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STRESS IN THE WORKPLACE: A CASE STUDYA Research Proposal for a Dissertation by GERBRECHT SUSANNA NORTJÉ, BA, PDHIV/AIDS MANAGEMENT Student No.: 200157672 To be submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MASTER TECHNOLOGIAE in Business Administration FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Supervisor: Prof. Dr. J.A. Watkins Co-Supervisor: Mr. W.L. Pretorius TSHWANE August 2007 iii DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT I hereby declare that this dissertation submitted for the degree Magister Technologiae Business Administration at the Tshwane University of Technology, is my own original unaided work and has not previously been submitted to any other institution or higher education. I further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and acknowledged by means of a comprehensive list of references. Gerbrecht Susanna Nortjé Copyright© Tshwane University of Technology – 2007 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The researcher wishes to acknowledge the contribution of the following: • • • • • • The Almighty for the ability. Ruan Nortjé. Ms Rachel Fourie for typing of the dissertation. My Parents. my son. for all his love and support. advice and talent. Wulf and Susan van der Walt for all their love. guidance and support. To the countless others to whom I owe a great debt of gratitude and have not mentioned here: I pass along a sincere thank you for your time. Prof Dr Watkins for his patience. support and the upbringing they gave me. ii . BA. resulted in stress at all levels due to the impact of the change initiative not only on the workplace but also in the private lives of people. and where one wishes to go. Stress in the workplace is detrimental to an organization when it comes to productivity. is the positive tension between where one is now. and has eight campuses and seven faculties. and is not necessarily ‘bad’. TUT is now the largest residential higher education institution in South Africa. iii . As a rule is a meaningful goal or project that taps into our talents and passion on a daily basis. Positive stress or ‘good stress’. Negative stress or ‘distress’. resenting the multiple pressures of life and feeling like a victim. at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT). Technikon North West and Technikon Northern Gauteng. Higher Education in SouthAfrica has seen extensive change in the past 10 years. is when a person hates his work. PDHIV/AIDS Management Magister Technologiae in Business Administration Tshwane University of Technology Faculty of Management Sciences Prof Dr J A Watkins 31 August 2007 The aim of this study is to identify and classify the stress experienced by staff members in the Faculty of Arts.ABSTRACT Author: Degree: University: Faculty: Promotor: Date: Gerbrecht Susanna Nortjé. With the merging of tertiary institutions whereby the former Technikons became Universities of Technology. performance standards and job satisfaction. Stress is a term we all are aware of. The Tshwane University of Technology was formed on 1 January 2004. when the following three Technikons merged: Technikon Pretoria. Organizations whose workers are stressed are also less likely to be successful in a competitive market. and make recommendations to mitigate the adverse impact thereof. The Faculty of Arts forming the object of this research. with a branch at the University’s Ga-Rankuwa Campus. The Faculty is also home to two performing arts theatres. namely the department of music which is situated at the Science Campus. iv . namely the Breytenbach and Rostrum. with six departments. which serve as both academic and commercial facilities for various Departments. The purpose of this study is to highlight the prevalence of stress. and the negative effect it has on the individual as well as the organisation. Fashion Design. while all the other departments are located at the Arts Campus in the Pretoria CBD. Film Studies housed at the Pretoria Campus. ABBREVIATIONS TUT EAP HIV AIDS - Tshwane University of Technology Employee Assistance Programme Humane Immune Virus Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome v . 1Research problem statement 1.2 2.2.2 1.11 1.9 1.5.7 1.1 2.8.TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT ABBREVIATIONS i ii iii v CHAPTER 1: SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY The Faculty of Arts 14 15 15 vi .12 CHAPTER AND CONTEXT ANALYSIS KEY RESEARCH OBJECTIVES SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH CONCLUSION 1 4 5 6 8 9 9 9 11 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 CHAPTER 2: THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY 2.10 1.5 THE RESEARCH QUESTION 1.1Limitations 1.4.6 1.8.1 1.8 THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY THE RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS RESEARCH CONSTRAINTS 1.3 1.4 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY THE RESEARCH PROCESS BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 1.2Delimitations 1.1 Investigative questions 1. 1.11 STRESS MANAGEMENT CONCLUSION CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH SURVEY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 4.2 4.3 3.6 3.3 INTRODUCTION RESEARCH APPROACH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DATA COLLECTION 50 50 50 51 51 vii .1.2 3.4 2.2.1.2 4.6 Environmental stressors 3.4 Bullying at work and workplace violence 3.8.4 3.9.1 4.1 Insecurity 3.1 4.1.1 STRESSORS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 3.8 INTRODUCTION WORK RELATED STRESS THE PHYSIOLOGY OF STRESS THE STRESS RESPONSE RECOGNIZING STRESS STRESS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES STRESS AND PERSONALITY BEHAVIOUR TYPES WORKPLACE STRESS 24 25 27 27 29 32 33 34 35 37 38 38 40 41 42 44 45 46 49 3.9.2.7 3.9.9.3 Support at work 3.3 2.5 Work-life balance 3.1 3.9 STRESS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 3.9.1.1 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF WORKPLACE STRESS 3.5 THE IMPACT OF THE MERGER ON TUT EMPLOYEES THE IMPACT OF THE MERGER ON THE FACULTY OF ARTS CONCLUSION 20 22 22 CHAPTER 3: THE CONCEPTS OF STRESS: A LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1.2 Workload and other job demands 3.10 3.2.9.9.5 3. 10 PERSONAL REFLECTION CONCLUSION viii .3.5 4.4 6.2 5.3 6.1 5.6 INTRODUCTION SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SECTION B: LIFE EVENTS SECTION C: IDENTIFYING STRESS AT WORK SECTION D: WORK-LIFE BALANCE CONCLUSION 60 60 64 67 74 77 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 6.9 6.4 4.5 6.3 5.2 4.7 6.1 4.2 INTRODUCTION THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 79 79 80 80 81 82 82 6.3.3.4 4.3.4.6 6.6 LITERATURE STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE THE TARGET POPULATION THE CHOICE OF SAMPLING METHOD MEASUREMENT SCALES LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH CONCLUSION 51 52 57 58 58 59 59 CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 5.8 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM RE-VISITED THE RESEARCH QUESTION RE-VISITED THE INVESTIGATIVE QUESTIONS RE-VISITED KEY RESEARCH FINDINGS RECOMMENDATIONS KEY RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH 83 84 84 6.5 5.1 6.4 5.3 4. 2: Table 3.1: Table 2.2: Table 3.BIBLIOGRAPHY 85 LIST OF FIGUERES Figure 2.3: Gender distribution of permanent staff members Distribution of academic and non-academic staff members The main factors that lead to stress and affect productivity Symptoms of Stress The four phases of stress 19 19 26 30 31 ix .1: Structure of the Faculty of Arts 18 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Table 3. x . This definition can be broken down into three interrelated dimensions. “…an adaptive response. Robbins (2001:563) defines stress as. Work stress has been 1 . can result in fatigue. “…emotional or physical strain or tension”. namely: Environmental demands. Stress can also be explained as the result of any emotional. 2003:20). Distress. mediated by individual characteristics and/or psychological processes. physical.CHAPTER 1 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH 1. the clinical and the organization. situation or event that places special physical and/or psychological demands upon a person”. social. Kinicki & Buelens (1999:503) define stress as. sometimes referred to as ‘challenge’ or ‘positive stress’ (eustress). As a result. constraint or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important”. Work stress and other psychosocial factors are recognized worldwide as a major challenge to workers’ health and the health of organizations. Kreitner. burntout and in the worst scenario. namely: medical. which is either too little stress that creates boredom and apathy. that is a consequence of any external action. or other factors that require a response or change. economic. “…a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity. health problems. referred to as ‘stressors’. or too much stress. Healthy pressure stimulates and energizes human beings and promotes motivation and creativity.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND The Collins English Dictionary (2000:1517) defines stress as. stress can be viewed from three different viewpoints. the It is generally believed that some stress is acceptable. An adaptive response. destructive and uncontrolled rage (Vinassa. Individual differences. 2002:7). including financial or family problems.7 billion. the cost of stress at work and the related mental health problems were estimated to be on average between 3% and 4% of gross national product. mental disorders were the main cause of incapacity (32%). less productive and less safe to work with at work. higher staff turnover and reduced ability to innovate.5 million working days each year in the United Kingdom.6 million a year” (WHO European Ministerial Conference on Medical Health. In this research study. Studies estimate that work-related stress alone costs the businesses and governments of those countries about €20 billion in absenteeism and related health costs. The total cost of sick leave to Sweden in 1999 was €2. the World Health 2 . 68% confirmed that they had to work very fast and 60% never had enough time to finish their work. 14% of the 15 000 workers on long term sick leave said the reason was stress and mental strain. poorly motivated. in addition to the price of lower productivity. Workers who are stressed are more likely to be unhealthy. as well as organizations’ effectiveness. The healthcare expenditure in the USA are nearly 50% greater for workers who report high levels of stress at work (KortumMargot. 2005:2). In the Netherlands in 1998. “…In the 15 Member States of the pre-2004 EU. costing employers around €571 million and society as a whole as much as €5. In the USA. problems at work seem to be more strongly associated with health complaints than any other life stressor.7 billion.proved to adversely impact on individuals’ psychological and physical health. In Sweden during 1999. Stress-related disease is responsible for the loss of 6. amounting to €265 billion annually. one in five workers was ‘extremely’ or ‘very’ stressed as a result of occupational influence. In 1992. the term “stress” will be referred to as ‘distress’. Organizations whose workers are stressed are also less likely to be successful in a competitive market. and the cost of work-related psychological illness is estimated to be €2. In the United Kingdom during 2000. a United Nations Report entitled “job stress the 20th Century Disease” emphasised the severity of the concept and a few years later. Of the respondents to a survey. low organizational commitment) are attributed to stress. A study executed in 2004. recession.Organization declared that stress had become a ‘world wide epidemic’. family issues and the technological revolution. 3 . at the University of Luton and the University of Leeds on stress and work-life balance in academic and academic related employees in the UK. The South African work environment is more challenging and complex than ever before. A 1998 study reported that rapid changes in the workforce had resulted in a staggering unemployment rate of 10% in the European Union and higher rates of job stress complaints. Challenges such as diseases. Stough. It may also be the reason why most companies overlook the importance of a holistic stress management program. etc. increased alcohol abuse. HIV&AIDS. depression. are challenges that neither employees nor employers have anticipated. Dua & Hapuararchchi.). but all play an intrinsic role in the wellness of staff and the productivity of the work-force. 2002:10). it is not always clear what forms of harm are caused by psychosocial hazards. At one extreme it may be psychiatric illness but at the other. as well as a wide range of psychosomatic symptoms (headaches. Gillespie. While most physical hazards have clear tangent planes to physical injury. 2004:Online). A key finding of a national survey conducted in 2002 on occupational stress in Australian Universities is that approximately 50% of Australian University staff taking part in the survey were at risk of psychological illness. sleeplessness. Japan had a similar problem as a result of a major and prolonged Research from across the globe indicates that the phenomenon of occupational stress in universities is widespread and increasing exponentially. irritability) or affective states (poor job satisfaction. substance abuse. compared with only 19% of the Australian population overall (Winefield. diagnosed illness or symptoms. physical and mental illness. stress. found that 69% indicating that they experience high levels of job stress (Kinman & Jones. a wide range of moods (anxiety. TUT is now the largest residential higher education institution in South Africa. Nelspruit. combined with life events in the life of staff members. and the devastating effect of HIV & AIDS. which are frequently debated and researched. The Tshwane University of Technology Technikon Northern (TUT) was formed by the merging of three Technikons: Gauteng. Soshanguve and Ga-Rankuwa. Witbank. increased workloads. These workplace stressors. Grootboom and Tokota (2005:913) the pressure of change. unemployment. TUT has seven faculties. and former Technikons becoming Universities of Technology. Technikon Northern Gauteng and Technikon North West. Economics & Finance. Technikon North-West and Technikon Pretoria. created major changes and uncertainty. the modularisation of courses. tended to become stressors and taking their toll on many tertiary staff. can impede their professional growth. as well as challenges such as financial constraints. Occupational stress in higher education is a worldwide problem. physical and psychological health. for a number of reasons is for many a stressful country to live and work in. Arts. the changing socio-political landscape. Polokwane. namely Arts. changes in student demographics and students’ levels of preparedness. Both can be seen as stressors. Furthermore. This can be attributed to the high crime rate. De Jager. the information and technological revolution. Higher education in South Africa has seen extensive change in the past decade. with 44 013 students registered for 2007. The two main changes were the merging of many institutions. changes in management styles and structures and the merging of institutions.South Africa. Two major changes which have occurred is the merging of various institutions and the second being the former Technikons becoming Universities of Technologies.2 THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY On 1 January 2004 the Higher Education landscape in South Africa changed. TUT has eight campuses: Pretoria West. Arcadia. The merging of the Technikon Pretoria. Engineering & Built 4 . 1. retrenchments. global changes in the 21st Century have brought major changes and challenges to higher education. According to Olivier. work wellness. Definition of the research problem. there are six fundamental stages in the research process. The Faculty of Arts was founded in 1921. School of Music. as a school of fine art. Collection of the research data. Fine & Applied Arts. Photography. & Hussey. 5 . Money and Swartz (2002: 64 – 65). Williams. Collecting evidence. Management Sciences and Science. Establishing the methodology. Reviewing the literature. Producing management guidelines or recommendations. Fashion Design & Technology. Developing conclusions.3 THE RESEARCH PROCESS Remenyi. Writing up of the dissertation or thesis. Textile Design. (1997: 15). R. Understanding the limitations of the research. The Faculty of Arts has the following departments: Vocal Art. namely: The identification of the research topic. Determining how the research is going to be conducted. Analysis and interpretation of the research data. Dance & Musical Theatre. and Entertainment Technology. Humanities. the following research process will be followed: The identification of the research topic.Environment. Drama. J. Graphic Design. According to Hussey. namely: Reviewing the literature. Interior Design & Multimedia. Formalising a research question. Analysing the evidence. 