active Principles Part I (A-K). RRL. 6(3):143-156. N. CPCRI. methyl epi-jasmonate.N. Pharmacgnosy of Auyrvedic drugs. Total of 113 compounds were found in the headspace. very slender. G. P. and Rajasekharan. 1991. R. acute and spreading. Staminodes3. India. B. 1987).M. Akhila. Annual report. methyl slicylate. J. K. 1:8. coronarium (white ginger. Leaves are few (usually 3 or 4). acute or shortly acuminate. (E)-isoeugenol.N. rotarod response and pentobarbitone hypnosis (Rastogi and Mehrotra. methyl benzonatecis-jasmone.B. The rhizome is used as a febrifuge. 9:122. 414p. Volatile componenets of H. V. it depressed conditioned avoidance response. A comparative study on the pharmacological properties of natural curcuminoids .. ginger lily. Atal. 1991. Pharmacology of Curcuma longa. acute and membranous..O.A.J. For this the solvent extract and the headspace of H. 241. Y. mostly in the gardens of Assam and South India. 1993. is a stemless plant with horizontal root stock with many nodose branches and thick succulent vermiform root-fibres. 1991). A. white or pale pink. sub-sessile among the leaves. 319-326. 1992. Anto. Essential oil from rhizome is anthelmintic and mild tranquiliser (Husain et al.” Phytomorphology. Res. Asolkar. New Delhi. Konkan and Malay Peninsula.P.V. The Bangalore Printing and Publishing Co.. Cultivation and Utilisation of Medicinal Plants. K. syn. It is used in the treatment of foetid nostrils. C. Its roots are used in dysentery. Babu. Ammon. . hyaline and 2-fid.Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany. Curr. R.145.4 –9. Amala Research Bulletin. Zingiberaceae Workshop.14: 60-65. p-cymene. The essential oil also gave borneol. and Kolammal. coronarium flowers were studied by Matsumoto et al (1993). Gastrochilus pandurata Ridley. (1965-81). elliptic-oblong. 1954. GASTROCHILUS Gastrochilus pandurata Mal: Temu kinchi The plant is found in Burma. Rhizomes gave furanoditerpene-hedychenone. Andamans. K. K. cylindric.and βpinene. Hnashukusha) flowers were investigated by GC/MS and GC. The base of the stem is used in swellings. 1982. and Kapur. Proc. Calyx-tube long.17 (10).24 Essential oil of rhizomes showed tranquilising activity of short duration. The flowers are fragrant. 1974. 15 Ansari.a medicinal plant. N. Kasaragod. jasmin lactone. Hedychium coronarium Eng: Common ginger-lily. Trivandrum Nos. Essential oil contains Essential oil contains α. G. long.T. Garland flower. pure white or tinged with yellow (Gamble. Aiyer. 4th edition. Lip broad. tonic and antirheumatic. K. Bangalore. glabrous and green on both surfaces. Martin. oblong. A. linalool. and Hariharan. Threatened medicinal plants from Madhauli forest of Garakhpur. Anand. erect or curved at the top.P. Publications and Informations Directorate (CSIR). . Of the 175 compounds identified. Kakkar.p. Thailand. narrow. 1994. Segments are pink. Aiyar. 1960-1966. ligule short. 1987). Prince of Songkla University. Arom. Biology and bionics of insect pests of ginger and turmeric. Field crops in India. This plant is found throughout India. Kuttan. .VI.. Soc. Loakes. S. A. and Sutherland.C. Aust. B. K. The essential oil of Alpinia galanga Willd. D. C.. and Curcuma aromatica Salisb. and Mclachlan.G. Biol.A. Srimal. B.A. Sahoo. J..R. pungent principles of ginger (Zingiber officinale). J. K. and Kramer.W. J. Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. R. 63 (3): 265286.N.11:43. D. IV. J.D. Pandey.. 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