Wild Lanka 1

Journal of the Department of Wildlife Conservation 2006-1: 113-118SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND ECONOMIC POTENTIALS OF DOMESTICATION OF ELEPHANT AS A MEAN OF ELEPHANT CONSERVATION IN SRI LANKA A.M.S.T. ATHAUDA* Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management Faculty of Agriculture,University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka ABSTRACT Loss of elephant habitats appears to be the main reason that leads to human elephant conflicts in most parts of the Dry Zone in Sri Lanka. Capturing and domestication of wild elephants is identified as one of the means of elephant conservation which promote the coexistence between humans and elephants that existed for generations. However, with the recent structural changes in the society and the economy such as mechanization and increased wage rates, captive elephant conservation may not be attractive as it was before. With this background, this study aimed at identifying the social as well as economic problems, and suggesting possible remedies that help to promote domestication of elephants. The study was based on collecting the data from a survey and discussions with key informants. The survey was comprised of a mail survey based on structured questionnaire and face-to-face interviews. The study found that since elephants are reared in Wet Zone, feed availability is not a major problem. However, most of the elephant owners have to make payments for the feeds. Indigenous, western or both veterinary practices are used for captive elephants. Generally, a single mahout is used to control an elephant and most of the mahouts live below the poverty line. Most of the elephants in homegarden are reared for prestige, while temples and devalas keep elephants for ceremonies. Hotels and orphanages rear elephants with the intention of attracting tourists. When compared costs and revenues, orphanages and hotels enjoy with marvelous profits. Thus hotels that receive profit can rear captive elephants, where there is a demand for elephant safaris, rides, etc. In addition to that, tamed captive elephants can be used to establish an elephant park, which is a win-win solution for both owners and people who take pleasure from elephant related activities. INTRODUCTION The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) represents one of the most seriously endangered species of large mam in the world. It is one of the few terrestrial megaherbivores extant in the world. In Sri Lanka elephants are declared as a protected species in 1937, under the enactment of the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance. During past five decades, the Sri Lankan population declined drastically mainly due to loss of habitats caused by deforestation and forest fragmentation. Domestication of elephants for various purposes including logging and cultural purposes has bear a practice in Sri Lanka and other African countries. Capturing and domestication of those wild elephants can be considered as a one of the measure of elephant conservation. The number of purposes with regard to rearing of captive elephants are gain income, social prestige, use in ceremonies for promote tourism activities. In practice, mostly captive elephants are kept for one more of alternative purposes. Presently, there are about 15,000 elephants in captivity in the world (Sukumar, 1986) while 214 captive elephants in Sri Lanka (Santiapillai, 199 114 Mahouts are the people who handle the elephants. In early times mahouts are available from generation to generation and they are well-trained people. However, now adays people reluctant to work as mahouts. Present status of captive elephant conservation in Sri Lanka At present, four types of captive elephant conservation methods are formed in Sri Lanka. They are individual people keep in their home gardens, temples and devalas keep in their garden, hotels keep captive elephants for tourism and keep captive elephants in the orphanages. Jainudeen and Jayasinghe (1970) stated that the more wealthy and aristocratic families were living in those areas and they keep elephants for prestige. The studies on captive elephants clearly indicate that captive elephant population is declining rapidly. There were 736 captive elephants in 1946(Santiapillai & De Silva), while in year 1955 there were 670 (Dereniyagala, 1955), According to the DWLC reports there were 344 domesticated elephants and this was declined to 214 by 1997(Jayewardene, 1997). The elephants in captivity decline over the time due to a number of reasons. Most of the captive elephants are too old thus their lifetime declines rapidly, absence of practicing breeding programmes among captive elephants, government banned to capture elephants from the wild and lack of veterinary practices and lack of availability of well-trained mahouts are rare of there. Most of the captive elephants feed kitul, jack and coconut. Elephants need ample amount of feed per day. Dry matter need of the elephant is 0.5% of the body weight and daily ration should be according to the age groups (Krishnamurthy, 1992). Therefore, finding of this amount of feeds is much more difficult. Because growth rate of those trees are lower than the feed requirement rate of the captive elephants. However compared to the world captive elephant population, Sri Lanka’s captive elephant population is fairly low. Large numbers of captive elephant population are found in Myanmar, Thailand, India and Lao. Fifty percent of world captive elephant population lives in those countries. In Myanmar, captive elephants are used for many works such as, timber extraction (logging), transportation (as baggage elephants in hilly forests), religious ceremonies and processions, capturing wild elephants, state functions and ceremonies, tourism and agricultural activities in difficult areas. India possesses 20 percent of captive elephant population of Asia and they are used of the cultural activities in India and provide lot of care for them. Problem justification As discussed earlier, deprivation of habitats for elephants appear to be the main problem of elephants. Given the limited forest coverage of 22% of total land area in Sri Lanka, it has been identified domestication of wild elephants as one of the solution of mitigating human elephant conflict in Sri Lanka by a number of experts. 115 chief of devalas. The target population of the study was composed of people who own elephants. This is in additions to the donation by Presidents and Priministers that is account for 25% of the 116 .incharge of the Orphanage at Pinnawala. information on feeding. Basnayake Nilames or chief incumbent of temples. veterinary practices. The survey finds that the most of the elephants (54. In temples and devalas. Source of receiving elephants DWC does not allow capturing elephants from the wild. mahouts.Though the practice of capturing and rearing has been done in Sri Lanka. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The situation presents the current status of rearing of elephants such as sources of feed. Therefore. in order to recommend elephant domestication on measures of conservation. The data were collected using a structured questionnaire which includes general information. breeding programmes are not generally practice in domestic elephants. for generations. The sample consisted. and mahouts. its economic potential has not been investigated. eight Buddhist priest or Basnayake Nilames.44%) reared in homegarden are reared by generations (Figure 1). As a result. cost and revenue. most of the elephants were purchased from outside. Statistical software Minitab was used for the analysis. hotel owners who rear elephants and the officer-in-charge of the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage. income and specific information based on different type of captive elephant conservation methods. Face-to-face interviews and mail surveys were used to collect the data based on snowball sampling. veterinary practices. this option has to be justifiable economically. nineteen elephant owners. feed availability. feed cost. given the limited land reserves and substitution by mechanical equipments. though tourism appears to be somewhat attractive. it is of paramount importance to investigate the economics and the social aspects of the various means of captive elephant conservation Against this background the objective of this study are to get an insight on present socio economic condition of captive elephant conservation so as to identify the problems of the elephant owners and then information would be helpful to develop meaningful recommendation to promote domestication as a mean of elephant conservation in Sri Lanka. remaining captive elephant number increase or renew only through breeding programmes. bathing facilities. Of new areas of captive elephants. two hotel owners and the officer. feed type. However. The data analysis includes computation of the descriptive and cross tabulation. bathing facilities. METHODOLOGY The study is manly based on data collected through primary survey. this was about 100%. owners give sustenance feed for them. 117 . After capturing translocation have to practice and it is very difficult task. In temple of tooth relic. The most common method for catching elephants is tranquillizing and translocation them by truck. Though private owners show a high demand for tamed elephants and prefer adults. Percentage based on type of conservation 60 50 Reared by generation Percentage 40 Out side purchase Direcly captured 30 Puchased from an auction Other 20 10 0 Home garden Temple & devala Hotel Orphanage Type of conservation Figure 1. Among those feeds most common types of feeds are Kitul. thorny and seasonal plants which have less chemical defenses. Source of receiving elephant Types and sources of feed Feed type Dung studies indicate that elephants eat around 140 different species. Captive elephants in homegarden are mainly fed on Kitul (32. Well trained people are needed to that activity. As a result captive elephant number in orphanage increases with time. The elephants in Pinnawala are directly captured by the DWC. They prefer grasses. approximately 120kg per day.domestic elephants.73%).27%) and jack (25. In addition to that orphanage increase captive elephant number through breeding programmes since they have huge potential of spending ability and veterinary practices. as those are directly profitable it is very difficult to do it more pragmatically. According to the different studies there are more number of male elephants in the wild and capturing of males will not be a big problem.45%) (Figure 2) Due to the weakness of some captive elephant. who need elephants. coconut and jack. Capturing of elephants from the wild is a very huge task and need much cost and man power to do it. coconut (27. However this was done by early stages and most of that elephants were captured due to bad health conditions and some were translocated from war areas. As a result direct capturing cannot be practiced by individual people and temple and devala. soya flour(1kg). federal. their budget is covered through government fund allocation and in addition to that they earn huge income which could be able to spend buy feeds from out side suppliers. because of keeping elephants for social prestige. jack leaves. Orphanage also had a special feed ration. Though temples and devalas possess high amount of land area. 118 . rulan and Nestomalt. This special feed ration include mixture of feeds. However. elephants in hotels require much more feed compared with others. they do not keep elephants in those lands. owners provide those feeds. some of people who rear captive elephants in homegarden indicated difficulty in finding feeds while others experienced that it is extremely difficult to find the feeds (Figure 3). mung flour(500g). These are bought from outside contractors. Each baby elephant receive a packet of Lactogen per milk time and there were five milk times per day. Since orphanage is a government institution. cytoxine.Eventhough feed cost is high. kitul trunk. as they purchase them suppliers from outside. feed availability is high among areas where captive elephants are reared. Percentage based on type of conservation 45 40 Percentage 35 Kitul 30 25 Coconut 20 Jack 15 other 10 5 0 Home garden Temple & devala Hotel Orphanage Type of conservation Figure 2. Most of these areas belong to wet zone. Consequently. This feed ration give daily with the purpose of improving health conditions of the weak elephants. glucose. rice flour(1kg). coconut leaves and mixture of other leaves which increase taste. protinex. four samaposa packets. eight breads. which include kitul leaves. There are five baby elephants also in the orphanage. Feed types Feed availability According to the results of the survey. Orphanage normally has enough amounts of feeds. thus vegetation is available throughout the year. These baby elephants were fed in milk. in addition to leaves. because of lack of water availability and feeds. sesame. owned large land areas. they cannot find such amount of feeds with freely. and thereby they obtain part of elephant feeds with freely. Pecentage based on type of conservation 120 Percentage 100 80 Free 60 Paym ent 40 20 0 Hom e garden Tem ple Hotel Type of conservation Figure 4. Most of the people rear elephants in homegarden and temple and devala. Source of finding of feeds 119 Orphanage .Percentage based on type of conservation 120 Very high Percentage 100 High 80 Difficult 60 Extremly difficult 40 20 0 Home garden Temple & devala Hotel Orphanage Type of conservation Figure 3. also they have enough amounts of funds to allocate feeds and as a result they totally depend on outside feed suppliers. Feed availability Source of finding of feeds Elephant owners find the feeds for elephants either from freely or with some payment. hence they possess large land areas. Thus they can find some amount of feeds with freely. Some elephants that are in hotels are reared by generation. All types of elephant owners buy feeds for their elephants (Figure 4). Since orphanage possesses seventy captive elephants. However all types of elephant owners buy large proportion of feeds from outside suppliers and spend huge cost on feed. People.5 Figure 5.64. use of indigenous veterinary practices diminishing due to number of reasons such as. they spend much on feeds. lack of Finding of indigenous veterinary doctors are difficulties of finding of these medicines. the elephant feed costs of hotel is Rs.3. who rear elephants in home gardens and temples and devalas. Temples and devalas also spend high cost for feeds of elephants. 120 . Regular check ups are practiced by the veterinary doctors in orphanage. Since hotels concern about profit. mainly use both veterinary practices due to low cost while orphanage totally depends on western veterinary practices (Figure 6).Feed cost Pinnawala orphanage incurs a very high feed cost per elephant relative to other conservation strategies.285 (Figure 5). Feed cost Veterinary practices Type of veterinary practices Both western as well as indigenous veterinary practices are used.300-500 /elephant/day and around 4-5 people take care for the food supply. Feed cost 142642 364285 214735 Home garden Temple & devala Hotel Orphanage 179666. However. As a result. There are two veterinary doctors attached to Pinnawala elephant orphanage and they give special vaccines to the elephants. Western veterinary practices are popular among elephant owners. because they possess paddy fields and other income sources. which is around Rs. they spend less amount of money on feeds. Most food comes from the coconut plantations nearby. Recovery rate is high with veterinary practices and western veterinary practices are highly available throughout captive elephant conservation areas. However. In addition to that keep litters in very clean. Type of veterinary practices People. There are two veterinary doctors attached to Pinnawala elephant orphanage and they give special vaccines to the elephants. doctors give penadols and one dosage include twelve penadols. Therefore. Orphanage also spends much cost on veterinary practices. Veterinary cost Highest veterinary cost is spent in homegardens. Elephants in orphanage receive vermicides in every four-month and when they sick.5 17562. providing of veterinary practices are cost effective. Since elephants are large animals. they spend much cost on veterinary practices. Elephants are aggressive therefore providing veterinary practices incorporate with danger. because of their main purpose is to obtain income. People rear elephants in home garden for social prestige are wealthier people. Hotels do not much concern on veterinary practices. Regular check ups are practiced by the veterinary doctors in orphanage.5 Figure 7. who rear elephants in home gardens and temples and devalas. Veterinary cost 20000 28052 Hom e garden Tem ple & devala Hotel Orphanage 13333.P ercen tag e b ased o n typ e o f co n servatio n 120 Percentage 100 80 60 40 W e stern 20 Ind e ge ne o us 0 H om e garden T em ple & devala H otel O rphanage B oth T yp e o f con servatio n Figure 6. mainly use both veterinary practices due to low cost while orphanage totally depends on western veterinary practices (Figure 6). In addition to that keep litters in very clean. owners have to spend much on the doctor’s fee. because owners have to give large dosage to recover elephants. Veterinary cost Bathing facilities 121 . because there are two elephants that are weak and old thus owners spend high cost to improve their health status (Figure 7). as a result. Most of the captive elephant rearing areas belong to wet zone in Sri Lanka.Elephants mainly bathe in rivers. As a result. they keep only one mahout to handle their elephants. The study revealed that mahouts serve in hotels and the orphanage. a mahout controls several captive elephants. Rivers. On the other hand.3500. However finding of good quality water is difficult during rainy season is a problem among owners because of mixing of mud with water. Bathing facilities Mahouts The role of mahouts is crucial in captive elephant conservation. etc. In most cases. Maha oya. owners hire one or two mahouts to handle the elephants in captivity. In the orphanage. high mahout wage rate will alter the profits of keeping elephants. they need large water bodies for bath (Figure 8). Wages of mahouts are important issue due to a number of reasons Low wages leads to low level of living of mahout population and it leads to less care to elephants by mahouts. it was found that some temples and devalas do 122 . Home garden and temple and devala use two mahouts to control an elephant. Difficulties in finding water sources are not a main problem among captive elephant owners. Since the elephants are so aggressive during musth period two mahouts are used to handle them. Captivity elephants need to be chained. lakes streams are found in those areas. Most of the mahouts in hotels receive around Rs.00 per month. however this will make them aggressive towards mahouts. However. Since elephants are large animals. owners receive income and most of the time this income goes to the mahouts. For that reason keeping two mahouts per elephant is an additional cost for them. water is available throughout year in those water sources. therefore they possess enough skills to handle more than one elephants.6000 wage per month (Figure 9). while hotels and orphanage use only one mahout. Percentage based on type of conservation 120 Percentage 100 River 80 Stream 60 Lake 40 Other 20 0 Home garden Temple & devala Hotel Orphanage Type of conservation Figure 8. is an important issue to provide better care and attention for elephants.6000. receive Rs. Hotels and orphanage mainly concern about their profit. As a result. However. Number of mahout per elephant. such as Mahaweli River. some mahouts are coming from generation. When elephants participate to processions. some elephant owners (21. In addition to that social level of being mahout is low.62%) keep elephants for logging and tourism activities. because these mahouts are coming from generations and temples and devalas give lands for those mahouts on behalf of wage.not provide desired wage for mahouts. they live below the poverty line. The new trend of captive elephant rearing is. The elephants in orphanage are going to train for procession like cultural activities and they are very concerned about the well being of our animals and that is the reason why they will not sell elephants to the private owners. Consequently. Elephant owners give high wage rate to mahouts otherwise opportunity cost of being mahout is high. Instead they are asked to find work and earn money. Number of elephants in procession is declining with time. Most of devalas and temples rear elephants to use in pageants. As a result attractiveness of that procession’s get reduces and most of the temples and devalas want to rear more number of elephants. 123 . Mahout wages Purpose of rearing captive elephants Mixed use strategies. Hotels and orphanage earn more revenue directly and indirectly due to rear elephants. Tourism profits were not the main goal to start the safaris. which is not enough to cover cost of living. Wage rate is a sensitive factor. so the perception management is needed to improve the social status of mahouts. So that most of the elephants rear in home garden (43%) for social prestige and they keep elephants as symbol of their wealth (Figure 10). allowing for one or more purposes will yield positive impact of domestication of elephants. In fact most elephant owners did not have enough money to take good care for their elephants. use these elephants for tourism activities. This can be done by giving them a uniform and a higher salary or simply by changing the name of the job. Percentage based on type of conservation 120 Percentage 100 <3000 3000-3500 3500-6000 >6000 80 60 40 20 0 Home garden Temple & Hotel Orphanage devala Type of conservation Figure 9. Setting up eco-tourism projects could be a source of income for farmers during the dry season. The general idea was to safe the domestic elephants that had been used in the logging industry. In addition to that. because most of the mahouts receive low income. 400 from foreign and Rs. In orphanage huge amount of income comes from the entrance fee. processions. In addition to elephant related activities they practice some other income related activities which gain profit for the hotel. Hotels organize some elephant related activities such as elephant rides. is between Rs. Medical costs.50 and 75 thousand a day.50 from local person. As a result most of foreigners as well as local people visit the Pinnawala elephant orphanage to get an experience from this rare occasion and most of them prefer to see feeding on baby elephants and bathing of elephants.50 and from local child is Rs.500. about 500 foreigners and about 500 local people visit this place daily. Also some people possess vehicles to transport their elephants. feeding and other management.250. local adult is Rs. Because those people keep elephants for prestige and temples and devalas keep elephants to participate ceremonies. In Orphanage and hotels revenue exceeds the costs thus hotels and Pinnawala elephant orphanage enjoy profits by rearing captive elephants (Figure 11). safaris. without the salaries. The price of ticket of adult foreigner is Rs. Purpose of rearing captive elephants Revenue and costs The economic justification for rearing captive elephants can be found by considering revenue and costs. mock war. 124 .500-1500. In addition to that earnings10% of the total annual income of the Maximus shop goes to Pinnawala. child is Rs. During season.25. however do not obtain income from those activities.Percentage based on type of conservation 80 70 Percentage 60 Tourism 50 Prestige 40 Ceremonies 30 Income 20 Other 10 0 Home garden Temple & devala Hotel Orphanage Type of conservation Figure 10. maintaining cost of elephants is high. Temples and devalas received least income due to keep elephants. people participate their elephants to participate ceremonies. In order to bring video cameras they pay Rs. etc and they pay Rs. As a result. Orphanage possesses seventy captive elephants and it is the only place in the world where people can see such a large herd of captive elephants. Most of the temples and devalas and some of people who rear elephants did not use elephants to earn profit. In addition to that. captured from the wild. Thereby it gives economic values to elephants dung and creates more awareness for elephant protection. Specially. A captured elephants costs now around 2 million rupees and a tusker between 4 and 5 million. In future they expect to collect elephant dung form areas where people suffer from human elephant conflict. The annual turnover of the Maximus is around US$ 250.000 and it will contribute to national income of the Sri Lanka. company started called ‘Maximus’ produce recyclable paper using elephant dung. during July to September most of temples in Sri Lanka held processions and elephants are used to decorate them. because the owners do not want to sell their elephants and it is not allowed by DWLC to capture more elephants from the wild. As a result temples need more elephants.The temple of the tooth relic used to have 100 elephants. The CEOA wanted the possibility for the owners to buy elephants from the Pinnawela elephant orphanage. There is a huge demand for captured elephants and are very difficult to get. Revenue and costs 125 . Revenue and Cost 600000 500000 Rupees 400000 Average cost 300000 Average revenue 200000 100000 0 Home garden Temple & devala Hotel Orphanage Type of captive elephant conservation Figure 11. As a result during that period temples suffer lack of elephants. or otherwise imported elephants. In 1985 the Captive Elephants Owners Association (CEOA) was founded and there has been a demonstration against the governmental policies to get more elephants to the private owners. In Sri Lanka. However they are becoming old (60% is older than 50). This will create positive intention on elephant conservation among the people suffered human elephant conflict. One elephant produce around 80kg dung a day and with 10kg dung can produce 120 sheets of rough paper equal to 720 A4 size sheets. Importance in captive elephant conservation in Sri Lanka Table 1. income generating activities like tourism. Most of the elephants in Pinnawala elephant orphanage frequently use for educational and research activities. there are some incidences that some the mahouts and indigenous veterinary doctors were killed when elephant becomes musth. Significance of captive elephants in Sri Lanka Keeping ƒ Economics Religion Urban Education Ecology Total system Owners Mahouts Social tourism forestry Temple 2 1 3 0 1 0 7 Homegarden 3 1 3 2 1 2 12 Hotel 3 1 1 3 1 1 10 Orphanage 3 2 0 3 3 0 11 0=not significant 1=low 2= moderate 3= relatively high A highest total mark is given for elephants keep in homegarden and it is followed by the elephant’s keep in Pinnawala elephant orphanage (Table 1). however they pay less for mahouts. For entertainment. Some mahouts who handle elephants in temple and devala do not receive wage from the owners consequently mahouts attempt to get more 126 . Temples and devalas use these elephants mainly for religious activities and rarely use for educational. As a result. banana and rubber trees. Therefore. tourism like activities. During this time elephants damage to the properties of other people and owners have to bear financial compensation for damages. nevertheless finding of veterinary practices become difficult among elephant owners. when keeping and handling elephants. Since elephant is a large mammal. finding of feeds for elephants were much more difficult. Elephants in hotels create lot of money for the owners. should give large dosage of medicines compared with other animals which is much expensive for elephant owners they need large water bodies to bath. elephant safaris and rides like income generating activities. Problems associated with captive elephant rearing Both elephant owners and mahouts face a number of problems. Indigenous veterinary practices are shared by all among captive elephants. In addition to that the elephant dung in orphanage is used as fertilizer for the coconut palms. Elephants in home garden are mostly used for religious activities and also for logging. When handle some elephants. finding of bathing place during drought period and rainy period is a much more difficult. elephant watching works already very well. As a result of reduction of forest coverage. owner receives somewhat high income from the elephants. and specially on feeding of baby elephants and everyone wants to feed them. Temples and devalas do not use these elephants to generate income. The orphanage possible attractions could be elephant watching. Mainly these elephants are used for tourism activities and rarely use for educational and research activities. since hotels enjoying with profit. 64. As a result. Therefore. people unable to move closer to elephants. 052) As indicated in problem justification. DWC wants to register every elephant owner for Rs. Some mahouts put less care on elephants and mistreat the elephants that lead to early deaths among captive elephants. A park could create awareness of both tourists and local community. finding of mahouts.00 – 7000. etc. Some people give liqueur to mahouts and endeavor to get more work from elephants. which has high demand for elephant safaris. Establishing an elephant park is win win situation for both elephant owners and people who take pleasure from elephant related activities. mitigating human elephant conflicts in the short term and contribute to the conservation. the number of work available per elephant declined with time and owners receive lower income and keeping an elephant become much more difficult. high maintenance cost. Although Pinnawala elephant orphanage is a better place for elephants. which exceed their carrying capacity. the elephant gets less draft work thus captive elephants become wild elephants. The following conclusions can be generated according to the results of the study. People who rear elephants in homegarden spend remarkably highest cost on veterinary practices of an elephant (Rs.28. can recommend rearing elephants in hotels. which is economically sound. however owners will get nothing in return. face a number of problems such as finding of feeds. still there are ample amounts of feeds available throughout the captive elephant conservation areas. For killing an elephants have to pay Rs. The captive elephants in orphanage are not tamed. Consequently. The annual profit of the orphanage is about 5 million. difficulties in finding of water during drought and difficulties in finding good quality water during rain and mahouts are less care and mistreat the elephants. 127 . Orphanage spends Rs.000. etc. CONCLUSION This study aimed at investigating the economic and social aspects of captive elephant rearing as measures of conservations of elephants in Sri Lanka. With the popularization machinery.5000 and most of the time murders are set free without charge.00 annually from an elephant. The average income of mahout range between Rs. Hotels and orphanage enjoying profit. they prefer to rear one more elephants with the intention of social prestige and to use for ceremonies. Rearing of elephants in homegarden and temple and devala.500. tamed captive elephants can be used establish an elephant park. captive elephant conservation methods should be economically sound However with the mechanization.works from the elephants. number of mahouts in this place is very low and elephants do not receive required degree of care and attention from the mahouts. while hotels gain Rs.00 which is not adequate. elephant owners do not register in DWC.00 annually for feeds of an elephant and spends highest feed cost per elephant. As stated in results and discussion. As a result. rides. This will result early death among captive elephants.3. 80.285. Nevertheless. 3000. creating income possibilies for community. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Dr. Kurt. 2000. Senior Lecturer.H. Status of temple elephant management in Tamil Nadu. Tiger paper.Sc. An economic assessment of damage caused by the wild elephants in villages around Ritigala strict nature reserves. University of Peradeniya.htm 128 . 2003.C.Sc. The care and management of domesticated Asian elephants in Sri Lanka[on line].N.Samarasinghe.Samarasinghe.(1992).J. Gokula. 1996.R. University of Peradeniya. 1997. F. An economic assessment of damage caused by the wild elephants in villages around Ritigala strict nature reserves. A. and Maze. A. and Jahnsingh. B. M.thesis. 2001[cited 16 December 2004]. B.H.Gajah15:37-40. Gajah17:1-5. (1997). L. Captive elephants in Sri Lanka: status. S. for his valuable advises. Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management.fao. (1996). Available from internet http://www. Thailand. Rome: FAO. distribution and numbers. Elephant capture in Meghalaya.Gunaratne. and Vardharajan. K. Eltringham. Gajah22:30-41. Elephants –Out of time and space: National Geographic. Lair. Williams. (1998).org/DOCREP/005/AD031E/ado31eov. (1991). The Return of the illustrated Encyclopedia of elephants. Quoted in T. Northeast India. Faculty of Agriculture. encouraging guidance and persistent throughout this study.K. D. Thailand: Jayantha Jayawrdena.C. J.P. University of Peradeniya. V. Southern India.U.T.N. Nature 4:13-18. Jayewardene. REFERENCES Chadwick.the past and the future. 2000. The care and management of the Asian elephant in domesticity.Guidlines for the management of captive Asian elephants and the possible role of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group.thesis. Quoted in T. K. The random intercept sampling method was used. The necessary information for the study was collected through two surveys carried out simultaneously during the period of January to February 2005. BANDARA* and L.H. GUNARATNE Faculty of Agriculture. The degree of interest on elephant related activities by the tourists. University of Peradeniya ABSTRACT The Sri Lankan elephant population shows a marked reduction during last five decades. One survey was carried out targeting the tourists that come to see the elephants. However. with the low demand for draft. guest houses within 40-km boundary of parks.D.ECONOMIC POTENTIAL OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY TO CONSERVE THE ENDANGERED ELEPHANTS IN SRI LANKA K.D. and the status of involvement of tourist hotels and guest houses in those activities are also evaluated. With this background.S. a mailed survey was executed focusing the tourist hotels and guest houses.P. about 8% of the sampled tourists have selected the Sri Lanka as their tours destination mainly to see the elephants while around 20% tourists arrive to Sri Lanka with an intention of watching elephants. domestication of elephants should be targeted on more economically attractive options such as tourism. mainly due to destruction of elephant habitats by development projects and illegal encroachments. promotion of elephant related activities and facilitating elephant watching. protected areas and orphanage were selected to the sample. The average willingness to pay for these activities are 20 US$ and 28 US$ respectively. based on a structured questionnaire prepared in English. Meantime. French and Japanese. 129 . With the limitations of the lands available for elephants and escalating human-elephant conflicts. Study found that there is a substantial potential in exploit elephants in tourism industry. domestication of the elephants appear to one of the viable way of conserving elephants. The descriptive statistical analysis revealed that. The potential of generating revenue via the integration of the elephants to the sector was also considered. the economic potential of utilization of elephants in tourism industry is investigated in this study.A. Tourist hotels. The study revealed that more than 80% tourists like to experience the elephant rides whereas more than 60% tourists prefer experience on the elephant safaris. which will generate more income to the elephant owners thus domestication can be used as one of the means of conservation of endangered elephants in Sri Lanka. The survey carried out with the managers shows that more than 70 % of hotels and accommodations that are located vicinity of the parks have involved in any kind of elephant related activities as keeping elephants for tourism. 1998). Conservation efforts At present.INTRODUCTION The Elephas maximus maximus in Sri Lanka is the type specimen of Linnaeus (Crusz. (1986) showed that it is genetically quite distinct from the Indian sub species Elephas maximus ibengalensis. (Wicramasinghe. Nevertheless.(1997) the key to finding out a long term solution to the human elephant conflict in Sri Lanka is two fold. Shotake et al. De Silva. habitat enrichment. there is a growing concern over conservation of Sri Lankan elephant by various government organizations and non-government organizations. the social and economic value of its existence. 1986). But today only about six percent of the males have tusks in Sri Lanka. (1997) and Dublin. electric fencing and promoting exsitu conservation. Therefore it is important that its management and conservation should take in to account. If this trend exists the Sri Lankan elephant population will extinct from earth for ever within one or two decades. where 90% of the bulls are tuskers (Sukumar. Also this situation largely results from the ad-hoc development projects carried out during the last five decades (Weerakoon. The systematic slaughter of elephants in general and of tuskers in particular began with the arrival of the colonial powers and the introduction of firearms. 1978). To 130 . According to Santiapillai. 1998). large numbers were captured to be used as war elephants or for export to other countries. 1986). 1999) and is exacerbated by the lack of coordination between different government departments and wildlife authorities. The elephants have been influencing Sri Lankan socio-cultural environment since the ancient time. translocation of elephants and elephant drives. in contrast to southern India. The situation was exploited to such an extent that a government ordinance in 1891 banned the “wanton destruction” of elephants (Olivier. There is an enormous cultural and religious significance of elephant to the both Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka. Some of these measures adopted are: establishment of new national parks and protected areas. 1990. 1928). The animal was given full legal protection in 1937. establishment of elephant corridors. Fragmentation and loss of habitats are the factors contributing to this decline and this lead to human elephant conflict (Desai.D. Status of elephants in Sri Lanka The Sri Lankan elephant population has undergone a marked reduction from the mid nineteen century (Santiapillai and Jackson. Moreover poor integration of economic aspects and lack of attention to public preferences for elephant conservation compound the problem. The decline of the Sri Lankan elephant population has been largely results of lacking socio-economic and political considerations. The elephant has been protected in Sri Lanka since 12th century A. 7 64.7 15.5 67.1 12.5 14. Tourism play a key role in economic and social benefits like attracting foreign currency. Million) Source: CTB publication.3 16.8 1996 59.3 1997 116. According to the recent statistics tourism provide 10% of the world’s income and employs one tenth of the world work force. In Sri Lanka. Tourists arrival by region Tourism industry involves various stakeholders in addition to the tourists such as accommodation establishments and restaurants owners. and where elephants and humans do overlap.6 58.5 2000 162. 2003).9 2002 149.4 52.7 61.etc. Table 2.5 28.8 .6 13. It contributes 6% of the global GNP and 13% of consumptive expenditure.1 131 1998 143. tour operators.Tourism has been significant in the case of many aspects.encourage the adoption land-use strategies (such as selective timber extraction. a very tangible element which can use for conservational activities. 2003 Source of Revenue Hotels & Restaurants Travel Agencies Shops 1995 79.4 9. more funds for the conservation. Tourism Tourism is one of the world largest and fast growing industries. whether conservation is capable with the incorporation of elephants to the tourism industry.8 14. Moreover.0 10.1 2001 128. Revenue from the tourism. Table 1. tourism has become a very important factor in foreign exchange earning. that people derive tangible benefits from their presence (such as eco-tourism). improve world understanding . controlled livestock grazing) that are compatible with elephant conservation.0 39. from US dollars 248 million in 2002 to US dollars 324 million in 2003. Table 2 shows the income distribution among various stakeholders. This study has focused towards the assessing of potential economic benefits that can be taken via tourism industry to conserve the endangered elephant in Sri Lanka. Table 1 show the number of tourists arrived in last two years.6 26. Huge number of tourists arrives per year to Sri Lanka. Gross earnings from the tourist industry increased by 39 percent in 2003. travel agents. (Central Bank of Sri Lanka.4 1999 164.1993 to 2002 (In Rs. Also the captive elephants in tourist hotels used for tourists attractions as elephant rides thus generating huge amount of money.0 29.146.2 300.3 30. Therefore.125. conserving of this unique sub species of Asian elephant is of paramount importance in substantiation of economical.4 38. Though tourism has that much significance for elephant’s conservation. investigation of economic potential of tourism industry to conserve the endangered elephants is very important as a prior task.0 26.026. Therefore.386.379.1 34. social and cultural benefits due to its existence in the long term.9 41.3 222.6 23.3 8.5 1.2 0.0 21.4 18.6 784.202.5 225.1 121. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the economic potential of tourism industry for using in elephant conservation in Sri Lanka.8 977.4 2.3 54.7 18.9 879.5 835.863.1 56.000 of tourists arrive to Sri Lanka and many of tourists visit wildlife parks to observe the elephants in the wild.7 393.8 26. Foreign exchange earnings form tourism -2001 & 2002 (In Rs mill) Source 2001 * 2002 ** Banks Travel Agencies Shops Hotels Others TOTAL 6.7 608. In addition.8 This study is mainly focused towards assessing the potential contribution of accommodation establishments (tourist hotels and guest houses) and restaurants in addition to the tourists.614. The hotels and travel agencies earn large portion of revenue as shown in table 3.1 186.4 1.2 242.0 21.5 0.5 5.8 14. The accommodation establishments situated near the park generate revenue via supplying foods.9 151.1 4.8 218.0 0.2 58.6 200.2 16. 132 . tourism can perform a major role in conserving elephants. In this sense.6 168.6 24.2 276.4 190.615.2 60.2 183. Table 3.0 269.2 564. its potential should be examined economically.0 0.Embarkation Tax Cultural Triangle Botanical Gardens Zoological Gardens National Parks Museums TOTAL 201.3 5.530.4 27. lodging and other facilities to the tourists who come visit the parks.8 15.4 1.8 0. Domestication of elephants especially to the tourism industry is considered as a one of the solution to conserve elephants. the ways and means by which tourist hotel owners contribute to conserve the elephants is also investigated.523.0 * Revised ** Provisional Tourism as a mean of elephant conservation The Sri Lankan elephant population is being declined in a crucial rate.0 4.2 11.4 29. which again promote the long term coexistence of human and elephants.718.6 427.7 25.4 0.1 719.5 32.2 0. Per year about 500.2 3.2 22. The willing to pay for various elephant related experiences by tourists and those factors influencing their willingness to pay is also found. Bundala. The target population was the tourists who visit the nature sites. Total of 120 questionnaires were used for the survey and 70 of them were in English. The questionnaire was prepared in English and translated into French and Japanese in order to collect data from the non-English speaking tourists. Pre testing was carried out prior to commence of the field survey. The relevant data to the study from managers of the relevant establishments was collected using a structured questionnaire. initially the parks and protected areas where the elephants are present were found. The interviewing of tourists was done so as to represent a group of tourists by several individuals of that group. it is assumed that the tourists who are interested in elephants arrive the areas closer to the wildlife parks and the orphanage. They were arranged to get the personal information. Meantime. Wasgamuwa. literature review and informal discussions with key informants. Therefore a sample of tourists was interviewed using the questionnaires at Uda Walawa. Therefore. The number of French and Japanese were 30 and 20 respectively.METHODOLOGY Both primary data and secondary data were used in this study. guest houses and accommodations In this part of the study. Adopted methodologies for the process of data collection were mainly questionnaire surveys. guest houses and accommodations and follow up telephone calls were given. increase the response rate. The hotels. Relevant articles in journals and magazines as well as the research publications were reviewed to obtain additional information. general information of visit to Sri Lanka and their responses on experienced elephant related activities with preferences. Mail survey of managers of the hotels. guest houses and accommodations were selected using the list of “Accommodation Guide” published by the Ceylon Tourist Board which was updated in November-December. The field survey of tourists The relevant data to the study were collected by interviewing the tourists using a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was comprised of three sections. section 1 was prepared to get the general information of the 133 . Then the area within a boundary of 40 km around the parks and protected areas were chosen was for the study. 