Weapons of Mass Destruction

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PDF generated at: Tue, 26 Mar 2013 20:52:36 UTC Contents Articles Overview Weapon of mass destruction 1 1 13 13 25 53 67 72 72 95 103 127 127 129 130 132 137 142 145 147 156 168 178 182 199 223 243 247 249 253 271 Types Biological warfare Chemical warfare Nuclear weapon Radiological weapon Proliferation Nuclear proliferation Chemical weapon proliferation List of missiles by country Countries Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada China France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa Syria Taiwan Ukraine United Kingdom United States 293 295 298 304 309 316 324 327 331 337 347 347 Treaties List of weapons of mass destruction treaties References Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 351 357 Article Licenses License 360 1 Overview Weapon of mass destruction Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Weapon of mass destruction € € € € € € 2 Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is a weapon that can kill and bring significant harm to a large number of humans (and other life forms) and/or cause great damage to man-made structures (e.g. buildings), natural structures (e.g. mountains), or the biosphere in general. The scope and application of the term has evolved and been disputed, often signifying more politically than technically. Coined in reference to aerial bombing with chemical explosives, it has come to distinguish large-scale weaponry of other technologies, such as chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear. This differentiates the term from more technical ones such as chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons (CBRN). Early uses of the term weapon of mass destruction The first use of the term "weapon of mass destruction" on record is by Cosmo Gordon Lang, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1937 in reference to the aerial bombardment of Guernica, Spain: Who can think at this present time without a sickening of the heart of the appalling slaughter, the suffering, the manifold misery brought by war to Spain and to China? Who can think without horror of what another widespread war would mean, waged as it would be with all the new weapons of mass destruction?[1] At the time, the United States (with help from Western Allies) had yet to develop and use nuclear weapons. Japan conducted research on biological weapons (see Unit 731),[2] and chemical weapons had seen wide use, most notably in World War I. Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and progressing through the Cold War, the term came to refer more to non-conventional weapons. The application of the term to specifically nuclear and radiological weapons is traced by William Safire to the Russian phrase "•‚ƒ„…† ‡ˆ‰‰Š‹ŠŒŠ •Š‚ˆ„†Ž…•" € oruzhiye massovovo porazheniya (weapons of mass destruction). He credits James Goodby (of the Brookings Institution) with tracing what he considers the earliest known English-language use soon after the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (although it is not quite verbatim): a communique from a 15 November 1945, meeting of Harry Truman, Clement Attlee and Mackenzie King (probably drafted by Vannevar Bush€ or so Bush claimed in 1970) referred to "weapons adaptable to mass destruction". That exact phrase, says Safire, was also used by Bernard Baruch in 1946 (in a speech at the United Nations probably written by Herbert Bayard Swope).[3] The same phrase found its way into the very first resolution adopted by the United Nations General assembly in January 1946 in London, which used the wording "...the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other weapons adaptable to mass destruction."[4] This resolution also created the Atomic Energy Commission (predecessor of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)). Weapon of mass destruction An exact use of this term was given in a lecture "Atomic Energy as an Atomic Problem" by J. Robert Oppenheimer. The lecture was delivered to the Foreign Service and the State Department, on 17 September 1947. The lecture is reprinted in The Open Mind (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955). "It is a very far reaching control which would eliminate the rivalry between nations in this field, which would prevent the surreptitious arming of one nation against another, which would provide some cushion of time before atomic attack, and presumably therefore before any attack with weapons of mass destruction, and which would go a long way toward removing atomic energy at least as a source of conflict between the powers". The term was also used in the introduction to the hugely influential US Government Document known as NSC-68 written in April 1950.[5] During a televised presentation about the Cuban Missile Crisis on 22 October 1962, John F. Kennedy made reference to "offensive weapons of sudden mass destruction.[6] " An early use of the exact phrase in an international treaty was in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, however no definition was provided. 3 Evolution of its use During the Cold War, the term "weapons of mass destruction" was primarily a reference to nuclear weapons. At the time, in the West the euphemism "strategic weapons" was used to refer to the American nuclear arsenal, which was presented as a necessary deterrent against nuclear or conventional attack from the Soviet Union (see Mutual Assured Destruction). The term "weapons of mass destruction" continued to see periodic use throughout this time, usually in the context of nuclear arms control; Ronald Reagan used it during the 1986 Reykjav•k Summit, when referring to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty.[7] Reagan's successor, George H.W. Bush, used the term in an 1989 speech to the United Nations, using it primarily in reference to chemical arms.[8] The end of the Cold War reduced U.S. reliance on nuclear weapons as a deterrent, causing it to shift its focus to disarmament. This period coincided with an increasing threat to U.S. interests from Islamic nations and independent Islamic groups. With the 1990 invasion of Kuwait and 1991 Gulf War, Iraq's nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons programs became a particular concern of the first Bush Administration.[9] Following the war, Bill Clinton and other western politicians and media continued to use the term, usually in reference to ongoing attempts to dismantle Iraq's weapons programs.[citation needed] After the 11 September 2001 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks, an increased fear of non-conventional weapons and asymmetrical warfare took hold of the United States and other Western powers. This fear reached a crescendo with the 2002 Iraq disarmament crisis and the alleged existence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq that became the primary justification for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. However, no WMD were found in Iraq.[a] Because of its prolific use during this period, the American Dialect Society voted "weapons of mass destruction" (and its abbreviation, "WMD") the word of the year in 2002,[10] and in 2003 Lake Superior State University added WMD to its list of terms banished for "Mis-use, Over-use and General Uselessness".[11] Weapon of mass destruction 4 Definitions of the term United States Strategic The most widely used definition of "weapons of mass destruction" is that of nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons (NBC) although there is no treaty or customary international law that contains an authoritative definition. Instead, international law has been used with respect to the specific categories of weapons within WMD, and not to WMD as a whole. The abbreviations NBC (for nuclear, biological and chemical) or CBR (chemical, biological, radiological) are used with regards to battlefield protection systems for armored vehicles, because all three involve insidious toxins that can be carried through the air and can be protected against with vehicle air filtration systems. However, there is an argument that nuclear and biological weapons do not belong in the same category as chemical and "dirty bomb" radiological weapons, which have limited destructive potential (and close to none, as far as property is concerned), whereas nuclear and biological weapons have the unique ability to kill large numbers of people with very small amounts of material, and thus could be said to belong in a class by themselves. The NBC definition has also been used in official U.S. documents, by the U.S. President,[12][13] the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency,[14] the U.S. Department of Defense,[15][16] and the U.S. Government Accountability Office.[17] Other documents expand the definition of WMD to also include radiological or conventional weapons. The U.S. military refers to WMD as: Chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons capable of a high order of destruction or causing mass casualties and exclude the means of transporting or propelling the weapon where such means is a separable and divisible part from the weapon. Also called WMD.[18] The significance of the words separable and divisible part of the weapon is that missiles such as the Pershing II and the SCUD are considered weapons of mass destruction, while aircraft capable of carrying bombloads are not. In 2004, the United Kingdom's Butler Review recognized the "considerable and long-standing academic debate about the proper interpretation of the phrase •weapons of mass destruction‚". The committee set out to avoid the general term but when using it, employed the definition of United Nations Security Council Resolution 687, which defined the systems which Iraq was required to abandon: € "Nuclear weapons or nuclear-weapons-usable material or any sub-systems or components or any research, development, support or manufacturing facilities relating to [nuclear weapons]. € Chemical and biological weapons and all stocks of agents and all related subsystems and components and all research,development,support and manufacturing facilities. € Ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150 kilometres and related major parts, and repair and production facilities."[19] Chemical weapons expert Gert G. Harigel considers only nuclear weapons true weapons of mass destruction, because "only nuclear weapons are completely indiscriminate by their explosive power, heat radiation and radioactivity, and only they should therefore be called a weapon of mass destruction". He prefers to call chemical and biological weapons "weapons of terror" when aimed against civilians and "weapons of intimidation" for soldiers. Testimony of one such soldier expresses the same viewpoint.[20] For a period of several months in the winter of 2002€2003, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz frequently used the term "weapons of mass terror," apparently also recognizing the distinction between the psychological and the physical effects of many things currently falling into the WMD category. Gustavo Bell Lemus, the Vice President of Colombia, at the 2001 United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects, quoted the Millennium Report of the UN Secretary-General to in which Kofi Annan said that small arms could be described as WMD because the fatalities they cause "dwarf that of all other weapons systems € and in most years greatly exceed the toll of the atomic bombs that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki". bomb. (3) Any weapon involving a disease organism. or mine or device similar to the above. and natural resources. or their precursors € any weapon involving a biological agent. mine. or vector € any weapon that is designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life[30] The Federal Bureau of Investigation's definition is similar to that presented above from the terrorism statute:[31] € any explosive or incendiary device. the category is now Chemical. (2) Poison gas. Nuclear. grenade. specifically its population. dissemination.[21] An additional condition often implicitly applied to WMD is that the use of the weapons must be strategic. to cause death or serious bodily injury to a significant number of people through the release. dissemination. and nuclear materials used in the manufacture of such weapons. and Explosive (CBRNE). In other words. incendiary. incendiary. or has the capability. industry.[28] weapons of mass destruction are defined as: € any destructive device defined as any explosive.[23] US Code[24] defines a weapon of mass destruction as: € any weapon or device that is intended. toxin."[27] Criminal (Civilian) For the purposes of US Criminal law concerning terrorism. mine. and chemical. poison gas. (4) Any weapon that is designed to release radiation at a level dangerous to human life.Weapon of mass destruction the General Assembly. missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce. missile having an explosive or incendiary charge of more than one-quarter ounce [7 g].[26] US Code defines weapons of mass destruction as "chemical.S. or impact of: € toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors € a disease organism € radiation or radioactivity[25] For the purposes of the prevention of weapons proliferation. biological. or poison gas bomb. rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces. they would be designed to "have consequences far outweighing the size and effectiveness of the weapons themselves". missile. biological. civil defense organizations. Section 921: bomb.[citation needed] Military For the general purposes of national defense. or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals. grenade. which defines WMD as: (1) Any explosive. and nuclear weapons.[22] The strategic nature of WMD also defines their function in the military doctrine of total war as targeting the means a country would use to support and supply its war effort. or device similar to any of the devices described in the preceding clauses[29] € any weapon that is designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release. Within U. Radiological. or impact of toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors € any weapon involving a disease organism € any weapon designed to release radiation or radioactivity at a level dangerous to human life € any device or weapon designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury by causing a malfunction of or destruction of an aircraft or other vehicle that carries humans or of an aircraft or other vehicle whose malfunction or destruction may cause said aircraft or other vehicle to cause death or serious bodily injury to humans who may 5 . dissemination. rocket. or rocket having a propellant charge of more than four ounces [113 g]. or other device with a charge of more than four ounces € any weapon designed or intended to cause death or serious bodily injury through the release. Biological. grenade. as defined in Title 18 USC. U.[33] shoe bombs. India. Pakistan.Weapon of mass destruction be within range of the vector in its course of travel or the travel of its debris. Although outside sources have been unable to unequivocally support the state's claims. but maintains an official policy of nuclear ambiguity. France. making it the only country to have fully given up an independently developed nuclear weapons arsenal. and Ukraine inherited stockpiles of nuclear arms following the break-up of the Soviet Union. but relinquished them to the Russian Federation. has not entered into force as of 2012) Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) € Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) WMD use. 6 Treaties The development and use of WMD is governed by international conventions and treaties. . North Korea has claimed to have developed and tested nuclear devices. Italy. Germany.[36] South Africa developed a small nuclear arsenal in the 1980s but disassembled them in the early 1990s. Israel is considered by most analysts to have nuclear weapons numbering in the low hundreds as well. and Turkey. which dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. Kazakhstan. the November 2007 NIE on Iran stated that Iran halted its nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003. There are eight countries that have declared they possess nuclear weapons and are known to have tested a nuclear weapon. Belarus. the United Kingdom. Russia. Moussaoui was indicted and tried for the use of airplanes as WMD. The eight are China.[34] cactus needles coated with botulin toxin. and the United States. Indictments and convictions for possession and use of WMD such as truck bombs.[35] etc. a claim that it denies.[32] pipe bombs. While the truth is unknown. only five of which are members of the NPT.S. possession and access Nuclear weapons The only country to have used a nuclear weapon in war is the United States. North Korea has officially been identified to have nuclear weapons. the Netherlands. nuclear warheads. The Washington Post reported on 30 March 2006: "Jurors asked the judge in the death penalty trial of Zacarias Moussaoui today to define the term 'weapons of mass destruction' and were told it includes airplanes used as missiles". have been obtained under 18 USC 2332a. although not all countries have signed and ratified them: € € € € € € Partial Test Ban Treaty Outer Space Treaty Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) Seabed Arms Control Treaty Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT. 1945€2002 Iran is suspected by western countries of seeking nuclear weapons. North Korea. neither denying nor confirming its nuclear status. Countries with access to nuclear weapons through nuclear sharing agreements include Belgium. Weapon of mass destruction 7 United States politics Due to the indiscriminate impact of WMD.[45] Media coverage of WMD In 2004. and then long forgotten. Support for different levels of WMD development and control varies nationally and internationally. chemical weapons." According to the Washington Post. The term WMD may be used as a powerful buzzword[37] or to generate a culture of fear.[40][41] Broad reference to Iraqi WMD in general was seen as an element of President Bush's arguments. which ended in 1988. giving too little critical examination of the way officials framed the events. and generation of popular political support. They include mobilization of pro. a problem exacerbated by the journalistic prioritizing of breaking-news stories and the ‚inverted pyramidƒ style of storytelling.[39] As Paul Wolfowitz explained: "For bureaucratic reasons. thwarting an attempt by militants to buy them at $5000 each."[42] To date. the Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland (CISSM) released a report[46] examining the media‚s coverage of WMD issues during three separate periods: nuclear weapons tests by India and Pakistan in May 1998. fostered social movements. Polish troops found nineteen 1980s-era rocket warheads. Bush to generate public support for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Many stories stenographically reported the incumbent administration•s perspective on WMD. . weapons of mass destruction. the threat of potential WMD in Iraq was used by President George W. by Iraqi troops during their eight-year war with Iran." That night. he was referring to 500 such shells "that had been buried near the Iranian border. failing to adequately distinguish between weapons programs and actual weapons or to address the real differences among chemical. 3. threats. Most media outlets represented WMD as a monolithic menace.[39] A television commercial called Daisy. issues. and has been the central theme of many films. promoting Democrat Lyndon Johnson's 1964 presidential candidacy. however. The CISSM report notes that poor coverage resulted less from political bias among the media than from tired journalistic conventions. Yet understanding of the nature of the threats is not high. we settled on one issue. Coalition forces have found mainly degraded artillery shells. and revelations about Iran's nuclear program in May 2003. invoked the fear of a nuclear war and was an element in Johnson's subsequent election. particularly by not distinguishing among the different types of WMD. Most journalists accepted the Bush administration•s formulation of the ‚War on Terrorƒ as a campaign against WMD. when many journalists made careful distinctions between acts of terrorism and the acquisition and use of WMD.[38] It is also used ambiguously. biological." The shells had been uncovered and reported on in 2004."[43] On 21 June 2006. More recently. Too few stories proffered alternative perspectives to official line. Fear of WMD. "intelligence officials reaffirmed that the shells were old and were not the suspected weapons of mass destruction sought in Iraq after the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[44] In 2004. the fear of a WMD attack has shaped political policies and campaigns. in part because of imprecise usage of the term by politicians and the media. or of threats diminished by the possession of WMD. and policy options. has long been used to catalyze public support for various WMD policies. and radiological weapons. The report‚s major findings were that: 1. 2. 4. because it was the one reason everyone could agree on. nuclear. the US announcement of evidence of a North Korean nuclear weapons program in October 2002. in contrast to coverage during the Clinton era. There was almost no dissent on the issue. Some of the rockets contained extremely deteriorated nerve agent. then-United States Republican Senator Rick Santorum claimed "We have found weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. Molly Ivins wrote: "The ONLY (source) to report skeptically on the administration's claims about Iraq's weapons of mass destruction before the war? Knight-Ridder and its terrific reporters Warren Strobel and Jonathan Landay.and anti-WMD campaigners alike. stating on NPR's Talk of the Nation: "When I was running the ISG € the Iraq Survey Group € we had a couple of them that had been turned in to these IEDs. A poll conducted between June and September 2003 asked people whether they thought evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq since the war ended. reported the conclusions of the CIA that. 2. you know.[50] Charles Duelfer agreed. wikileaks would show that these kind of WMDs continued to be found as the Iraqi occupation continued. The repetition of tentative news stories. its subsequent correction does not alter people's beliefs unless they are suspicious about the motives underlying the events the news stories are about. who appeared before the US House Armed Services Committee to discuss these badly corroded munitions. Media source Respondents believing evidence of WMD had been found in Iraq Fox CBS NBC CNN ABC Print media PBS€NPR 33% 23% 20% 20% 19% 17% 11% 8 Based on a series of polls taken from June€September 2003. the improvised explosive devices. Dependence on the initial source of information led to a substantial minority of Americans exhibiting false memory that WMD were indeed discovered.[52] Many news agencies. while they were not. and one third more likely than those who primarily watched CBS. based upon the investigation of the Iraq Survey Group. Those who obtained their news primarily from Fox News were three times as likely to believe that evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq than those who relied on PBS and NPR for their news. including Fox News.[49] based upon unclassified portions of a report by the National Ground Intelligence Center.[48] In 2006 Fox News reported the claims of two Republican lawmakers that WMDs had been found in Iraq.Weapon of mass destruction In a separate study published in 2005. Once information is published. According to David Kay. The study focused on populations in two coalition countries (Australia and USA) and one opposed to the war (Germany). even if they are subsequently disconfirmed. Results showed that US citizens generally did not correct initial misconceptions regarding WMD. Australian and German citizens were more responsive to retractions. coalition forces have recovered approximately 500 weapons munitions which contain degraded mustard or sarin nerve agent"."[51] Later. WMDs are yet to be found in Iraq.[53][54] . This led to three conclusions: 1. When people ignore corrections. weapon of mass destruction. They are not a major. Quoting from the report Senator Rick Santorum said "Since 2003. 3. many years old.[47] a group of researchers assessed the effects reports and retractions in the media had on people‚s memory regarding the search for WMD in Iraq during the 2003 Iraq War. They were also asked which media sources they relied upon. they do so irrespective of how certain they are that the corrections occurred. even following disconfirmation. improperly stored or destroyed by the Iraqis. can assist in the creation of false memories in a substantial proportion of people. But they are local hazards. they were leftovers. [59] 39% believes the Russian stockpile should be reduced. A Russian opinion poll conducted on 5 August 2005 indicated half the population believes new nuclear powers have the right to possess nuclear weapons. proliferation. While maintenance of a nuclear US arsenal was considered above average in importance. and pride to different people. In 1998 University of New Mexico's Institute for Public Policy released their third report[56] on US perceptions € including the general public. Prior to the election the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) announced it would ƒdeclare India a nuclear weapon state„ after coming to power. politicians and scientists € of nuclear weapons since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Common hazard symbols Symbol Unicode Toxic symbol Image Radioactive symbol ‘ ’ “ U+2620 U+2622 Biohazard symbol U+2623 .Weapon of mass destruction 9 Public perceptions of WMD Awareness and opinions of WMD have varied during the course of their history. the Program on International Policy Attitudes (PIPA) reported[58] that US citizens showed high levels of concern regarding WMD. and terrorism were seen as substantial. nuclear weapons became an issue in India's election of March. A majority also believed the US should be more forthcoming with its biological research and its Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty commitment of nuclear arms reduction. as both political commentary and humorous outlet. three days after India tested nuclear weapons for the second time. and incorrectly thought the US was a party to various non-proliferation treaties. Risks of nuclear conflict. BJP won the elections. and very little support for developing and testing new nuclear weapons. but after the UNM survey was conducted. Their threat is a source of unease. in 2004 the nuclear physicist and Nobel Peace Prize winner Joseph Rotblat inspired the creation of The WMD Awareness Programme[55] to provide trustworthy and up to date information on WMD world wide. a public opinion poll reported that a majority of Indians favored the country‚s nuclear build-up. and on 14 May. and led to the formation of the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1957. and that preventing the spread of nuclear weapons should be "a very important US foreign policy goal". In order to increase awareness of all kinds of WMD. accomplished through multilateral arms control rather than the use of military threats. The anti-WMD movement is embodied most in nuclear disarmament.[citation needed] On 15 April 2004. there was widespread support for a reduction in the stockpile. WMD in popular culture Weapons of mass destruction and their related impacts have been a mainstay of popular culture since the beginning of the Cold War. security. though not fully eliminated.[57] in relation to political tensions with neighboring Pakistan. Also in 1998. and using the color red rather than yellow as the background. so we could educate people as to what it means. Berkeley Radiation Laboratory. at the University of California. the Media and the Iraq War (http:/ / web. [3] "Weapons of Mass Destruction". "House Armed Services Committee Hearing". uk/ butlerreview/ report/ index. gov/ cia/ reports/ 721_reports/ jan_jun2003. Retrieved 8 May 2007. com/ p/ docsub.22. and was set on a blue background. [22] What makes a weapon one of mass destruction? € Times Online (http:/ / www.00. cabinetoffice. gov/ press_releases/ 20071203_release. timesonline. odci. 2 October 2003 [50] Kay. pdf) by Prof. com/ news/ world/ iraq/ 2003-05-30-wolfowitz-iraq_x. 28 December 1937. The Free Press. defenselink. New York Times Magazine. usatoday. mipt.[] It is drawn with a central circle of radius R. At the time. terrorisminfo. org/ f_wmd411/ f1a1_letter. dni. Stockpiles of chemical munitions including sarin and mustard agents were found. archive. London: The Stationery Office. html) [14] CIA Site RedirectCentral Intelligence Agency (http:/ / www. mil/ pubs/ ptr20010110. 23 March 2006. tnr. Retrieved 24 February 2007. gov. David. mil/ pubs/ prolif97/ message. org/ web/ 20060210232719/ www. edu/ documents/ WMDstudy_full. html) [16] (http:/ / www. PIPA. Susan Moeller [48] Misperceptions. [63] References [1] "Archbishop's Appeal. p. uk/ article/ 0. 19 April 1998. "Wolfowitz Comments Revive Doubts Over Iraq's WMD" (http:/ / www. pipa.[60] It is meant to represent a radiating atom. org/ OnlineReports/ Iraq/ IraqMedia_Oct03/ IraqMedia_Oct03_rpt. htm) [15] (http:/ / www. but none were considered to be in a usable condition due to corrosion. and that its role as a hazard warning was compromised as it did not clearly indicate "danger" to many non-Westerners and children who encountered it. that the symbol is unintuitive and can be variously interpreted by those uneducated in its meaning. org/ pdf/ usvwiseandgrebe_99-40247. [46] (http:/ / web. Notes 1. co. and separated from each other by 60”. mhtml?i=20021007& s=easterbrook100702) [42] Qtd. an environmental-health engineer who contributed to its development:[60] We wanted something that was memorable but meaningless. [6] Kennedy JF (1962-10-22).5R and an external radius of 5R. cissm. p. Televised remarks to the American people re "the Soviet military buildup on the island of Cuba" [12] (http:/ / nti.[61] Biological weaponry/hazard symbol Developed by Dow Chemical company in the 1960s for their containment products.Weapon of mass destruction 10 Radioactive weaponry/hazard symbol The international radioactivity symbol (also known as trefoil) first appeared in 1946. pdf) [39] (https:/ / ssl. The International Atomic Energy Agency found. As a result of research. asp) (HC 898). USA Today." Times (London). however. someone running away.[62] According to Charles Dullin.. org/ columns/ display/ 1/ 2006/ 1338). pdf) [19] Review of Intelligence on Weapons of Mass Destruction: Report of a Committee of Privy Counsellors (http:/ / archive. umd. pdf). a new radiation hazard symbol was developed to be placed near the most dangerous parts of radiation sources featuring a skull. in Associated Press. html) [35] (http:/ / www.7813-991589. it was rendered as magenta. 2004. the blades having an internal radius of 1. Retrieved 21 November 2010. org/ web/ 20041022050812/ http:/ / www. 9. 30 May 2003. freepress. pdf) [36] (http:/ / www. archive. defenselink. [43] "Newspaper Suicide" (http:/ / www. •14. 29 June 2006 . htm). wagingpeace. € Joanne Mariner.org. 29 June 2006 11 Bibliography € Chemical and Biological Weapons: Use in Warfare. uk/ ) [61] Linda Lodding. by Stephan Lewandowsky.war. Werner G. Expert: Iraq WMD Find Did Not Point to Ongoing Program (http:/ / www.com/2001/LAW/11/columns/fl. " Definition of 'Weapon of Mass Destruction' (https://www. [63] Munitions Found in Iraq Meet WMD Criteria (http:/ / www.org/insights/insigh97. June 2009. € Michael Evans. and misinformation (http://www. by Gert G. Fidler. php?storyId=5504298) NPR. html?ESRC=coastgnews.com.blackwellpublishing. org/ Publications/ Magazines/ Bulletin/ Bull482/ pdfs/ 18RadSymbol.uk (http:/ / www.pdf).com/blog/archives/ 2009/04/definition_of_w.htm). npr. RSS). Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland. € Memory for fact. Psychological Science.org/web/20060217212308/http:// www.cnn. 2001. 2004.. Impact on Society and Environment (http://www. Harigel.umd." IAEA Bulletin 482 (March 2007): 70€72. Military. Appel. " Drop it and Run! New Symbol Warns of Radiation Dangers and Aims to Save Lives (http:/ / www.bbc.edu/documents/WMDstudy_full. military. fiction.html)" (6 April 2009). The Times. American Society of International Law.stm)" (12 February 2003).org/articles/2001/11/00_harigel_cbw. asp?ref=0956-7976). htm)" (February 2003). Media € Media Coverage of Weapons of Mass Destruction (http://web.asil. 22 June 2006 [55] wmdawareness.00. by Susan D.schneier.pdf) (15 April 2004). Stritzke. Charles.civilians. BBC News.20/)" (20 November 2001). Klaus Oberauer. org/ templates/ story/ story.mariner.11. " Weapons of Mass Destruction and International Law (http://www. wmdawareness. iaea. .org/OnlineReports/WMDProliferation/ WMD_Prolif_Apr04/WMDProlif_Apr04_rpt. Program on International Policy Attitudes/Knowledge Networks survey. com/ features/ 0. org. € Bruce Schneier.com/journal. and Michael Morales.archive.uk/1/hi/uk/2744411.103631.co." Journal of Medical Ethics.Weapon of mass destruction [51] Duelfer. 16(3): 190€195. Public perceptions € Steven Kull et al.K. pdf). International law € United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 € David P. Americans on WMD Proliferation (http://www. report filed by American Forces Press Service.com/cgi/content/full/35/7/429). 2005.pipa.cissm. Ethics € Jacob M.bmj. Further reading Definition and origin € " WMD: Words of mass dissemination (http://news. Schneier on Security. "What makes a weapon one of mass destruction?" (6 February 2004).15240. Moeller. CNN. " Is All Fair in Biological Warfare? (http://jme. " FindLaw Forum: Weapons of mass destruction and international law's principle that civilians cannot be targeted (http://edition. pbs.org/web/20050624041645/http://disarmament2. In Radius Engineering International Inc.wmdawareness.net/nuc table.org/stratassessment/reports/terror.org/) € The WMD Awareness Programme (http://www.fas. htm) € National Counterproliferation Center € Office of the Director of National Intelligence (http://www.org/ wmd/) € US Department of State (http://web.bomb-shelter. Thermal burns represent injuries to an unprotected person.org/porter12292009.gov/t/np/wmd/) € Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) (http://www.payvand.fas.archive.com/ news/2008/IAEA_suspects_fraud_in_evidence_for_1109. PBS € FAS assessment of countries that own weapons of mass destruction (http://www. Japanese and Vietnamese translations (http://www. Retrieved 20 December 2010.org/avoidingarmageddon/). € Radius Engineering International Inc.com/news/06/dec/1239. 10 November 2008 € Gareth Porter.org/irp/threat/wmd.com/Spicks/massweapon.org/web/20070313232904/http://www. pdf).carnegieendowment.com/): Homeland Security Watch policy and current events resource € Office of the Special Assistant for Chemical Biological Defense and Chemical Demilitarization Programs (http:// www.nti. CounterPunch.org/wmd/) € Avoiding Armageddon (http://www. The WMD Awareness Programme is dedicated to providing trustworthy and up to date information on Weapons of Mass Destruction world wide.uk/).archive.mil/cp/).org/e_research/profiles/index.Weapon of mass destruction 12 External links € New Video: A World Without Nuclear Weapons (http://www.rferl. 29 December 2009 .acq.archive. The Iranian Nuke Forgeries: CIA Determines Documents were Fabricated (http://www. These tables describe the effects of various nuclear blast sizes. 24–km/h) winds.html).html) € Federation of American Scientists (FAS) (http://www. The legend describes the data.org/moment/video?p=423) € United Nations: Disarmament (http://web.org (http://www.hlswatch.counterwmd.html) (Payvand News Agency) € Iran: 'Forgotten Victims' Of Saddam Hussein Era Await Justice (http://www.org/web/ 20010429080212/http://www.com (http://www.csis.globalsecurity.state. Documents linking Iran to nuclear weapons push may have been fabricated (http://rawstory. € Gareth Porter.org. TheRawStory. html) € Nuclear Age Peace Foundation (http://www.un.html) € Comparison of Chinese. Inspired by the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize winner Professor Sir Joseph Rotblat.org/irp/threat/wmd_state.org/) € Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) (http://www.wagingpeace. gov/) € HLSWatch.org/featuresarticle/2006/12/ e448bece-def1-4c16-9051-75fa9552a4c8. All figures are for 15–mph (13–kn.org/npp/) € GlobalSecurity. Official Department of Defense web site that provides information about the DoD Chemical Biological Defense Program € Terrorism and the Threat From Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East (http://web.cjvlang.htm) € Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (http://www. "Nuclear Weapons Effects" (http://www.html).nti. counterpunch.ploughshares.html) € Iranian Chemical Attacks Victims (http://www.osd. 13 Types Biological warfare Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea . Therefore. A nation or group that can pose a credible threat of mass casualty has the ability to alter the terms on which other nations or groups interact with it.[citation needed] Many countries. Like some of the chemical weapons. including mass production. "biological threat agents". Biological weapons (often termed "bio-weapons". or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely. They may be developed.Biological warfare € € € € € € 14 Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Biological warfare (BW) … also known as germ warfare … is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria. Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic or tactical advantage over an adversary. chemical or conventional weapons. or "bio-agents") are living organisms or replicating entities (viruses) that reproduce or replicate within their host victims. biological agents may be useful as strategic deterrents in addition to their utility as offensive weapons on the battlefield. was outlawed by the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC).[] There is an overlap between BW and chemical warfare. currently pursue research into the defense or protection against BW. stockpiling and use of biological weapons. and fungi with intent to kill or incapacitate humans. which is not prohibited by the BWC. or even an entire population. acquired. These agents may be lethal or non-lethal. Unlike bioweapons. it may also be considered bioterrorism. Toxins and Psychochemical weapons are often referred to as midspectrum agents. and may be targeted against a single individual. a significant problem with a BW attack is that it would take days to be effective.[1] Overview Offensive biological warfare. a group of people.[2][3] As a tactical weapon for military use. biological weapons may also be useful as area denial weapons. Biological weapons allow for the potential to create a level of destruction and loss of life far in excess of nuclear. The rationale behind this treaty. which has been ratified or acceded to by 165 countries as of 2011. . is to prevent a biological attack which could conceivably result in large numbers of civilian fatalities and cause severe disruption to economic and societal infrastructure. as the use of toxins produced by living organisms is considered under the provisions of both the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention. Entomological (insect) warfare is also considered a type of Biological Weapon. these midspectrum agents do not reproduce in their host and are typically characterized by shorter incubation periods. In the latter case. viruses. animals or plants as an act of war. relative to their mass and cost of development and storage. either by threats or by actual deployments. and therefore might not immediately stop an opposing force. stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. including signatories of the BWC. Some biological agents (smallpox. While containment of BW is less of a concern for certain criminal or terrorist organizations. The advent of the germ theory and advances in bacteriology brought a new level of sophistication to the theoretical use of bio-agents in war.[4] During the 6th century BC. came when Dr. Kanatjan Alibekov.[5] The last known incident of using plague corpses for BW purposes occurred in 1710. Historical accounts from medieval Europe detail the use of infected animal carcasses.Biological warfare pneumonic plague) have the capability of person-to-person transmission via aerosolized respiratory droplets. Turks and other groups. This feature can be undesirable. Major public proof of the Soviet program. secretly defied the treaty and continued research and production of offensive biological weapons. despite being signatories to it. that BW was used against Native Americans at other times as well. In 1346. the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa. at a minimum. Many examples are recorded from antiquity. when they gave contaminated blankets to the Lenape during Pontiac's War (1763€66). It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the Black Death in Europe. It is suspected by Ward Churchill. in 1992. the Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with a fungus that would render the enemy delirious. 15 History War Rudimentary forms of biological warfare have been practiced over and over again throughout history.[7]) . as the agent(s) may be transmitted by this mechanism to unintended populations. its first deputy director. it remains a significant concern for the military and civilian populations of virtually all nations. However. The British army at least once attempted to use smallpox as a weapon.[6] Use of such bio-weapons was banned in international law by the Geneva Protocol of 1925. but not confirmed. defected to the U. when Russian forces attacked the Swedes by flinging plague-infected corpses over the city walls of Reval (Tallinn). (The 1972 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) extended the ban to almost all production. with indifferent results.S. both the Soviet Union and Iraq. In 184 BC. to infect enemy water supplies. Hannibal of Carthage had clay pots filled with venomous snakes and instructed his soldiers to throw the pots onto the decks of Pergamene ships. including neutral or even friendly forces. Biological sabotage…in the form of anthrax and glanders…was undertaken on behalf of the Imperial German government during World War I (1914€1918). called Biopreparat. storage and transport. by Mongols. S. maintained a stated national policy of never using BW under any circumstances since an Executive Decision in November 1969. In 1972. By 2011. which banned "development. and U. the Japanese used BW on Chinese soldiers and civilians. military biological warfare research was Fort Detrick. this argument does not necessarily apply to bacteria. In response to suspected BW development in Nazi Germany.. the U.S.K. during World War II left Gruinard Island in Scotland contaminated with anthrax for the next 48 years.Biological warfare 16 During the Sino-Japanese War (1937€1945) and World War II (1939€1945).[8] The biological and chemical weapons developed during that period were tested at the Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah. U. However.. brucellosis. had transparently destroyed all their bio-weapons stockpiles. commander of Unit 731 Considerable research into BW was undertaken throughout the Cold War era (1947€1991) by the U. the U. who accused the U.S.S. bacteria can be suitably modified to be effective in only a narrow environmental range. the Special Research Units of the Imperial Japanese Army.K.S. Research carried out in the U.. An agent like smallpox or other airborne viruses would almost certainly spread worldwide and ultimately infect the user's home country. conducted human experimentation on thousands of Chinese.R.S.S. U. For example. and U. production and stockpiling of microbes or their poisonous products except in amounts necessary for protective and peaceful research.. . The argument is that biological weapons cannot be controlled: the weapon could backfire and harm the army on the offensive. The U. The weapon may be further used to bog down an advancing army making them more vulnerable to counter attack by the defending force. anthrax can easily be controlled and even created in a garden shed. Fear of the German program turned out to be vastly exaggerated. firsthand accounts testify that the Japanese infected civilians through the distribution of plagued foodstuffs and newer estimates suggest over 580.K. and botulism toxin.S. This view was challenged by China and North Korea. using microbial methods.. U.S. Also. Thus only the target might be affected adversely. Shiro Ishii.K. largely due to plague and cholera outbreaks. among others..000 victims. although it is generally believed that such weapons were never used.S. Maryland.. the U. the range of the target that distinctly differs from the army on the offensive. U. such as Unit 731. This employment has been largely viewed as ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems." By then. 165 countries had signed the treaty and none are proven…though nine are still suspected[9]…to possess offensive BW programs. but this claim has been disputed. and many other nations signed the BWC. perhaps having even worse effects than on the target.R. and Canada initiated a BW development program in 1941 that resulted in the weaponization of anthrax. In its military campaigns. The center for U.K. by President Richard Nixon. of large-scale field testing of BW against them during the Korean War (1950€1953).[9] Modern BW operations Offensive It has been argued that rational people would never use biological weapons offensively.S. However. and probably other major nations as well. perfect for dispersal aerosols. Brucella spp. use. Burkholderia pseudomallei. Burkholderia mallei. include bacteria such as Bacillus anthracis. Stability of the weaponized agent (ability of the agent to retain its infectivity and virulence after a prolonged period of storage) may also be desirable. Second. their possession. and availability of an effective and efficient delivery system. non-availability of vaccines. A pulmonary anthrax infection starts with ordinary influenza-like symptoms and progresses to a lethal hemorrhagic mediastinitis within 3€7 days. 'Bacillus anthracis' is considered an effective agent for several reasons. These toxins and the organisms that produce them are sometimes referred to as select agents. Botulinum toxin) or Incapacitating Agents (Brucella suis. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. So the material must be treated to insulate and neutralize the charges. Ebolavirus.[10] Finally. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent. Variola virus. chiefly relating to storage of the weaponized agent. Coxiella burnetii. Francisella tularensis. high virulence. Staphylococcal enterotoxin B). some of the Rickettsiaceae (especially Rickettsia prowazekii and Rickettsia rickettsii).Biological warfare Anti-personnel Ideal characteristics of a biological agent to be used as a weapon against humans are high infectivity. it is the weaponization. conductive powders tend to aggregate because of electrostatic charges. There are other technological difficulties as well. At this size. many of the Flaviviridae (especially Japanese encephalitis virus). Chlamydophila psittaci. or known to be weaponized. The weaponized agent must be resistant to degradation by rain and ultraviolet radiation from sunlight. while retaining the ability to efficiently infect the human lung. cheaply and easily. Coxiella burnetii. including some of the Bunyaviridae (especially Rift Valley fever virus). Fungal agents that have been studied include Coccidioides spp. Control of the spread of the agent may be another desired characteristic. In the United States. storage and delivery in an effective vehicle to a vulnerable target that pose significant problems. Francisella tularensis. and transfer are regulated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Select Agent Program. and thus rarely if ever causes secondary infections. particularly for military applications. and many mycotoxins. with a fatality rate that is 90% or higher in untreated patients. Vibrio cholerae. and Yellow fever virus. hindering dispersion.. . friendly personnel can be protected with suitable antibiotics. as many biological agents used in weapons can often be manufactured relatively quickly. saxitoxin. it forms hardy spores. Shigella spp. and Yersinia pestis. this organism is not considered transmissible from person to person. botulinum toxin. and the ease of creating one is often considered. Machupo virus.5 to 5 microns: larger particles would not reach the lower respiratory tract. while smaller particles would be exhaled back out into the atmosphere.. First. Agents considered for weaponization. Marburg virus. 17 The international biological hazard symbol For example. Many viral agents have been studied and/or weaponized. Rather. staphylococcal enterotoxin B. A large-scale attack using anthrax would require the creation of aerosol particles of 1.. The former US biological warfare program categorized its weaponized anti-personnel bio-agents as either Lethal Agents (Bacillus anthracis.[11][12] Toxins that can be used as weapons include ricin. e. When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970. the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases. Though herbicides are chemicals. the counterinsurgency school in Vietnam moved to Okinawa.ƒ These sites were located both in the continental United States and in foreign countries. In 1962. they are often grouped with biological warfare and chemical warfare because they may work in a similar manner as biotoxins or bioregulators. and in Japan•s satellite province of Okinawa in 1961. USNS Schuyler Otis Bland (T-AK-277) was known to have brought highly classified "agriculture products" under armed guard to southeast Asia.ƒ The tests were designed to cover ‚not only trials at sea. the U.. radiological (nuclear) materials. and initiated an herbicidal warfare program that was eventually used in Malaya and Vietnam in counterinsurgency operations.(Harris.ƒ The tests. and plant reaction to BW. It was believed that destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. The secret program was code-named "Ecology". BW experts in Okinawa and ‚at several sites in the Midwest and south:ƒconducted in 1961 ‚field testsƒ for wheat rust and rice blast disease. African swine fever for pigs. Agent Orange)[13] and Eelam War in Sri Lanka.[citation needed] Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. and rinderpest against cows. biological. to a significant increase in research dollars in fiscal year 1962 to conduct additional research in these areas. The money was devoted largely to developing ‚technical advice on the conduct of defoliation and anti-crop activities in Southeast Asia. The Okinawa anti-crop research project may lend some insight to the larger projects 112 sponsored.Biological warfare Anti-agriculture Anti-crop/anti-vegetation/anti-fisheries: The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases (bioherbicides.[] After departing Okinawa in spring 1962.[] The ship‚s logbook was found by Michelle Gatz and shows the ship was carrying classified cargo that was offloaded under armed guard at White Beach a U. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. Scorched earth tactics or destroying livestock and farmland were carried out in the Vietnam war (cf. or mycoherbicides) for destroying enemy agriculture. and psittacosis to kill chicken. 2002)[14] Anti-livestock: In 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease. ‚satellite sites. in South Korea. therefore. 1962.