VOLUME 1 Florida. Linnert GML Publications Hilton Head Island. USA Fourth Edition Published by the American Welding Society Miami. USA . South Carolina.Welding Metallurgy Carbon and Alloy Steels Volume I Fundamentals George E. Contents Contents Chapter One: Background to Welding Metallurgy MILESTONES IN WELDING HISTORY 1 1 THE FUTURE OF WELDING WHAT IS WELDING METALLURGY? PUTTING WELDING METALLURGY TO USE 4 6 12 WELDING TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES 12 SUGGESTED READING 15 Chapter Two: The Structure of Metals ATOMS Elementary Particles Electrons Positrons Atomic Nuclei Protons Neutrons Atom Construction Isotopes of Elements Isobars Atomic Weight Atomic Mass Atom Valency lonization Radioactivity Atom Size or Diameter THE ELEMENTS AGGREGATES OF ATOMS The Solid State The Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids The Liquid State The Gaseous State FUNDAMENTALS OF CRYSTALS Identification of Planes and Directions in Crystals Basic Types of Crystals 18 18 20 22 26 26 27 28 32 33 34 34 34 35 36 37 38 39 41 45 45 47 48 49 50 56 56 . vi Welding Metallurgy Inert Gas Crystals Ionic Crystals Covalent Crystals Metallic Crystals 58 58 59 59 THE CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS How Does a Crystal Grow from the Melt? The Formation of Dendrites The Formation of Grains The Shape of Grains The Size of Grains Undercooling 61 64 66 68 71 72 72 THE IMPORTANCE OF A CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE Allotropic Transformation Solubility in the Solid State Plasticity in Metallic Crystals Slip in Crystalline Structures Slip and Lattice Orientation Slip in Polycrystalline Metals Observing Slip Twinning in Crystalline Structures Lattice Imperfections: Dislocations Point Defects Edge Dislocations Screw Dislocations Stacking Faults Other Lattice Imperfections Cold-Working Metals 74 75 76 77 77 78 79 80 81 84 85 86 88 88 88 88 EXAMINATION OF METAL STRUCTURES Fracture Appearance Assessment Metallography Metallography Using Optical Microscopy Quantitative Metallography Metallography Using the Electron Microscope Metallography Using Ion Microscopy Tunnel-Effect Microscopy Chemical Analysis of Microstructural Constituents Newer Techniques in Metallurgy 91 92 92 92 105 106 115 116 116 121 FRACTOGRAPHY 123 SUGGESTED READING 131 Chapter Three: The Properties of Metals STRUCTURE SENSITIVITY OF PROPERTIES DIRECTIONALITY IN PROPERTIES 133 133 135 . Contents vii MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Elastic Behavior of Metals Young's Modulus of Elasticity Poisson's Ratio Limits of Elasticity and Proportionality Plastic Yielding in Metals Yield Strength Breaking Strength of Metals Tensile Strength True Stress and True Strain Notched Tensile Strength Ductility Elongation Reduction of Area Ductility Indications from Special Tests Hardness Static Indentation Hardness Testing Microhardness Testing Dynamic Hardness Testing Scratch Hardness Testing Conversion of Hardness Numbers Toughness Introduction of Impact Testing 136 137 139 139 141 142 143 143 144 144 147 147 148 149 149 149 150 151 152 153 153 154 155 FRACTURE IN METALS Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture Intergranular Fracture Conditions Affecting Fracture Toughness Effect of Temperature Effect of Stress Axiality Stress Gradient Stress Multiaxiality Effect of Rate of Strain Effect of Cyclic Stress (Fatigue) Fatigue Crack Initiation Fatigue Crack Propagation Fatigue Crack Failure Cyclic Stress Limits to Avoid Fatigue Failure Cyclic Stress Conditions Variable Loading and Cumulative Fatigue Damage 156 158 159 162 164 164 166 169 170 171 174 176 176 176 181 183 185 FRACTURE MECHANICS: ASSESSMENT OF FRACTURE TOUGHNESS Brittle Fracture Test Parameters Section Dimensions Plotting Coordinates Crack Surface Displacement Mode Plane-Strain 188 190 192 192 193 195 . Viii Welding Metallurgy Plane-Stress Stress Distribution Procedures for Evaluating Propensity for Brittle Fracture Use of Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics Development of Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics Crack Tip Opening Displacement Testing The