2004. Yala and Pinnawala where major portion of tourists come to see the elephants. Minneriya. guest houses and accommodations. some of the establishment were visited and directly interviewed the managers. The questionnaire was prepared in English which was comprised of three sections. The questionnaires were mailed with the cover letters to the managers of the hotels. Primary data was collected during the period of January 2005 to March 2005. Data collection Two parallel surveys were conducted incorporating the tourists and managers/owners of tourist hotels. establishments. The section 2 was included to get the elephant related activities, which they have involved. The section 3 was used to the information about their involvement to conserve endangered elephants. The necessary secondary information was collected from the publications of several institutions and their web sites such as Ceylon Tourist Board, Sri Lanka Hotel Corporation, Institute of Policy Studies and Central Bank. Some information as list of tourist hotels, guest houses and accommodations, number of tourists arrived in past few years, revenue earn by the tourism industry in relation to each year national income, amount of revenue earn by each stakeholder in the tourism sector were collected from these sources. Analytical framework Most of the data were collected through the survey of tourists and managers of accommodation establishments, which can use to assess the interest on elephants as well as elephant related activities. Therefore both descriptive data analysis and regression analysis were employed. Assuming a linear relationship between willingness to pay for the elephant related activities and other independent variables, the regression model was fitted to estimate the relationship between selected attributes and the willingness to pay amount. Conceptual model WTP= ƒ (NAT, AGE, DAYS, INC, EDU, SEX, EXP, ACT, INV) WTP=Willingness to pay for the elephant related activities (Rs) Variable DAYS=Days stay in Sri Lanka AGE=Age (Years) EDU=Educational level INV=Whether experienced such type of activities NAT=Nationality SEX=Sex EXP=Expected daily Expenditure in Sri Lanka INC=Annual income ACT=Number of elephant related activities like to experience Hypothesis Expected relationship is the tourists who stay longer period experienced such activities and willing to pay more. Young people are more interested on elephants and elephants related activities. Therefore they like to pay more. Educated people are expected to be more towards enjoying the elephants related activities which are nature based activities. Experience tourists expected to be spend more on that activities. Developed nations have already deteriorated their nature and biodiversity when achieve the development. Therefore they like to pay more for these activities. Per capita income of each country used as an indicator of level of development Males are more prefer that activities. High expending people expected to be having high willingness to pay. Higher income visitor are expected to be spend more money. More interested tourists on like to experience more number of activities. 134 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Visitor characteristics Based on the sample survey, it was found that the average age of the tourists who came to see the elephants is 56 years with the range of 21 to 77 years. The average number of days stayed in Sri Lanka is 15 days, with a maximum of 30 days and a minimum of 6 days. The respondents’ average annual income of the sampled tourists is 36,954 US $. The random intercept survey is comprised of 16 different nations. Their distribution is given in the table 4. Table 4. Nationality distribution of the sample Number of Tourists Nationality % British 36 36 % Irish 4 4% Australian 2 2% Finland 1 1% Danish 1 1% Italian 1 1% Canadian 2 2% Dutch 4 4% Swiss 3 3% American 7 7% German 8 8% New Zealand 4 4% Poland 4 4% Franchise 9 9% Swedish 5 5% Japanese 7 7% Chinese 2 2% n = 100 135 Status of education Most of the tourists come to see the elephants are mid-career professionals who hold a degree and more than 75 % belong to those categories. More than 18% of visitors have completed secondary education. Almost all the respondent has at least primary education. It was noted that the tourists who have some kind of understanding and interest about environment visit these areas to see elephants. Education Level Distribution : Tourists Sample No formal education No primary edu. 0% 0% No formal edu. 1% 6% 18% 48% 27% Followed primary education Completed primary education Followed secondary education Completed secondary education Followed graduate studies A graduate degree Figure 1. Status of education in tourist’s sample Reason for selecting Sri Lanka as a travel destination The question 1 of section B in the questionnaire of tourists was directed to get the most important reason when selecting Sri Lanka as a travel destination. Table 5 shows the details of the tourist’s responses. Table 5. Most important reason for selecting Sri Lanka as a travel destination Visiting friends and/or relatives See the Sri Lankan elephants Business/Convention Sun and beaches Archaeological sites Cultural/Native history Nature history Sight seeing 10% 19% 10% 16% 3% 6% 7% 28% 100% 136 n = 87 4 70. Involvement of nature related activities by the tourists Activity Number % Jungle excursion Visiting cultural sites Bird watching Wildlife Botany Fishing Visiting indigenous communities Others 44 64 29 45 31 4 7 6 48.4 7.9 49. presence of elephants in Sri Lanka to choose as a travel destination Figure 2 shows the degree of importance of Sri Lankan elephants to the tourists when selecting Sri Lanka as their travel destination.According to the responses. according to their responses. Influence of Sri Lankan Elephants to Choose Sri Lanka as a Traval Destination Not important 21% Main reason 8% Main reason Important Important 46% Somewhat important 25% Somew hat important Not important Figure 2. Because 19 % of tourists have chosen Sri Lanka as a travel destination due to presence of elephants.3 31.1 4. deer safari etc. a major portion of tourists (28 %) indicated sight seeing as the most important reason when selecting Sri Lanka as a travel destination.7 6. 137 . Degree of Influence. Degree of influence elephants to choose Sri Lanka as travel This shows that main reason of 8 % of sample tourists is seeing the Sri Lankan elephants in journey to Sri Lanka.6 n=91 As shown in the table 6 most of the tourists arrive to Sri Lanka had opportunity to visit the cultural sites (70 %) also around 50 % of tourists involve in wildlife related activities as elephant safaris.5 34. They might be the researchers or eco-tourists. In addition to that seeing elephants in Sri Lanka has a quite significant. Tourist’s involvement of nature related activities Table 6. guest houses and accommodations the percentage of establishments that has involved in each activity is indicated in the table 8. Willingness to pay amount reflects the tourist’s valuation of the each elephant related activity. The amount of willingness to pay can be utilized to get an idea about the degree of significance each activity and potential of getting benefits economically through the tourism industry via the incorporation of elephant related activities to the schedules of tourist packages. indicate in the table 7. looking at bathing of elephants.Experiences of elephant related activities: tourists According to the responses of tourists. hiking in the natural habitat of elephants. This portion of tourist is 11 %. Table 8. Also more than 60 % tourists like to experience the elephant safaris. Nature related activities: tourist hotels. guest houses and accommodations According to the responses of managers of the tourist hotels. Nature related activities Practice by the tourist hotels. In addition to this some of the tourists like to participate activities such as visit orphanage. visit the temples which keeping elephants. The categorized responses are shown in table 7. Guest houses & accommodations 138 . Experiences of elephant related activities by tourists & their willingness to pay for them Percentage of tourists like to experiences Average willingness to pay in Rs Elephant ride Elephant safaris Elephant circuses Cultural events which use elephants 82% 66% 4% 7% 5% 11 % 1942 2831 1341 1241 1921 1297 (20 US $) (28 US $) (13 US $) (12 US $) (19 US $) Elephant races Others Willingness to pay for the elephant related activities: tourists Survey respondents were asked to mention their willingness to pay (WTP) for the each elephants related activities they would like to experience. Table 7. Involvement of elephants related activities by tourist’s hotel. guest houses and accommodations. races etc are very low. more than 80 % have an interest on experiencing the elephant rides. Also the amount willingness to pay for the elephants safaris is 28 US $ with minimum of 6 US $ and maximum of 50 US $. According to the responses of tourists. The portion of tourists who have interest on elephant circuses. average willingness to pay for the elephant ride is 20 US $ with minimum of 8 US $ and maximum of 51 US $. Among the establishments that has engaged in wild life related activities for earning revenue. (Figure 3) Wildlife Related Activities: Tourist hotels & Guesthouses % of Hotels & Guesthouses Involved 80 71 % 65 % 70 60 47 % 50 40 30 20 29 % 29 % 12 % 10 0 Others Deer safarisBird watching Touractivities to game sanctuaries Elephant related Tours to national zoological garden Figure 3. guest houses and accommodations The involvement of these establishments on elephant’s related activities can be categorized in to 3 types as shown in the table 9. Table 9. Elephant related activities involved by hotels & guest houses 139 . a high number of the tourists hotel.Nature related activity % of hotels & guest houses Jungle excursions 40 % Visiting cultural sites 65 % Bird watching 60 % Wildlife 70 % Visiting botanical gardens 15 % Fishing 15 % Visiting indigenous communities 5% Others 10 % n=32 As shown in that table 70 % of the ventures in the sample have involved in wildlife related activities. guest houses and accommodations have involve in elephant related activities. Wildlife Related Activities Involve by the Tourist Hotels & Guest houses for the Tourism Elephant related activities of the tourist hotels. Those activities can be categorized as in the table 10. which facilitate watching the elephants. riding. That activities and the level of involvement are summarized in the table 11.a) Keeping Elephants for Tourism Activities (Exhibitions. Only 21 % hotels and guest houses keep elephants for tourism activities. orphanages… etc) 21 % 79 % 36 % According to that more than 75 % of enterprises have involve in promoting elephant related activities as safaris. tours. arrange tours to orphanage and protected areas…etc. The hotels and accommodations keeping elephants have involved in various activities. circuses. most of the tourist hotels and accommodations have involved in elephant conservation activities. Various uses of elephant that are taken by the hotels & guesthouses.) b) Promote Elephant Related Activities for Tourism (Safaris. Participation in conservation activities of elephants by Hotels & guest houses Conservation activity Contribute to trust fund support for conservation Aid for the orphanage Help for conservation campaigns Others % of Hotels & Guest houses 67% 13% 23% 22% 140 . carry tourists …etc. This indicates that there is a potential to get participated the organizations that has not engaged in that kind of activities so far. Table 11. Also more than 35 % of accommodation establishments situated near the wildlife parks and orphanage. That kind of enterprises earns revenue by supplying accommodations and foods for the tourists. Table 10. seeing perahara… etc) c) Facilitate Elephant Watching (Situated near parks. which are keeping the captive elephants % of Hotels & Guest houses 40% 60% 0% 40% Activity of Elephants use As an exhibit for tourists Use for elephant rides Use for elephant circuses Use for cultural activities Give for cultural activities in other 40% places 20% Use to get some works done Conservation activities: tourist hotels and guesthouses According to the responses of the managers. 25 17833 39.0. WTP= NAT +AGE + DAYS + INC + EDU + SEX + EXP + INV Table 12. 141 .85. nationality.61 0.06 0.003 .0. nationality so that contrary to the expectation.12 5317 2 Adjusted R = 0. days spend in the Sri Lanka.224 0.0. tourist with high income countries are less interested in spending money on elephant reacted activities.2 0.005 0.Estimates of the regression model The factors influencing the expenditure by tourists for various elephant related activities were identified.141 1356 3883 3309 .16 .45 0. National income was used as a proxy for the variable. Error 13981 . Among the considered variables. Also it was found that young are more willing to pay for these activities.008 9164 . whether the tourists have experienced such activities and level of education were significant at 5 % level. Estimates of the OLS regression model Variable Constant Nationality Age No. of days stay Annual income Education Sex Expected expenditure Number of activities like to experience Experienced with similar activities Coefficient Std. The estimates of the multiple regression models are given in Table12. However.0. tourists who had plans to stay more were found to be more enthusiastic in spending on similar activities.52 The model was free from perfect mulicollinearity with reasonably satisfactory fit (adjusted R2). including new tourist areas. The present rates charged for elephant related activities are much less than their willingness to pay for those activities. an average willingness to pay for the safaris and rides are approximately 20 and 28 US $. with the limited carrying capacity of the protected areas and growth of the rural populations. Then a mechanism could 142 . which can command a premium. On the other hand. With the problems of the tourist industry due to the war. The findings of this study corroborate this fact by identifying the potentials in a scientific manner. The elephant related activities are in the category of existing tourists attractions. diversify the product mix and its capacity and develop new circuits and product packages inland.000 rupees per month to maintain a captive elephant. The nature tourist market is a particularly attractive niche market as there is some evidence that nature tourist have higher incomes than the average tourist. such as elephant rides and safaris. which will foster the coexistence of human and elephants as in the past. stay longer and spend more on locally produced products and services (Vidanage. According to the findings. use of elephants in the tourism industry by capturing and taming of young elephants can be considered as one of the counteractive measure. Therefore.000-25. It may cost 20. respectively.CONCLUSION The study aimed at getting an insight into the make use of elephants for tourism and identifying the future potential of this so as to promote tourism as an alternative mean of elephant conservation in Sri Lanka. so that there is a growing need to find feasible solutions. 1995). Given the substantial cost of maintaining a captive elephant and less demand for draft work. there is a need to find better alternatives. This shows the potential revenue that can earn through these activities. Many private tour operators feel that nature tourism has considerable growth potential. nature tourism represents a niche marketing. This requires the Ceylon Tourist Board taking an active role in promoting elephant related activities. Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Forest Department assist the private sector to promote “value added” activities around protected areas. Promotion of nature tourism would also accord with the three main objectives of the tourism Master Plan prepared by the Ceylon Tourist Board (CTB) of moving away from low budget mass beach tourism by selecting activities that upgrade existing attractions and product. This would include hotels and tourist attractions such as elephant safaris. The study was carried out with tourists who visit the national parks and the owners/managers of guest houses/hotels located closer to these sites. the study indicates that much more amount of revenue can be generated per month when the elephants are used for the tourism activities under well managed situation. This study revealed that there is a huge demand for the elephant related activities more than identified so far. the human elephant conflict will escalate in the future. This study found that there is a substantial potential of incorporating elephants into the tourism industry. the value of them in the sense nature related activities can be identified from this study and it is important to take an active role to promote elephant related activities with a good product mix to attract among the tourist who are the potential customers of them. The recent studies carried out by the Institute of Policy Studies has identified that the revenue from the protected areas could be increased significantly if the Ceylon Tourist Board (CTB). Therefore. The Care and management of the Asian elephant in domesticity. Tourism and the Economy of Sri Lanka.P. Vidanage. 1997.N. Daniel. D.. PGIA. 2003. C. Handavitharana. Jayewardene. The Asian elephant: future prospects. U 143 ..M. Economic Review (people’s Bank).. 20(5):2-13. T.N. Gujah. New York.1995. Practicum report. W. 1994.M. Kandy. University of Peradeniya. (B. 2001.(M.Gajah 19:01-25.. Wicramasinghe. J. Gujarati.). Potentials and factors affecting ecotourism in Sri Lanka. 3rd ed. Promotion of ecotourism in Upper Hantana mountain range.). Annual report..Sc. Gunatilaka. Practicum report. 2000. as a mean of conservation. Central Bank. Lair. Dissanayaka.C.P.. Basic Econometrics. An economic assessment of damage caused by the wild elephants in villages around Ritigala strict nature reserves. 1997.Sc. M. De Silva. P. and Siva Kumar. McGrow Hill Inc. 1994.). 12:1-13.2002. J. S. Rome: FAO. Project report.D.PGIA. 1998. Environmental valuation.R. Gajah11:02-15. 1998. Colombo. Institute of Policy Studies.. 1995. Theory and Application. H. University of Peradeniya. & Santiapillai. Krishantha...). Thailand.Comparative analysis of nature tourism and conventional tourism in Sri Lanka. (M. M.C. 2003. (B.bedeveloped to transfer a part of the revenue generated from such activities to compensate the farmers to mitigate human elephant conflict. Biodiversity & elephant conservation trust Gujah 20:73-77.Sc. REFERENCES Central bank of Sri Lanka. 1993. Project report.Status and conservation of the elephant and the alleviation of man-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka. University of Peradeniya.Sc. Samarasinghe. A strategy for nature tourism management in Sri Lanka.PGIA. The survey of elephants in Sri Lanka.T. Steel. S. W. Colombo. W. University of Peradeniya. 2001. which were naturally regenerated. Lepisanthes tetraphylla and Sapindus emarginata along with a shrub. There were 45 tree spp. The abundance of plant species.A. Among the taxa identified 45 had medicinal value. It has also contributed to rich biodiversity comprising 192 plant species (Cramer.D.Popham Arboretum in Dambulla is a typical example of natural regenerated forest. In the ordination diagram. 1993). 1993). where a wasteland has been converted into a sanctuary of tropical trees by using a simple silvicultural method. The goals of this study are to document plant 144 . 18 herbaceous spp.A. Grewia damine and Tiliaceae (IVI = 23 & 28) and Memecylon umbellatum and Rubiaceae (IVI = 16 & 25) respectively. illegal felling. which facilitates the natural regeneration of indigenous species. 14 timber value and 7 both timber and medicinal value. irrigation schemes and agricultural expansion resulting from a growing population (Samarasinghe. while individuals below 10 cm gbh were counted in 20 m ×10 m sub plots within the main plots. and 11 climber spp. The IFS . 1999) has been carried out during the past decade. The species associated with cluster A were mainly trees viz. Cassine balae and Micromelum minutum. H. WEERASINGHE and J. Diospyros oppositifolia. DAMBULLA M. In addition. 1995). Diplodiscus verrucosus. This leads to succession towards woodlands dominated by small trees and bushes managing the growth of creepers and thorny shrubs. A total of 101 plant species belonging to 91 genera and 42 families were identified. fire. AMARASINGHE IFS . annuals and biannual during the wet and dry season and undocumented perennials were encountered in an ad hoc manner addition to the experimental plots. The leading dominant species and families based on important value index (IVI) were Syzygium cumini and Myrtaceae (IVI = 29 & 32). While Cluster C resulted in five tree species. Dambulla ABSTRACT The Dambulla Arboretum is a unique place.STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF VEGETATION IN THE IFS -POPHAM ARBORETUM. Popham introduced a sustainable silvicultural method namely the Popham method (Popham.. was enumerated in six 20 m × 20 m experimental plots. The girth at breast height (gbh) of individuals over 10 cm was measured within main plots.. 27 shrub spp. 1996).6 ha arboretum along with a 10. The goal of the present survey was to document the abundance of dry zone key plant species and to update the checklist of plants in terms of seasons.. Mr.8 ha woodland. As a remedy reforestation and conservation have been carried out by the Forest Department on degraded lands of the dry zone. The survey has shown that the arboretum provides refugee to many valuable timber trees. Diospyros ferrea.Popham Arboretum. F.B. Of them five were endemic viz. Five random plots 2 m × 2 m quadrates were used to measure the cover value of ground vegetation.. 72 birds and 35 butterflies (Arboretum Newsletter. DILHAN*. Canarium zeylanicum. 1995) in relation to different burning histories and regeneration strategies of selected forest species (Weerawardane. The Arboretum consists of 3. the plots in the arboretum and woodland are clearly separated by four distinguishable clusters and were assigned into plant communities. T. including endemic and endangered plant species. INTRODUCTION The dry zone forests of Sri Lanka have experienced a boost in large-scale depletion of forest land by slash and burn agriculture. Diplodiscus verrucosus. Research into the regeneration dynamics of silvicultural assisted scrub vegetation (Samarasinghe. 2.4 ha comprising 3. Individuals over 10 cm girth at breast height (1. Colored circles indicate the sampling Plots. The total extent of the IFS Popham arboretum. MATERIALS AND METHODS The IFS .diversity of silviculturally treated vegetation in the IFS-Popham Arboretum and to update the checklist of plant species documented by Cramer (1993). The permanent plot method was used for sampling in this study.Popham Arboretum.9 km away from it on the Kandalama Dambulla road (Figure 1). Six plots. AR1 AR3 AR2 WL1 WL2 WL3 Figure 1. Three plots each from the woodland and arboretum were selected and each plot was divided into 20 m × 10 m sub plots to facilitate sampling. Plots in the arboretum = AR.Popham Arboretum is located close to Dambulla. Sub plots of size 20 m × 10 m were demarcated within the main plot to enumerate individuals 145 . is 14. and woodland = WL. each 20 m × 20 m were demarcated within the woodland and arboretum.3 m above the ground) in the main plots (20 m × 20 m) were enumerated and were marked with numbered aluminum tags. Location of the IFS .6 ha in the arboretum and 10.8 ha of woodland (70 51’ 34" N and 800 40’ 28" E). The highest contribution of basal area was recorded of Syzygium cumini followed by G. Herbarium specimens were prepared from the plant material collected in the field. Individuals less than 1 m in height were enumerated by 2 m × 2 m quadrate sampling. density and gbh of all woody species were recorded. Pterospermum suberifolium and Chloroxylon swietenia etc.below 10 cm gbh and above 1 m in height. An ordination of the vegetation gradients in the dataset that could be compared against their spatial distribution on the ground was carried out using multivariate analysis (Detrended Correspondence Analysis) with the help of PCORD4 software. Memecylon umbellatum showed the highest density and basal area and Phyllanthus polyphyllus and Allophylus serratus followed respectively. 146 . The total density of individuals was 2208/ha and the basal area was 93. The highest density of trees was recorded in Grewia damine and followed by Diospyros ferrea. RESULTS STRUCTURE OF VEGETATION The density. use of the Hand Book to the Flora of Ceylon by Dassanayake and Fosberg (1990-1991). The flora of the arboretum documented by Cramer (1993) was revised by collecting plants in an ad hoc manner representing all vegetation types and microhabitats during the dry and wet season as shown in appendix 1. viz. However. Relative cover value was used for individuals less than 1 m in height. Damine and Mitragyna parvifolia etc.2 m2/ha. Peradeniya.8 m2/ha respectively. over 1 m height and basal area greater than 10 cm gbh. A number of characteristics of the vegetation. The Importance Value Indices (IVI) of all the species were calculated using relative basal area and relative density for individuals over 1 m in height. Each individual sampled was identified as to its species as far as possible with help from the National Herbarium. of trees and shrubs in the arboretum are shown in Table 1. the density and basal area of twenty leading tree and shrub species were 1795/ha and 74. (1994-1995) and Dassanayake and Clayton (1996-2000).. Dassanayake et al. 25 ± 0.85 935 ± 41.0 163 ± 2.20 ± 0.09 4.07 17 ± 0.20 0 0 .89 ± 0. The girth size class 10.51 ± 0.81 25 ± 0.28 129 ± 0.03 ± 0.31 3.03 0.44 ± 0.01 0.23 8.20 showed the highest number of species along with the highest species richness. while the proportion of individuals is quite high in the gbh size class 20-30.70 ± 0.10 % individuals in different girth classes 60 147 Girth size class distribution (cm) .30 ± 0.41 ± 0.05 ± 0.23 88 ± 0.62 108 ± 1.90 ± 4.88 ± 0.35 Shrub species Memecylon umbellatum Phyllanthus polyphyllus Allophylus serratus Flueggea leucopyrus Eugenia bracteata Ochna obtusata Dichrostachys cinerea Catunaregam spinosa Flacourtia indica Capparis brevispina Total 16 8 6 5 3 2 1 1 1 1 1.00 0.Table 1.2 74.05 69.20 ± 0.03 0.65 46 ± 0.06 17 ± 0. (34) 50 40 30 (8) (17) (9) (11) > 50 10 40 .32 Total individuals above 1m height Total twenty dominant species Den/ha 93.12 13 ± 0.71 83 ± 0.05 0.13 1.09 ± 0.34 ± 0.42 50 ± 0.02 0. Species IVI Value BA m2/ha Tree species Syzygium cumini Grewia damine Chloroxylon swietenia Mitragyna parvifolia Pterospermum suberifolium Diospyros ferrea Bauhinia racemosa Diplodiscus verrucosus Lepisanthes tetraphylla Pleurostylia opposita Total 29 23 14 11 9 8 7 6 5 5 24.30 10 .05 0.76 ± 0.38 ± 1.31 2.51 192 ± 0.62 321 ± 3. Species richness of first and third gbh size class is more or less similar.11 ± 0.18 ± 0.02 0.03 117 ± 1.73 54 ± 0.45 ± 2. List of first ten leading tree and shrub species represented in the vegetation size class above 10 cm gbh with their basal areas.58 860 ± 26. density and IVI values.01 0.8 2208 1795 Girth class distribution in relation to percentage individuals are given in Figure 2.36 13.50 (18) 20 30 .20 113 ± 0.60 54 ± 1.45 ± 0.22 96 ± 0.03 5.14 ± 3.62 92 ± 1.82 17 ± 0.17 2.34 9.05 0.40 20 . cumini. Cassine balae and Micromelum minutum) were recorded. Variation in IVI values of the first ten leading species in Popham Arboretum in Dambulla. The most dominant family based on IVI value was Myrtaceae followed by Tiliaceae and Rubiaceae. Compared to basal area density of constitute species showed more or less similar among the leading species. damine S. Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae contribute higher species richness (Figure 4). leucopyrus L. G. Diplodiscus verrucosus. The contribution of basal area and density of those species showed alternative variation. % Relative Basal area 30 (2) % Relative Density (2) (5) 20 (7) (6) (1) (6) (3) 10 (4) (1) Sterculiaceae Ebenaceae Sapindaceae Fabaceae 148 Melastomataceae Euphorbiaceae Rutaceae Rubiaceae Tiliaceae 0 Myrtaceae Percent IVI Value 40 Family . serratus D. comprising 5 endemics (Diospyros oppositifolia. Canarium zeylanicum. 35 % Relative Basal Percent IVI Value 30 % Relative Density 25 20 15 10 5 V. However the two leading families constitute only two species. swietenia M. racemosa D. FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF VEGETATION A total of 101 species belonging to 91 genera and 42 families were identified. The number of species that were present in each size class is given in parentheses.Figure 2. altissima I. suberifolium M. ferrea P. while Rutaceae. polyphyllus P. and 11 climber spp.. 27 shrub spp. Girth class distribution of individuals greater than 10 cm gbh (trees and shrubs) in the Popham Arboretum in Dambulla. 14 timber value and 7 both timber and medicinal value. damine and M. umbellatum G. cumini 0 Plant species Figure 3. 18 herbaceous spp. verrucosus B. Species and family dominance On the basis of IVI values. pavetta P. parvifolia C. umbellatum etc (Figure 3).. opposita F. Among the taxa identified 45 had medicinal value. tetraphylla A. the leading dominant in the vegetation size class >10 cm gbh were S. Fabaceae. There were 45 tree spp. AR2 and AR3 formed a single distinguishable cluster along with WL1 cluster.20 2 . The population between 2 -10 recorded the highest number of species for both vegetation size classes. species richness was high in the vegetation size class over 10 cm gbh (Figure 5). species very common to both arboretum and woodland occur at the WL1 plot.10 1 only 0 Figure 5. TRENDS AND RELATIONSHIPS Figure 6 gives the species association in terms of their occurrence in the arboretum and woodland.Figure 4. Cluster A and B associated with nine species including one species of borderline negative (Meum). Therefore.40 21 . while AR1. Variation in IVI values of the first ten leading families in Popham Arboretum in Dambulla. Number of species in a given family is given in parenthesis. of species in each size classes 25 41 .50 31 .30 11 . Vegetation > 10 cm gbh 20 15 10 5 Vegetation < 10 cm gbh No. Number of species in each of the population size classes in the vegetation of the Population size classes Popham Arboretum in Dambulla. while cluster C and D associated with eleven species including one species of borderline positive (Phpo). In the TWINSPAN diagram WL3 and WL1 formed a single distinguishable cluster. POPULATION SIZE Considering the population size classes. 149 . All species associated in cluster C (Plots of AR1 and AR2) were trees such as C. while cluster C and D denoted the negative branch of the cluster. Species are denoted by four letters (two letters from generic name of particular species and two letters from species name) and plots are denoted by two letters and numerical number referring to arboretum (AR) and woodland (WL). Benkara malabarica and Eugenia bracteata and trees such as P. Cluster A was composed of four typical dry zone tree species such as D. nux-vomica.18 Plop WL2 Cadi Sycu Alse Dive Cluster A Bara Dife A R3 Eubr Ocob Ptsu Meum Lete Borderline negative Saem Phpo WD3 E = 0. umbellatum. verrucosus. 150 .19 Grda Borderline positive Cluster B Flle WL1 Axis 1 Figure 6. tetraphylla and S. Bauhinia racemosa and Ixora pavetta. A. Letter E indicates the Eigen value of each cluster. suberifolium and Canthium dicoccum var. emarginata with typical shrub viz. The ordination diagram based on species abundance in terms of plots. P. Polyphyllus. D. serratus. Ochna obtusata. where cluster A and B denoted the positive branch of the cluster. S. swietenia.A R2 A R1 Chsw E = 0. Cluster D were associated with mostly shrub species such as P.20 Cluster C Cluster D Bema Stnu Ixpa Axis 2 E = 0. Four clusters identified by TWINSPAN were subjectively marked in the ordination diagram. opposita. Ferrea. L.. the predominance of mature trees indicates that the forest in Dambulla arboretum is higher in its regeneration state.DISCUSSION Perera (1998) carried out a vegetation survey at Sigiriya sanctuary and recorded over 5. which in the past.1). Cramer in 1993 documented 192 plant species of which 88 species were trees composed of rare. Diospyros ferrea. The occurrence of fire tolerant species as well as climax forest species indicates that the forest is in a late succession stage of regeneration.4 in year1993) followed by Grewia damine (RD = 0. This was quite a high density compared to density of trees and shrubs at the arboretum. Memecylon umbellatum and Ixora pavetta and coppicing of shrubs. The vegetation of the arboretum was regenerated via silvicultural management since 1963 and therefore it harbors mature trees. swietenia are fairly good. But in the Dambulla arboretum. Diospyros ferrea (RD = 0. was classified as M. the present survey recorded that these species in the arboretum still provide refuge for remarkably rare species such as Diospyros ebenum. endemic and endangered species. Furthermore. Relatively high stem densities. suberifolium that play an important role in the damana forest.C. Samarasinghe recorded Phyllanthus polyphyllus was the leading dominant. hexandara . swietenia. Of the shrub species M. The IVI values of C.000 individuals of shrubs per hectare. On the other hand. swietenia association based on their abundance in the forest. adapted to withstand fire can be seen here. sepiaria . C. hexandra. damine and P. Samarasinghe 1995 showed that Chloroxylon swietenia was the most dominant tree based on its relative density (RD =3. M. This tree species was considered as the key species in monsoon forests. Bauhinia racemosa. particularly stems in the smaller girth size classes is due to a dominance of species of typically small size i. The present survey found that these are the leading tree species however. their dominance within the survey was altered. G. Reverse J shaped curve observed in the vegetation of the arboretum indicates that these are in the late regenerating phase of secondary vegetation. while the vegetation of the woodlands declared for conservation since 1989 by the Institute of Fundamental Studies has both mature and immature trees. when compared with primary forests in the dry zone has climax species in the canopy layer. However. Fernando (1996) has suggested that the very high relative importance value of these species in forests of Maduru Oya national park indicate that there has been minimal disturbance. whereas it was the second dominant species in the present survey. The vegetation in the arboretum. size class distribution of individuals at Sigiriya sanctuary showed very few large trees and the majority has smaller diameters.5). Drypetes sepiaria and Diospyros ebenum are climax forest species in the dry zone.D. On the other hand. This is because of the contribution of immature seedlings and sapling in the Sigiriya sanctuary.000 individuals of trees and 5. 151 .e. umbellatum recorded the highest importance value. Diospyros malabarica and Diospyros oppositifolia.1) and Pterospermum suberifolium (RD = 0. This is further confirmed because the arboretum was initiated in the year 1963 and disturbance has not taken place since and therefore an abundance of this species is obvious and to be expected. U. Some members of Fabaceae can fix Nitrogen and therefore. Ruk Rakaganno . Rubiaceae and Rutaceae. 152 . Creator of this Arboretum. Plants in these families are adapted to grow under dry and stressful environmental conditions. And last but not least we wish to thank the field assistants K.G. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors extend their thanks and appreciation to Mr.Senior Manager.G. Sumane Banda. The ordination diagram clearly shows that the plots of the arboretum and woodland are divided into two because of different regeneration stages. Sam Popham.G.The three most dominant families by number of species in the arboretum and woodland were Rutaceae. valuable timber trees and plentiful medicinal plants. Furthermore. Mr. K. latex.A National NGO and current manager of the Arboretum. CONCLUSIONS The study proves the importance of the arboretum with regard to its fairly rich flowering plants including endemics. arboretum provides refuge for typical dry zone key plant species through natural regeneration from the soil seed bank. and the Institute of Fundamental Studies for permission to carry out research.. they can perform well in the dry zone forests. Rathnasiri. Nigel Billimoria . cladodes and/or relatively small leaves to conserve water and escape herbivory. Some members of the Euphorbiaceae and Rutaceae have thorns. Cluster C dominated by valuable timber such as Chloroxylon swietenia and Pleurostylia opposita and mainly inhabits the arboretum. The present results further confirm Samarasinghe’s findings of diverse families viz.G. The species inhabitants in the arboretum are mainly trees and shrubs typically found in the primary dry zone forests. Cluster A resulted in basically dominant species in the woodland. Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Application of Popham method is recommended for degraded land to convert the land into productive ecosystems. On the other hand. Palis and M. Euphorbiaceae. Jamis. D. 1-6. The National Science Council. and Clayton. A Reversed Hand Book to the Flora of Ceylon. M. (1995). W. Photo. Dassanayake.S. D. D. In: J. N. National Science Foundation. Dambulla.D. Banyard (Editors). of Forestry and Environment Science. Ltd.F.H. Proceedings of the Annual Forestry Symposium..R. Dept. New Delhi. Institute of Fundamental Studies. Jayaweera. J. Popham. A Reversed Hand Book to the Flora of Ceylon.. Medicinal plants (indigenous and exotic) used in Sri Lanka (I edition). Sam Popham foundation.) Issues 2. (2001).D. In: H. The Sri Lanka forester. thesis. A comparative study on the ecology of woody vegetation of forest types in the Maduru Oya National Park.REFERENCES Anon. Amerind Publishing Co. 8-9. M. F. A check list of the flowering plants of Sri Lanka. Cramer. Dassanayake. University of Sri Jayewardenepura. 241. (1998).A. F. Amarasekera and S.A. A Sanctuary of tropical trees. 23 (3&4): 7-17.R.. (1994-1995).M. Dambulla arboretum and woodland. and Clayton.K.D. Fernando. Weerawardane.H. 291-299. 5 (1): 9-16. Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka. D. D.G. IFS Popham arboretum.Phil. (ed. University of Peradeniya. Ltd. M. Natural regeneration of some dry zone forest species assisted by silvicultural management in dry zone woodland at Dambulla. 153 . st Perera. Regeneration dynamics of silviculturally assisted dry zone scrub vegetation at Dambulla arboretum. Newsletter. UK. (1982). Sri Lanka. Amerind Publishing Co. Dassanayake. W. G. H. Senaratna. New Delhi. New Delhi. L. (1996).. 72 p. (1993). (1999). (1996). R. Sri Lanka. Fosberg. (1996-2000). M. Vegetation and the regeneration of moist deciduous forests at Sigiriya. (1993). Samarasinghe. L. A Reversed Hand book to the Flora of Ceylon. Sri Lanka. Ltd. (1990-1991).S. 1-4. and Fosberg. 451 p. A forest arboretum in the dry zone. Amerind Publishing Co. 10-12. Samarasinghe. F. K. Species/Family Acanthaceae Andrographis paniculata* Justicia procumbens Amaranthaceae Aerva lanata* Amaryllidaceae Crinum sp:* Apocynaceae Aganosma cymosa* Carissa spinarum Ichnocarpus frutescens Araceae Amorphophallus paeoniifolius* Arecaceae Borassus flabellifer* Asclepiadaceae Wattakaka volubilis* Asteraceae Elephantopus scaber Eupatorium odoratum Boraginaceae Carmona retusa Cordia dichotoma Ehretia laevis Burseraceae Canarium zeylanicum* Capparaceae Capparis brevispina Celastraceae Cassine balae* Pleurostylia opposita Clusaceae Garcinia morella* Convolvulaceae Ipomoea littoralis* Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea alata* Dracaenaceae Sansevieria zelanica* Ebenaceae Diospyros ebenum Diospyros ferrea Diospyros malabarica Diospyros oppositifolia Diospyros ovalifolia* Euphorbiaceae Bridelia retusa Croton officinalis* Dimorphocalyx glabellus Code Local Name Medicine-M/ Life form Timber-T Anpa Jupr Heen-bin-kohomba M Mayani H H Aela Pol pala H M Crin H Agcy Casp Icfr Heen-Karamba Kiri-wel Ampa Kidaran H Bofl Tal T Wavo Anguna Elsc Euod Et-adi Podisinghomaran H S Care Codi Ehle Heen-tambala Lolu Walangasal S T T Caze Dik-kekuna Cabr Wellangiriya M S Caba Plop Neraloo Panakka M T T T Gamo Gokatu T Ipli Tel-kola C Dial Hingurala C Saze Niyanda H Dieb Dife Dima Diop Diov Kaluwara Kalu habarala Timbiri Kalu-mediriya Kunumella Brre Crof Digl Katakala Weli wenna 154 M M M H S H C T T M T M/T T T T T T T S S .Appendix 1 Species list of the vegetation in the IFS Popham Arboretum (T = Tree. S = Shrub. C= Climber). H = Herb. Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Chukrasia tabularis Moraceae Streblus asper Myrtaceae Eugenia bracteata Syzygium cumini Ochnaceae Ochna obtusata Oleaceae Chionantus zeylanica* Jasminum angustifolium Periplocaceae Hemidesmus indicus Poaceae Setaria sp. Rhamnaceae Scutia myrtina* Ziziphus oenoplia Rhizophoraceae Cassipourea ceylanica* Rubiaceae Benkara malabarica Canthium coromandelicum Canthium dicoccum var.Drypetes sepiaria Euphorbia antiquorum* Euphorbia heterophylla* Flueggea leucopyrus Givotia moluccana* Margaritaria indicus Phyllanthus amarus Phyllanthus polyphyllus Fabaceae Bauhinia racemosa Cassia fistula Cassia roxburghii Derris benthamii Dichrostachys cinerea Mimosa pudica Tamarindus indica Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia indica Lamiaceae Ocimum americanum* Lauraceae Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Litsea glutinosa Linaceae Hugonia mystax* Loganaceae Strychnos potatorum* Strychnos nux-vomica Melastomataceae Memecylon umbellatum Osbeckia sp. umbellatum Catunaregam spinosa Ixora pavetta Mitragyna parvifolia Drse Euan Euhe Flle Gimo Main Pham Phpo Wira Daluk M Heen-katu-pila M Karawu Pita-wakka Kuratiya M Bara Cafi Caro Disc Dici Mipu Tain Maila Ehela Ratu-wa Kala-wel Andara Nidi-kumba Siyambala Flin Uguressa S Ocam Heen-tala H Alss Ligl Wewarani Bomee T M T T Humy Bu-getiya M C Stop Stnu Ingini Goda kaduru M M T T Meum Osbe Kora-kaha Bowitiya M T S Azin Chta Kohomba Hulan-hik M/T M/T T T Stas Geta-netul Eubr Sycu Daeduwa Madan Ocob Galkera Chze Jaan Geratiya Wal-pichcha M H C Hein Heen-iramusu M H M M/T M M M/T T T H S H T H S T T T C S H T T M/T T T S Seta H Scmy Zioe Heen-eraminiya Cace Pana Bema Caco Cadi Cats Ixpa Mipa Getakula Kara Bokutu Kukurman Goda ratmal Helamba 155 M S S S M M M M M/T S S T S T T . Morinda umbellata* Oldenlandia corymbosa* Tarenna asiatica Rutaceae Acronychia pedunculata Atalantia ceylanica Chloroxylon swietenia Clausena indica* Glycosmis mauritiana Limonia acidissima Micromelum minutum Pleiospermium alatum Toddalia asiatica Sapindaceae Allophylus serratus Cardiospermum halicacabum* Lepisanthes tetraphylla Sapindus emarginata Sapotaceae Manilkara hexandra Sterculiaceae Helicteres isora* Pterospermum suberifolium Tiliaceae Diplodiscus verrucosus Grewia damine Microcos paniculata* Verbenaceae Gmelina asiatica Lantana camara Vitex altissima Vitaceae Cissus quadrangularis* Cissus vitiginea Moum Maha-kiri-wel Olco Wal-patpadagam Taas Tarana M Acpe Atce Chsw Clin Glma Liac Mimi Plal Toas Ankenda Yakinaran Buruta Migon-karapincha Bol-pana Divul Wal-karapincha Tumpat-kurundu Kudu-miris Alse Caha Lete Saem Kobbe Penala-wel Dambu Penela M M S C T T Mahe Palu T T Heis Ptsu liniya Welan S T Dive Grda Mipa Dik-wenna Daminiya Keliya T T S Gmas Laca Vial Demata Ciqu Civi Hiressa Wal-niviti Milla M M T C H T M M M M T S T S S T S T C M M T S S T M C C *Plants. Endemic species are in bold. Source: Jayaweera (1982). which are not documented in Cramer’s checklist in the arboretum. Cramer (1963) and Senaratna (2001). 156 . . is the only aseasonal ever wet region in the whole of South Asia (Ashton & Gunatilleke. 157 . t. 1997. t. L. tardigradus and L. habitat availability. Ashton et al. with four currently recognized subspecies. nycticeboides (Ceylon mountain slender loris) is restricted to the montan zone. Of these L. GUNWARDENA1 1 Department of Animal Science. Brookes et al. nordicus. t. The calculated density of L. GAMAGE1*. tardigradus populations in the country. t. KEY WORDS: Density. Average height from the ground level where L.64 m ± 5. L. t. t. Most of the time lorises were observed at a height range of 3. Nekaris et al. 2 Department of Zoology.. t. 2005). demand for subsistence land. L. l. The average height of trees preferred by L. This study was conducted to determine the population density.00. Currently there are two recognized subspecies of the red slender loris. 2000. nycticeboides. Kamburupitiya. A burgeoning human population. t. Loris tardigradus IN THE KOTTAWA ARBORETUM S. t. Gamage. L. habitat selection.02. encompassing approximately 20. in demand of extensive conservation investment (Myers et al. D. tardigradus. Wet-zone of Sri Lanka along with the Western Ghats of India is designated as one of the world’s 11 biodiversity “hyperhot” hotspots. 2005). tardigradus. However.97 m ± 6. and a high proportion of endangered and endemic species within Sri Lanka’s wet zone have resulted in its being declared a critically endangered eco-region (Mill. 1996. Loris tardigradus is one of the three primate species endemic to Sri Lanka. Kottawa Arboretum harbors one of the few remaining L.HABITAT QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OF THE WESTERN CEYLON SLENDER LORIS. 