[citation needed] Enterotoxins and Mycotoxins were not affected by Nixon's order. Harris in his book "Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare. The tests conducted there were aimed at both human. Egypt. but Arctic and tropical environmental tests as well. [this could be part of Project AGILE or Project OCONUS] which began in fall 1962 and which was funded at least through fiscal year 1963. presumably. animal. the Chemical Corps had let or were negotiating contracts for over one thousand chemical defoliants. These tests met with ‚partial successƒ in the gathering of data.ƒ By the end of fiscal year 1962. The Army Biological Laboratory tested each agent and the Army's Technical Escort Unit was responsible for transport of all chemical. was considered by the Chemical Corps to be ‚an ambitious one. The test program. Okinawa. were conducted at what research officers designated. herbicides) during the Second World War.(Harris. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy watersheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotics (epidemics among plants). The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i. Navy port on Okinawa‚s east coast on April 25. Biological weapons also target fisheries as well as water-based vegetation. and the American cover up" wrote that. The Okinawa tests evidently were fruitful. or earlier. and led. the Bland sailed to the Panama Canal Zone where. tested herbicides in the early 1960s. 2002)[14] Sheldon H.[] The late author Sheldon H. Harris continued that.S.[11] 18 . It is known that tests were undertaken in Cairo. Liberia.S. but did not name. and Panama. 1932-1945. the Panamanian government asserts. sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 19 and still off limits to visitors today. to Australia and Europe. a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic. In the First World War.Biological warfare Attacking animals is another area of biological warfare intended to eliminate animal resources for transportation and food.. the poisonous latex of the African milk bush was used to kill cattle. The British tainted small feed cakes with anthrax in the Second World War as a potential means of attacking German cattle for food denial. German agents were arrested attempting to inoculate draft animals with anthrax. the insect may not be infected with any pathogen but instead represents a threat to agriculture. Thus. some small percentage of individuals (those with compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding.[] Unconnected with inter-human wars. infecting any person or animal they might bite. Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and Their Destruction in Geneva[17] the sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance was suggested as well-tested means for enhancing the monitoring of infections and parasitic agents. The final method uses uninfected insects. it is highly likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with. For example in the case of anthrax. in the largest biological weapons accident known€ the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in 1979. and they were believed to be responsible for outbreaks of glanders in horses and mules. Thus. such as bees. One type of EW involves infecting insects with a pathogen and then dispersing the insects over target areas. it is likely that by 24€36 hours after an attack.[citation needed] During the Mau Mau Uprising in 1952. EW has been used in battle by Japan and several other nations have developed and been accused of using an entomological warfare program. humans have deliberately introduced the rabbit disease Myxomatosis. with the intention of reducing the rabbit population € which had devastating but temporary results. for practical implementation of the International Health Regulations (2005). Indeed. wasps. the United States had a field trial with hog cholera. In the 1950s. Role of public health and disease surveillance It is important to note that all classical and modern biological weapons organisms are animal diseases. but never employed the weapon. originating in South America. in any use of biological weapons. Essentially. EW may employ insects in a direct attack or as vectors to deliver a biological agent.[16] 19 Defensive Research and development into medical counter-measures In 2010 at The Meeting of the States Parties to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development. with wild rabbit populations reduced to a fraction of their former size but survivors developing immunity and increasing again. or perhaps earlier than humans. Entomological warfare Entomological warfare (EW) is a type of biological warfare that uses insects to attack the enemy. The aim was to prevent and minimize the consequences of natural outbreaks of dangerous infectious diseases as well as the treat of alleged use of biological weapons against BTWC States Parties. to directly attack the enemy. such as plague. permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports).[15] The insects then act as a vector. EW exists in three varieties. etc. By making these data . the only exception being smallpox. Another type of EW is a direct insect attack against crops. see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak). The concept has existed for centuries and research and development have continued into the modern era. [18] In the Netherlands. The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. the company TNO has designed Bioaerosol Single Particle Recognition eQuipment (BiosparQ). Would increase transmissibility of a pathogen. and repetitive. essentially a "Lab-in-a-Pen". to provide layered defenses against biological weapons attacks. The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture. being developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). and water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be deliberate. medical. food. 2. polio) in the lab.[20] 20 Synthetic BW Theoretically. 3. intelligence. such as synthetic biology could be used in the future to design novel types of biological warfare agents. 7. novel approaches in biotechnology. in which fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are attached to silver and gold nanowires. local. focused on the role of DNA synthesis and the risk of producing genetic material of lethal viruses (e.[21][22][23][24] Special attention has to be laid on future experiments (of concern) that:[25] 1. 4. to respond to any potential use of weapons of mass destruction on civilians.g. Would demonstrate how to render a vaccine ineffective. 6. employs a "sandwich immunoassay". Would confer resistance to therapeutically useful antibiotics or antiviral agents. diplomatic.[26][27][28] . During the first Gulf War the United Nations activated a biological and chemical response team. One such technology. Identification of bioweapons The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security. most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic. public health. 1918 Spanish flu. which can detect known biological agents in under 20 minutes using an adaptation of the ELISA.[19] Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are developing a different device called the BioPen. Task Force Scorpio. that in this case incorporates fiber optics. however. Would alter the host range of a pathogen. multiple.Biological warfare available to local public health officials in real time. This system would be implemented into the national response plan for bioweapons attacks in the Netherlands. Would enable the weaponization of a biological agent or toxin Most of the biosecurity concerns in synthetic biology. and law enforcement communities. a similar widely employed immunological technique. Would enable the evasion of diagnostic/detection tools. In some countries private. and provincial (state) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal assets. 5. Health care providers and public health officers are among the first lines of defense. Would enhance the virulence of a pathogen or render a nonpathogen virulent. and thus avoid the moderately high mortality of the disease. The trawler Carella accidentally sailed through a cloud of pneumonic plague bacilli (Yersinia pestis) during this trial.S. € Operation Negation off Nassau.S. € Operation Ozone off Nassau. 1954. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories (1943€69) € Building 470 € One-Million-Liter Test Sphere € Operation Whitecoat (1954€73) € U. programs. entomological warfare program € Operation Big Itch € Operation Big Buzz € Operation Drop Kick € Operation May Day Project Bacchus Project Clear Vision Project SHAD Project 112 Horn Island Testing Station Fort Terry Granite Peak Installation Researchers working in Class III cabinets at the U. . Army Biological Warfare Laboratories.[29] € Operation Hesperus off Stornoway. projects and sites by country United States € Fort Detrick.Biological warfare 21 List of BW institutions. 1954-5. € € € € € € € United Kingdom € € € € € € Porton Down Gruinard Island Nancekuke Operation Vegetarian Operation Harness off Antigua. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID. Operation Cauldron off Stornoway. Maryland (1940s).S. Camp Detrick. biological defense program (1956-present) € United States Army Medical Unit (USAMU. 1969€present) € National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC) € U. 1956€69) € U. It was kept under covert observation until the incubation period had elapsed but none of the crew fell ill. 1948€1949.S. 1952. 1953. Maryland € U.S. Zagorsk Berdsk bioweapons production facility. Berdsk Bioweapons research facility. Obolensk Sverdlovsk bioweapons production facility (Military Compound 19). Sverdlovsk. Omutninsk Kirov bioweapons production facility. Kirov Oblast Zagorsk smallpox production facility. a weaponized anthrax center Institute of Virus Preparations Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services Vozrozhdeniya Project Bonfire Project Factor Japan € Unit 731 € Zhongma Fortress Iraq Main articles: Iraqi biological weapons program and Iraq and weapons of mass destruction (passim) € Al Hakum € Salman Pak facility € Al Manal facility . Kirov. Leningrad. northern Kazakhstan Institute of Ultra Pure Biochemical Preparations. a weaponized plague center Vector State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology (VECTOR).Biological warfare 22 Soviet Union and Russia € Biopreparat (18 labs and production centers) € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Stepnagorsk Scientific and Technical Institute for Microbiology. a weaponized smallpox center Institute of Applied Biochemistry. Stepnogorsk. http:/ / www. mil/ cutting_edge/ index. USA. Phoenix. de Vriend H (eds) Synthetic biology. Oxford University Press. resource. informaworld. Berlin . Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6 (http:/ / www. [16] Lockwood. Lucille (13 November 2006). Six-legged Soldiers: Using Insects as Weapons of War. cfm?context=markten& content=case& laag1=178& item_id=832) [20] Genuth. Sheldon H. Page 265 to 266.com. com/ meta/ p_mla_apa_research_citation/ 0/ 7/ 3/ 6/ 4/ p73644_index. org/ website/ our_work/ biological-threats-and-epidemics/ fact_sheets/ anthrax. tfot. html http:/ / www. html) [11] Kenneth Alibek and S. Ken Alibek and K Handelman (1999). [17] http:/ / www. 2008. pdf)". Retrieved 25 December 2008. Harris [45] Joshua Lederberg Richard Preston Arthur Galston David Willman Leonard A. 1999. Chapter 7. Ganguli-Mitra A. (http:/ / www. nl/ content. The technoscience and its societal conse. (2007). 10 August 2006. tno. The Sunshine Project. detrick. Patrick III [35] Kanatjan Alibekov. New York. html) [19] BiosparQ features (http:/ / www. info/ content/ view/ 96/ 56/ ). Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World € Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. Kelle A. 232 [15] " An Introduction to Biological Weapons. com/ smpp/ content~content=a714004040& db=all Koenig. allacademic. April 2002. sunshine-project. (2000). "Encoded Metallic Nanowires Reveal Bioweapons". 12:50 EST. php?resourceID=000678 [10] (http:/ / www. org/ view. physorg. 9€26. [8] Covert. In: Schmidt M. pdf [18] Physorg. pp. Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare. (ISBN 0195333055). Maryland". and the Relationship to Biosafety (http:/ / www. The Future of Things [21] Kelle A (2009) Security issues related to synthetic biology.Biological warfare 23 South Africa € € € € Project Coast Delta G Scientific Company Roodeplaat Research Laboratories Protechnik List of people associated with BW Bioweaponeers: € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € [30] Anton Dilger [31] Ira Baldwin [32] Paul Fildes [33] Rihab Rashid Taha [34] William C. Iddo . com/ news74433040. Handelman. Jeffrey A. Their Prohibition. 4th Edition: 2000. "BioPen Senses BioThreats" (http:/ / www. PublicAffairs. and the American cover up" p. Robert (2006). 2002 "Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare. known as Ken Alibek [36] Vladimir Pasechnik [37] Sergei Popov [38] Kurt Blome [39] Eugen von Haagen [40] Kurt Gutzeit [41] Erich Traub Shiro Ishii Arthur Galston (unwittingly) Wouter Basson Writers and activists: € € € € € € € € € [42] Matthew Meselson [43] Jeanne Guillemin [44] Sheldon H. 1932-1945. army. org/ new_process/ msp2010/ BWC_MSP_2010_WP8_E. NY: Random House. upmc-biosecurity. amazon. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World Trade From the Inside by the Man Who Ran It. Kristof References [1] [2] [3] [6] [7] Gray.quences. (http:/ / www. Colin. "A History of Fort Detrick. The Fourth Horseman: One Man's Secret Campaign to Fight the Great War in America. opbw. Cole Nicholas D. Springer. com/ dp/ 0385334966/ ). sciencedirect. cfm?chapter=contents) [9] http:/ / usiraq. Fresco-Cohen. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6WCJ-4BVPRTS-1& _user=10& _rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _sort=d& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=853a10899e7fadf68b3c6fd459fa2b4a) [14] Harris. procon. [12] Potential bioweapons (http:/ / www. Norman M. ISBN 0-304-36734-6. org/ publications/ bk/ pdf/ bk10en. Greek Fire. Addressing Biosecurity Concerns Related to Synthetic Biology. Alfred W. Available at: http:/ / oba. Washington. Paul. Richard (2002). The potential use of genetic engineering to enhance orthopox viruses as bioweapons. Adrienne. K. Macmillan. Epstein. bz/ books?id=gPrtE4K0WC8C& pg=PA173& dq=kurt+ blome& hl=en& ei=P3o3TOLMBMKCnQe39rTVAw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=kurt%20blome& f=false [39] B. 900€1900 (New York. S. ISBN–0-333-71614-0 € Maskiell.bordeninstitute. in Peter J. Chief of Counsel for the American Military Tribunals at Nurember. html). Bernhard. "Operation Matchbox and the Scientific Containment of the USSR"... 2007. and Adrienne Mayor. Stephen and Edward Hagerman. Available at: http:/ / www. pbs. The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea. € R—zsa. ISBN–0-7432-3685-8 € Pala. J. (2009). Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6 € Appel. Siegel (eds) Intelligence and Statecraft: The Use and Limits of Intelligence in International Society. pdf. Biowarfare In America.army. 2009.. gov/ pubmed/ 2698560 [40] Office of U. [28] Wimmer. Journal of Medical Ethics. National Institutes of Health. Michelle. [23] National Security Advisory Board on Biotechnology (NSABB) (2010). 2003.. Klapp. Wendy (2004). gov/ biosecurity/ pdf/ NSABB%20SynBio%20-DRAFT%20Report-FINAL%20(2)_6-7-10. mazal. [37] "Interviews With Biowarriors: Sergei Popov" (http:/ / www. (2007). Volume 35. com/ books?id=I3Q3_Ww-5SMC& pg=PA194& dq=erich+ traub& hl=en& ei=DyJ_TPDPI4vEsAOvq_nwCg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=10& ved=0CE4Q6AEwCQ#v=onepage& q=erich%20traub& f=false 24 Further reading € Alibek. The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease. nlm. M. od. Lajos 2009. Tom and Goldberg. . Endy. 1946.http:/ / books.S. 72. "General Amherst and Germ Warfare. Presentation at the International Conference •Smallpox Biosecurity. [24] M. Simon & Schuster. DC: Borden Institute (2007). 1989. Nat. ISBN 0-253-33472-1 € Keith. Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare (http://www. U. and Wimmer. J.pdf). and Friedman. nih. Inc. ISBN–1-881532-21-6 € Knollenberg.9 [26] Tumpej TM et al. Jim (1999). 1986). Library of Medicine. € Mayor. http:/ / books.hu/list/motivation. nih. Plague Wars: a true story of biological warfare. Biotechnol. V. 1016€1018.. Plague. pdf) . org/ cms/ research/ projects/ syngen-options/ overview/ . NY. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World€ Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. K. Science 297. In Synthetic Genomics: Options for Governance. google. 217€219. New York. Retrieved 4 September 2010. Mueller. synbiosafe.. Zygmunt (editor). (2001) NOVA Online. "Killer Khilats: Legends of Poisoned Robes of Honour in India. Preventing the Unthinkable‚ (21€22 October 2003) Geneva. com.. € Crosby.Buller. Parts 1 & 2. The motivation for biological aggression is an inherent and common aspect of the human behavioural repertoire (http://www. ISBN 1-58567-348-X. http:/ / www. € Mangold. € Orent.mil/ published_volumes/biological_warfare/biological. Indiana University Press (1998). Illuminet Press. London. 310(5745):77€80 [27] Cello. Switzerland [25] Kelle A. http:/ / www. M. R.. Overlook. 2005. google. Bradford Science and Technology Report No. G. J.bmj. Handelman. A. "Human Hepatitis Experiments in the Second World War". Synthetic viruses: a new opportunity to understand and prevent viral disease. T. E. htm [41] Paul Maddrell. 2005. Jackson and Jennifer L.„ Folklore [London] 112 (Spring and Fall 2001): 23€45. 489€494. Characterization of the Reconstructed 1918 Spanish Influenza Pandemic Virus.html). E. Jeff (1999). eu/ uploads/ / / pdf/ Synbiosafe-Biosecurity_awareness_in_Europe_Kelle. Medical Hypotheses. The Demon in the Freezer." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 41 (1954€1955). trans Thomas Dunlap (Harvard 1996).Biological warfare [22] Garfinkel. org/ NO-series/ NO-0124-000.–429€432 (2009). pp. rev. Is all fair in biological warfare? The controversy over genetically engineered biological weapons (http://jme. D. € Dembek. Synthetic Biology & Biosecurity Awareness In Europe (http:/ / www. Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World.zoologia. € Endicott.S. 163€82.. Anthrax Island € Preston. Biologists under Hitler. 27.com/cgi/content/full/35/7/429). ncbi. and S. Praeger. org/ wgbh/ nova/ bioterror/ biow_popov. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe. and Taubenberger. New York: Random House.. ed. M. Chemical synthesis of poliovirus cDNA: generation of infectious virus in the absence of natural template. (2002). Christopher (19??). [38] Ute Deichmann. 1163€1172. Tumpey. Science Vol. Leyendecker and F. jcvi. int/emc/pdfs/ BIOWEAPONS_FULL_TEXT2. Alan and Bellomo. Fort Detrick. 6th edition. HQ) Nitrogen mustard € € € € € € € € € HN1 HN2 HN3 .usamriid. H.nsf/htmlall/ section_ihl_biological_weapons).who. USAMRIID•s Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook (http:// www. HL.S.Sep 2006. (ed.icrc. Lt Col Jon B.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0. Maryland (April 2005). ISBN–0-8144-0865-6 25 External links € Biological weapons and international humanitarian law (http://www.pdf) Chemical warfare Part of a series on Chemical agents Lethal agents Blood agents € € Cyanogen chloride (CK) Hydrogen cyanide (AC) Blister agents Ethyldichloroarsine (ED) Methyldichloroarsine (MD) Phenyldichloroarsine (PD) Lewisite (L) Sulfur mustard (HD. HT. Army Medical Institute of Infectious Diseases. Michael (2005).army.mil/education/bluebookpdf/USAMRIID BlueBook 6th Edition . U.). NY. ICRC € WHO: Health Aspects of Biological and Chemical Weapons (http://www. Microbe: Are we Ready for the Next Plague?.pdf).Biological warfare € Woods. New York. € Zelicoff. AMACOM Books. Chemical warfare 26 Nerve agents G-Agents € € € € € Tabun (GA) Sarin (GB) Soman (GD) Cyclosarin (GF) GV V-Agents € € € € € € EA-3148 VE VG VM VR VX Novichok agents Nettle agents € Phosgene oxime (CX) Pulmonary agents Chlorine Chloropicrin (PS) Phosgene (CG) Diphosgene (DP) € € € € Incapacitating agents € € Agent 15 (BZ) Dimethylheptylpyran (DMHP) € € € € EA-3167 Kolokol-1 PAVA spray Sleeping gas Riot control agents Pepper spray (OC) € € € € € CS CN (mace) CR List of chemical warfare agents Weapons of mass destruction By type . Biological. which together make up NBC. and Chemical (warfare or weapons). all of which are considered "weapons of mass . the military acronym for Nuclear. This type of warfare is distinct from Nuclear warfare and Biological warfare.Chemical warfare 27 € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Chemical warfare (CW) involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. With proper protective equipment. These may only be produced or used for research. medical. ricin. and decontamination measures.[1] About 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during the 20th century. the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e. Defoliants are used to quickly kill vegetation and deny its use for cover and concealment.[2] Under the Convention. € Schedule 3 € Have legitimate large-scale industrial uses. Examples include phosgene and chloropicrin. 28 Definition Chemical warfare is different from the use of conventional weapons or nuclear weapons because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any explosive force. Examples include dimethyl methylphosphonate. toxins such as botulinum toxin. Both have been used as chemical weapons but phosgene is an important precursor in the manufacture of plastics and chloropicrin is used as a fumigant. Many nations possess vast stockpiles of weaponized agents in preparation for wartime use.Chemical warfare destruction" (WMD). the primary effects of chemical weapons can be overcome. a precursor to sarin but which is also used as a flame retardant and Thiodiglycol which is a precursor chemical used in the manufacture of mustard gas but is also widely used as a solvent in inks. testing of chemical weapons sensors and protective clothing). Chemical warfare does not depend upon explosive force to achieve an objective. Under this Convention. are divided into three groups according to their purpose and treatment: € Schedule 1 € Have few. and may inspect. The offensive use of living organisms (such as anthrax) is considered biological warfare rather than chemical warfare. Rather it depends upon the unique properties of the chemical agent weaponized. any plant producing more than 30 tonnes per year. It can also be used against agriculture and livestock to promote hunger and starvation. any toxic chemical.g. pharmaceutical or protective purposes (i. A lethal agent is designed to injure or incapacitate the enemy. is considered a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition known as the General Purpose Criterion).e. The OPCW must be notified of. or deny unhindered use of a particular area of terrain. and saxitoxin) is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). and counter€measures. € Schedule 2 € Have no large-scale industrial uses. but may have legitimate small-scale uses. The threat and the perceived threat have become strategic tools in planning both measures. The entire class known as Lethal Unitary Chemical Agents and Munitions have been scheduled for elimination by the CWC. Any production over 100 g must be notified to the OPCW and a country can have a stockpile of no more than one tonne of these chemicals. if any. chemicals that are toxic enough to be used as chemical weapons. ricin. Technology . None of these fall under the term conventional weapons which are primarily effective due to their destructive potential. however. lewisite and mustard gas. training. or that may be used to manufacture such chemicals. legitimate uses. regardless of its origin. Examples include nerve agents. see Chemical weapons in World War I.[4] simply opened canisters of chlorine upwind of the opposing side and let the prevailing winds do the dissemination. only well-known commercially available chemicals and their variants were used. Germany was the first to produce chemical agents. and more sensitive and accurate means of detecting chemical agents. The methods used to disperse these agents during battle were relatively unrefined and inefficient. the first side to employ chemical warfare on the battlefield. A Swedish Army soldier wearing a chemical agent protective suit (C-v€tskeskydd) and protection mask (skyddsmask 90). more efficient methods of delivering agents to the target (dissemination).[3] "modern" chemical warfare began during World War I . due to the mainly static troop positions which were characteristic features of trench warfare. more reliable means of defense against chemical weapons. fit. comfort) Laser detection Aerodynamic Gas mask w/ water supply Nerve gas alarm Although crude chemical warfare has been employed in many parts of the world for thousands of years.[5] Since the development of modern chemical warfare in World War I. the French modified artillery munitions to contain phosgene € a much more effective method that became the principal means of delivery. urinated-on gauze Detection Smell 29 1910s 1920s Chemical shells Projectiles w/ central bursters Aircraft bombs Gas mask Rosin oil clothing CC-2 clothing smell of geraniums 1930s G-series nerve agents Blister agent detectors Color change paper Protective ointment (mustard) Collective protection Gas mask w/ Whetlerite 1940s Missile warheads Spray tanks 1950s 1960s V-series nerve agents 1970s 1980s 1990s Novichok nerve agents Binary munitions Improved gas masks (protection. Soon after. Germany.Chemical warfare Chemical warfare technology timeline Agents 1900s Chlorine Chloropicrin Phosgene Mustard gas Lewisite Dissemination Wind dispersal Protection Gas masks. . casualties could be heavy. These included chlorine and phosgene gas. Initially. Even so. nations have pursued research and development on chemical weapons that falls into four major categories: new and more deadly agents. To achieve this. complicating decontamination. About 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during the 20th and 21st-centuries. Liquid agents are generally designed to evaporate quickly. The distinction between lethal and incapacitating substances is not fixed. .Chemical warfare 30 Chemical warfare agents A chemical used in warfare is called a chemical warfare agent (CWA).g. resulting in heavy contamination. Defense against persistent agents requires shielding for extended periods of time. Mustard gas easily penetrates leather and fabric to inflict painful burns on the skin. artillery regiments. Possible weapons to be used are wide spread. Tactically. Primary targets for this kind of use include airfields. nonpersistent agents are very useful against targets that are to be taken over and controlled very quickly. gas or solid form. Possible targets include enemy flank positions (averting possible counterattacks). sticky agents. Many chemical agents are made volatile so they can be dispersed over a large region quickly. that persistent deployment does not aim at annihilating the enemy but to constrain him. a measure of the length of time that a chemical agent remains effective after dissemination. through nausea or visual problems. rendering protective gas masks useless. such as blister agents and the oily VX nerve agent. A substance is classified as incapacitating if less than 1/100 of the lethal dose causes incapacitation. Modern doctrine requires very high concentrations almost instantly in order to be effective (one breath should contain a lethal dose of the agent). These agents may be in liquid. the delivery mode is very important. commando posts or supply lines. and therefore present primarily a contact hazard. the agent is dispersed into very small droplets comparable with the mist produced by an aerosol can. such liquids are said to be volatile or have a high vapor pressure. Apart from the agent used. but development of agents that can affect a target through the skin and clothing. do not easily evaporate into a gas. In July 1917. The contamination in the target area is only low or not existent and after four hours sarin or similar agents are not detectable anymore. The droplet size used for persistent delivery goes up to 1–mm increasing the falling speed and therefore about 80% of the deployed agent reaches the ground. persistent agents tend to remain in the environment for as long as several weeks. as are highly volatile agents such as sarin and most other nerve agents. but relies on a statistical average called the LD50. Chemical agents are classified as persistent or nonpersistent. because the fast delivery of high amounts is not a critical factor. This implies. A special form of persistent agents are thickened agents. Non-volatile liquid agents. Persistency One way to classify chemical warfare agents is according to their persistency. Agents classified as nonpersistent lose effectiveness after only a few minutes or hours or even only a few seconds. Chemical warfare agents are divided into lethal and incapacitating categories. e. the Germans employed mustard gas. In this form not only the gaseous part of the agent (around 50%) but also the fine aerosol can be inhaled or absorbed through pores in the skin. Purely gaseous agents such as chlorine are nonpersistent. To achieve a nonpersistent deployment. By contrast.. due to the increased persistency and difficulty of decontaminating affected areas. These comprise a common agent mixed with thickeners to provide gelatinous. the primary weapons used would be rocket artillery or bombs and large ballistic missiles with cluster warheads. The earliest target of chemical warfare agent research was not toxicity. Cyanogen chloride/hydrogen cyanide: Cyanide directly prevents cells from using oxygen. HN-3) Lewisite (L) Phosgene oxime (CX) Agents are acid-forming € compounds that damages skin and respiratory system. Vesicant/Blister € € € € Sulfur mustard (HD. conjunctivitis. Skin: 2 to 48 hours Lewisite: Immediate .Chemical warfare Classes Chemical weapons are inert agents that come in four categories: choking. diarrhea Copious secretions/sweating Muscle twitching/fasciculations Dyspnea Seizures Loss of consciousness Possible cherry-red skin Possible cyanosis Confusion Nausea Patients may gasp for air Seizures prior to death Metabolic acidosis € Vapors: seconds to minutes.[6] The agents are organized into several categories according to the manner in which they affect the human body. eye and € mucosal pain and irritation Skin erythema with large fluid blisters that heal slowly and may become infected Tearing. blood and nerve. other agents are non-persistent and present mostly inhalation hazards. blister. € € Severe skin. The cells then uses anaerobic respiration. types of chemical warfare agents are as follows: Classes of chemical weapon agents Class of agent Nerve Agent Names € € € € € € € € 31 Mode of Action Inactivates enzyme acetylcholinesterase. H) Nitrogen mustard (HN-1. creating excess lactic acid and metabolic acidosis. vomiting. € € € € € € € Immediate onset Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard. Cyclosarin (GF) Sarin (GB) Soman (GD) Tabun (GA) VX VR Some insecticides Novichok agents Most Arsines Cyanogen chloride Hydrogen cyanide Miosis (pinpoint pupils) Blurred/dim vision Headache Nausea. Skin: 2 to 18 hours Asphyxiant/Blood € € € € € Arsine: Causes intravascular hemolysis that may lead to renal failure. € corneal damage Mild respiratory distress to marked airway damage Mustards: Persistent and a Vapors: 4 to contact hazard. The names and number of categories varies slightly from source to source. eyes and lungs affected more rapidly. but in general. resulting burns and € respiratory problems. preventing the breakdown of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the victim's synapses and causing both muscarinic and nicotinic effects Signs and Symptoms € € € € € € € € € Rate of action € Persistency VX is persistent and a contact hazard. HN-2. 6 hours. bacteria. rather than Agent Orange itself. contact hazard. or dynamite) because their destructive effects are primarily due to fire or explosive force. see Slight. although the boundary is blurry. flooding it and resulting in suffocation. € € € € May appear as mass drug € intoxication with erratic behaviors. extensively used by the United States in Vietnam. but action is more pronounced in respiratory system. for instance. Dioxins. Toxins produced by living organisms are considered chemical weapons. cough Sore throat Chest tightness Wheezing Bronchospasm Immediate to 3 hours Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard. .Chemical warfare 32 Chlorine Hydrogen chloride Nitrogen oxides Phosgene Similar mechanism to blister agents in that the compounds are acids or acid-forming. agents symptoms. Causes peripheral nervous system effects that are the opposite of those seen in nerve agent poisoning. followed by flu-like signs and symptoms Progress within 18-24 hours to: € Inhaled: 30 minutes to 20 hours. shared realistic and distinct € hallucinations. cough. Cytotoxic proteins Non-living biological proteins. Skin: Up to 36 hours after skin exposure to BZ. Their use is classified as biological warfare. € Incendiary or explosive chemicals (such as napalm. Incapacitating € Agent 15 (BZ) Causes atropine-like € inhibition of acetylcholine in subject. Causes severe stinging of the eyes and temporary blindness. pulmonary edema Ingestion: Gastrointestinal hemorrhage with emesis and bloody diarrhea. contained dioxins as manufacturing impurities. used by the United States in Vietnam. Extremely persistent in soil and water and on most surfaces. Lachrymatory agent € € Tear gas Pepper spray Powerful eye irritation Immediate Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard. eventual liver and kidney failure. Some batches of Agent Orange. € € € € € € € Choking/Pulmonary € € € € Airway irritation Eye and skin irritation Dyspnea. € Viruses. Toxins are covered by the Biological Weapons Convention. disrobing and confusion Hyperthermia Ataxia (lack of coordination) Mydriasis (dilated pupils) Dry mouth and skin Latent period of 4-8 hours. or other organisms. survivors often suffer chronic breathing problems. dyspnea. Duration is typically 72 to 96 hours. These include: € Defoliants that destroy vegetation. such as: € € Inhibit protein synthesis € Ricin Abrin € € Inhalation: nausea. and thus are not controlled under the CWC treaties. have long-term cancer effects and for causing genetic damage leading to serious birth deformities. 4-24 hours. and not direct chemical action. degrade quickly Exposure by in environment inhalation or injection causes more pronounced signs and symptoms than exposure by ingestion There are other chemicals used militarily that are not scheduled by the Chemical Weapons Convention. but are not immediately toxic to human beings. the use of the tear-gases benzyl bromide or xylyl bromide. the Chief of the Operations Branch at German General Headquarters.Chemical warfare Designations Most chemical weapons are assigned a one. are indicated by a "-2" following the agent's designation (for example. in which precursors for chemical warfare agents are automatically mixed in shell to produce the agent just prior to its use. a chemist in the Heavy Artillery Department of the War Ministry. bombs. Hans Tappen. Its use went unnoticed by the British when it was used against them at Neuve Chapelle in October 1914. weather observations and forecasting are essential to optimize weapon delivery and reduce the risk of injuring friendly forces. suggested to his brother. VX 33 Delivery The most important factor in the effectiveness of chemical weapons is the efficiency of its delivery. VM. . The Germans on the other hand tried to increase the effect of 10. or dissemination. GB-2 and VX-2). and was used in autumn 1914 € with little effect on the Germans. to a target. Some examples are given below: Blood agents: € € Cyanogen chloride: CK € Hydrogen cyanide: AC € Pulmonary agents: € Phosgene: CG Lachrymatory agents: € € Pepper spray: OC Tear gas: CN. HD. The actual first chemical ammunition was the French 26–mm cartouche suffocante rifle grenade. HS. Dispersion is the simplest technique of delivering an agent to its target. a common name. or in place of. Developments in the techniques of filling and storage of munitions have also been important. CR € € € Vesicants: Lewisite: L Sulfur mustard: H. it is still difficult to achieve effective dispersion. warheads) that allow dissemination at a distance and spray tanks which disseminate from low-flying aircraft. projectiles. Dispersion Dispersion is placing the chemical agent upon or adjacent to a target immediately before dissemination. It contained 35g of the tear-producer ethyl bromoacetate. The most common techniques include munitions (such as bombs. HT Incapacitating agents: Quinuclidinyl benzilate: BZ Nerve agents: Sarin: GB VE. Although there have been many advances in chemical weapon delivery since World War I. projectiles. VG.5–cm shrapnel shells by adding an irritant € dianisidine chlorosulfonate. Binary munitions. so that the material is most efficiently used. spray tanks and warheads. The most common techniques are munitions. CS. Dispersion of chlorine in World War I World War I saw the earliest implementation of this technique. Thus.to three-letter "NATO weapon designation" in addition to. fired from a flare carbine. The dissemination is highly dependent on atmospheric conditions because many chemical agents act in gaseous form. Gas clouds gave plenty of warning. and an order was placed for 15–cm howitzer shells.firing a 14–kg cylinder up to 1500 m. though many soldiers found the sight of a creeping gas cloud unnerving. designated •T-shells‚ after Tappen. Although it produced limited results in World War I. dug into the ground that used the gas cylinders themselves as projectiles . landing with a "plop" rather than exploding. Stockpiles of cylinders had to be stored at the front line. as at Loos. Second. Gas delivery depended greatly on wind speed and direction. This was effectively a large-bore mortar. it also had a psychological effect on the intended victims. especially the clear. In the 1950s and early 1960s. While simple. in addition to damaging the enemy physically. A British solution to the problem was the Livens Projector. gas shells could be delivered without warning. being initially dismissed as dud high explosive or shrapnel shells.Chemical warfare Shells were tested successfully at the Wahn artillery range near Cologne on 9 January 1915. causing friendly casualties. capable only of affecting the front-line trenches before dissipating. making any target within reach of guns vulnerable. Shortly after this "open canister" dissemination. This technique overcame many of the risks of dealing with gas in cylinders. there were some refinements in this technique. If the wind was fickle. this technique shows how simple chemical weapon dissemination can be. Moving large numbers of heavy gas cylinders to the front-line positions from where the gas would be released was a lengthy and difficult logistical task. as. A shortage of shells limited the first use against the Russians at Bolim—w on 31 January 1915. French forces developed a technique for delivery of phosgene in a non-explosive artillery shell. nearly odorless phosgene€ there are numerous accounts of gas shells. allowing the enemy time to protect themselves. chemical artillery rockets and cluster bombs contained a multitude of submunitions. giving the gas time to work before the soldiers were alerted and took precautions. posing a great risk if hit by artillery shells. First. This combined the gas volume of cylinders with the range of artillery. 34 Another disadvantage was that gas clouds had limited penetration. This made the gas doubly effective. The first effective use were when the German forces at the Second Battle of Ypres simply opened cylinders of chlorine and allowed the wind to carry the gas across enemy lines. Over the years. and again the experiment went unnoticed by the Allies. the liquid failed to vaporize in the cold weather. so that a large number of small clouds of the chemical agent would form directly on the target. this technique had numerous disadvantages. Aerial photograph of a German gas attack on Russian forces circa 1916 . gas shells were independent of the wind and increased the effective range of gas. The major drawback of artillery delivery was the difficulty of achieving a killing concentration. the gas could blow back. Each shell had a small gas payload and an area would have to be subjected to saturation bombardment to produce a cloud to match cylinder delivery. This technique is the most recent major development in chemical agent dissemination. flashing is still not fully understood. even at supersonic speed. developed in the 1920s. the cloud is sometimes totally or partially ignited by the disseminating explosion in a phenomenon called flashing. Most thermal dissemination devices consist of a bomb or projectile shell that contains a chemical agent and a central "burster" charge. computer modeling. was a major improvement over earlier dispersal techniques. allowing aerodynamic stress to disseminate the agent. such that warfare agent of a predetermined particle size can predictably and reliably hit a target. Despite a great deal of study. In actuality. This technique eliminates many of the limitations of thermal dissemination by eliminating the flashing effect and theoretically allowing precise control of particle size. originating in the mid-1960s. the sizes of the particles vary greatly because explosive dissemination produces a mixture of liquid droplets of variable and difficult to control sizes. Additionally. Thermal dissemination remains the principal method of disseminating chemical agents today. advances in fluid dynamics. wind direction and velocity. There are other drawbacks as well. and the direction and velocity of the aircraft greatly influence particle size. by modifying the properties of the liquid. speed.Chemical warfare Thermal dissemination Thermal dissemination is the use of explosives or pyrotechnics to deliver chemical agents. ideal deployment requires precise knowledge of aerodynamics and fluid dynamics. Significant research is still being applied toward this technique. and because the agent must usually be dispersed within the boundary layer (less than 200€300–ft above the ground). it puts pilots at risk. This technique. 35 An American-made MC-1 gas bomb The efficacy of thermal detonation is greatly limited by the flammability of some agents. Aerodynamic dissemination Aerodynamic dissemination is the non-explosive delivery of a chemical agent from an aircraft. a percentage of the agent is lost by incineration in the initial blast and by being forced onto the ground. For example. its breakup when subjected to aerodynamic stress can be controlled and an idealized particle distribution achieved. and a solution to the problem would be a major technological advance. in part because standard munitions can be adapted to carry the agents. the altitude of dissemination. Soviet chemical weapons canisters from a stockpile in Albania . are not particularly efficient. and altitude to be calculated. First. Thermal dissemination devices. For flammable aerosols. Despite the limitations of central bursters. though common. when the burster detonates. Explosively disseminated VX will ignite roughly one third of the time. and weather forecasting allow an ideal direction. in that it allowed significant quantities of an agent to be disseminated over a considerable distance. most nations use this method in the early stages of chemical weapon development. Second. the agent is expelled laterally. but go farther to include a fully independent air supply. and possibly starting a system that continually washes down the exterior surfaces. communications intercepts (COMINT). human intelligence (HUMINT) such as diplomatic. and agent reports.. the Bhopal disaster). or local equivalent.[] collective protection.. There may be a warning to expect an attack. aircraft and drones (IMINT). Since industrial accidents can cause dangerous chemical releases (e. In some cases. which means closing all openings to outside air. and detecting. With ordinary buildings. expertise. these activities are things that civilian. with specific warnings over emergency broadcasts and the like. organizations must be prepared to carry out. these are duties of HAZMAT organizations. as well as military.[] Individual protection starts with a gas mask and.g. biological. refugee. the signatures of someone building a chemical weapons capability. the latter which may be fixed. very early. it might be necessary to neutralize them chemically. to coordinate defensive measures. Some nonpersistent agents. Israel Defense Forces "Yanshuf" battalion soldiers at chemical warfare defense exercise If all the preventive measures fail and there is a clear and present danger. and personnel available. If. for example. the captain of a US Navy ship believes there is a serious threat of chemical. as a technical MASINT discipline. this may be as basic as plastic sheeting and tape. such as most pulmonary agents such as chlorine and phosgene. Riot Members of the Ukrainian Army‚s 19th Nuclear. Civilian authorities dealing with an attack or a toxic chemical accident will invoke the Incident Command System. there will need to be an air supply. and detection of chemical manufacturing and chemical agents themselves (MASINT). Kuwait . Biological and Chemical Battalion practice decontamination drill. typically a scaled-up version of a gas mask. an alarm needs to sound. The US military defines various levels of MOPP (mission-oriented protective posture) from mask to full chemical resistant suits.[][][] and decontamination. or improvised. although if the protection needs to be continued for any appreciable length of time. When chemical agents are detected. examination of captured equipment (TECHINT). which are usually the model for civilian procedures. depending on the nature of the threat. rather than the filters of a gas mask. Collective protection allows continued functioning of groups of people in buildings or shelters. Hazmat suits are the civilian equivalent. such as economic analysis of exports of dual-use chemicals and equipment. photography from satellites. mobile. through various levels of protective clothing up to a complete chemical-resistant suit with a self-contained air supply. blood gases. These include a wide range of intelligence disciplines. and nonpersistent nerve gases (e. or radiological attack. at Camp Arifjan. specific military procedures.Chemical warfare 36 Protection against chemical warfare Ideal protection begins with nonproliferation treaties such as the Chemical Weapons Convention. the crew may be ordered to set Circle William. then there is a need for detection of chemical attacks. although powerful exhaust fans may be needed to clear out buildings where they have accumulated. depend on the equipment.g.[][] Decontamination Decontamination varies with the particular chemical agent used. GB) will dissipate from open areas. running breathing air through filters. which most commonly are part of fire departments. Detection has been referred to above. as with ammonia as a neutralizer for hydrogen cyanide or chlorine. In civilian situations in developed countries. [] 37 Sociopolitical climate The study of chemicals and their military uses was widespread in China and India. proposed using a cacodyl cyanide-filled artillery shell against enemy ships during the Crimean War. Treatment and decontamination may need to be simultaneous. Struggling to defend themselves from the Roman legions. washed by people wearing protective gear. since people may be immediately affected and treatment is the action required. there have been several attempts to initiate large-scale implementation of poison gas in several wars. in the form of a spraying device with neutralizing agents such as Chlorine. Despite this tendency. strong alkaline solutions or enzymes. and not the result of an active government chemical weapons program." Yet the Romans themselves resorted to poisoning wells of besieged cities in Anatolia in the 2nd century BCE. For example. not with poisons. Mass decontamination is a less common requirement for people than equipment. Decontamination is especially important for people contaminated with persistent agents. such as blister agents. the responsible authorities generally rejected the proposals for ethical reasons. not knowing of the contamination. There are many instances of the use of chemical weapons in battles documented in Greek and Roman historical texts. a British chemist. There are many reports of the isolated use of chemical agents in individual battles or sieges. Greece. in the harbor of Bari. after a German bombing on 2 December 1943. Germanic tribes poisoned the wells of their enemies. FRS (1 May 1818 € 29 May 1898). came when rescue workers. The practical and ethical problems surrounding poison warfare appeared in ancient Greek myths about Hercules' invention of poison arrows and Odysseus's use of toxic projectiles." Efforts to eradicate chemical weapons . but things contaminated with CS powder need to be aired out. special equipment and materials might be needed. many of the fatalities after the explosion of a WWII US ammunition ship carrying mustard gas.Chemical warfare control agents such as CS will dissipate in an open area. but there was no true tradition of their use outside of incendiaries and smoke. Some type of neutralizing agent will be needed. bundled cold. Italy. The British Ordnance Department rejected the proposal as "as bad a mode of warfare as poisoning the wells of the enemy. such as injection of atropine for nerve agents. with Roman jurists having been recorded as declaring "armis bella non venenis geri".[7] One of the earliest reactions to the use of chemical agents was from Rome. the earliest example was the deliberate poisoning of Kirrha's water supply with hellebore in the First Sacred War. or safely discarded. VX or other agents made persistent by mixing with a thickener. but with the notable exception of World War I. wet seamen in tight-fitting blankets. in 1854 Lyon Playfair (later 1st Baron Playfair.[8] Before 1915 the use of poisonous chemicals in battle was typically the result of local initiative. In other cases. meaning "war is fought with weapons. It is a requirement when people have been contaminated with persistent agents. a specific chemical decontaminant will be required. about 590 BC. The use of toxic materials has historically been viewed with mixed emotions and moral qualms in the West.[] There may need to be immediate intervention to prevent death. GCB. with the medical personnel protecting themselves so they can function. For decontaminating equipment and buildings exposed to persistent agents.g. e. Fichlor. PC. " enters into force. 1993 September 30. . 1997 No No People's Republic of China Probable Egypt India Iran Israel Japan Libya Probable Known Known Probable Probable Known January 14. a recently unearthed letter shows. 1993 April 4. € February 6. poisonous or other gases. that it would be a mistake for America to join the Convention. 1999 (acceded) No n/a Possible No Syria Taiwan United States Vietnam Known Possible Known Probable No n/a January 13. 1900: The Hague Conference. the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.[9] published by the Federation of American Scientists. prohibiting the use of poison gas. 1995 No January 6. 1993 September 15. 1997 January 13. The governments we should be concerned about are likely to cheat on the CWC. Notable examples include United States and Russia. some nations continue to research and/or stockpile chemical warfare agents. 1994 January 13. 1993 April 25. 1993 November 5. 1993 October 28. "Those nations most likely to comply with the Chemical Weapons Convention are not likely to ever constitute a military threat to the United States. To the right is a summary of the nations that have either declared weapon stockpiles or are suspected of secretly stockpiling or possessing CW research programs. In a letter dated April 8. 