J-lntegral Test Method Fatigue Cracking Assessment by Fracture Mechanics Mechanical Properties at Low Temperature Strength at Low Temperature Impact Toughness at Low Temperature Test Methods for Toughness Evaluation Correlation of Results from Fracture Toughness Tests Improved Mechanical Properties for Low-Temperature Service Mechanical Properties at Elevated and High Temperatures Short-Time Elevated Temperature Testing Long-Time Elevated Temperature Testing Mechanical Properties After Plastic Work Hot Work Cold Work Peening Irradiation 195 196 197 198 201 205 211 215 218 219 220 226 236 238 238 241 242 247 248 248 248 249 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Density Thermal Properties Specific Heat Thermal Conductivity Melting Point or Melting Range Heat of Fusion Viscosity and Surface Tension of Molten Metals Boiling Point and Heat of Vaporization Thermal Expansion and Contraction Thermionic Work Function Electrical Properties Magnetic Properties Evaluation of Magnetization Summary of Magnetic Behavior Involvement of Magnetization in Welding 258 258 259 260 261 264 264 264 266 266 268 268 270 272 273 274 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Corrosion of Metals Corrosion in Aqueous Solutions Corrosion in Hot Gases Corrosion in Molten Metals Corrosion in Molten Salt Forms of Corrosion Pertinent to Weldments Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) SUGGESTED READING 274 275 276 282 282 283 283 284 293 . Contents Chapter Four: Effects of Alloying Elements ALLOYING Alloys in the Liquid State Phase Diagrams Binary Phase Diagrams Ternary Phase Diagrams Phase Diagrams for Multi-Element Alloys Alloys in the Solid State Factors Influencing Solid Solubility Formation of Intermediate Phases and Compounds Mechanisms and General Effects of Alloying Role of Crystalline Structure Role of Microstructure Mechanisms for Altering Mechanical Properties ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN IRON Carbon Analysis of the Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram Manganese Phosphorus Sulfur and Selenium Silicon Copper Chromium Nickel Molybdenum Niobium (Columbium) Vanadium Aluminum Nitrogen Titanium Boron Cobalt Tungsten Lead Other Alloying Elements BENEFIT OF REVERSING THE ALLOYING TREND Residual Elements SUGGESTED READING 295 295 296 299 304 307 308 310 310 316 316 317 319 319 326 329 331 337 338 340 342 343 345 346 346 347 348 348 349 352 354 355 355 355 356 357 358 359 Chapter Five: Types of Steel and Their Manufacture 361 GENERAL CATEGORIES OF IRON AND STEEL 361 IRON PRODUCTION BY ORE REDUCTION Blast Furnace 362 362 ix . Welding Metallurgy Direct Reduction Processes 365 CAST IRON WROUGHT IRON POWDER METALLURGY 366 367 367 STEELMAKING PROCESSES Significance of Acid and Basic Steelmaking Bessemer Converter Open Hearth Furnace Rimmed Steel Capped Steel Killed Steel Semikilled Steel Vacuum Deoxidized Steel Oxygen Steelmaking Basic Oxygen Steelmaking L-D Process Kaldo Process Off-Gas BOF Q-BOP Process Lance-Bubbling-Equilibrium Ladle Refining Slag Removal Mixing Capability Alloying Additions Vacuum Treatment Temperature Adjustment Desulfurization Electric-Arc Furnace Electric-Induction Furnace Electroslag Remelting 368 368 369 370 372 373 373 379 379 380 380 381 383 383 383 385 385 385 386 386 386 387 388 389 389 391 SPECIAL MELTING PROCESSES Vacuum Induction Melting Vacuum Consumable-Electrode Remelting Electron-Beam Melting Argon-Oxygen Decarburization (AOD) FOUNDRY AND STEEL MILL OPERATIONS Ingot Steelmaking Practice Continuous Casting of Steel 392 392 393 395 396 397 398 400 HOT WORKING OPERATIONS Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (T-MCP) COLD FINISHING HEAT TREATMENT CONTINUOUS COATING OF STRIP STEEL IN COILS TYPES OF STEEL Carbon Steels 404 406 407 408 409 410 410 . and Machinery Low-Temperature Service Elevated Temperature Service High-Alloy Steels Austenitic Manganese Steel Stainless Steels Heat-Resisting Steels Tool Steels 411 412 412 413 413 413 413 414 415 415 STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEELS Unified Numbering System AISI-SAE System of Standard Carbon and Alloy Steels