2002). ABSTRACT The red slender loris. t. lydekkerianus).. The southwestern region of Sri Lanka. t. Gunatilleke et al. 1987. WEERAKOON2 and A. t. This region is referred to as the wet zone of Sri Lanka and receives up to 3000 mm of rainfall annually. tardigradus were observed to occupy the tree was 8. 2005).000 km2. 34 sightings were made over a period of 21 months.. low land rain forest INTRODUCTION Sri Lanka. and L. tardigradus in the Kottawa Arboretum. tardigradus (Western Ceylon slender loris) inhabits rainforests in the southwestern region of the island while L.5-15 m above the ground level. Based on these observations the density of Western Ceylon slender loris in the Kottawa Arboretum and habitat selection criteria were ascertained. tardigradus was found to utilize only 16 species. Colombo-03. nycticeboides. tardigradus in the Kottawa Arboretum is 41animals/ km2. L. N. Mapalana. with a total land area of 65. 1995. t. Using the line transect method. agro ecosystems and human settlement cover most of the land area in the wet-zone of Sri Lanka (Pemadasa. University of Colombo. The slender loris (Loris) is a small nocturnal prosimian primate endemic to Sri Lanka and South India. Of the 50 tree species recorded in the Kottawa Arboretum. tardigradus is 13. University of Ruhuna..610 km2 is a tropical island situated in the Indian Ocean. The forests of Sri Lanka are home to two species of slender loris (Loris tardigradus and L. habitat selection criteria and to assess the habitat availability of L. L. The Kottawa Arboretum is a part of Kottawa-Kombala forest reserve and is classified as a lowland rainforest (Pemadasa. 1996). 2005).. by the Forest Department (Gamage. tardigradus only inhabits rainforest in the southwestern region of the island while the other sub species L. 2001. L. It occurs only in the southwestern region of Sri Lanka (Nekaris. 2004). Bernede). 1953.. Nekaris et al. tardigradus except one study that has been done in Masmullah proposed forest reserve (Nekaris et al. which is situated in the southern region of Sri Lanka and belongs to Yakkalamulla Divisional Secretariat Division of Galle District (6°05’ N and 80°18’ E). Thus. Nekaris et al. tardigradus is the smallest of the slender lorises. 158 . grandis (Osman Hill. Groves. nycticeboides is restricted to the montane region above 2000 m. the overall aim of this study is to determine the density. Loris tardigradus is endemic to Sri Lanka (Groves. 2005). t. Nekaris & Jayewardene. 2005. The conservation status of this species (L. According to Nekaris & Jayewardene.. Very few studies have focused on the ecology of L. Ashton et al. Nekaris et al. 2003. Groves (2001) recently distinguished it from other slender lorises. t. 2003. tardigradus populations in the country.. Nekaris & Jayewardene. Remnants of Dipterocarpus forest occur in the Arboretum site. The red slender loris.. 2005). Preliminary abundance estimates of L. 2001. 2005). habitat selection criteria and habitat availability for L. t.l. 2003. 2005). MATERIALS AND METHODS Study site Kottawa Arboretum is a part of Kottawa-Kombala forest reserve. 2003). The study taxon L. 1997). Secondary forest occurs where the original forest cover has been removed due to logging. Com. 2003. tardigradus in the Kottawa Arboretum. t. Some of the logged areas are replanted with pinus trees (Pinus caribaea). tardigradus) has since been elevated to the endangered category (IUCN.. even within a single forest reserve (Nekaris & Jayewardene. tardigradus showed that these lorises are patchily distributed. weighing 85-172g (Nekaris et al. 1996. On the basis of museum specimens. t. t. The extent of the Arboretum is approximately 20ha and it is classified as a lowland rainforest (Pemadasa. Kottawa Arboretum harbors one of the few remaining Western Ceylon slender loris L. Nekaris & Jayewardene. (2003) the Western Ceylon slender loris. t. Pers. Density was calculated using the following equation. xi is distance from the sampling point (m). m is number of sampling points. di is perpendicular distance from transect line to ith animal. where a value greater than 1.5-5. substrate angle. Gamage. These transect’s were repeated 19 times during the sampling period. 30 sampling points were chosen randomly in the study site. and zi is distant to the nearest neighbor (m).96 indicates a non-random distribution (Sutherland.5-5. 3.0-10. 10-15 & 15 < meters (Nekaris et al.Population density This study was carried out from August 2003 to April 2005. Along the transect the distance to the animal was visually observed and the angle between the animal and transect was measured using a compass. distance between plant and its nearest neighbor.. using the fixed line transect method. 1. Nekaris et al. The type of data collected included substrate size. ‘t’ = {∑ [xi2 / (xi2 + zi2 / 2)] – m / 2} (12/m).0.5-3.5-3.0. In each quadrate percentage of saplings on the ground was determined using the Braun-Blanquet scale (Sutherland. Headlamps fitted with red filters were used to minimize disturbance to the animal. the percentage arboreal continuity of each tree was measured using the following scale 0-1. where D is tree density (trees/ha). At each point two sticks were placed perpendicular to each other to demarcate four quadrates.0.0. 2001. orientation and the presence or absence of vines and epiphytes within the strata) was recorded.5. distance from the point to the tree. In each quadrate the nearest tree (girth >10cm) from the point and the nearest neighbor of the tree (girth > 10cm) in the same direction was identified. 1996). 5. 1979. and tree type (Nekaris. Data regarding habitat use was recorded upon first spotting an animal. D = f ∑ ni / 2L (Sutherland. 159 .5. 10-15 & 15< meters (nature. 1996).5. Observation of loris habitat use Focal animal instantaneous point sampling method was used to obtain behavior data (Charles-Dominique & Bearder. Vegetation sampling The plot-less sampling technique (Sutherland. The equation used was D = m2 / (2. each 200 m long separated by 50 m was marked in the study site. 3. where zi is distance of the ith animal when first observed. tree height. 5. 2005). ni is numbers of animals recorded in the recognized zones. 2005).. circumference at breast height and the estimated tree height was recorded. 1. size. 1996). and di = zi sin øi. 2005). L is length of the transect. 1996) was used to ascertain the density of tree species of the study sites. and f = a1 + 1/ dt where a1 = 2 (∑ cos gi / dt ∑ ni) and dt is distance beyond which data were truncated. Then identity of the plant species. height from the ground level. A test of random distribution was determined using the equation. Nekaris et al. In addition microhabitat characteristics of each of the following strata 0-1.0-10.828 ∑ xi ∑ zi). Furthermore. gi = π ni di / dt.5. øi is angle to ith animal when first observed. where D is density. 2005. Five line transects.. Floral density was calculated using the T-square method (Sutherland. 2%). All other tree species were encountered less than 10 times during the survey period.55.96 m ± 0. with a minimum of 2. 1996). had an average height of 4. where Ba is the basal area. Na = native). 4. Table 1. Basal area was calculated using the equation.03. t.48. Density of ground cover between nearest neighbor trees was determined 120 times using the Braun-Blanquet scale. and D is tree density (Sutherland. The most abundant tree species recorded was Acronychia pedunculata (n = 27.5%). Other relatively common species included Lijndenia capitellata (n = 21. 8. The unit density of L.1996). 160 . The tallest tree (40 m) recorded from the study site was Dipterocarpus hispidus with a CBH of 305 cm.48 cm ± 4. 11. with a minimum of 10 cm and a maximum of 305 cm. The average density was 2.0 ± 220. Floral composition of the study area The 240 trees surveyed during the vegetation study represented 50 species that belongs to 25 families. Ba = (2 x CBH/ 4) x D. tardigradus at the Kottawa Arboretum was found to be 41-animals/ km2. The calculated‘t’ value for the test of random distribution was +21. Of these 37 species (74%) are endemic to Sri Lanka while the remaining 13 (26%) can be defined as native species (Table 1).19 m ± 6. The average height of trees in the sample was 8.8%).1 ± 1. The average basal area of the trees was 94.3%).4 m2/ha.8 %. RESULTS Population density During the observation period a total of 36 sightings (data points) of L. and Mangifera zeylanica (n = 10. t. tardigradus were recoded however two sighting (data points) were omitted for calculations due to difficult to identify the tree.64. CBH is circumference at breast height. Therefore the estimated population size of L. The calculated tree density of all trees in the sample was 1917 trees/ha.84. The most common tree species. Acronychia pedunculata. tardigradus in the Kottawa Arboretum (extent 20 ha) is approximately 8 animals. The average CBH was 34.38 cm ± 52. and a CBH of 17. Tree species (>10 cm CBH) recorded using the plot-less sampling technique in the Kottawa Arboretum. 4. (Abbreviations: En = endemic. Agrostistachys coriacea (n = 11. t.5m and a maximum of 40m. 08 1.83 1.83 0.58 2.42 1.50 2.83 3.83 3.17 2.42 8.67 0.93 1.33 4.83 4.33 0.83 0.42 0.83 0.92 1.67 0.83 2.50 0.67 0.25 0.08 0.25 2.Family Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Annonaceae Arecaceae Burseraceae Celastraceae Celastraceae Clusiaceae Clusiaceae Clusiaceae Clusiaceae Clusiaceae Dilleniaceae Dilleniaceae Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Flacourtiaceae Flacourtiaceae Icacinaceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Melastomataceae Melastomataceae Moraceae Myrataceae Myrataceae Myristicaceae Myristicaceae Myristicaceae Ochnaceae Oleaceae Rhizophoraceae Rhizophoraceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae Sapotaceae Sapotaceae Symplocaceae Thymelaeaceae Verbenaceae Species name Campnosperma zeylanicum Mangifera zeylanica Semecarpus nigro-viridis Semecarpus subpeitata Semecarpus walkeri Xylopia chamionii Caryota urens Canarium zeylanicum Bhesa ceylanica Kokkoona zeylanica Calophyllum bracteatum Calophyllum moonii Calophyllum thwaitesii Garcinia quaesita Mesua thwaitesii Dillenia retusa Schumacheria alnifolia Dipterocarpus glandulosus Dipterocarpus hispidus Dipterocarpus zeylanicus Shorea affinis Stemonoporus canalicuculatus Vateria copallifera Agrostistachys coriacea Bridelia moonii Chaetocarpus castanocarpus Homalium zeylanicum Hydnocarpus octandra Stemonurus apicalis Cryptocarya wightiana Lisea gardneri Lijndenia capitellata Memecylon capitellatum Artocarpus nobilis Syzygium makul Syzygium neesianum Horsfieldia irya Horsfieldia iryaghedhi Myristica dactyloides Ochna lanceolata Chionanthus zeylanica Anisophyllea cinnamomoides Carallia brachiata Timonius flavescens Acronychia pedunculata Palaquium grande Palaquium petiolare Symplocos coronata Gyrinops walla Vitex altissima 161 Common Count name Aridda 8 Atamba 10 Gatabadulla 6 Kabarabadulla 7 Badulla 6 Dathketiya 1 % Status 3.42 1.83 1.42 11.25 0.83 1.75 2.25 0.50 2.67 Na En En En En En En En En En En En En En En En En En En Na Na En En Na En En En En En En Na Na Na Na Na En Na En Na En En En Na Na 1 3 4 2 3 2 8 5 5 7 8 2 3 7 4 3 2 11 6 5 2 1 4 1 1 21 3 2 3 2 9 7 3 2 1 2 4 1 27 2 2 2 5 4 .92 3.08 2.08 2.33 2.42 En En En En En En Kithul Kekuna Pelan Kokum Walukeena Dombakeena Batukeen Goraka Diyana Godapara Kakiriwara Dorana Buhora Hora Beraliya Mandora Hal Beru Pathkela Hedawaka Liyan Waldeul Uruhonda Gulmora Thalan Pinibaru Velikaha Badidel Aluboo Panukera Eriya Ruk Malaboda Bokera Gerieta Velipenna Dawata Angana Ankenda Kiripedda Kirihambiliya Uguduhal Walla Milla 0.83 1.25 1.25 0.25 0.92 2.42 0.75 1.83 0.67 1.25 0. Dalbergia lattifolia (Fabaceae) (n=6. Salacia reticulata (Hippocrateaceae) (n=4. Tetracera sarmentosa (Dilleniaceae) (n=3. t. Gyrinops walla (Thymelaeaceae) (n=3.5-15 m above the ground level (Figure 2). Dalbergia pseudo-sisoo (Fabaceae) (n=3. Most of the time (n = 27. tardigradus The average height of the trees used by L. 14. Among the trees species preferred most are Dillenia retusa. 162 H al D om bak eena Batuk eena Kok um D athk etiy a Aridda M illa Pinibaru Liy an Pelen Etam ba Bedidel D iy anaa R uc k H edaw ak e G odapara 0 . t.97 m ± 6. Average height from the ground level where L. 3.64 m ± 5. 10. t. 14.4%). 10.7%). 10.7%). t. t. L. 3. They are. Agrostistachys coriacea and Mangifera zeylanica only two species (Lijndenia capitellata.3%). Acronychia pedunculata.6%) and Entada phaseoloides (Fabaceae) (n=1. Usage of trees by L. tardigradus was seen is given in table 2. t. Lijndenia capitellata. tardigradus was found to utilize only 16 species (Figure 1). tardigradus (n = 34). Coscinium penistratum (Menispermaceae) (n=3. (Pandanaceae) (n=4.6%). Pandanus sp.7%).A total of 28 climbers were identified. t.7%). 79%) lorises were seen to occupy a position in the range of 3. Tree availability at Kottawa Arboretum and frequency of utilization by L. A detailed description of the trees on which L. Smilax zelanica (Smilacaceae) (n=1. Only on 2 occasions were loris seen at a height greater than 20 m from the ground level. Horsfieldia iryaghedhi and Mesua thwaitesii. Chaetocarpus castanocarpus. t. 20 18 16 14 % 12 10 8 6 4 2 % Usage by lorises % Availability Figure 1. tardigradus Of the 50 tree species recorded in the Kottawa Arboretum.00 (range 1-22 m). tardigradus and even then these trees were used sparsely. Characteristics of substrate used by L. 21. tardigradus were observed to occupy the tree was 8. Of the four most abundant tree species.02 (range 3-28 m). 10.3%). tardigradus was 13. and Mangifera zeylanica) were used by L. 0 5.5 1. t. horizontal and oblique. Species Dillenia retusa Chaetocarpus castanocarpus Mesua thwaitesii Horsfieldia iryaghedhi Artocarpus nobelis Vitex altissima Homalium zeylanicum Lijndenia capitellata Mangifera zeylanica Bhesa ceylanica Campnosperma zeylanicum Xylopia chamionii Kokkoona zeylanica Calophyllum thwaitesii Calophyllum moonii Vateria copallifera Common name Frequency of usage Godapara Hedawake Diyanaa Ruck Bedidel Milla Liyan Pinibaru Etamba Pelen Aridda Dathketiya Kokum Batukeena Dombakeena Hal 6 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Average height Tree Occupied 13.0 ±8.5 ±2.0 0-1.5 ±6.0 ±1.0 ±7.3 ±4.0 40.7 15 3 18 12 22 14 The available substrate was grouped into four categories according to the diameter as twigs (≤ 1 cm).5 ±0.8 ±3. t.0 ±2.5 14.0 ±0. L. 76 %) followed by vines (n = 6.2 ±3. tardigradus showed a higher preference for branches or twigs (n = 27.0 ±2.0 25.4 15 7 26 17 28 16 9.5-3. L. t.5 ±0.7 1.3 ±3.0 15.0 Percentage 35.1 20. 15 %). 45.1 6.9 14. L.0 30.3 9.0 ±1.1 4. The available substrate was grouped into three categories according to the orientation as vertical.0 17. tardigradus were seen rarely on tree trunks (Figure 3).0 11.5 9.0 0. medium sized branches (6 – 10 cm) and large branches (≥ 10 cm).0 14.7 9.5-5 5-10 10-15 Height classes (m) Figure 2.Table 2.0 ±4.8 3.3 8.5 3. tardigradus showed a higher preference to oblique and horizontally oriented substrates compared to vertical oriented substrates (Figure 4).4 13. Frequency and percentage at which slender lorises were encountered on different plant species (n = 34).1 12.0 ±11.0 6. small branches (2 – 5 cm).0 ±2. t.0 10.5 ±2. Vertical distribution of L. tardigradus 163 >15 .5 ±0.0 20.8 8. 5-5m (23%) and 5-10m (22%) had the highest percentage of substrate continuity (Figure 6). t. % Tree availabilty 100 80 60 40 20 0 0.5m 7m 10m 15m Heigt Class (m) Figure 5. substrate continuity. Substrate size availability and usage by L. tardigradus Figure 3. Tree availability: Percentage of trees that reach the maximum height of each of the six height classes was determined to asses the density of the available substrate. t. All the trees studied were taller than 1m. substrate availability and the nature of the available substrate within each of these height classes was investigated to ascertain the habitat availability of L. After 1m the number of trees reaching the maximum height of the height class decreased gradually. Orientation of the available substrate and usage by L. t. Percent tree availability at different height classes in the Kottawa Arboretum Substrate Continuity: Substrate continuity was present in all of the height classes. tardigradus Habitat structure The vertical axis of the Kottawa Arboretum was divided into six height classes and the tree availability. The height classes 3. tardigradus within the Kottawa Arboretum.15m 1m 3. 164 Deleted: aroboretum .50 60 40 50 40 % 30 % 30 20 20 10 10 0 Vertical 0 < 1cm 2-5 6 .5m (figure 5). A significant reduction occurs after 3.10 Horizontal Oblique Substrate orientation > 10 cm Available at the study site Size category Availability at the s tudy s ite Loris utilisation Loris utilisation Figure 4. 165 Deleted: aroboretum . However.5-3. orientation and the girth) observed in this study for L.5m 5m 10m 15m Height Class Figure 7. % Substrate type 100 80 60 Branch Trunk Vine 40 20 0 0.15m 1.5m 1. Percent substrate continuity at different height classes in the Kottawa Arboretum Habitat quality and availability: The habitat quality of Kottawa Arboretum was analyzed based on the habitat selection criteria (type of substrate. the habitat quality between 10m to 15 m was also found to be suitable for lorises. 8 and 9).5-5m 5-10m 10-15m 15m< Height Class Figure 6. Percentage availability of different substrate types at the different heights of the vertical axis at Kottawa Arboretum. The habitat quality for lorises was found to be highest between 3.5m 3.5 m – 10 m height range (Figures 7. tardigradus. t.Substrate contiuity 25 20 15 10 5 0 0-1.5m 3. 166 .100 90 % Orientation 80 70 60 50 40 Vertical 30 Horizontal 20 Oblique 10 0 0.15m 1.5m 3.5m 5m 10m 15m Height Class Figure 8.15m 1. Percentage orientation of substrate types in the different heights of the vertical axis at Kottawa Arboretum.5m 3. Available substrate size at different heights of the vertical axis at Kottawa Arboretum. 100 90 % Substrate size 80 70 60 < 1cm 50 < 5 cm 40 30 < 10 cm > 10 cm 20 10 0 0.5m 5m 10m 15m Height Class Figure 9. L. 2005).00. An analysis of the three dimensional structure of the Kottawa Arboretum in terms of continuity of habitat and habitat characters such as type.DISCUSSION Population density of L. 2001). t.. which generally grow in disturbed forests. 167 . at present Kottawa Arboretum exists as a small isolated forest patch as the Galle-Udugama road separates it from closest large forest track.. tardigradus were observed to occupy was 8. argues that continuity of arboreal substrate is important for slender loris locomotion. Thus Kottawa Arboretum can be considered as an important site for the conservation of western Ceylon slender Loris. First.5m to 15m. fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus). However. t. tardigradus at Kottawa Arboretum is small. Therefore. tardigradus it can be concluded that they show a higher preference towards trees such as Chaetocarpus castanocarpus and Dillenia retusa. t. This is consistent with the field observations where the highest number of loris sightings were made at this height range with the average height from the ground level where L. Based on these observations habitat quality and availability in the Kottawa Arboretum for lorises was evaluated. which provide good substrate for lorises (Nekaris et al. The floral sampling results show that the Kottawa Arboretum has high species diversity.. Furthermore. L. the basal area values recorded are lower than the values expected from a primary forest which once again indicates that the area has been subjected to selective logging (Bhuyan et al.64 m ± 5. Kottawa Arboretum appears to be less disturbed due to two reasons. Based on the tree usage by L. rusty spotted cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus). Climbers. orientation and girth of the available substrate indicates that the highest habitat quality and availability is in the height range 3. t. 2005) were associated with more than 10% of the trees sampled in the study site. tardigradus. tardigradus recorded in Sri Lanka. This indicates that the habitat quality of Kottawa Arboretum is much better than Masmulla Proposed Forest Reserve even though it is smaller in size. no introduced plant species were recorded in the tree sample (n=240) of Kottawa Arboretum. However. t. (1990). forest eagle owl (Bubo nipalensis) and Indian python (Python molurus). compared to Massmulla Proposed Forest Reserve. the basal area value is higher than the values recorded for Massmulla Proposed Forest Reserve (Nekaris et al. the high density observed indicates that the habitat quality is very high.. increased number of climbers indicates that the forest had been subjected disturbance (Ashton et al. brown fish owl (Ketupa zeylonensis). tardigradus recorded in the Kottawa Arboretum during this study (41-animals/ km2) is three times greater than the population density recorded at Massmulla Proposed Forest Reserve (13 animals/ km2) by Nekaris & Jayewardene (2004) who notes that it is the highest population density of L. the Kombala Kottawa forest reserve.Even though the size of the estimated population of western Ceylon slender Loris. Nekaris (2001) and Demes et al. Thus long term conservation of this population may require linking of Kottawa Arboretum with the Kombala Kottawa forest reserve through a suitable land use type. tardigradus showed a higher preference for small branches and twigs that are obliquely or horizontally oriented. t. t. Second. A few potential predators were also observed at the study site such as golden palm cat (Paradoxurus zeylonensis). Analysis of habitat preferences of L. 2003).. a detailed investigation of the habitat selection criteria of lorises was conducted. However. M. Gravity. (2001) Primate Taxonomy. (eds). & Gunatilleke. & Gunatilleke.. C. G. 5629-5667. & Nieschalk. National Science Foundation Grant Number NSF/RSP/UOR/A/02/2001 for providing the necessary financial support. G. & Hilton-Taylor. G. 12: 9-22 IUCN. U.G.K.H. India.Da & Kent. Gunatilleke. Mittermeier. W. Lilia Bernede for providing valuable literature and comments. Conservation Biology. P. & Dilhan. (1990). A comparative study on Biodiversity of selected manmade and Natural habitats in low country wet zone of Sri Lanka. Forest Ecology and Management 154: 409-430. Gunatilleke. S.B.U. Eastern Himalyas.. P. & Tripathi..R.C.S.D. I. New York.M.A.L. A field Guide to the Common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. (1979). (2001). C. (1987).U.B. B. Khan. B. & Bearder.M.. W.M.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to acknowledge K. P..N. C. 168 . Brookes... Gamage. New light on the plant geography of Ceylon I.N. REFERENCES Ashton. Nekaris for providing the necessary literature and equipment for the survey as well as her helpful advice and guidance throughout this study.I.175-197.M.T. Sedicesimo Publishers..A.L. M.org Myers. P. 403: 853-858. Dassanayake. Plant biogeography and conservation of the southwestern hill forests of Sri Lanka. The Study of Prosimian Behavior. N.A.. Supplement No.B.B. Biodiversity hot spots for Conservation Priorities.A. (2005). (2002).A. Colombo.A. Biodiversity and Conservation. Washington D. J. 12: 1753-1773. W. (1997). J.M. University of Ruhuna. (2000).U. R. Magin. Habitat loss and extinction in the hotspots of biodiversity.A. Kamburupitiya Sri Lanka. Gunatilleke. C. in Jouffroy et al.redlist. & Wijesundera. Wasantha Liyanage for invaluable assistance provided in the field. Pilgrim.S. Academic Press. 14: 249-285. Nature.C.P. Singhakumara. Bhuyan. Available at: < URL: http://www.. I.Da. Fonseca. S.V. Smithsonian Institution Press. Historical plant geography.De.S. in Doyle et al. Flick. (2003). R. Department of Forest Conservation for granting permission to conduct the study..S. Oldfield.. P. S. Publications Ltd. (2004). Mittermeier. Florence.N. Tree diversity and population structure in undisturbed and human-impacted stands of tropical wet evergreen forest in Arunachal pradesh.S.A. Journal of Biogeography. MPhil thesis.. Konstant.S. A. Mittermeier. Charles-Dominique. C. S. M. Fonseca. Restoration pathways for rain forest in southwest Sri Lanka: review of concepts and models. P.. C.G.V. Ashton. Mittermeier. Posture and Locomotion in Primates II. Field studies of lorisid behavior: Methodological aspects.. Faculty of Agriculture. Gunatilleke. Jungers. N. P. R.A. Ashton. N. Groves.N.. (2005). T.V.. Redlist.. Gunatilleke.A. (eds). I.S. Zoysa. Rylands. Size and speed related aspects of quadrupedal walking in lorises: a comparison of gait characteristics and locomotor stresses in Loris tardigradus and Nycticebus coucang. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology.. Demes. 16: 909-923. Primate Conservation. J.. Osman Hill. birthing and parental care in three subspecies of slender loris in the wild (Loris tardigradus and Loris lydekkerianus) Folia Primatologica.R. Nekaris. (2003). Center of Plant Diversity: a Guide to Strategy for their Conservation. 1821: Loris tardigradus Linnaeus.W. Australia and the Pacific. J. Maharagama. Survey of Slender loris (Primates. R. The green mantle of Sri Lanka. K. Folia Primatologica 72: 228-241.N. (2004). Nekaris. Mammalia 69(2): 201-210.K.I. Sri Lanka.A. K. (2001). (1996). 72: 228-241. Cambridge: 62-135. W. Regional overview: Indian Subcontinent. 19: 83-90. Lorisidae Grey.D. Tharanjee Prints. (1996). Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy. Observations on mating.A. Sutherland. Nawinna.I. (2003). Volume 2: Asia.I. Nekaris. S. Cambridge University Press.A. (1953).A. 242 p. 1908) in Sri Lanka. World Wildlife Fund for Nature and the IUCN Press.Nekaris. Journal of Zoology. 262: 327-338.A. 336 p. & Jayawardena.UK. (1995).I. Sri Lanka. & Gamage. W.I. Mill.. Ecological census techniques. Strepsirrhini. Pemadasa. K. Pilot study and conservation status of the slender loris (Loris tardigradus and Loris lydekkerianus) in Sri Lanka. 169 . K.D. Edinburgh University Press. in Davis et al. Liyanage. Primates. Influence of forest structure and composition on population density of the red slender loris Loris tardigradus tardigradus in Masmullah proposed forest reserve. & Jayewardene. J.C. (2005). I. Edinburgh. Activity budget and positional behavior of Mysore slender loris (Loris tardigradus lydekkeriaus): implications for “slow climbing” locomotion. 1758 and Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera. A. (eds). K. Nekaris. The mean NND was 1. Juvenile Elephants. SRI LANKA D. Young elephants spend long years in physical and behavioral development and diverse behaviours exhibited by adult elephants reflect their long history of social interactions and learning (Sukumar. W. Time allocated for different behaviour pattern by the study group varied with the NN. Focal animal sampling was employed to quantify behaviour of 450 individuals. When the study animals were accompanied by age-mates.55% of the total observed time respectively. P. The findings suggest that juvenile elephants more frequently associate adult females and near–age mates while they show social relationships in a varying degree with different associates. DAYAWANSA1.K. Social interactions or social relationships among elephants are maintained by communication.62m (SD±2. 2003). RATNASOORIYA1 and J. 1994).K. PADMALAL2. 2003). There was a significant difference between NND categories (p<0. they spent 17% of time for social playing and another 3% for non-play social contacts.D. High play and social contacts of juveniles provide a great opportunity to develop skills and social confidence well needed for the survival in future. which is one of the most advanced mammalian social organizations (Sukumar.67% and 37. Adult females and juveniles were the NN of the study group during 50. The fact is observed in the elephant society. Being the NN. 80% of the infants stayed at a touching distance and was cared or allomothered by the juveniles under discussion. In spite of biological need of suckling in young calve. Nearest neighbour (NN) of an individual and distance to the nearest neighbour (DNN) are some of the parameters of proximity (Garai. 1986). Kenya were within 5m distance from their mothers 80% of the observed time (Lee. JAYANTHA1 *. juvenile African elephants under eight years old in the Amboseli national park. 1997). It is perceptible extended childhood is necessary for learning and development of the growing animal. U. Maximum social contacts were observed between study animals and infants. 2003). KEY WORDS: Social Relationships. Sri Lanka INTRODUCTION Mammals that live long have a lengthy childhood and adolescence. for an example. 170 . The Open University of Sri Lanka 3 Department of Wildlife Conservation.A. Elephants show particular relationships with group members. It was only 1% for each behaviour pattern when the adult females were in close proximity.N. WEERASIGHE3 1 2 Department of Zoology.8) while it was less than 5m in 98% of the time. behaviour and proximity (Sukumar. 33% of the time the study group was touching (NND<1m) the NN.SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS OF WILD JUVENILE ASIAN ELEPHANTS (Elephas maximus) IN THE UDAWALAWA NATIONAL PARK.G. Colombo 7 ABSTRACT Social relationships of juvenile elephants (3-6 years old) in the Udawalawa National Park were studied. University of Colombo Department of Zoology.05). Udawalawa National Park. Nearest neighbour (NN) and nearest neighbour distance (NND) were recorded to analyse social relationships. juvenile interactions with their associates provide an opportunity for learning and thereby cognitive and motor skills of the individual is improved (Sukumar. JVIII : Juveniles (Class III) . approximately 3-6 years old. Juvenile as well as adult animals communicate by entwining trunks and inserting trunk tip to each others mouths when they are under stress. Many of other interactions describe social relationships of elephants. grasslands and dry-mixed evergreen forests as dominating vegetations (Department of Wildlife Conservation. Extensive areas of Panicum maximum dominated savanna type grasslands (Jayantha et al. 1990). 3. Such interactions among elephants invariably increase the social bonding which will help in better survival. Sri Lanka with the objective of describing social relationships of juvenile elephants METHODOLOGY Study area The Udawalawa national park (UNP) is in the intermediate zone of the Southern Sri Lanka (N 060 24’-060 35’ E 0800 45’. Sukumar (1994) states that playing helps to accelerate the development of brain and nervous system. It is a training programme for the strength and skills that younger will require in adult life (Morris. The authors believe that UNP harbors a healthy breeding population of elephants exceeding 500 individuals (Jayantha & Dayawansa. (1994) the elephant population in the UNP was categorized into eight different groups in the field level. it is important to study the way juvenile Asian elephants establish relationships with its group members. Study group Juvenile animals of estimated age 3-6 years old were observed in the study. Playing is one such behaviour pattern restricted to higher form of life and frequently observed in juvenile age. A calf would show the same behaviours to learn about feeding from its mother.shoulder height varying between neck and eye level of the adult female. elephants of UNP heavily utilize savanna grasslands. JVI: Juveniles (Class I) . approximately 1 ½ -3 years old. This will help to understand the social skillfulness and confidence of a particular juvenile compared to age mates which will then explain the social health of the animal. 2006). This age group is partially parallel to ‘young juveniles’ as explained by Santiapillai in 2004. Continual contacts between mother and calf reassure the psychological well being of the growing animal Sukumar (2003 & 1994).shoulder height varying between ventral abdomen and neck level of the adult female. approximately day 1-1 ½ years old. Along with seasonal grasslands adjoining the Udawalawa reservoir.shoulder height varying between eye and dorsal canthus of ear opening of the adult female. A study was conducted in the Udawalawa national park.Different behaviours expressed by social animals also contribute for the long run learning process.0810 00’) and currently it has 30. Based on Sukumar. 2005) have been resulted from shifting cultivation practiced before declaration in 1972. approximately 6-10 years old. (Juvenile males would be slightly taller than juvenile females of the same age) 171 . In this context. (Figure 1) 1. INF: Infants – animals of shoulder height up to the level of ventral abdomen of an average adult female. 2. JVII: Juveniles (Class II) . 4. 821 ha of scrublands. 2005). Nearest neighbour (NN) of the focal animal and distance to the nearest neighbour (DNN) was recorded together with different behaviours expressed.shoulder height is just below or as the same that of the adult female.shoulder height varying between dorsal canthus of ear opening and shoulder level of the adult female. 1994) Study protocol Selected animal group was observed in UNP from April 2004 to March 2005. Total sampling time was 4500 minutes. 8. AF: Adult females – grown females pregnant. approximate age more than 15-20 years. Focal animal sampling and continuous recording (Martin & Bateson. 172 . Relative height of young female elephants in relation to full grown female. AM: Adult males – grown males of shoulder height more than that of an average adult female. 6. Hides and distant observation (using 8x40 binoculars) were employed to minimize Hawthorn effect (Jayantha & Dayawansa. (Sukumar. 7. SAM: Sub adult males . Descriptive statistics was used to describe the findings. 1993) were conducted every other week to quantify behaviour of the juveniles encountered at 450 different occasions. SAF : Sub adult females . appearance of mammae (whether suckled or not) is considered when needed in deciding this.5. Figure 1. approximately 10-12 years old. lactating or weaned. 2006). approximately 10-15 years old. infants stayed in close proximity (NND<1m) 80% of the time.67% SAF SAM AF 12.67%) with adult females.5 Mean NND (m) 3 2.44%) (Figure 2). Infants were seen near to the study group 3. It is <2% of the observations that study group stayed between 5-10m away from the NN and stayed very rarely at a distance >10m (Figure 4). Mean NND for different NN categories varied significantly (ANOVA.5 INF JV I JV II 173 JV III SAF SAM AF NN category Figure 3. range 0-40m). A clear pattern of mean NND was evident when young animals (0-10 years old) considered as the NN collectively.62m (SD±2.11% 10.5 2 1.22% JV III 50.00% Figure 2.89% AM 4. at 98% times the NN was within 5m away from the focal animals and during 33% of the encounters they were touching the NN (NND<1m).8. Mean NND of different NN categories AM . 3.05). possibly their mothers.RESULTS 1.22% and 4.11% of the total occasions and it was the adult males that made least NN frequency (0.5 1 0. They spent 37. Nearest Neighbour Distance Mean NND was 1.00% respectively. Out of their total associations with the study group.55% of the time collectively with juveniles showing no affiliation towards a particular age or size group. p<0. Nearest Neighbour Frequency Juveniles of age 3-6 years old were observed almost half of the time (50.44% 3.22% 4. Sub adult females and sub adult males were the NNs of the focal group nearly at the same frequencies. 0.5 0 -0. with increasing age (and body size) NND increased (Figure 3). 2.44% INF JV I JV II 14. one-way. 4. Out of total encounters. NN frequencies of different categories as a proportion of the total encounters. % frequency of NN distance 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% >10m 6-10m 1-5m <1m INF JV I JV II JV III SAF SAM AF AM NN category Figure 4. Percentage frequency of NND in relation to NN categories 3. Social behaviours in relation to the Nearest Neighbour The juveniles under discussion expressed different behaviour patterns; only three patterns were directly related to current context i.e. social play, non-play social contacts and agonistic interactions. Since only four occasions were recorded (hit by adult females twice, hit a sub adult female and a Class II juvenile) for the total of 450 encounters, agonistic behaviour pattern is not considered here. Several elements were described under social play and non-play social contacts (Annexure 1).Time allocated for each pattern calculated as a proportion of the total time the focal animals spent in association of different NN categories (Figure 5). Propotion of time spent 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 PLAY SOCIAL 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 INF JVI JVII JVIII SAF SAM AF AM NN category Figure 5. Proportion of time spent in relation to NN category 174 Social play is generally high when the study group had juveniles as the NN; the time spent was maximum with the age mates (17%). Non-play social contacts were high between infants and the study animals. Focal animals shared the same lesser amount of time for social play and non-play social contacts when the NNs were sub adult females, sub adult males and adult females. They had no social contacts with adult males. DISCUSSION Young juveniles of elephants spend more time with the adult females, particularly with their mothers (Kurt, 2002; Lee, 1986; McKay, 1973 & Sukumar, 2003). The fact is further emphasized by the current study. The association must have more relationships in social context other than the mere biological need of suckling as only six encounters were there on suckling focal animals during the study period. Apart from that, they had substantial associations with near-age juveniles (1-10 years old) next to the adult females proportionately. This can be clarified by ‘peer socialization’, during which much of the juvenile contacts made with members of the group other than the mother (Sukumar, 2003 & Moss, 1998). It was observed during the study that juveniles of 1-10 years old forming social groups within the cow-calf units. Infants were also recorded to accompany the study group parallel to Lee’s (1983) and Moss’s (1998) observations of how juvenile females accompany younger siblings. The term allo-mothering (Santiapillai, 2004) would describe this association when the juveniles take care of its younger. Gunawardene et al reported in 2004 that nursing infants stay with their mothers 100% of the time; it is worthwhile to note the possible overlapping of age & size categories of the two studies. The focal animals stayed in close proximity with their nearest neighbours. However, the mean nearest neighbour distance for different age & size categories varied showing a particular trend among growing animals. From infant to sub adult age or size, the distance increased gradually. This observation indirectly explains how young elephants move away from their nearest neighbours with increasing age and explore its environment (Sukumar, 2003 & Gunawardene et al, 2004). According to Garai (1997), close proximity of juvenile elephants is a sign of less social confidence to spend a solitary or independent time. Out of the social relationships of a juvenile, playing is an important aspect of learning. Playing in general is acrobatic (primates), exploratory (felids) or social ((Morris, 1990). Social play in juvenile elephants allows them to recognize kin and formation of social bonds useful in future (Sukumar, 2003). Juveniles of 3-6 years old spent most of their play time with near-age animals. The same observations have been made on Amboseli elephants (Lee, 1986). With infants, they allocated more time for non-play social contacts which supports the association of allomothering. Focal animals had less social interactions with sub adults and adult females compared to young animals. 175 CONCLUSIONS Close proximity of juvenile elephants of 3-6 years old with the adult females and near- age juveniles coincides with social interactions. Majority of the time they stayed within 5m distance from their nearest neighbours showing a less social confidence to do so. Social play and non-play social contacts were the behaviour patterns of interest regarding social relationships. The first pattern was frequent among near-age juveniles and the second was predominantly between infants and the juveniles under discussion. Young animals form juvenile groups of near-age members and young juveniles sometime play allo-mothering role for infants. Play and other social interactions experience by juvenile elephants would help in acquiring social skills expressed in later life. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors extend their sincere gratitude to the Department of Wildlife Conservation, especially to the staff, Udawalawa national park. The Born Free Foundation, UK is acknowledged for the financial support. REFERENCE Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka. (2005). Management Plan- Udawalawa National Park. Garai M.E.(1997). The development of social behaviour in translocated juvenile African elephants, Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pretoria. Gunawardene, M.D., Jayasinghe, L.K.A., Janaka, H.K., Weerakoon, D.K., Wickramanayake, E. and Fernando, P. (2004). Social Organization of Elephants in Southern Sri Lanka. In Jayawardene, J. (Ed.). Endangered elephants; past, present & future. Biodiversity & Elephant Conservation Trust. 66 p. Jayantha, D. & Dayawansa, P.N. (Eds.) (2006). Airavana. Serial Publication of the of the project ELEMONI-SL; Juvenile elephant monitoring project, Udawalawa National Park. University of Colombo & Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka. 1(1): 5. Jayantha, D., Dayawansa, P.N., Padmalal, U.K.G.K, Ratnasooriya, W.D. (2005). Behaviour of Juvenile Asian Elephants in Panicum maximum Dominated Grasslands in the Udawalawa National Park. Proceedings of the 10th Annual Forestry and Environment Symposium. 53 p. Kurt F. (2002). Physical and social development in captive-born and orphaned Asian elephants of the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage (Sri Lanka). In Proceedings of Workshop on Captive Elephant Management. Trichur, India. Lee, P.C. (1986). Early social development among African elephant calves. National Geographic Research. 2: 388-41. Martin P. & Bateson P. (1993). Measuring Behaviour: An introductory guide. 2nd Ed. Cambridge University Press. McKay G.M. (1973). Behaviour and Ecology of the Asiatic Elephants in Southeastern Ceylon. Smithsonian Contribution to Zoology. 125: 69. Morris, D. (1990). Animal Watching. Arrow Books Limited. 230 p. 176 86-109. C. Gajah.). Pp 145-174. 1:50. (2003). Santiapillai. . Sheets 76. R. The living Elephant. Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group. C (Ed. Evolutionary ecology.Moss. (2002). (2004). 177 . The University of Chicago Press. behaviour and conservation. R. Ten years with the Indian Elephant. Elephant Memories. Sukumar. (1994). Thirteen years in the life of an elephant family.000 topographical map of Sri Lanka. 23:16. (1988). Sukumar. Oxford University Press. Oxford University Press. Pp 125-190. Survey Department of Sri Lanka. 81 and 82. Elephant Days and Nights. water. Environmental management systems (EMS). Ontario. however with varied size and signs.9%) as compared to others.K. Guelph. Agricultural & Resource Economics.by crop and livestock farms in Canada. JAYASINGHE 1* and A. N1G 2W1. pesticide. 