1996 January 13. the Washington Arms Conference Treaty prohibited the use of asphyxiating. then Halliburton-CEO Cheney told Sen. 1922: After World War I. 1997 January 13. and Italy. € September 7. Britain. 1998 € August 27. It was signed by the United States. Japan. 1993 No January 13. which includes a declaration banning the "use of projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases. 1993 November 3. 1993 May 11. Jesse Helms. Former US Vice President Dick Cheney opposed the signing ratification of a treaty banning the use chemical weapons." reads the letter. 1874: The Brussels Declaration Concerning the Laws and Customs of War is signed. France. 2004 (acceded) No North Korea Pakistan Russia Serbia and Montenegro Sudan Known Probable Known Probable No January 13. Chemical weapon proliferation Despite numerous efforts to reduce or eliminate them. 2000 (acceded) May 24.Chemical warfare 38 Nation Albania Burma (Myanmar) CW Possession Known Possible Signed CWC Ratified CWC January 14. even if they do participate. 1997. specifically forbidding the "employment of poison or poisoned weapons. 1993 September 3. 1993 No January 13. 1929: The Geneva Protocol enters into force." € September 4. 1997 January 13. but France objected to other provisions in the treaty and it never went into effect. 1997 No April 20. 400 BC) forbids the use of poison and fire arrows. giving only a description of a . known as the San. Albania. Spartan forces besieging an Athenian city placed a lighted mixture of wood. The arrow was fired into the target of choice. But that looks unlikely€ the U. Russia.[8] Arsenical smokes were known to the Chinese as far back as c. Ancient Greek historians recount that Alexander the Great encountered poison arrows and fire incendiaries in India at Indus Basin in the 4th century BC.[8] Textual and literary evidence Some of the earliest surviving references to toxic warfare appear in the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. toxic smokes.[] The "Laws of Manu. the United States. D˜ugosz's chronicle is unclear as to what kind of device or gas was used. usually an antelope (the favourite being an eland). but evidence can be found for the existence of more advanced forms of chemical weapons in ancient and classical times. Other Chinese writings dating around the same period contain hundreds of recipes for the production of poisonous or irritating smokes for use in war along with numerous accounts of their use. The earliest recorded use of gas warfare in the West dates back to the 5th century BC.Chemical warfare The CWC was ratified by the Senate that same month. allude to poisoned arrows used by both sides in the legendary Trojan War (Bronze Age Greece). and India have declared over 71. From these accounts we know of the arsenic-containing "soul-hunting fog". Ancient Greek myths about Hercules poisoning his arrows with the venom of the Hydra Monster are the earliest references to toxic weapons in western literature. Libya. These poisons were mainly derived from scorpion or snake venom. but advises poisoning food and water. the United States and Russia are supposed to eliminate the rest of their supplies of chemical weapons by 2012." a Hindu treatise on statecraft (c. 200 BC) advises the use of fire weapons. his report is not firsthand. the Iliad and the Odyssey. Homer's epics. However. so that they would not be able to resist the assault that followed. government estimates remaining stocks will be destroyed by 2017. Under the terms of the agreement. but it is believed that some poisonous plants were also utilized.000 metric tons of chemical weapon stockpiles. during the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. According to Mukhamedzhan Tynyshpaev. In the 2nd century BC. and sulfur under the walls hoping that the noxious smoke would incapacitate the Athenians. contains hundreds of recipes for creating poison weapons. Since then. writings of the Mohist sect in China describe the use of bellows to pump smoke from burning balls of mustard and other toxic vegetables into tunnels being dug by a besieging army. and other chemical weapons. Kautilya's "Arthashastra".S. and destroyed about a third of them. tipping the wood. bone and stone tips of their arrows with poisons obtained from their natural environment. pitch.[citation needed] 39 History War Ancient to medieval times Chemical weapons have been used for millennia in the form of poisoned spears and arrows. A good example of early chemical warfare was the late Stone Age (10 000 BC) hunter-gatherer societies in Southern Africa. and the use of finely divided lime dispersed into the air to suppress a peasant revolt in AD 178.[8] Polish chronicler Jan D˜ugosz mentions usage of poisonous gas by the Mongol army in 1241 in the Battle of Legnica. with the hunter then tracking the doomed animal until the poison caused its collapse.[citation needed] They used poisoned arrows. Sparta was not alone in its use of unconventional tactics in ancient Greece: Solon of Athens is said to have used hellebore roots to poison the water in an aqueduct leading from the River Pleistos around 590 BC during the siege of Kirrha. a statecraft manual of the same era. as he was born in the 15th century. 1000 BC[10] and Sun Tzu's "Art of War" (c. Christoph Bernhard von Galen. August 27. recounts how in the reign of Henry III (r. intended to produce toxic fumes.[citation needed] In 1854. Research carried out on the collapsed tunnels at Dura-Europos in Syria suggests that the Iranians used bitumen and sulfur crystals to get it burning. and/or antimony. armies attempted to start fires by launching incendiary shells filled with sulfur." the old name for calcium oxide. It was considered by the Prime Minister.Chemical warfare noxious smell. the Bishop of M™nster. Just three years later. which included an article banning the use of "perfidious and odious" toxic devices. a variety of fills for shells were developed to maximize the effects of the smoke. turpentine. which is said to have contributed to the victory: Having gained the wind of the French. Spanish conquistadors encountered a rudimentary type of chemical warfare on the island of Hispaniola. . some of which had a fill that included Deadly Nightshade. One of the earliest such references is from Leonardo da Vinci. rosin. and produced the most frightful modes of death. people again considered using chemical warfare. 1675. employed several different explosive and incendiary devices. Chalk. but the British Ordnance Department rejected the proposal as "as bad a mode of warfare as poisoning the wells of the enemy. Rather.[12] Archaeological evidence There is archaeological evidence that the Sasanians deployed chemical weapons against the Roman army in 3rd century AD/CE. which he purposely carried on board. Why a poisonous vapor which would kill men without suffering is to be considered illegitimate warfare is incomprehensible. The proposal was backed by Admiral Thomas Cochrane of the Royal Navy. In the late 15th century. he so blinded them. the French and the Germans concluded the Strasbourg Agreement. that they were disabled from defending themselves. he came down upon them with violence. the materials gave off dense clouds of choking gases which killed 20 Roman soldiers in a matter of 2 minutes. Even when fires were not started. The Ta•no threw gourds filled with ashes and ground hot peppers at the Spaniards to create a blinding smoke screen before launching their attack. and powdered verdegris may be thrown among enemy ships by means of small mangonels.[13] 40 Rediscovery During the Renaissance.1216 1272) the English Navy destroyed an invading French fleet. a British chemist. D‚Albiney employed a stratagem against them. as they breathe." Playfair‚s response was used to justify chemical warfare into the next century:[citation needed] There was no sense in this objection.[11] Historian and philosopher David Hume. British troops attacking Maori trenches and bunkers at Ohaeawai in New Zealand fired shells containing an unknown type of poison gas from their cannon and mortars. When ignited. inhale the powder into their lungs will become asphyxiated.[citation needed] In June 1845. Lord Palmerston. saltpeter. he suggests. the resulting smoke and fumes provided a considerable distraction. who proposed a powder of sulfide of arsenic and verdigris in the 15th century: throw poison in the form of powder upon galleys. The Maori withstood the bombardment and won the battle.[14] In the 17th century during sieges. this is a repeat of the trope of the Mongols' bad smell as an excuse for their annihilation of European defenders. fine sulfide of arsenic. in his history of England. by blinding the enemy fleet with "quicklime. during his siege of the city of Groningen. and throwing in their faces a great quantity of quicklime. It is considered a legitimate mode of warfare to fill shells with molten metal which scatters among the enemy. Lyon Playfair. In 1672. Although their primary function was never abandoned. tallow. and all those who. It is unknown whether this powder was ever actually used. proposed a cacodyl cyanide artillery shell for use against enemy ships as way to solve the stalemate during the siege of Sevastopol. A total 50.176. despite a single dissenting vote from the United States. The French were the first to use chemical weapons during the First World War. the salt water .Chemical warfare War is destruction. as it was probably[citation needed] presented to Brigadier General James Wolfe Ripley. when the Germans attacked French.500 non-fatal casualties and 85. 1914 when shells containing the irritant. nowadays in Poland.000 tons of gas were produced by the end of World War I.[16] The first full-scale deployment of deadly chemical warfare agents during World War I. which could produce many cubic feet (a few cubic meters) of chlorine gas. justified voting against the measure on the grounds that "the inventiveness of Americans should not be restricted in the development of new weapons. including chlorine. was at the Second Battle of Ypres. a common disposal method among all the participants in several bodies of water. Later. The American representative. New York school teacher John Doughty proposed the offensive use of chlorine gas. and even of criminals condemned to death.[15] Germany used another irritant. were fired at British troops near Neuve-Chapelle. The proposal was passed. No doubt in time chemistry will be used to lessen the suffering of combatants. delivered by filling a 10 inch (254 millimeter) artillery shell with 2 to 3 quarts (2 to 3 liters) of liquid chlorine. in artillery shells that were fired in January 1915 at the Russians near Bolim—w. and vesicant agents were deployed by both sides of the conflict. April 10.[17] Tear gas casualties from the Battle of Estaires. Over time. Official figures declare about 1.000 fatalities directly caused by chemical warfare agents during the course of the war. and the more destructive it can be made with the least suffering the sooner will be ended that barbarous method of protecting national rights. Canadian and Algerian troops with chlorine gas. France. using the tear gases." 41 World War I The Hague Declaration of 1899 and the Hague Convention of 1907 forbade the use of "poison or poisonous weapons" in warfare. who was described as being congenitally immune to new ideas. A Canadian soldier with mustard gas burns. Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan. ca. lachrymatory. To this day unexploded World War I-era chemical ammunition is still uncovered when the ground is dug in former battle or depot areas and continues to pose a threat to the civilian population in Belgium and France and less commonly in other countries. One of Germany's earliest uses of chemical weapons occurred on October 27. Deaths were light. After the war.Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words A general concern over the use of poison gas manifested itself in 1899 at the Hague Conference with a proposal prohibiting shells filled with asphyxiating gas. ethyl bromoacetate and chloroacetone. phosgene and mustard gas. 1917€1918. Chief of Ordnance. most of the unused German chemical warfare agents were dumped into the Baltic Sea. yet more than 124. during the American Civil War. dianisidine chlorosulfonate.965–tons of pulmonary. 1918. xylyl bromide. though casualties relatively heavy. 1915. on April 22. Doughty‚s plan was apparently never acted on. 1916 Interwar years In 1919. the Imperial Japanese Army began full-scale use of sneeze and nausea gas (red)."[19] During the Rif War in Spanish Morocco in 1921€1927. the Arab and Kurdish people of Mesopotamia revolted against the British occupation. the Imperial Japanese Army frequently used chemical weapons.[18] In 1925.[21] The chemical structure of Sarin nerve gas. those weapons were never used against Westerners. sixteen of the world's major nations signed the Geneva Protocol. in the United States. In 1920. the Royal Air Force dropped mustard gas on Bolshevik troops. so that the layer of gas penetrates the forests and kills everyone hiding there. and mustard gas occasionally leaks from these containers and washes onto shore as a wax-like solid resembling ambergris. (See also: Chemical weapons in the Rif War) In 1935. such as tear gas. Western front. Because of fear of retaliation however. thereby pledging never to use gas in warfare again. when it was finally ratified. . World War II Despite article 171 of the Versailles Peace Treaty. were used only sporadically in 1937 but in early 1938. and from mid-1939. As the Mesopotamian resistance gained strength. mostly from mustard gas. the Italian military dropped mustard gas in bombs. combined Spanish and French forces dropped mustard gas bombs in an attempt to put down the Berber rebellion. with Winston Churchill. the British resorted to increasingly repressive measures. Much speculation was made about aerial bombardment of major cities with gas in Mesopotamia. sprayed it from airplanes. but against other Asians judged "inferior" by the imperial propaganda. which it signed seven years earlier.Chemical warfare 42 causes the shell casings to corrode. The Bolsheviks also employed poison gas in 1921 during the Tambov Rebellion. and spread it in powdered form on the ground. which cost the British dearly. Ignoring the Geneva Protocol. Football team of British soldiers with gas masks. 150. used mustard gas (yellow) against both Kuomintang and Communist Chinese troops.000 chemical casualties were reported. According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Kentaro Awaya. Notably. article V of the Treaty in Relation to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare[20] and a resolution adopted against Japan by the League of Nations on 14 May 1938. Fascist Italy used mustard gas during the invasion of Ethiopia in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. arguing in favor of it. the Protocol languished in the Senate until 1975. gas developed in Germany (1939) weapons. An order signed by military commanders Tukhachevsky and Vladimir Antonov-Ovseyenko stipulated: "The forests where the bandits are hiding are to be cleared by the use of poison gas. This must be carefully calculated. then-Secretary of State at the British War Office.[citation needed] After World War I chemical agents were occasionally used to subdue populations and suppress rebellion. chemical warfare was revolutionized by Nazi Germany's discovery of the nerve agents tabun (in 1937) and sarin (in 1939) by Gerhard Schrader. but chemical warfare was not extensively used by either side. the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938. rubber gloves during a chemical attack in the including three tunnels in the Blue Mountains to the west of Sydney. sinking several American ships€ among them SS–John Harvey. Collaboration between Germany and the USSR in poison gas continued on and off through the 1920s. the chemical weapons were authorized by specific orders given by Emperor Hirohito himself. "Poison gas from Germany" [25]. Experiments involving chemical weapons were conducted on live prisoners (Unit 731 and Unit 516). In 1923. Germany ultimately decided not to use the new nerve agents. Chemical troops were set up (in Germany since 1934) and delivery technology was actively developed.000. They were to be as a retaliatory measure if the Japanese first used [] chemical weapons. Robert (December 30. For example. so the weaponization of these agents can not be considered accidental. Germany's General Staff enthusiastically pursued a recapture of their preeminent position in chemical warfare.[][] The Nazis developed and manufactured large quantities of several agents. Buried chemical weapons have been recovered at Marrangaroo and Columboola. The presence of the gas was highly classified. The Japanese also carried chemical weapons as they swept through Southeast Asia towards Australia. Recovered Nazi documents suggest that German intelligence incorrectly thought that the Allies also knew of these compounds. In 1924. 2000). Fisk. in The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. since physicians.[22] They were also profusely used during the invasion of Changde. transmitted by the chief of staff of the army. Shirer. Hans von Seeckt pointed the way. who had no idea that they were 43 . interpreting their lack of mention in the Allies' scientific journals as evidence that information about them was being suppressed.[23] The Imperial Japanese Army used mustard gas and the recently developed blister agent Lewisite against Chinese troops and guerrillas. Also in 1923. at the behest of the German army. and authorities ashore had no knowledge of it€ which increased the number of fatalities. Independent Wikipedia:Link rot William L.Chemical warfare According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno.[24] Both were turned over to the German Army Weapons Office prior to the outbreak of the war. Historian Geoff Plunkett has recorded how Australia covertly imported 1. a chemist of IG Farben. Those orders were transmitted either by prince Kotohito Kan'in or general Hajime Sugiyama. German officers debated the use of poison gas versus non-lethal chemical weapons against civilians. IG Farben was Germany's premier poison gas manufacturer during World War I. The nerve agent soman was later discovered by Nobel Prize laureate Richard Kuhn and his collaborator Konrad Henkel at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg in spring of 1944.[] Shortly after the end of World War I. by suggesting that German poison gas research move in the direction of delivery by aircraft in support of mobile warfare. German Ju 88 bombers attacked the port of Bari in Southern Italy. Battle of Shanghai. Hugo Stoltzenberg negotiated with the USSR to build a huge chemical weapons plant at Trotsk.000 chemical weapons from the United Kingdom from 1942 Imperial Japanese soldiers wearing gas masks and onwards and stored them in many storage depots around the country. writes that the British high command considered the use of chemical weapons as a last-ditch defensive measure in the event of a Nazi invasion of Britain. Some of these items were captured and analyzed by the Allies. on the Volga river. poison gas expert Dr. which was carrying mustard gas intended for use in retaliation by the Allies if German forces initiated gas warfare. 1943. fearing a potentially devastating Allied retaliatory nerve agent deployment. On the night of December 2. Even before World War II. 500 fatalities and 1. also apart from the accidental additional effects of the gas (it was nicknamed "The Little Pearl Harbor"). mustard gas. The Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Berne made a statement. considered conservative. 1966. The Egyptian authorities suggested that the reported incidents were probably caused by napalm.[] The large number of civilian casualties among the Italian population were not recorded.phosgene. "Sixty-nine deaths were attributed in whole or in part to the mustard gas. On May 10. On December 11.[][] Rick Atkinson.500 injuries. a village of about 100 inhabitants in northern Yemen. Part of the confusion and controversy derives from the fact that the German attack was highly destructive and lethal in itself. in his book The Day of Battle. against all parts of royalist Yemen. egregiously potent gas" if the war turned decisively against Germany. The target may have been Prince Hassan bin Yahya. and the bombs were described as "home-made. On February 12. 1967. The whole affair was kept secret at the time and for many years after the war (in the opinion of some. where Prince Mohamed bin Mohsin was in command. is that the mustard and phosgene-filled aerial bombs caused approximately 1. and an assumption. and prisoner of war interrogations suggesting that preparations were being made to use a "new. but resumed on July. amateurish and relatively ineffective". Casualty estimates vary. the biggest gas attack came against the village of Kitaf. There were no reports of gas during 1964. prescribed treatment improper for those suffering from exposure and immersion." 44 North Yemen The first attack of the North Yemen Civil War took place on June 8. and attribution of the causes of death between the gas and other causes is far from easy. killing at least seventy-five. including 140 fatalities.Chemical warfare dealing with the effects of mustard gas. and only a few were reported in 1965. describes the intelligence that prompted Allied leaders to deploy mustard gas to Italy. This incident is considered to have been experimental. 1967. The gas attacks stopped for three weeks after the Six-Day War of June. killing about seven people and damaging the eyes and lungs of twenty-five others. the twin villages of Gahar and Gadafa in Wadi Hirran.S. who had installed his headquarters nearby. The Egyptian government denied using poison gas. On January 5. military account. and alleged that Britain and the US were using the reports as psychological warfare against Egypt. chloride or cyanogen bromide. it issued a statement in Geneva expressing concern. lewisite. [citation needed] . based on a Red Cross report. that the gas was likely to have been halogenous derivatives . fifteen gas bombs killed two people and injured thirty-five. On March 1. there was a deliberate and systematic cover-up). it said it would welcome a UN investigation. Atkinson concludes that "No commander in 1943 could be cavalier about a manifest threat by Germany to use gas. most of them American merchant seamen"[] out of 628 mustard gas military casualties. were gas bombed. This included Italian intelligence that Adolf Hitler had threatened to use gas against Italy if the state changed sides. U Thant said he was "powerless" to deal with the matter. According to the U. causing 270 casualties. The Red Cross was alerted and on June 2. 1963 against Kawma. not gas. The reports grew more frequent in late 1966. 42% of all herbicides were sprayed over food crops. along with the U. both the Soviet and Western governments put enormous resources into developing chemical and biological weapons. Herbicidal warfare In 1961 and 1962 the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy vegetation and food crops in South Vietnam. was allegedly used experimentally in the Vietnam War. the U.S. or nuclear weapon release.000–kmš) of foliage and trees. The use of Agent Orange may have been contrary to international rules of war at the time.000–kmš) of land had been destroyed. In 1965. mainly Agent Orange (containing dioxin as an impurity in the manufacturing process) over 6 million acres (24. A 1967 study by the Agronomy Section of the Japanese Science Council concluded that 3. .[citation needed] These allegations inspired the 1990 fictional film Jacob's Ladder. Besides destroying vegetation used as cover by the NLF and destroying food crops the herbicide was used to drive civilians into RVN-controlled areas. One of these agents. Army patented a process for the "Preparation of Toxic Ricin". NIOSH.Chemical warfare 45 Cold War After World War II. During the 1960s.000 livestock. assigned the weapon designation BZ. Between 1961 and 1967 the US Air Force sprayed 12 million US gallons of concentrated herbicides. CDC.S. VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve agents. biological. killing 1000 peasants and 13. This research produced at least three more agents. United States chemical respiratory protection standardization In December 2001.S. England. detonation. and the U.S. Development Engineering Command (RDECOM). explored the use of anticholinergic deliriant incapacitating agents. Also in 1952 the U.S. In 1958 the British government traded their VX technology with the United States in exchange for information on thermonuclear weapons. an article published by the Wall Street Journal reported that up to half a million children were born with dioxin related deformities.8 million acres (15. It is also of note that the most likely victims of such an assault would be small children. To date NIOSH/NPPTL has published six new respirator performance standards based on a tiered approach that relies on Handicapped Vietnamese children.[30] In 1997. Army Research. There is some evidence suggesting that Vietnamese troops used phosgene gas against Cambodian resistance forces in Thailand during the 1984-1985 dry-season offensive on the Thai-Cambodian border. during the Vietnam War [29] increased the number of birth defects.[26][27][28] Developments by the Western governments In 1952.S. radiological. the United States Department of Health and Human Services. Edgewood Chemical and Biological Center (ECBC). researchers in Porton Down. sarin. the Allies recovered German artillery shells containing the three German nerve agents of the day (tabun. Department of Commerce National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) published the first of six technical performance standards and test procedures designed to evaluate and certify respirators intended for use by civilian emergency responders to a chemical. prompting further research into nerve agents by all of the former Allies. was producing large amounts of VX and performing its own nerve agent research. Vietnam claims that the use of Agent Orange and other herbicides by the U. VG. National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory (NPPTL). the four agents (VE. affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land. Although the threat of global thermonuclear war was foremost in the minds of most during the Cold War. and soman). by 1961 the U. publishing a method of producing this powerful toxin. and that the birth defects in North Vietnam were fourfold those in the South. VM. or terrorism incident. invented the VX nerve agent but soon abandoned the project. The code name for the sea tests was Project Shipboard Hazard and Defense -. as the controversial news broke that chemical agents had been tested on thousands of American military personnel. Mirzayanov was imprisoned and fired from his job at the State Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology."[] detailed the United States Department of Defense's practice of experimenting on animal and human subjects. the Department of Defense planned 134 tests under Project 112. 37 secret tests were conducted in California. and nuclear (CBRN) agent inhalation hazards.S.[] Specifically under Project SHAD. very little information was available about the direction and progress of the Soviet chemical weapons until relatively recently.[] In October 2002. The hearings were chaired by Senator Max Cleland. without the crew's knowledge. Russian chemist Vil Mirzayanov published articles revealing illegal chemical weapons experimentation in Russia."Dugway" section. which saw most of its success during the mid-1980s. Maryland and Utah. on neighboring farms. entitled "Is military research hazardous to veterans health? Lessons spanning a half century.[31] United States Senate report A 1994 United States Senate Report. air-purifying escape respirator (CBRN APER). the Senate Armed Forces Subcommittee on Personnel held hearings. approximately 6.[] Project SHAD From 1962 to 1973. Mirzayanov was released.[32][33] Due to the secrecy of the Soviet Union's government. California and Hawaii tested the ability of ships and crew to perform under biological and chemical warfare.000 [US] military personnel were used as human subjects in the 1940s to test the chemical agents mustard gas and lewisite.Chemical warfare traditional industrial respirator certification policy. "Seventh" section. next generation emergency response respirator performance requirements."SHAD" for short. while Navy trials off the coasts of Florida. In 1993. "Mustard" section. and special live chemical warfare agent testing requirements of the classes of respirators identified to offer respiratory protection against chemical. Florida. air-purifying respirator (CBRN APR). biological. referred to as Operation Whitecoat. a chemical and biological weapons "vulnerability-testing program. Operation Whitecoat was truly voluntary. radiological. after a major campaign by U. Several highly toxic agents were developed during this period. often without their knowledge or consent. sometimes against civilians. the Pentagon admitted for the first time that some of tests used real chemical and biological weapons. Developments by the Soviet government There have been numerous reports of chemical weapons being used during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Unlike most of the studies discussed in this report. Dugway Proving Ground was the site of testing for various chemical and biological agents. In March 1994. Current NIOSH-approved/certified CBRN respirator concept standards and test procedures can be found at the webpage.200 military personnel were subjected to various biological agents. where he had worked for 26 years. scientists on his behalf. Land tests in Alaska and Hawaii used artillery shells filled with sarin and VX. After the fall of the Soviet Union. This included: € Approximately 60.400 sheep by an unspecified nerve agent. at least 2. Alaska. not just harmless simulants. the only unclassified information regarding these agents is that they are known in the 46 .[] € Between the 1950s through the 1970s. Hawaii. These CBRN respirators are commonly known as open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus (CBRN SCBA).[] € Between 1951 and 1969." In 2002.[34] Among the information related by Vil Mirzayanov was the direction of Soviet research into the development of even more toxic nerve agents. former VA administrator and Vietnam War veteran. including an open air aerodynamic dissemination test in 1968 that accidentally killed. self-contained escape respirator (CBRN SCER) and loose or tight fitting powered air-purifying respirators (CBRN PAPR). [] Together with Lev Fedorov. Gen. precursors to the agents are usually much easier to stabilize than the agents themselves.000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1. and France. Many were hit by mustard gas. Of the 80.000 of the town's 50. such as A-230 and A-232.000 are still hospitalized with severe.[] According to Mirzayanov. suggested this may have been due to Iraqi fear of retaliation with nuclear weapons. Despite the fact that they did possess chemical weapons.[35] About 100. the Iraqi Kurdish village of Halabja was exposed to multiple chemical agents. Nerve gas agents killed about 20.[] 47 Iran€Iraq War The Iran€Iraq War began in 1980 when Iraq attacked Iran. leading to the development of the binary weapons. many of whom have developed blood. binary versions of several Soviet agents were developed and are designated as "Novichok" agents (after the Russian word for "newcomer"). The official estimate does not include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or the children Iranian soldiers had to use full PPE in front line and relatives of veterans. the reported employment of tear gas by Argentine forces during the 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands constitutes chemical warfare. According to Iraqi documents.[40] However. according to official reports. chronic conditions. the Netherlands. During the 1980s and 1990s. Because the precursors are generally significantly less hazardous than the agents themselves. Early in the conflict.[41] . including the United States. assistance in developing chemical weapons was obtained from firms in many countries.[citation needed] Chemical weapons employed by Saddam Hussein killed and injured numerous Iranians. Norman Schwarzkopf. Coalition forces began a ground war in Iraq. and possibly Iraqis. but legally justifiable as they are not considered chemical weapons under the Chemical Weapons Convention. killing about 5.[citation needed] Falklands War Technically.[36][37][38] Shortly before war ended in 1988. approximately 5% of all Iranian casualties are directly attributable to the use of these agents. The barrack buildings the weapons were used on proved to be deserted in any case. in which precursors for the nerve agents are mixed in a munition to produce the agent just prior to its use. he told the secret Novichok story exposed in the newspaper The Moscow News. according to the Organization for Veterans. West Germany. H. The commander of the Allied Forces. the United Kingdom. Iraq did not use any chemical agents against coalition forces. this technique makes handling and transporting the munitions a great deal simpler.[39] During the Gulf War in 1991. lung of Iran-Iraq War and skin complications. Additionally. the Soviets also developed weapons that were safer to handle. so this technique also made it possible to increase the shelf life of the agents a great deal.000 Iranian soldiers were victims of Iraq's chemical attacks. the tear gas grenades were employed as nonlethal weapons to avoid British casualties.Chemical warfare open literature only as "Foliant" agents (named after the program under which they were developed) and by various code designations. Iraq began to employ mustard gas and tabun delivered by bombs dropped from airplanes.000 residents.000 Iranian soldiers immediately. The British claim that more lethal.000 survivors. white phosphorus grenades were used. some 5. an aerosolized fentanyl derivative). chemical weapons might be considered an ideal choice for a mode of attack. an apocalyptic group based in Japan that believed it necessary to destroy the planet.[44] On October 26. as well as 4 unique nerve agents named AA1. These attacks have wounded or sickened more than 350 people. 2002. this treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are "justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilised world. no Russian soldiers were injured. relatively accessible. On 29 December 1999. Aum Shinrikyo released sarin into the Tokyo subway system killing 12 and injuring over 5. where several thousand SS troops were being detained.[46] United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon condemned the attacks as. of whom more than 200 required hospitalization.000 prisoners. "clearly intended to cause panic and instability in the country.Chemical warfare 48 Terrorism For many terrorist organizations.[42] The first successful use of chemical agents by terrorists against a general civilian population was on June 27. Because of the wind conditions. released sarin gas in Matsumoto. A skilled chemist can readily synthesize most chemical agents if the precursors are available. ending the Moscow theater hostage crisis."[48] . The organization. who was killed. four days after Russian forces began assault of Grozny. or the Geneva Convention. and easy to transport. and bombed the Pan Am Terminal at Los Angeles International Airport. is an International treaty which prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons in warfare. the organization Al-Qaeda announced that they were attempting to acquire radiological. Signed into International Law at Geneva on June 17. Although no agents were found at the time he was arrested in August 1974. Germany. among other things. killing three people and injuring eight. AA2. 1928. and the Bacteriological Methods of Warfare. In early 2007 multiple terrorist bombings have been reported in Iraq using chlorine gas. and one of the commissioner‚s cars. Russian special forces used a chemical agent (presumably KOLOKOL-1."[47] Chemical Weapons Treaty The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating. killing eight and harming 200. the killing of three dogs by an apparent nerve agent. after carrying out the attacks in New York City on September 11.[43] In 2001. sickening more than 2. died from the effects of the agent. Chechen terrorists exploded two chlorine tanks in the town. AA3. a group calling themselves the Aliens of America successfully firebombed the houses of a judge. and AA4S. Poisonous or other Gases. All 42 of the terrorists and 120 of the hostages were killed during the raid. burned down two apartment buildings.000. biological and chemical weapons. as a precursor to an assault on Chechen terrorists. when Aum Shinrikyo. he had reportedly acquired "all but one" of the ingredients required to produce a nerve agent. claimed to have developed and possessed a supply of sarin. The following year. all but one hostage. which turned out to be a single resident alien named Muharem Kurbegovic. The earliest successful use of chemical agents in a non-combat setting was in 1946. Japan. if they are available: they are cheap. This threat was lent a great deal of credibility when a large archive of videotapes was obtained by the cable television network CNN in August 2002 showing. A search of his apartment turned up a variety of materials. 1925 and entered into force on February 8. Reportedly the bombers are affiliated with Al-Qaeda in Iraq[45] and have used bombs of various sizes up to chlorine tanker trucks. including precursors for phosgene and a drum containing 25–pounds of sodium cyanide. Three members of a Jewish group calling themselves Dahm Y'Israel Nokeam ("Avenging Israel's Blood") hid in a bakery in the Stalag 13 prison camp near Nuremberg. motivated by a desire to obtain revenge on Germans for the Holocaust. 1994. In July 1974. two police commissioners. The three applied an arsenic-containing mixture to loaves of bread. Russia has received help from other countries such as Canada . consisting of blister agents: Lewisite. will become the 186th State Party to the Convention". Production. on 12 February 2009. and nerve agents: Sarin. Since. 1993 India became one of the original signatories to the Chemical Weapons Convention. 1993 and ratified it on November 5. welcomed Iraq's decision to join the OPCW as a significant step to strengthening global and regional efforts to prevent the spread and use of chemical weapons. The OPCW announced "The government of Iraq has deposited its instrument of accession to the Chemical Weapons Convention with the Secretary General of the United Nations and within 30 days. Iraq has also declared stockpiles of chemical weapons. India declared that it had a stockpile of 1044 tonnes of sulphur mustard in its possession. Sulfur mustard. India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons and material stockpile and was granted an extension to complete a 100 percent destruction of its stocks by April 2009. Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction.Chemical warfare 49 Chemical Weapons Convention The most recent arms control agreement in International Law. from among six nations that had declared their possession of chemical weapons. financial. It is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). stockpiling. and VX. and environmental challenges of chemical disposal.[55] Russia Russia signed into the Chemical Weapons Convention on January 13. Lewisite-mustard mix. but requested an extension on the deadlines of 2004 and 2007 due to technical. outlaws the production. 1995. In June 1997. India was the only country to meet its deadline for chemical weapons destruction and for inspection of its facilities by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Declaring an arsenal of 39. Russia met its treaty obligations by destroying 1 percent of its chemical agents by the 2002 deadline set out by the Chemical Weapons Convention. an intergovernmental organisation based in The Hague. Light colored territories are those states parties that have declared stockpiles of chemical weapons and/or have known production facilities for chemical weapons. and use of chemical weapons.[53] Japan During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937€1945) Japan stored chemical weapons on the territory of mainland China. or the Chemical Weapons Convention.[49] Chemical weapons destruction India States parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention. On May 14.[50][51] By 2006. By 2005. Soman.[54] They weapons are classified as abandoned chemical weapons under the Chemical Weapons Convention and from September 2010 Japan has started their destruction in Nanjing using mobile destruction facilities in order to do so. and because of their recent accession is the only State Party exempted from the destruction time-line. India's declaration of its stockpile came after its entry into the Chemical Weapons Convention. by far the largest arsenal. that created the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.967 tons of chemical weapons in 1997. the Convention of the Prohibition of the Development. Ambassador Rogelio Pfirter. The weapon stock mostly containing mustard gas-lewisite mixture. 2009 India informed the United Nations that it has completely destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons. and on January 14.[52] Iraq The Director-General of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. [61] .S. and production facilities by April 2012.000. This money will be used to complete work at Shchuch'ye and support the construction of a chemical weapons destruction facility at Kizner (Russia). dispersal systems.[59] The U.Chemical warfare which donated C$100. It also banned the development of chemical weapons. a United States Department of Defense program that aimed to dispose of chemical weapons by sinking ships laden with the weapons in the deep Atlantic.S. met the first three of the four deadlines set out in the treaty. which required the destruction of all chemical weapon agents. Maradykovsky (Kirov Oblast). two ships were loaded with over 100. From May 1964 to the early 1970s the USA participated in Operation CHASE. the United States signed the Chemical Weapons Treaty. or nuclear) as a nuclear attack and will respond to such an attack with a nuclear strike. In 1986 President Ronald Reagan made an agreement with the Chancellor. The U. seven years before the Chemical Weapons Treaty came into effect. and Sanctuaries Act of 1972. where the destruction of nearly 5. with the U. plus a further C$100. In 1990. destroying several thousand tons of mustard gas by incineration at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal.[57][58] 50 United States On November 25. to the Russian Chemical Weapons Destruction Program. began stockpile reductions in the 1980s with the removal of outdated munitions and destroying its entire stock of 3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate (BZ or Agent 15) at the beginning of 1988. including binary weapons. and required the destruction of existing stockpiles. as part of Operation Steel Box. After the Marine Protection.700 tonnes of nerve agent. stockpile of chemical weapons from Germany. Helmut Kohl to remove the U.000 shells containing Sarin and VX where taken from the U.where operations have finished . and the Soviet Union entered an agreement to both end their chemical weapons programs.S. and nearly 4. the U. a 46-day nonstop journey. Army weapons storage depots such as Miesau and then-classified FSTS (Forward Storage / Transportation Sites) and transported from Bremerhaven Germany to Johnston Atoll in the pacific.241 tonnes) of its stockpile at destruction facilities located in Gorny (Saratov Oblast) and Kambarka (Udmurt Republic) . precursor chemicals. prohibition on the transport of chemical weapons has meant that destruction facilities had to be constructed at each of the U. Leonidovka (Penza Oblast) whilst installations are under construction in Pochep (Bryansk Oblast) and Kizner (Udmurt Republic). President George H. The U.S. it is the stated policy that the United States will regard all WMD attacks (Biological. Russia has destroyed 48 percent (18. In 1989 and 1990.S. Canadian funds are also being used for the operation of a Green Cross Public Outreach Office. stored in approximately 2 million artillery shells and munitions. the United States ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention. 1969.[60] In May 1991. destroying 45% of its stockpile of chemical weapons by 2007. In 1993. production facilities. W.S.[56] As of July 2011. to keep the civilian population informed on the progress made in chemical weapons destruction activities.and Schuch'ye (Kurgan Oblast). In April 1997. ratified the Geneva Protocol which banned the use of chemical and biological weapons on January 22. Research.S. this banned the possession of most types of chemical weapons.'s nine storage facilities.200 tons of nerve agent by chemical neutralisation at Tooele Army Depot.S. Due to the destruction of chemical weapons. In June 1990 the Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System began destruction of chemical agents stored on the Johnston Atoll in the Pacific. under the United States policy of Proportional Response. will be undertaken. and their weapon delivery systems.S. Since the United States only maintains nuclear Weapons of Mass Destruction. The U. chemical. He issued a decree halting the production and transport of all chemical weapons which remains in effect. an attack upon the United States or its Allies would trigger a force-equivalent counter-attack. 1975.000 already donated. President Richard Nixon unilaterally renounced the use of chemical weapons and renounced all methods of biological warfare. Bush committed the United States to destroying all of its chemical weapons and renounced the right to chemical weapon retaliation. Operation Chase was scrapped and safer disposal methods for chemical weapons was researched. com/ releases/ 2009/ 01/ 090114075921. Matsuno. ac. 1993. getipm. net/ ?q=node/ 79) [40] The Argentine Fight for The Falklands. Feb 20. org/ hussein. org/ ucpressebooks/ view?docId=ft7b69p12h& chunk. zmag. 858 pages." Associated Press. [7] Adrienne Mayor. Harvard University Press. and Russian Perspectives. [43] •‰†Ž…• ž•ŸŠ. The Roots of Blitzkrieg. ISBN 1-84415-429-7. p. Feb 19.. Volume II. anticipates closure of one more depot and a total of 90% stockpile reduction by the treaty deadline of April 2012.106-107. The U. Fitzpatrick. [27] "Viets Accused of Using Gas Against Rebels.360-364 [24] Corum. ISBN 0-374-18104-7 (see pages 325€328) [39] Death Clouds: Saddam Hussein‚s Chemical War Against the Kurds (http:/ / www. (2007). thebulletin. 1994. id=ch013& toc. html [57] http:/ / cns. ISBN 0-674-07608-7 [21] Yuki Tanaka. p.S. ru/ research/ myalo_kg/ 05. 1985. dlawer. org/ history/ 1904-2003-history-of-iraq). pdf) Claude Malhuret [34] Yevgenia Albats and Catherine A. p.com (http:/ / www. 2009 Sciencedaily. Almaty. 1999. 1985. htm [26] "KPNLF says Vietnamese Using Suffocant Gas.: «†©†. cdlib. Qazaq Universiteti.gov (http:/ / www. Graham. com/ left/ afghan/ report. [25] http:/ / www. sciencedaily. Jean-Louis Margolin. "Greek Fire. and Future. pp. [13] Science Daily. lib. cdc. Š‰‰…• … •Š‰Ÿ†¡Ž…† ‹Š¢Ž£ XX ‹†¤ˆ: ¤ …‰¥Š‚…… •ˆ¡†Ž…• ‰‹†‚¦¡†‚„ˆ‹£. uk/ acad/ sbtwc/ keytext/ genprot. Present. com/ articles/ agent-orange-vietnam. 1992. James S. pdf [60] The Oceans and Environmental Security: Shared U.org (http:/ / libcom. The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia . 16-17 [22] Y. Lieutenant-Commander Sanchez-Sabarots [41] Falkland Islanders at war. Istoriya Kazakhskogo Naroda. USA. Colin. Kaisetsu. the Story Japan Would Like to Forget.com (http:/ / www. depth=1& toc. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes." Bangkok World." Associated Press. [29] Getipm. 1997. Poison Gas. hardcover. 2002 [48] http:/ / www. University Press of Kansas. §Ÿˆ‹ˆ 5: ¨†©†Ž‰¤…¢ ƒª†Ÿ (http:/ / militera. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. Stœphane Courtois. 2003. Page 269. Phoenix. rev ed with new Introduction 2008 [8] Mayor 2003 [11] M. 219 [12] David Hume. Pen and Sword Books Limited. Bound. History of England. gov/ niosh/ npptl/ standardsdev/ cbrn/ ) [32] The Story of Genocide in Afghanistan (http:/ / publishing. channel4. Destruction will not begin at the two remaining depots until after the treaty deadline and will use neutralization. p.27-29 [23] Yoshimi and Matsuno. Jugonen Sens• Gokuhi Shiryoshu. highbeam.S. idem. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. com/ doc/ 1P1-3987660. miis. stockpiles have been eliminated at 6 of the 9 chemical weapons depots and 89% of the 1997 stockpile has been destroyed. 2001.Past. ž. htm) [16] "The First World War" (http:/ / www. [28] "Thais Report a Clash with Vietnamese Troops. 1. Terror. htm [50] http:/ / www. com/ history/ microsites/ F/ firstworldwar/ cont_harbinger_3. instead of incineration. id=ch013& brand=eschol) Hassan Kakar [33] Report from Afghanistan (http:/ / www. dated January 19. 1985. Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World" Overlook-Duckworth. ISBN 0-304-36734-6.Chemical warfare As of 2011. Repression. Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare. Herbert Bix. October 1988. ISBN 1-56584-218-9 pages 144-145 [31] CDC. org/ web-edition/ op-eds/ disarmament-lessons-the-chemical-weapons-convention) [6] Gray. htm) [30] Anatomy of a War by Gabriel Kolko. Jean-Louis Pannœ. html). brad. Tynyshpaev. January 4. Yoshimi and S. Dokugasusen Kankei Shiry• II. Karel Barto›ek. edu/ npr/ pdfs/ tucker41. html) (a Channel 4 documentary based on the book by Hew Strachan) [18] Libcom. Andrzej Paczkowski. . p. paulbogdanor. Libcom 1804-2003: History of Iraq [19] Nicolas Werth. 51 Notes [2] Disarmament lessons from the Chemical Weapons Convention (http:/ / www. ISBN 978-1-59403-382-7. 2004. Chemical and Biological Warfare.asp?id=5970) .htm).htm).com/). M. p. 2001). E. Brophy.Today. 29. 103d Congress. € Croddy. 2004. 1993 € Adrienne Mayor. Retrieved Nov. W. 1959. € Cordette. Kleber and D. Chemical Warfare from World War I to Al-Qaeda (2006) External links € Chemical weapons and international humanitarian law (http://www. Leech Cup Books. Including Insecticides and Chemical Warfare Nerve Agents (http://www.atsdr. Jessica. 2009 € Ishmael Jones. Birdsell. Cochrane. D. P.org/doi/abs/10.co. Iss. The Chemical Warfare Service in Combat (1966).com/History/History. 24.icrc. Retrieved Nov.annualreviews.uk/Chemical-Warfare-Australia-Geoff-Plunkett/ 9780987427908). WMD espionage.org/ chomsky1. The Riegle Report (http://www. Haber. 2d Session. Copernicus.cdc. L. 2004.nsf/htmlall/ section_ihl_chemical_weapons) € ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Cholinesterase Inhibitors. (May 25. (2nd Edition).countercurrents. Hammond Jr. The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War Oxford University Press: 1986 € James W.Chemical warfare 52 References € CBWInfo.S. Role of Analytical Chemistry in Defense Strategies Against Chemical and Biological Attack (http:// arjournals. ISBN–0-387-95076-1 € Smart. Fisher. (1997). Noam (Mar. 24. Shadows and Substance: The Chemical Weapons Convention Westview Press.ppt). Tucker. The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field (1959). 98. Brophy and George J. C.gov/csem/cholinesterase/) U. Eric (2001). Chemical Weapons of Mass Destruction (http://www.cbwinfo.blogspot. New York 2008.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.–611 Further reading € Leo P.org/ bigdoc/report/riegle1. € Chomsky. Retrieved Nov. F. 6. MPH(c) (2003).ac.net/hper/ Chemical_Weapons_of_Mass_Destruction. History of Biological and Chemical Warfare (http://www. € Jonathan B. Prospects for Peace in the Middle East (http://www. Poison Gas: The Myths Versus Reality Greenwood Press. Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry. A volume in the Army Military History Series published in association with the Army History Unit. 1994). Chemical Warfare in Australia: Australia's Involvement In Chemical Warfare 1914 . The Chemical Warfare Service: Organizing for War Office of the Chief of Military History. Lecture. Vol. Burck and Charles C. International Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation 1991 € L. 4.html).usuhs.gulfweb. 2013.A. € United States Senate. American Journal of Public Health. Department of Health and Human Services € Russian Biological and Chemical Weapons (http://russianbiochemicalweapons. A Brief History of Chemical and Biological Weapons: Ancient Times to the 19th Century (http://www. (http://www. 2004. Encounter Books. page 2. 2003. Washington: Apr 2008. Jeffery K. Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World" Overlook-Duckworth.. about the danger posed by non-state weapons transfers € Gaddum Papers at the Royal Society (http://www.want2race. Flowerree.uk/page.html). "Greek Fire. revised 2010.1146/annurev-anchem-060908-155242). and B. official US history. 4. Miles and C. The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture.com (2001). € Gordon M. Retrieved Nov. € Benoit Morel and Kyle Olson.bookdepository. B. € Gerard J Fitzgerald.mil/cbw/ history. rev ed with new Introduction 2008 € Geoff Plunkett.royalsoc. 1999 € Jiri Janata. 1945 rose some 18 kilometers (11–mi) above the bomb's hypocenter. February 1945.nlm.org) Chemical Warfare in Australia (http://www.nih. dispersal.html) "Our Army's Defense Against Poison Gas.org/) Classes of Chemical Agents (http://sis.Chemical warfare € € € € € € Chemical Weapons stored in the United States (http://www. . protection and types of agents (bomb-shelter.net/chemical-weapons) "'War of Nerves': A History of Chemical Weapons" (http://www.opcw." (http://books.com/books?id=AyEDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA106&dq=popular+science+1930&hl=en&ei=4dTRTu6lLsvUgAed8uifDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result& ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBDhG#v=onepage&q&f=true) Popular Science. 53 € € Nuclear weapon The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki.gov/enviro/chemicalwarfare.mustardgas.google.com/essay/war/ww2/air/ac-gas.html#a1) U.globalsecurity. logistics.S.net) (http://www. National Library of Medicine Chemical warfare agent potency.npr. 2006 Chemical weapons in World War II (http://histclo.org/templates/story/story. May 8. php?storyId=5390710) (interview with Jonathan Tucker from National Public Radio Talk of the Nation program.–106€111. pp. Japan on August 9.org/wmd/systems/cw.bomb-shelter. human damage.htm) The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons OPCW (http://www. These two bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200. The first fission ("atomic") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 20. On 6 August 1945. both by the United States near the end of World War II.[1] A modern thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of mass destruction.000 . even a small nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate an entire city by blast. and their use and control have been a major focus of international relations policy since their debut. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter.000 tons of TNT. fire and radiation. a uranium gun-type fission bomb code-named "Little Boy" was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima.1 million tonnes) of TNT.[2] Thus.Nuclear weapon 54 Nuclear weapons Background € € € € € € € € € € € € History Warfare Arms race Design Testing Effects Delivery Espionage Proliferation Arsenals Terrorism Opposition Nuclear-armed states € € € € € € € € € € United States Russia United Kingdom France China Israel India Pakistan North Korea South Africa (former) A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions. either fission or a combination of fission and fusion.2 million tons (1.000 tons of TNT. on 9 August. The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10. Only two nuclear weapons have been used in the course of warfare.000.100–kg) can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1. Japan. a plutonium implosion-type fission bomb code-named "Fat Man" was exploded over Nagasaki. Three days later.400 pounds (1. Israel is also widely believed to possess nuclear weapons. remain the subject of scholarly and popular debate. Pakistan.[][4][5] One state. as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. though it does not acknowledge having them. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as atomic bombs or atom bombs (abbreviated as A-bombs). A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them.000 nuclear warheads in the world as of 2012. the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia). The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons…and that acknowledge possessing such weapons…are (chronologically by date of first test) the United States.[] 55 Types There are two basic types of nuclear weapons: those that derive the majority of their energy from nuclear fission reactions alone. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the latter approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. Since the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. the United Kingdom. the People's Republic of China. a mass of fissile material (enriched uranium or plutonium) is assembled into a supercritical mass…the amount of material needed to start an The two basic fission weapon designs exponentially growing nuclear chain reaction…either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the "gun" method) or by compressing a sub-critical sphere of material using chemical explosives to many times its original density (the "implosion" method). nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for testing purposes and demonstrations. and North Korea. South Africa.[7] . and those that use fission reactions to begin nuclear fusion reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output. France. ready for use. acceded to the NPT and accepted full-scope international safeguards.[6] The Federation of American Scientists estimates there are more than 17.[3] The role of the bombings in Japan's surrender. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of less than a ton of TNT upwards of 500. and their ethical status. In addition.000 tons (500 kilotons) of TNT. India.300 of them considered "operational". In fission weapons. with around 4. This has long been noted as something of a misnomer. Fission weapons All existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions.Nuclear weapon people…mostly civilians…from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. fabricated nuclear weapons in the past. but as its apartheid regime was coming to an end it disassembled its arsenal. Fission products are the principal radioactive component of nuclear fallout. France and India…have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. and sometimes a majority. Neptunium-237 and a number of isotopes of americium may be usable for nuclear explosives as well. Less commonly used has been uranium-233. and the fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions. The basics of the Teller€Ulam design for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel.[8] 56 Fusion weapons The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. of their energy from fission. multi-staged thermonuclear weapon is controversial.Nuclear weapon All fission reactions necessarily generate fission products. but it is not clear that this has ever been implemented.)[10] All thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are either highly radioactive (but short-lived) or moderately radioactive (but long-lived). (Whether India has detonated a "true". All such weapons derive a significant portion. United Kingdom. . Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design because it is more efficient. Russia. as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium). The most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been uranium-235 and plutonium-239. and even their plausible use in nuclear weapons is a matter of scientific dispute.[9] Only six countries…United States. and as such are a serious form of radioactive contamination if not fully contained. This is because a fission weapon is required as a "trigger" for the fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as thermonuclear weapons or more colloquially as hydrogen bombs (abbreviated as H-bombs). People's Republic of China. but because all thermonuclear weapons contain at least one fission stage.[7] Virtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the "two-stage" design described above. When the fission bomb is detonated. the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had. about half of the yield comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium. and thus contribute far less to the creation of nuclear fallout than fission reactions. which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs. deuterium.[7] Antimatter. Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage. but it is not a fusion bomb.."[11] Most variation in nuclear weapon design is for the purpose of achieving different yields for different situations. Each of these components is known as a "stage". In the Teller-Ulam design. radiation-reflecting container. a neutron bomb is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron radiation. such a device could theoretically be used to cause massive casualties while leaving infrastructure mostly intact and creating a minimal amount of fallout. gamma rays and X-rays emitted first compress the fusion fuel. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as cobalt or gold) creates a weapon known as a salted bomb. Edward Teller.made a substantial investment" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons. In large. but that. "No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment." and that. then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it. Some weapons are designed for special purposes.Nuclear weapon 57 Thermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel.[12] A major obstacle is . but it is possible to add additional fusion stages…each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the next stage.. "The U. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon.S. which consists of particles resembling ordinary matter particles in most of their properties but having opposite electric charge. was once considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. since they would not disperse fission products. and in manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size. a boosted fission weapon is a fission bomb that increases its explosive yield through a small amount of fusion reactions. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of radioactive contamination.[] Fusion reactions do not create fission products. ". which released an energy equivalent of over 50 million tons (50 megatons) of TNT…was a three-stage weapon. which are limited in their explosive force. Most thermonuclear weapons are considerably smaller than this. in contrast to fission bombs. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required development of fission weapons first. This technique can result in thermonuclear weapons of arbitrarily large yield. such as depleted uranium. often referred to as the "father of the hydrogen bomb" Other types There are other types of nuclear weapons as well. or lithium deuteride) in proximity within a special. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed neutrons. and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons. In 1998. The detonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of neutron radiation. thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as fission-only weapons. this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel (tritium. The largest nuclear weapon ever detonated…the Tsar Bomba of the USSR. For example. megaton-range hydrogen bombs. In the boosted bomb. with the fission bomb as the "primary" and the fusion capsule as the "secondary". the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb. due to practical constraints from missile warhead space and weight requirements. was as a gravity bomb. can be difficult. including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also artillery shells. allowing an air force to use its current fleet with little or no modification.[13] However. namely the B61. nuclear warheads. though. response time to an impending attack. Small. such as multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs). . It does. limit attack range.[15] The first nuclear weapons were gravity bombs. and the method used in the such as this "Fat Man" weapon dropped on Nagasaki. They were very large and could two nuclear weapons used in warfare. such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition. not just as a trigger. Additionally.[7] Tactical weapons have involved the most variety of delivery types.[7] More preferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted onto a missile. development and maintenance of delivery options is among the most resource-intensive aspects of a nuclear weapons program: according to one estimate. More advanced systems. two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as suitcase bombs). dropped only be delivered by heavy bomber aircraft from bomber aircraft.Nuclear weapon the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities. reducing the chance of a successful missile defense. the development of long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success. Today. can launch multiple warheads at different targets from one missile.[7] A Trident II SLBM launched from a Royal Navy Vanguard class ballistic missile submarine. however. nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tactical fighter-bombers. the majority of U. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the Cold War. and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile. and nuclear depth charges and torpedoes for anti-submarine warfare. which can use a ballistic trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon.S. as it does not place many restrictions on the size of the weapon and weapon miniaturization requires considerable weapons design knowledge.S.[14] 58 Weapons delivery Nuclear weapons delivery…the technology and systems used to bring a nuclear weapon to its target…is an important aspect of nuclear weapons relating both to nuclear weapon design and nuclear strategy. missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. the U. for example. deployment costs accounted for 57% of the total financial resources spent by the United States in relation to nuclear weapons since 1940. This is usually the first method that countries developed. Japan. An atomic mortar was also tested at one time by the United States. although the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility. and there is no evidence that it is feasible. land mines. This method may still be considered the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery. Historically the first method of delivery. have been developed. With the advent of miniaturization. are free-fall gravity bombs. but as the explosive itself. While even short range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack. and began considering its possible use in weapons. Further. The policy of trying to prevent an attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence. .S. Sometimes this has meant keeping the weapon locations hidden. unlike conventional weapons. It has been argued. Weapons designed for use on a battlefield in military situations are called tactical weapons. especially after the September 11. the United States adopted a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at terrorists armed with weapons of mass destruction. that this complication is the sign of the next age of nuclear strategy. The goals of any strategy are generally to make it difficult for an enemy to launch a pre-emptive strike against the weapon system and difficult to defend against the delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict. policy and military theorists in nuclear-enabled countries worked out models of what sorts of policies could prevent one from ever being attacked by a nuclear weapon. Perhaps the most controversial idea in nuclear strategy is that nuclear proliferation would be desirable. Different forms of nuclear weapons delivery (see above) allow for different types of nuclear strategies. the use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict. each of which could be aimed at a different target. 2001 attacks. This threat of national. From this point of view.[20] The United States' Peacekeeper missile was a MIRVed delivery system. Note that weapons designed to threaten large populations.[16] Political scientist Kenneth Waltz is the most prominent advocate of this argument. if the initial act is from a stateless terrorist instead of a sovereign nation. The prospect of mutually assured destruction may not deter an enemy who expects to die in the confrontation.Nuclear weapon 59 Nuclear strategy Nuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing or fighting a nuclear war. the significance of nuclear weapons is purely to deter war because any nuclear war would immediately escalate out of mutual distrust and fear. According to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice in 1996. These were developed to make missile defense very difficult for an enemy country. there is no fixed nation or fixed military targets to retaliate against.[17][18] The threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of nuclear terrorism) complicates the decision process. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for first strike status (the ability to completely destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). if not global. destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism. but the court did not reach an opinion as to whether or not the threat or use would be lawful in specific extreme circumstances such as if the survival of the state were at stake. nuclear weapons successfully deter all-out war between states. and the Soviet Union. resulting in mutually assured destruction. such as deploying them on submarines or rail cars whose locations are very hard for an enemy to track and other times this means protecting them by burying them in hardened bunkers. Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. This view argues that. Each missile could contain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in red). or to generally deter attacks are known as strategic weapons. distinct from the relative stability of the Cold War. There are critics of the very idea of nuclear strategy for waging nuclear war who have suggested that a nuclear war between two nuclear powers would result in mutual annihilation. During the Cold War. and they are said to have done this during the Cold War between the U. Other components of nuclear strategies have included using missile defense (to destroy the missiles before they land) or implementation of civil defense measures (using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas before an attack).[19] In 1996. Eaton's birthplace. control. including Albert Einstein.[21] In the late 1940s. held in July 1957. The Russell€Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9. This conference was to be the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs. with the goal of allowing the transference of non-military nuclear technology to member countries without fear of proliferation. scientists. By the 1960s steps were being taken to limit both the proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of nuclear testing. who signed it just days before his death on April 18. Eaton offered to sponsor a conference…called for in the manifesto…in Pugwash. and law Because of the immense military power they can confer. The Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to underground nuclear testing. to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout. development of nuclear technology while providing international safeguards against nuclear The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals and proliferation. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called created in 1957 to encourage peaceful for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. philanthropist Cyrus S. lack of mutual trust was preventing the United States and the Soviet Union from making ground towards international arms control agreements. in most countries the use of nuclear force can only be authorized by the head of government or head of state. the political control of nuclear weapons has been a key issue for as long as they have existed.Nuclear weapon 60 Governance. Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France . A few days after the release. Nova Scotia. while the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities signatories could participate in. 1955. 1955 by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold The International Atomic Energy Agency was War. and the Treaty of Pelindaba (1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many African . and New START. In 1996. as well as non-binding agreements such as SALT I and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives[24] of 1991.[22] Additional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles. Many nations have been declared Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones. provide international safeguards against its misuse. and later between the United States and Russia. the ratification of eight of these states is still required. SORT. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country. as of 2012. many nations signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. These include treaties such as SALT II (never ratified). these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia. The Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean.[23] The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it can go into force. the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the United Nations to encourage development of peaceful applications for nuclear technology. through the use of treaties. areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited. START I (expired). Nuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Even when they did not enter into force. START II (never ratified). the United States and the Soviet Union.[22] which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. INF.Nuclear weapon € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 61 Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category In 1957. and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. irrespective of whether they consider them lawful or not. Iraq.[28] In the years after the end of the Cold War. there have been many treaties to limit or reduce nuclear weapons testing and stockpiles.S. the International Court of Justice.[29] A CNN poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue. The 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty has as one of its explicit conditions that all signatories must "pursue negotiations in good faith" towards the long-term goal of "complete disarmament". Lawrence M. the Hague Conventions. post-Soviet republics relinquished Soviet nuclear stockpiles to Russia.[27] who were in office during the Cold War period. The court ruled that the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of international law. Various American elder statesmen. including the Geneva Conventions. Israel bombed another reactor being constructed in Syria. in what it called an attempt to halt Iraq's previous nuclear arms ambitions. Beginning with the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty and continuing through the 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. In the middle of 1996. in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated. such as that organized by the Global Zero movement. Kazakhstan. there have been numerous campaigns to urge the abolition of nuclear weapons. In view of the unique. economic sanctions were (temporarily) levied against both countries. As recently as 2006 a Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone was established amongst the former Soviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons. George Shultz. These officials include Henry Kissinger. the highest court of the United Nations. Ukraine and the other non-Russian. and perhaps one day. 62 Disarmament Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world. specific actions meant to discourage countries from developing nuclear arms. issued an Advisory Opinion concerned with the "Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons". The former Soviet republics of Belarus. In 1981. the UN Charter. Sam Nunn. Israel had bombed a nuclear reactor being constructed in Osirak.[25] Additionally.Nuclear weapon countries. and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. especially accidentally. After the end of the Cold War. One of the stated casus belli for the initiation of the 2003 Iraq War was an accusation by the United States that Iraq was actively pursuing nuclear arms (though this was soon discovered not to be the case as the program had been discontinued). and the goal of a "world without nuclear weapons" was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present nuclear peace and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. In the wake of the tests by India and Pakistan in 1998. and William Perry.[30] . rid the world of nuclear weapons". the International Committee of the Red Cross calls on States to ensure that these weapons are never used. Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war occurring. Ukrainian workers use equipment provided by the U. Krauss stated that "no issue carries more importance to the long-term health and security of humanity than the effort to reduce. The nuclear weapon states have largely treated that aspect of the agreement as "decorative" and without force. and Ukraine returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of the USSR. have recently been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. though neither were signatories with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. destructive characteristics of nuclear weapons. in 2007. Defense Threat Reduction Agency to dismantle a Soviet-era missile silo.[26] Only one country…South Africa…has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. there have been other. In January 2010. S.[39] Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified "Japanese Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs".[35] has also dismissed the need to interfere with Iran's nuclear program and expressed that arms control measures are counterproductive. with peace through deterrence and through the stability€instability paradox. European.S. by terrorists and governments alike. The role of the two atomic bombings of the country in Japan's surrender and the U. and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons". Instead Waltz argues that it would probably be the best possible outcome. and the fear of contaminated tuna led to a temporary boycotting of the popular staple in Japan. Japanese opposition to nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific Ocean was widespread. especially regarding the effects of nuclear fallout and atmospheric nuclear testing. and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common prior to their invention at the end of World War II. France. to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons.[41][] The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands . which was broadcast by C-Span. including in south Asia. to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment close to Aldermaston in Berkshire. has been continually and nearly universally controversial.[40] In the United Kingdom. especially land mines and small arms. which are often the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts.'s ethical justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades. when several thousand people marched for four days from Trafalgar Square. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of conventional weapons. London. in the 1980s.[37] 63 United Nations The UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is a department of the United Nations Secretariat established in January 1998 as part of the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan's plan to reform the UN as presented in his report to the General Assembly in July 1997.. and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries". the first Aldermaston March organised by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament took place at Easter 1958. both in the popular media and by officials. Mueller has also argued that the threat from nuclear weapons.[31][32] Professor Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace.[38] Its goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation and the strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction.[34] Professor John Mueller of Ohio State University. chemical and biological weapons.[33] In the July 2012 issue of Foreign Affairs Waltz took issue with the view of most U. Dr.[39] One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later. Radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when the Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test at the Pacific Proving Grounds contaminated the crew and catch of the Japanese fishing boat Lucky Dragon. Controversy Even before the first nuclear weapons had been developed. has been exaggerated. England.[36] During a 2010 lecture at the University of Missouri. the author of Atomic Obsession.Nuclear weapon Others have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer. as it would restore stability to the Middle East by balancing Israel's regional monopoly on nuclear weapons. or test them. The question of whether nations should have nuclear weapons. Demonstration against nuclear testing in Lyon. and Israeli. scientists involved with the Manhattan Project were divided over the use of the weapon. commentators and policymakers that a nuclear-armed Iran would be unacceptable. The incident caused widespread concern around the world. [45] Between 1940 and 1996. CA: Chukelea Publications. Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. San Antonio. org/ India/ IndiaRealYields.[39][44] A resurgence of interest occurred amid European and American fears of nuclear war in the 1980s.2 "Dirty" and "Clean" Weapons (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive. many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing. 2011. In 2008 the worldwide presence of new isotopes from atmospheric testing beginning in the 1950s was developed into a reliable way of detecting art forgeries. Radioactive fallout became less of an issue and the anti-nuclear weapons movement went into decline for some years. html#Nfaq4. and the more-updated Hansen. a letter in the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists was the start of a successful campaign to stop the Atomic Energy Commission dumping radioactive waste in the sea 19 kilometres from Boston. the U. 2002). Swords of Armageddon: U. Nuclear explosives have also been seriously studied as potential propulsion mechanisms for space travel (see Project Orion) and for asteroid deflection.63–trillion in present day terms[46] on nuclear weapons development. [12] Page discussing the possibility of using antimatter as a trigger for a thermonuclear explosion (http:/ / cui. html) [13] Paper discussing the number of antiprotons required to ignite a thermonuclear weapon. spent at least $8. accessed 10 May 2011.[43] In 1963. and proposed. as all paintings created after that period may contain traces of caesium-137 and strontium-90. TX: Aerofax.300 ft).[42] In 1962. org/ abs/ physics/ 0507114) .[40] In 1959.S. Department of Energy. isotopes that did not exist in nature before 1945. were discovered in the aftermath of the first thermonuclear bomb test. Sunnyvale. Chuck.2 megatons. nuclear explosives have been tested and used for various non-military uses. org/ Nwfaq/ Nfaq4-5. Linus Pauling won the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to stop the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. What Are the Real Yields of India's Test? (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive. 2). [11] U.[48] Synthetic elements. $541–billion in present day terms was spent on nuclear waste management and environmental remediation. [10] On India's alleged hydrogen bomb test. U. 5. such as einsteinium and fermium. Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions: 4. 1946 to the Present (RDD-8) (http:/ / www. as a means of investigating the possibilities of using peaceful nuclear explosions for large-scale earth moving. Specifically the US B83 nuclear bomb. there was no economic advantage over conventional explosives. html).S. Over half was spent on building delivery mechanisms for the weapon. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. and the "Ban the Bomb" movement spread. pdf) (January 1. See also Mordechai Vanunu The best overall printed sources on nuclear weapons design are: Hansen.[49] The 1962 Sedan nuclear test formed a crater 100 m (330 ft) deep with a diameter of about 390 m (1. see Carey Sublette. Chuck.Nuclear weapon of people took part in the four-day marches. but not used for large-scale earth moving. ch/ isi/ sscr/ phys/ anti-BPP-3. accessed November 20. org/ sgp/ othergov/ doe/ rdd-8. (http:/ / www. arxiv. unige.S.[47] 64 Non-weapons uses Apart from their use as weapons. 1988. References Notes [1] [2] [5] [7] See Trinity (nuclear test) and Ivy Mike. with a yield of up to 1. fas.S. 1995. Restricted Data Declassification Decisions. [9] Carey Sublette.5. created by neutron bombardment of uranium and plutonium during thermonuclear explosions. When long term health and clean-up costs were included. edu/ fp/ projects/ nucwcost/ figure1. Mass. The Spread of Nuclear Weapons (New York: Norton.Nuclear weapon [14] "Air Force pursuing antimatter weapons: Program was touted publicly. Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power. huffingtonpost. and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty. Washington. then came official gag order" (http:/ / sfgate. html). p. org/ factsheets/ pniglance). blogs. 98. google. Schwartz. Noah. and Pakistan have not signed the Treaty. armscontrolwonk. cnduk. Twayne Publishers. stimson. mtholyoke. brook. [29] Obama Prague Speech On Nuclear Weapons (http:/ / www.C.: Brookings Institution Press. edu/ acad/ intrel/ waltz1. Nuclear Fear: A History of Images (Cambridge. [19] See. " Status of Signature and Ratification (http:/ / www. the President and the Secretary of Defense. "The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Better. edu/ acad/ intrel/ waltz1. htm Kenneth Waltz. " Finding Article VI (http:/ / www. ed. edu/ fp/ projects/ nucwcost/ figure1." New York Times Magazine (29 October 2006). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power. Hugh. Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U. [24] The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives (PNIs) on Tactical Nuclear Weapons At a Glance (http:/ / www. Of the "Annex 2" states whose ratification of the CTBT is required before it enters into force.„ [35] http:/ / www. Krauss. [41] A brief history of CND (http:/ / www. Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy. Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power. [21] In the United States. 54-55. com/ archive/ 2911/ the-stability-instability-paradox [33] https:/ / www. pdf?OpenElement) [39] Wolfgang Rudig (1990). Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age. The Doomsday Clock Still Ticks. cgi?file=/ c/ a/ 2004/ 10/ 04/ MNGM393GPK1. org/ the-treaty/ status-of-signature-and-ratification)". nsf/ htmlall/ section_ihl_nuclear_weapons) International Committee of the Red Cross [26] Gusterson. html) [30] CNN Poll: Public divided on eliminating all nuclear weapons (http:/ / politicalticker. nytimes. Israel. armscontrol. [45] Spencer Weart. 1940-1996". thebulletin. pp. "More May Be Better. no. eds. Retrieved February 22. 93. North Korea. tv/ videos/ 2333 From 19:00 to 26:00 minutes [37] http:/ / www. [25] Nuclear weapons and international humanitarian law (http:/ / www. com/ cgi-bin/ article. Jeffrey. [28] Lawrence M. acting as the National Command Authority. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Arms Control Association. htm) Adelphi Papers. ƒThe Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May be Better. org/ pages/ binfo/ hist.S.. mtholyoke. p. minneapolisfed. 1998. com/ us/ catalog/ general/ subject/ Politics/ InternationalStudies/ InternationalSecurityStrategicSt/ ?view=usa& ci=9780195381368 [36] http:/ / bloggingheads. pp. Terror and the Second Nuclear Age (http:/ / www. org/ images/ uploads/ research-pdfs/ ESCCONTROLCHAPTER1. org/ program/ AtomicO: John Mueller. icrc. 2006. Iran. oup. [17] Kenneth Waltz. htm 65 .: Harvard University Press. Fetched from URL on 18 April 2011. [46] Staff. org/ web-edition/ columnists/ hugh-gusterson/ finding-article-vi)" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (8 January 2007). November/December 1998. p. Oxford University Press. htm). [23] Richelson. January 2010. an excerpt from the book. Oxford University Press. India. ctbto. Accessed 27 May 2010. [43] Jerry Brown and Rinaldo Brutoco (1997). Nuclear Weapons Programs. page 4. must jointly authorize the use of nuclear weapons. DTL) [15] Stephen I. [22] Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (2010). 1981). 1995). Egypt. un.S. p. 26. Spying on the bomb: American nuclear intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea. pdf [32] http:/ / krepon. cfm). Scientific American. Fact Sheet. for example: Feldman. com/ 2010/ 04/ 12/ cnn-poll-public-divided-on-eliminating-all-nuclear-weapons/ ) [31] http:/ / www. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940.S. Longman. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http:/ / books. 1940€1996 (http:/ / www. 191€192. [18] Kenneth Waltz. com/ 2009/ 04/ 05/ obama-prague-speech-on-nu_n_183219. Oxford University Press. " Islam. Nuclear Weapons Programs. Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800€2012 (http:/ / www." (http:/ / www. html) [42] Jim Falk (1982).. 96€97. 1988). China. [47] Brookings Institution. at http:/ / www. brook. D. [40] Jim Falk (1982). org/ web/ eng/ siteeng0. org/ community_education/ teacher/ calc/ hist1800. c-spanvideo. com/ 2006/ 10/ 29/ magazine/ 29islam. 171 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies. See also Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U." in Scott Sagan and Kenneth Waltz. org/ doc/ UNDOC/ GEN/ N97/ 189/ 79/ IMG/ N9718979. "Estimated Minimum Incurred Costs of U. com/ books?id=sgsAAAAAMBAJ& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false). "Atomic Obsession" [38] Renewing the United Nations: A Program for Reform (A/51/950) (http:/ / daccess-dds-ny. "Senseless policy". [44] Jim Falk (1982). chapters 16 and 19. [20] Daniel Plesch & Stephen Young. cnn. New York: Norton. 2012. 1945. . € Glasstone. 1995. Nuclear Shadowboxing: Contemporary Threats from Cold War Weaponry. Navy. (http://www. ISBN 0-674-62836-5 € Weart. Spencer R. 1991. Sunnyvale. The Road from Los Alamos.: U. The Rise of Nuclear Fear. 1986 ISBN 0-684-81378-5 € Weart. (Smyth Report–€ the first declassified report by the US government on nuclear weapons) € The Effects of Nuclear War (http://www. 2012. atomicarchive. Richard. NJ: Princeton University Press. 1994.fas.org/nuke/) and their effects (http://www.html). including nuclear weapons (http://fas.com/Docs/ SmythReport/index.S. Nuclear Fear: A History of Images.html). Samuel and Dolan.C.org/nuclear/database/nukestab.shtml) € NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I € Nuclear) (http://www. both accessible on Google Book Search) (Content of both volumes is now available in the 2009 trilogy by Alexander DeVolpi: Nuclear Insights: The Cold War Legacy available on (http://www. Richard. (http://www. Government Printing Office. May 1979.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.fas. Departments of the Army. (http://www. David.wlu. edu/host/atomic/nukeffct/) Washington. and Air Force: Washington.C. " The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (http://www.cdi. General € Nuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette (http://nuclearweaponarchive. New York: Simon and Schuster. € Rhodes. Vladimir E. Chuck. including a historical and technical overview and searchable bibliography of web and print resources.com). 1977. Minkov. Available online (PDF).Amazon.. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition). Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History.vt.shtml)" (1946) € Smyth.org/ nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/1toc. Arlington. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. Vadim A. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes.org) provide solid information on weapons of mass destruction. Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. Cambridge. Alexander. CA: Chukelea Publications. Office of Technology Assessment.edu/)…contains many resources related to nuclear weapons. New York: Simon and Schuster. MA: Harvard University Press. nuclear weapons development since 1945. Hans Albrecht. MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-684-82414-0 € Rhodes.htm). 1988.org/nuke/ intro/nuke/effects.S.Nuclear weapon 66 Bibliography € Bethe.com/channel/mech-tech/ nuclear)…Provided by New Scientist. 2004 (Two volumes. George S.newscientist. € The Federation of American Scientists (http://fas. D.org/nuke/intro/nuke/7906/index.fas. (http://www. € Everything you wanted to know about nuclear technology (http://www.uscoldwar.org/) is a reliable source of information and has links to other sources and an informative FAQ (http://nuclearweaponarchive. Chuck.com/) € Holloway.S. New Haven: Yale University Press. Philip J. 1988 € Hansen.com/Docs/MED/index.htm) € Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http://alsos.org/Nwfaq/ Nfaq0. The Swords of Armageddon: U.atomicarchive. D.princeton. Henry DeWolf. ISBN 0-671-74012-1 € DeVolpi.. Cambridge. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-674-05233-1 External links € Current World Nuclear Arsenals (http://www. Stalin and the Bomb.html) has estimates of nuclear arsenals in the respective countries.shtml) Princeton. 1996 € Hansen. 1995. TX: Aerofax. and Stanford. U. Simonenko. Spencer R.. ISBN 0-300-06056-4 € The Manhattan Engineer District.cddc. Fidlar Doubleday. ibiblio.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/).org/rcip/nuclear.com (http://www.unt.com/ modules.doe.lanl. org/program/NPIHP/) or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents.com) € The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http://www. oral history interviews and other empirical sources. Soviet.htm) from the DOE Nevada Site Office € Recordings of recollections of the victims of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (http://www.nv.gov/library/films/default.nv.gov/history/) (U.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=39) at sonicbomb. Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing (http://sonicbomb.nuclearmuseum.Nuclear weapon € Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Nuclear weapons (http://digital. UK.htm) from the DOE Nevada Site Office € U.wilsoncenter.html) 67 Historical € The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb (http://www. nuclear test film clips (http://www.shtml) at AtomicArchive. New Mexico. a Smithsonian Affiliate Museum € Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources (http://www. Radiological weapon Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma .com € Los Alamos National Laboratory: History (http://www.gov/library/photos/default. nuclear test photographs (http://www. PBS website on the history of the H-bomb € U.S.edu/ govdocs/crs/search.atomicarchive.com) € The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (United States) (http://www. nuclear history) € Race for the Superbomb (http://www.S.pbs.com/History/mp/index.sonicbomb.org/ )…located in Albuquerque.voshn.S.tkl?q=nuclear+weapons&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime& date2=Anytime&type=form) € Video archive of US.doe.library. most commonly the spent fuels from nuclear power plants or radioactive medical waste. One version.Radiological weapon € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 68 Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category A radiological weapon or radiological dispersion device (RDD) is any weapon that is designed to spread radioactive material with the intent to kill and cause disruption. . Another version is the salted bomb. It uses conventional explosives to spread radioactive material. known as a dirty bomb. is not a true nuclear weapon and does not yield the same explosive power. a true nuclear weapon designed to produce larger amounts of nuclear fallout than a regular nuclear weapon. It has been estimated that one millionth of a gram accumulating in a person's body would be fatal. Transmitting a report entitled. . and create casualties among civilian populations.. They could also render a great deal of property useless for an extended period. Arthur Holly Compton.. they can be stirred up as a fine dust from the terrain by winds. The radiological source and quality greatly impacts the effectiveness of a radiological weapon. Four days production could contaminate a million gallons of water to an extent that a quart drunk in one day would probably result in complete incapacitation or death in about a month's time. movement of vehicles or troops. Robert A. There are no known methods of treatment for such a casualty. Factors such as: energy and type of radiation. and Harold Urey. 192Ir. Radioactive warfare can be used [. 241Am.. 90Sr. "Use of Radioactive Materials as a Military Weapon. 60Co..Radiological weapon 69 Explanation Radiological weapons of mass destruction have been suggested as a possible weapon of terrorism used to create panic and casualties in densely populated areas... would be dangerous as long as a high enough concentration of material could be maintained. availability. While the amount of radiation dispersed from the event will likely be minimal.. used in radiological medical equipment. To contaminate small critical areas such as rail-road yards and airports.... unless costly remediation were undertaken. J.. and the role of the environment will determine the effect of the radiological weapon. USN(R). shielding. "Solution Unsatisfactory"[1] by Lt. Against large cities. and would remain a potential hazard for a long time. The amount necessary to cause death to a person inhaling the material is extremely small. to Brigadier General Leslie Groves of the Manhattan Project and to a 1940 science fiction story. longevity. and 226Ra. These materials may also be so disposed as to be taken into the body by ingestion instead of inhalation. 238Pu. portability. It can be distributed in a dust or smoke form so finely powdered that it will permeate a standard gas mask filter in quantities large enough to be extremely damaging. G. 252Cf. As a radioactive poison gas to create casualties among troops. etc. Reservoirs or wells would be contaminated or food poisoned with an effect similar to that resulting from inhalation of dust or smoke.. Radioisotopes that pose the greatest security risk include: 137Cs.] To make evacuated areas uninhabitable. All of these isotopes. the fact of any radiation may be enough to cause panic and disruption." the Groves memo states: As a gas warfare instrument the material would . be inhaled by personnel.. Areas so contaminated by radioactive dusts and smokes. except for the final one. History The professional history of radioactive weaponry may be traced to a 1943 memo from James Bryant Conant. Heinlein. to promote panic. half-life. are created in nuclear power plants.. It cannot be detected by the senses. This point was made by physicist Peter D. though early on in the project considered it as a backup plan in case nuclear fission proved impossible to tame. Military uses Radiological weapons are widely considered to be militarily useless for a state-sponsored army and are initially not hoped to be used by any military forces. as it slows the rate of advance. the casualties would be a result of the initial explosion. Manhattan District. Firstly. some believe that the fatalities and injuries might be in fact much more severe. R. On the other hand. as the target area becomes uninhabitable (due to the fallout caused by radioactive poisoning of the involved environment). Dirty bombs A dirty bomb is a radiological weapon dispersed with conventional explosives. Because of this a dirty bomb with radioactive material around an explosive device would be almost useless. 1943 memo from Drs. the objectively dominant effect would be the moral and economic damage due to the massive fear and panic such an incident would spur. There is currently (as of 2007) an ongoing debate about the damage that terrorists using such a weapon might inflict. Some US policymakers and scientists involved in the project felt that radiological weapons would qualify as chemical weapons and thus violate international law. however. area-denial weapons are generally of limited use to an attacking army. Groves. Dirty bombs are not a type of nuclear weapon.[3] and popularized in a subsequent . Furthermore. Whereas a nuclear weapon will usually create mass casualties immediately following the blast. Means of radiological warfare that do not rely on any specific weapon. seem to be more effective in some ways. chose not to pursue radiological weapons during World War II. This is not only because of the effectiveness but also because this material would be easy to clean up. Compton. Furthermore. which requires a nuclear chain reaction and the creation of a critical mass. unless said shielding was removed shortly before detonation. Deployment One possible way of dispersing the material is by using a dirty bomb.Radiological weapon 70 The United States. but share many of the same problems as chemical warfare. a dirty bomb scenario would initially cause only minimal casualties from the conventional explosion. but rather on spreading radioactive contamination via a food chain or water table. Oak Ridge. and Urey to Brigadier General L. declassified June 5. Conant. Zimmerman (King's College London) who reexamined the Goi¬nia accident which is arguably comparable. the possibility of terrorists making a gas or aerosol that is radioactive is very unlikely because of the complex chemical work to achieve this goal. because alpha and beta emitting material needs to be inhaled to do damage to the human body. Many experts believe that a dirty bomb such that terrorists might reasonably be able to construct would be unlikely to harm more than a few people and hence it would be no more deadly than a conventional bomb. Gamma radiation emitting material is so radioactive that it can't be deployed without wrapping an amount of shielding material around the bomb that would make transport by car or plane impossible without risking detection. Tennessee. a conventional explosive which disperses radioactive material. 1974.[2] Hence. this line of argument goes. October 30. the use of such a weapon is of no use to an occupying force. Furthermore. illinois.wlu. htm Full story at publisher's web site [2] http:/ / news. pdf Dirty Bombs: The Threat Revisited in Defense Horizons. org/ wgbh/ nova/ dirtybomb/ Dirty Bomb References External links € Annotated bibliography for radiological dispersal devices (RDD) from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http://alsos. net/ chapters/ 0743471598/ 0743471598___5. Feb. As far as is publicly known none has ever been built. org/ documents/ RDD_report. html [3] http:/ / hps. edu/ gentips/ 02/ 07dirtybomb. 