1. explain the research process as consisting of eight specific phases. Motion Picture Academy. To date it has grown into one of Southern Africa’s most highly regarded academies in the creative industry. Information and Communication Technology. In this research. the programme then was an in-house programme. ‘emove’. Excellence: The Directorate of Human Resources fully acknowledges its role in contributing towards the overall strategic goal of excellence on a macro level as well as on a micro level dealing with the daily operations of the Human Resources function. interest. Emotions such as joy. accountability and interaction with all its customers. contempt. that stress is ‘an emotion’. Du Plessis & Potgieter (2000:34) explain that the word emotion originates from the Latin word. anger. The Employee Assistance Program (EAP). surprise. Developing conclusions. Collecting evidence. disgust and shame is generally accepted as the core or primary emotions. desire. started in 2001 at the former Technikon Pretoria under the auspices of the researcher. physiological need or similar impulse that acts as an incitement to actions”. “…an emotion. Caring: The Employee Assistance Programme places the caring principle high on the agenda within the Directorate of Human Resources. 6 . which means ‘to move out’. “…emotions represent a release of energy that leads to actions or reactions”. Analysing the evidence. Valuing diversity: The diverse nature of the workforce is promoted as being on the organizations strengths through the Employment Equity process.Formalising a research question.4 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM Everyone is at the same risk of work-related stress for the simple reason. The researcher has been employed as a Senior Employee Assistance Practioner in the Department of Human Resources of TUT. Determining how the research is going to be conducted. The EAP function falls under the auspices of the Directorate of Human Resources. distress. Hattingh (2003:143) noted that. fear. The Human Resources department has the following values: Professionalism: In respect to its conduct. (E)motive is then described as. 1. Establishing the methodology. problem children. etc. Alcohol abuse. spouse retrenchment. High-rate of death among staff members. hi-jackings. Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease. heart diseases. cancers. Depressive Episodes. Critical incidents experienced by the staff members such as: rape. Major depression.Typical issues being dealt with. violent death of co-workers. etc. Other Hypothyroidism. bi-polar disorders. Gout. The aspects listed above maps to the findings of the Discovery Health Corporate Health Review (Fourth Dimension Health & IFG Africa Healthcare Consultants 2005/2006). which indicated that the chronic conditions for which principal members younger than 65 are most commonly registered for are: Essential (primary) hypertension. Various health problems that are stress related. Complaints about the ergonomics of TUT. Sexual harassment. 7 . within the ambit of the Employee Assistance Programme. Threat to kill a supervisor. Suicide and suicide attempts. the following: Physical assault in the workplace. Asthma. Disorders of lipoprotein metabolism and other lipidaemias. Emotional abuse. Chronic ischaemic heart disease. Family-problems such as: divorces. Menopausal and other peri-menopausal disorders. Applications for medical disability that vary from depression. Non-Insulin dependant diabetes mellitus. “…in professional circles. has identified four key sources of stress responsible for the bulk of the emotional problems they encounter: The perpetual pressure for change and reorganization in the workplace. also in the Tshwane University of Technology. 1. ICAS (Independent Counselling and Advisory Services) of South Africa. and chronic ischemic heart disease and gastro-oesophageal reflux diseases are all stress related. depressive episodes. HIV&AIDS is not listed in the Discovery Corporate Health review. according to Vinassa (2003:20). adversely impacting on employee well being”. to attempting to burn the candle at both ends. Covey (2004:336) mentioned that. must be taken in consideration. to insufficient rest and relaxation. The fact that principal members are staff members and not the dependants.For confidentiality reasons. and many other abuses of the body”. to smoking.1 Research problem statement Against the above background the research problem for this research study reads as follows: “Unacceptable high levels of stress in the Faculty of Arts at TUT. These choices relate to nutrition. Research has shown that hypertension. From the above. the analogy can be drawn that in all spheres of life stress is evident. non-insulin dependant diabetes mellitus.4. it is widely accepted that at least two-thirds of all diseases are caused by lifestyle choices that people make. Critical incidents such as crime and natural disasters. 8 . disorders of lipoprotein metabolism. Family-related problems. Interpersonal relationships between workers. to its conclusions”. Some of the more salient aspects of case study research described by Yin are listed below for ease of reference: A case study is an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context. 1. classified and ultimately mitigated”? 1.6. A case study illuminates a decision or set of decisions – why they were taken. Case study research will serve as the primary research method.1.1 Investigative questions In support of the research question. but also to understand them in a particular context. how they were implemented.5. Case study research aims not only to explore certain phenomena. and likely to be used in case study research. The case study as a research strategy comprises an all-encompassing method – with the logic of design incorporating specific approaches to data collection and 9 . and with what result. THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Yin (1994:19) define a research design as. the following investigative questions will be researched: Can it be determined whether the staff members at the Faculty of Arts experience stress and furthermore which types of stress are most common? Can practical stress management techniques be implemented to address stress as experienced by staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT.5 THE RESEARCH QUESTION The research question forming the crux of the research reads as follows: “Can the type of stress experienced by staff members at the Faculty of Arts be identified. especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. ‘How’ and ‘why’ questions are explanatory. “… the logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a study’s initial research question and ultimately. which may be both qualitative and quantitative. Linking data to propositions: A number of ways are open to students to link data to propositions. Yin (1994:20 – 27). case studies are often described as exploratory research used in areas where there are few theories or a deficient body of knowledge. 10 For greater clarity. In addition. Experimental case studies: Where the research examines the difficulties in implementing new procedures and techniques in an organisation and evaluating the benefits. (1997:66). Case study research uses multiple methods for collecting data. which calls for the initial task being to clarify precisely the nature of the study questions.data analysis. R. the . Unit of analysis: Should the case study involve a specific person being studied. emphasises the following five components of a research design. ‘reason for the study’. According to Hussey. Study propositions: A study proposition directs the attention to something that should be examined within the scope of the study. say a person with a rare medical problem. proposition points to the. the following types of case studies can be identified: Descriptive case studies: Where the objective is restricted to describing current practice. J. Explanatory case studies: Where existing theory is used to understand and explain what is happening. which are especially important for case studies: Study questions: The case study is most likely to be appropriate for ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions. the individual being studied is the primary unit of analysis. An approach suggested by Yin is that of ‘pattern matching’. Illustrative case studies: Where the research attempts to illustrate new and possibly innovative practices adopted by particular companies. A case study is typically used when contextual conditions are the subject of research. The tentative definition of the unit of analysis is related to the way in which the initial research questions were formulated. the case study is not either a data collection tactic or merely a design feature alone. but ‘a comprehensive research strategy’. and Hussey. In this sense. and in that case it is difficult to know how true or reliable the answers are.1 LIMITATIONS The quantity and quality of information to be gleaned from the survey questionnaires will depend on the willingness of the respondents to cooperate.whereby several pieces of information from the same case may be related to some theoretical proposition. They may not have the knowledge or even an opinion on the topic of concern. Non-co-operation could point to the following: People fail to see any value in participating. They may view the topic as too sensitive and the questionnaire as potentially embarrassing or intrusive.8. 11 . 1. 1.7 RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS The researcher assumes that: There are high levels of stress at TUT. Staffs in the Faculty of Arts at TUT are familiar with the term ‘stress’. 1. Criteria for interpreting findings: If the different ‘patterns’ are sufficiently contrasting. They may fear the ‘interview/questionnaire’ experience for some personal reasons. A respondent may interpret the question differently from what was intended by the researcher.2 DELIMITATIONS The scope of the research will be limited to the Faculty of Arts at TUT.8. A respondent may feel obliged to give an opinion.8 RESEARCH CONSTRAINTS 1. the findings can be interpreted in terms of comparing at least two rival propositions. The chapter will be concluded with recommendations which will mitigate the research problem and provide an answer to the research question. the research design and methodology to be followed in this study for data collection are elaborated upon.1. Chapter 5 . To identify the causes of stress as experienced by the staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT.10 KEY RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The key research objectives with this research study are: To determine whether the staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT experience stress. the statistical analysis of the results gleaned from chapter 4 will be analysed and interpreted. 12 . Chapter 6 .Interpretation of results: In this chapter. as well as of the Faculty of Arts.Scope of the research: Provides a holistic background to be conducted within the ambit of this dissertation. Related statistics regarding staff members and students are also provided. To identify practical stress management techniques that could mitigate the primary research problem.TUT – a Holistic perspective: In this chapter a holistic overview of the Tshwane University of Technology will be provided. 1.Data collection design and methodology: In this chapter.Conclusion: In this chapter.9 CHAPTERS AND CONTEXT ANALYSIS The following chapter content analysis will pertain to this research study: Chapter 1. Chapter 4 . the research is concluded and final analogies drawn. Chapter 3 – Concept of ‘Stress’ – A literature review: A literature review is conducted that focus on stress. Attention is given to stress related issues and stress management techniques which have been used to manage stress effectively. Chapter 2 . Should the recommendations made in this dissertation be acceptable. it would have the potential to facilitate a relatively stress free working environment in a highly stress orientated environment.11 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH The significance of this research stems from the fact that: This research is the first research executed on stress at the TUT after the merger. Furthermore. 13 . a holistic perspective will be provided of the on the Tshwane University of Technology. with specific focus on the Faculty of Arts. a holistic perspective has been provided of the issues pertaining to the research environment. 1. the research problem and associated research question were elaborated upon. the research design and methodology was explained and the chapter concluded with a chapter and content analysis and key research objectives.12 CONCLUSION In this chapter. In Chapter 2. The research process.1. CHAPTER 2 THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY – A HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE 2.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND South Africa’s entire educational system, from primary schools to tertiary institutions, is in the process of being redesigned for the post-apartheid future. The key challenges facing the South African higher education system remain as outlined in the White Paper, “… to redress past inequalities and to transform the higher education system to serve a new social order, to meet pressing national needs, and to respond to new realities and opportunities (South Africa: 1997a). More specifically, as the White Paper indicates, the role of higher education in a knowledge-driven world is three fold: Human resource development: The mobilisation of human talent and potential through lifelong learning to contribute to the social, economic, cultural and intellectual life of a rapidly changing society. High-level skills training: The training and provision of person power to strengthen this country’s enterprises, services and infrastructure. This requires the development of professionals and knowledge workers with globally equivalent skills, but who are socially responsible and conscious of their role in contributing to the national development effort and social transformation. Production, acquisition and application of knew knowledge: National growth and competitiveness is dependent on continuous technological improvement and innovation, driven by a well-organised, vibrant research and development system. This integrates the research and training capacity of higher education with the needs of industry and of social reconstruction (South Africa: 1997a). Higher education in South Africa has seen extensive change in the past decade, in response to two main challenges. First the need to address the inequalities as a result 14 of the apartheid legacy, and second to ensure that the higher education system is able to meet the challenges of the 21st century in the context of a globalizing world. 2.2 THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY On 1 January 2004, the Higher Education landscape in South Africa changed. The two main changes were first the merging of a number of institutions, and secondly the former Technikons which became Universities of Technology. The Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) was established on 1 January 2004, in terms of a Government Notice No 25737, published in the Government Gazette on 14 November 2003, relating to a provision in the Higher Education Act, 1997 (Act No 101 of 1997), which reads as follows: “… I, Professor Kader Asmal, MP, Minister of Education, in accordance with section 23(1) of the Higher Education Act, 1997 (Act 101 of 1997), and after consulting the Council of Higher Education, hereby merge the Technikon Northern Gauteng, Technikon North West and Technikon Pretoria into a single public Higher Education Institution” (South Africa:2003). TUT is now the largest residential higher education institution in South Africa, with 44 013 students registered for 2007. TUT have eight campuses, namely: Pretoria West, Arts, Arcadia, Witbank, Nelspruit, Polokwane, Soshanguve and Ga-Rankuwa. TUT have seven faculties, namely Arts, Economics & Finance, Engineering & Built Environment, Humanities, Information and Communication Technology, Management Sciences and Science. 2.2.1 The Faculty of Arts The Faculty of Arts was founded in 1921, as a school of fine art. Today it has grown into one of South Africa’s most highly regarded academies in the creative industry. The faculty consists of the following six departments: Drama and Film Studies, Entertainment technology, Performing Arts, Fashion Design and Technology, Fine and Applied Arts, and Visual Communication. 