ASTM Standards API Specifications Aerospace Material Specifications ASME Material Specifications AWS Specifications. Aircraft.Contents Alloy Steels Construction Automotive. Codes and Rules CARBON AND ALLOY STEEL USED IN WELDED CONSTRUCTION Qualities of Steel Important to Welding Factors Affecting the Weldability of Steel Chemical Composition Mechanical Properties Metallurgical Structure Internal Soundness Cleanliness THE FUTURE OF STEELS AND THEIR WELDABILITY New Steels and Product Forms Dissimilar-Metal Welding Repair Welding — The Ultimate Challenge 416 416 418 420 424 426 426 429 430 431 432 432 434 435 435 436 437 437 437 439 SUGGESTED READING 439 Chapter Six: Welding Methods and Processes 444 SOLID-STATE WELDING (SSW) 444 FUSION WELDING 445 BRAZING AND SOLDERING HEAT SOURCES FOR WELDING AND CUTTING Electrical Heat Generation Electric Arc Electron Beam Electric Resistance Electromagnetic Radiation Laser Beams 445 448 448 448 459 461 461 463 xi . xii Welding Metallurgy Chemical Heat Generation Mechanical Heat Generation 465 466 THE WELDING AND CUTTING PROCESSES Arc Welding Process Power Sources for Arc Welding Auxiliary Equipment for Arc Welding Basic Forms of Arc Welding Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Stud Arc Welding (SW) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Percussion Welding (PEW) Magnetically Impelled Arc Welding Welding Arc Technology Resistance Welding Processes Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW) Projection Welding (PW) Upset Welding (UW) Flash Welding (FW) Electrical Metal-Explosion Welding Process Induction Welding (IW) Electroslag Welding (ESW) Electron Beam Welding (EBW) Welding in a High Vacuum (EBW-HV) Welding in a Medium Vacuum (EBW-MV) Nonvacuum Electron Beam Welding (EBW-NV) Tracking Joints During Electron Beam Welding Laser Beam Welding (LBW) Nature of Laser Beams and Plasma Generation Basic Techniques in Laser Welding Attributes of Laser Welding Laser Welding Difficulties and Defects Shielding Gas Effects in Laser Welding Filler Wire Feeding in Laser Welding Oxyfuel Welding (OFW) Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW) Thermite Welding (TW) 467 467 467 470 471 472 477 478 489 501 505 511 514 515 517 520 522 531 532 533 537 541 542 542 548 550 565 565 565 568 569 571 571 572 575 576 582 582 585 SOLID-STATE WELDING PROCESSES Hot Pressure Welding (HPW) Induction Welding (IW) Friction Welding (FRW) Inertia-Drive Friction Welding Direct-Drive Friction Welding 587 589 592 593 594 595 . Convection. and Radiation Enthalpy and Entropy TEMPERATURE AND TIME IN WELDING Heat Flow Equations Heat Source Characterization Rate of Heating Heating Potential of Energy Sources OAW Heating Potential AW Heating Potential 653 653 653 654 654 655 656 656 657 658 659 661 662 662 .Contents Materials Suited for Friction Welding Mechanical Properties of Friction Welds Other Forms of Friction Welding Explosion Welding (EXW) Diffusion Welding (DFW) Ultrasonic Welding (USW) Cold Welding (CW) Electrostatic Bonding Electrodeposition Welding xiii 595 598 600 607 612 613 616 617 619 BRAZING AND SOLDERING PROCESSES Brazing Processes (B) Soldering (S) 620 620 624 SURFACING BY WELDING AND THERMAL SPRAY Buildup Buttering Hardfacing Overlaying and Cladding 628 628 628 629 632 THERMAL CUTTING PROCESSES Metallurgical Effects of Thermal Cutting Oxygen Cutting Processes (OC) Oxyfuel Gas Cutting (OFC) Chemical Flux Cutting (FOC) Metal Powder Cutting (POC) Electric Arc Cutting Processes (AC) Air Carbon Arc Cutting (CAC-A) Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC) Electron Beam Cutting (EBC) Laser Beam Cutting (LBC) SUGGESTED READING 633 633 634 635 636 636 637 639 640 643 647 651 Chapter Seven: Temperature Changes in Welding TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Heat Temperature Thermal Flow Conduction. Slags.xiv Welding Metallurgy FRW Heating Potential EBW Heating Potential LBW Heating Potential Electrical Resistance Heating Potential Peak Temperatures Defining the Weld Zone Numerical Modeling of Temperatures Temperature Distributions Effects of Temperature Distribution on Cooling Rate Special