71 Salted bomb A salted bomb is a theoretical nuclear weapon designed to produce enhanced quantities of radioactive fallout. webscription.aspx?browse=warfare/Radiological+Dispersal+Devices+(RDD)) .edu/qsearch. pbs.Radiological weapon fictionalized account produced by the BBC and broadcast in the United States by PBS. Notes [1] http:/ / www. rendering a large area uninhabitable. 2004. a publication of the National Defense University [4] http:/ / www.[4] The latter program showed how shielding might be used to minimize the detection risk. 72 Proliferation Nuclear proliferation World map with List of countries with nuclear weaponsnuclear weapons development status represented by color. but have not widely adopted them Nuclear weapons Background € € € € € € € € € € € € History Warfare Arms race Design Testing Effects Delivery Espionage Proliferation Arsenals Terrorism Opposition Nuclear-armed states € € United States Russia . ––Five "nuclear weapons states" from the NPT––Other states known to possess nuclear weapons––States formerly possessing nuclear weapons––States suspected of being in the process of developing nuclear weapons and/or nuclear programs––States which at one point had nuclear weapons and/or nuclear weapons research programs––States that possess nuclear weapons. 2009. Four countries besides the five recognized Nuclear Weapons States have acquired. and Pakistan tested a weapon in 1998. when it used two bombs against Japan in August 1945. Security Council could veto. and the USSR. nuclear weapons: India. and (2) the creation of a system of automatic sanctions. Japan. also known as the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty or NPT. Proliferation has been opposed by many nations with and without nuclear weapons. None of these four is a party to the NPT. because the weapon developments themselves were kept secret until the bombing of Hiroshima. Pakistan. although North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985. and at times even outright sabotage…such as the bombing of a heavy-water facility thought to be used for a German nuclear program.S. . the United Kingdom. when the Truman Administration proposed the Baruch Plan[2] of 1946. India exploded a nuclear device in 1974." which would actually own and control all military-applicable nuclear materials and activities. None of these efforts were explicitly public. and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information to nations not recognized as "Nuclear Weapon States" by the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons. the USSR tested a nuclear weapon. With their loss during the war. nuclear arsenal (which. and which would proportionately punish states attempting to acquire the capability to make nuclear weapons or fissile material. The Baruch Plan. named after Bernard Baruch. The People's Republic of China detonated a nuclear weapon in 1964. proposed the verifiable dismantlement and destruction of the U. or infringe upon the national sovereignty of states. at that time. One critique of the NPT is that it is discriminatory in recognizing as nuclear weapon states only those countries that tested nuclear weapons before 1968 and requiring all other states joining the treaty to forswear nuclear weapons. the wartime acquisition of known uranium stores (the Combined Development Trust). North Korea conducted a nuclear test.N. Earnest international efforts to promote nuclear non-proliferation began soon after World War II. Germany and Japan ceased to be involved in any nuclear weapon research.[citation needed] Nuclear proliferation Research into the development of nuclear weapons was undertaken during World War II by the United States. and 2013. de-stabilize international or regional relations. which not even the U. was the only nuclear arsenal in the world) after all governments had cooperated successfully to accomplish two things: (1) the establishment of an "international atomic development authority. then withdrew in 2003 and conducted announced nuclear tests in 2006. Germany. and Israel. In 2006. In August 1949. the governments of which fear that more countries with nuclear weapons may increase the possibility of nuclear warfare (up to and including the so-called "countervalue" targeting of civilians with nuclear weapons). North Korea. The United States was the first and is the only country to have used a nuclear weapon in war. fissile material. or are presumed to have acquired. America's first representative to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. which drew heavily from the Acheson€Lilienthal Report of 1946.[1] The United Kingdom tested a nuclear weapon in October 1952.Nuclear proliferation € € € € € € € € 73 United Kingdom France China Israel India Pakistan North Korea South Africa (former) Nuclear proliferation is the spread of nuclear weapons. France developed a nuclear weapon in 1960. Non-proliferation efforts Early efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation involved intense government secrecy. In June 1968.Q.[] For nuclear power programs to be developed and managed safely and securely. nuclear explosive devices are considered to be within the reach of industrialized nations. international control over the fissile material and specialized technologies necessary to build such devices because these are the most difficult and expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program. the nuclear future will be dangerous". such as national prestige. the U. and even increase. including politically-motivated . governments represented at the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee (ENDC) finished negotiations on the text of the NPT. high degrees of political stability (defined by the World Bank as ƒlikelihood that the government will be destabilized or overthrown by unconstitutional or violent means. it failed to emerge from the UNAEC because the Soviet Union planned to veto it in the Security Council. or specific historical experiences. after China detonated a nuclear weapon. nuclear explosive devices or purposes unknown.N. the diversion of civilian nuclear energy to nuclear weapons. General Assembly endorsed the NPT with General Assembly Resolution 2373 (XXII). the primary focus of non-proliferation efforts has been to maintain. plutonium. Other than the acquisition of these special materials.[] Many UN and US agencies warn that building more nuclear reactors unavoidably increases nuclear proliferation risks. The crisis over Iran‚s nuclear activities is a case in point. London and Moscow. but other factors. it remained official American policy until 1953. Since the mid-1970s. which aims to ensure that civil stocks of uranium. the scientific and technical means for weapons construction to develop rudimentary. Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s. The main materials whose generation and distribution is controlled are highly enriched uranium and plutonium. General Assembly. the NPT opened for signature in Washington. they renewed once again in 1964. as well as facilities and technologies associated with these nuclear materials. and in July 1968. Khan smuggling network in Pakistan). the Agency seeks to promote and spread internationally the use of civilian nuclear energy. but working.[3] 74 Dual use technology Dual-use technology refers to the possibility of military use of civilian nuclear power technology. it is important that countries have domestic ƒgood governance„ characteristics that will encourage proper nuclear operations and management:[] These characteristics include low degrees of corruption (to avoid officials selling materials and technology for their own personal gain as occurred with the A. The NPT entered into force in March 1970. Many technologies and materials associated with the creation of a nuclear power program have a dual-use capability. Britain and France) had acquired nuclear weapons (see List of states with nuclear weapons for more information).N. the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has promoted two. Eisenhower's proposal led eventually to the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957.Nuclear proliferation Although the Baruch Plan enjoyed wide international support. in that they can be used to make nuclear weapons if a country chooses to do so. If this development is "poorly managed or efforts to contain risks are unsuccessful. Under the "Atoms for Peace" program thousands of scientists from around the world were educated in nuclear science and then dispatched home. When this happens a nuclear power program can become a route leading to the atomic bomb or a public annex to a secret bomb program. DC. the Soviet Union. missions: on the one hand. or at least detect. are used only for peaceful purposes and do not contribute in any way to proliferation or nuclear weapons programs.[] Efforts to conclude an international agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s. The IAEA now operates a safeguards system as specified under Article III of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968. also play a part in hastening or stopping nuclear proliferation. where many later pursued secret weapons programs in their home country. In 1968. Still. it seeks to prevent. It is often argued that proliferation of nuclear weapons to many other states has been prevented by the extension of assurances and mutual defence treaties to these states by nuclear powers. on the other hand. when President Eisenhower made his "Atoms for Peace" proposal before the U. Since its founding by the United Nations in 1957.[4] A fundamental goal for American and global security is to minimize the proliferation risks associated with the expansion of nuclear power. after four nations (the United States. sometimes contradictory. The IAEA regularly inspects civil nuclear facilities to verify the accuracy of documentation supplied to it. The inspections act as an alert system providing a warning of the possible diversion of nuclear material from peaceful activities. 189 countries are States Parties to the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons. more commonly known as the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty or NPT. North Korea was once a signatory but withdrew in January 2003. and a strong degree of regulatory competence. as well as spot checks on-site.[] 75 International cooperation Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty At present. Allied to this role is the administration of safeguards arrangements to provide assurance to the international community that individual countries are honoring their commitments under the treaty. automatic cameras and other instruments to detect unreported movement or tampering with nuclear materials. Safeguards are designed to deter diversion of nuclear material by increasing the risk of early detection.Nuclear proliferation violence and terrorism„). Though established under its own international treaty. These require that operators of nuclear facilities maintain and declare detailed accounting records of all movements and transactions involving nuclear material. Containment and Surveillance € use of seals. This includes sampling and analysis of nuclear material. This verification is a key element in the international system which ensures that uranium in particular is used only for peaceful purposes. and samples and analyzes materials. Scope of safeguards Traditional safeguards are arrangements to account for and control the use of nuclear materials. . Russian Federation. North Korea clearly possesses the capability to make a nuclear explosive device. 3. International Atomic Energy Agency The IAEA was established on 29 July 1957 to help nations develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Parties to the NPT agree to accept technical safeguard measures applied by the IAEA. Physical Security € restricting access to nuclear materials at the site. and India (the latter two have since tested nuclear weapons. These include the five Nuclear Weapons States (NWS) recognized by the NPT: the People's Republic of China. high governmental effectiveness scores (a World Bank aggregate measure of ƒthe quality of the civil service and the degree of its independence from political pressures [and] the quality of policy formulation and implementation„). They are complemented by controls on the export of sensitive technology from countries such as UK and United States through voluntary bodies such as the Nuclear Suppliers Group. The agency checks inventories. the IAEA reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council. and the United States. Material Accountancy € tracking all inward and outward transfers and the flow of materials in any nuclear facility. and their records and the nuclear material being audited. Inspections by the IAEA are complemented by other measures such as surveillance cameras and instrumentation. The main concern of the IAEA is that uranium not be enriched beyond what is necessary for commercial civil plants. Over 550 facilities and several hundred other locations are subject to regular inspection. the UK. 2. and that plutonium which is produced by nuclear reactors not be refined into a form that would be suitable for bomb production. France. while Israel is considered by most to be an unacknowledged nuclear weapons state). Pakistan. and review and verification of operating records. Notable non-signatories to the NPT are Israel. The system relies on. on-site inspections. 1. The legality of North Korea's withdrawal is debatable but as of 9 October 2006. production of uranium and thorium (regardless of whether it is traded). Innovations were of two kinds. Iraq. Nevertheless. In Iraq. as an NPT party. While traditional safeguards easily verified the correctness of formal declarations by suspect states. In North Korea. Weapons states have agreed to accept the principles of the model additional protocol. two hours). Pakistan and Israel). 76 Additional Protocol In 1993 a program was initiated to strengthen and extend the classical safeguards system. the promised provision of commercial power reactors appeared to resolve the situation for a time. taking account of its particular situation and the kind of nuclear materials it has. 139 countries have signed Additional Protocols. and one (Iraq) is implementing its protocol provisionally. This will include any suspect location. which opposes making the protocol a requirement for international cooperation on enrichment and reprocessing. North Korea attempted to use research reactors (not commercial electricity-generating reactors) and a reprocessing plant to produce some weapons-grade plutonium. including R & D. € IAEA inspectors will have greater rights of access. This must be agreed by each non-weapons state with IAEA. The uranium used as fuel probably came from indigenous sources. While accepting safeguards at declared facilities. In reality. which says it will not sign until Israel accepts comprehensive IAEA safeguards. but it later withdrew from the NPT and declared it had nuclear weapons. The measures boosted the IAEA's ability to detect undeclared nuclear activities. the activities were detected and brought under control using international diplomacy. Some could be implemented on the basis of IAEA's existing legal authority through safeguards agreements and inspections.Nuclear proliferation All NPT non-weapons states must accept these full-scope safeguards.g. the activities concerned took place before the conclusion of its NPT safeguards agreement. political and economic measures. as a supplement to any existing comprehensive safeguards agreement. € Further evolution of safeguards is towards evaluation of each state. it can be at short notice (e. and the IAEA can deploy environmental sampling and remote monitoring techniques to detect illicit activities. Others required further legal authority to be conferred through an Additional Protocol. nor can nations be forced to sign the treaty.[7] and Brazil. Key elements of the model Additional Protocol: € The IAEA is to be given considerably more information on nuclear and nuclear-related activities. facility-specific safeguards apply.[5] The IAEA is also applying the measures of the Additional Protocol in Taiwan. With North Korea. This will involve greater judgement on the part of IAEA and the development of effective methodologies which reassure NPT States. in the 1990s attention turned to what might not have been declared.. was obliged to declare all facilities but did not do so. IAEA inspectors regularly visit these facilities to verify completeness and accuracy of records. and nuclear-related imports and exports. 104 have brought them into force. The weakness of the NPT regime lay in the fact that no obvious diversion of material was involved. As of 20 December 2010.[6] Among the leading countries that have not signed the Additional Protocol are Egypt. safeguards can be backed up by diplomatic. and the nuclear facilities were built by the countries themselves without being declared or placed under safeguards. a military defeat assisted this process.[9] . € States must streamline administrative procedures so that IAEA inspectors get automatic visa renewal and can communicate more readily with IAEA headquarters. and a model protocol was agreed by the IAEA Board of Governors 1997. Iraq had set up elaborate equipment elsewhere in an attempt to enrich uranium to weapons grade. as shown in Iraq and North Korea.[8] but has not ruled out signing. The terms of the NPT cannot be enforced by the IAEA itself. In the five weapons states plus the non-NPT states (India. including those with no connection to the civil fuel cycle. [11] . together with bilateral safeguards applied under the NPT can. India and Pakistan to agree to international verification. tritium is not classified as a 'special nuclear material' but rather as a 'by-product'.[citation needed] On 9 August 2005. A further concern is that countries may develop various sensitive nuclear fuel cycle facilities and research reactors under full safeguards and then subsequently opt out of the NPT. India. the worldwide application of those safeguards and the substantial world trade in uranium for nuclear electricity make the proliferation of nuclear weapons much less likely. France. such as insisted upon by Australia and Canada for sale of uranium. and strengthened retransfer provisions. This radioactive super-heavy hydrogen isotope is used to boost the efficiency of fissile materials in nuclear weapons. technology and weapons-usable materials. France. as well as putting a similar ban on China.[10] As of February 2006 Iran formally announced that uranium enrichment within their borders has continued. Pakistan. to the IAEA in 1978. once it is widely in force. The Additional Protocol. This treaty will also put more pressure on Israel. and the United States claim the purpose is for nuclear weapons research and construction. stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons. the UK. and formal government assurances to this effect were required from recipients. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwa forbidding the production. Trade sanctions would then be likely. If a nuclear-capable country does leave the NPT. According to Kenneth D. the former USSR. The group began with seven members–€ the United States. Bilateral agreements. In fact. just as if it were in breach of its safeguards agreement. others remain beyond scrutiny. Germany. Iran claims it is for peaceful purposes but the United Kingdom. Bergeron's Tritium on Ice: The Dangerous New Alliance of Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear Power. Other developments The Nuclear Suppliers Group communicated its guidelines. ensure that uranium supplied by countries such as Australia and Canada does not contribute to nuclear weapons proliferation. The United States resumed tritium production in 2003 for the first time in 15 years. address this by including fallback provisions. These were to ensure that transfers of nuclear material or equipment would not be diverted to unsafeguarded nuclear fuel cycle or nuclear explosive activities.Nuclear proliferation 77 Limitations of Safeguards The greatest risk from nuclear weapons proliferation comes from countries which have not joined the NPT and which have significant unsafeguarded nuclear activities. This could indicate that there is a potential nuclear arm stockpile replacement since the isotope naturally decays. Canada and Japan–€ but now includes 46 countries including all five nuclear weapons states. In May 1995. but many countries are outside the scope of these agreements. it is likely to be reported by the IAEA to the UN Security Council. Khamenei's official statement was made at the meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna. While safeguards apply to some of their activities. This will be a major step forward in preventing nuclear proliferation. essentially a set of export rules. The Guidelines also recognised the need for physical protection measures in the transfer of sensitive facilities. NPT parties reaffirmed their commitment to a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty to prohibit the production of any further fissile material for weapons. It is seen as an important litmus test on the seriousness of the United States' intention to nuclear disarm. and do. and Israel fall within this category. IAEA safeguards. the UK. France and Russia to cease production of weapons material. will provide credible assurance that there are no undeclared nuclear materials or activities in the states concerned. Germany. This aims to complement the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty of 1996 (not entered into force as of 2011) and to codify commitments made by the United States. Nuclear proliferation 78 Unsanctioned nuclear activity Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States . and Pakistan. India has 14 small nuclear power reactors in commercial operation. This heightened concerns regarding an arms race between them. the United States. with missile technology. Its civil nuclear strategy has been directed towards complete independence in the nuclear fuel cycle. Both engaged in a conventional arms race in the 1980s. Kashmir is a prime cause of bilateral tension. which exacerbate Indian concerns. In May 1998 India and Pakistan each exploded several nuclear devices underground. and € ten local PHWRs based on Canadian designs. now use locally enriched uranium and are under safeguards. In 1994 India reversed a four-year trend of reduced allocations for defence. Both countries are opposed to the NPT as it stands. the former USSR. They are thus largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant or materials. including sophisticated technology and equipment capable of delivering nuclear weapons. two of 150 and eight 200 MWe. with Pakistan involving the People's Republic of China. This self-sufficiency extends from uranium exploration and mining through fuel fabrication. reactor design and construction. also under safeguards. But it is the growth and modernization of China's nuclear arsenal and its assistance with Pakistan's nuclear power programme and. reportedly. except for safety-related devices for a few safeguarded facilities. Pakistan is aided by China's People's Liberation Army. It is also developing technology to utilise its abundant resources of thorium as a nuclear fuel. Both have lost their patrons: India. an acknowledged nuclear weapons state. € two small Canadian PHWRs (1972 & 1980). Relations between the two countries are tense and hostile. necessary because of its outspoken rejection of the NPT. There is persistent low level military conflict due to Pakistan backing an insurgency there and the disputed status of Kashmir. and India has consistently attacked the Treaty since its inception in 1970 labeling it as a lopsided treaty in favor of the nuclear powers. to reprocessing and waste management. They possess or are quickly capable of assembling one or more nuclear weapons. It has a small fast breeder reactor and is planning a much larger one. They have remained outside the 1970 NPT. and the risks of nuclear conflict between them have long been considered quite high. Pakistan was expected to push its own expenditures yet higher. and despite its much smaller economy. The 14 operating ones (2548 MWe total) comprise: € two 150 MWe BWRs from the United States. its sovereignty being in dispute since 1948. two larger ones under construction. which started up in 1969. and ten more planned. € two new 540 MWe and two 700 MWe plants at Tarapur (known as TAPP: Tarapur Atomic Power Project) . heavy water production. In particular.Nuclear proliferation 79 Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category NPT Non-Signatories India. India Nuclear power for civil use is well established in India. Pakistan and Israel have been "threshold" countries in terms of the international non-proliferation regime. which operates somewhat autonomously within that country as an exporter of military material. In the 1990s the arms race quickened. under a Russian-financed US$3 billion contract.1% of India's electricity in 2000 and this was expected to reach 10% by 2005. in violation of these agreements. and their declared purpose was "to help in the design of nuclear weapons of different yields and different delivery systems". nuclear weapons. 80 . to possess. notwithstanding official denials. After an uneasy ceasefire ended the 1962 war. These were unambiguously military. China still occupies some territory which it captured during the aforementioned war. As a result India's nuclear power programme proceeds largely without fuel or technological assistance from other countries. the United States sold India heavy water for use in the reactor "only. India has had an unhappy relationship with China. Similarly. including one claimed to be of a sophisticated thermonuclear device. In 1999 it deployed its own medium-range missile and has developed an intermediate-range missile capable of reaching targets in China's industrial heartland. well before the NPT. Construction has been seriously delayed by financial and technical problems. and a 100MW indigenous unit in operation since 1985.. or to be able to quickly assemble. by claiming that Smiling Buddha was a "peaceful nuclear explosion.. however. In 1995 the United States quietly intervened to head off a proposed nuclear test. Nuclear power supplied 3. relations between the two nations were frozen until 1998. as India does not import any nuclear fuel. considered incidental. In addition. dubbed CIRUS (Canada-India Reactor." [12]. Its nuclear weapon and missile support for Pakistan is a major bone of contention. Since then a degree of high-level contact has been established and a few elementary confidence-building measures put in place. in connection with research into and the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes" [13].[] The Indian government controversially justified this. United States). Smiling Buddha. It is estimated that India may have built up enough weapons-grade plutonium for a hundred nuclear warheads. Its weapons material appears to come from a Canadian-designed 40MW "research" reactor which started up in 1960. by some accounts. however. Its industry is largely without IAEA safeguards. this is not accurate. It is widely believed that the nuclear programs of India and Pakistan used CANDU reactors to produce fissionable materials for their weapons. In 2001 a final agreement was signed with Russia for the country's first large nuclear power plant. Both Canada (by supplying the 40 MW research reactor) and the United States (by supplying 21 tons of heavy water) supplied India with the technology necessary to create a nuclear weapons program. Others saw it as a response to China's nuclear weapons capability. by breeding fissile U-233. used the Canadian-supplied reactor and American-supplied heavy water to produce plutonium for their first nuclear explosion.Nuclear proliferation The two under construction and two of the planned ones are 450 MWe versions of these 200 MWe domestic products. Canada sold India the reactor on the condition that the reactor and any by-products would be "employed for peaceful purposes only. in 1998 there were five more tests in Operation Shakti. It was then universally perceived. and the effects of its nuclear weapons policy in provoking Pakistan is. an advanced heavy-water thorium cycle is under development. India exploded a nuclear device in 1974. comprising two VVER-1000 reactors. India. which it has consistently claimed was for peaceful purposes. and India still occupies some territory claimed by China. Indian security policies are driven by: € its determination to be recognized as a dominant power in the region € its increasing concern with China's expanding nuclear weapons and missile delivery programmes € its concern with Pakistan's capability to deliver nuclear weapons deep into India It perceives nuclear weapons as a cost-effective political counter to China's nuclear and conventional weaponry. though a few plants (see above) are under facility-specific safeguards. claimed by India. Both use local uranium. A further two Russian units are under consideration for the site. The first unit is due to be commissioned in 2007. However." The country has at least three other research reactors including the tiny one which is exploring the use of thorium as a nuclear fuel. the so-called Smiling Buddha test. "[] With Aziz Ahmed on his side.A..Q. …Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Bhutto's government redoubled its effort. Pakistan did not forego the "plutonium" route and covertly continued its indegenious research under Munir Khan and it succeeded with plutonium route in early 1980s. the Nuclear power infrastructure has been well established by Pakistan which is dedicated for the industrial and economic development of the country. intervention to cancel the project.. the technology that A. If the world's community failed to provide political insurance to Pakistan and other countries against the nuclear blackmail. Later after joining. though it was authentic and vital link for centrifuge . he worked with Physics Dynamics Research Laboratories (FDO).6%) of electricity as of 2012. Butt being the director. from then on it was a classic case of "action and reaction". when India surprised the outer world with its successful detonation of its own bomb. economic.[] The bomb program has its roots after East-Pakistan gained its independence as Bangladesh after India's successful intervention led to a decisive victory on Pakistan in 1971. there are three operational mega-commercial nuclear power plants while three larger ones are under construction. it became "imperative for Pakistan" to pursue the weapons research..[] Abdul Qadeer Khan then established a network through Dubai to smuggle URENCO technology to Engineering Research Laboratories.[14][15][][][16][17] Earlier. (.[] In 1974.. a subsidiary of the Dutch firm VMF-Stork based in Amsterdam. Bush met with India Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to discuss India's involvement with nuclear weapons.. these countries would be constraint to launch atomic bomb programs of their own!. statement written in "Eating Grass".. it became clear once India detonated the bomb.. in 1950s€1960s were based on peaceful research and development and economic prosperity of the country. Bhutto launched a serious diplomatic offense and aggressively maintained at the session of the United Nations Security Council: Pakistan was exposed to a kind of "nuclear threat and blackmail" unparalleled elsewhere. and industrial needs from the nuclear sources.[] Currently. but plutonium route was partially slowed down when the plan was failed after the U. [A]ssurances provided by the United Nations were not "Enough!". "Newton's third law" came into "operation". Khan had brought from Urenco was based on first generation civil rector technology.[] The nuclear power supplies 787MW (roughly ~3.. he had access through photographs and documents of the technology. the Urenco. the country has an active nuclear weapons program which was started in 1970s.[] and to fulfill the energy.[] Infrastructure established by the IAEA and the U.[] Earlier efforts were directed towards mastering the plutonium technology from France. codename Smiling Buddha. Libya admitted that the nuclear weapons-related material including these centrifuges.S.[] 81 In 2003.S. filled with many serious technical errors.[] Its current nuclear policy is directed and aimed to promote the socio-economic development of the people as a "foremost priority".[] This large-scale but clandestine atomic bomb project was directed towards the development of ingenious development of reactor and military-grade plutonium.–source[] After 1974.[] Pakistan had established science directorates in almost all of her embassies in the important countries of the world. with theoretical physicist S.[citation needed] Pakistan Over the several years.Nuclear proliferation American President George W. this time equally focused on uranium and plutonium.. and the country has projected to produce 8800MW electricity by 2030.[] According to leading scientist in the program. were acquired from Pakistan Although the civil-sector nuclear power was established in 1950s..[] Contrary to popular perception. The two countries agreed that the United States would give nuclear power assistance to India...). known as Pak-1. Bhutto and the country's elite political and military science circle sensed this test as final and dangerous anticipation to Pakistan's "moral and physical existence.[] Against the popular perception.[] Reacting on India's nuclear test (Smiling Buddha). within weeks of India's nuclear tests. Confessing his crimes later a month on national television. who happened to be no other than A. Khan's efforts also led the exposure of many defunct European consortium who defied export restrictions in 1970s. for use in nuclear weapons. During this period. However. and many of defunct Dutch companies exported thousands of centrifuges to Pakistan as early as 1976. Pakistan-North Korea cooperation in missile technology transfer was being established. In 1993.Nuclear proliferation project of the country.[19] It was widely believed to have direct involvement of the government of Pakistan. as a tribute.[] In early 1996. renamed the research institute after his name. the revelation of A. The visits are believed to be related to the subsequent acquisition technology to developed 82 . and the paid state visit to North Korea. He was immediately given presidential immunity.[] After the British Government stopped the British subsidiary of the American Emerson Electric Co. The subsequent confrontation with IAEA on the issue of inspections and suspected violations.[] All of his activities went undetected for several years. This eventually led to negotiations with the United States resulting in the Agreed Framework of 1994. and used a UAE-based computer company as a false front. before (India). He duly confessed of running the atomic proliferation ring from Pakistan to Iran and North Korea. reportedly to discuss the supply of missile technology to Pakistan.[] When he did not get the order from us. from shipping the components to Pakistan. Prime minister Benazir Bhutto made it clear that "if India conducts a nuclear test.[20] The findings exposed the Israeli involvement in this scandal when the Israeli national Asher Karni was arrested.[19] On contrary. and we have left that stage (developmental) far behind.[18][] In 1997. [P]akistan had progressed significantly. who used the same route to provide aide to Israeli nuclear program.Q. and his acquisition activities were largely unsupervised by Pakistan governmental authorities. five on the 28th and one on the 30th of that month.[] Independent investigation conducted by IISS confirmed that he had control over the import-export deals. resulted in North Korea threatening to withdraw from the NPT in 1993. which provided for IAEA safeguards being applied to its reactors and spent fuel rods. he bailed out the government by taking full responsibility. A high level delegation of Pakistan military visited North Korea in August€September 1992.[] In 1981. Pakistan could be forced to "follow suit". and many of defunct Dutch companies exported thousands of centrifuges to Pakistan as early as 1976. President General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. but the manner in which the government acted cast doubt on the sincerity of Pakistan.[] North Korea The Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (or better known as North Korea)."[] By 1978. his efforts were paid off and made him into a national hero. he wrote a letter to a Labour Party member and questions were asked in [British] Parliament. Seismic events consistent with these claims were recorded. it was believed that North Korea was diverting plutonium extracted from the fuel of its reactor at Yongbyon. Pakistan announced that it had conducted six underground tests in the Chagai Hills.!"[] In May 1998. the IAEA unearthed a large-scale controversial nuclear scandal with close ties to Pakistan.[] This claim could not be verified due to the refusal of the government of Pakistan to allow IAEA to interview the alleged head of the nuclear black market.[20] The findings exposed the Israeli involvement in this scandal when the Israeli national Asher Karni was arrested.[19] The investigations also led the exposure of many defunct European consortium who defied export restrictions in 1970s. joined the NPT in 1985 and had subsequently signed a safeguards agreement with the IAEA. her statement was echoed by Prime minister Nawaz Sharif who maintained to the fact that: "Since 1972.Q. PM Benazir Bhutto repeatedly traveled to China. These spent fuel rods were sealed in canisters by the United States to prevent North Korea from extracting plutonium from them. the centrifuge components were apparently manufactured in Malaysian Scomi Precision Engineering with the assistance of South Asian and German companies.[19] In 2004. Khan.[] Exact nature of the involvement at the governmental level is still unclear. he describes his frustration with a supplier from Germany as: "That man from the German team was unethical. In 2003. North Korea had to therefore freeze its plutonium programme. Pakistan will not be made a "hostage" to India by signing the CTBT. who used the same route to provide aide to Israeli nuclear program. Israel Israel is also thought to possess an arsenal of potentially up to several hundred nuclear warheads based on estimates of the amount of fissile material produced by Israel. It is not clear what North Korea got in return. 83 . During the period 1992€1994.[22] An Israeli nuclear installation is located about ten kilometers to the south of Dimona.Nuclear proliferation its Ghauri system by Pakistan. the Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny this publicly.S. Bermudez Jr. a former technician at the Dimona plant. The inspectors eventually informed the U. Western intelligence agencies began to notice exchange of personnel. it demanded that Israel agree to international inspections. Khan Research Laboratories.S. He was arrested again on 11 November 2004. At this time China was under U. Norway sold 20 tonnes of heavy water needed for the reactor to Israel in 1959 and 1960 in a secret deal. Israel agreed. A. drugged him and transported him to Israel. The purpose of the Dimona plant is widely assumed to be the manufacturing of nuclear weapons. It is therefore likely during this period that cooperation in nuclear technology between Pakistan and North Korea was initiated. intelligence had as early as 1999 picked up signs that North Korea was continuing to develop nuclear arms. rather than IAEA. control and testing equipment for US$ 50 million. Joseph S. Israeli agents arrested him from Italy. and an Israeli court then tried him in secret on charges of treason and espionage. in Jane's Defence Weekly (27 November 2002) reports that Western analysts had begun to question what North Korea received in payment for the missiles. 22 November 2002) that U. intelligence officials having stated that Pakistan was a major supplier of critical equipment to North Korea. Other reports also indicate that North Korea had been working covertly to develop an enrichment capability for nuclear weapons for at least five years and had used technology obtained from Pakistan (Washington Times. The British newspaper Daily Express accused Israel of working on a bomb in 1960. Khan was reported to have visited North Korea thirteen times.[citation needed] However. it was able to hide the alleged purpose of the site from the inspectors by installing temporary false walls and other devices before each inspection. Reports indicate that North Korea was willing to supply missile sub-systems including rocket motors. though formal charges were not immediately filed. many suspected it was the nuclear technology. the United States terminated the inspections. Mordechai Vanunu. and that Israel would receive advanced notice of all inspections. Its construction commenced in 1958.[23] When the United States intelligence community discovered the purpose of the Dimona plant in the early 1960s. due to Israel's policy of deliberate ambiguity. 18 October 2002). In 1986.S..S. The official reason given by the Israeli and French governments was to build a nuclear reactor to power a "desalination plant". the latter was forced to approach North Korea for missile transfers. but was severely limited by the Israeli government. A. and the majority of defense experts have concluded that it does in fact do that. The KRL was in charge of both uranium program and also of the missile program with North Korea.S. a policy it refers to as "ambiguity". pressure not to supply the M Dongfeng series of missiles to Pakistan. government that their inspections were useless due to Israeli restrictions on what areas of the facility they could inspect. revealed to the media some evidence of Israel's nuclear program. The missile cooperation program with North Korea was under Dr. Some claim that because Israel knew the schedule of the inspectors' visits. It is believed by experts that possibly with Chinese connivance and facilitation. the Negev Nuclear Research Center. Q.[21] This has never been openly confirmed or denied however. inertial guidance systems. The report added that equipment such as gas centrifuges appeared to have been "part of a barter deal" in which North Korea supplied Pakistan with missiles. He was freed on 21 April 2004. inspectors were used. with French assistance. A New York Times report on 18 October 2002 quoted U. In 1969. in order to "green the Negev". but on a condition that U. There were no "safeguards" required in this deal to prevent usage of the heavy water for non-peaceful purposes. Separate reports indicate (The Washington Times.[citation needed] and sentenced him to eighteen years imprisonment.Q. technology and components between KRL and entities of the North Korean 2nd Economic Committee (responsible for weapons production). pursued a variety of initiatives to persuade India and Pakistan to abandon their nuclear weapons programs and to accept comprehensive international safeguards on all their nuclear activities. The United States would not accept the participation of Iran and North Korea and these initiatives have lapsed. Having promoted the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty since 1954. even though the respective lists were regarded as not being wholly accurate. the Clinton administration proposed a conference of the five nuclear-weapon states. Another.Nuclear proliferation Comments on photographs taken by Mordechai Vanunu inside the Negev Nuclear Research Center have been made by prominent scientists. more recent approach. under the UN Conference on Disarmament. which it regards as inherently discriminatory in favor of the nuclear-weapon States. especially under the Clinton administration. It has repeatedly proposed a nuclear free zone in South Asia and has proclaimed its willingness to engage in nuclear disarmament and to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty if India would do so. It appears that India is now prepared to join negotiations regarding such a Cut-off Treaty. To this end. estimated Israel had enough plutonium for about 150 weapons.[citation needed] 84 Nuclear arms control in South Asia The public stance of the two states on non-proliferation differs markedly. The United States for some years. they would have to agree to halt the production of fissile materials for weapons and to accept international verification on their relevant nuclear facilities (enrichment and reprocessing plants). known as the 'cut-off' convention. India has taken the view that solutions to regional security issues should be found at the international rather than the regional level. such as Iran and North Korea. and countered with demands that other potential weapons states. presumably as non-weapons states. It has endorsed a United States proposal for a regional five power conference to consider non-proliferation in South Asia. and at the end of 1991 they provided one another with a list showing the location of all their nuclear plants. Indian ratification may be conditional upon the five weapons states agreeing to specific reductions in nuclear arsenals. since its chief concern is with China. Should India and Pakistan join such a convention.[] Ted Taylor. and that regional limitations would only be acceptable if they were accepted equally by China. which would hopefully be followed by 'roll back'. proposed the revision of the Non-Proliferation Treaty. Bilateral confidence-building measures between India and Pakistan to reduce the prospects of confrontation have been limited. should be invited. Pakistan has initiated a series of regional security proposals. India and the United States jointly sponsored a UN General Assembly resolution in 1993 calling for negotiations for a 'cut-off' convention. and a timetable for complete nuclear weapons disarmament. Following the 1998 tests the question has been reopened and both Pakistan and India have indicated their intention to sign the CTBT. India and Pakistan. Japan. It therefore rejects Pakistan's proposals. a bomb designer employed by the United States of America has confirmed the several hundred warhead estimate based on Vanunu's photographs. To this end. Early in 1994 India proposed a bilateral agreement for a 'no first use' of nuclear weapons and an extension of the 'no attack' treaty to cover civilian and industrial targets as well as nuclear installations. who questioned Vanunu over several days. centers on 'capping' the production of fissile material for weapons purposes. The UN Conference on Disarmament has also called upon both countries "to accede without delay to the Non-Proliferation Treaty". India refused this and similar previous proposals. . the 'Gandhi Plan'. India dropped its support in 1995 and in 1996 attempted to block the Treaty. It endorsed early proposals for a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and for an international convention to ban the production of highly enriched uranium and plutonium for weapons purposes. British nuclear weapons scientist Frank Barnaby. Instead. put forward in 1988. Germany. In 1990 each side ratified a treaty not to attack the other's nuclear installations. and had thus agreed to place all its nuclear material under IAEA safeguards. This process was used in the Manhattan Project to make the highly enriched uranium used in the Hiroshima bomb.[24] In 2008. States acknowledged the possibility of nuclear activities entirely separate from those covered by safeguards. Egypt disclosed past undeclared nuclear activities and material to the IAEA. as well as a nuclear weapons design programme. In the late 1970s a specialised plant.Nuclear proliferation 85 NPT signatories Egypt In 2004 and 2005. Iraq had been making efforts to secure a nuclear potential since the 1960s. but was abandoned soon afterwards.[29][30] In response. was constructed near Baghdad. the UN Security Council passed a series of resolutions citing concerns about the program. but it was assumed they would be detected by national intelligence activities.[31][39][32][33][34] Iran's representative to the UN argues sanctions compel Iran to abandon its rights under the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty to peaceful nuclear technology. Iraq was an NPT Party. said in 2009 he had not seen any evidence in IAEA official documents that Iran was developing nuclear weapons. After inspections in Iraq following the UN Gulf War cease-fire resolution showed the extent of Iraq's clandestine nuclear weapons program. the IAEA reported that Iran had been in breach of its obligations to comply with provisions of its safeguard agreement. when the war broke out. The plant was attacked during the Iran€Iraq War and was destroyed by Israeli bombers in June 1981. The main thrust of Iraq's uranium enrichment program was the development of technology for electromagnetic isotope separation (EMIS) of indigenous uranium. high enriched and low enriched uranium particles were found in environmental samples taken in Egypt. Not until the 1990 NPT Review Conference did some states raise the possibility of making more use of (for example) provisions for "special inspections" in existing NPT Safeguards Agreements.[38][39] The director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency.[40] Iraq Up to the late 1980s it was generally assumed that any undeclared nuclear activities would have to be based on the diversion of nuclear material from safeguards. and were building two full-scale facilities at Tarmiya and Ash Sharqat. Osiraq. Yukiya Amano. This uses the same principles as a mass spectrometer (albeit on a much larger scale). There was no particular effort by IAEA to attempt to detect them. However. In 2007 and 2008. Ions of uranium-238 and uranium-235 are separated because they describe arcs of different radii when they move through a magnetic field. The Iraqis did the basic research work at their nuclear research establishment at Tuwaitha. only a few separators had been installed at Tarmiya. and none at Ash Sharqat. north of Baghdad.[25] In May 2009. the IAEA states Egypt's statements were consistent with its own findings. But the inspections revealed that it had been pursuing an extensive clandestine uranium enrichment programme. the IAEA Board of Governors voted in a rare non-consensus decision to find Iran in non-compliance with its NPT Safeguards Agreement and to report that non-compliance to the UN Security Council. if there is reason to believe there may be undeclared material or activities. near Baghdad.[35] Iran says its uranium enrichment program is exclusively for peaceful purposes[36][37] and has enriched uranium to "less than 5 percent. . Reuters reported that the IAEA was conducting further investigation in Egypt. Special inspections can be undertaken at locations other than those where safeguards routinely apply.[28] In 2005. it became clear that the IAEA would have to broaden the scope of its activities.[26][27] Iran In 2003." consistent with fuel for a nuclear power plant and significantly below the purity of WEU (around 90%) typically used in a weapons program. until April 1992. US secretary of state Hillary Clinton highlighted concerns of the North Korean link. There have also been reports that two Pakistani scientists. a prototype of about 200 MWt (50 MWe).[citation needed] Recently. from the AQ Khan stable.Nuclear proliferation The Iraqis were also very interested in centrifuge enrichment. Later.