Chapter 28 Cold War and a New Western World, 1945-1970 I. The Development of the Cold War a.The Confrontation of the Superpowers i. Rivalry between U.S. and USSR stemmed from their different historical perspectives and irreconcilable political ambitions ii. Eastern Europe was first area of disagreement 1. pro-Soviet governments installed in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary iii. 1946: Greek Civil War 1. Communist PLA and non-Communist forces fight over control of Greece 2. Truman Doctrine: economic and military aid for Greece 3. Truman Doctrine: U.S. provide money to countries “threatened” by Communist “expansion” iv. June 1947: Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program) 1. $13 billion for economic recovery of war-torn Europe 2. Soviets considered Marshall Plan capitalist imperialism 3. USSR and Eastern European states refuse to participate in Marshall Plan v. 1947: East-West split in Europe became certain 1. July 1947: George Kennan advocates containment policy in Foreign Affairs article vi. Denazifaction and partitioning of Germany created heated contention 1. Soviets dismantled and moved 380 factories from western Berlin before transferring their control to the Western powers 2. 1946: factories in East German zone shipped to USSR 3. German Communist Party reestablished under control of Walter Ulbricht in eastern Germany vii. British, French, and Americans gradually merged their German zones economically 1. February 1948: plans for West German federal government 2. Soviets respond with blockade of West Berlin, hoping to halt the creation of a separate West German state viii. Berlin Air Lift: 13,000 tons of supplies flow to Berlin daily 1. Soviets did not interfere May 1949: blockade lifted 2. September 1949: West German Federal Republic formally created October 1949: German Democratic Republic (East) established 3. Berlin remained divided and a source of contention ix. Cold War spread from Europe to rest of the world 1. 1949: Chinese civil war ends with Communist victory 2. 1949: USSR detonates its first atomic bomb escalating arms race resulting in construction of more destructive nuclear weapons 3. Mutual deterrence: assumption that neither side would risk using massive arsenals Late 1950s: crisis over Berlin added to the tension 1. joins Korean War 1. mid-1950s: President Dwight D.S. April 1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed when European nations sign treaty with U.S. Creation of military alliances 1. Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) intended to prevent USSR from expanding south 3. Eisenhower adopted policy of massive retaliation 1.S. 1962: USSR decided to place nuclear missiles in Cuba 1. November 1958: Nikita Khrushchev announced that tries to remove Western forces from West Berlin by threatening to turn over control of access routes to Berlin to East Germans 1. Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) formed to stem Soviet aggression in the East 4. 1955: summit at Geneva between Eisenhower and Nikolai Bulganin produced no real benefits 2.x. 1956: USSR crush Hungary’s struggle for independence talk of rapprochement between East and West temporarily ceased xv. The Cuban Missile Crisis and the Move toward Détente i. 38th parallel remained boundary between North-South Korea 2. 1955: Eastern European nations and USSR organize formal military alliance in Warsaw Pact xii. first space satellite launched xvi. 1953: armistice signed. Eastern European states also form military alliances 1. Americans viewed this as containment policy’s success in Asia xiii. and Canada 2. 1961: East German government built wall separating East-West Berlin xvii. Kennedy leaves Vienna conference Khrushchev forced to lift his ultimatum b. 1949: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) formed for economic cooperation 2. American intelligence discovered Soviet fleet carrying missiles to Cuba President Kennedy blockades Cuba to prevent fleet from reaching destination . August 1957: USSR launched first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) Sputnik I. June 1961: Khrushchev threatens Kennedy with another 6-month ultimatum over West Berlin 1. 1953: Stalin’s death caused some people in the West to that new Soviet leadership would be more flexible 1. All powers agreed to provide mutual assistance xi. System of military alliances spread after U. U. Policy of massive retaliation: full use of nuclear bombs to counteract even Soviet ground attack in Europe 2. Eisenhower and the West stood firm Khrushchev backed down 2. allied militarily with 42 states worldwide xiv. S. 1946: U. American forces failed to prevail over the persistence of the North Vietnamese and Vietcong 4. 