2 Department of Food. Gonawila (NWP). University of Guelph.378) with both crops and livestock.053 with 76. Wildlife conservation plan(WC) 178 . sex). farm structure (size.M. and degree of urbanization affect significantly on this behaviour in all farm types. The farms responded to the survey (Nt = 16. fertilizer. financial (profits. Canada. population density). ABSTRACT Management Survey (2001) conducted by Statistics Canada and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.000 active farms in Canada with sales greater than $10.4% response rate) were classified into three major categories: (1) “crop farms” (Nc = 5. It uses data collected in the Farm Environmental adoption of WCP is comparatively less (13. Those characteristics considered in the analysis include: human capital (age. The results from a Logit Regression analyses suggest that age.ADOPTION OF A WILDLIFE CONSERVATION PLAN BY CROP AND LIVESTOCK FARMS IN CANADA: WHAT FARMER AND FARM CHARACTERISTICS MAKE A DIFFERENCE? J. WEERSINK 2 1 Department of Agribusiness Management.425).000. including manure. (2) “livestock farms” (Nl = 2. farm size. and grazing management plans. ownership). It highlights the importance of taking into account of voluntarily private-action of the farming community to formulate publicregulation aiming an environmentally friendly and conservative agriculture farm setting. KEY WORDS: Crop and livestock farms. farm assets). Wayamba University of Sri Lanka. and social (degree of urbanization. profitability. non-farm income.250) and (3) “mixed farms” (Nm = 8. Sri Lanka. Makandura. Faculty of Agriculture and Plantation Mgt. The results indicate that rate of This paper examines the impact of various farmer and farm characteristics on the adoption of a Wildlife Conservation Plan (WCP) – “a formal written document prepared by an expert that describes the measures to be taken by an agricultural operation to conserve natural land and wildlife habitants adjacent to it” . The target population consists of 21.U. NMP Explains the methods of testing nutrient content of the farm’s liquid or solid/semi-solid manure before applying it to the land. aeration.INTRODUCTION Other than short and long-term financial performance of the firm. The basic activities carried out by the management of farms that implemented these EMS are summarized in Table 1. mix of legume and chemical fertilizer to be used in each season. separation. post-plant top/side dressing etc.g. from one hand. FMP Explains the measures use to apply fertilizer (e. insects ad diseases etc. on the other. sealed. GMP Explains any measures taken to conserve natural wetlands including rotational grazing for livestock and practices such as “carry-over” and “re-seeding”. specific treatments use (e. fertilizer management plans (FMP). trees. sprinkler. insecticides. and ways and means of domestic water testing etc.). The direct and/or indirect private or social costs that are “incurred by adoption” and/or can be “skipped by not-adoption” may also have a significant impact on this behaviour. covered tank etc. drying etc. Table 1. Consequently. bushes etc). pesticide management plans (PMP). distance to water ways. 179 . additives. open tank.g.g. and timing of applications etc. broadcasting. water management plans (WMP). including nutrient management plans (NMP). The Farm Environmental Management Survey (FEMS) conducted by the Statistics Canada in 2001 in collaboration with the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada identified a number of such EMS adopted by farms operate in this sector. and odor control systems etc. Definitions for various environmental management systems (EMS) Type Definition MMP Explains the types of liquid. WMP Explains the sources and total volume of water to be used on a per acre basis. wildlife conservation plans (WCP). cultivation of perennial forage.g. surface flooding etc). sprayer calibration techniques. frequency of storage and use of manure. unlined lagoon. and nutrient management plans (NMP) etc. A firm’s decision to invest its scarce resources (that possess higher opportunity costs) on the adoption of a particular EMS may be a result of. the direct and/or indirect private or social benefits that it can “obtain by adoption” and/or will be “forgone by non-adoption”. the management might decide to adopt various Environmental Management Systems (EMS) – an environmental-friendly production practice that documents a firm’s activities that affect environmental performance – as a guide to reducing its ecological impact. methods use to irrigate the land (e. grazing management plans (GMP). solid/semi-solid manure storage systems use (e. banded. and fungicides. the management of which may be provoked by moral concerns for quality of the environment where the firm is located. drip. and their frequencies etc. and alternative methods other than chemical pesticides to control weeds. livestock fencing. PMP Explains certain information with respect to different application strategies of herbicides.). consideration of nutrient carry-overs.g. WCP Explains any measures taken to conserve natural land and wildlife habitants that are adjacent to the agricultural operation (e.). There is no exception to this with respect to the firms operate in agriculture sector in Canada. 2004). Eventually. As reported by Henriques and Sadorsky (1996).g. various types of fertilizers and pesticides by Smith and Smithers. it contrasts and compares whether that behaviour of farmers is associated with their desire to adopt any other plans. there exists a gap in the environmental economics literature. There are a number of studies that examined empirically the motives for adoption of certain agri-environmental practices by various types of agricultural operations in developed countries. a firm’s motivation for adopting EMSs. that an EMS provides a credible signal to its existing and potential customers that it is an “environmentally-friendly” firm. In consequently. for example a well-formulated and comprehensive plan that explains the actions the farm can undertake to protect the wildlife in and around the farmland (exceptions. many Canadian firms adopt environmentally friendly quality management systems to improve its public image and reputation with the community. fertilizer and pesticide management plans) and “social benefits” (e. 1984.g. include adoption of modern soil conservation techniques by Rahm and Huffman.Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada One of the direct and private benefits to the firm by adopting an EMS may be. 2002). and integrated pest management techniques by D’Souza et al. compensation. 1969). an EMS is used in many developed countries as evidence of due diligence which is often the only acceptable defense in a legal challenge stemming from an environmental accident.e. a firm may concern about conserving the factors of production used in its day-to-day operations (i. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of various farmer and farm characteristics on the adoption of a wildlife conservation plan (WCP) by crop and livestock farms in Canada. without investing such resources on other competitive ends will be determined by the size of the margin between these benefits and costs to the adopter (JayasingheMudalige and Weersink. Costs could be further reduced as an EMS by means of lower interest rates charged by financial institutions. legal fees) by minimizing the risk of involvement with the judiciary to solve the cases related to the environmental quantity (Khanna and Anton. 1993).g. with respect to the studies that examined the impact of various human and socio-economic characteristics associated with farmers and of farms on the adoption of individual Best Management Practices (BMP) and/or certain EMS that possess “public goods characteristics”. this phenomenon was not examined empirically to date with respect to the farms operate in the agriculture sector in Canada. 1997. lower premiums charged by insurance companies. In terms of costs. According to Wall and Weersink (2001). individually or collectively. manure and water management plans). higher revenue earned through increased market share or price premiums. which may be highly subjective to the characteristics of the firm and the entrepreneur (Buchanan. although rather indirect. Further. To the best knowledge of authors. Another private benefit may be. Many of these studies have been focused on the factors affecting the adoption of such practices that generate direct and or indirect “private” benefits to the farmer (see. reduction of direct costs) and/or reducing the waste generated in such activities by adoption of a particular EMS. for example use of specific vaccines by cattle producers by Bhattacharyya et al. including those primarily generate “private benefits” (e. 180 . 1992). and lower liability risks (e.. for example.. METHODS Theoretical framework A rational farmer will invest on adoption of an EMS if it helps her, directly or indirectly, to maximize the profits of the farm. Alongside, the farmer may also decide to adopt certain other EMS (e.g. WCP) in her farm and/or area adjacent to the farmland that generates greater social benefits than the private benefits. In light of this, for the farms that involved with production of crop and livestock in Canada we can hypothesize that “the motivation for the management of the farm to invest its scare resources on a WCP that generates greater social benefit (in compared to the private benefits) will depend on the human-capital (e.g. age, sex), financial (e.g. profits, non-farm income), operational and structural (e.g. size, ownership), and social (e.g. distance, population pressure) characteristics of the farmer and the farm”. The following theoretical model was specified to test this hypothesis: WCPi = α0 + Σβij Xij + εi Where, WCPi describes whether the farm in question has adopted a WCP or not (i = 1, 2, …n). Xij is a vector of j explanatory variables included in the model. The terms βij denote regression coefficients corresponding to the explanatory variables (j = 1, 2, …l). Further, α0 and εi denote the intercept and random error terms, respectively. Data collection and analysis The secondary data included in the FEMS, which was a voluntary national survey focusing on the level of adoption of environmental management systems (EMS) and best management practices (BMP) by livestock and crop operations in all Provinces across Canada and on numerous other issues were used to estimate the coefficients of variables included in the model (Table 2). Table 2 . Variables used in the model 181 Variable Description (expected sign) Human capital characteristics AGE SEX TMA Age of the farm household head in years (+) Gender of the farm household head (Male = 1; Female = 0) Time allocation of the farm household head for farming (Full-time = 1; Part-time with off-farm work = 0) Financial characteristics PFT INC AST Overall profitability of the farm - calculated by taking the ratio of: total gross farm receipts of the operation in 2000 / total farm business operating expenses of the farm in 2000 (+) Income earned by the head of the farm household through non-farming operations, such as retail business and factory work (Non-farm income = 1; No non-farm income = 0) Total fixed assets of the farm – calculated by taking the total present market value of land, buildings, and farm machinery in thousands of Canadian dollars (+) Operational and structural characteristics Organizational arrangement # OSP Sole proprietorship = 1; Other arrangements (i.e. for partnerships / corporation) = 0 OFC Family corporation = 1; otherwise = 0 ONF Non-family cooperation = 1; otherwise = 0 Land ownership pattern OWN Ratio of own land to the total land area of the farm (+) LLG Ratio of land leased from the government to the total land area of the farm FSZ Area of the farm in hectares (+) Social and regional characteristics DIS PPD The distance in kilometers “as a crow flies” from the farm operation to the nearest Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) (+) The population density of the Census Sub-Division where the farming operation is located measured as the number of people per square km (-)## Notes: # A farm without any formal agreement with any partner was assumed to be the base scenario. ## The tendency to have a WCP decreases with increasing population density since there is low chance to have wildlife habitats in urbanized areas. All active farms with sales greater than C$10,000 as included in the “Agriculture Division’s Farm Register in Canada” (n = 21,000) were considered to be the target population for this particular survey. The response to survey was significantly high with 16,053 questionnaire were returned with 76.4 percent response rate 1. The data from the 2001 Census of Agriculture in Canada were also tied to the FEMS database to obtain more accurate, up to date and comprehensive data. For the purpose this analysis, farms that responded to the questionnaire were categorized into three major categories: (1) “crop farms” (NC=5,425), (2) “livestock farms” (NL=2,250), and (3) “mixed farms” (NM=8,378), which possesses both crop and livestock in the farm in various proportions. Considering the dichotomous nature of the dependent variable, a Logit Regression analysis was used to estimate the coefficients of variables explained in Table 2, for example: adoption of a WCP = 1; non-adoption of a WCP = 0. 1 The responses rate was high because two prominent government institutions in Canada, which have close connections with the country’s farming sector – the Statistics Canada, and the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, backed it. 182 RESULTS Descriptive statistics There were 8764 farms out of 16053 that responded to the survey (i.e. 55 percent) did not adopt any EMS. Another 11.7 and 8.6 percent of individual farms adopt a single and two EMSs, respectively. As shown in Figure 1, only 13.9 percent of farms possess a WCP, and which is only second to the percentage of farms that adopt a NMP. Type of Plan No Livestock Crop Mixed N = 2,250 N = 5,425 N = 8,378 % Ran No % k WCP 215 9. 4 6 65 12 3 .0 Ra N % nk o 5 13 1 65 6. Ra nk 6 3 MMP 309 13 2 .7 25 4. 5 7 6 21 2 87 6. 1 1 NMP 7 0. 7 3 80 14 4 .8 4 12 1 63 5. 7 1 FMP 66 2. 5 9 14 27 93 .5 1 21 2 63 5. 2 8 PMP 55 2. 6 4 14 27 78 .2 2 17 2 62 1. 5 0 WMP 261 11 3 .6 98 18 8 .2 3 18 2 38 1. 4 9 GMP 320 14 1 .2 15 2. 5 9 7 20 2 81 4. 8 183 3 To verify whether there is any overlap with respect to farmers’ understanding and interpretation of the specified tasks in each EMS and in turn to adopt it together with others.5 only in WMP indicating that farmers with “more or less same characteristics” are likely to adopt both wildlife conservation and water management plans. and 16. mixed farms have the highest adoption rates in general across the seven EMSs considered while livestock farms have the lowest.7%) and GMP (2. Although such activities included in a GMP are considered to be “very important” for livestock farms. As a whole. the cost of adoption of which in these farms cannot be not justified. 12. 2.2 19.6) cannot be observed. like in the previous case. the correlations between each of the six different EMS considered in this analysis with the farms having a WCP across all farms responded to the survey were examined (Figure 2).9 10 5 0 NMP WCP GMP MMP WMP PMP FMP Figure 1.9 20.9.e.6. Adoption of various types of EMS by farms in Canada: Source: FEMS database – Statistics Canada It shows that there were only 9.2 . In the context of crop farms.0%).e. the adoption of MMP and GMP. the percentages of MMP (4. Percentage of farms that possesses a WCP in the total sample The number and percentage of crop. This indicates that a farmer who has desire to conserve wildlife in the area also takes action to preserve natural resources such as water. a large difference with respect to the adoption rates of GMP and the WCP (i. 184 .PERCENTAGE 25 23.4 and 0.3).9 15 12. PMP and NMP are lower than the WCP (i.0%) were less than the WCP (12. The correlation coefficient exceeds 0.2 20 17.1 15. may not play a significant role in crop farms.0. livestock and mixed farms that adopt the seven types of EMSs are reported in Table 3. 14. We may suggest that the activities included in these EMS (see.9. The percentages of livestock farms with a FMP. and consequently.5 13. individually or collectively.3 percent of these farms respectively adopt a WCP. Table 3. Table 1) are “not important” to maximize the profit of a livestock farm. In fact. 2. 0.7240 for livestock. overall profitability of the farm (PFT).430 0. for example 0. 0.e.377 0. age increases by one-year) and earns higher profits (i.556 0. and the size of the farm gets larger (i.01.7156 and 0.1 0 NMP MMP FMP PMP WMP GMP Figure 2.892. Correlation coefficient of WCP with other EMS: Estimates of coefficients The results from the Logit analysis that produce logged odds (logits) of parameters are reported in Table 4 for three models representing the farm types. and size of the farm (FSZ) were significant at the 1 percent probability level in all three models. livestock and mixed farms. 185 .0675 and 0. and possess the expected sign.e. 2000 for interpretation of results from Logit Regressions). 2002 and Pampel.5 0.153 0.3 0.Correlation Coeffcient 0.7310. the ratio calculated in this respect increases by one unit). respectively for AGE (see.492 0. and mixed farms. Borooach.427 0. respectively) suggest that the models performed well.0877 for crop. increases by a onehectare) the logged odds (logits) of adoption of a WCP would be increased or decreased by the value of respective coefficients included Table 4. Further. crop. the relatively higher Pseudo R-square values (0.4 0.6 0. All the models were significant at a level of 0. There are three variables developed to explain the effect of age of the farmer (AGE).2 0.e. This indicates that as the farmer gets matured (i. 0422) 0.0292) 0.0365 (0.0887 (0.2180 * (0.0399) INC -0.0281) -0.0139 ** (0.0741) 0.0489 *** (0.0524) 0.0155) LLG -0.0549 * (0.0732) AST 0.0479 ** (0.0497 ** (0.0078) -0. crop.7310 0.0032) 0.0378 (0.0374) Human Capital Characteristics AGE SEX TMA Financial Characteristics 0.0344 *** (0.0209) OSP 0.0022 (0.Table 4.0675 *** (0. Therefore.0469) -0.0013) -0.0998) 0.0079) -0.0058) 0.0211) 0.0089) 0.0741) 0.0344 (0.8475 *** (0.0475) 0.7156 Note: ***.0731) 0.0621 (0.1264 *** (0.0970) FSZ 0.0974* (0. all the variables used to characterize the financial situation of farms characteristics.0576 *** (0. **. 5.9960 *** (0.0076 *** (0.0191) ONF -0. INC and AST had a significant impact on this behaviour.0203) -0.0543) 0.0372) R–square 0.5673 *** (0.0745 (0.7240 .0027 * (0.0033 (0.0142 * (0.0445*** (0.1254 *** (0.0069 ** (0.0083) -0. Estimates of coefficients for livestock.0024 ** (0.1206 *** (0. respectively.0192) 0.0014) -0. The results also suggest that farmers who “own” the most of their land were likely to adopt a WCP along with other EMS indicating their long-term commitment to their land as opposed to short-term interests.0042) -0.0147 (0. including the PFT.2221 * (0.0366) 0.0087) -0.0396 (0.0723) OWN 0.0171) -0.0072) -0.0877 *** (0.0036 ** (0.0201) Operational & Structural Characteristics 0.0031 (0.0892*** (0.2197 * (0.0459 * (0.0129 ** (0.00612 ** (0.0182) -0. The probability of adopting a WCP in all types of farms increases as the income of the farmer (INC) and the sustainability of the farm measured in terms of use of capital assets (AST) increases by a unit.0635 (0.0204) 0. and * denotes the 1.0011) OFC -0.0496) PFT 0. and 10 percent significant levels.0233 (0.0479) -0.0017) Social & Regional Characteristics DIS PPD Constant 0.0588 ** (0.0023) 0. and mixed farms: Variables Estimates LIVESTOCK (N = 2250) CROP (N = 5425) MIXED (N= 8378) 0.0024) 0. 186 0.1024 (0. As expected. In abstract. The conversion of natural wildlife habitats into profitable agribusiness ventures through the development of crop and livestock farms creates much profit to the farming community. for example NMP and MMP. Majority of these also possessed the expected sign. or at least to minimize. in particular. for example ever-increasing human-wildlife conflicts for limited resources such as water and place to live (similar to human-elephant conflicts in Sri Lanka). and conservation of wildlife. depend on its needs. those farms with a WCP is not significantly difference from the farms with other plans that generate higher private benefits. a number of Municipalities in certain Provinces in Canada. For example.Both DIS and PPD were significant at various levels in all three samples. for example in Alberta and Quebec. adoption decreases with the population density of the region in which the farm is located (PPD) increases. to both farming and non-farming communities. This highlights the fact that those farmers with a WCP in place possess positive incentives to behave environmentally friendly “voluntarily”. The respective governments should take into account of this factor to avoid. The results provide some useful insights into the formulation of effective public policy aiming environmental protection. for example fertilizer and pesticide management plans. These way. In the wake of this understanding. these institutions can have an appropriate program to capture those farmers who do not possess a any of these plans into the system in order to prevent that “voluntary” action of a farmer not become a barrier to be competitive in the marketplace. a particular Municipality can make it a policy to have a WCP in place and can promote farmers to adopt other plans such as FMP and PMP together with a WCP and/or a WMP. have made it mandatory to adopt some of these plans. in the farm. loss of biodiversity. Although the percentage of adopting so is low in the farming population. farmers can be motivated to “pay some sort of compensation” to the society for utilization of the public goods such as wildlife habitats by implementing the later. CONCLUSIONS The outcome of the analysis suggests that a number of factors show a significant impact on farm’s decision to adopt a wildlife conservation plan to protect the flora and fauna in and around the farming environment. adoption of a WCP is not compulsory in any of the 10 Provinces in Canada. such an action has a number of consequences. 187 . in general. such bad effects arising from commercial farming systems to the environment. the young and rich farmers with sufficiently large farms and assets tend to adopt a WCP. Similarly. At the same time. farmers who remote to a major urban center (DIS) were likely to adopt a WCP suggesting that wildlife is a factor that affect farming in these areas. and air and water pollution etc. However. However. whilst deriving “private benefits” through the implementation of former. Markham. (1996). D. and M. Canada. M. I. 159-165. 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However.D.I. unstudied area. 2002). despite their being ecologically important as pest controllers 189 .B. rich in herpetofaunal assemblages (Bossuyt et al. 2004). 2001b) and 103 species of amphibians (De Silva. Their diet of insects and small animals contributes to control of pests in human habitats.. Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda. Wijesinghe & Dayawansa. KARUNARATHNA 1. SIRIMANNA 1. 2001a. Batuwita & Bahir. including crops and homes (Knopf. Hence Nilgala Forest Reserve supports a high Amphibian diversity. 2002). 1996.T. Senanayake et al. Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda. 1998). in the Monaragala District. Favorable environmental factors such as high rainfall and humidity. Sri Lanka 2 IUCN – The World Conservation Union. INTRODUCTION Sri Lanka and Western Ghats of India is a biodiversity hotspot. Meegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachchi.M.. 1996. M. KEKULANDALA2 1 The Young Zoologists’ Association of Sri Lanka. 2005. high percentage of endemism can be seen in the southwest lowland forests where almost 90% of the endemic vertebrates are concentrated (Bambaradeniya et al.G. Bahir & Silva. 2001). L.S. De Silva.C.. There were 6 (31%) endemic species and 5 (26%) nationally threatened species among them. chena cultivation and road kills. high density of undergrowth found in this region support a rich diversity of herpetofauna. U. Frogs are among the most misunderstood group of vertebrates. 2005. 2004. Dehiwala. We were able to record 19 species of amphibians. this important forest is threatened by harmful human activities such as man made fire. herpetofaunal diversity in the dry and intermediate zone forest areas has not been studied well (De Silva et al. According to published literature wet zone forests harbors more than 60% of the indigenous herpetofauna of Sri Lanka. Our aim was primarily to study the Amphibian species diversity and various threats they face in this remote. which is situated in the intermediate zone of Sri Lanka.R. illegal logging. ASELA 1 and D.C. Reptiles and amphibians play a vital role in the functioning of an ecosystem. Horton Place. Das & De Silva. We were also able to record several species for the first time in Nilgala Forest Reserve. However.. 1977. Based on published sources. Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda.A SURVEY OF AMPHIBIANS IN THE NILGALA FOREST RESERVE AND ITS VICINITY D. 2005) have been recorded from the island to date. 1996.. Meegaskumbura et al. 2003. Colombo 07. which is about 18% of the total Sri Lankan Amphibians described to date. The poikilothermic nature of herpetofauna restricts their distribution to areas with high rainfall such as lowland wet zone forest areas and montane forest areas (Giri & Chaturvedi. No: 53. 2005. 2005. ABEYWARDENA 1. Furthermore.D. Hence many people treat them with almost the same revulsion as snake. 1998.S. Sri Lanka ABSTRACT This paper presents the findings of a preliminary study on Amphibian diversity in Nilgala Forest Reserve. 2005. Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi. National Zoological Gardens. Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda. a total of 184 species of reptiles (Bahir & Maduwage. One of the biggest drawbacks for conserving amphibian fauna of the country is the lack of knowledge of their distribution and ecology. All habitats such as water bodies.. it is essential to gather information on the diversity of amphibian fauna in different areas of the country. However. The weather gradually becomes very dry from August to December and highest temperatures are recorded in August. the amphibian fauna of NFR is poorly studied. The average annual rainfall is around 1750 mm. Commonly found trees are Aralu (Terminalia chebula). All collected species were examined carefully and noted down before released back to the same habitats. The altitudinal range varies from 200 m to 700 m above sea level within the boundaries of the NFR (De Silva et al. under the rocks. Furthermore basic environmental parameters were collected at locations. Hence. where specimens were collected. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area Nilgala forest reserve (NFR) is a unique forest ecosystem covering 12.. There are several peaks within the NFR and “Yakun Hela” the highest peak (700 m). The general climatic conditions in the Nilgala area is described as moderately cool. Certain herpetofauna species can be considered as indicator species of environmental change. NFR is located between 7° 08` – 7° 14` Northern latitudes and 81° 16` – 81° 20` Eastern longitudes. 2000). General area surveys were carried out in different habitat types within the NFR. approximately 11 km southeast from Bibile town. Methodology The present study was carried out during the period of 2004 to 2005. with occasional rains in some months. Nilgala forest reserve (NFR) is one of the largest and important forest areas in Monaragala District. Hettige et al. as a first step towards conservation. The present survey attempted to document the amphibian fauna of NFR through extensive field surveys made in 2004 and 2005. 2004). Bulu (Terminalia bellirica). since only a fraction of the Amphibian species present in different areas of the country is hitherto known to science.432 hectares in the Bibile divisional secretariat division.. logs and decaying vegetation. Surveys were conducted both day and night and flashlights were used at night. which turns humid during the northeast monsoon season. NFR is also important as a major watershed for Gala Oya and Panmedilla Oya throughout the year. This paper would contribute to enhance the current knowledge of amphibian diversity within the Nilgala Forest Reserve. The diagnostic keys given by Dutta and Manamendra-Arachchi (1996) and Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda (2005) were used for species identification. There are several preliminary amphibian surveys carried out in NFR (De Silva et al. A total of 56 days (10 hrs/ day) were spent for fieldwork during the two years covering the wet and dry seasons. 2004.(Manamendra-Arachchi. 190 . According to the Gunatilleke & Gunatilleke (1990) the major vegetation type is lowland tropical dry mixed evergreen forest (Figure 13). with most of the rainfall occurring from December to March. and arboreal amphibians in trees and bushes up to 5 m. Nelli (Phyllanthus emblica). 2000). The mean annual temperature in the NFR is 28°C with maximum of 32°C and minimum of 24°C. were thoroughly searched for the presence of specimens. Mixed cropping with woody plants like a Mangifera indika. Tamarindus indika. Only Terminalia chebula. decaying logs are common. Leaf litter is very low. Large rock boulders and grassy areas with seasonally moist cascade habitats. Schleichera oleosa. visibility high. Mangifera ceylanica. Species such as Maduca longifolia. Shade 20% with tall trees. Seasonally flooded. Terminalia chebula Diospyros ebenum and Diospyros malabarica are the dominant species. Table 1. 191 . Generally consist of small bushes growing up to 2 m. and turbidity low. trees grows up to 15 m. Chloroxylon swietenia. mud pits. Open water bodies. scattered bushes present. gem pits. clay pits Perennial flowing water bodies. Maduca longifolia. wallowing sites are frequent along the fields. 1m to 2m Tall and randomly distribute with open soil. Description of habitats in NFR. covered by macrophytes (25 %) Figure 1. Agricultural wells. Paddy fields in near NFR. Terminalia bellirica and Phyllanthus emblica Forest. banana and finger millet. and Leaf litter content is high and wet. thick wet leaf litter layer available. field bunds are narrow. 1m to 10m wide.Eleven habitat types were identified and sampled during the survey and a brief description of these habitats is given in (Table. drinking wells. 01). mud pond. main cultivation is maize. Paddy fields are moderate in extent (about 1 acre). shade is about 50%. Habitat Type 01 Chena 02 Home Garden 03 Paddy field 04 Riverine forest 05 Road Side 06 Rock-outcrop 07 08 Savannah forest Shrub / Bush area 9 Small Pond 10 11 Stream Tank Description of Habitat Trees belong to family Rutaceae is dominant and grows up to 5 m. Shade 80% with large tall trees growing up to 20 m. Shady Forest. Terminalia bellirica and Mangifera zeylanica can also be found in several areas. Several species were recorded for the first time in NFR and it is one of the significant findings of the present survey. Savannah forest in NFR. When considering the primary mode of living there were nine terrestrial. four aquatic and 2 fussorial species. 2000). They are Philautus regius and Philautus fergusonianus. Euphlyctis hexodactyla) were the most abundant amphibian group in NFR according to the present survey (Figure 04). Ranid frogs (dominated by Fejervarya limnocharis. while Caecilians were the least abundant. 19 species of amphibians (Annex 01) belonging to four families were recorded from NFR. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis. 192 . There were 6 endemic and 5 nationally threatened species among them (IUCN Sri Lanka. Figure 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During the survey. Rockout crops (Yakun Hela) in NFR. This includes 13 genera. which probably include new species belonging to genus Nannophrys. Furthermore three unidentified species were also recorded during the survey. four arboreal.Figure 2. Philautus regius. 44 9.51 13.77 3.40 .44 %) and Philautus regius (10. When considering the proportional representation of species.14 1.32 7.67 %).49 9.19 6.58 2.11 0. streams and paddy fields) within the study area.49 1.19 10. Philautus regius is also a common species associated with shrub vegetation.19 6.16 4.74 7. The high abundance of Fejervarya limnocharis is possibly related to abundance of aquatic and semi aquatic habitats (Small ponds. Species richness of amphibians in NFR.Ichth 5% Ranid 58% Bufon 11% Micro 26% Figure 4. the highest abundance was shown by Fejervarya limnocharis (13. Hence this species is one of the most common species (Table 02) encountered in the NFR. Scientific Name Bufo atukoralei Bufo melanostictus Kaloula taprobanica Microhyla ornata Microhyla rubra Ramanella variegata Uperodon systoma Hoplobatrachus crassus Fejervarya limnocharis Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis Euphlyctis hexodactyla Rana gracilis Sphaerotheca breviceps Sphaerotheca rolendae Philautus fergusonianus Philautus regius Polypedates cruciger Polypedates maculatus Ichthyophis glutinosus Total Number of Individuals 3 17 8 11 13 3 16 19 34 24 24 4 7 9 3 27 12 18 1 193 Proportional Representation 1.Species composition of Amphibians families in NFR. The shrub vegetation is very high in the NFR and provides the habitat for this species. It is interesting to note that this species was recorded for the first time in NFR and it is considered as rare in the dry and intermediate zones. Table 2.35 5.72 3.67 4.56 1. Unidentified Nannophrys species in NFR.Figure 5. Rana gracilis Sri Lanka Wood frog. 194 . Figure 6. Kaloula taprobanica Common Bull Frog. Figure 7. 195 .32 %). Philautus fergusonianus Ferguson’s shrub frog. The lowest species richness (1. Furthermore the sampling time allocated to home gardens was significantly higher than the time allocated to other habitats. 2004). It appears that a higher species richness of amphibians occur in disturbed habitats such as home gardens. these home gardens with large number trees.Figure 8.74 %) and Riverine forests (13. Figure 9. while Rock outcrop habitats showed the lowest species richness (1.05 %) followed by Roadside habitats (19. The high amount of leaf litter and shade and also the availability abundant of food items such as insects attracted to electric light would have been the reasons for high species richness in home gardens. in the vicinity of NFR is vital refuge for amphibian fauna.32%) was shown by Rock Outcrop habitats. The high species richness in the home gardens might be due to several reasons.16 %). This may also due to the increased sampling effort in this particular habitat type. The species richness is also high along the road side (On Bibila – Ampara main road).. When considering the proportional representation of species in each habitat type (Figure 10). Sphaerotheca rolendae Marbled Sand Frog. This would have lead to the record of more species from home gardens than other habitat types. chena and roadside shrub. and this may be due to the ‘edge effect’ phenomenon. These rocky outcrops is exposed to the sun hence the high temperature is not suitable for amphibians (Pough et al. the highest species richness occurred in home gardens (21. Nevertheless. high shade and high amount of leaf litter. 00 5. The team has observed and recorded that amphibian mortality is particularly high on this road especially after a rain. People living around the NFR frequently make fire to clear the underbrush. forest clearing for chena cultivation and road kills.00 20.00 10. The team has carried out a separate survey to document the impacts road kills. prepare the ground for the next cultivation cycle and to hunt animals. pesticides and weedecides. The local communities are involved in paddy and chena cultivation in the vicinity of the NFR. These people use chemical fertilizers. Another significant threat to the amphibian fauna of the area is road kills. Threats During the survey period several threats to the amphibian fauna in the NFR was observed and recorded. These include forest fires.00 na a he e C ar ut st ko re oc fo R ah nn st va re Sa fo e in er iv R ld fi e y dd h us Pa /B b ru Sh e id S d oa R am re St G nk d Ta on lP al n de ar e om Sm H Habitat Types Figure 10.Proportional Representation of species 25.00 15. This extensive use of chemical is a threat to the many animals including amphibians. Illegal logging activities take place around and within the NFR and this seriously affect the quality of the forests and in turn its inhabitants. logging. and extensive use of chemicals for agriculture. 196 . Bibila – Ampara main road is cutting across the NFR and many animals subjected to road kills. These fires are very frequent in the months of August and September. This activity destroys the habitats of amphibians. Species richness of Amphibians in various habitat types in NFR.00 0. Figure 12. Road kill (Microhyla ornata on Bibile – Ampara Main Road within NFR) 197 .Figure 11. Forest fire inside the NFR. 198 . The NFR and its surrounding habitats have not been studied well and it is evident from the fact that 6 species were new sight recordings for NFR. There are several human activities that have a negative impact to the amphibian fauna as well as to other faunal and floral groups such as fire. It also evident that NFR act as an important refuge for threatened amphibians. Therefore detailed studies have to be carried out to document the amphibians in this site. Map of the Nilgala Forest Reserve and Roads. CONCLUSION This preliminary investigation of the amphibian fauna of the Nilgala Forest Reserve and its vicinity clearly shows that NFR is an important location in terms of amphibian diversity. logging. gem mining and road kills. Therefore suitable mitigatory action has to be initiated to conserve Nilgala Forest Reserve and its surrounding habitats. in the intermediate zone belonging to the Uva province.Figure 13. Mr. Mr. A. & Silva. F. Beenaerts. M.N. Anushka Kumarasinghe. Naalin Perera.. R (editors). Bahir.. 12: 393-406. The diversity of Nilgala forest. Bossuyt. Contributions to biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka. Roshan Rodrigo. (2005).C.K. L. Vimukthi Weerathunga. D. N. M.S. D. & Samarawickrema.. M. P.L. 12: 381-392. Mr.J. Sri Lanka. A. Sandun Perera. D. Hawke. W. REFERENCE Bahir.. O. P. M. (2005). De Silva. a new species of agamid lizard from Morningside Forest.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Dr. Manamendra-arachchi. & Pethiyagoda. C. C... Meegaskumbura.. (2005). R (editors). A.V.B.S. Finally. C. 12: 351-380. K. Channa Bambaradeniya (IUCN – The World Conservation Union) for reviewing the manuscript. (2004). Ng. Mendis Wickramasinghe (IUCN – The World Conservation Union) and Mr. (2004)..C.P. Mr.J.L. Otocryptis nigristigma.. K.. Samarawickrema. S. D.. Fernando. R (editors). & Vanneck. Photographic guide to the Snakes and other Rteptiles of Sri Lanka.M. Mr. Mr.K. Kandy. In: Yeo. Mr.B. with special reference to its herpetofauna.K. Local endemism within the Western Ghats – Sri Lanka Biodiversity Hotspot. Bambaradeniya.K. & Pethiyagoda. 199 . S.. Description of five new species of Cyrtodactylus (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) from Sri Lanka. Mr. Mr.H. Das. & De Silva. we thank Mr. Graphic Land.C. 306: 479 – 481. Panduka Silva. A.. Calotes desilvai.S.J. Chamila Soysa. 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Sarath Ekanayake.M.M. 99p. M. New Holland Publishers. Wickramasinghe. De Silva.P.. A. & Maduwage. Mr. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology..J. M. Bahir. 26: 21-40. & Pethiyagoda. Bauer.. a new species of agamid lizard from Sri Lanka. L. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology.L. Published by Author.P. Mr. Mr. Contributions to biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Forester.A. P. Sampath Gunatilleke.M.M.N... (2005). (2003).. & Bahir. A.. Science. M. K.D. V. Ng. In: Yeo. Ng.J.A.C. Dimuthu Wickramasinghe. Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi (WHT) for sending valuable literature. R. Third edition. Soule. & Pethiyagoda. Preliminary survey of the Herpetofauna in the Western Ghats region of Maharashtra. Nature.K. Sri Lanka: an amphibian hotspot. & Pethiyagoda. In: Yeo. I. & Manamendra-Arachchi.. In: Yeo.. 3: 213 – 248. Andrews. (2002). 2(5): 4 – 16. Pearson Prentice Hall. F. Journal of South Asian Natural History.S. M. Contributions to biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka.H. P. (2004). 12: 163-303. & Manamendra-Arachchi. New York. 298-379. (2002). M.. Herpetological Journal. (1990).K. The Amphibian Fauna of Sri Lanka..S. Perera. & Schneider. M.J. Ng. USA. K.. A.V. Fauna of Gal Oya National Park.L. A synopsis of the Sri Lankan Bufonidae (Amphibia: Anura) with description of two new species. K. (2001a).M. 191199. R. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. L. Giri. Journal of South Asian Natural History. K. Bahir. K. Ramanella nagaoi. 1848 (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae) with description of 27 new species. & Pethiyagoda.W. R.R. Familiar reptiles and Amphibians of North America.H. P. J. 5: 121 – 133.. Senanayake. R (editors). R.M. Tigerpaper. R (editors). & Dayawansa. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. R. Manamendra-Arachchi. 112 p. Sri Lanka Naturalist. Bossuyt.N.. Pethiyagoda. Meegaskumbura. Journal of South Asian Natural History. Polypedates fastigo. Ng. 12: 175 – 178. Dristribution of floristic richness and its conservation in Sri Lanka. Science. Gunatilleke.M.J. T.J. The amphibian fauna at two altitudes in the Sinharaja rainforest. (1998). F. F. Manamendra-Arachchi. Sri Lanka. Contributions to biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka. IUCN Sri Lanka. K. Cadle. 3(4): 55 – 61 pp. K. M. V. Crump.E. C. Herpetology.K. D. 230 p. IUCN Sri Lanka (2000). 8(2): 1-7. K. & Manorathna.. Manamendra-Arachchi.A. N.. D. Conservation Biology.. 726p. & Pethiyagoda. Meegaskumbura. M. Priyadarshana. (2000). The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of the genus Philautus Gistel. (2005).. Gunawardena. a new tree frog (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae) from Sri Lanka. 144 p. C.B. Manamendra-Arachchi. L. K. The 1999 Red List Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. & Gunatilleke.D.J.L. 200 . Manamendra-Arachchi. (2005). (1998).G.N. 265: 351 – 354 Wijesinghe. J. M. pp. U. Sri Lanka Nature. (2001). & Chaturvedi. Pough. & Pethiyagoda. Wickramasinghe.. Milinkovitch. S. Knopf.M.. M.C.. (1996). K.. I. 4(1): 21-31.. (1977). K.. P. USA. & Senner. A. Description of eight new species of shrub-frogs (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae: Philautus) from Sri Lanka. R.A. Hettige.L. Chanticleer Press. A. (2000).12: 305-338. Know your frogs.C. Manamendra-Arachchi.R.N.. Habitat values and endemicity in the vanishing rainforest of Sri Lanka.C. a new tree-hole frog (Microhylidae) from southern Sri Lanka.U.Dutta. Savitzky. & Wells. (2001b). The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. & Pethiyagoda. Department of Wildlife Conservation. The result has been a severe escalation of the human-elephant conflict. seven were observed to have joined wild herds. and as is usual in conflicts. a male and female are believed to be missing or dead. established a facility called the Elephant Transit Home in 1995. are being rescued by the wildlife officials with increased frequency. the juveniles suffer. The facility consists of grassland. Habitat loss to the rapidly expanding human population. large development projects. Sri Lanka ABSTRACT The behavior of several elephant calves released from the Elephant Transit Home was observed. When ready.R. 201 . Located near the Uda Walawe National Park. home gardens. MOHAMED* Udawalawa National Park. the elephants have started to raid crops. orphaned by the death of their mothers. behavioral observations suggest that they have not been completely assimilated into the wild host herds. Elephant are commonly shot and killed by farmers retaliating against crop raids. Of the nine elephants that were released from the transit home. and even granaries and houses to fulfill their dietary needs. Although the other seven elephants have joined wild herds. these calves are then released into the wild. The Elephant Transit Home is in the western part of the Uda Walawe reservoir. The baby elephants are kept in a roofed enclosure for the night and during the cooler times of the day are released to roam freely in the open areas of the reservoir bed. but two have not been found. the Elephant Transit Home keeps the rescued orphaned baby elephants in a near wild situation until properly structured (age. scrub/grassland mosaic and abandoned chena lands in different serial stages of succession. elephant calves. and other human activities such as the ongoing conflict have threatened the existence of this large herbivorous mammal needing about 100-150kg of food and 100-125 liters of water per day.REPORT ON THE STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOR OF JUVENILE ELEPHANTS RELEASED FROM THE ELEPHANT TRANSIT HOME TO THE UDA WALAWE NATIONAL PARK M. with loss of elephant and human lives—although careful and thoughtful land-use planning can eliminate the bulk of these conflicts which are actually the result of ad hoc development plans. These two.000 at the beginning of the 19th century (McKay 1973). sex) social groups are formed by these animals. The Department of Wildlife Conservation therefore. and the land runs down to the water. with the hope that they will join wild herds. INTRODUCTION It has been estimated that only about 2500-3000 wild elephants now remain in Sri Lanka. The observations also suggest that the human-elephant interactions and feeding regime while at the transit home may be influencing the behavior of the calves after they are released. down from a population estimated at over 20. With the shortage of food in their jungle habitats. The animals are fed regularly with a milk formula that has been developed at the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage where over 50 orphaned baby elephants have been brought in and looked after from the 1970s. Figure 1 202 . Since its inception 83 elephant calves have been brought to the Elephant Transit Home. wrestling. Play (fighting. brought together through adversity. The objective of this was to study the behavior of the juvenile elephants released and the relationships that they formed with the wild herds that they joined. habitat use and movement patterns of the juveniles released. Some have been gifted to temples. when nine calves were released into the wild. and another batch of five elephants in June 2000. This sort of bonding is essential if these animals are to have a sense of security once they are released to the wild.) is an essential ingredient for bonding. bond together in small units spending most of their time in play. The details at the time of release are given in Table 1. Thirty-nine died subsequently due to serious illnesses and disabilities. Over 12 baby elephants have been born at Pinnawela. with the objective of monitoring their behavior and whether and how they become assimilated into wild herds. Background Two batches of elephants that were released to the natural habitat in Uda Walawe National Park (UWNP) in 1998 and 2000 were considered in this study. The study also tried to determine the social organization. The objective of the transit home was achieved.When new calves are brought into the transit home. pushing etc. a batch of four in March 1998. they are examined and treated (if necessary) by a veterinarian. As envisaged the young animals. Three elephants from each batch were radio collared. others to public institutions and to the Pinnawela Elephant Orphanage managed by the Zoological Gardens. 