[43] However. the full weight of international pressure will be brought against Myanmar. Khan strongly denied this allegation whilst the government declared the evidence to be "fraudulent". "We know there are also growing concerns about military cooperation between North Korea and Burma which we take very seriously. In May 1998. Newsweek reported that Abdul Qadeer Khan had sent Iraq centrifuge designs. report that two Myanmarese defectors saying that the Myanmar junta was secretly building a nuclear reactor and plutonium extraction facility with North Korea's help. Q." Clinton said. During that period. which were apparently confiscated by the UNMOVIC officials. fearing an ISI sting operation. much of it in caves tunnelled into a mountain at Naung Laing in northern Burma.[] They were clearly in violation of their NPT and safeguards obligations. it delayed concluding its NPT Safeguards Agreement with the IAEA. Q. a Japanese newspaper. and had been able to acquire some components including some carbon-fibre rotors. This was done by mid 1998. based on the UK Magnox design. While this was a well-suited design to start a wholly indigenous nuclear reactor development. in 2012. 86 . Myanmar had notified IAEA of its intention to pursue a civilian nuclear programme. but Iraq then ceased all cooperation with the UN. said officials familiar with developments. However. so the IAEA withdrew from this work. [citation needed] If true. The revelations from Iraq provided the impetus for a very far-reaching reconsideration of what safeguards are intended to achieve. had been dispatched to Myanmar where they had settled down."[42] In 2002.[citation needed][41] The Government of Pakistan and A. "The secret complex. Khan. Russia announced that it would build a nuclear reactor in Myanmar. the information that has been peddled by the defectors is also "preliminary" and could be used by the west to turn the screws on Myanmar…on democracy and human rights issues…in the run-up to the elections in the country in 2010.[citation needed] During an ASEAN meeting in Thailand in July 2009. and the IAEA Board of Governors ruled to that effect. the David Albright-led Institute for Science and International Security (ISIS) rang alarm bells about Myanmar attempting a nuclear project with North Korean help. Both reactors have degraded considerably since that time and would take significant efforts to refurbish. Burmese leader Thein Sein renounced military ties with DPRK (North Korea). Iraqi officials said "the documents were authentic but that they had not agreed to work with A. it brought into operation a small gas-cooled. it also exhibited all the features of a small plutonium production reactor for weapons purposes.[44] North Korea The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) acceded to the NPT in 1985 as a condition for the supply of a nuclear power station by the USSR. after contact between American President Barack Obama. They made only slow progress. destroy or render harmless Iraq's nuclear weapons capability. construction halted on both in 1994 and has not resumed. But equally. due to strained relations between two countries. Myanmar A report in the Sydney Morning Herald and Searchina. and a full-scale version of about 800 MWt (200 MWe). North Korea also made substantial progress in the construction of two larger reactors designed on the same principles. a process which should take only 18 months. which they were at an early stage of testing. The UN Security Council then ordered the IAEA to remove. to help Myanmar's project. natural-uranium (metal) fuelled "Experimental Power Reactor" of about 25 MWt (5 MWe). with the aim of acquiring its first nuclear bomb in five years. According to the report. runs parallel to a civilian reactor being built at another site by Russia that both the Russians and Burmese say will be put under international safeguards. graphite-moderated. North Korea announced that it has performed its first-ever nuclear weapon test. the essential part of the IAEA's mission had been completed. by the end of 2005 the DPRK had halted all six-party talks because the United States froze certain DPRK international financial assets such as those in a bank in Macau. Information passed to the IAEA by a Member State (as required by the IAEA) supported that suggestion by indicating that the DPRK had two undeclared waste or other storage sites. This included two 1000 MWe light water nuclear power reactors based on an advanced U. under the agreed framework. While undertaking this work in 1992. the DPRK would withdraw from the NPT and use the plutonium for weapons.000 corroding fuel rods associated with the experimental reactor have remained under close surveillance. the DPRK was persuaded to stop what appeared to be its nuclear weapons programme in exchange. the ROK.Nuclear proliferation In addition it completed and commissioned a reprocessing plant that makes the Magnox spent nuclear fuel safe. the first beginning in April 2004 concerning North Korea's weapons program. In February 1993 the IAEA called on the DPRK to allow special inspections of the two sites so that the initial stocks of nuclear material could be verified. Inspections in the DPRK continued. for about US$5 billion in energy-related assistance. The agreement requires a freeze on the operation and construction of the DPRK's plutonium production reactors and their related facilities. This was rejected by IAEA. IAEA inspectors found discrepancies which indicated that the reprocessing plant had been used more often than the DPRK had declared. On 9 October 2006. China. The DPRK remains uncooperative with the IAEA verification work and has yet to comply with its safeguards agreement. the six-party talks finally resumed. some 8. a series of six-party talks (the parties being the DPRK. In January 2003 the DPRK withdrew from the NPT. On 13 February 2007. The DPRK refused. nor was it vulnerable to other measures. would either be ineffective or risk provoking war. Although all these facilities at Yongbyon were to be under safeguards. the DPRK was not defeated. and the conclusion of the Agreed Framework in October 1994. In June 1993 the DPRK announced that it had "suspended" its withdrawal from the NPT. On 10 January 2005. a series of discussions among the DPRK. the IAEA has been given additional responsibilities. Following bilateral negotiations between the United States and the DPRK. Japan. allowing the UN the opportunity to seek out and destroy its nuclear weapons programme as part of the cease-fire conditions. and the IAEA is responsible for monitoring the freeze until the facilities are eventually dismantled. such as trade sanctions. would have been in a form very suitable for weapons. and China. such as oil. Once the DPRK's non-compliance had been reported to the UN Security Council. the fourth round of the Six-Party Talks ended with a joint statement in which North Korea agreed to end its nuclear programs and return to the NPT in exchange for diplomatic. the United States and Russia) were held in Beijing. However. System-80 design. which suggested that the DPRK could have weapons-grade plutonium which it had not declared to the IAEA.[citation needed] Ultimately. While Iraq was defeated in a war. and on 12 March announced its intention to withdraw from the NPT (three months' notice is required). although inspectors were increasingly hampered in what they were permitted to do by the DPRK's claim of a "special status". It can scarcely afford to import anything. but subsequently claimed a "special status" with respect to its safeguards obligations. and sanctions on vital commodities.S. the parties announced "Initial Actions" to implement the 2005 joint statement including shutdown and disablement of North Korean nuclear facilities in exchange for 87 . recovering uranium and plutonium. the United States. there was always the risk that at some stage. That plutonium. In response. energy and economic assistance. On 19 September 2005. if the fuel was only irradiated to a very low burn-up. On 18 December 2006. In April 1993 the IAEA Board concluded that the DPRK was in non-compliance with its safeguards obligations and reported the matter to the UN Security Council. However. One of the first steps in applying NPT safeguards is for the IAEA to verify the initial stocks of uranium and plutonium to ensure that all the nuclear materials in the country have been declared for safeguards purposes. North Korea declared that it was in the possession of nuclear weapons. and now holds the distinction of being the only known state to have indigenously produced nuclear weapons.[47] IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei criticized the strikes and deplored that information regarding the matter had not been shared with his agency earlier. On 12 February 2013.[24] The IAEA requested Syria to provide further access to the site and any other locations where the debris and equipment from the building had been stored.[46] The alleged reactor was not asserted to be operational and it was not asserted that nuclear material had been introduced into it.[24] Syria said the site was a military site and was not involved in any nuclear activities. 2007. North Korea withdrew from the six-party talks. Tretyakov thought that man was insane. restarted its nuclear facilities and conducted a second nuclear test on 25 May 2009. concluded a comprehensive safeguards agreement with the IAEA. In 1995 the IAEA declared that it was satisfied all materials were accounted for and the weapons programme had been terminated and dismantled. It's no big deal really".Nuclear proliferation energy assistance. and then verifiably dismantled them. and submitted a report on its nuclear material subject to safeguards. See also: North Korea and weapons of mass destruction and Six-party talks Russia Security of nuclear weapons in Russia remains a matter of concern. The detonation registered a magnitude 4.9 disturbance in the area around the epicenter. The IAEA's initial verification task was complicated by South Africa's announcement that between 1979 and 1989 it built and then dismantled a number of nuclear weapons. North Korea conducted an underground nuclear explosion with an estimated yield of 6 to 7 kilotonnes. but the "businessmen" (Vladimir K.[45] South Africa In 1991. They came up with a project of destroying large quantities of chemical wastes collected from Western countries at the island of Novaya Zemlya (a test place for Soviet nuclear weapons) using an underground nuclear blast. The project was rejected by Canadian representatives. anyone with enough money can buy a nuclear bomb. South Africa acceded to the NPT. South Africa asked the IAEA to verify the conclusion of its weapons programme.[] 88 .[24] Syria denounced what it called the Western "fabrication and forging of facts" in regards to the incident. he had a meeting with two Russian businessman representing a state-created C-W corporation in 1991. whereas Iraq and North Korea only had research reactors.[] Syria On September 6. According to high-ranking Russian SVR defector Tretyakov. South Africa has signed the NPT. Dmitriev) replied: "Do not be so naive. At the time. Reacting to UN sanctions imposed after missile tests in April 2009. the state had a nuclear power programme producing nearly 10% of the country's electricity. Israel bombed an officially unidentified site in Syria which it later asserted was a nuclear reactor under construction (see Operation Orchard). but one of the businessmen told Tretyakov that he keeps his own nuclear bomb at his dacha outside Moscow. With economic conditions the way they are in Russia today. .S.47 tonne of plutonium was swapped between the UK and United States for reasons that remain classified. Wendell Harrison Distinguished Service Professor of Political Science at the University of Chicago.[52] Under the Mutual Defence Agreement 5. He sees the Cold War as the ultimate proof of MAD logic–€ the only occasion when enmity between two Great Powers did not result in military conflict.[55][56] 89 Arguments in favor of proliferation There has been much debate in the academic study of International Security as to the advisability of proliferation. he argues. Emeritus Professor of Political Science at UC Berkeley and Adjunct Senior Research Scholar at Columbia University. Some very prominent neo-realist scholars. argued in books like The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age (1961) that mere possession of a nuclear arsenal. was enough to ensure deterrence. In the late 1950s and early 1960s. Navy Trident missiles. Aside from the majority opinion which opposes proliferation in any form. Neither Washington nor Moscow would risk nuclear Armageddon to advance territorial or power goals.–24). which would supply "certain warhead-related components". an adviser to Charles DeGaulle. regardless of historical tensions or recent hostility.S. who favor selective proliferation. Gen.[] Declassified U. and John Mearsheimer. there are two schools of thought on the matter: those. This was. continue to argue along the lines of Gallois (though these scholars rarely acknowledge their intellectual debt to Gallois and his contemporaries). and thus concluded that the spread of nuclear weapons could increase international stability. Department of Energy documents indicate the UK Trident warhead system was involved in non-nuclear design activities alongside the U. Total proliferation In embryo. such as Kenneth Waltz. who advocate a laissez-faire attitude to programs like North Korea's. Specifically. p. President authorized the transfer of "nuclear weapon parts" to the UK between at least the years 1975 to 1996. arguing that it will decrease the likelihood of war. A further 0.[57] and those such as Waltz. especially in troubled regions of the world.[50][] Some of the fissile materials for the UK Trident warhead were purchased from the United States.Nuclear proliferation United States cooperation on nuclear weapons with the United Kingdom The United States has given the UK considerable assistance with nuclear weapon design and construction since the 1958 US€UK Mutual Defence Agreement.5 tonnes of highly enriched uranium over the period 1960€1979. Waltz believes there to be no reason why this effect would not occur in all circumstances. these scholars advocate some forms of nuclear proliferation.S.[53] Some of the UK produced plutonium was used in 1962 by the United States for a nuclear weapon test of reactor-grade plutonium . what the French called the force de frappe. like Mearsheimer.37 tonnes of UK-produced plutonium was sent to the United States in return for 6. permission. In 1974 a CIA proliferation assessment noted that "In many cases [Britain's sensitive technology in nuclear and missile fields] is based on technology received from the United States and could not legitimately be passed on without U.[48][49] The UK National Audit Office noted that most of the UK Trident warhead development and production expenditure was incurred in the United States. R. because nuclear weapons promote caution in decision-makers.S. W76 nuclear warhead fitted in some U.[51] leading the Federation of American Scientists to speculate that the UK warhead may share design information from the W76. Pierre Marie Gallois of France.7–kg of tritium and 7.[54] The United States has supplied nuclear weapon delivery systems to support the UK nuclear forces since before the signing of the NPT. hence a peaceful stalemate ensued (Waltz and Sagan (2003). The renewal of this agreement is due to take place through the second decade of the 21st century.S."[] The U. Waltz argues that the logic of mutually assured destruction (MAD) should work in all security environments. Russians.000 years of human prehistory. that he underestimates the long-standing antipathy in many regions.[58] .–50€66). the weakness of international institutions. Future world leaders might not understand how close the Soviets. Even the 1995 Norwegian rocket incident demonstrated a potential scenario in which Russian democratization and military downsizing at the end of the Cold War did not eliminate the danger of accidental nuclear war through command and control errors. Such countries would not have the political will or ability to safeguard attempts at devices being transferred to a third party. and that weak states will be unable to prevent € or will actively provide for € the disastrous possibility of nuclear terrorism. and Soviet nuclear weapons accidents.S. Arguments against both positions There are numerous arguments presented against both selective and total proliferation. Not being deterred by self-annihilation. and the long-run unimportance of economic integration and globalization to state strategy) its proponents tend to make. pp. The Learning Channel documentary Doomsday: "On The Brink" illustrated 40 years of U. but never stopped (technology cannot be uninvented). he has argued for nuclear proliferation as policy in certain places. though to many. against 30. politicians not terrorists. After asking: might a future Russian ruler or renegade Russian general be tempted to use nuclear weapons to make foreign policy? the documentary writers revealed a greater danger of Russian security over its nuclear stocks. but especially the ultimate danger of human nature to want the ultimate weapon of mass destruction to exercise political and military power. how easy it all seemed because apocalypse was avoided for a mere 40 years between rivals. and Americans were to doomsday. who loved their children and did not want to die. History and military experts agree that proliferation can be slowed. he has not adequately responded (Betts (2000)). the general opinion is that most states are not in a position to safely guard against nuclear use.–5€56 and (1993). and which makes all states within or aspiring to be within the EU regard war between them as unthinkable. such as post€Cold War Europe. Another separate argument against Waltz's open proliferation and in favor of Mearsheimer's selective distribution is the possibility of nuclear terrorism.Nuclear proliferation 90 Selective proliferation John Mearsheimer would not support Waltz's optimism in the majority of potential instances. Waltz has dealt with all of these objections at some point in his work. he is certain that war will eventually break out on the European continent (Mearsheimer (1990). frequently arguing that the development of EU political institutions has led or will lead to the development of a nascent European identity. Professor Mearsheimer opines that Europe is bound to return to its pre€Cold War environment of regular conflagration and suspicion at some point in the future. however. terrorism groups could push forth their own nuclear agendas or be used as shadow fronts to carry out the attack plans by mentioned unstable governments. With respect to Mearsheimer's specific example of Europe. pp. In two famous articles. If this does not occur. He advocates arming both Germany and the Ukraine with nuclear weaponry in order to achieve a balance of power between these states in the east and France/Britain in the west. As for Waltz. Constructivists take this one step further. many economists and neoliberals argue that the economic integration of Europe through the development of the European Union has made war in most of the European continent so disastrous economically so as to serve as an effective deterrent. generally targeting the very neorealist assumptions (such as the primacy of military security in state agendas. Some countries included in the aforementioned laissez-faire distribution could predispose the transfer of nuclear materials or a bomb falling into the hands of groups not affiliated with any governments. which most states on the European continent wish to partake in to some degree or another. he spoke passionately in favor of Iran's right to develop nuclear technology. to set up frameworks to stop the proliferation of it. This concept can be described as a strategic chain reaction. and then sell it to another country for 10 times its value. In an interview with CNN's Christiane Amanpour. We're against that. States in the region will seek to acquire nuclear weapons to balance or eliminate the security threat. In theory. Iran Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has been a frequent critic of the concept of nuclear apartheid as it has been put into practice by several countries.Nuclear proliferation 91 Proliferation begets proliferation Proliferation begets proliferation is a concept described by Scott Sagan in his article. pg. India viewed nuclear weapons as a necessary right for all nations as long as certain states were still in possession of nuclear weapons. 70). India stated that nuclear issues were directly related to national security. the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty was passed. Years before India's first underground nuclear test in 1998. which was pushed for heavily by neighboring China. But also it is the duty and the responsibility of all countries. Ahmadinejad said that Iran was "against 'nuclear apartheid. particularly the United States. If one state produces a nuclear weapon it creates almost a domino effect within the region. India has consistently attempted to pass measures that would call for full international disarmament.[60] Iran violated the treaty by performing uranium-enrichment in secret. the Russians started to develop their program in preparation for the Cold War. which is acceptable under the treaty. In light of this. as only a select few states (particularly the member-nations of the United Nations Security Council) are able to acquire nuclear technology and that they can use their power to prevent other states from research and development of nuclear technology.[61] India India has also been discussed in the context of nuclear apartheid. to keep their weapons while ensuring that no other nations could develop them. "Why Do States Build Nuclear Weapons?". however they have not succeeded due to protests from those states that already have nuclear weapons. after which the United Nations Security Council ordered Iran to stop all uranium-enrichment.[62] India viewed the treaty as a means for countries that already had nuclear weapons. Nuclear apartheid The effective prohibition on nuclear proliferation has been characterised as a form of technological apartheid. primarily the five nations of the United Nations Security Council." Hours after that interview. Sagan describes this reaction best in his article when he states.[59] Iran is a signatory of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and claims that any work done in regards to nuclear technology is related only to civilian uses. including ours. claiming the nation should have the same liberties. pg 71). only states that are allied with states that already have nuclear power would be able to acquire nuclear technology themselves.[63] . With the Russian military buildup. ƒEvery time one state develops nuclear weapons to balance against its main rival. Going back through history we can see how this has taken place. France and Great Britain perceived this as a security threat and therefore they pursued nuclear weapons (Sagan.' which means some have the right to possess it. it also creates a nuclear threat to another region. use the fuel. When the United States demonstrated that it had nuclear power capabilities after the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Some have argued that coercive language was used in an attempt to persuade India to sign the treaty. We say clean energy is the right of all countries. which then has to initiate its own nuclear weapons program to maintain its national security„ (Sagan. com/ International/ wirestory?id=7515795& page=2) [28] GOV/2003/75 (http:/ / www. August 11. Calls on Country to Comply with Obligations 'Fully and Without Delay' (http:/ / un. . Allan M. Allen F. 31 July 2006) [33] SECURITY COUNCIL TIGHTENS RESTRICTIONS ON IRAN‚S PROLIFERATION-SENSITIVE NUCLEAR (http:/ / www. doc. page A3. htm [18] "Bhutto Warns India Against Testing Nuclear Device" Daily Telegraph (London). The Times of India. [20] Craig S. [2] The Baruch Plan | Arms Control. htm [13] http:/ / www. Penguin Books. org/ Publications/ Documents/ Board/ 2003/ gov2003-75. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2006/ sc8792.): Dividing the Atom. (http:/ / www. Deterrence and Nuclear Proliferation | Historical Documents | atomicarchive. p. pdf) [30] IAEA Board of Governors: "Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran" (February 2006) (http:/ / www. Combined Volume (6th Edition). cfr. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PHTOAD000061000009000040000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes) The most difficult step in building a nuclear weapon is the production of fissile material [41] "Documents Indicate A. Frederick. in Eric Herring (ed.Nuclear proliferation 92 References [1] Nash. org/ OurWork/ SV/ Safeguards/ sg_protocol. Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Winkler. 2 August 2009. Report by the Director General. org/ publications/ southasia/ khan_memo. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2008/ sc9268. •Beliefs. 2007. cms). org/ Publications/ Documents/ Board/ 2006/ gov2006-14. org). pdf) [26] Reuters: High-enriched uranium traces found in Egypt: IAEA (http:/ / www. [29] IAEA Board of Governors: "Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran" (September 2005) (http:/ / www. Security Council Reaffirms Earlier Resolutions on Iran's Uranium Enrichment. 23 No. go. com/ smpp/ content~db=all~content=a789938481~frm=titlelink). [45] Pete Earley. com/ article/ idUSTRE54543S20090506) [27] ABC News: IAEA: Weapons Grade Uranium Traces Found in Egypt (http:/ / abcnews. [43] "Myanmar building nuke reactor. 30 October 2008. 6 January 1996. iaea. 5 October 2004 (http:/ / www. Howe.com (http:/ / www. reuters. html) [42] Searchina. Department of Public Information. 14 February 2005. globalsecurity. 1 (March 2000). special issue of Storia delle Relazioni Internazionali (Autumn 1998). pages 114€121. htm) [36] AFP:Six powers to meet soon over Iran's nuclear program (http:/ / afp. htm) at globalsecurity. The New York Times. Retrieved October 24.. iaea. 12. p. cfm?story_id=12516611) [9] Remarks With Brazilian Foreign Minister Celso Amorim. nci. and Carla Gardina Pestana. economist. Proliferation and Use of Nuclear Weapons‚.Q. Cultures. "Comrade J: The Untold Secrets of Russia's Master Spy in America After the End of the Cold War". shtml) [3] Beatrice Heuser. nci. or face possible economic. The Economist. com/ Docs/ Deterrence/ BaruchPlan. 22. (http:/ / www. iaea. 2007. org/ e_research/ profiles/ Egypt/ Nuclear/ chronology_2008. pdf [24] International Atomic Energy Agency: Safeguards Statement for 2008 and Background to the Safeguards Statement (http:/ / www. state. isis-online. says media report" (http:/ / timesofindia. [46] 6 September 2007 Air strike (http:/ / www. in Leopoldo Nuti and Cyril Buffet (eds. informaworld. 10 November 2003. The American People. org/ Publications/ Documents/ Board/ 2005/ gov2005-77. aip. tehrantimes. doc. Khan outwitted Western intelligence to build a global nuclear-smuggling ring that made the world a more dangerous place". How Pakistan's A. "Roots of Pakistan Atomic Scandal Traced to Europe". [22] http:/ / csis. New York: Longman. org/ Publications/ Reports/ Anrep2008/ safeguards. iaea. John R. pdf) [31] Security Council demands Iran suspend uranium enrichment by 31 August. 19 February 2004. iaea. Smith. UN Security Council. Concise Edition Creating a Nation and a Society. pp. diplomatic sanctions (http:/ / www. gov/ secretary/ former/ powell/ remarks/ 36801. ISBN 978-0-399-15439-3.): Preventing the Use of Weapons of Mass Destruction Special Issue of Journal of Strategic Studies Vol. [5] (http:/ / www. htm) [12] http:/ / www. globalsecurity. com/ research/ backgrounders/ displaystory. org/ publication/ 16811/ ) [39] American Institute of Physics: The gas centrifuge and nuclear weapons proliferation (http:/ / scitation. Charlene Mires.74-100 (http:/ / www. org/ OurWork/ SV/ Safeguards/ sg_protocol. by Ahmed Rashid [19] Bill Powell and Tim McGirk. google. 2007. org/ OurWork/ SV/ Safeguards/ es/ es2008.org (http:/ / www. "Proliferation and/or Alliance? The Federal Republic of Germany". nti. com/ article/ ALeqM5hA01f9zNaIJ4IK_Hcuwqy4zf6MWg) [37] Tehran Times: Iran wants new nuclear fuel talks (http:/ / www. org/ files/ media/ csis/ pubs/ 090316_israelistrikeiran. atomicarchive. com/ index_View. "The Man Who Sold the Bomb. org/ military/ world/ war/ 070906-airstrike. iaea. html) [8] When Nuclear Sheriffs Quarrel. htm) (UN News Centre Press Release. html) [7] NTI Egypt Profile (http:/ / www. Davis. Julie Roy Jeffrey. un. pdf).Q. indiatimes. asp?code=207020) [38] Council on Foreign Relations: Iran's Nuclear Program (http:/ / www. org/ 06nci/ 04/ US-India%20CIRUS%20agreement. doc. org/ 06nci/ 04/ Canada-India%20CIRUS%20agreement. Khan Offered Nuclear Weapon Designs to Iraq in 1990: Did He Approach Other Countries?" by David Albright and Corey Hinderstein (4 February 2004). [34] United Nations Security Council: Resolution 1835. htm). Time Magazine. Peter J. un. iaea. html) [25] Internation Atomic Energy Agency: Safeguards Annual Report (2008) (http:/ / www. html) [6] Additional Protocols to Nuclear Safeguards Agreements (http:/ / www. Gary B. com/ NEWS/ World/ Rest-of-World/ Myanmar-building-nuke-reactor-says-media-report/ articleshow/ 4846971. "Reasons for digging tunnels in Burma". 2009. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2008/ sc9459. pdf?OpenElement) [62] Against Nuclear Apartheid (http:/ / www.org/nuclear/) € Council for a Livable World (http://www. oral history interviews and other empirical sources. and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments (http:/ / www.ispnw. ebscohost. .au/) provided much of the original material in this article.C.thebulletin.cnduk.npec-web.org/moment/video?p=423) € National Counterproliferation Center € Office of the Director of National Intelligence (http://www. Paris and Brussels).miis.org/ Organizations € Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http://www. is a US based non-proliferation movement advocating amongst other things. € Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center (http://belfercenter. gov/ t/ vci/ rls/ rpt/ 51977. cnn.wslfweb.ippnw. com/ login. org/ doc/ UNDOC/ GEN/ N06/ 681/ 42/ PDF/ N0668142. html) € Publications from Harvard faculty and fellows on nuclear proliferation.. Jaswant Singh [63] Options (http:/ / search. Bureau of Verification and Compliance. Mike Moore.ksg.org) € Proliferation Papers (http://www.org) € A not-for-profit organization based in Washington.edu/topic/3/nuclear_proliferation.org) € Nonproliferation Policy Education Center (http://www.nevadadesertexperience.org) or ISPNW. htm). gov) € Official website of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): http://www.ucsusa.org) € The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http://www.iaea.org/frontDispatcher/ifri/publications/ proliferation_papers_1090224187156) € Electronic papers published by the French Institute of International Relations (Ifri. Center for Nonproliferation Studies (http://cns. August 30. D. € Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's Nonproliferation Website (http://www.ifri. Nonproliferation.Nuclear proliferation [57] See page 116 [58] Doomsday: On The Brink. is a US based non-proliferation movement advocating the full control of the world's nuclear arsenal by a restructured UN. € International Society for the Prevention of Nuclear War (http://www. aspx?direct=true& db=f5h& AN=9611212232& site=ehost-live). 1997 [59] Iranian president: No 'nuclear apartheid' (http:/ / edition.org) € A non-technical public policy and global security magazine that has reported on nuclear proliferation issues since 1945. The Learning Channel.org) € International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (http://www. € The Uranium Information Centre (http://www. state.carnegieendowment. org/program/NPIHP/) or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents. € Monterey Institute of International Studies.clw. is a UK based non-proliferation movement based in the UK which advocates a complete ban on all nuclear weaponry. html).edu) € Nevada Desert Experience Nevada Desert Experience (http://www. html). € Nuclear Threat Initiative (http://www. € Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (http://www.armscontrolcenter. un. CNN [60] Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control.harvard.org/ npp/) € Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation (http://www.org/) or IPPNW.nti.uic. a complete ban on all nuclear weaponry. org/ pic/ js/ js(foreignaffairs).counterwmd. scholars and the media.wilsoncenter. Department of State. The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 93 External links and references € Ploughshares Fund Video: A World Without Nuclear Weapons (http://ploughshares.org/policy/nuclearweapons/) € Federation of American Scientists (http://fas. indianembassy. 2005 [61] UN Security Council Resolution 1737 (http:/ / daccessdds.S.org/global_security/ nuclear_weapons) € Western States Legal Foundation (http://www. and founded in 1994 to promote a better understanding of strategic weapons proliferation issues among policymakers. com/ 2005/ WORLD/ meast/ 09/ 17/ ahmadinejad/ index. U. € Union of Concerned Scientists articles on nuclear weapons (http://www.com.org/) or CND. € Jones.pdf) Congressional Research Service Report.com/doc/200511/aq-khan) from The Atlantic Monthly € Preventing Catastrophic Nuclear Terrorism (http://www. including case studies.tufts. MA: Houghton Mifflin Co. Vol. New York: W. Paris. 1961).theatlantic. Betts (2000). Waltz (2003).J.com/news/article.cfr. •Back to the future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War‚ in International Security. € George Perkovich.com/2004/02/12/ international/asia/12NUKE. The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate Renewed. € Nuclear Files. pp.pdf) € U. € S. 37. Nuclear proliferation espionage. The China (Proliferation) Syndrome (http://www. € J. 20 February 2009.000 Holocausts (http://www. revised 2010) ISBN 978-1-59403-382-7.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL31559.phayul. January 2000. New York. Mearsheimer (1990). August 1993) € "A Tale of Nuclear Proliferation: How Pakistani Built His Network" (http://www. Phayul. aspx?browse=issues/Proliferation) € Opinion essay arguing for a totally "nuclear-free" world (http://fletcher.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/terrorism/ director-general-threat-of-nuclear-terrorism. Proliferation Papers. Vol.eu/nc/actualites/ actualite/select_category/21/article/the-european-union-and-the-non-proliferation-of-nuclear-weapons/). a Council on Foreign Relations Special Report by Senior Fellow Charles Ferguson € Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks (http://www. •Case for a Ukrainian deterrent‚ in Foreign Affairs. Books and Other Media € The European Union and the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons (http://www.–50€66 € R.J. shtml) by Prof. 15. Utgoff (ed. The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture (2008.edu/qsearch.aspx?id=23872& article=THE+CHINA+(PROLIFERATION)+SYNDROME+-+Jamyang+Norbu). European Union Institute for Security Studies € "Going Nuclear: William Langewiesche on The Atomic Bazaar" 26 June 2007 interview (http://newsquake. Ishmael.europa. The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age (Boston. Cambridge MA: MIT Press € Nuclear Files. Encounter Books.mil/documents/ library/proliferation.K.org (http://www. pp. 72.org/files/Securite_defense/ Perkovich_Reforming_Nuclear_Order.S.nuclearfiles. Ifri. netscape. € Pierre Gallois.Nuclear proliferation Articles.osd. Congress.). Chaillot Paper No.com.pdf).W. € 27.edu/news/2004/02/najam.pinkyshow.org/publication/10067/).html?hp) € Annotated bibliography on nuclear proliferation from the Alsos Digital Library (http://alsos. The Coming Crisis: Nuclear Proliferation.org/archives/episodes/070211/) € a Pinky Show online video interview with John Burroughs (Lawyers Committee on Nuclear Policy). A.org (http://www. Sagan and K. Fall 2008 € Jamyang Norbu.wlu.nytimes. Adil Najam in USA Today. Norton and Co.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/proliferation/index. •Universal deterrence or conceptual collapse? Liberal pessimism or utopian realism‚ in V. "Principles for Reforming the Nuclear Order" (http://www. Office of Techchnology Assessment (OTA-ISC-559..nuclearfiles.ifri.com € The Wrath of Khan (http://www. € Nuclear Weapons and Proliferation: Center for Global Studies at the University of Illinois (http://cgs. edu/content/nuclear-weapons) 94 .html) Nuclear Proliferation and the Potential Threat of Nuclear Terrorism € Proliferation Control Regimes: Background and Status (http://www. 26 December 2006.anthrax. htm) Comprehensive information regarding nuclear proliferation.com/2007/06/26/g/) at Propeller.iss. US Interests and World Order. Mearsheimer (1993).–5€56 € J.illinois.fas. All of the declared production facilities have been destroyed or converted to civilian use after the treaty went into force. To the right is a summary of the nations that have either declared weapon stockpiles. 1997 No No People's Republic of China Probable Egypt India Iran Israel Japan Libya Probable Known Known Probable Probable Known January 14. 1994 January 13. 1993 October 28. 1997 No April 20. 1999 (acceded) No n/a Possible No Syria Taiwan United States Vietnam Known Possible Known Probable No n/a January 13. 2004 (acceded) No North Korea Pakistan Russia Serbia and Montenegro Sudan Known Probable Known Probable No January 13. Twelve nations have declared chemical weapons production facilities and six nations have declared stockpiles of chemical weapons. 1993 No January 13. which requires the destruction of all chemical weapons by 2012. 1993 September 30. 1993 April 4. 1993 No January 13. 1993 November 3. 1996 January 13. many nations continue to research and/or stockpile chemical weapon agents. 1993 September 3. 1993 November 5. Chemical weapon details. 2000 (acceded) May 24. or are suspected of secretly stockpiling or possessing CW research programs. Most states have joined the Chemical Weapons Convention. According to the United States government. 1997 January 13. per nation . 1993 April 25. 1998 Despite numerous efforts to reduce or eliminate them. 1993 May 11. 1995 No January 6. at least 17 nations currently have active chemical weapons programs.Chemical weapon proliferation 95 Chemical weapon proliferation Nation Albania Burma (Myanmar) CW Possession Known Possible Signed CWC Ratified CWC January 14. 1997 January 13. 1997 January 13. 1993 September 15. Chemical weapon proliferation 96 Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation . VX. it is very probable that China has an advanced chemical warfare program. More recent analyses are more careful by estimation the current status of chemical weapons program in Egypt. with the help of the U. regarding China's contact and sharing of chemical weapons expertise with other states of proliferation concern. Chinese government has declared that it had possessed small arsenal of chemical weapons in the past but that it had destroyed it before ratifying Convention.[1] Egypt Egypt has not signed the Chemical Weapons Convention and has long appeared on various lists as having an offensive chemical weapons capability. € In the 1980s.S. The reasons for this belief are several: € Egypt is known to have employed mustard gas in the Yemeni civil war from 1963 to 1967.Chemical weapon proliferation 97 € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Albania Albania. China According to the testimony Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence and Research Carl W. it does not seem that Egypt has a considerable stockpile of operational weapons. including Syria and Iran. mustard gas. declared in March 2003 a stockpile of 16 tons of chemical agents. 2007. Only one facility has been identified as "likely involved" in the offensive activities. production. and related production and deployment technology. it is possible that Egypt may possess limited stockpiles of chemical bombs. including research and development. and phosgene. It has declared only two former chemical production facilities that may have produced mustard gas and Lewisite. there is considerable concern from the U.[2] . government's Nunn€Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program. Egypt supplied Iraq with mustard gas and nerve agents. Ford before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. On July 11. In testimony before the Subcommittee on Seapower. Egypt is believed to have supplied Syria with mustard gas and nerve agents. Furthermore. Strategic and Critical Materials in 1991. Additionally. rockets and shells. and is thought to possess production facilities for sarin. as a party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. US Navy Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks cited this evidence in identifying Egypt as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor. and weaponization capabilities. € In the early 1970s. the Ministry of Defence announced successful destruction of the entire stockpile. Although the offensive program may be still in existence.S. in compliance with the Chemical Weapons Convention. there were fears that Iraq would launch chemical-tipped missiles at its neighbors. though this did not come to pass. Iran began its production of nerve agents no later than 1994. In the official declaration submitted to OPCW Iranian government admitted that it had produced mustard gas in 1980s but that ceased the offensive program and destroyed the stockpiles of operational weapons after the end of war with Iraq. near Tehran. [3] Iran Near the end of the Iran€Iraq War. Also in compliance with the CWC. there remained important uncertainties regarding Iraq's holdings of chemical weapons. but Iraq refrained for fear of U. Additionally. and munitions. Notwithstanding these extraordinary achievements. coalition troops again feared they might be hit with chemical weapons. Ethiopia has ratified CWC in 1996 and did not declare any offensive CW program. By 1991. . a primary precursor for nerve agents.000 tons of precursor chemicals. the Indian government declared that it possessed a chemical weapons stockpile and opened its related facilities for inspection. development. Iran signed the Chemical Weapons Convention on January 13. and aerial bombs. After launching a research effort in the 1970s.000 filled or unfilled chemical munitions. rockets. Iraq had already begun to build chemical weapons. and denies allegations of having clandestine CW program in violation of CWC. 1993 and ratified it on November 3. From that time no evidence has been presented to contradict this statement. and since that time has been steadily building stockpiles of cyanide (cyanogen chloride). retaliation. India is currently assisting Iran in the construction of another major facility at Qazvin.Chemical weapon proliferation 98 Ethiopia In 1991 Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Ethiopia as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor in testimony before Congress. During Operation Iraqi Freedom. phosgene. it has begun to destroy its chemical weapons stockpile. and some 300 pieces of analytical equipment. some 4. support and manufacturing facilities. mortars. the United Nations had established its Special Commission (UNSCOM) and charged it with the task of destroying." By the time UNSCOM left Iraq in December 1998. particularly Israel. with the purpose of manufacturing phosphorus pentasulfide. inspections that followed it. it had eliminated a large portion of Iraq's chemical weapon potential. removing. some 980 pieces of key production equipment. 1997. Iraq was able to use chemical weapons in its war against Iran and to kill large numbers of its own Kurdish population in the 1980s. over 600 tons of weaponized or bulk chemical agents. The delivery vehicles Iran possesses includes artillery shells. According to the Center for Strategic and International Studies. UNSCOM had overseen the destruction or incapacitation of more than 88. Iran is supposed to have made limited use of chemical weapons. During the first Gulf War. their precursors. Iran currently maintains at least two major facilities for the research and production of chemical weapon agents.N.[4] Iraq Well before Operation Desert Storm or the U. or rendering harmless "all chemical and biological weapons and all stocks of agents and all related subsystems and components and all research.S. India In 1997. and mustard gas. Libya Libya produced limited quantities of chemical weapons during the 1980s. there is no evidence of production or stockpiling the chemical weapons by Israel. In October 1998. 2003 along with their other weapons of mass destruction programs as part of a program to get sanctions lifted and normalize relations with foreign governments. Libya officially acceeded to the Chemical Weapons Convention in June 2004. . Israel has signed but not ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention. and is known to have used such weapons in combat at least once when it attempted to use chemical weapons against Chadian troops in 1987. In March 1990 a suspicious fire broke out there following accusations by the United States. Libya constructed what is believed to be the largest chemical weapon production facility in the developing world in the Rabta industrial complex. According to Israeli officials.[7] Japan As of December 1993. a chemical that can be used in the production of the nerve agent sarin. In the course of the crash investigation. The 1993 the U. El Al Flight 1862 bound for Tel Aviv crashed outside Amsterdam. General Almquist stated that Israel had an offensive chemical weapons capability. Libya declared a stockpile of 23 tons of mustard gas as well as precursors for sarin and other chemicals. and that their crews have been trained on the use of such weapons. and according to the Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service. Israel has significant stores of chemical weapons of its own manufacture. In 2004. the London Sunday Times reported that Israeli F-16 fighters were equipped to carry chemical weapons. And Japan ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1995. Japan has signed the Chemical Weapons Convention. In 1995. In 1992. Libya's chemical program was completely abandoned on December 19. and phosgene since production began in the late 1980s.200 chemical weapon artillery shells under supervision of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). and is capable of producing several nerve. In 1974.[] Strict United Nations sanctions from 1992 to 1999 rendered Rabta inactive. It possesses a highly developed chemical and petrochemical industry. The dimethyl methylphosphonate was bound for the Israel Institute for Biological Research in Ness Ziona.S. and stocks of source material. Congress Office of Technology Assessment WMD proliferation assessment [5] recorded Israel as a country generally reported as having undeclared offensive chemical warfare capabilities.[citation needed] Since then. in a hearing before the U. But JSDF possess chemical weapons facilities and some samples for protection which it said JGSDF Central NBC protection Troop. the substance was only for defensive research purposes. blister and incapacitating agents. sarin. a top secret military installation outside Tel Aviv that was also responsible for producing the poison used in a September 1997 assassination attempt on a leader of the terrorist organization Hamas (Khaled Mashal). it was revealed that amongst the plane's cargo was fifty gallons of dimethyl methylphosphonate. On March 5. Libya destroyed 3. According to more recent analyses. and has produced mustard gas. JGSDF admitted possession of sarin for samples.[6] The offensive CW program almost certainly existed in the past but its current status is unknown. Senate Armed Services Committee.S. skilled specialists. between 27 February and 3 March.Chemical weapon proliferation 99 Israel As of December 2004. to test filters for gas masks. This facility was the cornerstone of the Libyan CW program. 2004. Miloje Blagojevic in Lucani. Later. While the Trajal plant in Krusevic has been shut down. 1993. Pakistan has ratified CWC in 1997 and did not declare any offensive activities in this area. Several dozen facilities has been identified as likely involved in the offensive program. the incapacitant BZ (allegedly a stockpile of 300 tons). and long-range ballistic missiles (Nodong and Taepodong[9] systems). and tear gas. The majority of stockpiled CW is believed to have been inherited by its successor. has technical capabilities for the production of chemical weapons. However. including different artillery systems. stockpiling and weaponisation of large quantities of chemical agents (perhaps as many as 5000 tons). First woman and civilian to head the National Authority on the Implementation of the Chemical Weapons Convention in Pakistan. including blister. aerial bombs. Myanmar signed the Chemical Weapons Convention on January 13. serious questions exist about accounting and previous production and storage of chemical materials there. more recent analyses indicate that although Pakistan. other officials contridicted that statement. mines. production. phosgene. At least four chemical warfare production facilities have been identified in Serbia: Prva Iskra in Baric. psychoincapacitant. but to date has not yet ratified the agreement. North Korean armed forces have also large quantities of delivery systems that could carry chemical warheads. and some sources doubt whether the North Korea is able to produce large quantities of nerve agents or to fit the chemical warheads on its long-range ballistic missiles. US Navy Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Myanmar as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor. claiming that the evidence supporting Burma's chemical stockpile development was primarily based upon circumstantial evidence. there is no evidence that it has ever possessed such weapons.[10] Pakistan In 1991 Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Pakistan as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor in testimony before Congress. and sometimes contradictory. The program includes research. sulfur mustard. However. North Korea North Korea did not sign CWC and is believed to have maintained an extensive chemical weapons program since mid-1950s. Strategic and Critical Materials in 1991. In the late 1990s.Chemical weapon proliferation 100 Myanmar (Burma) Intelligence regarding Myanmar's chemical weapon status is mixed. the technological advancement of this program is uncertain. as many other countries with well-developed chemical industry.[8] However. nerve. in 1991. choking. in testimony before the Subcommittee on Seapower. Serbia. as well the lack of accounting on the other three sites. US naval intelligence identified Myanmar (then referred to as Burma) as developing chemical weapons capabilities. Yugoslavia used its CW technologies to develop chemical munitions for Iraq prior to the first Gulf War in the "Little Hawk" program and chemical munitions for the Orkan MLRS system under the "KOL15" program.[11] See also Naela Chohan. There have been . Russia See also Russia and weapons of mass destruction Serbia and Montenegro The former Yugoslavia is known to have produced a variety of chemical weapons (CW).[citation needed] Reports indicate that the former Yugoslavia's Army produced large quantities of sarin (50 tons). tactical ballistic missiles (SCUD). vomiting and riot control agents. and Milojie Zakic and Merima in Krusevic. The production capability of these facilities is estimated as 4500 tons of chemical agents per year. The use of chemical weapons was renounced in 1991 and the U. By the 1970s. One just North of Damascus. 