15 The Faculty of the Arts offers the following courses, namely Dance, Drama, Fashion Design, Fine and Applied Arts, Graphic Desigh, Interior Design, Jewellery Design and Manufacture, Film Studies, Multimedia, Music, Musical Theatre, Performing Arts Technology, Photography, Textile Design and Technology, Vocal Art and Art Administration. Qualifications offered in the Faculty are as follows: National Certificate (1 year); National Higher Certificate (2 year); National Diploma (3 years); Bachelor of Technology (4 years); Master of Technology (graduate research degree); Doctor of Technology (advanced graduate research degree). The prime purpose of the Faculty of Arts is to lead and sustain creativity and the creative process. To this end, it offers leading-edge programmes that prepare students for degrees and diplomas in the cultural sector. The vision of the Faculty of Arts is “… To be the leading Faculty of the Arts in South Africa and elsewhere in the world that: Promotes creativity, scholarship, knowledge and technology innovation in the cultural domain; Provides world-class education in the cultural sector; Encourages the dual role of culture in South Africa (that is, art for the sake of art, and culture-led social, economic and physical development) The mission of the Faculty of Arts is to enable and realise this vision. The faculty strives to: Empower students by harnessing and enhancing their creative and intellectual competence, at both under graduate and postgraduate levels. Empower Southern African societies by contributing to socio-economic development needs through the transfer of knowledge and technology to communities. Extend the boundaries of creativity, technology innovation and arts practice by making knowledge accessible and useful through strategic research programmes that are both practice-based and theory-driven. 16 To develop research and innovation incubators to create job opportunities. To improve quality assurance.Establish and sustain strategic alliances with academic and business partners. To improve the success rate of learners and the graduation rate. To develop at least one community project to create job opportunities. To increase partnerships to develop local economy. The strategic goals of the Faculty are as follows: To develop research and innovation capacity. The structure of the Faculty of Arts is graphically depicted in Figure 2. in both local and global contexts.1 17 . To develop quality plans to improve the quality of our offerings and products. The objectives of the Faculty are as follows: To improve staff development to do research. To develop community engagement. Motion Picture Academy Fashion Design and Technology Fashion Fine and Applied Arts Entertainment Technology Performing Arts Technology Fine and Applied Arts Jewellery Design Textile and Product Design Performing Arts Dance. Musical Theatre.1: Structure of the Faculty of Arts. (Source: Own Source) 18 . Vocal Art Visual Communication Graphic Design and New Media Interior Design Photography Figure 2.EXECUTIVE DEAN Breytenbach Theatre Research Project Manager Executive Secretary Faculty Administrative Officer Faculty Marketer Financial Officer / Campus Administrator / Procurement Officer Drama and Film Studies Drama. Jazz and Popular Music. The gender distribution of permanent staff members are reflected in Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2. TUT) Department Dean Arts Drama and Film Studies Entertainment Technology Fashion Design and Technology Fine and Applied Arts Graphic. Interior and Multimedia Performing Arts Visual Communication Total Academic 2 13 8 14 15 7 8 5 72 Non-Academic 6 6 2 2 5 2 1 0 22 Total 8 19 10 16 20 9 8 5 96 19 . Interior and Multimedia Performing Arts Visual Communication Total Male 4 8 4 6 9 2 9 4 46 Female 3 9 4 10 11 6 7 0 50 Total 7 17 8 16 20 8 16 4 96 The distribution of academic and non-academic staff members are reflected in Table 2.2: Distribution of academic and non-academic staff members (Source: ITS System. TUT) Department Dean: Arts Drama and Film Studies Entertainment Technology Fashion Design and Technology Fine and Applied Arts Graphic.1: Gender distribution of permanent staff members (Source: ITS System. The first impact that a merger has on the staff is paradigmatic change. technology. Employees have to learn to work with new colleagues. There are different forces of change in the workplace. as the merger causes change on all levels. or still in the process of been written.2. first-order change which is linear and continuous. There is however one key factor that needs to be taken in consideration when a merger occurs. Ireland and Hoskisson (2001:277) define a merger. It is people with different values and norms. however cultural compatibility has become the primary concern in mergers. Such emotional upheaval can be attributed to the following: Corridor politics: This refers to strong feelings of betrayal and abuse. new policies & procedures were written. economic shocks. discontinuous. e. the impact of mergers on staff in many cases. has been devastating for their emotional and professional lives of all staff.g. “…as a strategy through which two firms agree to integrate their operations on a relatively co-equal basis because they have resources and capabilities that together may create a stronger competitive advantage”. and that is ‘the people’ involved. On closer scrutiny. radical change involving reframing of assumption about the organization and the world in which it operates. Robbins (2001:542) distinguishes between. Furthermore. The third dramatic change was represented by the merger of three different organizational cultures. The researcher is of the opinion that TUT has undergone a second-order change. The use of rumour and myth-creation clearly contributes to the merger climate within the 20 . at all levels. characteristics that the organization values. Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations. Incompatibility of cultures cannot be put forward as a reason why many mergers fail. It implies no fundamental shifts in the assumptions that organizational members hold about the world or how the organization can improve its functioning. nature of the workforce. who are now placed in the same departments. Robbins describes second-order change as a multidimensional. A new management team was appointed.3 THE IMPACT OF THE MERGER ON TUT EMPLOYEES Hitt. it is a set of key According to Jansen (2003:44). competition. social trends and world politics. multilevel. including the media. and through representations directly to government. Boardroom politics: This refers to the active negotiation and securing of the position of one merger partner ahead of his/her competition during and after the merger process as a result of deliberate management actions. Mergers can often be traumatic for the employees of acquired firms. High levels of uncertainty have an increased level of anxiety. Issues which manifest as a result of mergers and acquisitions are changes in the human resources policies.institution. Vague performance measures. Skodvin (1999:68) is of the opinion that in a merger. stress and aggressiveness. “…the souls of the partners involved are also affected and they have to relate to the process of change”. Any type of change. but does not influence the final outcome of the merger. is uncertainty. Street politics: This refers to the active representation of staff politics within public spheres. campus organizations. downsizing. survivor syndromes and stress on the workers. Ill-defined decision processes. which manifests itself in greater nervousness. Kreitner et al. not only the governing systems of the impacted institutions are affected. the following: Reports in the press that the institution is technically bankrupt. Corridor politics however not alter the speed or outcome of the merger process. (1999:311) list the following as the five common sources of uncertainty within organizations: Unclear objectives. Street level politics displays aggression and threats. it simply generates frustration. 21 . and to very active micro-politics among staff and management. and staff members who worked for the last two months have not been paid. The second impact that the merger has on the staff members. and the impact can range from anger to depression. layoffs. Some of the factors which contributed to the uncertainty experience by staff members of TUT as a result of the merger. Strong individual or group competition. In addition. The researcher is of the opinion that the emotional stress and traumatic experience created by the merger. Out-sourcing of departments. the Faculty of Arts were analysed in terms of courses presented. 2. as well as other stressors in the workplace and life event stressors has a direct impact on the health and work performance of staff members at TUT. The match and place is a process in order to achieve the consolidation and integration of academic. and as a result. the latter forming 22 . Detail was provided on the impact of the merger on TUT employees. in line with the Institutional Operating Plan. and the chapter concluded with a discussion of the impact of the merger on the Faculty of Arts.5 CONCLUSION In this chapter a holistic perspective was provided of the merger status quo of the Tshwane University of Technology. with employees living in a state of fear of putting a foot wrong” (Page. The match and place process will have the reality of retrenchments. “…A retrenchment experience is so traumatic that the stress continues for months. as well as support structures. without the prescribed procedures. Job loss is one of the most devastating experiences second only to the death of a loved one. detail was provided on the entities’ structure and an analysis provided of the gender distribution and distribution of academic and non-academic staff. Due to this consolidation there will be fewer heads of departments and secretaries. its vision.The ‘match and place process’ which started. mission and objectives.4 THE IMPACT OF THE MERGER ON THE FACULTY OF ARTS On 6 November 2006 the Senate approved the consolidation of academic departments. Retrenchment has an emotional impact on the affected employee as well as on the remaining staff. 2001:15). The researcher is further of the opinion that the stress at TUT has reached unacceptable levels directly influencing the well being of staff adversely. several of the academic departments in the Faculty of Arts will be consolidated. 2. Furthermore. 23 . In the next chapter. a literature review will be conducted on the concept of ‘stress’.the focus of this research study. a poetry contest) inspire you to achieve”. work problems etc. its causes. Such as moving to a new house. from an organizational perspective and from an individual perspective. ‘life event stressors’ fall into the following categories: Unavoidable stress: Are stressors such as death. McCraty & Childre (2003:103) refer to stress as “…two simultaneous events: an external stimulus called a stressor. Stress can be defined from a health perspective. fast breathing.CHAPTER 3 THE CONCEPT OF STRESS: A LITERATURE REVIEW 3. A crisis that creates stress: Such as financial difficulties. and the emotional and physical responses to that stimulus (fear. Stress can derive from life events and according to Looker & Gregson (2003:93). marital problems. anxiety. extreme fearfulness. symptoms and effects is a very complex matter. Furthermore. and so on). Stress was the object of study in early clinical research. surging heart rate and blood pressure. Psychotic behaviour. 1998:416). The emotional breakdown of men in military combat was studied in clinical research in the early 1949’s. Good stressors (a ski run. shock reactions to civilian disasters were also studied in early research as well as living in chronically stressful situations for prolonged periods. Events that require some adjustments: children starting school etc. defining stress. illness. injury etc. anxiety. ulcers and hypertension were found to result from this stressful experience. resulting in a symptomatic pattern in the likes of combat fatigue being observed (Berry. known as ‘combat fatigue’. muscle tension. Cryer. 24 .1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND While stress is readily acknowledged to be a common occurrence of modern life. habitual negativity. Psychological stress: Is the result of our attitudes. Workers who are stressed are more likely to be unhealthy.Positive stress (eustress): Is healthy pressure that stimulates and energizes us and promotes motivation and creativity. change within the organisation or any of the plethoras of aspects which could induce stress in a work environment. Work stress could adversely impact an individuals’ psychological and physical state. With increasing of work pressures as a result of competitiveness. Vermeulen (2001:50) explains that. poor ethics and supervision and a dislike for their 25 . emotions and reactions such as depression. Anxiety deals with imagined or unreal dangers. negative event”.2 WORK RELATED STRESS Research on work related stress started in the late 1960’s. financial difficulties. workloads. It causes physical Vermeulen further distinguish discomfort such as headaches. ulcers. The organizations are less likely to be successful in a competitive market. Furthermore. poorly motivated. stress at work and other psychosocial factors are now major occupational health concerns. Because stress includes both fear and anxiety. Lee (2006:3) cites the Kelly 2006 Human Capital Survey. between three types of stress. can be defined as. “… the feeling that results from the desire to terminate. Employees attribute the major causes of work related stress to inadequate skills. which found that stress and productivity appears to be more of an issue for employees than in their 2003 survey. “…stress is anything that causes us to feel we are losing control”. namely: Physical stress: Is the stress a human body can feel. Psychosocial stress: Involves the stressors that arise from interpersonal relationships and inadequate or inappropriate social interactions such as aggression. escape from or avoid real or imagined. 3. lack of concentration and low creativity. less productive and less safe at work. Fear deals with ‘actual’ or ‘threatened’ dangers. stress according to Vermeulen (2001:50). current or imminent. It includes anxiety and fear. work stress is recognized worldwide as a major challenge to workers’ health and the health of their organizations. sleeplessness or pain of muscles and organs. and relationships with co-workers are less contributory to causing stress. returned that the following rates as the top ten issues with which managers around the globe are grappling. On average. Managing time and stress. The main factors that lead to stress and affect productivity are reflected in Table 3. The University of Michigan Business School Pressing Problems Survey 2001. Team building. 2006:3) Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cause of stress Workloads too high or low Employees lack skills Personal finance Poor supervision Health problems Personal relationships Job too complex % 90 86 78 73 70 70 69 Work/life issues (household chores. Table 3. Making individual decisions. Self awareness. Managing conflict. research has shown that employers lose around eleven days per employee annually on stress related issues.1. Setting goals. Motivating others. defining and solving problems. Recognizing. personal relationships). which invariably causes work related stress: Verbal communication and listening skills. parenting stress.daily tasks. 26 . Delegating.1 The main factors that lead to stress and affect productivity are: (Source: Lee. ‘a non-specific or generalized bodily response. whether it is an environmental condition that we must survive. who originally conducted research on the body’s response to stressors. 3. the irritation of noise.3 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF STRESS According to Berry (1998:418) Hans Selye an important theorist and pioneer. ‘the physiological reaction’. the frustrations of traffic jams. it is evident that stress is a concern for both employees and managers. which is the body’s response to negative events and ‘eustress’. crime. emphasizing that both positive and negative stress can constitute to physiological stress or reaction in the body.From the Kelly’s 2006 Human Capital Survey (Lee.4 THE STRESS RESPONSE The body’s stress response consists of a predictable. three-stage pattern of physiological responses. the throes of poverty. 3. non-specific. or a demand that is being made in order to accomplish a personal goal. threestage physiological responses are elaborated upon below: 27 .Online). changes in the workplace etc. Selye also distinguished between two forms of stress. From the results of the survey. This response results when any demand is made on the body. defined stress in physiological terms as. The predictable non-specific. which is the body’s response to positive stress. Cannon also introduced the term ‘fight or flight’. 2006:3) and the University of Michigan Business School Pressing Problems Survey 2001. the obvious analogy can be drawn that employers cannot afford to ignore stress in the workplace. which is caused by the perception of aversive or threatening situation. the predators’ now manifest in a new form. namely that of: Pressures of deadlines. as explained in the SOLVE Directors Course program of the International Labour Office (2004. Ironically. referring to the response which prepares one to cope with the threats posed by a predator. Walter Cannon was the first person who used the term stress to refer to. namely ‘distress’. while the world has changed significantly with no real world predatory threats. If the stressor persists. The adaptive/resistance stage: Represents the stage during which the body may return to its pre-excited state and recovers from the physiological strains of the alarm stage.The alarm stage: It is the ‘fight or flight’ response that prepares a person to meet a challenge or threat. intestinal movement (digestion). the body is susceptible to illness or in extreme cases. 