Considerations Regarding Temperature Distribution Time at Temperature Furnace Heating for Welding Simulation Temper Color as an Indicant Resistance Heating for Welding Simulation Cooling Rate of Heated Zones Correlation with Heat Input Workpiece Pre-Weld Temperature Instantaneous Cooling Rate Influence of Travel Speed on Weld Zone Size Hardness/Microstructure/CoolingRate Relationship Cooling End Points CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE IN FUSION WELDING Predictive Diagrams for Fusion Welding Parameters Mathematical Modeling of Fusion Welding Sensory Systems for Adaptive Control of Fusion Welding Adaptive Control of Solid-State Welding Processes SUGGESTED READING Chapter Eight: Fluxes. and Gases for Shielding 662 663 663 663 664 665 666 668 670 672 674 675 675 676 677 677 681 683 686 693 696 698 699 699 701 703 705 708 OXIDATION OF IRON 708 OXIDATION OF STEEL Carbon/Oxygen Reaction in Molten Steel Oxidation of Solid Steel PREVENTING OXIDATION DURING WELDING Shielding Slags Fluxes Controlled Atmospheres Vacuum Technique Deoxidizers Protective Surface Alloys Liquid Blankets 710 710 713 714 714 716 717 718 720 721 721 722 SHIELDING THE JOINING PROCESSES FROM AIR Carbon Arc Welding 722 722 . Contents Metal Arc Welding Covered Electrodes Generic Electrode Coverings and Typical Formulas Flux Cored Electrodes Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Types of SAW Fluxes and Their Classification Methods of Manufacturing SAW Fluxes Physical Chemistry of Fluxes in SAW Process Transfer of Elements Between SAW Flux/Slag and Weld Metal Electroslag Welding Gas Shielded Arc Welding Argon Helium Carbon Dioxide Propane Nitrogen Hydrogen Miscellaneous Gas Additives Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Gas Metal Arc Welding Globular Transfer in GMAW Repelled Transfer in GMAW Projected Transfer in GMAW Streaming or Axial-Spray Transfer in GMAW Pulsed Spray Transfer in GMAW-P Rotating Droplet (Kinking) Transfer in GMAW Explosive Drop Transfer in GMAW Short Circuiting Transfer in GMAW-S Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Electrogas Welding (EGW) Other Welding Processes Using Gas Shielding Laser Beam Welding (LBW) Non-Vacuum Electron Beam Welding (EBW-NV) Protecting Brazing Processes From Air Soldering — Ways to Achieve Bonding Fluxes for Soldering Mechanical Means to Accomplish Solder Bonding SUGGESTED READING Chapter Nine: Simple Welds in Iron and Steel FUSION WELDS Solidification of Weld Metal Modes of Primary Solidification Structure The Weld Zone 723 724 731 738 744 744 748 750 758 765 766 768 768 769 770 770 770 771 771 772 775 775 776 776 777 778 778 778 779 780 780 781 781 781 782 784 784 784 785 787 787 788 793 797 xv . xvi Welding Metallurgy The Unmixed Zone The Partially Melted Zone The Heat-Affected Zone Unaffected Base Metal SOLID-STATE WELDS MICROSTRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN SOLID IRON AND STEEL Phase Changes in Steel Ferrite Austenite Cementite Pearlite Widmanstatten Pattern Microstructural Changes in Steel During Heating Microstructures Formed in Steel During Cooling Martensitic Microstructures Isothermal Transformation of Austenite Pearlite Formation Isothermally Bainite Formation Isothermally Martensite Formation Reappraisal of Microstructures Formed in Steel Upper Bainite Lower Bainite Importance of Critical Cooling Rate Importance of Delay-Time Before AusteniteTransformation Martensite: Implications in Welding Temperature Range for Martensite Formation Quantitative Prediction of Martensite Formation Martensite Hardness Rationale Martensite Formation Monitoring by AE Signals IT Diagrams: Summation of Usefulness Transformation of Austenite During Continuous Cooling PREDICTION OF MICROSTRUCTURES IN THE HEAT-AFFECTED ZONES OF WELDS Jominy Method of Predicting HAZ Microstructure Mathematical Approach to Prejudging HAZ Suitability TRANSFORMATIONS IN WELD METAL Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams for Weld Metal Importance of Weld Metal Composition Role of Grain Size in Weld Metal Influence of Nonmetallic Inclusions in Weld Metal STUDY OF A TYPICAL FUSION WELD IN STEEL