75% of the treaty declared . began chemical weapons disposal in the 1960s.S. and was identified as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor by the United States. U. first by deep-sea burial. including stockpiles of sarin. Sudan accessed to CWC in 1999 and did not declare any offensive CW program.Chemical weapon proliferation allegations that CW were used in the area of the former Yugoslavia: both Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats alleged that Bosnian government forces used chlorine during the conflict in Bosnia. South Korea was strongly suspected of possessing an active chemical weapons program.S. Department of State claims that it lacks sufficient evidence to determine whether Sudan is engaged in activities prohibited by CWC. The U. one in Hama and one. The former Yugoslavia signed the Geneva Protocol in 1929. It is thought that South Korea is the "state party" referred to in Chemical Weapons Convention materials. Because of Taiwan's non-state status. Sudan Some past reports of uncertain credibility indicated that Sudan may have used chemical weapons against the rebels in the southern part of this country. There are reports that South Korea is operating a secret facility in Yeongdong County.[12] Syria Syria is not a signatory of the Chemical Weapons Convention or the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. Chungcheongbuk-do Province for the destruction of chemical agents. On April 18. al-Safir South East of Aleppo[citation needed] Taiwan U. 101 South Korea Prior to 1997. South Korea signed the Chemical Weapons Convention and made a secret declaration. one near Homs. the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC).S. incineration was the disposal method used. It is believed Syria first received chemical weapons in 1973 from Egypt in the form of artillery shells. Mustard and is currently weaponizing VX[citation needed] .[citation needed] Since then it is thought Syria has one of the most advanced chemical weapons programs in the Middle East[citation needed] Syrias Chemical Arsenal Syria is thought to have amassed large quantities of Sarin. 1997. Tabun. Taiwanese authorities acknowledged only the existence of defensive research program. Bosnian Serbs allegedly used BZ against Moslem refugees in July 1995.[13] United States The United States has possessed a stockpile of chemical weapons since using them in World War I. Mysterious deaths during the 1999 NATO bombings of suspected chemical facilities have also been attributed to CW production. Exact quantities are hard to know although the CIA has estimated Syria to possess several hundred liters of chemical weapons with hundreds of tons of agents produced annually. it cannot join the CWC.S. It banned the production or transport of chemical weapons in 1969. Congress was informed in 1989 that Taiwan could have acquired offensive chemical weapons capability.[citation needed] Production Syria has 4 main production sites. In April 2000. and the FRY Army may have used BZ against Kosovo Albanians in 1999. signed the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1993. The alleged facilities include Tsishan and Kuanhsi. org/ e_research/ profiles/ Israel/ index. € Senate Armed Services Committee. org/ cbw/ ?SN=CB20011220137#myanmar (accessed 20 March 2008). 21.counterwmd. html) [12] http:/ / www. (1998). a useful page about non-state weapons transfers with a lot of links to information from CRS. found online at http:/ / www.chemical weapons (http:/ / www. mil/ documents/ library/ proliferation. Uzi (Oct. html) NTI Research Library: country profile: Egypt . 1997). anthrax." The Economist 347. osd. html) http:/ / www. html) [11] NTI Research Library: country profile: Pakistan .edu/research/cbw/possess. 2004. London Sunday Times € Monterey Institute of International Studies. org/ e_research/ profiles/ Japan_overview/ index_2738. stimson. Chemical and Biological Weapons: Possession and Programs Past and Present (http://cns. edu/ pubs/ dc/ briefs/ 030701. org/ e_research/ profiles/ NK/ Chemical/ index. nti. (Apr 9. "Chemical Weapons. html) Resources € National Counterproliferation Center . gov/ documents/ organization/ 52113. 102 References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] NTI Research Library: country profile: China (http:/ / www.miis. nti. Retrieved Dec. p.Office of the Director of National Intelligence (http://www.htm). gov) € Economist. (http:/ / www. miis. March 7. € Mahnaimi.chemical weapons (http:/ / www. [9] http:/ / toolserver. (May 2. 1998). Israeli Jets Equipped For Chemical Warfare. html) NTI country profile . Just Checking.Chemical weapon proliferation stockpile was destroyed by 2010. org/ %7Edispenser/ cgi-bin/ dab_solver. FY 1975 Authorization Hearing. html) Report of the Henry L. Part 5. 1974 € Shoham. mil/ pubs/ ptr20010110. Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt. nti. state. nti. Dany. The Nonproliferation Review 5 (Spring-Summer 1998). nti. 2002). 48€58. ƒChemical Weapons Proliferation Concerns„. pdf NTI country profile .blogspot. htm) http:/ / www. pdf Iranian Use of Chemical Weapons: A Critical Analysis of Past Allegations (http:/ / cns. org/ e_research/ profiles/ China/ index. org/ e_research/ profiles/ Pakistan/ Chemical/ index. org/ e_research/ profiles/ Egypt/ Chemical/ index.–42.Israel (http:/ / www.Israel (chemical weapons). . pdf [13] NTI: country profile Taiwan (http:/ / www. nti. nti. Stimson Center.com/). the GAO and NGOs. € Russian Biological and Chemical Weapons (http://russianbiochemicalweapons.. org/ e_research/ profiles/ Israel/ Chemical/ index. defenselink. py?page=Chemical_weapon_proliferation& editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/ editintro& client=Template:Dn [10] See North Korea's profile on NTI (http:/ / www. in order to provide cross-references for easier navigation. MSS-1. MAA-1A Piranha Short-range infrared homing air-to-air missile. This is not a list of missiles in operational service by a particular country. AV-TM 300 . For an alphabetical list by missile name. missiles are ordered by designation and/or calling name (the latter being especially relevant for Russian/Soviet missiles). In some cases multiple listings are used.2 AC Anti-tank guided missile. if applicable).Cruise missile with a range of 300 kilometers (under development). air-ground ASM Cƒndor I (with major contributions of German technology) Cƒndor II (in cooperation with several Middle-Eastern countries) € Cƒndor III € Martin Pescador MP-1000 anti-ship. wire-guided Australia € Ikara € Malkara (joint Australian/British) Brazil € € € € € € € € € € € A-Darter Fifth generation short range infrared homing air-to-air missile (joint South Africa/Brazil) FOG-MPM Fiber Optics Guided Multiple Purpose Missile.List of missiles by country 103 List of missiles by country This list of missiles by country displays the names of missiles in order of the country where they originate (were developed). air-ground ASM € Mathogo anti-tank.1 AAœ Anti-aircraft guided missile. Within the lists of each country. MAA-1B Piranha Air to air missile. also known as "Piranha II". see the list of missiles. AVMT-300 GPS and/or laser-guided long range missile.1 Air-to-ground missile MAR-1 Anti-radiation missile. Argentina (South America) € € € € Alacr‚n AS-25K anti-ship. MSA-3. MAN-1 (MANSUP) Anti-ship missile . it is listed under each significantly participating nation. with the countries listed alphabetically and annotated with their continent (and defence alliance. MAS-5. In cases where multiple nations have developed or produced a missile. 37 MIM-115 Roland Taurus KEPD 150/350 France (Europe.List of missiles by country 104 Canada (North America. Republic of China (Taiwan) See also entries under #People's Republic of China. € € € € € € € € € € € Hsiung Feng I (HF-1) (ship-to-ship) Hsiung Feng II (HF-2) (guided multiplatform antiship) Hsiung Feng IIE (HF-2E) (land attack cruise missile variant of HF-2) Hsiung Feng III (HF-3) (antiship and/or land attack cruise missile) Sky Bow I (TK-1) (SAM) Sky Bow II (TK-2) (SAM) Sky Bow III (TK-3) (SAM) Sky Spear (Short range SSBM) Sky Sword I (TC-1) (air-to-air) Sky Sword II (TC-2) (air-to-air) Yun Feng (long-range cruise missile) European joint-venture (Europe. NATO) € € € € € € € € € € € AASM Aerospatiale AS-12 Apache AS.Anglo-French: Models AJ 168 and AS. NATO) € ERYX (joint French/Canadian) € Velvet Glove People's Republic of China (mainland China) See also entries under #Republic of China (Taiwan).30 ASMP Crotale surface-to-air missile ENTAC ERYX (joint French/Canadian) HOT (Franco-German) anti-tank missile Exocet Had-s (cancelled) € M5 € M45 . NATO) € € € € € € € AIM-132 ASRAAM MBDA Aster MBDA Meteor IRIS-T Martel . List of missiles by country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € M51 Magic Meteor MICA MILAN (Franco-German) anti-tank missile MISTRAL (Multinational) surface-to-air missile Pluton Matra R530 Super 530 ROLAND 2 surface-to-air missile (Germany/France) Scalp EG (Uk-French-Italy) Nord SS. NATO) € AS.11/SS.11 Nord SS.10 Aerospatiale AS. .34 Kormoran 1/2 € MIM-115 Roland (replaced by LFK NG) € ESSM € Eurospike (Israel/Germany) € SM-2 IIIA[1] € € € € € € € € € € € € Taurus KEPD 350 AGM Armiger IRIS-T IRIS-T SL IDAS (missile) PARS 3 LR RBS-15 (Sweden/Germany) GMLRS MEADS RIM-116 RAM LFK NG MBDA Meteor (Multinational) A modern German Luftwaffe IRIS-T infrared homing air-to-air missile € HOT (Franco German) anti-tank missile € MILAN German missiles of WW2 € V-1 flying bomb € V-2 rocket € Enzian missile € Wasserfall missile € Ruhrstahl X-4 missile € € € € Schmetterling Rheinbote Rheintochter Henschel Hs 293 Model of IDAS of the German Navy.12 105 Germany (Europe. Iranian upgrades € Tondar-69 € Oghab € Samid € Qiam 1 € Shahab-1 € Shahab-2 € Shahab-3 B. € R-17E. In mid-July 2008. upgraded copy of HQ-2. Capable of manufacture the missiles. Iran has an active interest in developing. € Shahin I & II. SA-2 Guideline Anti-air defense missile P-800 Oniks(SS-NX-26 Yakhont) Anti-ship cruise missile SS-N-22 Sunburn Anti-ship missiles Raduga Kh-55 Air-launched strategic cruise missile . variant of Russian Scud B € SS-N-22 Sunburn € SS-NX-26 Yakhont € Raduga Kh-55. as well as developing a space launch capability. also called X-55 € Noor € Kowsar € Silkworm.List of missiles by country € Fritz X € Feuerillie 106 Iran (Asia) As of 2009[2]. Iran announced it launched a satellite into orbit and ƒofficially achieved a presence in space. and deploying a broad range of ballistic missiles. Iran announced other missile and space launch tests in August and November 2008.„[] € Toophan 1 € Toophan 2 € Toophan 5 € Saeghe 1-2 € I-RAAD & I-RAAD-T € Fateh-110 € Fajr-2 € Fajr-3. reportedly including the medium-range Shahab-3. Iran launched a number of ballistic missiles during military exercises. Sayyad-1A has IR tracking. upgrades copy of S-200. MIRV € Fajr-5 € Fajr-8.C. Reverse engineer of MIM-23 Hawk.D € Shahab-4 € Shahab-5 € Shahab-6 € Ghadr-110 € Ghadr-111 € Sayyad. acquiring. In February 2009. List of missiles by country € Hoot € Saegheh € Zelzal-1 € Zelzal-2 € Zelzal-3 € Ashoura € Sejjil 1. 2 € Nasr-1 107 Iraq (Asia) € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Al-Samoud 2 Abadil-100 Al Fahd 300 Al Fahd 500 Al Hussein Al Hijarah Al Abbas Badr 2000 Project 144 Tammuz-1 Al Abid FROG-7 Scud BM-21 MRL 122 mm ASTROS II MRL 127 mm (60+) BM-13/-16 MRL 132 mm ASTROS SS-30 MRL 180 mm Ababeel-50 MRL 262 mm (50+) ASTROS SS-60 300 mm Israel (Asia) € € € € € € € € € € Arrow missile (Anti-ballistic) Barak 1 (Naval point defense) Barak 8 (Naval area defense) Delilah missile (Cruise missile of several variants: drone. also ground-to-air variant named SPYDER) € Derby (Air-to-air. possible anti-radiation variant as well) Gabriel missile (Ship-to-ship and air-to-ship variants) Iron Dome (anti-short range rocket) Jericho missile (Ground-to-ground ballistic) LAHAT (Guided anti-tank) Nimrod (Guided anti-tank) Popeye missile (Air-to-ground cruise missile. air-to-ground. Possibly larger derivatives exist as well.S. including a submarine-launched variant) € Python 5 (Air-to-air. designation AGM-142 Have Nap. U. also known as the Alto) € Shavit (Space launcher) . List of missiles by country € Spike/Gil missile (Portable guided anti-tank) 108 Japan (Asia) € € € € AAM-1 (Type 69 Air-to-Air Missile) AAM-2 (Program was canceled) AAM-3 (Type 90 Air-to-Air Missile) AAM-4 (Type 99 Air-to-Air Missile) € AAM-4B € AAM-5 (Type 04 Air-to-Air Missile) € AAM-5B (Development) € ASM-1 (Type 80 Air-to-Ship Missile) € ASM-1C (Type 91 Air-to-Ship Missile) € ASM-2 (Type 93 Air-to-Ship Missile) € ASM-2B € ATM-1 (Type 64 Anti-Tank Missile) € ATM-2 (Type 79 Anti-Landing craft and Anti-Tank Missile) € € € € € ATM-3 (Type 87 Anti-Tank Missile) ATM-4 (Type 96 Multi-Purpose Missile System) ATM-5 (Type 01 Light Anti-Tank Missile) ATM-6 (Medium-Range Multi-Purpose Missile) SAM-1 (Type 81 Short-Range Surface-to-Air Missile) € SAM-1B € SAM-1C € SAM-2 (Type 91 Portable Surface-to-Air Missile) € SAM-2B € SAM-3 (Type 93 Short-Range Surface-to-Air Missile) € SAM-4 (Type 03 Medium-Range Surface-to-Air Missile) € SAM-4B (Development) € Type 11 Short-Range Surface-to-Air Missile € SSM-1 (Type 88 Surface-to-Ship Missile) € € € € € € € € SSM-1C SSM-1B (Type 90 Ship-to-Ship Missile Missile) SM-3 Block-II/IIA (Joint development with U.S) Type 73 (Type 73 lightweight torpedo) Type 80 (Type 80 heavyweight torpedo) Type 89 (Type 89 heavyweight torpedo) Type 97 (Type 97 lightweight torpedo) Type 07 (Type 07 Vertical Launched ASROC) . List of missiles by country 109 South Korea (Asia) € € € € € € € € € € Baeksangeo (White Shark) heavyweight torpedo Cheolmae-2 (KM-SAM) surface-to-air missile Cheongsangeo (Blue Shark) lightweight torpedo Chiron surface-to-air missile C-Star ship-to-ship missile Haeseong anti-ship missile Hongsangeo (Red Shark) rocket-based torpedo and anti-submarine missile (K-ASROC) Hyunmoo III cruise missile KM-SAM surface-to-air missile Pegasus surface-to-air missile Norway (Europe.S. € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 2K11 missile (SA-4 Ganef) 2K22 missile (SA-19/SA-N-11 Grison) 3M9 missile (SA-6 Gainful) 4K40/4K51 missile (SS-N-2 Styx) 4K60/4K65 missiles (SA-N-3 Goblet) 9K33 missile (SA-8/SA-N-4 Gecko) 9K37 missile (SA-11/SA-N-7 Gadfly) 9K38 missile (SA-17/SA-N-12 Grizzly) 9K330/9K331/9K332 missiles (SA-15/SA-N-9 Gauntlet) 82R missile (SS-N-15 Starfish) 86R/88R missile (SS-N-16 Stallion) GR-1 Global Rocket fractional orbital bombardment system missile (SS-X-10 Scrag) Igla missile (SA-18/SA-N-10 Grouse) Igla-1 missile (SA-16 Gimlet) K-5 missile (AA-1 Alkali) K-8 missile (AA-3 Anab) K-9 missile (AA-4 Awl) K-13 missile (AA-2 Atoll) KSR-2 (AS-5 Kelt) MR-UR-100 Sotka intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-17 Spanker) P-1 missile (SS-N-1 Scrubber) P-270/Kh-41 long-range anti-shipping missile (SS-N-22/ASM-MSS Sunburn) P-700 Granit (SS-N-19 Shipwreck) € R-1 theatre ballistic missile (SS-1 Scunner) € R-2 theatre ballistic missile (SS-2 Sibling) € R-4 missile (AA-5 Ash) . DoD AVD code: AGM-119) € Naval Strike Missile Russia and the USSR (Europe/Asia) By Russian designation The NATO reporting name of each missile is shown in parentheses behind the proper name. NATO) € Penguin (U. List of missiles by country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € R-5M rocket (SS-3 Shyster) R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-6 Sapwood) R-9 Desna intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-8 Sasin) R-11 tactical ballistic missile (SS-1b Scud) R-12 Dvina theatre ballistic missile (SS-4 Sandal) R-13 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SS-N-4 Sark) R-14 Chusovaya theatre ballistic missile (SS-5 Skean) R-15 submarine-launched ballistic missile R-16 intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-7 Saddler) R-21 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SS-N-5 Serb) R-23 missile (AA-7 Apex) R-26 intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-8 Sasin) R-27 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SS-N-6 Serb) R-27 missile (AA-10 Alamo) R-33 missile (AA-9 Amos) R-36 intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-9 Scarp and SS-18 Satan) R-39 missile (SS-N-20 Sturgeon) R-40 missile (AA-6 Acrid) R-46 intercontinental ballistic missile R-60 missile (AA-8 Aphid) R-73 missile (AA-11 Archer) R-77 missile (AA-12 Adder) R-300 Elbrus theatre ballistic missile (SS-1c Scud) R-400 Oka mobile theatre ballistic missile (SS-23 Spider) RS-24 intercontinental ballistic missile (Unknown) [3] RT-1 theatre ballistic missile RT-2 intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-13 Savage) RT-2PM Topol mobile intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-25 Sickle) RT-2UTTH Topol M mobile intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-27) RT-15 mobile theatre ballistic missile (SS-14 Scamp) RT-20 intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-15 Scrooge) RT-21 Temp 2S mobile intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-16 Sinner) RT-21M Pioner mobile medium range ballistic missile (SS-20 Saber) RT-23 Molodets intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-24 Scalpel) RT-25 theatre ballistic missile S-25 missile (SA-1 Guild) S-75 missile (SA-2/SA-N-2 Guideline) S-125 missile (SA-3/SA-N-1 Goa) S-200 missile (SA-5 Gammon) S-300P missile (SA-10 Grumble/SA-N-6/SA-20 Gargoyle/SA-X-21 Triumf) S-300V missile (SA-12 Gladiator/Giant) Strela-1 missile (SA-9 Gaskin) Strela-2 missile (SA-7/SA-N-5 Grail) Strela-3 missile (SA-14/SA-N-8 Gremlin) Strela-10 missile (SA-13 Gopher) 110 € TR-1 Temp theatre ballistic missile (SS-12 / SS-22 Scaleboard) € UR-100 intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-11 Sego) . List of missiles by country € UR-100N intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-19 Stiletto) € UR-200 intercontinental ballistic missile (SS-X-10 Scrag) 111 By NATO name € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € AA-1 Alkali / Kaliningrad K-5 AA-2 Atoll / Vympel K-13 AA-3 Anab / Kaliningrad K-8 AA-4 Awl / K-9 missile AA-5 Ash / R-4 missile AA-6 Acrid / R-40 missile AA-7 Apex / R-23 missile AA-8 Aphid / R-60 missile AA-9 Amos / R-33 missile AA-10 Alamo / R-27 missile AA-11 Archer / R-73 missile AA-12 Adder R-77 missile AS-1 Kennel anti-shipping AS-2 Kipper anti-shipping AS-3 Kangaroo nuclear anti-shipping AS-4 Kitchen anti-shipping AS-5 Kelt air-to-surface AS-6 Kingfisher anti-shipping AS-7 Kerry (SA-1 Guild) S-25 missile (SA-2/SA-N-2 Guideline) S-75 missile (SA-3/SA-N-1 Goa) S-125 missile (SA-N-3 Goblet) 4K60/4K65 missiles (SA-4 Ganef) 2K11 missile (SA-5 Gammon) S-200 missile (SA-6 Gainful) 3M9 missile (SA-7/SA-N-5 Grail) Strela-2 missile (SA-8/SA-N-4 Gecko) 9K33 missile (SA-9 Gaskin) Strela-1 missile (SA-10 Grumble/SA-N-6/SA-20 Gargoyle/SA-X-21 Triumf) S-300P missile (SA-11/SA-N-7 Gadfly) 9K37 missile (SA-12 Gladiator/Giant) S-300V missile (SA-13 Gopher) Strela-10 missile (SA-14/SA-N-8 Gremlin) Strela-3 missile (SA-15/SA-N-9 Gauntlet) 9K330/9K331/9K332 missiles (SA-16 Gimlet) Igla-1 missile (SA-17/SA-N-12 Grizzly) 9K38 missile (SA-18/SA-N-10 Grouse) Igla missile (SA-19/SA-N-11 Grison) 2K22 missile € SS-1 Scunner / R-1 € SS-1b Scud / R-11 € SS-1c Scud / R-300 € SS-2 Sibling / R-2 . List of missiles by country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € SS-3 Shyster / R-5 SS-4 Sandal / R-12 Dvina SS-5 Skean / R-14 Chusovaya SS-6 Sapwood / R-7 Semyorka SS-7 Saddler / R-16 SS-8 Sasin / R-9 Desna SS-8 Sasin / R-26 (mistaken identification by NATO) SS-9 Scarp / R-36 SS-10 Scrag / Global Rocket 1 SS-11 Sego / UR-100 SS-12 Scaleboard / TR-1 Temp SS-13 Savage / RT-2 SS-14 Scamp / RT-15 SS-15 Scrooge / RT-20 SS-16 Sinner / RT-21 Temp 2S SS-17 Spanker / MR-UR-100 Sotka SS-18 Satan / R-36M SS-19 Stiletto / UR-100N SS-20 Saber / RT-21M Pioner SS-21 Scarab / OTR-21 Tochka SS-22 Scaleboard / TR-1 Temp SS-23 Spider / R-400 Oka SS-24 Scalpel / RT-23 Molodets SS-25 Sickle / RT-2PM Topol SS-27 / RT-2UTTH Topol M SS-N-1 Scrubber / P-1 missile SS-N-2 Styx / 4K40/4K51 missile SS-N-4 Sark / R-13 SS-N-5 Serb / R-21 SS-N-6 Serb / R-27 SS-N-15 Starfish 82R missile SS-N-16 Stallion 86R/88R missile SS-N-19 Shipwreck / P-700 rocket SS-N-20 Sturgeon / R-39 missile SS-N-21 Sampson / Raduga Kh-55 SS-N-22 Sunburn / P-270 missile SS-N-23 Skif / SS-N-23[1] SS-N-25 Switchblade / Kh-35 SS-N-27 Sizzler / 3M-54 Klub SS-X-10 Scrag / Global Rocket 1 / GR-1 SS-X-10 Scrag / UR-200 112 . NATO) € € € € € € € € TR 122 Toros 230 Toros 260 RA 7040 TR 107 Pars SAGE 227 F (Turkish munition for M270 MLRS) Kas®rga WS-1 (Turkey/PRC co-production) Y®ld®r®m B-611(F600t or j-600 t) (Turkey/PRC co-production) € J Missile (status unknown. possibly under development) € Roketsan UMTAS Long Range Antitank € Roketsan OMTAS Medium Range Antitank .List of missiles by country 113 Serbia (Europe) € ALAS (Advanced Light Attack System) Long-range multipurpose guided missile South Africa (Africa) RSA Series € € € € RSA-1 (Variant of the Jericho II)[4] RSA-2 (Variant of the Jericho II)[5] RSA-3[6] RSA-4 (Variant of the Shavit)[7] (Above missiles made by Houwteq) Other € A-Darter € R-Darter € Ingwe € € € € Mokopa MUPSOW (Multi-Purpose Stand Off Weapon) Torgos Air-Launched Cruise Missile Umkhonto (Above missiles made by Denel Dynamics) Sweden (Europe) € € € € € € € € € RBS-15 RB 04 Rb 05 RBS 70 RBS 23 Taurus missile BILL 1 BILL 2 Bantam Turkey (Asia/Europe. cruise missile Vickers Vigilant . anti-tank Thunderbird Tigercat UB.List of missiles by country € € € € Roketsan Cirit guided missile SOM (missile)[8] Cruise Missile HGK (bomb) Guided Smart munition[9] National Bunker Buster (NEB[10]) 114 United Kingdom (Europe.surface to surface nuclear Brakemine WWII SAM project Brimstone Fairey Fireflash Air-to-air Fairey Stooge anti-ship missile Fire Shadow Firestreak Air-to-air Green Cheese Javelin Surface-to-air Malkara (joint Australian/British) MBDA Meteor (European) Rapier Surface-to-air Red Dean Red Hebe Red Top Air-to-air Sea Cat Surface-to-air Sea Dart Surface-to-air Sea Eagle Sea Skua Sea Slug Surface-to-air Sea Viper (Aster Missile) Surface-to-air Sea Wolf Surface-to-air Skybolt ALBM Skyflash Starburst Starstreak Storm Shadow (British-French) Swingfire Ground to ground.109T . NATO) € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € AIM-132 ASRAAM Bloodhound Surface-to-air Blowpipe Man portable Surface-to-air Blue Steel Nuclear "Stand Off Bomb" Blue Streak Blue Water . Guided Missile N .Space Support T . and Satellites.Prototype Z .Maintenance Launch Environment A .Rocket S . sorted by ascending MDS number: € € € € € € € € € € € € MGM-1 Matador RIM-2 Terrier MIM-3 Nike-Ajax AIM-4 Falcon MGM-5 Corporal RGM-6 Regulus AIM-7 Sparrow/RIM-7 Sea Sparrow RIM-8 Talos AIM-9 Sidewinder CIM-10 Bomarc PGM-11 Redstone AGM-12 Bullpup € MGM-13 Mace € MIM-14 Nike-Hercules € RGM-15 Regulus II .Special Test (Permanent) G . Raised via elevator for Launch M .Navigation P .G The list of U. S.Decoy E .Soft Pad R .[11] Status Prefix C .Special Test (temporary) M .109 7th Version of the Design .Satellite N .Underwater Attack W .Drone S ."BGM-109G"[11] Launch Environment Multiple Basic Mission Vehicle Type Design Number Series Surface Attack Guided Missile 109th Missile Design -B -G -M .Planning H . Boosters.Experimental Y .Surface Attack I .Aerial/Space Intercept L .Scientific / Calibration N .Booster M .Man-Portable Basic Mission C .Probe R . Probes.Launch Detection / Surveillance Vehicle Type B .Stored and Launched from concrete silo L .Silo Stored.List of missiles by country 115 United States (North America.Ship U . missiles. NATO) Missile Design Series (Unified) US DoD 4120 Mission Design Series (MDS) Designators and Symbols for Guided Missiles.Multiple C .Captive D .Underwater Q .Surface X . Rockets.Transport D .Dummy J .Coffin F .Training U .Air B .Weather Sample Missile MDS .Electronic / Communications G . List of missiles by country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € CGM-16 / HGM-16 Atlas PGM-17 Thor MGM-18 Lacrosse PGM-19 Jupiter ADM-20 Quail MGM-21 (French-made) AGM-22 (French-made) MIM-23 Hawk RIM-24 Tartar LGM-25 Titan AIM-26 Falcon UGM-27 Polaris AGM-28 Hound Dog MGM-29 Sergeant LGM-30 Minuteman MGM-31 Pershing MGM-32 Entac MQM-33 BGM-34 Firebee AQM-35 MQM-36 Shelduck AQM-37 Jayhawk AQM-38 MQM-39 Cardinal MQM-40 Firefly AQM-41 Petrel MQM-42 Redhead/Roadrunner FIM-43 Redeye UUM-44 Subroc AGM-45 Shrike MIM-46 Mauler AIM-47 Falcon AGM-48 Skybolt LIM-49 Nike Zeus/Spartan RIM-50 Typhon LR MGM-51 Shillelagh MGM-52 Lance AGM-53 Condor AIM-54 Phoenix RIM-55 Typhon MR PQM-56 MQM-57 Falconer MQM-58 Overseer RGM-59 Taurus 116 € AQM-60 Kingfisher € MQM-61 Cardinal € AGM-62 Walleye . List of missiles by country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € AGM-63 AGM-64 Hornet AGM-65 Maverick RIM-66 Standard MR SM-2 RIM-67 Standard ER SM-2 AIM-68 Big Q AGM-69 SRAM LEM-70 Minuteman ERCS BGM-71 TOW MIM-72 Chaparral UGM-73 Poseidon BQM-74 Chukar BGM-75 AICBM AGM-76 Falcon FGM-77 Dragon AGM-78 Standard ARM AGM-79 Blue Eye AGM-80 Viper AQM-81 Firebolt AIM-82 AGM-83 Bulldog AGM-84 Harpoon RGM-84 Harpoon UGM-84 Harpoon RIM-85 AGM-86 ALCM AGM-87 Focus AGM-88 HARM UGM-89 Perseus BQM-90 ASMT[12] AQM-91 Firefly FIM-92 Stinger XQM-93 Compass Dwell GQM-94 B-Gull AIM-95 Agile UGM-96 Trident I AIM-97 Seekbat GQM-98 Tern-R LIM-99 LIM-100 RIM-101 PQM-102 Delta Dagger AQM-103 Thunderbolt[12] MIM-104 Patriot MQM-105 Aquila 117 € BQM-106 Teleplane € MQM-107 Streaker . List of missiles by country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € BQM-108 VATOL[12] BGM-109 Tomahawk BGM-110 SLCM BQM-111 Firebrand AGM-112 RIM-113 SIRCS AGM-114 Hellfire MIM-115 Roland RIM-116 RAM FQM-117 RCMAT LGM-118 Peacekeeper AGM-119 Penguin (Norwegian-made) AIM-120 AMRAAM CQM-121 Pave Tiger/Seek Spinner AGM-122 Sidearm AGM-123 Skipper AGM-124 Wasp UUM-125 Sea Lance BQM-126 AQM-127 SLAT AQM-128 AGM-129 ACM AGM-130 Ripper[12] AGM-131 SRAM II AIM-132 ASRAAM UGM-133 Trident II MGM-134 Midgetman ASM-135 ASAT AGM-136 Tacit Rainbow AGM-137 TSSAM CEM-138 Pave Cricket RUM-139 VL-ASROC MGM-140 ATACMS ADM-141 TALD AGM-142 Have Nap (Israeli-made) MQM-143 RPVT ADM-144 BQM-145 Peregrine MIM-146 ADATS BQM-147 Exdrone FGM-148 Javelin PQM-149 UAV-SR PQM-150 UAV-SR FQM-151 Pointer AIM-152 AAAM 118 € AGM-153 € AGM-154 JSOW . Experimental U . Army: Single numerical sequence until 1948 when the sequence numbers were restarted.Research TV .Research T .Missile A .Propulsion R .Navy X . Sample Vehicle Designation "SSM-A-2 Navaho" .Test Vehicle A .Army N .Air S .Underwater M .Air Force G .Navy Sequence Numbers: Air Force: Consecutive numerical sequence for each missile mission type.Air Force G .Surface A .Training Launch Environment Target Environment System Designation Developing Service Sequence Number Modification Suffix A .Surface U .List of missiles by country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € BQM-155 Hunter RIM-156 SM-2ER Block IV MGM-157 EFOGM AGM-158 JASSM AGM-159 JASSM ADM-160 MALD RIM-161 SM-3 RIM-162 ESSM GQM-163 Coyote MGM-164 ATACMS II RGM-165 LASM MGM-166 LOSAT BQM-167 Skeeter MGM-168 ATAMCS Block IVA AGM-169 JCM MQM-170 Outlaw MQM-171 Outlaw 119 € FGM-172 SRAW Joint Designation System of 1947 Status Prefix R .Launching P .Underwater Y .Service Test Test Vehicle Designations[13] Basic Mission System Designation Developing Service Sequence Number Modification Suffix C .Control L . Navy: Initially even numbers transitioning to sequential.Army N .Air S . Missile A .Surface M .Army Sequence Number Modification Suffix G 1 Not Used United States Air Force Designation Systems United States Air Force Designation System 1947 to 1951 The list of missiles sorted by ascending Air Force 1947-1951 designations. Air Force treated missiles as pilotless aircraft.[13] € € € € € € € € € AAM-A-1 Firebird AAM-A-2 Falcon ASM-A-1 TARZON ASM-A-2 RASCAL LTV-A-1 Doodle Bug PTV-A-1 RTV-A-1 RTV-A-2 HIROC RTV-3 NATIV € € € € € € € € € RTV-A-4 Shrike RTV-A-5 SAM-A-1 GAPA SSM-A-1 Matador SSM-A-2 Navaho SSM-A-3 Snark SSM-A-4 Navaho II SSM-A-5 Boojum SSM-A-6 Navaho III United States Air Force Designation System 1951 to 1955[13] During this timeframe.[13] Basic Mission B .List of missiles by country 120 Prefix Not Used S S M A Launch Environment S .S. € € € € € € B-61 Matador B-62 Snark B-63 RASCAL B-64 Navaho B-65 Atlas B-67 Crossbow € € € F-98 Falcon F-99 Bomarc F-104 Falcon1 € € € € € € € X-7 X-8 X-9 Shrike X-10 X-112 X-122 X-17 . the U.Air Force Sequencial Number 2 Not Used Sample Test Vehicle Designation "RTV-G-1 WAC Corporal" Basic Mission Research R System Designation TV .Bomber "Ground Attack Missile" F .Test Vehicle TV Developing Service G .Experimental Sequence Number Modification Series The list of missiles sorted by ascending Air Force 1951-1955 designations.Surface Target Environment System Designation Developing Service Sequence Number Modification Suffix S .Fighter "Anti-Aircraft Missile" X . Strategic Missile TM . * € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € TM-61 Matador SM-62 Snark GAM-63 RASCAL SM-64 Navaho SM-65 Atlas GAM-67 Crossbow SM-68 Titan IM-69 Bomarc IM-70 Talos GAM-71 Buck Duck GAM-72 Quail SM-73 Bull Goose SM-74 SM-75 Thor TM-76 Mace GAM-77 Hound Dog SM-78 € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € GAM-79 White Lance SM-80 Minuteman RM-81 Agena RM-82 Loki-Dart GAM-83 Bullpup RM-84 Aerobee-Hi RM-85 Nike-Cajun RM-86 Exos GAM-87 Skybolt SRM-88 Rocksonde 200 RM-89 Blue Scout I RM-90 Blue Scout II RM-91 Blue Scout Junior RM-92 Blue Scout Junior IM-99 Bomarc AIM-101 Sparrow € € € € € € € € € GAR-1 Falcon GAR-2 Falcon GAR-3 Falcon GAR-4 Falcon GAR-5 Falcon GAR-6 Falcon GAR-8 Sidewider GAR-9 Falcon GAR-11 Nuclear Falcon .[13] Sample Air Force 1955 .[13] The X-11 and X-12 designations were assigned to one and three engine test missiles that would have been used to develop a five engine version of the Atlas missile.1963 Designation .73" Status Prefix Basic Mission Sequence Number Experimental Strategic Missile X SM 6th non-GAR missile after 67 73 Modification Series Not Used The list of missiles sorted by ascending Air Force 1955-1963 designations.Service Test IM .Space T .Training U .Guided Air-Launched Rocket S .Guided Air-Launched Missile Sequence Number Modification Series R .Tactical Missile For all basic missions except GAR (which started at 1) the sequence number started after 67 which was the last bomber designation used for guided missiles.List of missiles by country 1 2 121 A version of the Falcon missile was briefly designated the F-104 before it was re-designated as the F-98.Training X .Intercept Missile RM .Experimental Y .[13] United States Air Force Designation System 1955 to 1963[13] Status Prefix H .Hardened Basic Mission GAM .Research Missile SM ."XSM .Reconnaissance GAR . Naval Air Material Unit Q .Target Drone P .Experimental BD .Assault Drone LB .Taylorcraft € € € € € Interstate BDR LBD Gargoyle LBE-1 Glomb LBP-1 Glomb LBT-1 Glomb United States Navy Designation System 1946 .1947[13] Basic Mission KA .Piper T .Ground Attack KS .Research and Test Manufacturer Sequence Number Manufacturer Code None .McDonnell 2 .Bomb Carrying Glider E .Second Missile Constructed by Manufacturer 3 .Fairchild S .1945[13] The list of missiles sorted by ascending Navy 1941 .McDonnell X .Anti-Aircraft KD .Willys-Overland The list of missiles sorted by ascending Navy 1946-1947 designations.[13] .3rd Missile Constructed by Manufacturer M .Anti-Ship KU .Drone KG .Martin N .First Missile Constructed by Manufacturer D . Pre-Fix Basic Mission Manufacturer Code D .Convair W .[13] € € € € € € € € KAM Little Joe KAN Little Joe KA2N Gorgon IIA KA3N Gorgon IIIA [14] KAQ Lark KAS Sparrow KAY Lark KGN Gorgon IIC € € € € € € € € KGW Loon KSD Gargoyle KUD Gargoyle KUM Gorgon IV KUN Gorgon IIC KU2N Gorgon IIA KU3N Gorgon III KUW Loon United States Navy Designation System 1947 .1945 designations.Pratt-Read TD .1963 The list of missiles sorted by ascending Navy 1947-1963 designations.Sperry Y .List of missiles by country 122 United States Navy Designation Systems United States Navy Designation System 1941 . List of missiles by country 123 € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € AUM-N-4 Diver AUM-N-6 Puffin SAM-N-2 Lark SAM-N-4 Lark SAM-N-6 Talos SAM-N-7 Terrier SAM-N-8 Zeus SAM-N-8 Typhon LR SAM-N-9 Typhon MR SSM-N-2 Triton (see USS–Hawaii–(CB-3)) SSM-N-4 Taurus SSM-N-6 Rigel SSM-N-8 Regulus SSM-N-9 Lacrosse SSM-N-9 Regulus II SUM-N-2 Grebe CTV-N-2 Gorgon IIC CTV-N-4 Gorgon IIA € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € CTV-N-6 Gorgon IIIA CTV-N-8 Bumblebee STV CTV-N-9 Lark CTV-N-10 Lark LTV-N-2 Loon LTV-N-4 PTV-N-2 Gorgon IV PTV-N-4 Bumblebee BTV RTV-N-2 Gargoyle RTV-N-4 Gorgon IIIC RTV-N-6 Bumblebee XPM RTV-N-8 Aerobee RTV-N-10 Aerobee RTV-N-12 Viking RTV-N-13 Aerobee 150 RTV-N-15 Pollux RV-N-16 Oriole € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € AAM-N-2 Sparrow I AAM-N-3 Sparrow II AAM-N-4 Oriole AAM-N-5 Meteor AAM-N-6 Sparrow III AAM-N-7 Sidewinder AAM-N-9 Sparrow X AAM-N-10 Eagle AAM-N-11 Phoenix ASM-N-2 Bat ASM-N-4 Dove ASM-N-5 Gorgon V ASM-N-6 Omar ASM-N-7 Bullpup ASM-N-8 Corvus ASM-N-10 Shrike ASM-N-11 Condor AUM-N-2 Petrel United States Army Designation Systems United States Army Designation System 1941 .Bomb Glider BQ .1947[13] Designation BG .Glide Bomb Function Glider with explosive warhead Period of Usage 1942 to 1944 Ground-launched remote controlled drone 1942 to 1945 Guided Bomb 1941 to 1947 1943 to 1947 1943 to 1947 1943 to 1947 GT .[13] .Jet Bomb Missile VB . € € € € € € € € € € JB-1 Bat JB-2 Doodle Bug JB-3 Tiamet JB-4 Project MX-607 JB-5 Project MX-595 JB-6 Project MX-600 JB-7 Project MX-605 JB-8 GAPA JB-9 Project MX-626 JB-10 Bat United States Army Designation System 1948 .Glide Torpedo Guided Bomb with a torpedo JB .1955 designations.Vertical Bomb Guided Bomb The list of missiles sorted by ascending Army 1941-1947 designations.1955 The list of missiles sorted by ascending Army 1948 .Guided Bomb GB . [13] € € € € € € € € € € € € € M1 Nike-Ajax M2 Corporal M3 Hawk M4 Lacrosse M6 Nike-Hercules M8 Redstone M9 Redstone M13 Shillelagh M14 Pershing M15 Sergeant M16 Hawk M18 Hawk M19 Pershing United States Undesignated Missiles The list of undesignated United States missiles sorted alphabetically: .Ordnance Designator The list of missiles sorted by ascending Army 1955-1963 designations.List of missiles by country 124 € € € € € € € € € € PGM-11 Redstone SSM-G-15 Hermes A-1 SSM-G-16 Hermes A-3B SSM-G-17 Corporal SAM-A-18 Hawk SAM-A-19 Plato RV-A-22 Lark SSM-A-23 Dart SAM-A-25 Nike Hercules SSM-A-27 Sergeant € € € € € € € € € € € € RTV-G-1 WAC Corporal RTV-G-2 Corporal E RTV-G-3 Hermes II RTV-G-4 Bumper CTV-G-5 Hermes A-1 RTV-G-6 Hermes B-1 SAM-G-7 Nike Ajax SSM-G-8 Hermes A-3A SSM-G-9 Hermes B-2 RTV-G-10 Hermes A-2 SSM-G-12 Martin Lacrosse SSM-G-13 Hermes A-2 United States Army Designation System 1955 .Pre Production M .1963 Prefix Army Ordnance Designator Equipment Category Sequence Number Modification Suffix X . Pre-1963 Designations of U. 2007. (2007) M-Missiles. The United States procured Rapier missile systems for the air defense of United States Air Force Bases in the United Kingdom.List of missiles by country 125 € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € ERAM ERIS FABMDS Farside FLAGE Flying Bomb GBI HAVE DASH II HEDI Hera HGV HIBEX High Virgo HOE HOPI HTV HVM HyFly € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € SIAM Skokie I Skokie II SLAM Spike Sprint SR19/SR19 SRALT STARS Storm T-16 T-22 Talos-Sergeant-Hydac THAAD Trailblazer 2 Wagtail Wizard € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 1 2 A-1 Affordable Weapon Alpha Draco ALVRJ Aries APKWS ASALM ATASK Athena Bold Orion Brazo Caleb Caster 4B Cherokee CKEM Cree Crow D-40 Cannonball € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Jindivik1 Kettering Bug LAM LASRM LOCAAS M30 Guided MRLS NOTSNIK PAM PLV Pogo Pogo-Hi Private Rapier2 RATTLRS RSC-51 Senior Prom Sergent-Hydac Shavetail Australian target missile briefly used by the United States Navy. html). Missile and Drones. stm [9] http:/ / www. google. DoD 4120. 2007 [13] Andreas Parsch. tubitak. com/ books?id=7iwDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA125& dq=popular+ science+ antitank+ cannon& hl=en& ei=UT65TL7xNsrNngedhcTHAQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& . py?page=List_of_missiles_by_country& editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/ editintro& client=Template:Dn [2] http:/ / en. psu. 2004 [12] Bridges Derek. php?title=List_of_missiles_by_country& action=edit [3] http:/ / news. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ europe/ 6700585. org/ %7Edispenser/ cgi-bin/ dab_solver. wikipedia. gov. May 12. tubitak. tr/ home. org/ w/ index. (http:/ / www. html). (http:/ / www. United States Missiles with X Designations The list of X designated United States missiles numerically: € € € € € € € € € € € X-7 X-8 X-9 Shrike X-10 X-11 X-12 X-17 X-41 X-42 X-43 Hyper-X X-51 References [1] http:/ / toolserver. Popular Science (http:/ / books. co. do?ot=1& sid=1340& pid=547 [11] Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (AT&L). edu/ users/ d/ o/ dob104/ aviation/ us/ missile. sage. personal. sage.15-L Model Designation of Military Aerospace Vehicles. net/ usmilav/ old-missiles. [14] Missile's Mission: Picking Off The Strays. retrieved December 25. tr/ home. Retrieved November 17. do?ot=1& sid=1310& pid=547 [10] http:/ / www. October 1950.S. Department of Defense. designation-systems. gov. bbc. List of missiles by country resnum=7& ved=0CEgQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q& f=true) detailed article 126 . 127 Countries Albania Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea . [3] On 11 July 2007. lewisite. The material was probably acquired by Communist leader Enver Hoxha in the mid-1970s from China although no documentation was found. of 600 bulk containers of chemicals in an abandoned bunker.S. which came into force in 1997. adamsite. It also acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in September 1990. . 1992.[1] The treaty.678 kilograms (36. Albania made its declaration in March 2003. requires the declaration of chemical stockpiles. One of only six nations to declare a stockpile.Albania € € € € € € 128 Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Albania once possessed a stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) confirmed the destruction of the entire chemical weapons stockpile in Albania. banning biological weapons.770–lb) of mustard agent.[2] after the discovery.[6] Albania joined the Geneva Protocol on 20 December 1989. delivery systems and production facilities. This stockpile of chemical weapons included 16.[6] Albanian chemical weapons. and chloroacetophenone. banning chemical and biological weapons and deposited its accession to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty on 23 April 2003.[4] making Albania the first nation to completely destroy all of its chemical weapons under the terms of the CWC. Costs were approximately 48 million U. The United States assisted with and funded the destruction operations under the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction. Albania was among the initial countries who signed the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1993. in December 2002. dollars.[5] Biological and nuclear weapons Albania acceded to the Biological Weapons Convention on June 3. and the destruction of all chemical weapons. metapress.S. opcw. € http://www. 2007. http:/ / disarmament. http:/ / www. 2007 [3] "Albania's Chemical Cache Raises Fears About Others". Albright. htm). 2005. html. un. org/ UNODA/ Treatystatus. accessed July 27.[] In November of 1991.S. "Albania Has Chemical Arms. accessed July 27.[] China had secretly made an agreement in 1983 to assist Algeria in developing a nuclear reactor. washingtonpost. January 10. and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention[1] In August 2001. html [2] Kerry Boyd.atomicarchive. Washington Post. gov/ r/ pa/ prs/ ps/ 2007/ 88378. but denied any secrecy or military purpose. org/ en/ membership_menu. armscontrol. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http://thebulletin. nsf/ NPT%20(in%20alphabetical%20order)?OpenView. cfm?id=279351& . un.[] The Algerian government admitted it was building a reactor. Algeria placed the reactor under IAEA safeguards. org/ act/ 2003_06/ cwc_june03. 2007 [5] Nunn-Lugar Destroys Chemical Weapons Stockpile in Albania. http:/ / lugar. senate. July 13. Albania € First Country to Destroy All Of Its Chemical Weapons (http:/ / www. Arms Control Association.org) 57 (3): 45€52. CWC Review Conference Meets" (http:/ / www. and Corey Hinderstein (May/June 2001). 2007 [4] U. state. org/ TreatyStatus. David.com/content/t554r07076046724/?p=7fe5a1eb81494649b54eed80d7a914cc&pi=13). Department of State.[] Algeria signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in January 1995.Albania 129 References [1] Membership of the OPCW. Press Release of Senator Lugar. accessed July 27. accessed July 27. nsf/ af5444bb1b61fed38525688f0073d8d7/ ab48b8fb110c360985256af8005590c7?OpenDocument) References € Ref. "Algeria: Big deal in the desert?" (http:// thebulletin. UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA).com/Almanac/Testing. 2007. 2007 [6] Status of Multilateral Arms Regulation and Disarmament Agreements.[] The Washington Times accused the country of developing nuclear weapons with the help of the Chinese government. July 19. accessed July 27. satellites also suggested that the reactor would not be used for military purposes. http:/ / www. Joby Warrick. the government of the United States said it had unearthed details of the alleged construction of a nuclear reactor in Algeria. Algeria acceded to the Biological Weapons Convention. June 2003. 2007 Algeria In 1991.[2] Notes [2] (http:/ / unhq-appspub-01. com/ wp-dyn/ articles/ A61698-2005Jan9. asp).shtml . succumbing to international pressure.[] Surveillance from U. gov/ record. Argentina 130 Argentina Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . together with Brazil and Chile. Under the National Reorganization Process. Argentina acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. The announcement was highly criticized by politicians from opposing parties.000 kilometres. in November 1983. 1995.[citation needed] Chemical weapons Argentina acceded to the Geneva Protocol on May 12. develop. with a range of around 1. was reportedly scrapped during the Menem administration under pressure from the United States government. 1969 and has been active in non-proliferation efforts. Argentina continues to use nuclear power in non-military roles. In September 1991 Argentina. Government officials at the time confirmed. on December 10.[1] The program was abandoned. Missile systems During the 1980s. that research carried out at the Balseiro Institute's research reactor had yielded the capacity for weapons-grade uranium enrichment. acquire.Argentina € 131 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Argentina has a history with the development of weapons of mass destruction.[2] Those types of submarines only use atomic energy for propulsion. signed the Mendoza Declaration. however. the government announced that it would start working in the creation of a nuclear submarine. The current status of the Alacr‚n remains unknown. stock. In 1991 the parliaments of Argentina and Brazil ratified a bilateral inspection agreement that created the Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials (ABACC) to verify both countries' pledges to use nuclear energy only for peaceful purposes. produce.[3] . Nuclear weapons Argentina conducted a nuclear weapon research program during the National Reorganization Process regime. The Cƒndor 2. In 2010. ratified the Biological Weapons Convention in 1979 and the Chemical Weapons Convention on October 2. which commits signatories not to use. 1995. On February 10. 1983. shortly after the return of democracy. and is noted as an exporter of civilian use nuclear technology. the Alacr‚n (English: Scorpion) and Cƒndor 2 (English: Condor) missiles were developed. Argentina began a nuclear weapons program in the early 1980s. or transfer…directly or indirectly…chemical or biological weapons. and was abolished when democracy was restored in 1983. archive. com. com. [2] Promete Garrœ que se construir¯ un submarino nuclear en el pa•s (http:/ / www. ar/ 1271656) Sources € "The Nuclear Club: Membership has its kilotons" (http://www. Retrieved May 1. Archived (http://web.org/web/20060419074131/http://www. € Nuclear Threat Initiative. p. cbc.ca/news/background/nuclearweapons/) from the original on 14 April 2006. April 12.org/web/20060414110321/http://www. ar/ 1271651) [3] La oposici—n.nti.html). Archived (http://web.243.org/e_research/profiles/ Argentina/index. org/article/npihp-partner-hosts-conference-brazils-and-argentinas-nuclear-history/) Conference on Brazilian and Argentine Nuclear Programs (English) Australia Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany .Argentina 132 References [1] National Geographic. 2006. CBC News Online. "Argentina" (http://www.cbc.html) from the original on 19 April 2006.ca/news/background/nuclearweapons/). 2006. August 1986.archive. lanacion.org/e_research/profiles/Argentina/index. entre las duras cr•ticas y la iron•a (http:/ / www. Retrieved April 2006.wilsoncenter. External links € The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http://www. lanacion.nti. food technology and brewing. Australia chairs the Australia Group. Some disease research laboratories in Australia own strains of the Ebola virus. Australia does not possess nuclear weapons and is not at all known to be seeking to develop them. All states participating in the Australia Group are parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Biological Weapons Convention. The Australian Microbial Resources Research Network lists 37 culture collections.[] It also has an extensive wine industry and produces microorganisms on an industrial scale to support other industries including agriculture. Biological weapons Australia has advanced research programs in immunology. The dual use nature of these facilities mean that Australia.Australia € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 133 India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Australia is not known or believed to possess weapons of mass destruction.[] . microbiology and genetic engineering that support an industry providing world class vaccines for domestic use and export. many of which hold samples of pathogenic organisms for legitimate research purposes. and strongly support efforts under those Conventions to rid the world of chemical and biological weapons. could easily produce biological warfare agents.[] As with chemical and biological weapons. like any country with advanced biotechnological industries. although it has participated in extensive research into nuclear. biological and chemical weapons in the past. an informal grouping of countries that seek to minimise the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapon proliferation. [] Chemical weapons Australia conducted extensive research into chemical weapons during World War II. the secretary of the Australian Department of Defence. An observer examining an unexploded 25 pound gas shell following a trial of gas weapons at Singleton.G.[] Australia signed the Biological Weapons Convention on 10 April 1972 and deposited a certificate of ratification on 5 October 1977.[1] A complete history of Australia's involvement with chemical weapons .030 tons of chemical weapons were dumped in the seas off Australia near Brisbane. Sydney and Melbourne. phosgene. F. it did stockpile chemical weapons sourced from the USA and Britain. drums of mustard gas were still being discovered in the bush where they had been tested.titled Chemical Warfare in Australia . New South Wales in 1943. Some of the stockpiled weapons in the form of mortar and artillery shells. up to 1990. Burnet was invited to join the chemical and biological warfare subcommittee of the New Weapons and Equipment Development Committee and subsequently prepared a secret report titled "Note on War from a Biological Angle".[] Another stockpile of chemical weapons was discovered at Maxwelton. This has been covered in a Defence report by Geoff Plunkett.[] In 1951 the subcommittee recommended that "a panel reporting to the chemical and biological warfare subcommittee should be authorised to report on the offensive potentiality of biological agents likely to be effective against the local food supplies of South-East Asia and Indonesia". Although Australia has never produced chemical weapons. After World War II. aerial bombs and bulk agents were sent to New Guinea for potential use against Japanese tunnel complexes. Some 21. and.[] In September 1947.[] No actual use of the weapons was recorded although there were many trials using 'live' chemical weapons (such as shown in the picture to the right). venting (for phosgene) or by dumping at sea.000 pound phosgene bombs was discovered at Embi Airfield in 1970 and disposed of by Australian Army personnel. A stockpile of 1. the chemical weapons were disposed of by burning. lewisite.has been published in book form by the Army History Unit (Defence Department) in 2013 (2nd Edn) [2] [3] Again it is authored by Geoff Plunkett [4].Australia 134 History In the wake of the Japanese advance through South East Asia during World War II. as Prime Minister Robert Menzies was more interested in trying to acquire nuclear weapons. adamsite and CN gas.[] . Queensland in 1989.[] The activities of the chemical and biological warfare subcommittee were scaled back soon after. Shedden.[] Australia signed the Chemical Weapons Convention in January 1993 and ratified it with the Chemical Weapons (Prohibition) Act in 1994. wrote to Macfarlane Burnet on 24 December 1946 and invited him to attend a meeting of top military officers to discuss biological warfare.[] Chemical weapons known to have been stockpiled included mustard gas. The new reactor is designed to use low-enriched uranium fuel and an open pool light water system.[] Sir Philip Baxter first head of the Australian Atomic Energy Commission (AAEC). operated from 1958 to 2006 and has now been replaced by the OPAL reactor in 2006. ANSTO scientists developed centrifuge enrichment technology. a Medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) intended for delivery of a nuclear warhead.[] Australia hosted British nuclear testing in Monte Bello Islands (Operation Hurricane). Such technology. Minister for Air. wrote to Philip McBride.[5][6][7] Air Chief Marshal Frederick Scherger and Minister for Operation Hurricane. would have been capable in principle of producing highly enriched uranium for nuclear weapons.[] The then Prime Minister of Australia. Separation of Isotopes by Laser Excitation (SILEX). Minister for Defence. both for international prestige and because of the small size of the country's military. John Howard.[] Australia signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty on 27 February 1970 and ratified the treaty on 23 January 1973.[] During the 1950s. Monte Bello Islands. Emu Field and Maralinga between 1952 and 1963.[] Australia investigated acquiring tactical nuclear weapons from the United Kingdom or the United States as early as 1956 when Athol Townley.[] Until 1996 government policy restricted exploitation of uranium deposits to three established mines.[9] During the 1970s and 1980s. recommending the acquisition of tactical nuclear weapons to arm Australia's English Electric Canberra bombers and CAC Sabre fighters. While Scherger's British and American counterparts were encouraging. either domestic or foreign. An Australian company has been actively developing a novel process for uranium enrichment. Sydney.[] Australia has substantial deposits of uranium which account for 30% of the world's known reserves.[] Amongst the topics of the study will be a domestic uranium enrichment plant for supplying low-enriched fuel for nuclear power reactors. if deployed on an industrial scale. the Macmillan and Eisenhower governments were not.[10] A commercial-scale enrichment plant would also be capable of producing sufficient highly enriched uranium for a nuclear weapons program. A fourth site at Four Mile uranium mine was approved in July 2009. Maralinga was developed as a joint facility with a shared funding arrangement. claimed to be comparable with the commercial URENCO centrifuge technology of the time. The research lost government funding in the mid-1980s.