28 . Localized inflammation (redness. the individual reaches a new level of adaptation as the internal organs mount a sustained resistance. poor productivity. faster heartbeat. with a set of automatic responses to deal with stress. A decrease in protein synthesis. heat and pain). With its resources severely depleted. immune and allergic response systems.. swelling. once the stressors are eliminated. If the stressor is not eliminated. The signs and symptoms that are characteristic of the alarm reaction virtually disappear. absenteeism. The human body's ‘pre-programmed’ response to stress is termed the ‘generalized stress response’ and includes: • • • An increased blood pressure level. Our bodies are designed. faster respiration). The problem is that the human body deals with all types of stress in the same way. death. but it does not get the opportunity to ‘de-activate’ the system. Increased stomach acids. tardiness etc. • • • • • Increased cholesterol and fatty acids in blood for energy production systems. The exhaustion stage: Often termed ‘burn out’. is a reaction to the constant high metabolic demands of an extended alarm stage. This system is very effective for the alarm stage or ‘fight or flight’ responses one needs when faced with an immediate danger.g. Increased metabolism (e. which may be evidenced by social withdrawal. Experiencing stress for long periods of time (such as lower level but constant stressors at work) will ‘activate’ this system. Faster blood clotting. Increased production of blood sugar for energy. the person enters into a mode of energy conservation. 3. as reflected in Table 3.5 RECOGNIZING STRESS More often than not. which may vary from mild to moderate or severe. humans do not recognise that they are stressed.2 below. is that the person should acknowledge the possibility that he or she can become stressed. 29 . The second step is to be aware of the signs and symptoms of stress. The first step in recognizing when a person is stressed. Fainting. Anger. Disturbed thinking. hair pulling. Visual difficulties. nail biting. Emotional outburst.3 30 . the identification thereof (signs/symptoms) and associated remedial action are depicted in Table 3. Loss of interest in previously pleasurable activities. teeth grinding. Suspiciousness. Deterioration on performance effectiveness. Difficulty making decisions. Hearing difficulties. Increased of decreased awareness of one’s surroundings. 2004: Online) Physical signs and symptoms of stress • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Rapid heart rate. Inappropriate emotional response. Poor abstract thinking. Denial. Loss of time. Depression. Blaming other persons. Change in usual style of communication. Sever panic. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • The four ‘fases of stress’. place or person orientation. Muscle twitching.. Chest pain. Substance use (e.). Hopelessness. etc. Elevated blood pressure. Loss of selfconfidence. Accident proneness. Difficulty breathing. Inappropriate use of humour. Nervous mannerisms (e. Feeling overwhelmed. Antisocial behaviour. Erratic movements. Anxiety. etc. Uncertainty.Table 3. Nausea and/or vomiting. Memory impairment. Racing thoughts.g. Difficulty identifying familiar objects or people.. foot tapping. Agitation. caffeine. Behavioural signs and symptoms of stress • • • • • Change in activity level.). Thirst. Emotional signs and symptoms of stress • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Apprehension. Increased perspiration Headaches.2 Symptoms of Stress (Source: ILO: SOLVE Course Directors. hand wringing.g. alcohol. Fear. Fatigue. Dizziness. Grinding teeth. Irritability. Grief. Tremor. Cognitive signs and symptoms of stress • • • • Poor concentration. Sleep disturbances. Hyper arousal. Emotional shock. nicotine. Guilt. Change in eating habits. Inability to manage personal life.Table 3. smoking. Early warning signs are often more emotional than physical and may take a year or more before they are noticeable. Muscle tremors. Intense anxiety. Uncontrolled anger. 1999: Online) Phase Phase 1 . Phase 4 – Severe/ Debilitating Cumulative Stress Reaction This phase is often considered ‘selfdestructive’ and tends to occur after 5 to10 years of continued stress. physical signs may also be evident. Crying spells. Agitation. Restlessness. Sleeplessness. Withdrawal from contact with others. Stress starts to create a deeper impact on career. Irritability. Action • • • • Talking about feelings Taking a vacation. Emotional fatigue. Physical and emotional fatigue. grief. Boredom. Asthma. Intensified depression. Phase 2 .Mild Symptoms Warning signs have progressed and intensified. Depression. Taking time for yourself. B. Inability to perform one's job. Suicidal or homicidal thinking. Carelessness. family life and personal wellbeing. Lowered self-esteem/self-confidence. rage. Withdrawal. Loss of sex drive. Depression. Over-reaction to minor events. Muscle aches. Short-term counselling. Phase 3 . Withdrawal. Making a change from regular activities. Paranoia. Intensified physical and emotional fatigue. Rigid thinking. Frequent accidents. Extreme chronic fatigue. forgetfulness. The help of medical and psychological professionals is highly recommended.Warning Signs/Symptoms • • • • • Feelings of vague anxiety. Over a period of 6 to 18 months. • • More aggressive lifestyle changes may be needed.3: The four phases of stress: (Source: Anschuetz. Heart conditions. Severe depression. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Careers end prematurely. nonprescription drugs. Marital discord. • • • • • • • Sleep disturbances. Ulcers. Significant intervention professionals. from 31 .Entrenched Cumulative Stress This phase occurs when the above phases continue to be ignored.L. More frequent headaches/colds. Apathy. • • • • • • • • • • • • Increased use of alcohol. particularly during stressful situations. heart disease and diabetes. Dealing with difficult situations by following a rule of reason. law-and-order.g. Focused on well-defined criteria and specific results. resulting in the two sexes experiencing stress differently. Males and females as a group reflect differently on stressful situations as listed below: Males as a group reflect: Feeling ‘in touch’ with self when working according to plans and following rules. orderly and organized approach. Furthermore. A study done by Van Rooyen (2006:5) identified differences in how males and females would tend to experience and deal with. boys are taught ‘cowboys don’t cry’. Sociable and interpersonally comfortable. The results indicated that differences in behaviour preferences related to the following two personality components: Emotional self-awareness: Involves awareness and understanding of how and why the individual feels as he or she does when dealing with stressful issues.6 STRESS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Gender represents an individual difference. males and females are taught to behave differently and to have different expectations in life. stressful challenges. whereas men tend to develop physiological or physical stress response. such as high blood pressure. “… women tend to develop psychological stress responses such as depression and fatigue. Sulsky & Smith (2005:163) report that. Self-regard: Reflects general feelings of inner security. which can distinguish how people perceive and respond to stress. self-confidence and selfrespect. Focused on regulating own behaviour to the positive regard and cooperation of others. e. The fact that female and male children are raised differently. It contributes to positive feelings of personal identity. 32 .3. The different types of personalities can be categorised as follows: Type A behaviour personalities: Type A personality behaviours can be described as being alert and ambitious (Berry. Coopers & Payne (1978:134) referred to it as. Placing emphasis on rules and regulations when experiencing stressful situations.1998:436). describe Type B personalities as easygoing people. “…coronary-prone behaviour pattern”. Focused on creating a good impression and regulating their own behaviour to retain goodwill and cooperation from others. Cognition and personality are the most important variables in describing who is likely to be stressed and who is not. (1975) as cited by Berry (1998:438). an obsession with competition (Pines & Aronson. The study of different type behaviours began when medical researchers Friedman and Rosenham who saw a clear tangent planes between certain behaviour in patients and the development of coronary heart disease. Several studies show that Type A behaviour personalities are more prone to heart disease (Sulsky & Smith. Type B behaviour personalities: Rosenman et al.7 STRESS AND PERSONALITY BEHAVIOUR TYPES Most people are aware that stress is present and have an impact. allowing them to be socially involved and to prove their own worth and competence. Comfortable when engaging with a wide variety of people and being approached for information and expert knowledge. 2005:167). a tendency that everything is urgent (Cooper & Payne. who run their lifes 33 . 3. however not everyone responds to stress in the same way. 1978:135) and. 1988:77). Focused on conveying a sense of confidence and defending themselves in a non-destructive manner.Females as a group reflect: Feeling ‘in touch’ with self in situations. resources. “… a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity. 2000:2) proposed that all individuals have basic sets of needs they strive to fulfil. work environments and work organizations. Internal locus of control: People who exhibit an internal locus of control believe that they can influence their circumstances to make a difference. and are less likely to develop heart disease. Type B personalities view competitive situations as threats to their selfesteem. Furthermore. the cognitive. These principles are integrity. and accept responsibility for their own situations. In the context of organizational behaviour. humility. (European Commission. Pines & Aronson (1988:70) describe Type B personalities as. 2004:Online) stress at work can lead to poor health and even injury. Covey (1989:18) referred to them as. fidelity. according to the International Labour Office (ILO. They do not blame others when things go wrong. 3. “… people who have learned and integrate the principles of ‘Character Ethic’. 2002:Online). patience and modesty”. “… the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities. 34 .in a less frantic manner than Type A. They focus on the positive elements in situations. less ambitious and competitive. decisions and behaviour. temperance. Robbins (2001:563) defines stress as. an individual strives to fulfil these needs in a work setting over an extended period of time. courage. Job stress can be defined as. constraint or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important”.8 WORKPLACE STRESS Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory (Maslow. It is a state characterized by high levels of arousal and distress and often by feelings of not coping. more relaxed. rather than on the negative ones. or needs of the worker”. There are a plethora of definitions which can be associated with ‘workplace stress’. behavioural and physiological reaction to aversive and noxious aspects of work. In addition. but their work performance is generally as good as Type A. justice. purpose. organizational culture and home work interface. stressors are the conditions that precede and bring stress. These aspects of work have the potential for causing harm and are therefore termed ‘stress-related hazards’. meaningless tasks. From an organizational stress perspective. which calls for closer scruitiny: Work content • • • • Monotonous. working hours. and where there is little support from others. status and pay. under-stimulating. satisfaction. Aversive tasks. namely individual. Research findings show that the most stressful type of work is that which places excessive demands and pressure on the worker. As discussed previously. Kreitner et. Griffiths and Cox (2003:6-7) identified nine categories of stress-related hazards.8. work is a significant and meaningful feature of life with the majority spending around 25% of their adult lives working. demands and pressures that are perceived to be incurred from the work environment.al (1999:506) define the concept of ‘stressor’. as a prerequisite to experiencing the stress response.The author came to the conclusion that work stress is the strains. where there is little opportunity to exercise any choice or control over. interpersonal relationship. work load and work pace. organizational and extraorganizational. there are four major types of stressors.1 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF WORKPLACE STRESS For most people. Lack of variety. 3. 35 . namely work content. participation and control. role in the organization. group. Most of the causes of work stress concern the way work is designed and the way in which organizations are managed. Leka. which does not map to his/her knowledge and abilities. Unpleasant tasks. stressors. While work can provide the individual with structure. the workplace can also be a setting for stress and worry. career development. self-esteem and spending power. Working hours • • • • Strict and inflexible working schedules. Under-promotion or over-promotion. Lack of promotion prospects. working hours and the work environment). Being over-skilled or under-skilled for the job. Long and unsocial hours. Continuously dealing with other people and their problems. Badly designed shift systems. status and pay • • • • • • • Job security. Poor relationships with co-workers. Interpersonal relationships • • Inadequate. Unclear or unfair performance evaluation systems. Work of ‘low social value’. Conflicting roles within the same job. 36 . Responsibility for people. Piece rate payment schemes. Role in the organisation • • • • Unclear role. Working under time pressures.Workload and work pace • • Having too much or too little to do. Career development. Lack of control (for example over work methods. Participation and Control • • Lack of participation and decision making. inconsiderate or unsupportive supervision. Unpredictable working hours. work pace. 3. A key finding of a national survey done in 2002 pertaining to occupational stress at Australian Universities returns that approximately 50% of Australian University staff taking part in the survey were at risk of psychological 37 . the situation has now changed. Home-work interface • • • Conflicting demands of work and home.9 STRESS IN HIGHER EDUCATION Whilst the role of the academic lecturer may traditionally not have been considered to be one that elicited high levels of occupational stress. managers and other professional groups. Lack of support for domestic problems at work. and it was recently reported. Lack of support for work problems at home. 2004: Online). at the University of Luton and the University of Leeds. that more than eighty percent of staff in one British tertiary institution suffered from some form of stress related health problems. This survey have shown that stress levels for academic and related staff are higher than for doctors. Poor leadership. harassment and violence. the incidence of stress in lecturers is only likely to increase. found that stress at work is a major problem in United Kingdom Higher Education. A study done in November 2004. Organisational culture • • • Poor communication. Stress and mental health issues are manifesting at an exponential rate in higher education.• • • Bullying. It has also been postulated that as we go further into the next millennium. by the Higher Education Union. Isolated or solitary work. No agreed procedures for dealing with problems or complaints. as well as a sample of the population as a whole (Kinman & Jones. Lack of clarity about organizational objectives and structure. Gillespie. 1998:1). en beleef hy onsekerheid oor die toekoms vanwee rasionalisasie. openbaar hy ‘n persepsie van bestuur. 3. 2001:9).illness. beleid en procedures van die universiteit en organisasie. support at work. Dua &Hapuararchchi. namely insecurity.1.9.1 STRESSORS IN HIGHER EDUCATION The following stressors present in modern day higher education. workload and other job demands. hervitalisering en regstellende aksie”.1 Insecurity For many staff members at tertiary institutions. wrote “…soos alle ander werkers ervaar die dosent ook stress as gevolg van werksdruk ( die klem op uitnemende prestasies). Except for the obvious financial hardship. Unemployment itself is a source of stress. 3. beloning vir gelewerde prestasie en ondersteuning in die werkplek ontbreek. The stress of unemployment will also affect those who remain at work. depression. bullying at work and workplace violence. 2001:15). Recent research has found a whole range of stress-induced diseases amongst the unemployed. one of the largest sources of stress is raising insecurity and fear of unemployment. 38 .9. 