Making Welds with Good Toughness The Challenge of Optimizing Welding Procedures Base Metal Weld Metal Welding Process and Procedure 799 800 801 802 802 802 803 804 804 806 807 809 810 816 818 824 826 828 828 831 832 833 834 836 836 837 839 841 842 843 848 851 852 856 857 867 870 872 872 876 883 888 889 890 890 . Including the Technical Briefs and the tables In the Appendixes. THE ELEMENTS: SYMBOLS & PROPERTIES 907 X.Contents Weldment Property Testing Nondestructive Examination SUGGESTED READING Appendixes xvii 890 890 891 893 I. SYMBOLS USED IN TEXT AND TABLES IV. THE ELEMENTS: ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS 913 XI. ELECTRONIC DATABASES & COMPUTER PROGRAMS 919 Index 923 NOTE: To assist the reader In finding specific Information on a particular subject. ABBREVIATIONS & ALPHABETICAL DESIGNATIONS VI. STRESS CONVERSION: MPa «=> ksi VIII. have been extensively cross-catalogued In the Index located on pages 923 to 940. SI BASE UNITS VII. the contents of each chapter. ACRONYMS FOR ORGANIZATIONS II. In addition. TEMPERATURE CONVERSION: CELSIUS <=> FAHRENHEIT 897 901 902 905 IX. the contents of each chapter has been demarcated In a separate listing located on the first verso page preceding that chapter. . ALPHABETS USED IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 896 896 V. STANDARD TERMINOLOGY REFERENCES 893 895 III. 16. 17. 33. 29. 26. 3. 8. 35. 30. 34. 28. 14. 2. No. 22. 23. 32. 6. 21. 27. Title 1. 20. 24.xviii Welding Metallurgy Technical Briefs Brief Page No. 10.The Building Block of the Elements Miller Indices Burgers Vectors Laser Scanning Microscopy Specimen Preparation for TEM Dislocation Movement in Body-Centered-Cubic Metals Crack Arrest Flow Strength Versus Cohesive Strength Griffith's Theory of Fracture Mechanics Fracture Mechanics Testing of Ductile Metals Developing an Analytic Procedure for Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics Improving the Value of the Charpy Impact Test The Larson-Miller Parameter Quantifying the Severity of Exposure to Neutron Irradiation Thermoelectric Effects as Related to Metallurgy Lead as an Immiscible Alloy in Iron and Steel Application of the Lever Law to Solidification of Metals The Gibbs Phase Rule Hume-Rothery's Classification of Elements Correlation Between Electron Configuration and Crystal Structure Coherency of Atoms in Precipitation Hardening Rationale for Letter Designations in the Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram Effects of Manganese Sulfide Inclusions in Steel Nitrogen Retention in Steel Manufacture of Fine-Grain Steel Using an Aluminum Additive Continuous Casting of Thin Steel Strip The AISI System for Generic Designation of Sheet Steels lonization Initiating a Welding Arc Effects of Weld Pool Circulation on Penetration Depth in GTAW Hot Cracking Susceptibility in Submerged Arc Welds Problems in Spot Welding Zinc-Coated Steel 15. 19. 5. 31. 13. 4 18 32 35 57 90 96 109 162 164 174 189 202 206 227 247 252 271 297 302 310 313 317 324 332 343 351 377 404 423 452 455 486 507 529 . 7. 18. 11. 25. Transition Joints Between Different Steels What is an Angstrom? Thermonuclear Fusion Hydrogen . 12. 9. 4. 46. 41. 40. 48. 49. 39. Title 36. 37. 47. 44. 557 599 637 678 727 736 747 753 792 797 806 817 840 845 885 . 43. 38. 42. Preventing Arcing in Electron Beam Welding Friction Welding in Undersea Applications Effects of Alloying Elements in Steel on Oxygen Cutting Controlling HAZ Cooling Rate via Arc Energy Output Development of the SMAW Electrode Safeguards for Handling Low-Hydrogen SMAW Electrodes The Wall Neutrality Number Assessing Basicity of SAW Fluxes Solidification Structures in Steel Fusion Welds The Solidification Mechanics of Weld Surface Patterns Austenite: The Mother of Microstructures Pearlitic Microstructures Martensitic Microstructures Bainitic Microstructures Acicular Ferrite in Weld Microstructures No. 50. 