5 yrs 5' 1" Yes 12 Panduka M 5 yrs 4' 6"" Yes 14 Anusha F 4. The observations made during this first period are presented here. FC16. Released July 1. Fauna and flora of the Uda Walawe national park The Uda Walawe National Park is situated in southern Sri Lanka and falls partially within the intermediate dry zone. and FC8) were tracked and their behavior studied in June & July 2001. Code Gamini M(tusker) 4. Batch 1. Code Sandamali F 5 yrs 5' Yes 9 Komali F 5 yrs 4' 6" Yes 5 Isuru M 5.Table 1. 1998 (three males and one female) Name M/F Age Height Collared Freq. (Figure 1) 203 .5 yrs 4' 11" Yes 8 Mattali F N/A N/A No - Emelyn F N/A N/A No - The tusker Gamini (FC12) from the first batch and the female Komali (FC5) from the second batch were not considered in this study due to the malfunctioning of their radio collars. as the first period of this study. FC9. The other collared elephants (FC14. Released on March 21. 2000 (one male and four females) Name M/F Age Height Collared Freq.5 yrs 4' 10" Yes 16 Anuradha M N/A N/A No - Batch 2. peacocks. red faced malkoha. grey langur (Presbytis senex). jungle fowl. black-naped hare (Lepus nigricollis). among them the large mammals take a prominent place. The reserve has a wide range of vegetation types ranging from scrub jungle to open grassland (Guinea B grass) with some scattered and small dense pockets of jungle. among which are the Malabar pied hornbill. and water buffalo. leopard (Panthera pardus). Some of the other prominent mammals include the spotted deer (Cervus axis). The park also supports a large and important bird fauna. to name but a few. Figure 2. toque monkeys.A large number of species inhabit the park. The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is the most important animal in the park. which has an estimated permanent population of between 350 to 400 elephants (Jayewardene 1994. Goonawiddagala and Tibiriyamankada are the favorite habitat that these populations frequent during the dry season. sambar (Cervus unicolor).) Hulankapolla. the Ceylon gray hornbill. wild pigs (Sus scrofa). Protected areas under the Department of Wildlife Conservation METHODS 204 . The habitat is ideally suited for elephants. topographical features. social organization and post-dispersal activities of the juvenile elephants. female). The tusks were about 10 inches long. protected areas and infrastructure (roads. Thus. After few days of his release Panduka was found with a herd of about 27 elephants. about four and half years old and 5’1” tall at the time of release. female) and Isuru (FC08. the collars had to be removed soon after this monitoring began. tall shrub areas and Guinea B grass areas. and according to the observations made by the DWLC field officers he had not joined a herd and roams in a relatively large area. stuck in mud in the area where the Walawe River joins the reservoir. By the time this study got underway. settlements etc). which is beyond the NE boundary of the park. Namely. There have been no signs of this tusker over the last 12 months and no radio signal from the collar has been detected. In October 1998 Gamini was found by a fisherman. Anusha (FC16. Unfortunately. All animals were located and observed for five days each week and their ranging pattern and positions including positions in relation to the nucleus herd and other animals were recorded. three males (including the tusker) and three females have radio collars (Table 1). Sadamalee (FC09. If left longer it would have choked the animal. History of the elephants released The nine juveniles released in two batches in March 1998 and June 2000 respectively as mentioned previously consisted of four males including a tusker and five females. male). The collar was removed on the 15/07/2001 in Hulankapolla area as it was tightening round the neck of the elephant with the growth of the animal. and the radio-collars were either becoming too tight or the batteries on the collars were close to becoming nonfunctional. 205 . He was solitary since the release. • Panduka (FC14): Panduka. which were radio collared at the time of release. • Gamini (FC12): Gamini was a tusker.Radio telemetry was used to track elephant movements in order to determine the ranging patterns. male). habitat use. The positions were overlaid on a base map giving land use. It is doubtful whether the animal is now alive. another male was released in March 1998 and was 5 years old and 4’6” tall. the wild life officers rescued the tusker. Of these. It was observed that Panduka is being treated as a juvenile of that herd. the initial—and most important stage of the reintroduction—was not closely monitored. The study tracked the four animals. Panduka (FC14. This herd travels in thick. There are reports that this elephant has been sighted in the Diyavinna area. the elephants had already joined wild herds. After being informed. which Sandamali (FC09) and Isuru (FC08) have joined. The two herds live close to each other merge frequently to form a greater herd. a male were released in July 2000. a female.• Anusha (FC16): Anusha. They joined to two separate herds. Manel. This herd normally lives in areas with shrub and areas with tall trees. This herd has a few mature male elephants.5 years old and 4’11” tall. Few days after release the radio signals from the collar stopped and she could not be located. a female. • Anuradha. Since then there has been no sign of her in the park. was released in July 2000 and was about 5 years old and 4’6” tall. Table 2 . After few days of release she also joined a herd of about 7-9 elephants living in Mau Ara area. is given in Figure 2. was released in March 1998.FC14 Panduka Table 5 . Ranging patterns Observations of the radio-collared animals are given in the following tables.FC16 Anusha A map of the home ranges of the four elephants mentioned above elephants during the two-month period June/July 2001. She is also believed to be dead. It was observed that they have joined the two herds. Her collar was removed on the 18/07/2001 in Mau Ara area as it was tightening round the neck with the growth of the animal. and Emalin Anuradha.FC08 Isuru Table 3 . Sandamali joined to a herd of about 22 elephants and Isuru joined to a herd of about 26 elephants. • Komali (FC05): Komali. and Isuru. • Sandamali (FC09) and Isuru (FC08): Sandamali.FC09 Sadamali Table 4 . Sandamali was about 5 years old and 5’ tall while Isuru was about 5. a male. 206 . a four and half years old and 4’10” tall female. and the two other females were not radio-collared when released. Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 207 . 208 . These preliminary observations need to be studied in detail in a subsequent part of the project. While it is clear that the wild herds easily assimilate the released juveniles. In the early period. the information available about its early years is scant. may have faced antagonism from other juvenile/sub-adult males within herds due to the fact that it was a tusker. and unfortunate. all outside the Park. The fact that Gamini was originally from Wayamba. Diyawinna. an area with a different ecology. With there being no rigorous monitoring plan along with the release in 1998. Panahaduwa. They show the same behavior patterns as the released animals mentioned previously. it is necessary to ascertain the reasons for their somewhat abnormal behavior. These records need to be followed up. as evidenced by the fact that it was never spotted within the vicinity of a herd. and Madunagala etc. June/July 2001 Of the nine juveniles released so far. apart from the male Gamini (tusker.) the rest have been observed to have successfully assimilated into herds living in and around the Uda Walawe National Park. It appears that they are more agitated and fearful of the presence of humans than their wild counterparts. If this is due to the management and care pattern within the transit home needs to be investigated. when it was spotted.) though a juvenile. rather than move with their peer-age group animals.) Isuru (51/2 years at release in 2000) and Anusha (41/2 years at release in 1998) each joined separate herds within a few days of release. Equally important is to have in place a rigorous long-term post release observation plan to get more complete information on the progress made by the released animals. since it is likely that the feeding patterns and methods during their time in the transit home may affect the way they forage under natural conditions.) Sandamali (5 years at release in 2000. In fact there are unverified reports that it has been spotted in places like Iththagala. Their food intake pattern too appears to be somewhat different to peer age juveniles within the same herd. It is observed that these four prefer to associate with the adults in the respective herds and stay with the nucleus of the herd.. This is possibly due to their association with man previously. 209 . radio collar code 12) and the female Komali (radio collar code 05. Panduka (5 years at release in 1998. it was always solitary. Anuradha (released 1998. On average they show a greater lethargy than the juveniles that were in the herd do.) Mattali (released 2000) and Emelyn (released 2000) have joined the same herds as Isuru and Sandamali and prefer to associate the animals released with them. It is possible that Gamini (41/2 years at release in 1998. This antagonism may have encouraged it to move to areas outside the park where there are fewer elephant. and that it lived in the somewhat controlled environment of the transit home may have too been contributory factors affecting its post release behavior.DISCUSSION Observations during. “Sandamali” (FC09. pull them back closer to the herd when they wander away and when in danger alert them and surround them. They did not get to the nucleus of the respective herds. As a result. Anusha is within a herd living around the Mau Ara tank where there is a mix of medium forest cover and shrub forest.Panduka. “Manel” & “Emalin” were in two separate herds. female). During this period the drought ended and the park received the early rains from the northeast monsoon. unlike the wild animals which kept to their normal grazing pattern. However. “Isuru” (FC08. Sometimes on such occasions.5years old) was seen to be striking back when attacked as such. They help the juveniles to stand up when fallen. While it is very important to have a long-term comprehensive monitoring process. The home range is significantly smaller than that of the other herds. During the previous period of observation. Sandamali and Isuru are within herds with home ranges falling within the boundaries of Gonaviddagala. However. the introduced juveniles were seen to be attempting to get closer to the herd nucleus. But during the current period they were observed to be grouping together and hovering near the respective herds but not within them. they will intervene only if the situation gets out of hand. it was noticed that the mature females are a lot more indifferent to the introduced juveniles. where the vegetation is mostly grassland composed of guinea B grass. rather than at the prodding of the mature ones. The availability of food increased. “Sandamali” (FC9. Though the adults normally do not interfere during such fights. There appears to be a uniform locomotion pattern. avoiding the waterlogged areas. on their own. In times of danger. The wild animals were seen to cohabit more closely and be active and playful in comparison to the newly introduced juveniles which in general tended to be more on their own with a noticeable lack of interaction with the former. No significant changes in feeding or behavior patterns were observed compared to the last period. Observations during august to November 2001 The relationship between the juveniles in the wild herd and the juveniles released in the park were observed in greater detail. 210 . the home ranges compared to the previous period of observation were shrinking. except the fact that during heavy rain. female 6. Thibiriyamankada and Hulankapolla. On rainy days. the preliminary data over the two months indicate that the released animals and their herds have sufficient food and water within the confines of their respective home ranges measured over the study period. the herds tend to stay on higher ground. the wild juveniles were seen to be aggressive towards the introduced ones by fighting and chasing them off. The newly introduced juveniles were also seen hovering closer to the mature females in the herds. compared to the wild ones. The grasses began to grow and the water holes started filling up. the introduced juveniles sought shelter under trees and stopped feeding. The mature females always take care of the juveniles. Future observations will show whether seasonal variations in home ranges do take place. male). however. they leave the host herd. and for sometime after. They were lead by “Sandamali” (FC9.5years old) and were confined to an area of about 80 Ha. Animals without collars should be outfitted with false collars (fastened with coir rope so that the collars will drop off after about a year). female 6. after they leave the herds — how far they go. It is possible that during this time the male “Isuru” (FC08. a situation that the DWLC and all Sri Lankans will have to accept. the four juveniles were seen entirely separated from the respective herds and traveling together. Virtually nothing is known about the dispersal of juvenile males. They were observed continuously during the daytime (10 hours) on both these days and were never seen to get near or join the respective herds. the following recommendations are made. ƒ Juvenile males should be radio-collared and monitored until. This maybe due to their bonding during their period in the transit home.On 8th and 9th October. etc. 211 . Recommendations This release of juvenile elephants represents a pioneer effort to reintroduce large mammals into the wild. In this context. these observations show the importance of studying the pre and post dispersal behavior of both indigenous and introduced juveniles more methodically and thoroughly. Fulltime researchers with DWLC counterparts should be assigned for this purpose. The question also arises whether the male juvenile was mature enough to leave the herd. Unfortunately. given the intense conflict and competition for land between people and elephants. 7 years old) may have been trying to separate from the herd. where they go to. On 10th October the group was observed to have rejoined their respective herds. the study was not monitored from its inception. ƒ Several animals should be radio-collared so that they can be located and identified. and an excellent chance for the Department of Wildlife Conservation to contribute to a global knowledge on conservation and management has gone a begging. DWLC. This behavior must be studied further. This information is of vital importance for managing targeted elephant populations in a world where not each and every elephant and elephant population can be conserved. ƒ Monitor the behavior of the released elephant calves from the very beginning. This will allow these animals to be identified without ambiguity. It is strongly suggested that any further activities of the Elephant Transit Home be done in collaboration with credible scientists so that the animals. Normally only the males leave the herd when they reach maturity. and the scientific world can benefit. whereas it appears that in this instance it seemed as if the females too were trying to follow the male. In conclusion. Animals should be observed throughout most of the day and all behavior patterns should be recorded in detail. (1973) The ecology and behavior of the Ceylon elephant in south-eastern Ceylon.M.REFERENCE McKay. 125 212 . G. Smithsonian Contribution to Zoology No. 04 mg/kg body weight respectively for immediate restraint. their efficacy and management experiences for handling such elephants in three different stages of musth at three different sites. restlessness and reduced feeding activities (Poole 1987). Xylazine hydrochloride. 213 . Chandrabani. INTRODUCTION Adult male Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) during sexually active period exhibit a phase of altered behaviour known as musth. Elephants in musth in captivity are well known for aggression and nonresponding to the commands of their keepers. Early detection of musth through physical signs/ altered behavior is essential for keeping such elephants restrained during the period. NIGAM and P. The present paper deals with drug choices. 1987.EXPERIENCE OF RESTRAINING ELEPHANTS IN MUSTH P. KEY WORDS: Elephant. Musth management. MALIK Wildlife Institute of India. Rasmussen and Schulte. Uttaranchal ABSTRACT Musth has implications for maintenance in captive populations as management of these animals is quite cumbersome and involves considerable risk. Dehra Dun – 248 001. This is discernable through two physical attributes-secretions from temporal glands and dribbling of urine. The present study highlights successful restraint of elephants in musth on three different occasions employing sedative/analgesics. There are several other subtle changes in behavior resulting in rise of aggression (Kahl and Armstrong. Ketamine ydrochloride. Physiologically elevated serum androgen levels have also been reported (Hall-Martin. We have come across three such cases of musth incidences wherein it was essential to restrain the animal for the public safety. The subsequent actions following sedation till complete recovery from musth events are documented. Effective levels of standing sedation could be achieved using xylazine hydrochloride and ketamine hydrochloride at a dose rate of 0. We used chemical immobilization technique for restraining such animals and subsequent management of musth in post-restraint period. 1998). Post Box # 18.K. 2002).13 mg/kg and 0. Yohimbine hydrochloride. Non detection of musth symptom and keeper’s negligence often risks the public safety and leads to loss of life and property. The elephants were monitored till full recovery from the drug effect. The ration provided to the elephant was restricted and the elephant was allowed abundant intake of water and was kept cool by frequent spraying of water. The elephant regained his normal temperament within a week. The elephant was chemically restrained using 600 mg of Xylazine hydrochloride and 150 mg of ketamine hydrochloride and secured to a tree. The animal had dried discharge marks around the temporal. frequent penile erection. The situation could thus be mitigated. The elephant ran for about 100 meters and came to a halt. It was decided to chemically restrain and tether the elephant. Reduced ear. 214 . The elephant turned violent and chased and bashed mahout and also broke adjacent structures. The animal was also not responsive to Mahout’s commands and had charged mahout a day prior to the veterinary intervention. The elephant had been temporarily kept in a compound along with a cow elephant within the heart of Saharanpur city. Two days prior to veterinary intervention the elephant was aggressive and had charged Mahout. Case 2: A captive makhana elephant around 40 years of age was brought to Haridwar from Meerut to participate in an annual festival. The elephant was successfully restrained using 400 mg of Xylazine hydrochloride and 100 mg of ketamine hydrochloride. The elephant was not responsive to Mahout’s command and was aggressive. The elephant was revived using 50 mg yohimbine hydrochloride given intravenously. The animal was exhibiting slight temporal discharge since a week. The elephant regained normal temperament within 10 days. The above mentioned rehabilitation procedures were followed and the elephant regained normal temperament within 15 days. The elephant achieved standing sedation and could be easily handled. The elephant was having slight temporal discharge since last two months that was gradually diminishing. It was reported that the elephant was exhibiting prolonged periods of penile erection along with stereotypic movements of head and whip like trunk movements and behavioral alteration since a week. The limbs were tied and the elephant was tethered on to a tree. The elephant had also tried mounting the cow elephant on three different occasions since morning however failed to establish sexual congress. stereotypic movements of head three days prior to veterinary intervention. tail and trunk movements along with relaxation of penis and snoring were indicative of desired level of sedation.METERIALS AND METHODS Case 1: A captive Makhna (Tusk less bull elephant) 29 yrs of age at Jaldapara Wildlife sanctuary was reported to be in musth and had run into the forest. The elephant had never shown any signs of musth except for temporal discharge throughout his life. The elephant was chained and rehabilitated similar to the previous case. Micturation and initiation of feeding were indicative of its recovery and self care. dribbling of urine. Case 3: A 32 year old captive makhana elephant was reported to be in musth and had become threat to life and property. A total dose of 250 mg of Xylazine hydrochloride and 150 mg of Ketamine hydrochloride were used to sedate the elephant. 215 . This technique of chemical immobilization was not used as treatment for musth in elephant but was used as one of the methods of mitigating the problem by securing the animal so that it does not become a threat to life and property. sedation time and recovery are tabulated below. The details of induction time.In all the three cases the drugs were remotely injected using Dist-inject aluminum dart with 63 mm long collared needle and employing Dist Inject model 60 N projectors. Yohimbine hydrochloride and Atipamezole hydrochloride was used as an antidote for xylazine. (Mid musth period) 250 15 17 min 50 min Yohimbine 50 mg 3 min (0. animal not responsive to commands and showing some degree of aggression (Post musth period) Diminishing temporal discharge.04 mg/kg) July 2004 Saharanpur/ November Makhana 2004 3500 32 yrs Induction time: Time of darting to time animal showed first signs of sedation Sedation time: Time when animal showed first time of sedation to giving of the antidote Recovery time: Time when animal injected antidote till it regained consciousness . dribbling of urine. Drug dosages used in managing elephants in musth on different occasions Sr No.05 mg/kg) 400 100 7 min 27 min Yohimbine 40 mg 8 min (0.13 mg/kg) (0.Journal of the Department of Wildlife Conservation 2006-1: 113-118 Table 1.03 mg/kg) 600 150 8 min 40 min Atipamezole 2 min 30mg (0. ear and whip like trunk movements. stereotypic movements of head and non responsive to Mahout’s commands.08 mg/kg) (0. exhibiting prolonged periods of penile erection along with stereotypic movements of head.17 mg/kg) (0. 1 2 3 Location/ Estimated weight/ Age Jaldapara/ Makhana 3000 kgs/ 29 yrs Jwalapur/ Makhana 3000 40 yrs Month/Year State of Musth Xylazine HCl (mg) Ketamine HCl (mg) Induction time Sedation time Antidote Recovery time December 2002 Almost dried up temporal discharge. behavioral alteration (End of mid musth) Slight temporal discharge. frequent penile erection. In all the three cases presented. Combination of Xylazine and Ketamine minimizes the undesirable effects of both the drugs and has been shown to produce a balanced anesthesia. Sarma and Pathak (loc. Xylazine HCl. The drug has been generally used only as a supportive drug to prolong the period of tranquilization following recovery from initial immobilization employing etorphine hydrochloride (Sabapara and Raval. Cheeran (1994) commented using Xylazine alone in controlling captive rogues employing 100120 mg/ton of the drug. 1991.)).). This period seems to be a critical period which needs to be handled with care. 1971. Elephants in musth have been successfully immobilized employing narcotics like etorphine (M-99) or Immobilon (Jainudeen. Fowler. Xylazine alone has been reported to have depressant effect on cardiac and respiratory function (Pathak. the elephants were makhanas between age group of 30-40 yrs and in the later stages of musth ranging from mid musth to post musth period. Ketamine does not have any depressant effect on the cardiovascular and respiratory system but produces muscular tremor and stiffness of the skeletal muscle. (loc. It is characterized by episodes of aggressive behavior and heightened sexual activity. 1970. The drug has been found to be suitable in immobilizing musth elephant as the elephant retain the standing posture enabling satisfactory chaining operation. (Table 1) Managing musth in elephants has been one of the most important challenges in captivity. Dutta and Pathak (1997) successfully used Xylazine for immobilizing elephant in musth using a total dose of 700 mg for a 3 ton elephant. Sabapara and Raval. dense habitat and personal safety. 1996). cit. Sarma and Dutta. 2003 reported photosensitization in Asian elephant sedated with Ketamine-Xylazine and did not observe as much synergism as has been observed in carnivores. hence recommended their use as a combination in elephants. 1986. cit. 1993.) tried 100-150 Xylazine and 50-100 gm ketamine intravascularly . Sarma and Pathak (loc. ability to induce trunk immobilization and excellent analgesic and sedative properties has become a useful drug in elephant practice (Bongso. cit. cit. 2001.). smooth induction and smooth recovery. All the three elephants exhibited varied signs indicative of musth. cit)). The duration and severity of musth varies between individuals and may last from few days to several months.) successfully used 500 mg Xylazine alone on three different occasions for immobilizing elephants in musth. however bulls can breed in and out of musth. Thakuria and Barthakur (1994) controlled a captive African elephant coming into musth using diazepam and lorazepam.) in their study also inferred that ketamine could mildly mitigate the hypotension brought about by Xylazine. (loc. Pathak (loc. On three occasions. Sarma and Dutta (loc. Nayar et. However. Xylazine has almost similar action as etorphine except for a delayed induction time which has relevance in difficult terrain. Cheeran et al. Sarma and Dutta. al. Jainudeen et al. al. 2002. cit. cit. due to its high therapeutic index. Sarma and Pathak. while potentiating its sedative action. Schmidt 1983. (loc. 1980. 1992. Cheeran et al 2002. Pathak.Journal of the Department of Wildlife Conservation 2006-1: 145-160 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The phenomenon of Musth has been recognized for centuries as a natural behavior among healthy adult male elephants between 15-60 yrs of age. Cheeran et. Nayar et al 2002). Though the present approach of chemically restraining the elephant was not a remedy for musth. it provided effective means of mitigating the problem by securing the animal to avoid any untoward incident. CONCLUSION The present study highlights successful restraint of elephant in musth on three different occasions using Xylazine hydrochloride and ketamine hydrochloride at a dose rate of 0.1992. Similar findings were reported by Nayar et.to laterally recumbent elephant in 53 clinical cases and reported that the combination could produce quick. The advantage of using both the drugs in the present case was that the elephants could be handled and chained in a standing posture and the overall dosage of both the drugs could be considerably reduced. They have also reported recovery without excitement and untoward effect. 146 .04 mg/kg body weight and its subsequent rehabilitation.13 mg/kg and 0.13 mg/kg and 0. safe and dependable analgesia. anesthesia and muscular relaxation when given intravenously in different surgical conditions affecting elephants. In all the three cases presented.04 mg/kg body weight respectively to achieve effective standing sedation. combination of Xylazine hydrochloride and Ketamine hydrochloride were used at an average dose of 0. al. No adverse effects were noticed. Ravindran. USA. K. M. (1980).P. Xyalzine-ketamine anesthesia in Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus). 9(12): 27-28. (1986). India pp. (1998). Anaesthesia for surgical manipulations in the elephant.REFERENCES Bongso.E. S. India.. Kerala Agricultural University. Cheeran. P. J.B.V. Rutting behavior in African elephants: the phenomenon of musth.M. Mammalia 66:159-171.E. Biology. R.K. Musth Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7(3):28-30. and Nirmalan. Cheeran. (1970). 177( 9):783. Controlling musth elephants by tranquilzation: two contrasting cases.. and Chandrasekharan. 8-10.C.A. K. Radhakrishnan.V. Sci..V..J. B. (1987) Role of musth in the reproductive strategy of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana).A. Capturing Musth Elephant (A Case Report) Zoo’s Print. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7(3):5559. T.R.V. and Armstrong. In: Silas. The Asian Elephant: Ecology. Kaimal. Jainudeen. Panicker K. – Trial on 53 clinical cases. (1991).N. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Bangkok. and Radhakrishnan. In: Giants on Our Hands: Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Domesticated Asian Elephant. January 1989).. Veterinary Record 89(26):686-688..G. Chandrasekharan..C. Conservation and Management (Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Asian Elephant held at the Kerala Agricultural University. (1971). P.Afr. M. S. Chemical signals in the reproduction of Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. and Pathak. Cheeran..34.J. Nair.J.K. S. T.H.M. Hall-Martin. Kahl. (1992)...B. Note on Controlling Musth in Elephants. (1987). Nov’93:26-27.K. E. K.S. Sedation of the Asian elephant with xylazine.H. (1997). K.A.D. (2002). International Seminar on Veterinary Medicine in Wild and Captive Animals.P. Bongso.R. Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine. K. R. (2002). 102:283-316. and Raval. B.. Chandrasekharan. J. Trichur. B. (2003). J. (1993). 5 -10 February 2001. (Editors). Bangalore. M.O. 147 . and Schulte. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. Jainudeen. April Vol. B. Reprod. pp:21. No. The use of etorphine hydrochloride for restraint of a domesticated elephant (Elephas maximus). Nayar.C. Behavior. 2nd Ed.. 53:19. Immobilization of aggressive working elephants (Elephas maximus). (1994). A. J.Sci. Nayar. Fowler. India. G. Zoo’s Print. M. 156-158. 83:616-620. M.L. Thailand. and George.A.4:12. L. Cheeran. Dutta.O. Trichur. Sabapara. and Perera. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 157(5):624-626. (2002). Tranquillization and translocation of captive bulls. W. Visual displays of wild African elephants during musth. Radhakrishnan. Zoo’s Print. Poole. Anim. Saunders Company. Rasmussen. P.K. Pathak. Nov. 892-893. K.M. XII. Management of surgical affections in captive elephants.N. and Giridas. Diseases. T. S. (1996). and Pathak. and Barthakur. Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 14: 4-97. (2001).C. Indian Veterinary Journal 78(5):400-492. Zoo’s Print.J. 11(4):21-22.Sharma.K. D. Sarma. Schmidt. Guwahati.K. Sep. Antagonism of xylazine sedation by yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine in an adult Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).B. K. (1983). K. B. Apr. Cardio vascular response to xylazine and Hellabrunn mixture with Yohimbine as reversal agent in Asian elephants. 148 . Zoo’s Print. Musth and its Management in Asian Elephant: A Discussion Based on Four Clinical Cases. 94: 120. Thakuria. M. and Dutta. (1994): Management of musth in a male African elephant by chemical sedative in the Assam State Zoo. The study makes suggestions based on findings for improved level of community participation and acceptance for effective fencing. Faculty of Agriculture. Sri Lanka ABSTRACT Human elephant conflict (HEC) has become a major environmental issue in Sri Lanka.K. Further. Kandaketiya. disturbances of migratory routes due to increasing human settlements are the prominent reasons for the conflict. Social factor appear to more important than technical factors. Against this background. The specific objectives are.H. Among the various abatement strategies. Herathgama. University of Peradeniya. With a view of mitigating the HEC. GUNARATNE Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management. Fragmentation and loss of natural habitats. a number traditional as well as introduced measure has been adopted by communities and Department of Wildlife Conservation. electric fences appear to be the most preferred. The data were collected from 238 respondents and officers in DWLC regional offices.P. The study targets to evaluate the role of social factors to increase the effectiveness of electric fencing in Sri Lanka. The study revealed that proper maintenance of the electric fences is the key factor for their effectiveness. involvements of community based organizations (CBOs) were crucial in establishment and maintenance. property damages. which is at an escalating trend with more elephant and human deaths.EFFECTIVENESS OF ELECTRIC FENCING IN SRI LANKA IN MITIGATION OF HUMAN ELEPHANT CONFLICT: THE ROLE OF SOCIAL ASPECTS P. the study on the five electric fences namely. to investigate the social acceptance and perception of mitigation measures of the conflict and to identify the needed measures to improve the social acceptance and community support on electric fencing. Kalagama. 149 . Mahaweli System G and Lunugamvehera was carried out with the objective of finding out the effectiveness of electric fences in Sri Lanka. PREMARATHNE* and L. and many recoverable and unrecoverable losses. The level of community participation for maintaining of the electric fences and acceptance levels of the fences is depicted through their attitudes and perceptions. translocation of aggressive male elephants. Competition for the scarce land. it acts as very effective elephant barriers (De Silva. Crops.405 elephants (Kemf & Santiapillai. food and water has created the conflict between humans and elephants over the time. electrical fences. 150 . The coexistence between humans and elephants has been deteriorated during past few decades. Eastern and Southern parts of the island. the effectiveness of the electric fences is mostly depending on the social acceptance. elephant drives. Among currently practicing measures for mitigating human-elephant conflict. If the electric fences have been strategically located.INTRODUCTION Elephant is the key animal species with supremacy in the Sri Lankan wild from the ancient periods of time. Encroachment and replacement of the forestlands for slash and burn cultivation. the present elephant population is approximated between 3.160 and 4. The electrified fences appear to be the people's solution to the elephants’ problem by physically separating their territories. As a result. In this context. expansion of human settlements towards elephant habitats were intensified during last few decades. elephants have to limit their territorial boundaries to national parks and some forest pockets in Northeastern. 1998). farmers are forced to use different ways to harm elephants. In Sri Lanka. During last fifty decades the forest cover got reduced in more than 18 % with the increase of human population from 8 million to 19. 2000). Number of strategies such as promulgation of protected areas by resettlement of people. compensation payments and conservation aimed other measures have been taken by the governmental as well as non-governmental authorities. The main causes for this were the excessive level of habitat encroachment and poaching by human. Similar to most of the endangered species in the wild. electric fences are considered as the most effective measure. The human encroachment at a higher degree left the elephants to complete dependency on cultivated crops. extinction of elephants is at an ascending trend in the world. Since the traditional mitigation strategies are now lack in effectiveness in high HEC areas. houses and some instances human lives are frequently damaged by roaming elephants.5 million. and Galahitiyawa. The forest is one of the resting-places of migrating herds between Wilpattu and eastern forests of the country. Pothuwila.S.600 hectares. Maliyadda and Wewathenne and the villages that do not protected with electric fence such as Lemasooriyagama. Koonwewa. The fence was constructed during 1998 to1999 period from Uma oya to Pathagala rock extending approximately up to 9 km. Meegalewa. Herathgama.Division from the attacks by the elephants in KahallaPallekele Sanctuary.690 hectares. The fence was constructed in 2000-2001 period extending about 33 km from Siyabalangamuwa reservoir to Immihaminegama villages covering Herathgama.METHODLOGY The theoretical framework of sampling procedure. geographical location and involving organizations in operational activities of the fences. The survey was included 58 households from the villages in fenced areas namely Siyambalangmuwa. Thibbatuwewa. Irudeniyaya. details of the selected electric fence and the sample areas has been presented in this chapter. Serupitiya. 151 . the forest cover was extensively cleared loosing a substantial land extent from these catchments for the huge reservoirs. Pansiyagama and the villages not covered by the electric fence such as Jayalanda. Kalankuttiya and Govigammanaya. Serasumthenne. Herathgama electric fences near KahallaPallekele Sanctuary. Pothuwila. electric fence around Mahaweli System G. Due to the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme (AMDP). Irrudeniyaya. Othalawa. Thibbatuwewa. Approximately 75 to 100 elephants living in this sanctuary invade nearby villages in search of food. Mahapitiya. Nikawewa. Hatangama. Galahiyawa. Meeriyabedda and Theripehe. following five electric fences were considered for this study: Kandeketiya electric fence near VictoriaRandenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary. Siyambelewa. The sanctuary consists of 20 to 30 elephant’s in resident herd and 80 to100 in migratory herd. data collection. Pothana. Description of the area and the electric fences Kandeketiya electric fence at Victoria-Randenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary Kandeketiya electric fence in Kandeketiya Divisional Secretariat Division has been established to prevent elephant damages coming from VictoriaRandenigala-Rantambe Sanctuary which located in Central region of the country and extends approximately 41. Herathgama electric fences near Kahalla-Pallekele Sanctuary Herathgama electric fence in Northwestern region of the island protects mainly Polpithigama D. Bambaragalayaya. The study was conducted for totally 47 households from the villages protected with fence namely Akkiriyawatta. Kalagama electric fence at Balaluwewa-Kalawewa sanctuary and Lunugamvehera electric fence at Lunugamvehera National Park. It has arisen a number of environmental issues like human elephant conflict. Selection of the electric fences and areas for the study Based on the severity of the HEC. This sanctuary is located within three Districts extending 21. Kankanigama. data analysis. Siyabalangamuwa. The Mahaweli System G is totally covered by this electric fence. numbers of injuries. attitude of the villagers towards the electric fencing. number of injuries. Thammennawa and Hunathuwewa villages were considered the protection from electric fence including number of 60 respondents. The Electric fence of Mahaweli System G extends approximately 105 km. It initiated from the Wilamba Wewa (reservoir) closer to the National Park and continues towards the direction of Yala National Park. The villages namely Kiulara. Electric fence at Lunugamvehera National Park The Lunugamvehera electric fence extends 17 km in length that considered for the study. Kalagama electric fence at Balaluwewa-Kalawewa sanctuary The Kalagama electric fence in Anuradhapura District with approximately 10 kilometers in length was established in 2001. Relevant secondary information includes total number of elephant related incidences during past few years. Being a comparatively narrow land strip. number of human deaths before and after the electric fence.77 hectares) is located in Hambantota district in the Southern region of the island. land ownership. Thanamalwila and Ranawarawa were considered the villages without having coverage from electric fence. numbers of property damages. number of crops and property damages. Boogahawewa.Electric fence around Mahaweli System G Mahaweli System G locates in between the Dambulukelle forest and the Wasgamuwa National Park. Colony 2 and Padikepuhela. New Balaluwewa and Dambewatuna. The expected data to collect were general household information. Data was collected from the villages namely Undurawa North. elephants migrate through this settlement area. Punchiappujandura.Balaluwewa sanctuary. the catchments of Kalawewa and Balaluwewa reservoirs. It was constructed in 2000-2001. HEC related information such as numbers of human deaths. existing mitigating measures was collected from government institutions such as DWLC. Data collection A well-structured questionnaire was prepared for household survey in selected sample areas. Gestupana. Karawile. The information on electric fences was also obtained 152 . Atthanakadawala-Seegala. Lunugamvehera. Kalagama. severity of the damages. Galmulla and Damanayaya covering 43 households considering before and after fence scenario. The fence lies from Konpolayagama to Undurawa along the boundary of Kalawewa. The sanctuary is a transit as well as habitat for many (100-128) elephants. Human encroachment for cattle feeding is a severe issue at the National Park in which around 150 elephants are living. Lunugamvehera National Park (23. Mahaweli Authority and divisional secretariat officials in relevant areas. behavioral pattern of the wild elephants. numbers of plant destructions and numbers of crop damaging incidences were collected from key informants. Colony 1. The study was conducted in three areas namely.499. plant destruction has not decreased satisfactorily. Plants destruction by elephants appeared to be fairly high even after establishing the fence may be due to weak points. the Kandeketiya electric fence has shown its effectiveness by avoiding human injuries. Slight increases of the incidences can be experienced in property and other crop damages. Meanwhile the effectiveness of Kalagama electric fence at Balaluwewa-Kalawewa sanctuary is fairly high. The effectiveness of electric fences in damage avoidance in 2003 Incidences VRR Damage reduction in each site KP Mahaweli S. The human elephant conflict in Kandeketiya was arisen with the implementation of Accelerated Mahaweli Project which damaged elephant habitat. Most of the fences are not functioning at expected levels of effectiveness. Table 1. The Lunugamvehera electric fence shows high effectiveness in avoiding damages.G Kalagama LMV Human deaths 1 0 2 3 0 Human injuries 3 3 0 0 3 Property damages Plants destructionCoconut trees Plants destruction other trees Crop damagesPaddy lands Crop damages-other Damages to stored paddy 9 6 2 9 1 28 123 194 17 92 29 30 89 72 114 10 15 113 146 145 0 -9 21 96 81 3 13 4 5 0 According to the findings in table 01. migratory routes as well as the human -elephant co existence. the number of incidences is fairly low and there are no records on human deaths or injuries. Related to the Herathgama electric fence. However. lack of community participation to various activities related to maintenance of the fence. Some reasons that affect the effectiveness of the electric fencing are partially and incomplete maintenance. The Kandeketiya electric fence has not shown a substantial reduction in the number of incidences.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Considering the damage incidences both in fenced and non-fenced areas. Because of the inadequate length of coverage by electric fence and the elevated human activities in elephant habitats are the main reasons. The electric fencing seems to be less effective in avoiding human deaths and damages to stored paddy. 153 . the effectiveness of the electric fences have been evaluated on avoidance of damages. 89%) Attitude of the respondents in the Mahaweli System G (Bakamoona) towards electric fencing says that separation of an area by an electric fence is the best solution according to the majority of respondents (81. more attacks of elephants had been come from catchment areas.10% 16.60%).20%) percent of the responses were with this solution. Earlier.96% - - 6. Therefore.20% 38. Peoples’ attitudes towards electric fencing in the Polpithigama Divisional Secretariat Division. With the establishment of electric fence.43% 25% 20. and in the same way pointed out the effectiveness of the electric fence related to the System G. According to the responses.00% 62.89% 81.67% - - 7. shows the preference to separate an area for elephants by a fence (38.96% 6. most of the respondents agreed to physically separate from elephants by a fence. peoples' 154 . It depicts the positive attitudes on the electric fencing by the people. the trend of frequent visits of elephants into the villages has been declined. majority has kept more trust on electric fences.91% 11. Satisfaction of stakeholders on electric fencing as a HEC mitigation measure KahallaResponse Separation with a System VRR Lunugam Kalagama Pallekele G -vehera 44.37% 12.66% - 12.83% 10.50% - - - - - 12.50% 20. Forty-four (44.Table 2.40% - 9. in Kandeketiya.20% 13.00% 15% - - - - fence Translocation of aggressive elephants Complete drive Establishment of a corridor Plantation of fodder trees Establishment of elephant conservation & management unit Relocate villages As shown in the table 02.60% 60. it seems that combination of the mitigation measures rather than single measures are much effective and sustainable in existence. Therefore. For the success of the electric fences. there is a problem with the effective coverage of the electric fence due to poor maintenance. Community support 3. People are considerably much satisfied (62. peoples don’t have 100% favors at electric fencing. In some instances. the government authorities have failed to enact the regulatory measures such as relocation of unauthorized settlers from the protected areas and corridors. 