2002:10) (Venter. Employers may exacerbate this by not announcing change plans until the last moment. calls for closer scrutiny. unemployed people suffer loss of self-esteem. compared to only 19% of the Australian population overall (Winefield. beleef hy teleurstellings wanneer bevordering. even mental illness with consequent effects on social and family life (Page. Stough. Announcing redundancies and restructuring initiatives at short notice can lead to shock. Employers often increase the pressure of work for those who keep their jobs (Volpe. (The above retained in the language of the original text as to not lose the true interpretation of the author which may occur if translated). Kinman & Jones (2004:Online) stated that job security has become a relevant issue for many academic and academic-related workers. boredom. work-life balance and environmental stressors. social isolation and social stigma. organizational commitment and performance. Therefore the whole structure of his inner life changed. With the end of uncertainty there came the uncertainty of the end. Those who know how close the connection is between the state of mind of a man – his courage and hope. this increases individuals’ feelings of insecurity. Morrell & Capparell (2001:107) wrote: “…For now. Insecurity creates uncertainty. All that training to make each crewmember a good sailor was for naught. Insecurity can also occur if employees are still employed by the organization but are actually ‘without a job’. Shackleton needed to find a way to tackle the crew’s crushing disappoint. McLean (1985:54) indicates. the ship’s officers and seamen found themselves without a job. which may occur during the “match and place” process at TUT. if there have been too many changes in the organization jobs. equipment layout and style of supervision and very little information is given in advance of the changes being made or any training in new methods or equipment. information. and was one of the most commonly reported sources of jobstress. “…uncertainty about how amalgamations will influence me”. training or support to do the job without making mistakes. if mistakes are made and disciplinary procedures are rigidly applied. due to changes and circumstances. or lack of them – and the state of 39 . “…that the period of greatest ill health is that during which unemployment is anticipated – the period of anticipation of the event can be more stressful than the event itself”. If they have no confidence that support will be forthcoming. Furthermore. it can result in reduced job satisfaction. lecturers will feel insecure. Frankl (1984:91) wrote: “…On entering camp a change took place in the minds of the men. Sharpley.Insecurity can also occur if academic lecturers do not feel confident about their ability to do the job well and do not have enough time. Kreitner et al (1999:507). signs of decay set in which we know from other areas of life. If job security is not managed. stated that job security is a powerful stressor that has a significant influence on employees’ attitudes and behaviour. A man who could not see the end of his ‘provisional existence’ was not able to aim at an ultimate goal in life. A classical example is the crew of the Endurance expedition to the Antarctic (1914 – 1916). Reynolds and Acosta (1996:77) describe that job insecurity culminate in. boredom and fears”. a situation. student guidance assistant. they smoke more. Hatvany (1996:123). Work schedules which are inflexible and over-demanding. stroke and depression”. ‘Quantitative’ means too much or too little work. heart attack. 40 .1. research. as a stressful characteristic of work.9. (Harvard Heart Letter. Vermeulen (2001:51) wrote “…Devitalizing stress which is characterized by habitual negativity reads to an all prevailing sense of despondency and purposelessness.2 Workload and other job demands Workload needs to be described in terms of a quantitative or qualitative paradigm. liaison with the profession. 2006:3). The job description of a lecturer at TUT. role conflict and role ambiguity as the most common examples of stressors in the workplace. post-secondary education. 3. “…both quantitative and qualitative overload are correlated with psychological and physiological indices of stress. professional/skilled guidance. and define it as lack of control over pacing. evaluation. views workload/work pace. namely teaching. institutional involvement. Kreitner et al. McLean (1985:5) point to the fact that several studies show that a variety of forms of work overload produce at least nine different kinds of psychological and physiological signs of strain on the worker. heart disease. the nervous system and immune system functions. work overload or under load and as high levels of pacing or time pressure. (1999:506). long hours for all staff. Mental and emotional stress raise blood pressure and high blood pressure is a major cause of stroke.immunity of his body will understand that the sudden loss of hope and courage can have a deadly effect”. while qualitative means the work is too difficult or under-stimulating and monotonous. which most certainly sets the stage for illnesses like cancer. skilled and professional development. and early death. Academics in higher education institutions have to perform a number of roles simultaneously. Overload workers show increased heart rate and serum cholesterol levels. administration and control. PsychoNeuroImmunology is the term that describes the discipline that studies the link between emotions. heart and kidney failure. give workload. have more job dissatisfaction and tension and show lower self-esteem”. Pines & Aronson (1988:102) indicate that. identified the following roles. Olivier et al. the widening gap between contractual commitments and a seemingly limitless employer-driven workload are all factors that lead to stress.1. Pines & Aranson (1989:160) explain that the individual is usually a member of many overlapping groups. often as a result of superachievement by the most talented. The research of Winefield et al. as well as over weekends and recess periods. (2002:8). (2005:919) found that diverse responsibilities and increased workloads are all factors which contribute to diminished job satisfaction. Diminished job satisfaction can lead to lowered job performance and satisfaction that have implications for the efficient functioning of higher educations institutions. who found that work is the main source of stress in the lives of university staff. the majority were of the opinion that their responsibility had increased over the last 5 years. without taking leave. Fisher (1994:64) is of the opinion that the lack of back up for academics has meant that many staff were coping with overload in three areas – teaching.3 Support at work Social factors such as group membership play a primary role as both causes and cures of burnout. research and administration. indicates that work pressure is one of the strongest predictors of psychological strain in Australian Universities. 2003:112).9. unreasonable expectations. It is impossible to work effectively when human resources are overloaded. Role overload is a major source of stress at work and such conditions encourage work failure. friends and community. and one half of the respondents engaged in teaching felt their classes had become too large. Furthermore. and is supported by the research of Abouserie (1996:52). that the amount of administrative paperwork was excessive.unreasonably heavy workload. Participants indicated that the heavier workloads result in working longer hours. 3. Kinman & Jones (2004:Online) found that almost one-half of the respondents in their research were of the opinion that their workloads were unmanageable. the men felt busy. In addition to the social systems of family. These social 41 . people belong also to social systems as work. Shackleton again set an example of challenging and meaningful work due to the fact that far from getting bored. Furthermore Schackleton never expects one to do more than one is capable of” (Morrel & Capparell. systems include. 1989:162). “…lack of necessary equipment and/or infrastructure support” is a job stressor. and delivery of products and services. The ability to provide technical appreciation is especially powerful and useful when it comes from knowledgeable supervisors (Pines & Aranson. If these functions are fulfilled in the individuals’ environment. The two structures map each other closely in terms of strategic objectives. as work organizations have two distinct social structures. emotional challenge and the providing of social reality. they are well protected against burnout and towards reducing stress in life and work.4 Bullying at work and workplace violence Bullying in the workplace is one of the fastest growing forms of violence plaguing the world today. they must be experts in their field and their honesty and integrity must be trusted. namely listening. All individuals need technical appreciation for the work they do. This social support system has various functions and can be divided in six basic categories. subordinates. refusing to delegate. and removing responsibilities. to being passes over for an expected promotion. Bradley & Eachus (1995:153) found that “…relationships with others is a stressful factor”. The person/s who gives this appreciation must meet the following criteria namely. 2006: 90). as well as the supervisory structures (Mahomed & Naudé. The research of Sharpley et al. (1996:77) point out that. Higher Education institutions.1. offensive behavior. technical support. 3. and also from their immediate managers. financial problems. and ‘nonacademic’ administrative and support staff. technical challenge. racism. estranged or strained relationship with co- 42 . If these requirements are met. but the nature of the work of the two structures is completely different. co-workers and clients. but they were less happy with the support they received from the administrative and technical staff. namely ‘academic’ staff engaged in teaching and research. Workplace bullying is everything from harassment.9. emotional support. Kinman & Jones (2004:Online) found that the respondents in their research were positive about the support they received from their colleagues. individuals can accepts support as genuine. supervisors. Paige as cited by Burton (2001:24) believes that workplace violence often stems from overwhelming feelings of powerlessness. recently newspapers reported on an incident where a child shot a teacher in the classroom. Reciprocally in South Africa. strategic problem. Burtons view is supported by Marais & Herman (1997:14) when they state that. In an interview with Dr Susan Marais-Steinmann. Violence at work includes both physical and psychological violence. explains that colleague bullying is a form of survival behaviour. but also that workplace violence is a cause of stress. All of the listed issues culminate in attempts to undermine individuals. which could manifest in behaviours such as stealing and sabotage. while 24% of bullied people will leave. Marais-Steinmann (2007:Interview) points to research which shows that 22% of people who witness others being bullied. overloaded and stressed the more they will revert to bullying to survive. 43 . There are also hidden costs that are more difficult to measure. but a structural. 2007:Interview) points out that more and more people find themselves on the receiving end of bullying. The more staff feels threatened. Workers are often in a fear and anger space. “…the victimisation of the worker is symptomatic of corporate survival behaviour”. “…People who are being bullied develop depression and psychosomatic illnesses and have to stay off work”. and they take it out on others. Abusive behaviour can be as high as 78% in organizations undergoing change. Marais-Steinmann (Marais-Steinmann. The latest incident of a student who shot 32 people on the campus of the Virginia Technicon places the spotlight on the vulnerability of educational institutions. done by employees or non-employees.workers. Di Martino (2001:22) is of the opinion that workplace violence is not merely an episodic individual problem. Educational institutions are not excluded from violence. Burton (2001:24). Workplace bullying and violence can be devastating. such as absenteeism. and a perception of being targeted by management. draw the analogy that stress is a cause of workplace violence. According to Marais-Steinmann (2007:Interview). economic. organizational and cultural factors. will leave an organization. Landy & Conte (2004:582). CEO of South Africa’s Foundation for Workplace Trauma. rooted in wider social. people are stripped of their dignity and purpose. The biggest danger which Marais-Steinmann encountered in her research was that of revenge from the bullied person. 1. Codrington (2006:21) is of the opinion that the concept of work-life balance is ‘a myth’. “…we live in a knowledge worker age but operate our organizations in a controlling industrial age model that 44 . trying to remain connected to a partner or spouse. for e. provides the following on issues pertaining to work-life balance: Family and personal stress is a widespread source of stress in every workplace. Deadlines at work.9. Long working hours and absenteeism needs to be replaced by the emphasis on performance rather than the number of hours work. expect the company to reciprocate and allow them time to watch their childs’ sport game. Conflicts between work and personal life affect productivity and general wellbeing. Covey (2004:15) refers to the problem as. Work-life integration represents a different employer-employee relationship. and prefers the concept of work-life integration. Employees experience work-family conflict is three times as likely to think about quitting their jobs those who do not.3. were much more likely to make mistakes. adding to workplace stress. Paul Companies in 1992 found that staff who believed work was causing problems in their personal lives. part-time studies are all things that need to be done on a daily basis. taking part in kids’ lives. Skinner and Crosby (1997:66). South African business has to meet the demands of the changing workforce in an effort to attract top talent and beat the brain drain.g. or work nights as required.5 Work-life balance Life is fast with millions of things to do. over half of the employees can be expected to experience some kind of work-family stress within a three month period of a major workplace change dynamic. A study done by St. than those who hade few job-related problems. Well. lifelong learning and family-friendly policies. They will probably be on the phone or using their Blackberry while they are there anyway. balanced workforce. Today more and more employers are recognizing the value of having a healthy. including flexible working time. Ivancevich. Lorenzi. Work-life balance is about improving the quality of working life. employees who are not scared to answer e-mails from home over weekends. managing a home. time to have fun and leisure. “…perhaps more than any single factor – more than the uncertainties present in the new economy and concerns about being economically and emotionally prepared for long years in retirement – the quest for time freedom is driving successful professionals away from traditional careers to alternatives such as network marketing”.1. More concerning is the fact that people have taken this same controlling mind-set home! Kinman & Jones (2004:Online) indicates that the majority of respondents (67%) in their survey returned that their work was steadily encroaching onto their private lives. for example the human ear adjust to 45 . Although the human body continuously make minor adjustments to adapt to the situation. and distinguished between micro and macro-environmental stressors. staff members who resign and the ripple effects on co-workers. such as sound and noise levels. suboptimal performance.6 Environmental stressors Freeman (1990:184) indicates that the environment in which teachers work. Shackleton set an exceptional example. 3. lay-out of the workspace. which showed that working unsocial hours. but also hidden costs such work delays. Working at home during evenings and weekends was commonplace. is a stressor that obtained a higher than average sten score. This findings is supported by the study of Jackson & Rothman (2006:82). when even under harsh circumstances. can cause stress.absolutely suppresses the release of human potential. and that the quality of their family life suffered. a balance between work and fun was maintained “…Shackleton kept a balance between work and fun. colour scheme etc. Employers need to take into consideration that when work-life issues lead to turnover. never completely dividing the two never letting one overtake the other” (Morrell & Capparel. Micro-environmental stressors: Micro-environmental stressors refer to stressors in the workplace. 