1963: U.S. 1963: American government supports military coup that overthrows Ngo Dinh Diem’s regime in South Vietnam a. Sino-Soviet split ended idea of monolithic communism directed by Moscow b. Great Britain no longer had energy or wealth to maintain colonial empire ii. Asia: U. Process of decolonization 2. Decolonization in Africa south of Sahara took place less turbulently vii. 1949: Indonesia emerges as independent nation 4. World War II cost Europe’s supremacy in world affairs 1. grants Philippines independence 2. Johnson increases number of American troops sent to Vietnam to prevent Communist north from uniting Vietnam a.S.S. New Southeast Asian nations avoided Communist governments Recovery and Renewal in Europe a.II. The End of European Colonies i. 1964: President Lyndon B. 1954: French defeated by Vietnamese nationalist guerrillas iii. 1963: Moscow-Washington hotline communications system installed 1. The Vietnam War 1. Domino theory proved unfounded a. American policymakers saw this in terms of the domino theory 3. Algerian nationalists organize National Liberation Front (FLN) 2. 1947: British leave Palestine UN voted to created both an Arab and Jewish state 1. New military government seemed even less able to govern 2. France becomes divided over war 1962: Charles de Gaulle grants Algerian independence vi. Britain grants India independence 3. to withdraw forces b. 1949: Communist victory in China iv. Arab-Israeli conflict created by problem of Palestinian refugees v. 1975: unification of Vietnam 5. France retains control in Algeria 1. 1954: guerilla war initiated to liberate Algerian homeland 3. 2.S. Khrushchev agreed to turn back fleet if Kennedy pledged not to invade Cuba ii. a. 1973: President Richard Nixon reached agreement with North Vietnam allowing U. New states known collectively as “Third World” . Persistent antiwar movement in U. and USSR agreed to ban nuclear tests in the atmosphere iii. initiates process of decolonization 1. Khrushchev placed more emphasis on light industry and consumer goods 1. Eastern Europe: Behind the Iron Curtain i. created spirit of rebellion in Eastern Europe 4. Housing shortage was acute iv. 1947: Russian industrial production attained prewar levels 1950: surpassed prewar levels by 40% iii. 1945-1947: Communist government firmly entrenched in East Germany. Khrushchev became unpopular among the party ranks 1. Failures and increased military spending hurt Soviet economy x. Increasing repression under Stalin 1. Consumer goods were scarce under Stalin’s economic policy 1. Contact with Western ways during war caused “crisis of faith” in Soviet system 1. Romania. closes some Siberian prison camps 3. Khrushchev ended system of forced-labor camps 2. Albania and Yugoslavia 1.b. 1946: government decreed all literary and scientific works must conform to political needs of the state 2. Returning Soviet soldiers exposed to prosperity of West were sent to Soviet concentration camps v. Stalin exercised sole authority and pitted his subordinates against one another vi. Poland. Khrushchev’s revelations about Stalin created turmoil. 1956: Hungarian uprising crushed by Soviet troops ix. and Hungary 1. World War II devastated USSR ii. Decentralization of agriculture allowing more local decision 2. Tito (Josip Broz) established independent Communist state in Yugoslavia . 1956: Khrushchev condemns Stalin at Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party viii. Certain degree of intellectual freedom permitted 2. Albania established rigidly Stalinist regime. Reduce powers of secret police. but grew increasingly independent of USSR iii. 1946: Communist Party became largest party in Czechoslovakian elections February 1948: Communist Party seizes power in Czechoslovakia ii. 1964: Politburo votes Khrushchev out of office Leonid Brezhnev comes to power c. The Soviet Union: From Stalin to Khrushchev i. New collective leadership succeeded Stalin until Nikita Khrushchev became chief Soviet policymaker 1. Foreign policy failures damaged Khrushchev’s reputation 2. Attempts to increase agriculture east of the Ural Mountains proved less successful 3. March 1953: Stalin dies vii. Khrushchev starts de-Stalinization 1. Bulgaria. 1952: Antonin Novotny installed as Czechoslovakian leader by Stalin 1. November 4. resented by writers 2. Cold War had hurt socialist parties . Dubcek introduces reforms: freedom of speech. 1956: protests erupt in Poland 1. Imry Nagy becomes new Hungarian leader 2. Wladyslaw Gomulka elected first secretary of Communist Party 3. Soviet economic exploitation of Eastern Europe made living conditions harsh v. recreate democratic institutions after WWII ii. 1956: Hungarian Communists seek reforms and independence 1.1. 1967: writer’s rebellion Novotny resigns 3. Internal dissent directed against communism in general 3. November 1. relaxation of secret police activities viii. August 1968: Red Army crushes “Prague Spring” reforms Gustav Husák installed as leader d. Tito refused to capitulate to Stalin’s demands. 1958: Yugoslav party congress asserted that the party only deviated from Stalinism iv. 1956: Nagy declares Hungary a free nation. Support for Communist parties began to dwindle due to Sovietleaning policies iii. 1946-1947: Communist parties do well in Italian and French elections 2. Western European countries needed to rebuild economies. Western Europe: The Revival of Democracy and the Economy i. Collectivize agriculture 3. Poland agrees to remain loyal to Warsaw Pact Soviets allow independent path to socialism vi. Institute 5-year plans with emphasis on heavy industry 2. gained support of the people 2. Communists gained respectability and strength after war 1. Support for Socialists soon waned after the war 2. Communist parties joined forces with left-wing parties (Social Democrats) for strategic reasons 1. freedom to travel abroad. 