155 . buffer zones for outside animals. People in the fenced areas are also interacting with the nearby forests for fulfilling their needs such as timber. Community support in maintenance of the fences is a crucial factor in effective electric fencing. The reason is they still suffer from some incidences.RandenigalaRantambe sanctuary area. people have an attitude that elephants are still entering into the villages. Perception and attitudinal factors of the stakeholders 4. In Victoria. they are dissatisfied on the prevailing settings of the electric fences. However. Therefore. The degree of community interest on participation in fence maintenance is found usually negative sloping with time. herbs and cattle feeding etc. the legal operations needs to be strengthened. Though the functioning electric fences in study areas were able to reduce the exposure to elephant related incidences compared to the non fenced areas. That kind of approaches brings the community much closer interacts with electric fences. Those can be limited using approaches such as establishing separate feeding areas.attitudes on electric fence are at positive level. In Lunugamvehera. It is therefore. the HEC is still a problem though it is not much severe as before. Though these are illegal activities. The social aspects which are influencing on effectiveness of electric fences can be listed as follows. 1. firewood. the communities don’t have other alternatives so that those issues needed to be considered in a reasonable approaches rather than imposing strict regulations. capacity development of community based organizations can be practiced. Some respondents pointed out that elephants might be visiting the covered area from other areas and other forests that are located in the same side of the Lunugamvehera electric fence. Role of government organizations 2. such issue on relocation of settlers had been arisen.43%) of the electric fences as a mitigation option. the one of the influencing factor on fence failure is extensive cattle feeding in national park. At present. Forest links The role of the government organizations includes the maintenance of regulations related to the land and conservation policies. which is shown by the highest number of responses (60%) with the electric fencing as a solution. Due to those weaknesses of location of the fence. the maintenance and related operations should be assigned for the communities not only in closer areas of the fence but also to the communities within the effective distance. Integrated approaches along with electric fencing will be the best way to improve the as well as increase the level of community involvement. Further. The activities can be allocated with responsibilities and continuous monitoring. posts for replacement). Community organizations have to play a role to protect the fence and keep clean the route of the fence. wherever those routes of electric fencing are demarcated. Active village level organizations need to be given the responsibilities and authority with transferring benefits. 156 . those who are loosing their prevailing lands due to acquisition of lands for protected areas need to be allowed to use some extent of the land with certain restrictions. the perceptions of the people in the conflict were not considered in policy making. If not. The tasks assigned for the communities need to be in flexible manner. a comprehensive pre. Further. the community should be made to understand the importance of the fence is to reduce the conflict. Therefore. Inability to achieve the intended benefits of the fences can be attributed to this factor mostly. CONCLUSION The study found that even the short-term benefits of electric fencing are not fully achieved in most of the cases.study is needed. The effectiveness of the electric fencing as well as the social acceptance can be improved with the approach of high level of community participation in all the stages of fence establishment. However. Electric fence related activities can be improved with close rapport and relationship between government authorities and community. In such situations. the weaknesses related to social related aspects need to be addressed.The electric fences act as the barriers for accessing in to the forest recourses by the concerning communities.g. This needs to be supported by authorities by provision of funds and material (e. The most important is community support in maintaining the fence. the disputes between community and authorities will be resulted and it makes the failures of the fences. Therefore. (2000) Asian Elephants in the wild: 2000. Elephant Conservation. M. Mr.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research was conducted with the generous funding from Economy and Environment Programme for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA). Mahesh (Elephant Control Unit. Kemf. C. Keerthibandarapura. Switzerland. (2000) IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group. Also we appreciate the support of Mr. IT and GIS units. Galkiriyagama. REFERENCES De Silva. Central. Law Enforcement and operations). Galgamuwa. Manjula Amararathne (Assistant Director-DWLC-Northwestern region). E. Our special thanks extend towards Dr. Hendavitharana (Social Scientist. Galgamuwa). C. (1998) Status and Conservation of the Elephant (Elephas maximus) and the Alleviation of Man-Elephant Conflict in Sri Lanka. Minipe. Cathy Ndiaye in EEPSEA. Maps Electric Fencing.org. Meegalewa. Gland. Lunugamvehera and Elahera. We wish to extend our thanks to the staff of the Residential Office of Mahaweli System G for their support in data collection. Our heartiest gratitude extends to Mr. The Island. WWF-World Wide Fund for Nature. Gujah. and Santiapillai. Assistant Directors of DWLC. IUCN. 19. DWLC) and the staff members in conservation. Mr. David Glover and Dr.iucn. (Sri Lanka) August.WWF Species Status Report. Hermi Francisco and Professor Nancy Olewier for their kind cooperation and also to Ms.1997 157 . Mahaweli and Southern regions and staff of DWLC offices at Herathgama. Anuradhapura. (1997) Elephant conservation in Sri Lanka. 24. Santiapillai. Edmond Wilson (Deputy Director. online reference at www. Nisbet (1961) & Greller & Balasubramanian (1980)). (1963). Twenty two species were found to be endemic. Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve (HSNR) is located in botanically rich UMRF ranging from 1600 m to 2178 m elevation.STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF THE HAKGALA STRICT NATURE RESERVE AT 1800m ELEVATION R. plantanimal interactions and nutrient cycling. Wijesundera (1991) studied the phytosociology of HSNR. Cestrum nocturnum was the most abundant species at this altitude. Based on the relative cover values of species.W. 1982). Eighty eight per cent of species (50 species) were represented by less than 5% of the basal area. and Rathnayake et al. Neolitsea fuscata. Nineteen percent (11 species) of the species identified were present at less than 10 stems per ha density. 1958). species present in the UMRF in Sri Lanka have been identified by numerous authors (Vincent (1883). The exotic species. RATHNAYAKE* Department of Wildlife Conservation. Chapman (1947). (1996)a & b studied the woody vegetation of the same forest at 1600 m elevation. Koelmeyer (1957). According to Grubb et al. and these forests are characterized by a peculiar floristic composition within the IndoMalaysian region (Werner. Only 19% of the species (11 species) was represented by 100 or more individuals per ha. The Objectives of the present study was to study the forest structure in terms of distribution of stem sizes and basal area and floristic. the woody species i. KEY WORDS: Floristic composition INTRODUCTION Upper Montane Rain Forests (UMRF) cover the higher parts of Sri Lanka ranging from 1500 m to the highest peak Piduruthalagala (2524 m). 158 . Generally a large proportion of the angiosperm flora of Sri Lanka is endemic and commonly found in the low country wet zone and montane zone. Sri Lanka ABSTRACT The woody vegetation of Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve at an altitude of 1800 m was quantitatively studied by plot sampling. trees and shrubs of UMRF exceeding 10cm gbh (girth at breast height) could be considered as woody vegetation. Michelia nilagirica and Semecarpus coriacea were the dominant species found in the vegetation. The environmental conditions prevailing at different elevations could affect the physiognomy and floristic composition of the forest at respective elevation (De Rosayro.e.M. Before these studies. It could be considered that HSNR is at dynamic state and knowledge of forest structure and floristic is necessary to the study of forest dynamics. and the most dominant gbh class was 10-20 cm. Adam’s Peak and Elk Plains on the west and Udapussellewa range on the North East respectively. Stem density of Species A in sample plot X = No. and is surrounded by Madulsima range on the east. frequency and dominance (in terms of basal area) were estimated for each species of woody vegetation (Greig-Smith. For the quantitative survey.MATERIALS AND METHODS Study site The study was carried out at mid elevation (1800m) of Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve (HSNR) which lies 6 km southeast of Nuwara Eliya in Central and Uva provinces (latitudes being between (6053’ – 6057’ N and longitudes being between 80046’ and 80050’E) (Green (1990)). Haputale on the south. The identifications were confirmed by referring to the books (Dassanayake & Fosberg (1980) & Wijesinghe (1994)) . Floristic composition and structural characteristics Plant specimens were collected from the woody vegetation and herbarium specimens were prepared following herbarium techniques (Mitra. streamlets. of stems of species A in sample plot X Area of sample plot X Dominance of Species A (relative cover value) = Total basal area of species A x 100 Sum of basal areas for all species 159 . According to Yamada (1977) ten plots of 20 x 20 m were demarcated randomly in this area.142 ha. 1957). steep slopes. Peradeniya and in the Hakgala Botanic Garden. Numerous streams. Stem density. and the well known Hakgala Botanic Garden is situated in the bottom of this reserve. and it is ranging from 1600 m to 2173 m elevation. Pedro range on the northwest. 1957). They were then identified in the National Herbarium. gullies and many rocky out crops are found in the reserve. an undisturbed representative area of about 1 ha of the forest vegetation was selected. The HSNR consists of three peaks aligned in the east west direction. HSNR covers an area of approximately 1. Floristic composition of woody perennial vegetation in Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve at 1800 m elevation T= tree. T* T* 7. Don ) Alston S 160 .Exotics Family & Species Life Form 1. The only exotic species found in the vegetation was Cestrum nocturnum. #. Ericaceae Vaccinium symplocifolium (G. Table 1. About 12. Caprifoliaceae Viburnum erubescens Wall. S 5. life forms and endemicity. T* 10. Anacardiaceae Semecarpus coricea Thw. Celastraceae Euonymus revolutus Wight Microtropis Wallichiana Wight ex Thw.RESULTS Table1 shows the species composition of all species (gbh > 10 cm). S = Shrub.2 % (44 species) trees and 22. 10. The distribution of species among taxa was uneven.5% (6 species) to Rubiaceae and 7 % (4 species) to each family of Myrtaceae and Symplocaceae. Taxonomic richness (total number of taxa) was 127. Buxaceae Sarcococca zeylanica Bail.6% (22 species) species was found to be endemic. *. Asteraceae Senecio corymbosus Wall. Daphniphyllaceae Daphniphyllum neilgherrense (Wight) Thw. Ex DC.3% (7 species) of the species belonged to the family Lauraceae. Clusiaceae Calophyllum walkeri Wight. Ex DC. Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus montanus Thw. A total of 57 species belonging to 43 genera and 27 families were recorded.8% (13 species) shrubs.endemic. T 2. The vegetation also consisted of 77. T* 3. Viburnum coriaceum Bl. T S 6. T 9. About 38. Aquifoliaceae Ilex walkeri Wight & Gardn ex Thw. S 4. T* Life Form Family & Species 8. ) Hook. Magnoliaceae Michelia nilagirica Zenker T 14. f. Icacinaceae Apodytes gardneriana Miers Nothapodytes foetida (Wight) Sleumer T* T 12.) Cogn.) Merr. S* S 15. Myrsinaceae Ardisia gardneri C. Syzygium rotundifolium Arn. Lasianthus gardneri (Thw. In DC. Lauraceae Actinodaphne ambigua (Meisn. f. 1 Cinnamomum ovalifolium Wight. Rapanea robusta Mez. Melastomataceae Memecylon rotundatum (Thw. Rubiaceae Canthium montanum Thw.11. Syzyfgium revolutum Walp. Actinodaphne glauca Nees Actinodaphne speciosa Nees Actinodaphne sp. Osbeckia sp. Oleaceae Olea polygama Wight T Life Form Family & Species 19.) Alston Neolitsea sp. T T 21. Neolitsea fuscata (Thw. T* T T T* 18.B. Clarke Maesa perrottetiana A.) Hook. 1 T* T* T* T T* T* T 13. Moraceae Ficus microcarpa L. T 12. Myrtaceae Eugenia mabaeoides Wight Syzygium assimile Thw. S* S T 17.) Psychotria zeylanica Sohmer Tarenna flava Alston T* T S* S S T 20. Sabiaceae 161 . T* T* 11. Euoida lunu-ankenda (Gaertn. T 16. Flacortiaceae Caesaria thwaitessi Briq.f. Ixora calycina Thw. Scolopia crassipes Clos. Rutaceae Acronychia pedunculata (L. Euphorbiaceae Glochidion coriaceum Thw.) Miq. Psychotria nigra (Gaertn.DC. Melastomataceae and Sapotaceae were rarely found representing less than 5 stems/individuals ha-1(Tables 2). Lauraceae and Rutaceae represented all the stem size classes. stem density and relative basal area differed between the stem size classes. Sabiaceae.) Meliosma pinnata (Roxb. T* T T* T 26. Sapindaceae Allophyllus varians (Thw. Thirteen families of species were represented below 80cm gbh stems. Families. Magnoliaceae (13. Lauraceae (22. Symplocos sp. Lauraceae. T Unidentified sp. Sapotaceae Isonandra lanceolata Wight T 24. The highest relative basal area values were recorded for families. Above> 100cm gbh values were represented by 11 families. Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour. in Walp. Anacardiaceae and Rutaceae.e. T T 22. Eleven species exceeded >100 cm girth (gbh) with a density of 43 individuals per ha.e. Ex Planch. Magnoliaceae.) Max.Theaceae Eurya ceylanica Wight S 27. Rubiaceae. Myrtaceae.e. Elaeocarpaceae. Symplocos elegans Thw. Except seven families i. Overall density of live stems in all size classes was calculated to be 2641 individuals’ ha-1. Solanaceae Cestrum nocturnum L S# 25. Rubiaceae.7%) and Myrtaceae (11%). 10-20 cm). At the family level. Celastraceae. Caprifoliaceae and Sabiaceae showed more than 100 individuals/stems ha-1.) S. Buxaceae.Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb. Families Caprifoliaceae.2 T T Structural characteristics Table 2 provides trees and shrub families (> 10cm gbh) with percentage of mean total basal area and density (individual’s ha-1). other families showed less than 5% relative basal area.1% (1429 individuals ha-1) fall in to the lowest girth class (i. Myrtaceae. Further Figure 2 and Table 2 show that 54. T* 23. Elaeocarpaceae and Sapotaceae represented only 21 –20cm gbh stem size class. Moor. 162 . Four families i. Ulmaceae Celtis Cinnamomea Lindl.1%). Only two families i.e. Lauraceae. Symplocaceae Symplocos bractealis Thw.) Radlk. The stem density showed a reversed “J” shaped curve (Figure 1). The highest density was recorded for 10 –20 cm gbh stem size class and the lowest density class was > 100 cm gbh stems. Solanaceae.1 Unidentified sp. Family Solanaceae (367 stems/individuals ha-1) represented the highest stem density. Table 2. Relative basal area values and density (number of individuals per ha) Values in each stem size class %BA- relative basal area No. - Density (number of individuals per ha) Family 10-20 Anacardiaceae Aquifoliaceae Buxaceae Caprifoliaceae Celastraceae Clusiaceae Cornaceae Daphniphyllaceae Elaeocarpaceae Ericaceae Euphorbiaceae Flacourtiaceae Icacinaceae Lauraceae Magnoliaceae Melastomataceae Moraceae Myrsinaceae Myrtaceae Oleaceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae Sabiaceae Sapindaceae Sapotaceae Solanaceae Symplocaceae Theaceae Ulmaceae Total %BA 0.01 1.80 0.45 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.12 0.16 2.62 0.08 2.10 5.15 0.32 0.39 0.94 1.23 0.30 15.77 No. 2 83 4 1 4 6 2 5 24 130 10 121 687 16 48 206 51 29 1429 Stem size class (gbh) cm 41-60 61-80 21-40 %BA 0.06 2.0 0.01 1.05 0.24 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.14 0.12 0.17 5.90 0.12 0.15 4.85 2.32 1.58 0.85 0.43 0.01 0.95 0.22 0.61 0.37 22.29 No. 8 69 3 10 3 1 3 4 12 4 17 183 2 10 115 84 60 23 36 1 147 5 26 5 831 %BA 0.03 0.08 0.62 0.03 0.06 0.48 0.21 4.45 0.14 0.04 1.65 2.59 0.15 0.10 0.13 1.00 0.89 12.65 163 No. 2 9 5 1 3 3 2 57 2 3 17 33 6 4 14 12 4 177 %BA 1.20 0.02 0.05 0.37 0.10 0.17 2.14 4.70 0.16 0.48 2.45 0.20 1.21 1.20 0.08 14.53 No. 5 1 3 3 2 1 27 12 1 4 25 3 8 5 2 102 81-100 %BA 2.11 0.43 0.21 0.37 3.80 1.40 0.62 3.46 0.20 0.73 13.33 >100 No. 8 2 1 2 20 3 2 16 2 3 59 %BA 2.90 0.58 0.20 3.20 7.56 0.39 1.05 0.89 1.50 2.70 0.51 21.48 No. 7 2 1 9 10 1 2 1 4 5 1 43 stem density (no. of stems per ha) 2000 1500 1000 500 0 20-40 21-40 41-60 61-80 gbh classes (cm) 81-100 Figure 1. Stem density classes of woody perennial vegetation at study site The total basal area (sum of the stem cross sectional area) at breast height extrapolated to per hectare basis) for the study area was 39.8m2 ha-1. The highest relative basal area was recorded for 21-40cm gbh stem size class i.e., 22.29 and the lowest relative basal area was recorded for 41 – 60cm gbh stem size class i.e. 12.65. (Table 2). The largest trees (> 100cm gbh), which constituted only 16% of the tabulated stems accounted for 21.5% of total basal area. A dominance-diversity curve was computed at the species level by ranking the relative basal area of all stems > 10 cm gbh for trees and shrubs were identified (Figure 2). All but seven species i.e. Neolitsea fuscata (16.9 %), Michelia nilagirica (13.7%), Meliosma simplicifolia ( 9.4 %), Semecarpus coriacea (6.2%), Syzygium rotundifolium (5.9%) and Acronychia pedunculata (5.5%) and Eugenia mabaeoides (5%) constituted less than 5% of the percentage basal area. 16 14 12 10 Relative basal area 8 6 4 57 53 49 45 41 37 33 29 25 21 17 13 9 5 0 1 2 Species rank Figure 2. Dominance diversity curve for the woody perennial vegetation at study site According to the dominance values (in terms of relative basal area values) different dominant families, genera and species were found (Table 2). Below 60 cm gbh classes, the dominant families were Lauraceae, Solanaceae and Myrtaceae. Within these three families, the genera of Neolitsea, Cestrum and Eugenia and species of P.zeylanica, C.aurantiacum and N.fuscata were the dominants. The dominant families above 60 cm gbh were Lauraceae, 164 >100 Magnoliaceae and Anacardiaceae. Within the dominant genera of Neolitsea, Semecarpus and Michelia, dominant species of N.fuscata, S.coriacea and Michelia nilagirica were found. DISCUSSION From the results it was evident that the vegetation at 1800 m of HSNR was dominated by the families Lauraceae (12.3%, 7 species), Rubiacea (10.5%, 6 species), Myrtaceae (7%, 4 species) and Symplocaceae (7%, 4 species).Lauraceae commonly occurs elsewhere at this elevation, and has been reported as the dominant in the vegetation at this elevation. Dominance of Lauraceae at this site may reflect the abundance of several avian dispersers of this family. Taxonomic richness (total number of taxa) was quite high at the study site like other montane forests (Grubb et al. (1963), Heaney & Proctor (1990) & Tanner (1977)). The presence of 38.6% endemic species further reveals the importance the forest vegetation. Number of species found in the montane zone of Sri Lanka was 591, and 291 species were endemic (Abeywickrama, 1956). Trimen (1885) also has reported that about five sixth of the country’s endemic species are present in the hill flora. According to Willis (Procteor et al (1988) and de Rosayro (1958), endemic species occurred in the montane rain forests mainly due to isolation of mountains, and isolated species may have evolved and became endemic. The only exotic species i.e. Cestrum nocturnum was found with the highest abundance, and it has been introduced to Sri Lanka through Hakgala Botanic Garden in 1889 (Trimen, 1890). This exotic species was considered as a weed of montane zone (Bond, 1952). According to Rathnayake et al. (1996) a, C.nocturnum was an exotic species found at 1600 m too, but it was absent at 2000m elevation probably due to the facts that the seeds or fruits of these two species are normally dispersed by birds (Alston, 1931), and at the higher elevations the birds could not disperse them successfully. Further, the presence of extreme environmental conditions (i.e. high wind velocity and high light intensity) at higher elevations, coiled already affects the survival of this species. According to the highest abundance of C.nocturnum in HSNR it could be suggested that it could suppress the growth of other species present in the forest. At the moment this exotic species has spread through the lower elevation on to the higher elevations seriously threatening the endemic vegetation of the upper montane rain forests. Stem density showed a reversed “J”-shaped curve which is typical for a mature stand, with many small stems compared to few large ones. The large size classes of stems were more variable spatially than small stems, so a large sample area would be needed to characterize composition and structural attributes of larger trees than small trees. According to Figure 1, many individuals of woody perennial vegetation do not exceed 20 cm gbh, and smaller individuals of overstorey vegetation may allow saplings to share the space for exposing to the light. Generally, C.nocturnum shows low gbh classes and that could be helpful in the case of saplings of C.nocturnum. High gbh values (> 100 cm gbh) were recorded for Michelia nilagirica, Semecarpus coriacea, Ficus sp. and etc., and they may not allow saplings to share the space. Compared to other species therefore their relative densities were low. 165 The dominant family at Monteverde forests in Jamaica was Lauraceae (31% of total basal area) (Edwards.. and they could be considered as dominant species involved in community dynamics. Some of families and genera found in Hakgala SNR are common at study sites of other montane.. growth of saplings and growth of other plants.5% of the total basal area only at 1800 m elevation in Hakgala SNR. forests (Heaney & Proctor (1990). (1988). and these changes could be due to the forest die back. (1995). especially those that influence patterns of disturbance and regeneration are necessary to explain the great variation exhibited in tropical montane forests. 1977). Edwards (1977) & Edwards & Grubb (1977)). (1963). Based on the overall relative cover values of species Neolitsea fuscata. They are endemic. Relative basal area is a useful indicator of particular species in a forest and it may reflect the importance of the species in the community dynamics. (1995)). The cover values give an idea of timber volume of the forest. Proctoer et al. natural death of some trees and the greater distribution of C.5% of basal area) (Tanner. This difference may result from different forest disturbance regimes. 1977). comprised only 5.. Sampled areas in comparable studies ranged from 400m2 to 4000m2 (present study)..e 22. It could be suggested that these species might determine the future of whole forest.8% of the basal area at the Barva site (Tanner 1977). That means these species may affect the seed germination. 166 . Michelia nilagirica and Semecarpus coriacea were the dominants. the densest species was C. Heaney & Proctor (1990). The current data on tropical forests suggest the similar elevation and environmental conditions do not dictate similar structure and floristic in tropical montane vegetation. and they are the dominants. 1996a) due to their huge and tall stems and presence of shallow soil depth and other unfavorable environmental conditions. and climatic conditions. It was not the highest basal area holding species at these two elevations. A larger body of information on environmental factors. In the present study.nocturnum is shrub form with low gbh values.. the dominant family was Lauraceae (i. the dominant family was Euphorbiaceae (14. Weaver & Murphy (1990). whereas this taxon comprised only 0. At Barva forest in Jamaica.9% of total basal area). and community dynamics mainly depend on these species too. It is also recommended that regular floristic studies. both qualitative and quantitative.nocturnum. at least at 6 year intervals be carried out and in order to monitor the possible vegetation change that could occur overtime in this vegetation. Abeywickrama (1956) & Nadkarni et al. Therefore the results of the present study were different from those of Wijesundara (1991). although timber of this forest is not important in furniture industry. Nadkarni et al. The highest relative basal area values were recorded for Michelia nilagirica and Neolitsea fuscata at 1800 m as well as 1600 m studied6. and the most dominant species was Neolitsea fuscata. Taxonomic richness (total number of taxa) was quit high at HSNR like other montane rain forests (Grubb et al.nocturnum. The results of the present study could be useful in measures pertaining to the conservation of naturally established flora in the upper montane rain forests. In the present study. and they were not found at 2000 m elevation (Rathnayake et al. because C.Less than ten species showed more than 5% of relative basal area at each elevation. Tanner (1977). R. Pangrango.. pp. (1982). Vincent (1883). The application of aerial photography to ecology as exemplied by the natural vegetation of Ceylon. W.). Yamada. A quantitative study of pigmy forest at 2000 m in Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve. (1980. J.. 15: 226-254.. V. (1963). & Jayasekera.D.W. S. Faculty of Science. IUCN-The Conservation Union. Sri Lanka. U. Werner.R. T. & Proctor. (1991). & Fosberg. Amerind Publishing Co. L. (1990).M. Rathnayake. Floristic composition along altitude. P. A forest inventory of the Peak Wilderness-Agra Bopats Forest Area and part of the Kelani Valley Forest Area. The Sri Lanka Forester XXII (3&4):43-49. J. Solangaarachchi. New Delhi. Forest Department. Quantitative Plant Ecology (3rd edition). Indian Forester 73 (7):287-314. The Ceylon Forester 3 (2): 144-163. (1958). A. (1957). University of Peradeniya.Phil. S. England. Y.J. IV.M.. 256 p. & Balasubramaniam. 58p. Calcutta. Forest ecological studies of the montane forests of Mt. The climate classification and distribution of vegetation in Ceylon.K pp. & Solangaarachchi. Cambridge.. The Forests of Ceylon. West Java. Wijesundara.M. Cota Rica. Dassanayake. (1994). Rathnayake. A comparison of montane and lowland rain forest in Ecuador. The Climatic and Vegetation of the Knucles Region of Ceylon. The Sri Lanka Forester 15 (3&4): 119-131.N.R. Jayasekera. Preliminary studies on forest structure and floristics on Volcan Barva. IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas. K. Sri Lanka Forester 14 (3-4):163-170.A. J. 20 p. Butterworth.O. Proceedings of the Second Annual Forestry Symposium. Grubb.C.A.. (1961). F. (1990). 167 . World Mitra. A quantitative study of overstorey vegetation of an upper montane rain forest.REFERENCES De Rosayro. Tropical Agriculturist 2 (1-12):280-281. Pennington.M (1996). D. (1996). University of Sri Jayawardenapura. (Pvt) Ltd.J. Sri Lanka. Heaney. Ceylon Government Press. London. M. Checklist of Woody Perennial Plants of Sri Lanka. Department of Forestry and Environment Science. Ceylon Forester 2 (3 & 4) : 201-260. (1980). The forest structure.. S. India. P.L. Koelmeyer. physiognomy and floristics. South East Asian Studies. L. Journal of Tropical Ecology 6:307-320.D. Chapman. (1957). Sri Lanka.R. Revised Hand Book to the Flora of Ceylon. The Upper Montane Rain Forests of Sri Lanka.R. Green.J. R.B.H. M. (1977). Phytosociology of a montane forest in Sri Lanka. Journal of Ecology 51: 567-601. Greig-Smith. Greller.McD. The World Press Private Ltd. Parts IVII. (1957). An Introduction to Systemic Botany and Ecology. 211-212.M. Lloyd. R. Wijesinghe. & Whitemore.S.W. L. Colombo. Nisbet. India. 215-222. M. A prelimiary floristic classification of the forests of Sri Lanka. (1947). A. T. R. thesis. T. (1908). Malaysia. P. Matelson T. T. Four montane rain forests of Jamaica: a quantitative characterization of the floristics. Part 2:99-21 Trimen. the soil and foliar mineral levels. P. (1977).Tanner. (1885). London.. 168 .F.. Ecological studies on Gunung Silam.J. & Haber W. Journal of Ecology 65:943-969. H. Sess. & Nelson. Dulau. Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden Peradeniya 4 (4): 131-138. Bond. Proctoer. Forest structure and productivity in Puerto Rico’s Luquillo Mountains.A. P. forest structure and floristics. The production and disappearance of litter. Ann. Peradeniya. Structural characteristics and floristic composition of a Neotropical cloud forest Monteverde. Costa Rica. A handbook to the flora of Ceylon.H. The distribution of organic matter in the vegetation and soil. The origin and affinities of the flora of Ceylon.E. Wild Flowers of the Ceylon Hills.C. Vol. The floras of Hill tops in Ceylon. E. Edwards. II. Abeywickrama.J. (1990). Munro W.S. (1977). I. Nadkarni N. I. P. Lee Y. Studies in a montane rain forest in NewGuinea. 6. and a discussuion of the interelations. (1931). (1952).J.. & Murphy.A. (1977). Studies of mineral cycling in a montane rain forest in New Guinea.M. a small ultra basic mountain in Sabah. Biotropica 22:69-82. Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (ceylon Branch) 9.J. Ceylon Administrative Reports. Ceylon A. & Grubb. Edwards.G. P.C.. Alston.. Journal of Ecology 65:971-922. geographical affinities and origin of the Ceylon flora. (1988).R.G.V. (1995). Royal Botanic Gardens. T.J. H. Journal of Ecology 65:883-918. Remarks on the composition. Oxford University Press. A.L. Weaver. J. Journal of Ecology 76:320-340. B. Langley A. Environment. (1956).M. Journal of Tropical Ecology 11:481-495. (1890). Report of the Director for 1889 12 p. 240 p. J. Trimen. Proc. Willis.A. Cophotis.G. C. 1994). eardlarnii and C. I. A drastic change in ambient temperature following montane habitat destruction can be highly influencing the thermoregulation activity pattern of ectotherms (Clarke. females = 32. Ceratophora. C. male (M) and female (F) lizards were observed. Manamendra-Arachchi. Faculty of Natural Science. C. 2001). karu (Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi. Nugegoda. Out of five species of the endemic agamid lizard genus. the LeafNosed Lizard (Senanayake. tenentii is distinctive to these mountain forest habitats. Due to habitat destruction by clearing the under storey for cardamom plantations.3%. JAYANTHA2 1 The Department of Zoology.2%. change in macro and microenvironment of the species is invariably resulted. aspera. 1953. KEY WORDS: Substrate preference. tennentii. males = 37. C. The total length of the adult male is about 185 mm and that of adult female is about 183 mm (Deraniyagala.U.SUBSTRATE PREFERENCE OF THE CERATOPHORA TENENTII: GUNTHER. its similarity to a leaf has earned this lizard the common name. logging and man made fires. Faculty of Science.D.U. The genus Ceratophora is represented by five species C.5%. N.. RODRIGO1*. The most preferred substrates were tree trunks (Juveniles = 34. tennentii is distinguished from all other Ceratophorans by the complex. & Liyanage. tennentii.A. twigs and moss covered twigs. PADMALAL1. 1979). males = 28. The Open University of Sri Lanka. substrate preference of any agamid lizard. 1998). order Squamata.3%. stodartii.P. C. females = 13. 1996) such as agamid. 169 . N. with a high species endemism and richness (Ministry of forestry and environment. in Sri Lanka. University of Colombo.K. C. U. Sri Lanka. B. This is the first study of the kind. Sri Lanka ABSTRACT A study was conducted in the eastern slope of the northern flank of the Knuckles forest range in Sri Lanka for a piod of 3 months from March to June 2002 with the objective of studying the substrate preference of C. The animals spent less than 10% of the total observed time on ground litter. Juvenile (J). V. family Agamidae (Lizards) and sub family Lyriocephalinae. Knuckles conservation forest INTRODUCTION Knuckles forest range comprises different unique eco. tenentii belongs to the class reptilia. Data were collected between 0800 to 1800 hrs following focal sampling method. 1999).systems (De Rosayro. Ceratophora and Lyriocephalus are the three extant genera of the sub family and are endemic to Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala. SAMARAWEERA1 and A. laterally compressed rostral appendage (Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi. 1958).L.K.K. The study has designed to determine the substrates preference of the endemic and highly threatened lizard species (Bambaradeniya. C. moss covered logs. 1953). 2 The Department of Zoology. 1998). & Samarasekara.5%) and cardamom stems (Juveniles = 33.2%) throughout the study period. 1834 (SQUAMATA: AGAMIDAE) IN THE NORTHERN FLANK OF KNUCKLES CONSERVATION FOREST IN SRI LANKA R. logs. Cetatophora tenentii. Area around the eye and sides of neck are with black margins. 1994). 1990). females 170 . Calophyllum spp. The study site is located adjacent to the Matale . 1975). Substrate of each lizard was noted in every minute (time sampling) following focal sampling method (Altmann. K. which has been isolated from rest of the central hills by the Mahaweli River. Syzygium spp. A clear stratification of the vegetation could be seen in the area. Venter is usually whitish. misty and rainy. Lisea spp. consisted of continuous canopy. dark brown bands on tail separated by narrow. Strobilanthes spp. Males. The weather condition was recorded according to four categories viz sunny. S. lichens and orchids. 1998). & Liyanage. Light intensity was taken in every 30 minutes using a standard light meter. Most of the trees trunks were covered by mosses. 1998). Most of the habitat of this species is now under cardamom (Elettaria cardamonium) plantations (ManamendraArachchi & Liyanage. tennentii is only in Knuckles mountain region (Manamendra-Arachchi. Location The selected habitat “Rivers Turn” is located in the Matale district in Sri Lanka.. grasses. Male is darker than female (Manamendra-Arachchi. This slow moving lizard is frequently seen arboreal (Pethiyagoda & ManamendraArachchi.736150 E (Figure 1). The ground layer contained different herbs. Distribution of the C. There are about ten broad. larger scales more greenish than smaller ones. and Elettaria cardamonium were the common plants. and Symplocos spp. orchids. were the dominant plant species in the canopy. In the understorey. METERIALS AND METHODS All observations were made in the eastern slope of the northern flank of the Knuckles forest range (Reverse Tern) from March to June 2002. with its concomitant clearing of undergrowth.. under storey and ground layer. 1958) (Figure 2). 523050 N and 080. Data were collected between 0800 to 1800 hrs in the cardamom plantation. ferns and fern allies (De Rosayro. windy.Predominant colour of the dorsum and sides of mature individuals is reddish brown to olive green. where the observations were made. 1994). Relevant ambient temperature.. Habitat The study area was montane tropical wet evergreen vegetation. Juvenile lizard is dark brown both dorsally and laterally (Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi. Neolitsea spp. at an altitude of 760-1220 m (Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi.Laggala main road in the Eastern slope of the mountain range 07.. lighter interspaces. was noted in every 30 minutes with an alcohol thermometer throughout the study period. substrate and weather condition were reported simultaneously. Ambient temperature of the site. 1998). Figure 2. 171 . and experience of the author. size (Deraniyagala. Every lizard was observed approximately from 2m distance for immunized the effect to the lizard natural behavior and a pair of binoculars (“Pentax” 8x30) was used to observe lizards from distance.and juveniles were considered for the study and they were identified according to taxonomic characters. Source: IUCN Sri Lanka (2003) Figure 1. 1953). Habitat of the study area with Cardamom plants. Box indicated the reverse turn. their color patterns. 30 11 .00 17 . TT=Tree Trunk. 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 8. CT= Cardamom Trunk. Substrates used by juvenile.00 15 .00 14 .Moss Covered. TM=Twig-Moss Covered. male and female lizards.0 0 8. L=Leaf. GL=Ground Litter.3 0 10 .0 0 9.00 16 .30 13 .30 15 .30 12 .3. Average ambient temperature in the study site throughout day.00 11 . Time (hrs) Figure 4.00 13 .30 18 .00 12 .Percentage of substrate use 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 BT CT GL L LM T TM TT TTM Substrate Juvenile Male Female BT= Bamboo Trunk. T=Twig. TTM=Tree Trunk. 172 .30 16 .00 Average Ambient Temperature (°C) Figure.3 0 9.30 17 .00 10 . LM=Log-Moss Covered.30 14 . When the noon. tennentii. sunny condition was gradually started to turning to the windy condition till 1330hrs. logs. Bamboo trunks. 173 . DISCUSSION Most used substrate by lizards was cardamom trunks (Figure 3). Moss-covered tree trunks used as the substrate by female lizards many times (30. twigs and moss-covered twigs were used less than 10% of the total observed time (Figure 3). In the morning average ambient temperature of the study site was 16.3%. males = 14. Moss covered surfaces have been preferred least frequently. Weather condition of the study period During the study period weather fluctuated through out the day from sunny to rainy conditions from 0800hrs to 1130hrs there was a gradual increasing in the sunny condition. The color of the body of C. male = 10%. moss covered logs.5%) and cardamom trunks (Juveniles = 33.8 °C.5%) lizards. female = 3. males = 28. Therefore.2%) throughout the study period. The lizards next used moss covered tree trunks (Juveniles = 10.25 °C at 1800 hrs (Figure 4). Flowers of the cardamom plants support many kinds of insects as a food source for C. The temperature slowly increased with the time and it was highest (24. lizards was frequently changed when lizards were changed the substrate as most of the reptiles are doing. logs.2%) out of the total observed time period of a day.3%. moss Covered logs.25 °C) between 1000 – 1100 am.RESULTS Substrate preference of the lizards The most preferred substrates were tree trunks (Juveniles = 34. 04.7%. twigs and moss covered twigs (Figure 3). Further. In the afternoon the weather conditions of the study area was misty and late afternoon there was a rainy condition. females = 32. tennenti. After 1200 noon average ambient temperature of the site gradually decreased and it was about 16. males = 37. lizards preferred to hang on the cardamom trunks and next most used substrate was tree trunks (Figure 3). foliation of cardamom bushes provides a good opportunity for basking as the trunks expose to the sunlight more frequently compared to other substrates (author’s comment).2%.5%. ground litter.7%) and male (14. may be due to low temperature of the substrate brought about by trapped moisture unless it is a tree trunk that directly exposed to the sun light.5%) compared to juvenile (10. females = 13.5%. Ambient temperature in the study site Ambient temperature variations between 0800 – 1800 are shown in Fig.5%) and bamboo trunks (Juvenile = 9.8%. The animals spent less than 10% of the total observed time on ground litter. females = 30. as a defensive mechanism (Pough. 2001). (Figure 4). 174 . After the noon the average ambient temperature was fluctuated between 20°C to 16°C till night was fallen. Therefore.During the study period weather were fluctuated sunny to rainy conditions. Mr.30 hrs) during 0900 to 1100 hrs. The selected habitat is situated in the east side of the Knuckles forest range. where the study was conducted. Because of that.Ekanayake. Mendis Wickramasinghe.B.Sri Lanka are also acknowledged for providing me with references. In the morning average ambient temperature was low (16°C) in the study site due to the heavy mist and drizzling. Bambaradeniya for his assistance in completion of this project and the report subsequently. I appreciate the help given by Dr. D.N. Finally.25°C around 10. the instructor of the reptiles group and my colleagues of the Young Zoologists’ Association of Sri Lanka (YZA). At the night lowest average ambient temperature in the study site was recorded 14°C.B. the average ambient temperature has been increased (highest temperature was recorded as 24. helped me to lead this project to be successful. The staff members of the Biodiversity Section of IUCN –The World Conservation Union. C. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Mr. the owner of the Cardamom plantation in Riverse-turn. during the morning hours the light intensity is gradually increased within the study site. for granting me permission to carry out the study. Notes on the lizards of the genus Ceratophora. University of Chicago. 175 . 1(1):77-96. A colored atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon. I. II. and Manamendra-Arachchi. (1999).N. A. V. (2001). Deraniyagala. (2001). 15(1):18-19. F. A revision of the endemic Sri Lankan agamid lizard genus Ceratophora Gray. P. Illinois. Journal of South Asian Natural History. Conservation and distribution of the agamid lizards of Sri Lanka with illustrations of the extent species.). (1996). S.R. Sri Lanka. Inc. Seminar series 59. Bambaradeniya. Colombo.407. Pp 431-464.The World Conservation Union. Pethiyagoda. The influence of climate change on the distribution and evolution of organisms. (1958). (1979). Pough.University press. Johnston. Pp 98-101. Cambridge. and Samarasekara. Sri Lanka country office. Herpetology. K. Horton place. Colombo 07. 53. A. Chicago.USA. R. Loris. De Rosayro.N. 3: 201-260. The climatic and vegetation of the Knuckles region of Ceylon. Ceylon Forester. (1975). and Liyanage. & Bennett. Ceylon National Museums. Rajamalwatte Road. “Sampathpaya”. Vol. with description of two new species. Allee laboratory of animal behavior. IUCN . Pp 59-63. 3(1):1-50. Journal of South Asian Natural History. K. J. Clarke. New Jersey. (1994). F.F. A.A. (1998). An overview of the threatened herpetofauna of South Asia. In the Animals and temperature (Ed. Battaramulla.REFERENCES Altmann. Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka. Senanayake. Sri Lanka. U. 1835. S. Manamendra-Arachchi.E. Ministry of forestry and environment. R.N. Second edition. Observational study of behavior: sampling methods. 18p.H. C.P. (1953). et al. Ministry of forestry and environment. Pp 377. Prentice-Hall.A. Society for experimental biology.B. M. de Silva. In fact. 1986. Sri Lanka.223) possibly due to numerous habitats associated with the Walawe River. Nawala. PERIES2 1 2 The Open University of Sri Lanka. Sphenomorphus rufogulus. RODRIGO1*. the island is a mega hotspot of herpetofauna harboring 103 amphibians and 181 reptiles. The total land area is approximately 65000km2. U. PERERA2. SRI LANKA.N. Sri Lanka. Data were gathered in systematic manner at fortnight intervals during 1st October 2002 to 31st March 2003 in selected habitats in three sites.B.A.233) compared with the other two sites (Rekawa=0. 1996). KEY WORDS: HERPETOFAUNAL. collecting turtle eggs. Introduction Sri Lanka is an island located in the south-eastern tip of peninsular India. The land consists of three peneplains.J.N. V. C. awareness programs conducted for the villagers and for the school children and mangrove reforestation are some of recommendation made to conserve the biodiversity of the area including the herpetofauna. Lunama-Kalametiya = 0. M. Mabuya madaraszi. REKAWA. Sustainable development schemes.K. In terms of “biodiversity per unit area”. N. Sri Lanka is ranked among the highest in Asia (Bambaradeniya. 2000). Abstract This comparative study investigates the diversity of herpetofauna in Rekawa.P.K SAMARAWICKRAMA2. 2001). Sri Lanka rank 4th the world (De Silva. 176 .S. The island is divided in to four main climatic zones viz wet. out of which several taxa are geographic relicts (Crusz. Lycodon osmanhilli and Xenochrophis asperrimus). Fifteen amphibians of four families and 43 reptiles of 15 families were recorded in the study area.. between northern latitudes 5° 55’ and 9° 51’ and eastern longitude 79° 41’ and 81° 51’. Horton Place.K. LUNAMAKALAMETIYA. among which clearance of habitats. 1996). Colombo 7.G. Kalametiya-Lunama and Walawa wetland habitats in the South-East coast of Sri Lanka. PERERA2 and T.COMPARISON OF HERPETOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THREE WETLAND IN HABITATS THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF SRI LANKA R. the middle (125-750m) and the third (above750m) (Pemadasa.K. A higher diversity of herpetofauna was found in Walawa (Shannon index = 0. when compared with other countries with high percentage of endemic reptilian taxa. PADMALAL1. The endemic species noted consisted of one amphibian species (Rana gracilis) and five reptile species (Lankascincus fallax. Nugegoda.176. spread of alien invasive flora and highway accidents can be highlighted. Further more. dry. WALAWA ESTUARY. DIVERSITY. 2001a) and is considered as one of the 25 global biodiversity hot spots which reports diverse ecosystems resulted from a wide range of topographic and climatic variations (Myers et al. 53. intermediate and arid zones according to the annual rainfall and temperature. SOUTH-EAST COAST. the first (0-125m). BAMBARADENIYA2. IUCN-The World Conservation Union. A number of threats to herpetofauna have been identified. 