2003:95). King & Robinson (2000:62) are of the opinion that. the resulting costs for the company is not only the visible expenses of recruiting and training a new employee. Half of the sample indicated that they had little time available for hobbies and interest. temperature.9. the prevailing level of noise. prioritizing gives us the ability to act rather to be acted upon. either travelling with your own transport or public transport that has the extra stressor of unreliability. To prioritize helps an individual to avoid stress by giving the person a way to evaluate a stressful situation. points to the well documented effects of ergonomics on reducing the incidence and cost of occupational injury. stress levels and improving work process efficiency. and also giving the person a valuable perspective when stress threatens to overwhelm the individual. and the area where the workplace is situated’. blood pressure to rise. 3. Covey (1989:148) explains that leadership decides which tasks should be prioritised in the run of our daily lives.1989:146). Arenson (2003:33). According to Covey (1989:148). (Goethe cited by Covey.10 STRESS MANAGEMENT Stress management is a complete undertaking. To manage workplace stress effectively. namely priorities. ‘early morning traffic. one 46 . they miss a valuable opportunity to increase productivity. but rather the limits and the costs one pays to adapt to theses stressors. it needs to be addressed on an individual as well as an organizational level. Macro-environmental stressors: Macro-environmental stressors refer to stressors outside the gates of the workplace. Gatto (1993:88) explains that time constraints causes stomach churn. People work to satisfy a social need. the question is not whether one can adapt because that we do continually. Expectations: When one starts making decisions and act on assumptions. and if business does not cater for this need in the layout of the work environment. Mahlangu (2006:36) refers to it as. To manage stress effectively an individual has to manage three fundamental elements of their lives. 1995:25): Priorities: “Things which matter most must never be at the mercy of things which matter least”. people to argue and generally feel miserable. neck muscles to tighten. Duffy (2003:39) describes that the business environment is identical to the development of a suburb. expectations and coping with change (Brewer. Stress management entails a vast range of activities and strategies.g. Avoid change: This is a form of passive resistance. Organizations normally target a predominant person-centred approach to This reaction produces manage/control or cope with stress. emotions and souls and the control we have over our own health. which requires a considerable amount of energy. stress and exercise and employee assistance programs. should be employed by employer and employee alike to minimize stress namely. Change then becomes an opportunity and to a danger. “…good nutrition and correct supplementation balance the physiology.” Shackleton already realized it in 1914.can experience disappointment when the situation or the behaviour of a person fails to live up to expectations. This researcher is also of the opinion that stress management require leadership. Coping with change: Change is inevitable. The following three activities. change management. stress management. When dealing with other people. The stress reaction is fuel intensive. namely • • • Resist and fight it to maintain the status quo: ongoing stress. This researcher is of the opinion this represents a ‘patchup’ people approach. is essential to stressless. It is a good place from where to start to make us more aware of our minds. “…Shackleton took 47 . stress and nutrition. Confront and adapt to change: Is the healthy response that minimize stress. Inherently it means the worker will continue to work in an unhealthy workplace. clear communications is of the utmost importance. emotional intelligence etc. Correct nutrition reaches our spiritual essence. Avoiding change is to not acknowledge that we are fighting the change. Courses normally presented in the work environment are for e. both within the individual as well as in the organization. even for eustress and the need to survive. There are three basic ways we can respond to change. time management. Stress and nutrition: The body’s internal reserves enable the individual to cope better with stress. Healthy eating According to Van der Merwe (2005:18). bodies. because the causes of stress are not even considered when planning a change dynamic. Employee Assistance Programs: Assistance Programme (EAP) are: • • • • • • • Consultation to managers. Intervention with employee re: performance issues. as opposed to healthier snack and food alternatives available for staff members. high cholesterol levels. Shackleton set an example in 1914 “…Shackleton insisted on healthy diet. played soccer and hockey. and raced the dogs. the men took long walks. Consultation to employer about health benefits. Programme evaluation as to programme effectiveness. believing physical and mental acumen were closely linked” (Morrell & Capparell. Encouraging staff to take walks for e. case monitoring and follow-up. heart disease and those who are HIV & AIDS infected. 2001:70). With no gym facilities available as it is known today. A good investment may be the employment of a dietician to work out balanced menus in workplace restaurants. Encourage effective relations with providers. Stress and exercise: Regular exercise increases both an individual’s quality of life as well as life expectancy. around the block during lunch hours. Referral of employee or family member. for e. Physical activity needs to be introduced gradually. to put up signs encouraging staff members to take the stairs rather than the lift. Employers pay particular attention to the distinction of food. Assessment of employee’s personal problems. 2001:110). This type of investment can be viewed from not only to the value of stress management. He believed that a varied diet was a key to good health and good spirits” (Morrell & Capparell.g. The services provide depends on the needs of the employer as well as the needs of the 48 . The core technologies of an Employee The services provided by an EAP vary substantially from organisation to organisation. He encourages his crew to combine healthy eating habits with rigorous sport and some means of relaxation. but also for staff members who may suffer from diabetes.g. outreach to employees. but the challenge is to let staff members make use of it. and reasonable safety measures. exercise. Organizations today have on-site gyms.the greatest care with food supplies. Vending machines in the offices. the kiosks and the restaurants on the premises are typically filled with junk food. employers and trade unions. More specific. bullying at work and workplace violence. According to Harper (2006). recognising stress. stress and personality behaviour types were analysed in detail. workload and other job demands. The chapter was concluded with views on the management of stress. 3. support at work. stress and individual differences. EAP’s serve multiple clients namely. family members. work-life balance and environmental stressors where analysed in detail. a literature review was conducted on the concept of ‘stress’. an EAP is core business tool. work related stress. stress in higher education with particular reference to insecurity.11 CONCLUSION In this chapter. the research survey design and methodology used in this research study will be elaborated upon. In line with the theme of this dissertation. 49 . In chapter 4. employees. stress response. balancing the needs of each to solve human asset problems.employees. the physiology of stress. The concept of workplace stress was also analysed in terms of potential sources of workplace stress. 4.2 RESEARCH APPROACH According to Leedy (1993:103). and The research methods: This allows the researcher to conduct the research in such a way. rather than ‘explanation’.CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH SURVEY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 4. for the following reasons: Stress occurs in the real world environment of TUT (to describe and explain). The approach to be followed in this study is both qualitative and quantitative in nature. however a research design should attend specifically to two aspects. qualitative research is more concerned with understanding social phenomena from the perspectives of the participants”.1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Cooper & Schindler (1998:143) explain quality as “…the essential character or nature of something. it is the what. White (2005:81) expresses the view that. the definition or model or metaphor characterizing something”. De Vos is further of the opinion that qualitative research is concerned with ‘understanding’.2.1 INTRODUCTION According to White (2005:80). depends on. it refers to the meaning. De Vos (1998:241) describes qualitative research as “… the interpretation or construction of the lived experience of subjects”. namely: The research approach: Is it a qualitative or quantitative paradigm. “…. which methodology to use. “…the nature of the data and the problem of the research”. there is no single blue print for planning research. 50 . or both to be used in the study. 4. that the researcher will find answers to the research questions. A qualitative approach is used in this research (adapted from Leedy and Ormrod (2001:102). 2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Cooper and Schindler (1998:34) explains quantity as. which is supported by Babbie (2005:25). the how much. A complete understanding of a topic often requires both techniques”.3 DATA COLLECTION A literature study and questionnaires will serve as the primary research method. “. A quantitative research approach in this research (adapted from Leedy and Ormrod 2001:102) is used for the following reasons: To explain and predict To confirm and validate To test theory 4. Vockell (1995:192) describes quantitative research as the data collection processes. citing Fouché and De Vos (1998a:65) the main functions of a literature study are 51 .3. when he states that. 4.The respondents describe their daily experiences as it relates to stress (to explore and interpret). expressed in numbers and treated as a number. “…the amount.2. counted. Social surveys. …recognizing the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research doesn’t mean that you must identify your research activities with one to the exclusion of the other.1 LITERATURE STUDY According to White (2005:7). and assumes the meaning and refers to a measure of it. Morgan (2000:21) states that quantitative research can be directly analysed. 4. The researcher is enabled to interact with what is being studied (to build theory). experiments and structured interviews are all quantitative data collection techniques. questionnaires. research designs and statistical procedures. Watkins (2006:7) is of the opinion that quantitave and qualitative methods overlap. Avoidance of double-negative questions and statements. the wording and questions are stated in terms of a shared vocabulary. 52 . Question wording: To eliminate misleading assumptions. The ultimate aim of a literature study is to see the problem in theoretical perspective. or modified. The disadvantage of a questionnaire is low return on mailed questionnaires. Cooper and Schindler (1998:92) mentioned that a literature review might also explain the need for the proposed work.In order to design a study that will contribute to existing knowledge. A questionnaire has several advantages: Relatively economical. Contains questions for specific purposes. Cooper and Schindler (1998:353) mention three critical areas when a questionnaire is drafted: Question content: Is to ensure that the question is of proper scope and that the respondent will answer adequately. 4.3. Design: The statements and questions within the survey should designed with the following principles in mind: Avoidance of double-barrelled questions and statements. a literature study enables the researcher to identify alternative theories in order to understand the problems as well as to identify central concepts. It provides better insight into the dimensions and complexity of the problem. Avoidance of prestige bias. Can ensure anonymity. Avoidance of the assumption of prior knowledge. Avoidance of leading questions and statements.2 QUESTIONNAIRE A questionnaire is a quantitative data collection method. one need to have a good idea of what is known already. Existing questionnaires can be used. Furthermore. as well as hands on situations within a real life working environment. The questionnaire is divided in four sections: Section A: Demographic information.30 31 . are used as basis for compiling the questionnaire. Section C: Identifying causes of stress at work. confidentiality.The purpose of the questionnaire is to determine if there is stress at the Faculty of Arts and what the causes of stress are. The researcher provided each respondent with an overview of the dissertation objectives. Data collected from the literature study on stress. The researcher personally distributed and collected the completed questionnaires. Section D: Work-life balance.40 41 .60 60+ Question A3 Indicate your marital status Divorced Married Never been married Widow Widower Separated 53 . Section B: Life events.50 51 . to prevent a low return. The researcher also emphasizes anonymity and SECTION A DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Question A1 Indicate your gender Male 1 Female 2 Question A2 Indicate your age group Below 20 years 21 . 1 + km Question A5 Indicate your appointment type.1 – 10 km 10.1 – 5 km 5. Academic Non-Academic SECTION B LIFE EVENTS PLEASE INDICATE WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING LIFE EVENTS YOU HAVE EXPERIENCED DURING THE LAST 12 MONTHS.Question A4 How far do you stay from TUT? 0 – 2 km 2. Indicate by Life Event(s) Tick in this box Death of spouse Divorce Marital separation Jail term (you or close family member) Death of a close family member Personal injury or illness Marriage Fired from work Marital reconciliation Retirement Change in family member’s health Pregnancy Sex difficulties Addition to family Business readjustment Change in financial status Death of a close friend Change to different line of work Change in number of marital arguments Mortgage or loan over R500 000 Foreclosure of mortgage or loan Change in work responsibilities 54 . 6. conditions Change in residence Change in schools Change in recreational habits Change in church activities Change in social activities Mortgage or loan under R500 000 Change in sleeping habits Change in number of family gatherings Change in eating habits Vacation Christmas season Minor violation of the law e. 4.g. 2. How satisfied are you with the organization you work for compared with other companies you know? How satisfied are you with your job – the kind of job you do? How satisfied are you with your physical working conditions How satisfied are you with the extent to which people you work with cooperate well with one another. 5. 3. considering what other organizations pay for similar types of work? 55 . speed tickets SECTION C IDENTIFYING STRESS AT WORK PLEASE COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING TABLE Satisfied Neutral Very satisfied Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 1. considering your duties and responsibilities? How satisfied are you with your pay. How satisfied are you with your pay.Son or daughter leaving home Trouble with in-laws Outstanding personal achievement Spouse begins or stops work Starting or finishing school/university Change in living conditions Revision of personal habits Trouble with boss Change in work hours. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. How satisfied are you with your advancement to better jobs since you started to work with your organization? How satisfied are you with the extent to which your present job makes full use of your skills and abilities? How satisfied are you with the level of mental ability requirements of your present job (problem solving, judgement, technical knowledge, etc.)? How satisfied are you with the level of average time demands of your present job (hours worked, as opposed to mental ability demands)? Considering everything, how would you rate your overall feelings about your employment situation at the present time? How satisfied are you with the security of your employment? How satisfied are you with your administration tasks e.g. compiling of class lists, study guides, etc. If you have your way, will you be working for TUT five years form now? Circle one: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Certainly Probably I’m not at all sure Probably not Certainly not I’ll be retired in five years. 56 SECTION D WORK-LIFE BALANCE Yes 1. 2. Do you take work home most nights? Do you frequently think about workproblems at home? 3. 4. Do you work long hours? Do work problems affect your sleeping habits? 5. Do your family and friends complain that you spend too little time with them? 6. Do you find it difficult to relax and forget work? 7. Do you find it difficult to say “no” to work requests? 8. 9. Do you find it difficult to delegate? Is your self-esteem based largely on your work? 10. 11. Do you have a hobby? Do you practise an active relaxation technique (yoga, meditation, imagery, etc.)? 12. Do you exercise for at least 20 minutes, three times a week? 13. 14. 15. Do you smoke? Do you take sleeping pills? Do you drink more than 8 cups of caffeinated drinks or alcohol each day? No 57 4.3.3 THE TARGET POPULATION Cooper & Schindler (1998:215) explain that the idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a population, one may draw conclusions about the entire population. The target population is then the unit of study, and the population is then the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inferences. The target population for this research includes all staff from the Faculty of Arts. The Faculty of Arts consists of 96 permanent staff members. 