45.Technical Briefs Brief xix Page No. Alloys. Boiling Point and Heat of Vaporization of Metals Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion for Some Metals.12 3.19 4.14 3.2 2.1 Title Elementary Particles lonization Potential of Gases and Vapors Diameters of Atoms The Elements Features of the Seven Crystal Systems Densities of Some Pure Metals and Their Change Crystal Structures of Some Pure Metals Crystal Structures of Some Pure Metals Capable of Allotropic Transformation Relationships Between ASTM Grain Size Numbers Comparison of Methods for Localized Analysis of Surfaces The Properties of Metals Typical Elastic Constants for Various Materials at Room Temperature Influence of Crystallographic Orientation on Elastic Modulus at Room Temperature Strain Rates Common to Various Exposures.4 3.13 3. and Nonmetals Melting Points or Ranges of Metals. Services.15 3.18 3. Alloys. and Electromotive Force Values for Metals Commonly Used Materials and Environments in Which Failure by StressCorrosion Cracking Has Been Experienced in Industry or in Tests Elements Used for Alloying Irons and Steels.5 2. Alloys and Nonmetals Forms of Corrosion and Instigative Conditions Galvanic Series. Alloys.7 2.11 3.1 3.XX Welding Metallurgy Tables Table No.10 3. 2.7 3.6 3. Latent Heat of Fusion. Alloys and Nonmetals Specific Heat of Some Metals and Nonmetals Thermal Conductivity of Metals.Bar Impact Values for Metals Tested at Low Temperatures Effect of Cold Work on Mechanical Properties of Low-Carbon Steel Sheet Thermal Neutron Cross Section for Iron and Other Elements Found in Steel Density and Strength-Weight Ratio of Metals.1 2.8 3.3 2. 20 37 39 42 56 66 75 76 99 122 134 140 141 173 218 221 249 251 259 260 262 263 265 267 268 270 275 278 287 319 .16 3.3 3. and Nonmetals Melting Point.10 3.6 2.8 2. and Their Influence on Crystalline Structure of the Alloy Page No.17 3. and Nonmetals Electron Thermionic Work Functions of Metals and Nonmetals Electrical Properties of Metals. and Mechanical Tests Temperature Conversion Scales and Fixed Points of Interest Notched .9 2.9 3.5 3.2 3.4 2. 7 8.4 8.1 5.3 5. Changes in Pure Iron During Cooling and Temperatures of Occurrence.3 Title xxi Page No.7 5.4 5.11 5.10 9. Including their Weld Heat-Affected Zones 877 .12 5.1 9.1 8.6 5.2 8.8 8.5 8. Semikilled and Killed Steels 379 Gas Content of Alloy Steel Ingots 380 Typical Gas Contents of Alloy Steel Ingots Melted by Four Electric Furnace Processes 394 Common Terms for Hot-Rolled Mill Products 405 Classification and Usage of Carbon Steels 411 SAE-ASTM Unified Numbering System 417 AISI-SAE System for Designation of Carbon and Alloy Steels 419 AISI-SAE System for Characterization of Carbon and Alloy Steels 420 AISI and SAE Systems for Classification of High-Strength Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Sheet 421 ASTM Annual Book of Standards -1993 Edition 422 API Specifications Governing Materials 425 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code 427 ASME B31.9 8.2 5.5 5.3 5.9 5.2 4.Tables Table No. Specifications and Standards 429 Characteristics of Argon and Helium Gases When Shielding theGTAW Process 483 Typical Chemical Compositions of Weld Metal Deposited by Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrodes 504 Thickness and Weight of Zinc Coatings on Steel 528 Temper Colors Formed on Iron and Carbon Steel 676 Degree of Vacuum Used to Protect Metal During Various Processes 719 Materials Used in Coverings on Steel Electrodes for SMAW Arc Welding Process 726 Recovery of Elements From Coverings of Electrodes Deposited by SMAW Process 729 Typical Covering Formulas for Steel SMAW Electrodes 732 Typical Flux Core Formulas for Steel FCAW Electrodes 740 IIW Classification of Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding of Steel 754 Typical Flux Compositions for Submerged Arc Welding of Steel 755 Typical Flux for Electroslag Welding of Steel 766 Gases Used in Shielding Welding Arcs 767 Controlled Atmospheres Used in Furnace Brazing Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels '. Code for Pressure Piping 428 AWS Codes.321 Interstitial-Free I-F Steel 358 Comparison of Rimmed..1 8.2 9.3 7. 4.14 6.10 5. Capped. 782 Influence of Alloying Elements in Steel on Martensite Formation 837 Microstructures Found in Steel Weld Metal 858 Microstructures Found in Cast and Wrought Steels..6 8.8 5.1 6.2 6.13 5.3 8.