1996. Sri Lanka harbors a total of 81 inland tetrapod reptile species (48 endemic) (Deraniyagala. of which 87 of them are endemic to the island. Cercaspis. Meegaskumbura & Manamendra -Arachchi. Lyriocephalus1species. Greer.7” E080°48’38. Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda.1 species) and four endemic Colubrid genera (Aspidura. 2005. Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda. In addition to the inland reptiles. 177 .0”) N Walawa Lunama & Klametiya Figure 1. De Silva. 1953. Bahir & Maduwage. 2005).5 species. Greer.al. 13 species of sea snakes and five species of marine turtles occur in the coastal waters of the island (De Silva. Cophotis. Study area Rekawa. Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi. 1991. 1957. Kalametiya-Lunama lagoon and Walawa estuary are situated in the South-East coast of Sri Lanka (Figure 1). 2005. Nessia-8 species and Chalcidoseps.1 species) are recognized as that of serpentoid counterparts (Crusz. Lunama & Kalametiya and Walawa. 2005.4% of reptiles (86 species) have been identified as nationally threatened (IUCN Sri Lanka.1 ) and three endemic genera of agamid lizards (Ceratophora-5 species. Haplocercus-1 species. 2001a. Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi.1”) and Tangalle (N6°02’19. Batuwita & Bahir. Rekawa. three endemic genera of skinks (Lankascincus-6 species. 1998. Balanophis. Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda. 1980..Sri Lanka having 103 species of amphibians. 2005) and 82 inland serpentoid reptile species (44 endemic). 61% of amphibians (33 species) and 55. According to the published literature. Bahir & Silva. 2005. 1986.2” E081°03’01. 1991). ManamendraArachchi & Pethiyagoda. Among the tetrapod reptilia. 2001b. Of the total herpetofaunal species in Sri Lanka. These sites lie between Godawaya (N 06°06’26. Bufonidae. 2000).1 species) are considered as geographical relicts while one endemic Uropeltid genus (Pseudotyphlops.1species. Ichthyophiidae. 1996). Gower & et. 1998. Microhylidae and Ranidae are the families recorded island wide from coastal areas up to highlands (Kirthisinghe. Map showing the study sites. Final out put of the study can also be used in continues monitoring of the herpetological diversity in the study area in future. Being the first comparative herpetofaunal study in the selected area this research will enable to gather valuable baseline data. For example. doing a survey on currently existing species of these taxa and obtaining data on ecological parameters from respective habitats. Kalametiya lagoon can be roughly be divided into a silted and well-vegetated northern section and a southern part with open water surfaces. 1995). the information gathered would be applicable for the evaluation of different ecosystems in the area. if the salinity and water level of a costal lagoon are recorded on a regular basis.75m. Walawa River is running parallel with the sea from Godawaya to Welipatanwila. It makes different kinds of habits and vegetations types such as mangrove.Lunama and Walawa wetland areas. The two interconnected brackish water lagoons. which is 20m above the sea level. an ecologist can extrapolate whether a particular measurement is within the typical range of fluctuations or a significant change has been occurred or being occurred based on ecological parameters (Sutherland. Along the coast there is a low and narrow ridge of sand dunes separating the lagoons from the sea. the bank rises more abruptly. The lagoon is very shallow with a mean depth of 0. Before reaching to the sea. and bogs. and 1 km east of the Lunama Lagoon (CEA/Euro consult. 1996). These eco-systems are highly fragmented and overexploited by man. 2001).Rekawa is situated on the border of the intermediate and dry climatic zones on the southern coast of Sri Lanka. The highest point of the area is Ussangoda hill. Kalametiya. bordering the lagoon extending over an area of about 250 hectares (Cooray. The bottom is covered by a thick package of organic matter and aquatic plants (CEA/Euro consult. Walawa estuary is a special habitat for the many of the flora and fauna found in the area. This is a preliminary study of the herpetofauna diversity in Rekawa. which is the dominant vegetation. 1995). 1995). 1998). but in the south –west.25m (CEA/Euro consult. It is very useful to monitor environmental variables in such a way that ecologists can detect environmental changes and relate the findings with the changes in herpetofaunal populations. namely Kalametiya (Kalametiya lagoon is mainly fresh water now) (606 ha) and Lunama (192 ha). 178 . Lunama lagoon does not open into the sea. The prominent feature of the area is that a large brackish water lagoon surrounded by the extensive mangrove vegetation. The special feature of the estuary is that its mouth is opened to sea only during the rainy seasons of the year. The northern section is only inundated during high floods with a maximum water depth of 1. Amphibians and reptiles are very sensitive to the rapid environmental changes in the eco-systems (Pough et al. both lagoons are parts of the Kalametiya sanctuary. marshlands. It has a gently sloping bed. (1953).METETERIALS AND METHODS The data on herpetofaunal species were gathered from 1st October 2002 to 31 March 2003 systematically. Site-specific data gathered during the survey was used to calculate Shannon Index. Table 1. Rekawa. Field sampling was carried out every other week. Belt Transect (100m x 5m transect) was laid in the selected locations in the study sites. Sampling locations were selected in each site considering the accessibility. Rekawa Coastal Sand Dune Coconut Plantation Grassland Home Garden Mangrove Associated Mangrove True Paddy Field Scrubland Lunama. The time taken to study each location was dependant on the size of the area. (1980). (1996) and for reptiles Deraniyagala. Manamendra-Arachchi. for amphibians Dutta. The three study sites. supported 8. noon and late evening. evening and night throughout the study period in order to avoid the time bias for a particular location in the case of transects. each sampling session spanned over six continuous days. One replicate for each transect was done in an analogous habitat (location). The sampling locations were randomly selected and the special habitats were searched from 1900hrs to 2400hrs using a spotlight. Visual Encounter Method was used for herpetofauna in each site in the day and night (Wickramasinghe and Bambaradeniya. Selected different habitat in the three study sites. Lunama-Kalametiya and Walawa. noon. Rekawa. Night Sampling was carried out especially for the survey of nocturnal herpetofauna in the study area. The total number of herpetofaunal individuals recorded at each location throughout the study period was taken into account for calculations. (1921). st Pit fall traps (Sutherland. Wall. representative habitats. 2000). Each transect was searched for a 2m height from the ground level. RESULTS Methods distinct habitats were identified in the study area for the herpetofaunal survey. Visual Observation for amphibians and reptiles. 2000) -5 baskets of 12 liter each were set along a belt transect at 20m x 5m. Each selected site was sampled in the morning. 2001). Lunama-Kalametiya and Walawa were the selected sites in the study area. Direct counts used for amphibians individuals at spawning sites in the study area was often used (Sutherland. special habitats and spatial distribution in the study area through an initial reconnaissance survey. were observed during the sampling period. Traps were only activated for three days per a sampling session and were searched in the early morning. De Silva. Following guides and keys were used for the species identification and nomenclature.Kalametiya Chena Coastal Sand Dune Grassland Home Garden Mangrove Associated Mangrove True Paddy Field Reed Bed Scrubland 179 Walawa Casuarina Coastal Sand Dune Coconut Plantation Grassland Home garden Mangrove Associated Marshland Paddy Field Salt Marsh Scrubland . 9 and 10 different habitats types respectively (Table 1). A rare species of turtle namely Leatherback Turtle (Dermochylus coreaceae) was observed in a sand dune in Godawaya while Scaly-fingered Gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris) was also recorded in Rekawa. The most common amphibian species recorded was Common Paddy field Frog (Limnonectes limnocharis) (242 individuals) while Fan Throat Lizard (Sitana ponticeriana) was the most common reptile (62 individuals) recorded in the study area. * Present .).Absent Family (recorded in Sri Lanka) Reptiles Crocodylidae Dermochelyidae Cheloniidae Bataguridae Testudinidae Trionychidae Agamidae Chamaeleonidae Gekkonidae Lacertidae Scincidae Varanidae Acrochordidae Typhlopidae Uropeltidae Boidae Colubridae Elapidae Hydrophiidae Viperidae Amphibians Ichthyophiidae Bufonidae Microhylidae Ranidae Rekawa Kalametiya-Lunama Walawa * * * * * * * * - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - * * * * * * * * The study area represented 27% (15) amphibian and 25% (43) reptile species of Sri Lanka (Figure 2). one species of amphibians and eight species of reptile are considered as threatened according to the IUCN national red list (IUCN Sri Lanka. Table 2.The twenty six herpetofaunal families recorded in Sri Lanka. There were nine families of reptiles and two families of amphibians recorded in Lunama-Kalametiya. the study area supported nineteen families. which include families of reptile eleven and three families of amphibians (Table 2. In Rekawa eight families of reptiles and three families of amphibians were recorded. The highest richness of herpetofaunal families was recorded from the Walawa site. 180 . 2000). of fifteen amphibians and fourty three reptiles recorded in the study area. Herpetofaunal families recorded from the study sites. of Species The number of amphibians recorded in the Rekawa.233. Lunama-Kalametiya and Walawa were 12.of Species 200 150 103 100 43 15 50 0 Amphibians Reptiles Sri Lanka Study Area Figure 2. According to the Shannon diversity index highest species diversity was recorded in the Walawa and the lowest was in Rekawa. The reptiles recorded in Rekawa. Number of amphibians and reptiles species recorded from the different study sites. Lunama-Kalametiya and Walawa were ten. 3). 181 .181 No.223 and Walawa =0. 21and 29 species respectively (Fig. The Shannon diversity index for Rekawa =0. 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Rekawa KalametiyaLunama Walawa Site Amphibians Reptiles Figure 3. Lunama-Kalametiya =0. No. six and fourteen species respectively (Figure 3).176. Herpetofauna richness in the study area compared to Sri Lankan herpetofauna richness. Kaloula taprobanica. Table 3. Clearance of habitats for various needs including settlements. A remarkable number of road kills occurred during late hours especially in the rainy season. ground surface (eg: star tortoise and cobra). Amphibians are also distributed in every niche except the sea & lagoon (Limnonectes limnocharis being aquatic. Comparative severity of identified threats to herpetofauna in different sites.Out of 38 endemic amphibian species recorded Sri Lankan Wood Frog (Rana gracilis) was the only endemic amphibian found in the study area whereas of 81 endamic reptile species recorded Common Lanka Skink (Lankascincus fallax). Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis and Limnonectes limnocharis were very common in the study area while some were comparatively rare species such as (Uperodon systoma. trees (eg: geckoes and green vine snake and green garden lizard) and soil (eg: Skins). Philautus leucorhinus and Sphaerotheca rolandea. . Varanus bengalensis. Specific threats such as collecting turtle eggs.) Some amphibian species such as Bufo fergusonii. Red Throat Little Skink (Sphenomorphus rufogulus). Lycodon osmanhilli. Polypedates maculatus being arboreal. V. - ++++ - Coral Mining ++++ - - Poorly planned irrigation systems ++ +++ - ++ Discriminate use of agro-chemicals + ++ ++ Feral livestock + +++ + Collection of turtle eggs + ++++ ++++ Intentional Killing + ++ + Fishing activities + +++ ++ Highway accidents + +++ + Spread of alien species + ++++ +++ DISCUSSION The reptile fauna of the area occupies a wide range of ecological niches.Nil + low ++ moderate Threat Rekawa +++ high ++++ very high LunamaKalametiya Walawa Clearance of habitats + +++ Shell mining. such as sea (eg: turtles and sea snakes). freshwater (eg: terrapins and mugger crocodile). Bufo fergusonii being terrestrial and Sphaerotheca rolandea being fossorial. However. intentional killing of snakes and discriminate use of fishing nets contribute for direct loss of herpetofauna. Following table summarizes the threats to herpetofauna in different sites. In all eleven different human impacts have been identified as possible threats to herpetofauna in the study area (Table 3. Mabuya madaraszi and Common Pond Snake (Xenochorophis asperrimus) were the endemic. cultivations and industrial developments has affected the vegetation types of the area resulting in habitat fragmentation. salvator and Calotes 182 . Degree of human interference. Lunama-Kalametiya site has severely affected by human interferences compared to other study sites.) When taking tetrapod reptiles in to the account.). A survey on biodiversity status profile of Bundala national park conducted by Bambaradeniya et al (2002) revealed fifteen amphibians (1 sp. 1998). According to fishermen’s experience.6% was C. Mabuya beddomei. Eretmochelys imbricata and Chelonia mydas) are recorded in Rekawa (De Silva. 1995). Lepidochelys olivacea. Spiralis were common in Walawa. which the present study could not record. Python molurus. H. 5% was D.4% was C. Crocodylus porosus. Discussions with the villagers led to conclude that D. mydas was the only turtle observed. Caretta during a three months period May-July 1994 (Cooray. to have an almost similar herpetofaunal richness. The diverse habitat types (n=10) in the Walawa river might be the possible reason for a higher diversity in the site. Xenochrophis asperrimus and Lycodon osmanhilli were also rare in the area and X.3). Cyrtodactylus sp. M.versicolor were the most common species. gracilis. Hydrophis cynocinctus. Caretta. The lowest herpetofaunal diversity was recorded from Rekawa (Fig. Dermochylus coreaceae. mydas. endemic) of which one amphibian and thirteen species of and reptiles were listed as nationally threatened. was recorded from a home garden and from a casuarina plantation in Walawa. Crocodylus palustris. Coriacea and 1. abundance of these sea snakes can vary with the season. Hemidactylus depressus.. Sitana ponticeriana was only recorded in Walawa study site restricted to a few habitats viz coconut and casuarina plantations and sand dunes. Calodactylodes illingworthorum. A previous study conducted in Lunama and Kalametiya reported thirty eight species of reptiles and there were no information on amphibians. endemic) and forty eight reptiles (6 spp. 183 . Sixteen sea snakes are recorded from the coastal waters around Sri Lanka. Dasia helianus. Another rare observation was made in Godawaya (Walawa) beach. coreaceae prefers sand dunes of Walawa rather than other sites as the area is relatively less affected by human disturbances. bibronii. Lepidodactylus lugubris and Mabuya madaraszi were comparatively rare in the study sites. ten species were endemic while twenty three species were nationally threatened (CEA/Euro consult. Five species of marine turtles (Dermochelys coriacea. H. A new sight record of an endemic amphibian. There are few studies have been conducted for sea turtles in the area. It is interesting to note that Bundala being the closest national park and the wetland to the study area. These include fifteen serpentoids and twenty three tetrapod. It is also worth to note that all the individuals found in the study were by catches from fishing nets. 93. Sri Lanka Wood Frog (Rana gracilis). The same has recorded Bungarus ceylonicus. 1997) but during the study period C. Calotes. a female leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coreaceae) in December 2002. Out of the total individuals of turtles nest in Rekawa beach. Piscator was the most abundant snake in the study sites. As a result of shell mining. (pers. food and beverages. Vast areas of undisturbed natural scrublands have been cleared for the establishment of an industrial zone in the Bata-Atha area. Establishment of poorly planned irrigation systems in Lunama-Kalametiya area brings silt.1984) has showed that the sea turtles in the whole stretch of shore from Ambalangoda to Kalpitiya are caught unintentionally about 4-5 individuals per week during the heavy fishing seasons (non monsoon) and about 1 individual during the poor fishing season (monsoon). coral reefs. Geochelone elegans etc.obs).In Sri Lanka. Besides the direct habitat loss. Fragmentation of habitats results in edges (Hunter. mangroves are found scattered mainly along the north-western. Illegal coral mining in the Rekawa coast line results in lost of feeding. cause direct injuries to the turtles and sea snakes following being trapped. chena cultivations and shell mining. Due to human activities on these habitats the quality of composition and structure of the vegetation is lost and it has a direct impact on the abundance of herpetofauna. specially netting. coastal sand dunes and scrublands have been cleared for a coconut plantation and this can adversely affect the marine turtles which arrive at the beach in search for nesting habitats. According to Hunter. A study on the effect of fishing on turtle populations (Jinadasa. He further concludes the number caught for the entire country could be about 12 to 15 individuals per week during heavy fishing season and 3 individuals per week during poor fishing 184 . From a research on the effect of forest structure on amphibian abundance and diversity in the Chicago region. 1994). 1990) and this could be a major problem for the survival of herpetofauna species in the area. lagoons etc along the coastal waters around the island provide ample feeding localities for turtles (De Silva. In Walawa. medicine. Walawa. north-eastern and eastern coasts bordering lagoons and river estuaries (De Silva and De Silva. 1997) and sea snakes (Allen and Steen. 1998). large pits are created in the habitat and this has become a major problem for certain ground dwelling herpetofaunal species especially for terrapins and tortoises. scientists have concluded that a high quality forest supports higher species richness and diversity than a low quality forest (Nuzzo and Mierzwa. As a result of human interference. firewood and timber and brush pile for lagoon fishery industry (Pinto. The mangrove habitats support to accommodate vast number of fauna and flora and it gives many valuable products and uses such as tannin. lime. agro-chemicals and garbage in to the lagoons and ultimately the drainage is directed to the sea and as a result coral habitats are polluted.(1990) certain species need large tracts of interior forests to outlive and edges might be detrimental for them in which competition. species get trapped in these pits and eventually die. A mangrove patch in Lunama area has been cleared for illegal shell mining. 1986). parasitism and predation could be higher and thus problematic. animal feed. breeding and nesting habitats for many sea snakes and marine turtles. 2000). which is an important habitat for many rare herpetofaunal species such as Calliophis melanurus. Most of mangrove forest areas have been subjected to human interference for a long time. Fishing activities. Lunama-Kalametiya sanctuary and Rekawa have been profoundly affected by the clearance of these mangrove habitats and associated vegetations for human settlements. Presence of appreciable sea grass beds. Soil erosion and disturbance to the vegetation are the direct results of unlimited grazing and physical damage caused by the hooves. al. Not only such fishing activities. Acknowledgments Dr.season. Mr. Development schemes proposed in the area should be preplanned in order to minimize habitat destruction and to maintain habitats in a sustainable manner. Sign boards regarding animal crossing areas and underground tunnels connecting habitats on either side of the roads should be set to minimize the road kills. Mendis Wickramasinghe helped me in numerous ways during the research period thus. 2000. 2003. but also collecting eggs and slaughtering for human consumption are the other threats pertaining to marine turtle populations (Santhiapillai. 1981). bengalensis and L. funded by the Global Environment Facility program of the UNDP. al. 2001b). Nayana Kariyawasam. Mr. 3. Major and minor roads running through wetlands cause numerous road kills of diverse herpetofauna species.J. Some of the recommendations made for conservation of the herpetofauna in the area was. Rohan Wasantha. 2. This study was carried out as a part of a systematic biodiversity assessment project conducted in Rekawa/Ussangoda/Kalametiya coastal ecosystems by the IUCN Sri Lanka. fisherman and school children of the respective areas. Spread of alien invasive species is among the various threats to the biodiversity of Sri Lanka (Bambaradeniya. Bambaradeniya et. Such incidents were recorded more during the rainy season and often wetlands and paddy fields were the associate habitats found besides the roads (Rodrigo et. the coordinator research project. Mr. Wickremasinghe. 1. Chamil Perera. V. Hasantha Sanjeewa are gratefully acknowledged for their generous support given during fieldwork. Mangrove reforestation can be implemented in the lagoons and estuaries of the area. X.. Miss Rumesha Perera and Mr. Dayantha Withanage. Awareness programs should be conducted for villagers and school children regarding every aspect of conservation (including herpetofauna and pertaining legislations). a special gratitude goes to him. limnocharis were the most common species subjected to road kills. the open university of Sri Lanka is acknowledged for support and encouragement. piscator.The siltation decreases lagoon capacity and finally silted area is invaded by these monocultures. 185 . Lunama-Kalametiya and Rekawa lagoons have been threatened by the distribution of Prosopis juliflora primarily and also by Opuntia dillenii and Eichhornia crassipes. 2001). L. 4. This problem can be minimized by educating the villagers. Our colleagues. habitat destruction is maximal. Mr. Due to large herds of cattle and feral buffalo in Ussangoda grassland and scrublands in Ussangoda and Kalametiya.. The status and implications of alien invasive species in Sri Lanka.C.. Contributions to biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka. S. pp 28-29. R. Ng. D. In: Yeo.. Bambaradeniya. Bambaradeniya. (1997). R (editors). CEA/EUROCONSULT. IUCN Sri Lanka.B. pp.M. 02(1. & Steen. B.K. and Bahir. Bambaradeniya. Young Zoologists’ Association of Sri Lanka. CEA/EUROCONSULT. a survey on nesting activity and exploitation.J. V. 10-11. R. 2): 1-8. Description of five new species of Cyrtodactylus (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) from Sri Lanka.a Ramsar wetland in Sri Lanka. 12: 393-406. B. N. Zoos’ Print. C.. 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The effect of forest structure on amphibian abundance and diversity in the Chicago region. and mierzwa.1.. A.. N. Natural Resource. K. Prentice Hall. J (2000). Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka. L. Turtles and their conservation. Pemadasa. A. Navrang Book Sellers and Publishers. 188 .. South Asian Nat. Snakes of Ceylon. N. India. Pethiyagoda. K. Colombo 07. Co & Pa Co Ho & Co Co. Ma= Marshland. R=Rare. Sc. Relative Abundance: VC=Very Common. K & R W W. LK & R W. UC=Uncommon. LK & R K W Relative Abundance VC C UC C UC UC C UC VC C VR VC C C VR Status in National Red List TR - . Sc. Cs= Coastal Sand Dune. Habitat: Ca= Casuarina Plantation. Status in National Red List 1999: TR=Threatened * Endemic species Family Bufonidae Microhylidae Ranidae Scientific Name Bufo fergusonii Bufo melanostictus Uperodon systoma Microhyla ornata Microhyla rubra Kaloula taprobanica Sphaerotheca breviceps Sphaerotheca rolandae Limnonectes limnocharis Hoplobatrachus crassus Rana gracilis* Euphlyctis cyanophlyctic Euphlyctis hexadactylus Polypedates maculatus Philautus leucorhinus Commom Name Ferguson's Dwarf Toad Common Toad Baloon Frog Ornate Narrow. Ch & Mn Ca & Ho Sm Ma. Co. site. Gs & Pa Ho & Ca Ho. Habitat. Gs & Ch P. Mn= Mangrove. Mn. Sc & Ho Gs Sm 189 Area W. LK=Lunama-Kalametiya. Ma. Ho. Sm= Salt Marsh. Ho & Sc Gs Ma. Co= Coconut Plantation. R & K W & Ka W&R W. Area: R=Rekawa. Ho. VR=Very Rare. Sc= Scrubland. Pa.mouthed Frog Red Narrow-mouthed Frog Common Bull Frog Banded Sand Frog Marbled Sand Frog Common Paddy Field Frog Indian Bull Frog Sri Lankan Wood Frog Skipper Frog Six-toed Green Frog Chunam Tree-Frog - Habitat Sm. Ma. Ch= Chena. relative abundance and status of amphibians in the study are. LK & R W. C=Common. Pa & Mn Sc. W=Walawa Estuary. Pa= Paddy Field. LK & R W W&R W&R R W. Ho. Ho= Home Garden.APPENDIX 1. LK & R LK W R W W Relative Abundance R C UC R C C VR Status in TR TR TR TR - W. Ch= Chena. VR=Very Rare. Sc & Ch Co. W=Walawa Estuary.& R VC VC - W. Mn. C=Common. Cs.& R W LK & R LK & R K R W. R=Rare. Pa= Paddy Field. Gs. Mn= Mangrove. LK. Co & Ho Sc Ho Ho Ch Ho Ho & Sc Ho Pa & Ho Pa Ho Mn Mn & Sc Sc Gs Ho & Sc Sc Pa & Sc Mn & Ma Pa & Ma Pa S S S Ho & Pa Pa & Ho Area W W. Sc & Ch Ho Gs & Sc Mn Ho Ho Ca. Mn. S=Sea. Habitat: Ca=Casuarina Plantation. Gs & Pa Pa & Mn Sc & Ma Cs S Cs Ca. Ho & Ch Ho. Co= Coconut Plantation. Ri= Riverine Vegetation. LK & R W LK W W LK LK W W & LK W & LK W & LK W.& R W W. relative abundance and status of reptiles in the study are. Ca. P & Pa Sc. Mn. Relative Abundance: VC=Very Common. LK. Co. Ho= Home Garden. Cs. Cs= Coastal Sand Dune. UC=Uncommon. Sc. LK. LK & R W & LK LK W W W W & LK LK VC C VC VC C UC UC VR C UC VR UC UC VR VR UC UC R C UC UC R VR R UC UC VR C UC C VR C UC UC TR TR TR TR - . Ma. Ho. Co. Sm= Salt Marsh Area: R=Rekawa.APPENDIX 2. Ma= Marshland.& R W. Sc= Scrubland. LK=Lunama-Kalametiya. Habitat. Status in National Red List 1999: TR=Threatened * Endemic species Family Crocodylidae Trionychidae Bataguridae Testudinidae Cheloniidae Scientific Name Crocodylus palustris Lissemys punctata Melanochelys trijuga Geochelone elegans Chelonia mydas Lepidochelys olivacea Dermochelys coriacea Commom Name Mugger Flap Shell Turtle Parker's Black Turtle Star Tortoise Green Turtle Olive Ridley Sea Turtle Leatherback Turtle Varanidae Varanus salvator Varanus bengalensis Water Monitor Land Monitor Agamidae Calotes versicolor Sitana ponticeriana Heidactylus frenatus Hemidactylus brookii Hemidactylus triedrus Hemidactylus leshenaulti Gehyra mutilata Lepidodactylus lugubris Mabuya carinata Mabuya macularia Mabuya madaraszi* Lankascincus fallax* Riopa punctata Sphenomorphus rufogulus* Python molurus Ahaetulla nasutus Amphiasma stolata Atretium schistosum Boiga trigonata Cerberus rhynchops Dendrelaphis tristis Lycodan aulicus Lycodon osmanhilli* Lycodon striata Oligodon arnensis Ptyas mucosa Xenochorophis asperrimus* Xenochorophis piscator Bungarus caeruleus Hydrophis cynocinctus Hydrophis gracilis Hydrophis spiralis Naja Naja Daboia russelii Common Garden Lizard Fan Throated Lizard Common House Gecko Spotted House Gecko Termite Hill Gecko Bark Gecko Four Claw Gecko Scaly Finger Gecko Common Skink Bronze Green Little Skink Spotted Skink Common Lanka Skink Dotted Garden Skink Red Throat Little Skink Indian Python Green Vine Snake Buff-Striped Keelback The Olive Keelback Gamma Cat Snake Dog faced Water Snake Common Bronzeback The Common Wolf Snake Osmanhill’s Wolf Snake Shaw's Wolf Snake Kukri Snake The Common Rat Snake Commom Pond Snake Checkered Keelback The Common Indian Krait The Chittul John's Sea Snake The Narrow Banded Sea Snake Cobra Russell's Viper Dermochelyidae Gekkonidae Scincidae Boidae Colubridae Elapidae Viperidae 190 Habitat Ri Mn. Ma. LK. Ca & Cs Ho. LK & R W LK W LK W R W. site. The long-term effects of climate change were reflected by forest die-back. and clouds. Climate generally defined as the pattern or cycle of weather conditions such as wind. 2001. SAMARAKOON* Department of Botany. Generally. and 27. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (United Nations.1 mm and the driest months were February. averaged over many years. University of Ruhuna. anthropogenic or otherwise. 1992. The actual rainfall and the mean temperature showed patterns of climatic cycles of 16years and 6-years respectively. The mean annual rainfall and temperature at Hambantota were 1022. but the effects of such changes affect on other environmental components including both biotic and a-biotic parts.P. the CTD showed that the mean annual temperature has been increasing and the rainfall decreasing. Sri Lanka ABSTRACT An attempt was made in 2003 to identify the climate variability and its effects on flora and fauna in Hambantota. Usually these changes occur in the atmosphere. 1999) defines climate change as "a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods”. Matara. November showed the highest rainfall of 183. INTRODUCTION According to the information available throughout the history it is apparent that the climate of different parts of the earth has been changing and such changes are generally referred to as natural climate changes or more precisely climate variability (IPCC. and spread of woody weeds in Bundala and Yala National Parks. the rainfall was declining and temperature was increasing since 1970s.4 mm. to the physical and chemical properties of the atmosphere have the potential of affecting directly the quality of life and even the very existence of life. and field visits. rain. Presumably. humidity.2002) were collected from Colombo Meteorological Department and analyzed using Statistical Packages to find the cycles of relatively similar patterns and trend lines for each cycle. the prolonged drought has decreased ground water and increased scrub species. including extreme or occasional ones. over a large area.10C respectively. and Smeardon. July. and August. its vulnerability to the effect of global climatic changes 191 . 2004). Sri Lanka as an island country in the tropics. (2) to construct a “Climate Trend Diagram (CTD)” and (3) to study the effect of climate change on flora and fauna. Changes. which have relatively higher demand for water. Atmosphere is an essential part of the physical and chemical environment for life. Since 1970s. Orlando.EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FLORA AND FAUNA OF YALA AND BUNDALA NATIONAL PARKS IN SOUTHERN SRI LANKA S. During the past century or so with the increased use of mineral oils and emission of green house gases and the destruction of natural environment the man has been identified as the major factor behind the change in natural climatic changes. The objectives of the study were (1) to extract the patterns of climate variability. Rainfall and temperature data (1869 . IPCC. Information on flora and fauna were collected from desk-top studies. were the most threatened species. Plants and animals. snowfall. Hambantota has weather recordings of rainfall and temperature since the year 1869.such as increased atmospheric temperature becomes serious. high temperature and low rainfall situation despite its ancient historical settlements (Perera. The present study is aimed to identify the climate variability patterns and the advent of the serious anthropogenic modern climate change and the vulnerability of flora. and fauna of Yala and Bundala National Parks in Hambantota District to the drastic effects of climate changes. Although daily maximum and minimum temperatures appear more serious effects on the vegetation and fauna for most of the period only mean temperature values are available. (2) To identify and extract rainfall and temperature cycles for Hambantota District. (6) To study the effect of climate change on flora and fauna of National Parks of Hambantota Area. This is especially true for Hambantota area (South Eastern corner of the island) compared to other areas of the country because of its inherent dry. OBJECTIVES (1) To study the patterns of climate variability since 1869-2002 in Hambantota Area. mean monthly temperature gives only marginal understanding of the effects while annual mean gives still less representation of the real temperature variation. (4) To construct a pictorial representation of both monthly rainfall and temperature continuous variability for 134 years from January 1869 to December 2002. 192 . (3) To study the variation of rainfall and temperature trend lines for each of the climate cycle. 1965). (5) To identify the advent of major climate change in Hambantota. forest dieback (Manilkara hexandra.MATERIALS AND METHODS Extraction of climate cycles using mean monthly rainfall and temperature (continuous) in Hambantota Monthly rainfall and temperature data of Hambantota were collected from Colombo Meteorological Department for the period from 1869 to 2002. changes in the botanical composition. These data were analyzed using SPSS Statistical Package and Microsoft Excel to find the patterns of monthly changes.2002) were noted. mean individual monthly changes. Desk-top studies of the previous work: For the desk-top study information were collected from (a) the Department of Wildlife. The effect of climate change on flora and fauna of the national parks Information on flora and fauna of the Yala and Bundala National Parks was collected as follows: i. and (b) my previous studies of the area and (c) Interviewing the relevant personnel of the park. The points of deviation from the normal patterns of variation in the rainfall and temperature cycles were considered as the points of the commencement of severe human influence on the climate variability. The Climate Trend Diagram was used to identify the human influenced climate change in Hambantota. Climate cycle trend lines For each climate cycle the trend lines were drawn using the Excel Programme to show the climate trends. continuous monthly changes and patterns of annual changes. Information regarding the vulnerability of flora and fauna to changing climate and potential climate related problems were collected through the historical and field studies of the occurrence of wild fire. Construction of climate trend diagram Using the extracted rainfall and temperature trend lines a “Climate Trend Diagram” was constructed for Hambantota. Prosopis juliflora). Drypetes sepiaria. spread of woody weeds (Lantana camara. and encroachment of the parks by the feral cattle and buffaloes. forest die-back and the presence of large herds of domesticated and feral cattle in the park area. possibility of the spread of giant panic grass (Panicum maximum). Periods (cycles) of relatively similar variability patterns for rainfall and temperature were extracted. Field studies of the different areas of the national Parks The changes in the botanical and faunal composition during the recent past (! 990 . Salvadora persica. 193 . and availability of water. Special attention was paid to study the spread of woody weeds. ii. 7 34.1 33.2 25. With a mean of 183 mm the month of November showed the highest rainfall at Hambantota.1 34.7 27. maximum and mean values of monthly rainfall at Hambantota in October.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Analysis of climate data Descriptive statistics The central tendencies in terms of the mean and the dispersion in terms of range.2 28.4 33.6 25.1 27.8 1.0 25. 564. 183.0 27. 2 (mm).3 28. followed by December (128 mm) and October (127 mm).5 28.2 33.9 26.0 1.2 26.4 34.8 25.8 1.2002) Hambantota Month JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER Minimum (0C) 24.6 Classification of months and years based on rainfall data 194 Standard Deviation 1.4 28. Descriptive Statistics for rainfall (mm) data (1869 .4 24.5 34.8 2.1 32. and 128 (mm) respectively (Table 1).7 .6 Maximum (0C) 32.7 1.8 1.7 1.9 27. Table 1.7 24.8 1.8 33. 486.2 33.7 25. 10.7 1. Since 1869 the minimum. 472.8 25. Descriptive Statistics for temperature (0C) data (1869 .6 27.6 1.6 25.8 28. In all the other months the mean rainfall were less than 100 mm and the lowest rainfall were experienced in the months of February.2002) Hambantota Month JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER TOTAL Minimum mm 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 10 2 489 Maximum mm 376 273 258 333 512 235 224 214 452 564 472 486 2063 Mean mm 83 44 63 92 93 59 44 46 64 127 183 128 1013 Standard Error 6 4 5 5 7 4 4 4 6 8 8 7 21 Standard Deviation 74 50 55 62 85 49 44 42 65 92 95 85 247 Table 2. minimum and maximum values.5 31.7 1.9 Mean (0C) 26. and 127. standard deviation and variance are shown in the Table 1.2 25. July and August with less thank 50 mm. November and December were 1. August. and September (44-64 mm of rainfall): Two cycles (spells) of drought. and September Group 2: January. July. and (b) April and May 195 . April. Classification of months based on the rainfall data Based on mean monthly rainfall the variables (months) can be classified into 4 groups and 7 cycles (spells) as follows: Group 1: February. June. (a) February and March. July. Figure 1. and May (83-93 mm of rainfall): Two cycles (spells) with Moderate rainfall (a) January. March. and (b) June. August.(a) Classification of cases (years) The Dendrogram produced by the hierarchical analysis of the mean annual rainfall and temperature data of Hambantota (1869-1980) did not show meaningful cluster separation. (b) Classification of variables (months) The Dendrogram produced by the hierarchical cluster analysis to classify the variables (months) using the mean monthly rainfall data of Hambantota (1869-1980) is shown in the Figure 1. and October Group 3: April May. August.2 0C): One cycle (spell) of mild temperature Group 2: March.1 0C): Two cycles (spells) with Moderately high temperature (a) March.7 – 28. Classification of months based on the mean monthly temperature data Based on mean monthly temperature the variables (months) can be classified into 3 groups and 7 cycles (spells) as follows: Group 1: November. and (b) August. December and January and maximum means for May. July. April. June and 196 . September. February (26. October (27. December. and (b) December Group 4: November (183 mm of rainfall): One cycle with very high rainfall Classification of months and years based on temperature data The Dendrogram produced by the hierarchical cluster analysis to classify the variables (months) using the mean monthly temperature data of Hambantota (1869-1980) is shown in the Figure 2.5 0C): One cycle (spell) of high Temperature On the other hand the minimum mean temperatures were recorded for the months of November. June.1– 28.6-27. ******HIERARCHICALCLUSTER ANALYSIS****** Dendrogram using Average Linkage (Between Groups) Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine Figure 2. and July (28. September. January.Group 3: October and December (127-128 mm of rainfall): Two cycles (spells) with High rainfall (a) October. Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1869-2002) plotted against number of the month When monthly rainfall was plotted against the number of the month starting from January 1869 and ending at December 2002 some interesting patterns were resulted (Figure 4-11). A long band of rainfall spectrum was used to extract rainfall cycles ( ) which are shown in the concise diagram. generally the graph of mean annual rainfall looked somewhat arc-like (Figure 3). The overall trend line of rainfall during the period (monthly values from the year 1869 to 2002) was neither positive nor negative (Figure 4). The month number 69 (1874 November) showed a high peak of more than 300 mm of rainfall. the shape of the curve showed that the rainfall had been declining during the last 30 years (from about the year number 100) or so indicating a severe long drought in Hambantota. (b) Mean Continuous Monthly Rainfall (January 1869 to December 2002) Figure 4. which had a cycle of approximately 25months. Rainfall patterns (a) Mean Annual Rainfall Except around the 9th Year (1877). An interesting observation of Figures 4-11 is that the overall monthly variation of rainfall has distinct units of periods with consistent duration of 192 months (16 years approximately). Mean annual rainfall of Hambantota plotted against year. About 85% of the peaks appeared above the 1000 mm rainfall line and one peak has risen above the 2000 mm level.August (Table 2). About 5 years (approximately 11% of the years) the rainfall had been very low (the inverted peaks). As such under the influence of low rainfall and the high temperatures the driest months in Hambantota are June and July followed by August and September. The frequency of the rainfalls over 300 mm is approximately 30 years. Similarly. the graph showed a general pattern of recurrence of high rainfall over 200 mm. Generally. 197 . Figure 3. Figure 5. Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1920-1944) plotted against number of the month 198 . Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1894-1919) plotted against number of the month Figure 7. Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1869-1893) plotted against number of the month Figure 6. Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1945-1969) plotted against number of the month Figure 9. Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1995-2002) 199 . Monthly rainfall of Hambantota (1970-1994) Figure 10.Figure 8. 8.9).9 .3. Monthly temperature of Hambantota (1869-1894) 200 . As for rainfall data a long band of temperature spectrum was used to extract temperature cycles (Figure 3.14 sequentially. Temperature variation patterns for 25 year periods are shown in figures from 3. Figure 11.Temperature patterns Monthly temperature values were plotted against the number of the month starting from January 1869 and ending at December 2002 and the results are presented in the Figure 3. An interesting observation of it is that the overall monthly variation of temperature has distinct units of periods with consistent duration of 75 months (6 years approximately). Continuous monthly mean temperature of Hambantota (1969-2002) Figure 12. The overall temperature trend line during the period (monthly values from the year 1869 to 2002) was positive. Each temperature cycle has its own inherent features however apparently the duration is the same (6-years). Figure 13. Monthly temperature of Hambantota (1895-1919) Figure 14. Monthly temperature of Hambantota (1921-1944) 201 . after careful observations of the rainfall and temperature graphs it was possible to extract patterns of climatic cycles. Monthly temperature of Hambantota (1995-2002) Construction of climate trend diagram (Figure 4) As noted in the previous sections. Within a cycle. For each cycle a graph (rainfall in mm verses month. there was more or less a similar pattern of fluctuations. 1968). and temperature 0C verses month) was plotted and the trend of each graph (positive. Monthly temperature of Hambantota (1970-1994) Figure 17. or neutral) was extracted and such trend lines were used to construct the Climate Trend Diagram (CTD). Monthly temperature of Hambantota (1945-1969) Figure 16. 202 . the use of climate trend lines in the present study appears to be a new approach to obtain more information using monthly data of 133 years. However. Similarly. the continuous monthly temperature curve suggests temperature cycles of approximately 6-year (75 months) duration.Figure 15. Climate data of all main climate stations were analyzed and a climate diagram for each was constructed in the previous studies of the variability of climate of Sri Lanka (Mueller-Dombois. It was found that there was a conspicuous rainfall cycle which occurred in 16-year (192 months) periods. either rainfall or temperature. negative. Figure 18. (2) Right vertical line (Y axis) represents mean monthly temperature (1 cm = 1 0C). Such a situation may be directly attributable to humanly influenced climate change during that period.The main features of the CTD (Figure 4) were as follows: (1) Left vertical line (Y axis) represents monthly rainfall (2 cm = 100 mm). rather than natural climatic variations. The diagram clearly shows that during the last 30 years the rainfall has been decreasing (the thick trend lines) and the temperature increasing (the thin trend lines) in Hambantota. It is graduated in rainfall cycles of approximately 16 years (192 months). an indication of severe drought in the area. and (4) Upper horizontal line (X-axis) represents time in months since the year 1869. further the temperature trend line has surpassed the rainfall trend line during the last 10 years. Figure 4 Climate (rainfall and temperature) Trend Diagram (CTD) for Hambantota showing the variation of climate through the last 133 years from 1869 to 2002. It is graduated in temperature cycles of approximately 6 years (75 months). (3) Lower horizontal line (X-axis) represents time in months since the year 1869. Although rainfall trend line was horizontal during the last cycle the good news is that the raw data suggests a slightly positive trend since 1997 up to the present days (not shown in the diagrams). Climate (rainfall and temperature) Trend Diagram (CTD) for Hambantota 203 . and herbs. A list of common trees and shrubs found in the Yala and Bundala National Parks is shown in the Table 3.. In Bundala closed canopy dense forests are not found and its forests are either the open canopy type or the scrub type. Mesquite has already conquered many low-lying areas replacing the fringe mangroves in lagoons and the natural vegetation in the grassland park country around the lagoons. It has. Grasslands in the area are of two types. It was found that certain forests and grasslands habitats in Bundala National Park are changing at a faster rate due to introduction of serious alian weedy species (Mesquite and Lantana) coupled with sea level rise as a result of global climate change. and (7) sand dunes (Survey Department. on the other hand the changed habitat does not produce sufficient feed material for the domesticated buffaloes and neat cattle. (2) open forests. changed the botanical composition of the flora and the habitats of the park country. which is usually devoid of a grass cover on the ground. As a result a large number of previously grassland type and deciduous type scrub forest habitats with a grassland component (Pelessa) have been changed into a more or less closed canopy single species thorny forest. 