4.3.4 THE CHOICE OF SAMPLING METHOD Emory and Cooper (1995:228) define two methods of survey sampling namely: The conventional sample, whereby a limited number of elements smaller than the chosen population are chosen (typically randomly) in such a manner as to accurately represent (without bias) the total population. The census approach, where an attempt is made to survey every element within the population (Emory and Cooper, 1995:200). The census approach was chosen. Cooper & Schindler (1998:216) indicate that two conditions are appropriate for a census approach: When the population is small, it is feasible. When the elements are quite different from each other, it is necessary for a census approach. 4.4 MEASUREMENT SCALES The survey used in the research is based on the well-known Lickert Scale. Bailey (1982:365) indicates that the essence of the Lickert scale is to increase the variation in the possible scores. The advantages in using the Lickert scale according to Emory and Cooper (1995:180 – 181) are: Quick and easy to construct. Each item meets an empirical test for discriminating ability. 58 Due to the fact that TUT is currently busy with the ‘match and place’ process.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH The research was adversely impacted upon by the following aspects: The research was limited to staff of the Faculty of Arts at TUT. The data collection strategies. Staff fails to see any value in participating. there was considerable animosity to the research and an unwillingness to complete the questionnaires. 4. most appropriate to glean data in support of the research problem in question. 59 . The reason for using the Lickert Scale in this research. population and data analysis were elaborated upon and the limitations of the research listed. an aspect which makes it difficult to know how true or reliable the answers are. The Lickert Scale is also treated as an interval scale.6 CONCLUSION This chapter outlines and addresses the rationale for a case study design. respondents felt obliged to give an opinion. 4. using both qualitative and quantitative research paradigms. is the fact that the scale can be used in both respondentcentred (how responses differ between people) and stimulus centred (how responses differ between various stimuli) studies. In certain instances. Chapter 5 will deal with the research findings and the analysis of the data.The Lickert scale is probably more reliable than the Thurston scale. which is supported by Emory and Cooper (1995. and it provides a greater volume of data than the Thurston differential scale.180 – 181). The rest of this chapter is devoted to the analysis of data and interpretation of results.6. 5. Research 60 .CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 5. Male 43% Female 57% Gender Male 43% Female 57% Male Female The purpose of this question was to determine the gender distribution of staff members in the Faculty of Arts at the Tshwane University of Technology. In Paragraph 3. the focus is on the results culminated as a result from the research survey conducted within the ambit of Chapter 4. Chapter 3 stress and individual differences were addressed.2 SECTION A DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Question A1: Indicate your gender The results from the survey returned the following data.1 INTRODUCTION In Chapter 5. which is graphically depicted below. Question A2: Indicate your age group The results from the survey returned the following data. In this age category.40 37% < 30 31 . establishment (mid twenties – 40s). Cartwright & Cooper (1997:64) identified four age-related career stages.) each stage of life has its own particular vulnerabilities and sets of coping mechanisms.50 27% According to McClean (1985:58.60 18% 60+ 8% Age 60 > 8% < 30 10% 31 .indicates that the two sexes experience stress differently and that they reflect differently on stressful situations.60 60 > 51 . People are typically concerned with securing themselves in their careers and in ‘climbing the corporate ladder’. < 30 10% 31 . Chapter 2.1. It is also the age bracket when many individuals are coping with the financial and emotional demands of raising a family and establishing themselves in society in general. namely exploration (age 15-24).50 51 . The majority of staff members are in the age category 31 – 40 years (37%). the need to achieve and prove oneself is as a rule very strong.60 18% 41 .40 41 . maintenance stage (mid 40s – until retirement) and decline (65+). which is graphically depicted below.50 27% 51 . 61 . The faculty consists of 48% men and 52% women as reflected in Table 2.40 37% 41 . which is graphically depicted below. will reduce the stresses of daily life. Divorced Married Never been married Widow Widower Separated 13% 54% 33% 0% 0% 0% Marital Status Separated 0% Never Married 33% Widow Widower 0% 0% Divorced 13% Married 54% Divorced Married Never Married Widow Widower Separated The survey results returned that 54 % of the respondents were married. which may bring a host of other stressors as listed by Holmes & Rahe cited by Hanson (1987:61). trouble with boss etc. the typical workaholic tend to relegate family and friends to form the back seat of their lives. According to Hanson (1986:81&107). Although a support system at home is according to Hanson (1987:107) a very useful and important stress management technique.Question A3: Indicate your marital status The results from the survey returned the following data. an adequate network of friends and support from within your family. Yet. the factor of no work life balance may rather add more stress at home than support from home. change in living conditions. for example. change in the number of arguments with the spouse. 62 . 1 . which is graphically depicted below. The results from the survey returned the following data.1 + km 49% 5. Academic 75% Non-Academic 25% 63 . The majority of the respondents (49%). and are then exposed to traffic and traffic related stressors.1 – 5 km 5.10 km 30% 0 .1 km + 8% 13% 30% 49% Km form TUT 0 . such as early morning traffic and traffic jams on the roads can create stress. stay more than 10km from the workplace.5 km 8% 13% 10.1 . cited by Cartwright and Cooper (1997:103). 0 – 2 km 2.1 – 10 km 10. macro-environmental stressors.5 km 5.6.1. according to Fanny Burney 1833 – 1898. As discussed in Paragraph 3. which is graphically depicted below. Question A5: Indicate your appointment type.10 km 10. Chapter 3.Question A4: How far do you travel to TUT? The results from the survey returned the following data.1 + km “Traveling is the ruin of all happiness”.1 .2 km 2.9.1 .2 km 2. 3 SECTION B LIFE EVENTS The presence of stress is universal. work-life balance was addressed and Ivancevich. In 64 . The Homes-Rahe Scale (depicted below) was used to determine the stressors within the target group. Table 2. An interesting aspect of the Homes-Rahe Scale is that 10 of the top 15 stressors on the scale are not work-related.1.9. and it is indicated that Higher Education institutions has two distinct social structures. However the two structures map each other closely in terms of strategic objectives.5.9. Skinner and Crosby (1997:66) indicated that family and personal stress is a widespread source of stress in every workplace. Chapter 3. affect individuals differently.2. stress can be fatal. or in extreme cases. but the causes of stress differ. namely ‘academic staff’ and ‘non-academic’ staff. reflects that the distribution in the Faculty of Arts is 79% academic and 21% non-academic. 5. The Homes-Rahe Scale (Hanson. 1987:61) is used as a guideline for stress measurement. support at work is addressed.Academic In Paragraph 3. situation and environment.Appointment Type Non Academic 25% Academic Academic 75% Non . In Paragraph 3. Lorenzi. stress always manifest as levels that is different for each person. and delivery of products and services. Furthermore. Chapter 2. Chapter 3. and as a result.3. While many of the life’s problems are minor.1. the occurrences of several important changes at one particular point in time may contribute to increased individual vulnerability to illness. addition the scale was enhanced to reflect (as percentage) the respondents who were subjected to the various stressors. PLEASE INDICATE WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING LIFE EVENTS YOU HAVE EXPERIENCED DURING THE LAST 12 MONTHS Indicate by Tick this box in Life Event For office use (Value) Results % Death of spouse Divorce Marital separation Jail term (you or close family member) Death of a close family member Personal injury or illness Marriage Fired from work Marital reconciliation Retirement Change in family member’s health Pregnancy Sex difficulties Addition to family Business readjustment Change in financial status Death of a close friend Change to different line of work Change in number of marital arguments Mortgage or loan over R500 000 Foreclosure of mortgage or loan Change in work responsibilities Son or daughter leaving home 100 73 65 63 63 53 50 47 45 45 44 40 39 39 39 38 37 36 35 31 30 29 29 0% 2% 2% 0% 20% 20% 0% 0% 5% 0% 17% 7% 7% 15% 10% 35% 23% 10% 10% 28% 0% 46% 7% 65 . 1. speed tickets 29 28 26 26 25 24 23 20 20 20 19 19 18 17 16 15 15 13 12 11 7% 25% 5% 12% 17% 20% 17% 30% 12% 0% 12% 5% 7% 23% 38% 23% 33% 30% 35% 28% Health Risk 301 > 18% 151 .Trouble with in-laws Outstanding personal achievement Spouse begins or stops work Starting or finishing school/university Change in living conditions Revision of personal habits Trouble with boss Change in work hours.300 301 > In Paragraph 3. It is however not about adapting but. rather the limits and the costs one 66 .g.300 28% < 150 54% < 150 151 .6.9. Chapter 3. the concept of adapting to certain stressors were discussed. conditions Change in residence Change in schools Change in recreational habits Change in church activities Change in social activities Mortgage or loan under R500 000 Change in sleeping habits Change in number of family gatherings Change in eating habits Vacation Christmas season Minor violation of the law e. 8.1. 5.pays to adapt to these stressors. no matter how healthy the person thinks he/she is. workplace stresses.5% were neutral. defined by Cartwright & Cooper (1997:50) as “… a set of expectations held by and individual employee that specifies what the individual and the organization expect to give and receive in the working relationship”.8. Question C1 Very Satisfied 1. Paragraph 3. and will probably involve the person’s weakest link. 54% have a 30% chance of a serious change in their health within the next year. has changed. The nature of this change in health is highly individual based. they lack adequate opportunities to participate in 67 . How satisfied are you with the organization you work for compared with other companies you know Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied 50% 22. One such factor being the ‘psychological contract’. stressors in Higher Education were addressed.1. potential sources of workplace stress.9. Of the respondents.4 SECTION C IDENTIFYING STRESS AT WORK In Paragraph 3.5% 27. Other factors that may have an influence are that people loose their sense of belonging. in Chapter 3. and Paragraph 3. Various factors can add to dissatisfaction. Of the respondents 28% have a 50% chance and 18% have an 80% chance of a serious change in their health within the next year.5 % were satisfied and 27.5% Of the respondents 50% were dissatisfied to work for TUT. 22. The results from the survey returned the following data. 40% were satisfied and 12. How satisfied are you with your working (heat. 20% neutral and 12. and they are not included in office communications and consultations.5% 20% 12.1. the researcher explained that the design or physical settings and surroundings of the workplace may be another source of stress. noise etc. regarding the working conditions. Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 40% 12.5% 45% physical conditions light.5% Of the respondents 67.decision making. Question C2 Very Satisfied 2. 2007:22). people primarily respond on how they are feeling about themselves on the ‘inside’ (Pienaar. In Paragraph 3.5% were neutral. How satisfied are Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied you with your job – the kind of job you do? 67.5% did not respond to the question.5% were satisfied with the job they do. Chapter 3. It may also be the manifestation of a deeper problem namely ‘selfdeception’. Question C3 Very Satisfied 3. and 2.5% dissatisfied.) Of the respondents 45% were dissatisfied. It can affect the mood and overall mental state of staff members. 68 . It does not matter what the organization is doing on the ‘outside’.6.9. and delivery of products and services. administration. Question C5 Very Satisfied 5. human Of the respondents. 1997:18).5% 21.g.5% 69 .5% were satisfied with the cooperation they get from colleagues. support at work is addressed.1. with one Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 54. Chapter 3. namely ‘academic staff and ‘non-academic’ staff.Question C4 Very Satisfied 4. considering duties responsibilities? your and Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 20% 17.3. How satisfied are you with your pay. and it is highlighted that Higher Education institutions has two distinct social structures. However.5% 62. e.5% 24% (Including staff in other dept. In Paragraph 3. Hans Selyle the father of stress observed that “…good relationships between members of a group are a key factor in individual and organizational health” (Cartwright & Cooper. How satisfied are you with the extent to which people you work with cooperate well another. resources. the two structures map each other closely in terms of strategic objectives.9. only 54. etc. but lack perspective and discipline in managing their money. 62. Dissatisfaction with the pay a staff member get may create financial stress. loving and cruel”. 17. How satisfied are you with your pay. It contains a duality similar to that present in our own nature. 20% neutral and 10% were dissatisfied. Price (2000:6) indicates that “…money possesses an energy and life of its own. Very few people realize the emotions that money creates. but have a definite influence on the workplace.Of the respondents. 70 . However. creative and destructive. financial stress is not a workplace stress. 70% were dissatisfied with the salaries they get comparing to what other companies pay. Question C6 Very Satisfied 6. considering what Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 10% 20% 70% other organizations pay for similar types of work? Of the respondents.5% were dissatisfied with the salaries what they get. It is spiritual and material.5% were neutral and 20% were satisfied. This result also closely map to the results gleaned from question C5. Financial stress may also apply to two extremes – people who are working hard and making a good wage. it is a life events stress. 5% were dissatisfied. How satisfied are you with your to Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied advancement 15% 27.5% 57. 17. and the scope and responsibilities of his or her job.5% better jobs since you started to work with your organiation? Of the respondents. It arises when a person does not have a clear picture of work objectives.5% were neutral and 22. 57. How satisfied are you with the extent to which your Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 60% 17. Career development conditions create stress reactions especially when there is a disparity between the individual’s perceptions of where he or she should be in a work organization. Question C8: Very Satisfied 8.Question C7: Very Satisfied 7. 71 .5% were dissatisfied with the advancement to better jobs since they start working at TUT.5% present job makes full use of your skills and abilities? Of the respondents. 27.5% 22.5% were neutral and 15% were satisfied. 60% were satisfied with the extent to which their present job makes use of their skills and abilities. is in contrast to reality. judgement.5% requirements of your present job (problem solving. How satisfied are you with the level of average time Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 30% 45% 20% demands of your present job (hours worked. 30% were neutral and 2. while 45% were neutral. How satisfied are you with the level of mental ability Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 67.5% were satisfied with the level of mental ability requirements of their present job. Proper time management reduces stress.5% were dissatisfied.)? Of the respondents. technical knowledge.Question C9: Very Satisfied 9. as opposed to mental ability demands)? Of the respondents. 30% were satisfied. 20% dissatisfied and 5% of the respondents did not respond to this question. Question C10: Very Satisfied 10.5% 30% 2. 67. 72 . Time is a limited resource that can be used to good or bad effect. etc. 30% were neutral and 25% were satisfied.5% employment? Of the respondents. where 50% of the respondents were dissatisfied to work for the TUT.Question C11: Very Satisfied 11. the researcher discussed insecurity and research has shown that insecurity is one of the largest sources of stress for staff members at tertiary institutions. 17. Dissatisfaction with their employment situation are linked to question C1.5 % were experiencing insecurity.5% 15% 62. 73 . 