1948-1953: Eastern European satellite states follow policy of Stalinization 1. Gomulka declares Poland had right to follow its own socialist path 4. October 1956: Polish Communist Party adopts series of reforms 2. 1956: Red Army attacks Budapest János Kádár ( reform-minded cabinet minister) replaces Nagy under Soviet cooperation saves many of Nagy’s economic reforms vii. promises free elections (could mean end of Communist rule in Hungary) 4. Novotny alienated by party members. January 1968: Alexander Dubcek elected first secretary of Communist Party 4. Establish institutions of repression 4. v. 1955: rearmament of West Germany. Christian Democrats interested in democracy and significant economic reforms 2. Ludwig Erhard (finance minister) b. vii. but respect for him has been undermined b. Cost of living increased faster than in the rest of Europe 5. Christian Democrats (CDU). 3. May 1968: students protests and labor union general strike a. vi. Konrad Adenauer (CDU) serves as chancellor 1949-1963 a. April 1969: de Gaulle resigns West Germany: A New Nation? 1. dissolve parliament. Fourth Republic led de Gaulle to withdraw from politics a. de Gaulle restores order. calls for even stronger presidency 2. houses. Pulled France out of NATO high command to enhance France’s stature c. GDP exceeds that of prewar Germany . Cooperate with U. 1950s: Socialist parties began to eliminate emphasis on class struggle 4. schools) c. Free Democrats (FDP) 2.iv. de Gaulle centralizes economic decision making a. supervise defense and foreign policy b. Nationalization of industries led to large government deficits d. France became major industrial producer and exporter b. Fourth Republic’s political stability badly shaken by Algerian crisis a. join NATO 3..S. “Economic miracle” under Adenauer’s leadership a. Christian Democrats strong in Italy and Germany Western European countries recovered relatively rapidly after WWII France: The Domination of de Gaulle 1. Korean War led to calls for rearmament of West Germany c. French army officers instigate revolt against own government Fourth Republic leaders offered de Gaulle role of leadership 3. Strong antiwar movement led to bitter division b. 3 major parties emerge: Social Democrats (SPD). de Gaulle invested heavily in nuclear arms race 4. Lack of public facilities (hospitals. Continued to advocate economic and social planning. reconcile with France b. de Gaulle forms “French Popular Movement” (rightist). Power of president: right to choose PM. but coexist with capitalist system 1950: comeback for moderate political parties 1. 1958: de Gaulle’s Fifth Republic constitution creates strong leadership a. Communist Party excluded from all coalitions d. June 1946: Italy becomes democratic republic 2. Denazification: Allies continued war crimes trials of Nazi officials a. unemployment fell d. April 1948: Christian Democrats (Catholic) emerge as leading party a. Britain was left with a burden of debt from international commitments 5. Italy experiences “economic miracle” a. Great Britain: The Welfare State 1. 1953: West German government began to make payments to Israel and Holocaust survivors’ families 5. Labour government enacts welfare reform 2. 1963: Ludwig Erhard succeeds Adenauer as chancellor a. 1946: National Insurance Act: establish social security program and nationalizes medical insurance b. Labour Party comes to party a.c. British welfare begins with nationalization of major institutions a. Especially costly for the state 3. Real wages increased. Cost of building welfare state forced British to reduce expenses abroad 4. 1950: German courts begun to take over war crimes trials b. Marshall Plan helped stabilize Italian economy b. Coalitions were instable and short-lived c. 1946 National Health Service Act: socialized medicine requiring doctors to work with state hospitals c. West Germany imports guest workers to maintain economic expansion 4. Combined private enterprise with government management . Trade unions demand higher wages c. Britain’s international influence declined a. 1948-1953: PM Alcide de Gasperi b. Ludwig Erhard largely continued Adenauer’s conservative policies b. Conservatives accept welfare state and even tried to improve British housing b. Christian Democrats supported by upper-middle classes and southern peasantry 3. 