1988). almost every part of Yala and Bundala. It was noted that Lantana camara has penetrated into the deep forests. (4) grasslands. (5) fresh water tanks. 1998). Flora of Yala and Bundala National Parks Within the park a total of about 280 species of flowering plants have been recorded representing large trees. (6) lagoons. and has become the dominant thorny shrub particularly in the scrub forest habitats. viz. which occur usually around the Wewa (artificial tanks) and Pelessas associated with open forests and mainly located towards the coastal belt in areas such as the Block I and Yala east (Samarakoon. (3) scrub forests.Effect of climate change on flora and fauna of Yala and Bundala National Parks Principal habitats and vegetation in Yala and Bundala of and Hambantota In Yala and Bundala National Parks the principal habitat types present are (1) dense forests. It appears the end results are: 1) migration of the domesticated grazing animals into the grasslands in the Yala National Park causing severe problems to wild animals. and 2) human elephant conflict. and Kumbukkan Oya (Riverine forests) (Samarakoon. In the present study a total of 9 tree species and 8 shrubs species were noted as commonly found in the two parks. Pitiyas. 1997. 204 . Closed canopy dense forests in Yala National Park are generally located in the northern areas (Block IV and V) and along the banks of River Menik. Its presence and dominance especially in the open forest areas has displaced the natural shrub species which are a major component of the herbage eaten by the large mammals including the elephant. during the last century. Despite the fact that mesquite is a palatable species browsed by the elephants and deer the presence of large thorns gives it a negative value. shrubs. 1998). Large mammals and their numbers in Yala Protected Area Complex Source: Department of Wildlife Conservation Scientific name Vernacular Name Elephas maximus Bubalus bubalis Cervus unicolor Axis axis Sus scropfa Panthera pardus kotiya Melurus ursinus Elephant Buffalo Sambur Spotted deer Pig Leopard Sloth Bear 205 Estimated number in the YPC 319 1. Of the large mammals highest number estimated is for the spotted deer (5.749 898 5. are grazing within the YPC. List of common trees and shrubs in Yala and Bundala National Parks * Not in Bundala and coastal areas of Yala Species Vernacular name Trees Chloroxylon swietenia* Vitex pinnata Manilkara hexandra Drypetes sepiaria Feronia limoponica Azardracta indica Tamarindus indica Berrya cordifolia* Terminalia arjuna Burutha Milla Palu Weera Divul Kohomba Siyambala Halmilla Kumbuk Species Vernacular name Shrubs Cassia auriculata Salvadora persica Carissa spinarum Randia dumetorum Gymnema sylvestre Securiniga leucopyrus Lantana camara Prosopis juliflora Ranawara Maliththan Karamba Kukuruman Mas-bedda Katupila Gandapana (Weed) Mesquite (Weed) Fauna of Yala and Bundala National Parks Animal numbers were obtained from the Yala and Bundala National Parks and the department of Wildlife Conservation in Colombo. birds and other animals are given in the Table 5. In the whole of Yala Protected Areas Complex (YPC) the estimated number of elephants is a meager 319.205 637 124 125 . Lists of other mammals. Table 4. In addition to the large animals the author has observed many cattle (neat type).205) and the lowest for leopard and sloth bear (Table 4).Table 3. mostly domesticated. and other animals commonly found in Yala and Bundala National Parks.Table 5. Scientific name Mammals: Loris tardigradus Canis aurius Tragulis meminna Vivericula indica Canis aurius Prebites entellus Paradoxurus zeylonensis Manis crassicaudata Histrix indica Lepus negricollis singhala Other Animals: Testudo elegance Calotes versicolor Calotes calotes Calotes ceylonensis Varanus bengalensis Varanus salvator Lankascinus fallax Python molurus Crocodilus palustris Crocodilus porosus Bufo athukoralei Limnonectes greenii Vernacular Name Una-hapuluwa Nariya Miminna Urulawa Hiwala Wandura Kalawedda Kaballawa Ittawa Hawa Taraka-ibba Gara-katussa Pala-katussa Thola-visithurukatussa Thala-goya Kabara-goya Dumburu-hiraluwa Pimbura Kimbula Geta-kimbula Athukoralagekurugemba Lanka-welmediya Scientific name Birds: Gallus lafayetti Galloperdix bicalcarata Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus Letoptilosjavanicus Pelecanus phillipensis Phalacrocorax niger Mycteria leucocephala Bubulcus ibis Egretta garzetta Mesophoyx intermedia Casmerodius albus Ardeola grayii Migratory Birds: Tringa hypoleucos Dendronanthus indicus Limosa limosa Pitta brachyura Pluvialis fulva Phoenicopterus ruber 206 Vernacular Name Wali-kukula Haban-kukula Ali-manawa Bahurumanawa Alu-pastuduwa Diya-kawa Latu-wekiya Gawa-koka Kuda-ali-koka Sudu-medikoka Maha-sudukoka Kana-koka Silibilla Helapenda Penda-kalugohonduwithth a Awichchiya Ranmahaolevia Siyakkaraya . List of the other mammals. birds (including the migratory ones). However. in some Blocks of Yala and almost all the areas of Bundala the vegetation is a mosaic of forested (or scrub forest) hills and valleys of grassland with scattered thorny trees. appear more threatened by the effect of climate change. and Drypetes sepiaria) which cannot survive during the severe droughts due to lack of sufficient water.. usually grows on the riverbanks and benefited by the availability of soil water even during the long droughts. with the onset of serious climate change in 70s annual drought became more and more severe and the new climate affected the natural vegetation by way of replacing some tree species (e. where only grass and strongly zerophytic plants (e.Vulnerability of flora and fauna Demand for water A list of major plant and animal species found in the area which demand relatively more water for their sustenance is shown in the Table 6. 207 . Similarly. which have higher demand for water. Further such animals prefer to stay in water and muddy habitats at least few hours a day to avoid high temperatures during the day time.g. Table 6. the animal species listed in the table are large and need more water for the maintenance of transpiration and normal bodily needs. Generally. the other species of trees are adapted to grow mainly on hilly mounds where there is more silt in with higher water holding capacity compared to sandy soils in the valleys amongst the hills.g. Such a system had been surviving in the area for hundreds of years in equilibrium with the climate. Scientific name Plants: Vitex pinnata Manilkara hexandra Drypetes sepiaria Azardracta indica Tamarindus indica Terminalia arjuna Vernacular name Milla Palu Scientific name Animals: Elephas maximus Bubalus bubalis Cervus unicolor Vernacular name Elephant Buffalo Sambhur Weera Kohomba Siyambala Kumbuk The trees listed are evergreen and relatively use more water for transpiration. Plant and animal species. Terminalia arjuna. List of major plant and animal species considered having high demand for water. Acacia eburnean) survive.. Manilkara hexandra. Woody weeds Another consequence of habitat destruction (death of tree species) is the introduction of woody weeds such as Lantana camara. reported since 1960s. Since 1996 the death of Palu trees (Manilkara hexandra) was observed in that area and the death of the mangrove species Kirala (Sonneratia casiolaris) was observed in the Menik Ganga estuary at Yala (Figure 6). The effect of habitat change due to climate on the large animals is immediately visible in many areas of both parks. however. I have observed the same phenomenon occurring in Hambantota and its surroundings since early 1990s. With the destruction of their habitats (depletion of water in the streams and ponds for example) such animals become extinct in the area or become imprisoned. Further. Some species require moist and watery places for the completion of their life cycles. mesquit and other thorny shrubs. As at present the Weera trees are very rare in the affected areas and a large number of Palu trees are dead and similar numbers are dying. The apparent reasons behind the death of these species are the increase in the mean sea level with the increase in earth atmospheric temperature and unavailability of sufficient fresh water during the long severe droughts. for example the Horton Plains Montane Forest) of the country. The dead or dying patches were noted closer to the water front of the lagoon area. Forest dieback Forest dieback is a phenomenon occur in certain areas. I have observed that both species provide food for birds. the effect of climate change on smaller mammals and other vertebrates for example the amphibians and the like is more drastic. isolated and restricted to places where the environmental condition is still remain suitable. which demand less water and spread very fast. 208 . 70s. However. although not easily observable. 80s and 90s (Samarakoon. 1994). The death of patches of Maliththan (Salvadora persica) and Weera Trees (Drypetes sepiaria) was seen in Bundala National Park (Figure 5). generally they are not good feed material for the animals such as the elephants. Figure 5. Map showing the die-back areas of Kirala (Sonneratia caseolaris) trees in Menik River estuary at Yala 209 . Map showing the die-back areas of Palu (Manilkara hexandra) trees in Bundala National Park Figure 6. (6) In general the average temperature trend during the last 20 years or so had been on the increase. (4) Since around 1970 the mean rainfall declined and the rainfall trends of the cycles were negative or more or less neutral. Most of these practices created social problems. dry fish) 210 . Thousands of crop fields were devastated. decrease in water availability for plants and animals.Crop failure In parallel with the death of forest population water availability for paddy and other cultivations in Hambantota became very low especially during the last 20 years or so. (9) As mitigate actions measures such as the following are suggested: (i) Rehabilitation of the ancient tanks in the area (ii) Instead of cultivating high water demanding crops to cultivate less water demanding crops (iii) Instead of practicing animal husbandry using high water demanding animals use less water demanding crops (iv) Try to make use of the dry situation as a resource of high value (E. Keep in mind that a sufficient water supply could be provided for the crops government constructed vast irrigation schemes such as the Lunugamvehera and other reservoirs in late 1980s early 1990s. The farmers became poorer and poorer. With the declining rainfall and increasing temperatures such reservoirs were never filled even during the rainy season. The temperature effected drought prevailed for a brief period of about one year. (8) Increased temperature and relatively low rainfall for a long period of about 20 years or so in Hambantota means decrease in ground water levels. some changed their way of earnings. to earn their living some secretly cultivate Cannabis sativa in the jungles. (3) Since 1869 to about the year 1965 the rainfall in Hambantota had been increasing and showed marked positive trends in consecutive cycles. some others encroached into the national parks and hunted animals and yet others involve in some other practices. (5) The mean monthly temperatures around the year 1900 were very high and above the level of 28 0C. CONCLUSIONS (1) Climate change associated with global temperature increase and rainfall fluctuation causes drastic changes to the habitats of Hambantota area (2) Throughout the climatic history of 134 years in Hambantota it is possible to identify rainfall cycles of approximately 16 years and temperature cycles of approximately 6 years. (7) Increase in sea water levels causes sea water intrusion into the lagoons and estuary systems which lead to the destruction and slow change of the existing habitats. to produce more salt.g. Hambantota A Profile of a District in Rural Sri Lanka Ministry of Plan Implementation Sri Lanka Samarakoon. Battaramulla for providing the necessary funds for this study. 1:50. 198p. Perera. (1994). and the Core Writing Team (eds. 128-129. Ecogeographic analysis of a climate map of Ceylon with particular reference to vegetation The Ceylon Forester 8 (2-4): 39-58. Samarakoon. Vegetation types of Lunugamvehera National Park. Batagoda. Gland. Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. (1965) Rohana Rajyaya (Kingdom of Rohana). S. B. “Sampathpaya”. S.M. Survey Department. USA. 2004 Mueller-Dombois. S. II. Smeardon (eds. 249p. 46 p. Samarakoon. 1211 Geneva 2 Ireland. P. (1983). T. S. (1998). B. Fodder plants of Yala National Park Complex in southern Sri Lanka.United Kingdom. Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. IUCN—the World Conservation Union. May 11 – 13. D. IPCC (2004) IPCC Workshop on Describing Scientific Uncertainties in Climate Change to Support Analysis of Risk and of Options. and L.K. Rajamalwatta Road. Switzerland and Cambridge. NY. A Contribution of Working Groups I. Anuradhapura Period (Vidyankankaaa University Press. Samaranayake. R. (1968).ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Dr. 82.P.000 Maps compiled and published by the Surveyor General of Sri Lanka. C. Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Project Director and Mr. (1998). Some preliminary observations on the ecology of Kirinda sand dune in southern Sri Lanka. P. Samarakoon.S.) (1999) Report of the Eleventh Global Biodiversity Forum: Exploring Synergy Between the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity. L. A preliminary investigation of the plant communities of Nimalawa sanctuary in southern Sri Lanka Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Avenue de la Paix. Orlando. (1997).S. and New York. 211 .)]. Samarakoon. Samarakoon. No. and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Watson. P.M. Consultant of the Climate Change Enabling Activity (Phase II) Project of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. REFERENCES IPCC (2001): Climate Change (2001): Synthesis Report. S. Dying of trees in Horton Plains Bio News 8:106-109. P. Cambridge. c/o WMO. 7bis. 130131. S. (1998). Cambridge University Press. P. Proceedings of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. (1988). SWITZERLAND INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE IPCC Secretariat. N° 2300. Herbage production from native grasses and planted pastures under coconut in southern Sri Lanka.T. Fernando. (1997). P. 398 p. United Kingdom. R. 250p. Two conservation methods i:e in-situ conservation and ex-situ conservation method were applied for hatch of turtle eggs. Uncertain means no direct evidence for which species made the nests.4%) (Table 2) Wild boar and feral dogs are the main predators of turtle eggs on Bundala beach. the park is generally flat with sand dunes bordering the coastline. and later upgraded to a National Park in 1992 (Wet land site report and conservation management plan. Bundala National Park-1993).H. However compare to year 2002 and 2003 number of uncertain records comparatively reduce year 2004 and 2005. Bundala cost line host nesting endangered Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivaceae). The reptile fauna of Bundala National Park includes many IUCN Red list species such as 0 212 . All five species of marine turtles visit Sri Lanka nest at Bundala beach. All five species are listed as endangered by the world conservation union (IUCN). Sri Lanka ABSTRACT Five of the world's seven species of marine turtle come ashore to nest in the beaches of Sri Lanka. Green turtle (Chelonia mydas).1 1/2'.K. The mean annual temperature is about 27.81018'E) covering an area 3698 ha. Year 2004 and year 2005 was not recorded any nesting sites of Logger head and Leatherback turtle on the Bundala beach. INTRODUCTION Bundala National Park is located in the Hambantota District (6008' . While Hawks bill turtle did not come last three years to Bundala beach except only single nesting site was recorded year 2004. The average annual rain fall for the area is about 1. DE SILVA* Bundala National Park. thickness 2") and labeled it to easy to identification. Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta). Irrespective of the method used the success rate of hatchling of Green turtle and Olive readly were more than 85%. with a general climate that can be classified as hot and dry.MARINE TURTLE CONCERVATION PROJECT AT BUNDALA NATIONAL PARK I.S. Topographically. Lowest rate was recorded for Olive readly as 15.Department of Wildlife Conservation. height . it was declared as sanctuary under the fauna and flora protection ordinance in 1969. Embilikala (430 ha) and Bundala (520 ha). There are one hundred nineteen (119) uncertain arrivals of individuals were recorded. and determine the date of hatchlings come out. including several species of migratory waterfowl. and protected under national law. Beside the bird life. To protect from predators. Three shallow brackish water lagoons located within the park namely Malala (650 ha).2%. the lagoons support a large number of fish and Shrimps. which is about 16 Km in length every year during the turtle nesing period. Recognizing the importance of Bundala as an important habitat for wildlife. used concrete cylinders (dia . Highest success rate were recorded in 2005 (83. Green turtles and Olive Readly turtles both visited Bundala beach for nesting during last four years Olive Readly nested three hundred and nine times (309) for the last four years. from a complex Wetland system that harbors a rich bird life. Hawksbill turtle (Dermochelys imbricata) and Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys Coriaceae) Leatherback turtle is critically endangered species in the world.1C0.074 mm.6014N. The park falls within the Southeastern Arid Zone of Sri Lanka.30". but nesting sites could be found on the beach. 81 08' . with the highest monthly rainfall occurring in November. and feral dogs. The beach contains number of sand dunes. (5 staff). their location and their biometric data (length of carapace.m.m. dry zone. (2 staff) Nesting females that are observed at night are allowed to dig their nest and then recorded the number of eggs in the nest. (3 staff) and 6 a. The 4 Km stretch of beach at Bundala is monitored 24 hours a day. At present BNP get the service of volunteers from local villages to patrol the beach.00 a.. There are different sets of overlapping shifts from 2. The major threat to nesting females.6. The study Area is located in the arid zone in Hambantota district in Southern Province.m. .m.m. the eggs in the nest and the hatchlings in this area includes natural predators such as wild boar.East Asia (IOSEA) The Bundala National Park (BNP) initiated a monitoring program of nesting turtles at Bundala beach in year 2002. Every year during the turtles breeding period Bundala cost line host nesting endangered Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivaceae). Concrete cylinders are used to protect nest by wild boars and feral dogs. intermediate zone and Arid zone.m. seven days a week so all members of staff work on and shift rotation system. (5 staff). 81008' . of which Sri Lanka is a signatory. The main objective is to record the number of each turtle species nesting on the Bundala beach. Loggerhead turtle (Caretta).81018'E. 213 . to collect information about nesting and protect turtle nests.10 p. Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriaceae) All five marine turtle species that nests in Sri Lanka are listed on the convention on International Trade in Endangered species (CITES) Appendix 1. from 10 p. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area Sri Lanka has four climatic zones which include the wet zone. which damage nests and prey on hatchlings as they emerge. The project has two main objectives.00 a. Sri Lanka is also a signatory to a Mou (Memorandum of Understanding) on the conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their habitats of the Indian Ocean and South .estuarine crocodile. Green turtle (Chelonia mydas). from 2 p. The length of the Bundala beach is approximately 16 Km length.2 a. endemic frog (Bufo atukoralei) also has been recorded from the Park (Bambaradenya et al. Field survey Although the nesting beach at Bundala is 19 Km in length currently only 4 Km of this is included in the conservation area.2 p.m.m. . 2001).6014'N. The second objective is to establish suitable methods of insitu and exsitu conservation methods for turtle nests at Bundala beach. . . The study Area is located at 6008' .. This is combated by a team of 15 volunteers who come from the vicinity of the park to beach patrol 24 hours per day. thickness 2 inch) specifically to protect the nest from the wild boar and feral dogs that are so plentiful in the park. Identification was done using a colored atlas of same Figure 1.width. 214 . But Loggerhead and Leatherback turtle did not nest during last two years. Turtle nest protecting cylinder RESULTS Five species of turtle which are logger head. the nests are covered by large concrete cylinders (height . In addition hatchling number of emerging from the nest of each species is recorded. Leatherback. diameter 30 inch.1 1/2 feet. number of scales etc. Hawk bill. Green turtle and Oilve redly nests Bundala beach. Olive redly and Green turtles nest at Bundala beach regularly during last four years (Table 1). Once the nesting process is complete. In addition Hawks bill did not nest in year 2003 and year 2005.). throughout the incubation period (Figure 1). Figure 2. Olive Redly Figure 6.Table 1. Leatherback 215 . Nesting records of five species of turtles at Bundala beach from 2002 – 2005. Green Turtle Figure 3. Hawkbill Figure 5. Loggerhead Figure 4. Year Name of species Green Turtle Olive Redly Loggerhead Hawkbill Leatherback Uncertain 2002 2003 2004 2005 Grand Total 26 92 35 18 10 44 06 152 09 05 33 06 10 01 18 03 55 24 41 309 44 19 15 119 160 No of Sp 140 120 Green Turtle 100 Olive Redly Loggerhead 80 Haw kbill 60 Leatherback 40 Uncertain 20 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 Year Figure 2. Nesting records of five species of turtles at Bundala beach from 2002 – 2005. 00% Uncertain 20.33% 81.31% 85.41% 120. Second highest attendance (119 times) was recorded uncertain species which were not identified particular species but could be fond nests (Table 1).07% 92. Success rate of hatchlings of in-situ and ex-situ conservation method for five species of turles at Bundala beach. Year Name of species Green Turtle Olive Redly Loggerhead Hawkbill Leatherback Uncertain 2002 2003 2004 2005 96.2% 92. while Hawks bill.4%). Year 2003 and 2004 the rate was 85. Highest success rate of hatchlings of Green turtle could be fond year 2002 (96.42%) (Table 2).00% Green Turtle 80.00% 2002 2003 2004 2005 Year Figure2. 41 times and 44 time attendance respectively (Table 1).71% 80.00% Olive Redly Loggerhead 60.7% and 85% respectively. Success rate of hatchlings of in-situ & ex-situ conservation method for five species of turtles at Bundala beach 216 . Lowest rate was recorded year 2003 (67.01%) while year 2005 it was 88.09% 83.59% 71.00% Haw kbill Leatherback 40. Highest success rate of hatchlings of Olive Readly was recorded during the year 2005 (85.06% 85.00% 0.92% 85% 80.07% 88.01% 15. Success rate of hatchling is very high irrespective of two conservation methods. Table 2.00% Sp percentage 100.Olive readly arrived three hundred and nine times (309) for last four years to Bundala beach which was recorded highest nesting.31%.27% 72. year 2005 was recorded (83. Success rate of hatchling of uncertain species. Green turtle and logger head were recorded 19 times.17% 83. Lowest attendance was recorded for Leatherback for last four years (15 times).09%) (Table 2).34% 67. REFERENCES Archie. Wetland site Report and conservation management plan. Hawks bill turtle did not come during last three years except one attendance of year 2004.B. (1993). Species which are not seen at the time of nesting were recorded as uncertain species. In addition the number of volunteers should be increased. P. A. Bambaradeniya C. (1980). Pp 9-185. Therefore nesting of two species can be seen throughout the year in Bundala beach. The area of the project must be expanded for 16 Km and it will help to get more number of attendance and nesting sites. Life Nature Library. Leatherback and Loggerhead did not come during last two years. A colored Atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon. P. Caughley. Turtle conservation project confined about 4 Km length of the beach. 217 . for the last three years.R. Therefore Bundala National Park harbors rich reptile diversity.E.E.DISCUSSION Green turtle and Olive Redly turtle came to Bundala beach for nesting throughout last four years (2002-2005).P. Tetrapod Reptilic National Museum of Sri Lanka vol 03. C. (2001). CONCLUSION Beach of Bundala National Park provides good nesting habitats for five species of turtles in the world. Pp 1-300. Hawk bill and Logger head turtle. G. (1955). Logger head and Hawk bill species are critically endangered species in the world. The Reptiles. 54p. which these species may nest beyond the conservation area. Wildlife ecology and Management.E.103p. Guide to Bundala. Sinclair. In addition it may be the reason. Furthermore volunteers should be given appropriate technology and knowledge to identify species using their tracks.P. A colored Atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon.a Ramsar wetland in Sri Lanka. Green turtle and Olive readly came to nest throughout the last four years to Bundala beach. 3:14-119. A Guide to the Biodiversity of Bundala of Bundala National Park . Success rate of uncertain species is high in last four years (Table 2). National Museum of Sri Lanka. According to IUCN Leatherback. Bundala National Park. Success rate of hatchling of all five species are very high irrespective of in-situ and ex-situ conservation method. Deraniyagala. Serpentoid Reptilia. In situ and ex-situ conservation methods are very successful in the Bundala beach. (1994).N. Deraniyagala. Number of volunteers need to minimize the record of uncertain species. so that more data could be gathered during peak nesting season. Central Environmental Authority (1993). No special reason could be found for the absence of critically endangered three species of turtles Leatherback. In 1990. 218 . Salvinia (Salvinia molesta). Water hyacinth also downgrades recreational water facilities by reducing the water surface. The results reviles that. WILSON* Department of Wildlife Conservation. Community participation for weed control.AN ASSESSMENT OF WATER RESOURCES DEPENDENCY OF SURROUNDING COMMUNITY. Sri Lanka under the provisions of the FFPO. C. prime food sources for fish. The people in and around. The AWS consists of a group of seven shallow cascading reservoirs including the around terrestrial landmass. interviewing the community. There are about ten aquatic weeds in the AWS. IMPACTS OF AQUATIC WEEDS AND EFFECTIVE WEED CONTROL METHODS OF THE WATER BODIES IN ANAWILUNDAWA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AND RAMSAR WETLAND IN SRI LANKA S. Mechanical control of weeds is one method. Weeds reduce the water flow and increase the siltation. The direct observations. The water level of the sanctuary indicates a positive relationship with the water resources dependencies. and removal of Salvinia by hand or machine is a practical control method. in the full capacity condition. It interfere with fish life by reducing oxygen level in water. Rehabilitation of water outlets of the reservoirs should be done immediately. producing toxic substances such as Hydrogen Sulphide and reducing phytoplankton population. The DWC. Prevention is the best form of weed control. and Water lettuce (Pistia stratootes). The extraction of non timber forest products takes place throughout the year. Desilting of the water bodies is another important practice to increase the water capacity. Sri Lanka ABSTRACT The Anawilundawa Wildlife Sanctuary (AWS) was established in June 1997 by the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC). Biological control of Salvinia and Water hyacinth is a better method in this sanctuary as this is a protected area. desiltation of the reservoirs. Agriculture Department of Sri Lanka has introduced Salvinia weevil to these water bodies. (Government Gazette number 97915 of 11 June 1997) Considering its biodiversity and Wetland values. to control the illegal activities affecting the balance of the ecosystem of this study area could be suggested as some immediate site specific actions with appropriate strategies. creating offensive odors and tainting of water. The most impacts cause from Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). The large leaf area of weeds leads to increased water loss through transpiration. the water capacity of the reservoirs are eight inches lower than that of 1995. But the reservoirs are covered with aquatic weeds. The objective of the present study is to access the impacts of the weeds and to propose management practices to control the aquatic weeds. The reservoirs are the heart of the sanctuary which depends on the balance of the wetland ecosystem. the sanctuary was recognized as a wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar convention in 2002. organized a campaign for the removal of aquatic weeds May. and several pilot practices had been conducted during the study. When compared with the previous records. 2005 during the peak drought. Therefore the reservoirs play a significant role for the balance of the wetland ecosystem as well as the dependencies of the surrounding community. depend on the water resource of the sanctuary for their livelihoods. Surrounding community involved with this activity through their CBO. The community can also help to prevent the spread of aquatic weeds by reporting the Department of Wildlife Conservation. the management authority of the sanctuary. there is a seasonal pattern of water resource dependency in the study area. is the heart of the wetland ecosystem. the sanctuary was recognized as a wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar convention in 2002. These factors led to the declaration of Anaiwilundawa as a birds sanctuary and recognition of it as a Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention. which cover the area of about 14ha. The group of seven reservoirs. 17 National Parks. Anaiwilundawa tanks. But there are no previous studies on aquatic weeds and water dependencies in AWS. Sri Lanka has 82 PAs including 3 Strict Natural Reserves. There are records on previous applications of biological control of Water hyacinth and Salvinia by the Department of Agriculture. All seven reservoirs of the AWS are shallow with maximum depth not exceeding 4. 4 Nature Reserves and 58 Sanctuaries. The AWS consists of a group of seven shallow cascading reservoirs including the surrounding terrestrial landmass. The people in and around. The reservoirs are the heart of the sanctuary which depends on the balance of the wetland ecosystem. Significance of the study The AWS harbours a rich native terrestrial and aquatic faunal and floral biodiversity that is further enriched by the seasonal migration of waterfowls. 219 . (Government Gazette number 97915 of 11 June 1997) Considering its biodiversity & Wetland values. (Wetland site report & conservation management plan.0 meters during full storage. After the Mihintale Sanctuary.INTRODUCTION Sri Lanka has a golden history about Protected Area (PA) Management. All these PAs are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) which has the authority of Fauna & Flora Protection Ordinance (FFPO). The Anawilundawa Wildlife Sanctuary (AWS) was established in June 1997 by the DWC under the provisions of the FFPO.C. Therefore the reservoirs play a significant role for the balance of the wetland ecosystem as well as the dependencies of the surrounding community. depend on the water resource of the sanctuary for their livelihoods. The first PA. Several researches were carried out by various researchers. 1994) But the water is covered with varied aquatic weeds. Mihintale Sanctuary was declared by king Devanampiyatissa the Great in about 200 B. The sanctuary includes the state lands as well as private lands including home gardens and paddy fields. The writer does not plan to calculate the total area density of each aquatic weed in tanks. The water is the main factor for the balance of the ecosystem. and to find out the dependencies of surrounding community on water of the reservoirs. In this study the researcher is going to find the impacts of aquatic weeds of the reservoirs in AWS. The management practices need to be applied to control the weeds. They can be incorporated into the management plan. 220 . to discuss the impacts of aquatic weeds on wetland ecosystem of AWS. the wetland ecosystem contains seven reservoirs. It is a significant threat to the natural balance of the wetland ecosystem as well as the community which depends on the water of reservoirs. The existing condition of the water is becoming unsuitable for fauna and flora existence. The direct and indirect dependencies on tanks are being studied. Scope of the study In this study the writer wishes to focus the attention on the aquatic weeds but not on terrestrial weeds. The list of the aquatic weeds in tank system is being prepared. The existing quality of water is deteriorating. These methods can be applied by the DWC who are the management authority of the sanctuary. The water is the main factor for the balance of the ecosystem. The people have various dependencies on the water of these tanks. The main objective of the study is to propose management practices to control aquatic weeds. depends on water of these reservoirs. The writer wishes to discuss the weed management methods. The people on diverse needs. But the reservoirs are covered with aquatic weeds. Purpose of the study AWS. the wetland ecosystem contains seven reservoirs. In this study the researcher hopes. Anawilundawa Wildlife Sanctuary. The people living around the sanctuary use the water for different purposes.Research problem The water capacity of reservoirs is the most important factor for the sustainability of the sanctuary. The proposed management practices can be applied in other wetlands as well under similar conditions. The weed control methods would be important to the DWC who are the management authority of the sanctuary. The findings are important to the managers of the sanctuary who are responsible for the conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources of this wetland ecosystem. METHODOLOGY Study Area Location The Anawilundawa Wildlife Sanctuary. The study . 1994). is situated between the coast and the Negombo – Puttalam railway/road (70 42’ N. covering an area of 1400ha. 790 49’ E) in Puttalam District of North-Western Province in Sri Lanka (CEA. The closest towns are Chilaw (10km) to the South and Puttalam (35km) to the North (Figure 1) 221area Figure 1. The faunal species were identified with the guidance of taxonomy books. names of weeds in water. following a request made by the DWC. The traditional weed control methods were identified by interviewing the village community. Table 1. to find their means of income generation activities. Aquatic plants in AWS Family Acanthaceae Alismataceae Amaranthaceae Aponogetonaceae Araceae Araceae Asteraceae Ceratophyllaceae Convolvulaceae Cyperaceae Fabaceae Hydrocharitaceae Lemnaceae Lentibulariaceae Limnocharitaceae Species Hygrophila schulli Limnophton obtusifolium Alternanthera sessilis Aponogeton natans Lasia spinosa Pistia stratiotes Eclipta proatrata Ceratophyllum demersum Ipomoea aquatica Schoenoplectus Nepyunia oleracea Ottelia alismoides Lemna sp Utricularia aurea Limnocharis flava 222 Local Name Niramulliya Mukunu wenna Kekatiya Kohila Diya paradel Kikirindi Kankung .00am to 7. trees were identified with the guidance of herbarium and books on taxonomy. A selected set of people were interviewed to find out the dependencies on water. During the day time from 6. the sanctuary was recognized as a Wetland of Internationally Important by the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention).Declaration The AWS was established in June 1997 by the Department of Wildlife conservation under the provisions of Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance. RESULTS Aquatic plants in AWS The list of aquatic plants found in AWS is shown in table 3. In August 2001.30 pm the activities of the people in the sanctuary were observed. Figure 1 shows the study area Methodology The survey had been carried out in August and October 2005. to identify medicinal herbs. some shrubs. The weeds. In this survey direct observations of dependencies on reservoirs had been recorded. Cashew. Drum sticks. reeds for handicrafts 6. water for bathing and washing 2. Mango. Mukunuwenna. Girapala. fruits – Tal. Tamarind. water for vegetable cultivation 7. wallowing grounds for buffaloes in tank water 4. 3. Thora. 4.e. edible green leaves . fishing Indirect dependencies 1.Marsiliaceae Menyanthaceae Nelumbonaceae Nymphaeaceae Onagraceae Polygonaceae Pntederiaceae Pteridaceae Salviniaceae Scrophulariaceae Typhaceae Marsilia quadrifolia Nymphoides hydrophylla Nelumbo nucifera Nymphaea pubescens Ludwigia adscendens Polygonumtomentosum Pllygonom glabrum Eichhornia crassipes Monochoria vaginalis Acrostichum aureum Salvinia molesta Limnophila aquatica Typha angustifolia Kumudu Nelum Manel Diyanilla Sudu kimbul wenna Japan jabara Karam koku Salvinia Hambu pan The various dependencies of water resources in the sanctuary People surrounding the sanctuary have various types of dependencies on the sanctuary especially. Neeramulliya. Gotukola. Anguna.Lotus stems. Most of them are on reservoirs. vegetables. edible mushrooms 9. Pitasudu. Kon. rowing boats and swimming– entertainment 5. water for paddy cultivation 6. Erriconuts 223 . grassing lands 8. direct dependencies and indirect dependencies. There are two types of dependencies on water resources i. fish and terrapins 2. Thampala.Kan kun. or associated with the reservoirs. Wood apple. water lily seeds. 5. Direct dependencies 1. drinking water for cattle and other domestic animals 3. fire wood 7. DEPENDENCY Grass land Fire wood Fruits & vegetables Wallowing ground Entertainments Fishing Paddy cultivation Water for bathing Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug MONTH Figure 2. Fire wood extraction and extraction of fruits and vegetables are found throughout the year. According to these facts the highest water resource dependency is recorded from February to May.The seasonal pattern of major dependencies of AWS Figure 2 shows various types of major dependencies that vary with the seasons and availability in the sanctuary. Various types of major dependencies 224 Sep Oct Nov Dec . During the dry season from March to October and September to November while water level becomes low villagers release buffaloes for grazing and wallowing. Water for Paddy cultivation recorded in two periods April to July in Yala season and November to March in Maha season. However chemical weed control methods are not recommended to be carried out in the Sanctuary. The Department of Wildlife Conservation initiated a weed control programme in 2005 and removed aquatic weeds manually in Anawilundawa and Suruwila tanks. Small quantities of plastic and polythene wastes can be seen on the road sides leading to the sanctuary.Over exploitation of resources Poaching During the weekends and holidays large numbers of bird hunters and teams of poachers visit the sanctuary. vegetable cultivation etc. but without clearly demarcated boundaries. Community Based Organizations have been formed with the guidance of 225 . Pollution Biocides are not reported to be used in huge quantities within the sanctuary. As far back as 2004 DWC recruited and stationed number of employees for protection of the Sanctuary. but there can be the risk of pollution through the runoff from long stretches of paddy fields and coconut plantations within the catchments area. Most dependencies are for private consumptions such as income generation activities of the local community such as paddy cultivation. fishing. Almost all the villagers in and around the sanctuary depend on water resources of the sanctuary. fire wood collection. Natural threats The rainfall records in Puttalam show a paternal reduction during the recent past. At present this is not a severe problem if the dumping of polyethylene is not controlled it is going to be a severe environmental problem in future. The tank system remained without water for long periocls during the last few years. The poaching of soft-shell and hard-shell terrapins supplies the demand created by hotels in the area. Irrigation Department and the Department of Wildlife Conservation are the responsible Government Institutions for maintaining the water capacity of the sanctuary. DISCUSSION The present study shows that about 10 weed species have extensively spread in the reservoir system of the AWS. These indigestible materials accumulate in the reservoir and water canals. DWC display some sign boards and information boards in the Sanctuary. But large scale commercial activities making use of water recourses do not take place in the study area. Invasive alien weed species have caused comparatively higher impact on water than the native weed species. furthermore the water is the main factor that contributes to the balance of the natural ecosystem. Extraction of clay from reservoir beds in dry period During the dry season clay mining takes place on the reservoir beds for brick making industry. Besides water flows out to the reservoirs since the sluice gates are not maintained properly and some of them do not operate at all.DWC and Divisional Secretary of the area. The most of the impacts are caused by Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). The highest dependency is recorded from March to July. due to availability of water. Aquatic weeds The water capacity of the reservoirs is very low because of the above situation. The DWC which is the management authority of the sanctuary organized a campaign for removal of aquatic weeds in May 2005. It also interferes with fish life by reducing water oxygen levels. creating offensive odors and tainting water. during the peak dry period. Salvinia (Salvinia molesta). It is the core problem related to the water level. The major dependency levels vary with the season. The nutrition level and the eutrophication are high as a result the aquatic weeds grow rapidly. When compared with the previous records. They change the ecological balance and habitat of the area. which is prime food source for fish. 226 . There are about ten aquatic weeds in the study area. the water capacity of the reservoirs appear to be decreasing and it was eight inches lower than that of 1995 in the full capacity condition. Adjacent communities were involved in this activity through their CBO. producing toxic substances such as hydrogen sulfide and reducing phytoplankton population. the various dependencies of the community and wetland values are related to the water availability of this sanctuary. Large leaf surface of weeds increases water loss through transpiration. Besides they reduce the water flow and thereby increase siltation. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Conclusion The natural balances of the ecosystem. Water hyacinth also downgrades recreational facility by reducing the water surface. and Water lettuce (Pistia stratootes). Issue of insufficient water supply During the draught season the water level of the reservoirs decreases dramatically. .au 227 . Department of Natural Resources and Mines.(2003). Australi Anon.CEA. Sand mining.F. Sri Lanka.(1994)Wetland site report and conservation management plan Annaiwilundawa tanks. Department of Agriculture.W. REFERENCES Anon.. as well as to control illegal activities of the people especially from the outsiders. M.Stanley. (2003) Weed management guide. M. Griffiths. In 1990.gov. Natural Heritage Trust. www.Wetland conservation in Sri Lanka.Julian.IUCN.(2001)Biologiacal control of water hyacinth Purcell. M. Agriculture western Australia.H.(2004) NRM facts.A.226-240. Salvinia and Water lettuce.wa..Wetland conservation project. CBO’s have formed in each village. felling of timber and poaching should be controlled through Law Enforcement and by regular patrolling by the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Wright. Website. Through these CBO’s the community can be involved to removing the weeds. Sri Lanka introduced Salvinia Weevil to these water bodies.agric. Repairing of sluice gates and desiltation the reservoirs should be implemented immediately by the responsible agencies to maintain the water level of the sanctuary. Anon. and removal of Salvinia manually or by machine is a practical control method.. Anon. Community participation for weed control of this study area has proved to be effective. Biological control of Salvinia and Water hyacinth is the better method in this sanctuary as this is a protected area. Anon.N. Weed note No1/99.(1981)The biology of Australian weeds.D.Recommendation Mechanical control of weeds is one method.J. The state of Queen land. 228 .