5% of the respondents are insecure regarding their employment. Considering everything.1. How satisfied are you security with of the your Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 17. how Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied would you rate your overall about employment situation at the feelings your 25% 30% 45% present time? Of the respondents. 15% were neutral. In Paragraph 3. Question C12: Very Satisfied 12.9. 62. 45% were dissatisfied with their employment situation. Chapter 3.1. and question C12 where 62.5% feel secure and 5% of the respondents did not answer this question. 10% will certainly and 5% will probably still work for TUT. Question C14: If you have your way. 10. 22. Certainly Probably I’m not at all sure Probably not Certainly not I’ll be retired in five years. The reasons why the staff members will not work for TUT within five years from now may be different. five years from now. 74 . 8.5% did not answer this question. Of the respondents 32.5% will certainly not. Of the respondents 42. while 20% were neutral. will you be working for your present organization five years form now? Circle one: 1. Of the respondents 35% were not sure.5% administration tasks e.5% of the respondents did not answer this question. How satisfied are you with your Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 33% 20% 42. and that they feel they must start searching for other jobs. 33% were satisfied with the administration tasks.5% were dissatisfied with administration tasks. compiling of class lists. 9. 11.Question C13: Very Satisfied 13.g. etc. study guides. while 4. 7. but it might also be an indication of the insecurity the staff members experience. Work-life balance not only affects the individual.5 SECTION D WORK-LIFE BALANCE Work-life balance was addressed in Paragraph 3. 92.9. Results from the work. but it also effects the organization. and also to do preparation at home where there are less disturbances. Question D3: Do you voluntarily work long hours? Of the respondents.life balance questions.1. 75 . Chapter 3. According to McClean (1985:81) the pressure of having too much work to do would seem to be fairly obvious stressors.5% do take work home most of the nights. returned the following. 75% do work long hours on the campus and 25% do not.5.5. results in time spent that is increasingly unproductive. According to Cartwright & Cooper (1997:15).5% confirmed that they do think frequently about workproblems at home. Question D1: Do you take work home most nights? Of the respondents. studies have shown that working long hours do take a toll on employee health and also that working beyond 40 and 50 hours a week. 57. because of students coming in and out of their offices for extra help. Question D2: Do you frequently think about work-problems at home? Of the respondents. However it may sometimes be necessary for staff member’s especially academic staff members to take work home. correlates with the results in Questions D1. where the majority of the respondents do either take work home or work long hours on the campus.5% are not affected by work problems. 85% find it difficult to say ‘no’ to work requests. many individuals feel that they and their jobs are on ‘trial’ and so become obsessed with personal survival. working longer hours and piling their work stations with papers and files etc.5% do find it difficult to relax and forget about work. This may be the result of the merger. This answer can be as a result of Questions D1 and D3. Question D5: Do your family and friends complain that you spend too little time with them? Family and friends of 52. D3 & D5.Question D4: Do work problems affect your sleeping habits? Of the respondents sleeping habits of 52. Question D7: Do you find it difficult to say “no” to work requests? Of the respondents. 62. This. During a merger. 45% do find it difficult to delegate. Efficient sleep is of tremendous importance in terms of improving a person’s resistance to stress. The negative of this dispensation is that it is stressful to the individual and furthermore in the long term. Question D8: Do you find it difficult to delegate? Of the respondents.5% of the respondents complain that too little time is spent with them. To socialize with family and friends are a powerful stress management technique. it may have no useful purpose whatsoever. They often act to promote a desirable image of themselves that may impress those whom they think have and influence in the decision making process. Question D6: Do you find it difficult to relax and forget work? Of the respondents. 76 . Typical behaviors are: saying yes to any job they are asked to do. Question D14: Do you take sleeping pills? Of the respondents 82. heart rate and digestion. Relaxation stimulates the body’s parasympathetic nervous system. three times a week? Of the respondents. imagery. This figure however is questionable. etc. Question D13: Do you smoke? Of the respondents 72. Question D15: Do you drink more than 8 cups of caffeinated drinks or alcohol each day? Of the respondents 90% indicated that they do not drink more than 8 cups of caffeinated drinks or alcohol each day. 77 . The researcher in Paragraph 3.5% indicated that they do not smoke.5% indicated that they do not take sleeping pills. Question D10: Do you have a hobby? Of the respondents 67. Chapter 3 discussed exercises as a stress management technique. Question D12: Do you exercise for at least 20 minutes. three times a week.3. exercise counters the negative effects of stress by allowing the body to react to the “fight and flight” alarm as discussed in Paragraph 3. Relaxation techniques may be unfamiliar to most of the staff members. do not practice an active relaxation technique. According to Brewer (1995:55).5% indicated that they do have a hobby. 62. 40% self-esteem is based on their work. meditation. Question D11: Do you practice an active relaxation technique (yoga.10. Chapter 3.Question D9: Is your self-esteem based largely on your work? Of the respondents. which controls stress responses such as: respiration. 60%.5% indicating that they do not exercise for at least 20 minutes.)? Of the respondents. working hours. and also no positive evidence of stress management. as discussed in Paragraph 1.1. Chapter 1. The results indicate that the stress levels are very high in the Faculty of Arts at the Tshwane University of Technology. Chapter 3 potential sources of workplace stress are discussed and nine categories were identified. The survey also returned that the physical working conditions create stress.5. The results of section D of the questionnaire indicate that there is no work-life balance.4. the survey returned that 46% of the staff members have a 50% or more chance of a serious change in their health within the next year. Furthermore. career development.6 CONCLUSION In Paragraph 3.8. The survey returned that 4 of the 9 categories are prevalent: workload. which map to the high percentage of chronic conditions for which principal members younger than 65 are most commonly registered at the Tshwane University of Technology. 78 . status and pay which include job security and the fourth one home work interference. Life events are also a major source of stress for the staff members. A quantitative approach was used for the following reasons: To explain and predict. The primary research method was a literature study of stress and of stress in the workplace. The research design and methodology. To confirm and validate. research question and investigative questions will be re-stated and elaborated upon. The respondents describe their daily experiences as it relates to stress.4.2 THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The research approach in this study is both qualitative and quantitative in nature. The key research objectives will be addressed. a general reflective overview of the study is provided.1 of Chapter 1. Research findings will be mapped to the research content and specific recommendations will be made to mitigate the research problem as stated in Paragraph 1. 79 . the research problem. 6. The researcher was enabled to interact with what is being studied. To test theory. A qualitative approach was used for the following reasons: Stress occurs in the real world environment of TUT.1 INTRODUCTION In this concluding chapter.CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION 6. A questionnaire was distributed to permanent staff members of the Faculty of Arts of TUT. 6.4. Furthermore. no promotion opportunities and work-life balance. the physical working conditions. stress always manifest 80 . 6.3 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM RE-VISITED The research problem formulated in Paragraph 1. in the opinion of this author can be mitigated successfully should the recommendations which are elaborated upon in Paragraph 6.7 of this Chapter are implemented at the TUT.1 of Chapter 1 reads as follows: “Unacceptable high levels of stress in the Faculty of Arts at TUT.6. Stress at work: Are created by the organization and pertain to. but the causes of stress differ. and as a result. From the questionnaire analysis reflected in Chapter 5 the following stressors are prevalent: Life events: 46% of the respondents have a 50% chance of a serious change in their health within the next year. salaries.4 THE RESEARCH QUESTION RE-VISITED The research question formulated in Paragraph 1. The types of stress can be divided in three categories: Life events: The presence of stress is universal. insecurity. Investigative Question 1: “Can it be determine whether the staff members at the Faculty of Arts experience stress and furthermore which type of stress are most common”? From the questionnaire analysis in Chapter 5.5 THE INVESTIGATIVE QUESTIONS RE-VISITED The investigative questions which were researched in support of the research question are analyzed below. classified and ultimately mitigated.5 of Chapter 1 reads as follows: “Can the type of stress experienced by staff members at the Faculty of Arts be identified. adversely impacting on employee well being”. affect individuals differently. the conclusion can be drawn that the staff members at TUT positively experience stress. The research problem in this dissertation. Work-life balance: From the questionnaires it was evident that there is no worklife balance among the respondents. because stress without context is more stressful and unchecked stress. salaries.as levels that differ from person. Workplace stress: Was created by the physical working environment. While employers present stress management courses for staff members. Proper money and financial coaching was however more effective. stress can be fatal. TUT can address small incremental improvements that can help to manage stress. however stress management programs need to be addressed from a holistic perspective. Furthermore. or in extreme cases. While many of the life’s problems are minor. Presenting stress management techniques and programs often seems that for every step forward there are two taken backward. Poor personal financial planning behaviours are also a breeding ground for stress. can be unendurable. for example the 81 . they do not address the stressors in the workplace that creates the stress. From the questionnaires it was evident that the physical work environment is not satisfactory. individuals need to find an answer for the reasons why they are making personal sacrifices and how long it will last. which returned that such courses does not solve the problem for the majority. the occurrences of several important changes at one particular point in time may contribute to increased individual vulnerability to illness. calling for the employer to make the necessary adjustments. Furthermore. situation and environment. it may seem that people do take responsibility for their own wellbeing. and no promotion. Gone are the days when the workplace operates as a family and companies looked after the individual. insecurity. Stress management need to start with the individual. Investigative Question 2 Can practical stress management techniques be implemented to address stress as experienced by staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT? Stress management techniques can be implemented. presenting courses in financial management and personal finances. However. but most of the time it is a reactive action and not a pro-active action. an aspect the researcher experienced during her employment as an Employee Assistance Practitioner. Today employees have to take responsibility for the own wellbeing. insecurity. 6. the following: Primary Prevention: The organization as well as each employee need to be made aware that the organisation recognises the current high stress levels and should where possible institute remedial action to lower the stress levels. and no healthy food is available. by changing the way the job is done. Review the workloads to map with each individual’s physical and mental capabilities. salaries. for the benefit of both parties. at the Tshwane University of Technology do experience high levels of stress. work organization and job content in such a way that the individual is not subjected to physical strain of mental stress which may lead to illness or accidents. 6. 82 . in order to determine if there is a drop in the stress levels. Improve the ergonomics to comply with the standards as prescribed by the Department of Labour. Stress is a reality that both the individual as well as the employer experience. The main stressors are life events. Introduce flexi-time to accommodate different employees. Give employees the opportunity to participate in the design of their own work situation. and the physical work environment. Design the technologies. Reduce bureaucratic processes and red-tape.7 RECOMMENDATIONS The recommendations which are to serve as an approach to mitigate the research problem and serve as a directive to TUT.g. Both the individual as well as the employer need to co-operate with one another in order to manage it. Changing the demands of work e.6 KEY RESEARCH FINDINGS The key research findings of this research are the following: The staff members of the Faculty of Arts.restaurants and kiosks on the campuses only sell junk food. Stress management programs need to be measured properly. 8 KEY RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH The key research objectives with this research study are: To determine whether the staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT experience stress. reward and recognition systems. Determine if there are better ways in which outstanding performance can be recognised and rewarded? Providing balanced menus in the workplace restaurant and cafeterias. allow interaction among employees. so that their attitude. relaxation etc. Tertiary Prevention Reduce the impact of stress by developing more sensitive and responsive management systems. 83 . understanding and their skills to deal with it is as effective as possible. and encourage co-operation and teamwork. Implement wellness days. Increase the amount and quality of support staff members receive. To identify practical stress management techniques that could mitigate the primary research problem. Secondary Prevention Reduce stress through worker education and training in stress management. Train managers in dealing with work stress. To identify the causes of stress as experienced by the staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT. assertiveness. Make sure staff knows whom to talk to about their problems.g. time management. promotion. 6. Develop a more friendly and supportive organization culture. Monitor staff satisfaction and health on a regular basis.Review the adequacy of current pay. knowledge. Develop programs and processes to reduce job insecurity and/ or assist staff to cope with job insecurity. e. how to recognize it. well-measured stress management program or model can be implemented in the targeted institution. it can have a broader application for similar higher tertiary education institutions in South Africa. High stress levels and the effect it have on individuals as well as organizations. Most of the institutions have a reactive approach by implementing counselling services. and how to manage it. 6. 84 . supervisors and managers realize what stress is. in the TUT after the merger. which assists each staff member suffering from undue stress. Should the recommendations made in this dissertation be acceptable. The significance of this research is therefore embedded within the context that if a practical. There is great pressure on people to remain operational in spite of work pressure. it would facilitate a relatively stress free working environment in a much needed stress environment. The institutions also do not create working environments were staff members.9 PERSONAL REFLECTION During the duration of this study as well as work-related situations. The significance of this research stems from the fact that: This research is the first research executed on stress. The challenge would be to formulate a model that will benefit also the person who do not want to take responsibility for his own health. the author came to the conclusion that Higher Education Institutions in South Africa did not spend enough time on creating policies and programs for assisting staff members to deal with stress. is a world wide concern. 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