1951-1964: Conservatives back in power a. July 1956: Egyptian leader Nasser nationalizes Suez Canal British condemn this act (threat to their interests) October 1956: British attack Egypt British forced to accept UN ceasefire resolution ix. mid-1960s: economic downturn 1969: SPD becomes leading party viii. Italy: The Weakness of Coalition Government 1. The Structure of European Society i. 1951: European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) formed to create common market for coal and steel products 1. Large free-trade area protected by common external tariff 2. Dramatic shift of people from rural to urban areas 2. Southern Italy remained economically backwards e. Eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers 2. The Development of Canada The Emergence of a New Society a. Increased wages enabled working classes to enjoy middle-class consumer products iii. EEC became world’s largest exporter and purchaser of raw materials The United States and Canada: A New Era a. American Politics and Society in the 1950s b. Family allowances and educational policies . Number of people in agriculture declined dramatically 3. Growth of mass tourism b. 1957: ECSC success leads to creation of European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) to further research on peaceful uses of nuclear energy iv. Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) created to encourage European trade iii. Welfare state represents another extension of power of the state over lives of citizens ii.III. 1957: Rome Treaty creates European Economic Community (EEC. New postwar social legislation greatly extended earlier benefits and created new ones iv. “Common Market”) 1. Noticeable changes in middle class 1. An Age of Upheaval: The United States from 1960 to 1970 c. Changes in lower classes 1. Greater market for mass leisure iv. IV. Late 19th century social welfare programs were piecemeal iii. c. Benefits extended to cover more people and provide larger payments v. Desire for unity Europe focused on economy ii. Augmentation of the traditional middle-class groups by whitecollar supervisory and administrative personnel ii. Number of industrial workers began to dwindle as number of white-collar employees increased 4. but methods of achieving this goal varied vi. Western Europe: The Move toward Unity i. Affordable health care for all was a common goal. Creation of the Welfare State i. Encouraged cooperation and standardization in member nations’ economies 3. Women protested that political and legal equality had not brought true equality with men 2. West Germany passed laws to keep women at home (in contrast with Communist countries where women were encouraged to work outside) viii. Remove class barriers by expanding number of universities and providing scholarship aid vii. Employers encouraged to pay women lower wages in order to discourage them from joining the workforce 4. Gender issues influenced form that welfare state took 1. Encouraged population growth c. changes in manners and morals were far more extensive ii. Women only received subsidies for having children 3. British welfare system encouraged dependence of wives on husbands 5. Divorce rates increased dramatically . Simone de Beauvoir a. The Feminist Movement: The Search for Liberation 1. and books broke new ground iii. plays. After WWII. Sweden starts sex education in schools and decriminalization of homosexuality 2. Birth control gave people more freedom in sexual behavior 3. The Second Sex (1949): women had received second-class status due to their “differences” from men b. Breakdown of traditional family 1. The Feminine Mystique (1963): argued that women were being denied equality with men 4. Women entitled to same welfare benefits as men for working outside home 2. Major influence on European women’s movement 3. 1950s: birthrates began to decline due to birth control ii. British welfare system based on belief that women should stay home with children 2. The Permissive Society i. Family allowance programs provided a fixed amount per child 2. Working-class women still earned salaries lower than those of men for equal work iv. People returned to traditional family practices 1. Sexually explicit movies. Increased number of married women in workforce iii. New (and Old) Patterns: Women in the Postwar Western World i. Betty Friedan a. 1960s: renewed interest in women’s liberation movement a. 1960s: Sweden starts sexual revolution in Europe 1. “Baby boom” as birthrates began to rise 2. National Organization of Women (NOW) founded by Friedan d. France sought to maintain individual rights of women in welfare system 1.1. Most of West European young people had higher education before WWII ii.2. German students want to destroy corrupt old older 2. More students from middle and lower classes enrolled in European universities iii. 1960s: growing youth movement questioning authority e. Police repress the students v. One-Dimensional Man (1964): capitalism had undermined the dissatisfaction of the oppressed masses. Education and Student Revolt i. 1960s: student protests 2. students should liberate masses from the capitalist ruling class 4. Extramarital and premarital sex rose substantially iv. German students influenced by Herbert Marcuse 3. West Berlin students protest against Axel Springer. 1968: student protest movement reach high point . 1960s: emergence of a drug culture v. so workers return to work police repressed the remaining student protesters iv. 1968: French students demand more democracy in university administration May 1968: general strike de Gaulle’s government raise wages. leader of newspaper 1. Students felt that universities were not providing an education relevant to modern age 1.