[8] Current policy is to develop the export potential of Australia's uranium industry by allowing mining and export of uranium under strict international agreements designed to prevent nuclear proliferation. Australia participated in the development of the Blue Streak missile. began a study in 2006 into the issues surrounding an increase in Australia's uranium usage.[] Although the RAAF continued to occasionally investigate obtaining nuclear weapons during the 1960s. a 25kt nuclear test. Air Athol Townley supported acquiring nuclear Australia weapons. . now the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) and first Vice Chancellor of the University of New South Wales openly advocated Australia acquiring a weapons grade plutonium stockpile and thus nuclear weapons. The Australian HIFAR nuclear reactor at Lucas Heights. Prime Minister Robert Menzies' government decided that domestic production would be too difficult due to cost and international politics.Australia 135 Nuclear weapons Australia does not have nuclear weapons and is not thought to be seeking to develop them. although several federal governments have investigated the idea and may have done some research into the question. bookdepository. Department of Defence. 1954 . References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] http:/ / www.bookdepository.[12] Locally manufactured versions of the Avro Vulcan or Handley Page Victor nuclear bombers were some of the options considered.400–km) and be capable of carrying at least 20. As part of Air Staff Requirement (Operational Requirement/Air) 36 for bomber aircraft in the 1950s.000 pounds (9. gov. Australia has weapons systems which could be used to deliver nuclear weapons to its neighbours. [11] The Royal Australian Air Force has 71 F/A-18 Hornet strike fighters and 24 F/A-18F Super Hornet strike fighters. Department of Defence. the Royal Australian Air Force specified a requirement for "an offensive tactical strike capability" and "strategic defence of Australia" with targets "as far north as the Kra Peninsula". standard Block 43/44 models capable of delivering nuclear weapons. An Australian F-111 Australia previously operated the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk ground-attack aircraft and the English Electric Canberra and General Dynamics F-111C bombers.).100–kg) of conventional bombs or one BLUE DANUBE nuclear weapon (which had been air dropped at Maralinga on 11 October 1956). if nuclear weapons were developed. The Royal Australian Air Force is looking at options to purchase a further 18 F/A-18F Super Hornets due to delays in the production and arrivals of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. 1956 [6] National Archives of Australia..1958 Further reading € Plunkett.uk/Chemical-Warfare-Australia-Geoff-Plunkett/9780987427908) (2nd ed. mustardgas. au/ news/ national/ deadly-chemicals-hidden-in-war-cache/ 2008/ 01/ 19/ 1200620272396. Department of Defence. Bomber aircraft. org http:/ / www. ISBN–9780987427908. Prior to the delivery of the F-111C. html National Archives of Australia. and F-111G tactical bombers which converted from United States Air Force FB-111A strategic nuclear bombers. uk/ Chemical-Warfare-Australia-Geoff-Plunkett/ 9780987427908 http:/ / www. A1945 1/501/694 PART 1 Royal Australian Air Force. hydro. co. A1209 1957/4067 Nuclear Weapons for the Australian Forces. 1957 [12] National Archives of Australia. Geoff (2013). Leech Cup Books. A5954 1400/15 Re-equipment of RAAF Bomber and Fighter Squadrons with atomic weapons. 1956-1958 [7] National Archives of Australia. au/ n2m/ dumping/ cwa/ cwa.Australia 136 Delivery platforms Like virtually every other developed nation and most larger developing nations. Chemical Warfare in Australia: Australia's Involvement in Chemical Warfare 1914 € Today (http://www. Australia briefly operated the McDonnell Douglas F-4E leased from the United States Air Force. Prime Minister's Department. The bomber was required to have a range of not less than 4. htm http:/ / www.co. . Air staff requirement (Operational Requirement/Air 36). A1945 186/5/3 Procurement of nuclear weapons for Australian forces. com. which were theoretically capable of delivering nuclear weapons.000 nautical miles (7. smh. Brazil 137 Brazil Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . Brazil had a secret program intended to develop nuclear weapons. Brazil and Argentina renounced their nuclear rivalry.[1] On 13 December 1991.[2][13] In 1991.[2] They also interviewed key players in the nuclear program. code-named "Delta". and the plant itself.could be construed as an attempt to pirate industrial secrets. during the military regime. The Brazilian government did not allow the inspection of the centrifugal cascade halls. mainly because the centrifugal axis is not mechanical. the pressure for full access to inspection even in universities .[14] Brazil's enrichment technology development. Brazil pursued a covert nuclear weapons program known as the "Parallel Program". Brazil and Argentina embarked on a nuclear competition.[2] with enrichment facilities (including small scale centrifuge enrichment plants. in Par¯. Eventually.[2] The congressional investigation exposed secret bank accounts.[2] The congressional report revealed that the IEAv had designed two atomic bomb devices.[16] They also claimed that their technology is better than that of the United States and France. and Brazil is considered free of weapons of mass destruction. after extensive negotiations. involved substantial discussions with the IAEA and its constituent nations.[1] Through technology transfers from West Germany. a limited reprocessing capability. creating the Brazilian€Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials and allowing fullscope IAEA safeguards of Argentine and Brazilian nuclear installations. The dispute came down to whether IAEA inspectors would be allowed to inspect the machines themselves. they signed the Quadripartite agreement.[2] In 1990. and exposed the military‚s secret plan to develop a nuclear weapon. President Sarney announced that Brazil had enriched uranium to 20%. such as former President Jo±o Figueiredo and retired Army General Danilo Venturini.[15] The Brazilian authorities stated that.[2] Congress members visited numerous facilities.[1] In 1987.[2] The same report revealed that Brazil's military regime secretly exported eight tons of uranium to Iraq in 1981.Brazil € 138 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category In the 1970s and 80s. agreement was reached that while not directly . as Brazil is not part of any "axis of evil".[8] Brazil is one of several countries that have forsworn nuclear weapons under the terms of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty[9] but possess the key technologies needed to produce nuclear weapons. which did not require IAEA safeguards. which were managed by the National Nuclear Energy Commission and used for funding the program. one with a yield of twenty to thirty kilotons and a second with a yield of twelve kilotons.[2] During the 1970s and 80s. five years after the military regime ended. President Get°lio Vargas encouraged the development of independent national nuclear capabilities. arguing that this would reveal technological secrets (probably relating to the use of a magnetic lower bearing in place of the more common mechanical bearing). including the Institute of Advanced Studies (IEAv) in S±o Josœ dos Campos.[1] Brazil officially opened the Resende enrichment plant in May 2006.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] The program was dismantled in 1990.[1] Brazil's National Congress opened an investigation into the Parallel Program. at the IAEA headquarters. but electromagnetic. President Fernando Collor de Mello symbolically closed the Cachimbo test site. the former head of the National Security Council under Figueiredo. and a missile program).[7][10][11][12] Nuclear program In the 1950s. managed by the Brazilian Army's Special Projects Institute € IPE. was inaugurated in 1988 as the first uranium-only enrichment plant in Brazil. known as 'The Atlantic Project'.S.[20] In 2008. and in 2007 authorised the construction of a prototype submarine propulsion reactor. 2007.[18] If Brazil decided to pursue a nuclear weapon. Then U.[17] 139 Technological capability It is likely that Brazil has retained the technological capacity and knowhow to produce and deliver a nuclear weapon.[21] Facilities Aramar Experimental Center 23. stated in 2004 that he was sure that Brazil had no plans to develop nuclear weapons.9464”W [24] The Cachimbo test site. the centrifuges at the Resende enrichment plant could be reconfigured to produce highly enriched uranium for nuclear weapons. The Army's Technology Center (Portuguese: Centro Tecnolƒgico do Ex„rcito.[7] Experts at the Los Alamos National Laboratory have concluded that in view of its previous nuclear activities. the facility also hosts an Isotopic Enrichment Laboratory and several Small Nuclear Centers (Portuguese: Pequenas Centrais Nucleares. The shaft has been public knowledge since 1986 and was allegedly abandoned in September 1990.[23] Cachimbo Test Site 9. The enrichment laboratories are under the National Safeguards control and national inspections are carried out by the Safeguards Division of CNEN. This facility produces Uranium hexafluoride gas for Uranium enrichment. Brazil is in a position to produce nuclear weapons within three years. the IAEA would inspect the composition of the gas entering and leaving the centrifuge. It is within this military area that a 320 meters-deep hole at the Cachimbo Mountain Range was site for nuclear explosives tests. officially named Brigadeiro Velloso Test Site (Portuguese: Campo de Provas Brigadeiro Velloso). France agreed to transfer technology to Brazil for the joint development of the nuclear submarine hull.000 square kilometres.601”W [22] The Aramar Experimental Center (Portuguese: Centro Experimental de Aramar) located in Iper— in the State of S±o Paulo. or PCNs). an area larger than the Netherlands. The facility is run by the Brazilian Nuclear Energy Commission (CNEN) and the Brazilian Navy. is located in the State of Par¯ and covers 45. Secretary of State. In addition to the Centrifuge Enrichment Plant.Brazil inspecting the centrifuges. Even a small enrichment plant like Resende could produce several nuclear weapons per year.5639”W [26] Brazilian Navy's Nuclear Propulsion Development Facility in July.[27] . when President Fernando Collor de Mello used a small shovel to symbolically seal up the hole.0124”S 43. or CTEx) located in Guaratiba in the State of Rio de Janeiro is the site of the plutonium-producing reactor facility. Colin Powell.[10][15][19] The Brazilian Navy is currently developing a nuclear submarine fleet. but only if Brazil was willing to do so openly.3047”S 54.[25] Army's Technology Center (Guaratiba) 23. Reports indicate that the gas-graphite reactor would be capable of producing plutonium for atomic bombs.397”S 47. [2] Brazil: Nuclear Weapons Programs (http:/ / www. org/ research/ disarmament/ nuclear/ researchissues/ past_projects/ issues_of_concern/ brazil/ brazil_default) SIPRI. html) The Nuclear Weapon Archive. br/ atividade/ materia/ getPDF. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. [12] Not-Quite-Nuclear Nations (http:/ / www. Currently the plant produces enough HEU for 26 to 31 implosion type warheads.org.[33] Brazil acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty on September 18. org/ archiv/ exclusive/ view/ 1272884882. reachingcriticalwill. [9] Albright. org/ wmd/ world/ brazil/ nuke. [3] Brazil. pdf) Reachingcriticalwill. fas. asp?t=66808& tp=1) Senate of Brazil. [6] Country Profiles (http:/ / www.[29] Resende (Engenheiro Passos) Nuclear Fuel Factory 22.646”W [30] The Resende Nuclear Fuel Facility (Portuguese: F‚brica de Combust†veis Nucleares. pbs. the Biological Weapons Convention on 27 February 1973. gov. armscontrol. Brazil is also an active participant in the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group. org/ pubs/ articles/ 2004/ BrazilsNuclearPuzzle. or INB) and by the Brazilian Navy. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. htm) Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 609279. org/ newshour/ indepth_coverage/ military/ proliferation/ countries/ brazil. Retrieved on 2010-10-06.[31][32] Legislation and conventions Brazil's 1988 Constitution states in Article 21 that "all nuclear activity within the national territory shall only be admitted for peaceful purposes and subject to approval by the National Congress". making Brazil a nuclear-weapon-free zone. .org. org/ Nwfaq/ Nfaq7-4.504”S 44. html) PBS NewsHour. com/ 2009/ 08/ 27/ not-quite-nuclear-nations. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. stm) BBC. in the State of Rio de Janeiro. or FCN) is a nuclear enrichment facility located in Resende. html) German Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved on 2012-03-23. [13] Congressional Report on the "Parallel Program". IAEA Reach Inspection Agreement (http:/ / www. org/ about/ pubs/ Inventory/ Brazil. html) Newsweek. Lampreia hail Brazil's accession to NPT (http:/ / www. References [1] Brazil: Nuclear Inventory (http:/ / www. and the Chemical Weapons Convention on 13 March 1996. senado. gsinstitute. [8] Life without the bomb (http:/ / news. 1998. [11] Brazil and the Bomb (http:/ / www. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. newsweek. in the State of S±o Paulo where nuclear research is also conducted. or DCTA) is a research facility located in S±o Josœ dos Campos. wisconsinproject. html) Global Security Institute. sipri. [5] States Formerly Possessing or Pursuing Nuclear Weapons: Brazil (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive.875120”W [28] The Aerospace Technology and Science Department (Portuguese: Departamento de Ci…ncia e Tecnologia Aerospacial. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. globalsecurity. . [7] Countries and issues of nuclear strategic concern: Brazil (http:/ / www. [10] Brazil‚s Nuclear Puzzle (http:/ / www. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. Brazil signed the Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1967. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. org/ act/ 2005_01-02/ Brazil) Arms Control Association. html) Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. org/ dpe/ countries/ argentina_brazil. co. ip-global.Brazil 140 Aerospace Technology and Science Department (S€o Jos• dos Campos) 23.212290”S 45. Retrieved on 2010-10-06.Brazil (http:/ / www. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. The plant is managed by the Nuclear Industries of Brazil (Portuguese: Ind‡strias Nucleares do Brasil. ratified the Geneva Protocol on 28 August 1970. [4] Tracking Nuclear Proliferation . bbc. org/ nuke/ control/ npt/ news/ 98091823_llt. (http:/ / www. htm) Globalsecurity. multinational agencies concerned with reducing nuclear proliferation by controlling the export and re-transfer of materials that may be applicable to nuclear weapon development. [22] http:/ / toolserver.br/sitio/) National Nuclear Energy Research Institute (Portuguese) € Instituto de Engenharia Nuclear (http://www. 646_W_ [31] WMD Facilities: Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory (FCN) (http:/ / www. php?pagename=Brazil_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction& params=9.br/ingles/ingles.br/) Brazilian Association of Nuclear Energy (Portuguese) € Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials (http://www. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. [15] How Brazil Spun the Atom (http:/ / www. a (http:/ / www. [32] INB Activities on the Nuclear Fuel Cycle (http:/ / anes. php?pagename=Brazil_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction& params=22. fiu. jornaldaciencia. Retrieved on 2010-10-06.gov.cnen. 3047_S_54.gov. 212290_S_45. org/ ~geohack/ geohack.br/) Nuclear Engineering Institute (Portuguese) € Centro Regional de Ci³ncias Nucleares (http://www. org/ wmd/ world/ brazil/ guaratiba. globalsecurity. globalsecurity.ipen. htm) Globalsecurity.asp) Center of Nuclear Technology Development (English) € Instituto de Pesquisas Energœticas Nucleares (http://www.cpbv. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ americas/ 4981202. org/ ~geohack/ geohack. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. stm) BBC News.aer. v-brazil. [26] http:/ / toolserver. br/ docs1/ ruhle_brazil_nuclear. htm) Globalsecurity. 397_S_47. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. ieee. br/ Detalhe.asp) Brazilian Nuclear Industries (English) € Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear (http://www. org/ wmd/ world/ brazil/ aramar. bbc. 875120_W_ [29] WMD Facilities: S±o Josœ dos Campos (http:/ / www. org/ wmd/ world/ brazil/ cachimbo. php?pagename=Brazil_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction& params=23. globalsecurity. [33] Constitution of Brazil: Article 21. edu/ Pro/ s5ara. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. 141 External links Official sites € Ind°strias Nucleares do Brasil (http://www. 601_W_ [23] WMD Facilities: Aramar Experimental Center. .br/ingles/inicio/index.org. stm) BBC News. mas contra aumento da inspe²±o que pode apropriar-se da tecnologia desenvolvida pelo pa•s (http:/ / www. [18] Brazil and the Bomb (http:/ / www. htm) Globalsecurity. [17] BBC News: US sure of Brazil nuclear plans (http:/ / news. [30] http:/ / toolserver. htm) Globalsecurity.com.inb.ien. org/ energy/ nuclear/ how-brazil-spun-the-atom) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. bbc. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. php?pagename=Brazil_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction& params=23. globalsecurity. org/ ~geohack/ geohack. [16] Ur¬nio: Brasil n±o œ contra a inspe²±o internacional.aben. 9464_W_ [25] WMD Facilities: Cachimbo (http:/ / www. pdf) German Council on Foreign Relations.mil. 504_S_44. org/ wmd/ world/ brazil/ sao-jose-dos-campos.org. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. htm) Globalsecurity. globalsecurity. XXIII. Retrieved on 2009-09-06.Brazil [14] BBC News: Brazil joins world's nuclear club (http:/ / news. org/ wmd/ world/ brazil/ resende. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. Retrieved on 2010-10-06.crcn-co. [24] http:/ / toolserver. com.eletronuclear.org. com/ government/ laws/ titleIII. 5639_W_ [27] WMD Facilities: Guaratiba (http:/ / www.org/home.org.br/) Central-West Nuclear Sciences Regional Center (Portuguese) € Comiss±o Nacional de Energia Nuclear (http://www. defesanet. org. Retrieved on 2010-10-06.br/english/default. co.gov.gov. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ americas/ 3715556. org/ ~geohack/ geohack.php) Manages Brazil's nuclear power plants (Portuguese) € Associa²±o Brasileira de Energia Nuclear (http://www. 0124_S_43. html) V-Brazil.gov. globalsecurity. spectrum. [19] Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD): Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory (FCN) (http:/ / www.cnen. htm) (English) (Portuguese) (Spanish) € Campo de Provas Brigadeiro Velloso (http://www. co. Retrieved on 2010-10-06. org/ wmd/ world/ brazil/ resende. [28] http:/ / toolserver.org. org/ ~geohack/ geohack.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-23.abacc.br/) Cachimbo Test Site (Portuguese) . Iper— (http:/ / www. htm) Globalsecurity. pdf) Americas Nuclear Energy Symposiums.cdtn. jsp?id=15243) Jornal da Ci³ncia.br/) National Nuclear Energy Commission (Portuguese) € Eletronuclear (http://www. php?pagename=Brazil_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction& params=23. jornaldaciencia.br/) Brazilian Air Force .br/Detalhe.wilsoncenter.Aerospace Technology and Science Department (Portuguese) Scientific sites € Jornal da Ci³ncia's article (in Portuguese) (http://www.org.cta.jsp?id=15243) Academic Sites € The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http://www. org/article/npihp-partner-hosts-conference-brazils-and-argentinas-nuclear-history/) Conference on Brazilian and Argentine Nuclear Programs (English) 142 Bulgaria Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan .Brazil € Departamento de Ci³ncia e Tecnologia Aeroespacial (http://www. Biological weapons Bulgaria has signed and ratified the Biological Weapons Convention. the missiles were not armed with warheads.[1] As of 2011 Bulgaria does not possess any weapons of mass destruction. Missile program Bulgaria had a significant missile arsenal. including 67 SCUD-B.[2] Since the USSR planned to rapidly deploy its own nuclear weapons in Bulgaria in case a war broke out. Chemical weapons Information over Bulgaria's chemical weapons is scarce. and there is no information indicating that the country has ever developed such weapons.Bulgaria € € € € € € € € € € € € 143 Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Bulgaria has developed weapons of mass destruction. most notably chemical weapons. . The only known chemical weapons production facility is located near Smyadovo. 50 FROG-7 and 24 SS-23 ballistic missiles. The nuclear missile launching pads and equipment were dismantled in 1991.[2] The SS-23 systems had conventional warheads plus a WMD launching capability. which now produces chemicals for civilian purposes. but only prepared to launch Soviet weapons. The first missile brigade was created in 1961. This indigenous production capability was probably achieved with the help of the USSR. They are all armed with conventional warheads of 160–kg each. The country ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1994 and dismantled them by 2000. but information over the exact number of missiles is classified. Currently Bulgaria operates a dozen SS-21 Scarab-A launchers. Chemical weapons production was concentrated in Smyadovo.[3] In 1994 the country bought 46 conventional warheads for its SCUDs from Russia.[2] All SCUD. FROG and SS-23 missiles were destroyed in 2002. bg/ bg/ faq/ faq. the warheads were quickly shipped to Ukraine and all equipment. a cafeteria. although some treaties with the Soviet Union guaranteed the deployment of Soviet warheads on Bulgarian territory in case of a war with NATO.org/#lat=42.[6] A nuclear research facility with a 200–kW pool-type reactor is in operation in Sofia. Its SS-23 missiles were nuclear-capable. duma. a social club. the original supplier. having a nuclear powerplant at Kozloduy with its own plutonium storage facility.com "´…¤Š¢ Ž† ‚ˆªµ‚ˆ.mi. which Moscow says it will re-fabricate into low-enriched uranium. dnevnik. html).[] In 2001 the Bulgarian Foreign Ministry denied the "presence" of nuclear weapons in Bulgaria. bas. and had 130 personnel. The substance. bg/ bulgaria/ 2011/ 05/ 12/ 1087868_novo_hranilishte_za_izpolzvano_iadreno_gorivo_se/ ). htm) [3] Duma. The unit was disbanded in 1989.[] The site consisted of "four three-storey apartment blocks. org/ wmd/ world/ bulgaria/ index. the United Nations nuclear watchdog assisted Bulgaria with the removal of highly-enriched uranium stored at the shut-down research reactor in Sofia.bg "¶·ŸŒˆ‚…• ‹†©† † ‚ˆ¤†¥Žˆ ‰…Ÿˆ !" (in bulgarian) (http:/ / www. Another Russian Army official later denied the story.government. according to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). who described in detail an alleged Soviet-Bulgarian nuclear weapons facility which hosted 70 warheads for tactical missiles. html) [2] StandartNews. (in Bulgarian) (http:/ / www. a store. uniforms and photos that were present at the facility were destroyed. asp?qid=26965) External links € Satellite images of an alleged nuclear facility (http://wikimapia. html) [6] ´Š‹Š ¦‚ˆŽ…Ÿ…¸† ªˆ …ª•ŠŸª‹ˆŽŠ •¡‚†ŽŠ ŒŠ‚…‹Š ‰† Š¥¤‚…‹ˆ ‹ ¹º» "•ŠªŸŠ¡ƒ¢" (http:/ / www. government.bg/en/library/ act-on-the-prohibition-of-chemical-weapons-and-on-control-of-toxic-chemicals-and-the-precursors-the-119-c25-m258-1.Bulgaria special weapons (http:/ / www.6245133& z=16&l=0&m=b) € Act on the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and on Control of Toxic Chemicals and the Precursors thereof (http://www.[4] In the mid-1990s.[7] The reactor of the facility produces some nuclear material. was airlifted in December 2003 to Russia. bg/ ) [8] ž…Ž…‰¥†‚‰¥‹Š Žˆ ¥‚ƒ¡ˆ … ‰Š¼…ˆŸŽˆ¥ˆ •ŠŸ…¥…¤ˆ (in bulgarian) (http:/ / www. 12 May 2011 [7] Nuclear Scientific and Experimental Centre (http:/ / irt. and a plaza". journalist Goran Gotev investigated a testimony of an anonymous Soviet Army captain published in Komsomolskaya Pravda. bg/ 2005/ 0805/ 270805/ obshtestvo/ ob-4. Dnevnik. Agency safeguards inspectors monitored and verified the packaging of the fuel.[5] The country has the potential to establish a military nuclear program.org .[1] References [1] GlobalSecurity.[8] As part of its efforts to safeguard potentially weapons-usable atomic material. ©† ŒŠ‚…¦‡† ‚ˆ¤†¥… •‚†ª 1973 Œ.8308273&lon=26. inrne. a sports field. com/ archive/ 2002/ 08/ 12/ interview/ s3453_2. a 2002 act banning the production and storage of nuclear weapons in Bulgaria .Bulgaria 144 Nuclear weapons Bulgaria has never developed nuclear weapons. globalsecurity. which was 36% enriched and took the form of fresh fuel. which is stored near Novi Khan. standartnews. barracks. mlsp. Burma 145 Burma Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . sparked by a report by the Sydney Morning Herald[3] and other articles based on it.[10] The DVB said evidence of Myanmar's nuclear programme came from top-secret documents smuggled out of the country over several years."[5] The deserters described seeing artillerymen wearing masks and gloves to fire the munitions. involves the construction of a nuclear reactor and plutonium extraction facilities in caves tunneled into a mountain at Naung Laing. Thomas Brooks. the Burmese government denied the use of chemical weapons.Burma € 146 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Burma (Myanmar) is reported by various anti-government sources to have developed weapons of mass destruction. purportedly being undertaken with assistance from North Korea. a medical isotope production laboratory. were "reportedly told to take special precautions because they were handling chemical shells. Chemical weapons The first public indications of Burma's possible possession of chemical weapons came in testimony delivered to the United States Congress in 1991 by Rear Adm. a former major in the military of Myanmar.[9] The information cited in the newspaper story reportedly originated from two high-ranking defectors who had settled in Australia. "The centre will comprise a 10MW light-water reactor working on 20%-enriched uranium-235. with varied reports of the country's military in possession of chemical weapons and also working on a nuclear weapons program. Nuclear weapons In 2007 Russia and Burma did a controversial nuclear research center deal. 2010. during their time in service. found evidence that allegedly shows the country's military regime begun a programme to develop nuclear weapons.[4] in which Burma was included on a list of nations that "probably possess" chemical weapons."[6] In response to the Christian Solidarity Worldwide report. silicon doping system. The reported effort.[8] According to an August 2009 report published in the Sydney Morning Herald. there is lack of credible evidence and almost all information cannot be independently verified. [7] Burma signed the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1993 but has yet to ratify the agreement. Burma is working to develop a nuclear weapon by 2014. On June 3. there is widespread belief and report of Burma's nuclear weapons programme. In 2005 Belgian photojournalist Thierry Falise reported speaking to two deserters from the Burmese Army who. Director of Naval Intelligence of the United States Navy. an activation analysis laboratory. nuclear waste treatment and burial facilities". a village in the Mandalay division . the Democratic Voice of Burma (DVB). a five year investigation by an anti-government Myanmar broadcaster. a physician with Christian Solidarity Worldwide reported treating injuries of anti-government Karenni rebels that were "consistent with a chemical attack.[12] . including hundreds of files and other evidence provided by Sai Thein Win.[2] However. Iran and Syria. However.[1] Academics also accuse activists of inflating numbers and defectors fabricating information for personal and political gains. In a separate report from the same year.[][11] A UN report said there was evidence that North Korea had been exporting nuclear technology to Burma. According to them. smh. Accessed November 17. ece). simonjeffery). June 10.Burma In 2009. Accessed August 10. co. com. pdf). uk/ world/ 2005/ apr/ 21/ burma. com/ 1991/ 03/ 10/ world/ after-war-chemical-arms-navy-report-asserts-many-nations-seek-have-poison-gas. [2] Burma and North Korea . 2009. [7] http:/ / www. 2009.Smoke or Fire? (http:/ / www. Sydney Morning Herald. Bloomberg. guardian. nytimes. html). 2009. 2009. The Sunday Times. html). org/ docs07/ Policy_Analysis47. dvb. Accessed November 17. [5] Burmese junta uses chemical weapons (http:/ / www. 2009. Accessed August 9. stm). The Guardian. co. Navy Report Asserts Many Nations Seek Or Have Poison Gas (http:/ / www. May 8. allegedly built with the assistance of North Korea. 22 July 2010 Canada Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC . [6] Burma 'using chemical weapons' (http:/ / www. bloomberg. 2009. 1991. Accessed November 17. no/ textonly/ news. php?id=185). simonjeffery). BBC 15 May 2007 [9] Revealed: Burma‚s nuclear bombshell (http:/ / www. August 1. Australia Strategic Policy Institute. guardian. com/ burmese/ archive/ 2005-04/ 2005-04-22-voa5. burmalibrary.[13] 147 References [1] Media spin takes on nuclear proportions (http:/ / english. 2009. 2005. were smuggled out of the country. New York Times. 2009. [3] Burma 's Nuclear Bombshell (http:/ / www. Accessed August 9. Democratic Voice of Burma. 2009. [11] Myanmar Nuclear Weapon Program Claims Supported by Photos. uk/ world/ 2005/ apr/ 21/ burma. bbc. August 24. August 24. uk/ tol/ news/ world/ article519966. 2005. pictures of a network of tunnels. March 10. Jane's Reports (http:/ / www. timesonline. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 6658713. 2009. co. voanews. au/ world/ burmax2019s-nuclear-secrets-20090731-e4fv. Accessed August 9. 2007. cfm?moddate=2005-04-22 [8] Russia and Burma in nuclear deal (http:/ / news. Sydney Morning Herald. co. html). [4] Chemical Arms. com/ news/ 2010-07-21/ myanmar-nuclear-weapon-program-claims-supported-by-photos-jane-s-reports. April 21. Nuclear weapons Introduction With the world's longest undefended border and the shared responsibility for the defence of North America.Canada € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 148 France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Canada does not possess any weapons of mass destruction and has signed treaties repudiating possession of them. Canada ratified the Geneva Protocol in 1930 and the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty in 1970. Canada fielded a total of four tactical nuclear weapons systems which deployed several hundred nuclear warheads.[1] From 1963 to 1984. The first US nuclear weapon came to Canada in 1950 when the USAF stationed 11 Fat Man atomic bombs at Goose Bay. Canadian cooperation with the US required the alignment of Canadian doctrine with defensive elements of American nuclear weapons doctrine. Canada has long been a military ally of the United States. Labrador. With the American emphasis on nuclear deterrence following the Soviet Union's atom bomb test.[] . Canadian foreign policy was determined in Britain.[][10] Canada would continue to supply fissionable material to the US and other allies throughout the Cold War although Canada never developed indigenous nuclear weapons as did NATO allies France and the United Kingdom. Known as the Ogdensburg agreement.[2] In 1939 Canada declared war on Germany a week later than Great Britain. After briefly allowing nuclear weapons to be temporarily stationed in Goose Bay. The mass was less than earlier estimates and suggested that development of a fission bomb was practical. it established North American Warning Lines the Permanent Joint Board on Defence. The United States developed the first atomic bomb under the Manhattan Project which was so secret that Vice President Harry S. Jet Engine designs as well as "Tube Alloys". Canada's only specific role in the Manhattan Project was providing raw material. Although the Dominion of Canada came in to being on July 1. British information related to the German Enigma machines.[5] Both nations are founding members of the United Nations[6] as well as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). 1941.5 kiloton of force.[3] The United States did not enter the war until December 7. Truman was unaware of it when he became President after the death of President Roosevelt. Materials included the cavity-magnetron which was essential to RADAR. including uranium ore from a northern mine which may have been used in the construction of the atom bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima in 1945. the AIR-2 Genie delivered 1.[9] "Tube Alloys" was part of a shipment of the most secret scientific research in Great Britain that was sent to the United States for safekeeping when the threat of German invasion was significant. Howe. and may not qualify as a weapon of mass destruction given its limited yield. 1867.[4] One of the first formal agreements for military cooperation was made in August 1940. In 1964 Canada sent its White Paper on Defence to U. Canada was closely aligned with defensive elements of United States programs in both NORAD and NATO. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to ensure he would not. the Canadian Minister of Munitions and Supply.D. 149 Early history: World War II and into the Cold War Canada‚s military relationship with the United States has grown significantly since the Second World War. One significant contribution was a calculation of the critical mass of uranium. Labrador. Canada agreed to a long term lease of the .[7] They signed the NORAD Agreement in 1957 and created the North American Air Defense Command[8] to defend the continent against attacks from the USSR. 1939. This was the code name for the British Uranium Committee project which had worked on a theoretical design for an atomic bomb. on September 10. It is unlikely that Canadian officials were aware of the Manhattan Project beyond the circumstances of the delivery of "Tube Alloys". The single system retained. and was designed to strike enemy aircraft as opposed to ground targets.S. In the 1942 Quebec Agreement. the United Kingdom and the United States agreed to develop the "Tube Alloys" Project and created a committee to manage the project which included C. Canadian foreign policy became independent in December 1931 with the passage of the Statutes of Westminster. ƒfind anything in these references contrary to any views [he] may have expressed. with a few exceptions.[11] Canada was little more than just a third-party supplier of rare materials.Canada Throughout the Cold War. Canada entered the Great War in 1914 when Great Britain declared war on Germany and the Austria-Hungarian Empire.„[] Canada withdrew three of the four nuclear-capable weapons systems by 1972. 150 Inventory of Canada•s nuclear armaments BOMARC CIM-10.[13] In 1954 the Distant Early Warning Line (DEW) was established jointly by the US and Canada in the Arctic. which was manned by the Canadian military. Some of this is due to improved technology but more is due to the decline of the bomber threat and reductions in Canadian military spending. It is generally understood that the Bomarc missile warheads were delivered on this cold (-13 degrees Celsius) winter night when a group of protesters stood down from a vigil at the gates of the missile site. The warheads were never in the sole possession of Canadian personnel. Warhead: B57 bomb 5-20 kilotons. Warhead: W40 7-10 kiloton Honest John. Through 1984. It was said they assumed that the RCAF would be unlikely to work on this traditional evening of celebration. Combat Warhead: W25 1. Beginning with Ground Controlled Interception updated from the Second World War. Warhead W7 8-61 kiloton CF-104 Starfighter. B43 bomb 1 Mt VooDoo weapons test. These bombs would have been armed in wartime with materials brought from the United States.[14] The Pinetree Line was built to control the air battle between the NORAD interceptor forces and manned Soviet bombers.5 kilotons On New Year's Eve in 1963. Canada would deploy four American designed nuclear weapons delivery systems accompanied by hundreds of US-controlled warheads: € 56 BOMARC CIM-10 surface-to-air missiles[] € 4 Honest John rocket systems armed with a total of 16 W31 nuclear warheads the Canadian Army deployed in Germany. that on paper. In execution. even in the early years of the Cold War. In 1951 the Pinetree Line was established north of the US-Canadian border.[12] The Americans were refused permission to stockpile bomb casings for the B-36 at Goose Bay. Canada and the US were to be jointly responsible for the defence of the continent. B28 bomb 70-350 kt. and in 1953 Canada built the Mid-Canada Air Warning Line.[] € 108 nuclear W25 Genie rockets carried by 54 CF-101 VooDoos[] € estimates of 90 to 210 tactical (20-60 kiloton) nuclear warheads assigned to 6 CF-104 Starfighter squadrons (about 90 aircraft) based with NATO in Europe (there is a lack of open sources detailing exactly how many warheads were deployed)[16] . The delivery was photographed by the press and this revealed to the world that the delivery had taken place. the system has been computerized and automated with at least four new generations of technology being employed. It was clear.Canada Goose Bay base to the US Strategic Air Command. the Royal Canadian Air Force delivered a shipment of nuclear warheads to the Bomarc missile site near RCAF Station North Bay[15] The Government of Canada never publicly admitted to the presence of nuclear weapons on Canadian bases in Canada and Germany but their presence was common knowledge at the time. In the 1950s the RCAF contributed fourteen squadrons of CF-100 interceptors and this was reduced to three squadrons of CF-101s by 1970. Goose Bay was used as a base for air refueling tankers which were to support the SAC B-47 and B-52 bomber forces. Canadian investment in air defense has decreased significantly with the decline of the intercontinental strategic bomber threat. in the case of Honest John warheads). They were the property of the Government of the United States and were always under the direct supervision of a "Custodial Detachment" from the United States Air Force (or Army. Canada In practice. The Honest John was retired by the Canadian Army in 1970. These stations were supported by RCAF CF-101 interceptors at Bagotville Quebec and Chatham New Brunswick. 151 Cold War relationship with the US Canada‚s Cold War military doctrine and fate was inextricably tied with that of the United States. assembly and choke points and other tactical targets in order to slow the massive tank formations of the Red Army as they poured into the Fulda Gap and on towards the Rhine River. the Eastern Seaboard of the United States would be approached through the UK-Iceland-Greenland gap and a line of search radars ran down the coast of Labrador and on to Gander Newfoundland. as well as USAF F-102 interceptors stationed at Stephenville Newfoundland (Harmon Air Base). .whether it was targeted or not. In particular. airfields. the CF-101 interceptor force remained as the only nuclear-armed system in Canadian use until it was replaced by the CF-18 in 1984. The two nations shared responsibility for continental air defence through NORAD (North American Air Defense Command) and both belonged to NATO and contributed forces in Europe. All of these employ conventional warheads. The most likely routes for Soviet aircraft attacking the United States came through Canada.5 kiloton W25 warheads present from 1973 to 1984.[18] The CF-18 aircraft is equipped with the AIM-7. Canada would have been crippled. In total. These were presumably equipped with nuclear-armed AIM-26 Nuclear Falcon missiles as this was a standard configuration on the F-102. Prime Minister Brian Mulroney‚s 1987 Canadian White Paper on Defence acknowledged this reality citing that. short-range and unguided Genie. From late in 1972. each of 36 NATO squadrons (initially six Canadian squadrons Number 1 Air Division RCAF) would provide two aircraft and pilots to a Quick Reaction Alert facility. The 'Q' aircraft could be launched with an armed US nuclear weapon within 15 minutes of receiving the 'go' order. There may have been fewer due to attrition of CF-101s as the program aged and as incoming CF-18s became combat-qualified. They also supported the SAC Airborne Alert Force and would have refueled any surviving bombers returning from the USSR. It led to a familiar phrase of the time. ƒincineration without representation". as Canada‚s geo-political relationship with the US meant that Canada would inevitably be widely devastated by any US-Soviet nuclear exchange . There were at most 108 Genie missiles armed with 1. It provided a dispersed force upwards of 100 strike aircraft for use on short notice. bridges. Should nuclear war with the USSR have broken out. These missiles are more reliable. Missions were targeted at troop concentrations.[20] The DEW Line and Pinetree Line radar systems formed the backbone of continental air defence in the 1950s and 1960s. The Bomarc missile was phased out in 1972 and the CF-104 Strike/Attack squadrons in West Germany were reduced in number and reassigned to conventional ground attack at about the same time. Canada hosted no intercontinental strategic bombers but the Strategic Air Command base at Goose Bay Labrador hosted a large number of KC-135 air refueling tankers. This arrangement was called the NATO Quick Reaction Alert Force. AIM-9 and several more advanced air-to-air missiles. These were intended to top up the fuel tanks of the outbound B-52 strike force headed for targets in the USSR. accurate and have longer range than the nuclear-tipped. there were between 250 and 450 nuclear warheads on Canadian bases between 1963 and 1972. ƒSoviet strategic planners must regard Canada and the United States as a single set of military targets no matter what political posture we might assume. They are also free of the encumbering security procedures and considerable political baggage associated with nuclear warheads.„[19] This sums up Canada‚s Cold War predicament well.[17] This number decreased significantly through the years as various systems were withdrawn from service. Furthermore. For Canadians.[25] This may suggest that successive Canadian governments were willing to follow US and NATO doctrine even if said doctrine was counter to the publicly favoured (and politically supported) doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction.S. Canada allowed for forward deployment of NORAD blast doors . nuclear parity between the United States and the Soviet Union. Canadians were still nervous about US foreign policy. however. this dynamic was noted: ƒOne of the most important changes in international affairs in recent years had been the increase in stability of nuclear deterrence. in effect. Professors J.„[24] However. and generally lacks sophistication and subtlety in its approach to the Soviet bloc and the cold war. Jockel and J. Prime Minister Mulroney‚s Defence White Paper acknowledged that. as any missiles shot down before reaching either side would likely fall on Canadian soil. and thus neither could rationally consider launching a deliberate attack. "incineration without representation" led to a popular belief that the doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD) was in Canada‚s best interest. ƒeach superpower now has the capacity to obliterate the other. Pearson recalled the remarks caused Ottawa to collectively ƒshudder„. including those that implied a US strike-first policy.„[21] Even as late as 1987. 1956 Continued cooperation with the US to present The Government of Canada formally agreed to every major North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) strategic document.J.T.„[22] Given the prospect of "incineration without representation". Canadians seemed to feel that the doctrine which most encouraged restraint was the strategically soundest one to support. Truman announced that Washington had not entirely ruled out the use of nuclear weapons in Korea. is prone to making sweeping judgments. if Canadian leadership was nervous about US foreign policy. Prime Minister Lester B.[23] One Cold War contemporary observer even remarked that. Nuclear weapon test Apache. MAD was appealing in this light.Canada 152 "Incineration without representation" For the Canadian public. that it is impatient. thereby discouraging either state from launching any nuclear offensive. In 1950. President Harry S. they did not voice their discontent through actions. when U. Each side now has sufficient nuclear strength to assure devastating retaliation in the event of a surprise attack by the other. Sokolsky explore this assertion in-depth in their article "Canada's Cold War Nuclear Experience". and the emergence of what is. In Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau‚s 1971 Defence White Paper. any nuclear war would assuredly destroy both nations. Canada was consistently and significantly cooperative with the United States when it came to nuclear weapons doctrine and deployments through the Cold War.†the structure of mutual deterrence today is effective and stable. MAD was the Cold War doctrine which held that as long as both the US and USSR possessed significant nuclear arsenals. as Canada was unlikely to emerge from any nuclear exchange unscathed given its position between the two countries. ƒCanadians often think that their neighbour to the south exhibits wild swings of emotional attachments†with other countries. The Government believes that it must remain so. Canada continues to cooperate with the United States and its nuclear weapons program. plague.[28] 153 Chemical weapons During both World War I and World War II. even after disarming itself in 1984.[] Canada also continues to remain under the NATO 'nuclear umbrella'. Tests at CFB Gagetown of Agent Orange and the more toxic Agent Purple in 1966 and 1967 caused a variety of acute and chronic illnesses among soldiers and civilians working there. Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Canadian research involved developing protections against biowarfare attacks and for offensive purposes. an undetermined amount of these UXOs are known to be chemical weapons. He is credited with raising the alarm about the potential development of biological and chemical weapons by Germany in London in 1939. There have been some claims that he was a key biological warfare researcher. the Canadian Government was thoroughly committed to supporting US nuclear doctrine and deployments through the Cold War. Banting had served as a Medical Officer with the Canadian Expeditionary Force in the Great War. Canada says it has destroyed all military stockpiles and no longer conducts toxin warfare research. CFB Suffield is the leading research centre. Biological weapons Canada had a biological warfare research program in the early to middle part of the 20th century. in spite of any popular reservations concerning this dynamic. ricin. botulinum toxin.[26] Canada was second only to West Germany in hosting nuclear related facilities.[32] Canada has thus experimented with such things as weaponized anthrax.[29] Following both world wars. Canada has maintained support for nuclear armed nations as doing otherwise would be counter to Canadian NATO commitments. 1972.Canada US bombers and participated actively and extensively in the NORAD program. Human testing of chemical weapons such as sarin and VX gas continued in Canada well into the 1960s. early warning. Thousands of Canadian soldiers were exposed to mustard gas. and other agents. Canadian military forces returning home were directed to dump millions of tons of unexploded ordnance (UXOs) into the Atlantic Ocean off ports in Nova Scotia. surveillance and communications. and some were permanently injured as a result.[31] These tests left Canada with large stockpiles of chemical weapons.[] There is. Human experimentation was carried out during World War II. Like many of his peers in senior positions during the Second World War.[27] In short. Canada eventually abandoned the use of lethal chemical weapons. Over 60% of Canadians live in cities or areas designated ƒNuclear Weapons Free„. but not in World War II. and dangerous defoliation agents were tested at CFB Gagetown from 1956 to 1967. This experience would have made clear to him the depths of cruelty inherent in modern warfare. His influence on members of Churchill's administration may have contributed to a later decision to conduct germ warfare research at Porton Down. 1995. often with the help of the UK and the US. as well. blister gas. the discoverer of insulin. with CFB Suffield becoming the leading research facility.[30] The 1972 London Convention prohibited further marine dumping of UXOs. Canada still employs Riot control agents which are classified as non-lethal weapons. Canada allows testing of nuclear weapon delivery systems. These were used in combat in World War I. Canada was a major producer and developer of chemical weapons for the Allied war effort. Of particular interest is that Canada's Sir Frederick Banting. Banting was killed in 1941 in the . and had to devote a great deal of effort to safely destroying them. reflecting a contemporary disinclination towards nuclear weapons in Canada. and aircraft carrying nuclear warheads are permitted to fly in Canadian airspace with the permission of the Canadian government. Canada cooperated with the US when it came to research. tear gas. however. however the chemical weapons existing off the shores of Nova Scotia for over 60 years continue to bring concern to local communities and the fishing industry. Canada ratified the Biological Weapons Convention on September 18. While it has no more permanently stationed nuclear weapons as of 1984. Canada ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention on September 26. Brucellosis and tularemia. rinderpest virus. popular objection to this federal policy. served as an Army Major in World War II. nuclear weapon carrying vessels are permitted to visit Canadian ports. in recent years it has become less vocal on the issue of disarmament. A public furor arose in 1983. and therefore of limited military usefulness). not under IAEA safeguards. and blocks on nuclear proliferation. CANDU reactors are designed to be refuelled while running. that were derived from the CANDU design and are used for power generation. Operation Shakti. Unlike most designs. The end result. like all power reactor designs. international observers have concluded that no plutonium was diverted from the safeguarded CANDU reactors (see [35]). Newfoundland. the CANDU does not require enriched fuel. passing much information on to the United Nations. CANDU reactors. Accordingly. but these plans were shelved. These may also be used for plutonium production. India has also built a number of reactors. however. There is also talk of taking Soviet nuclear fuel and using it as fuel in CANDU reactors. which makes the details of such safeguards significantly different from other reactor designs. the need for increased border defense. India owns two licensed CANDU reactors and began nuclear weapons tests shortly after they became operational in 1972. A common accusation is that India used Canadian reactors to produce plutonium for weapons. CANDU reactors produce and use plutonium in their fuel rods during normal operation (roughly 50% of the energy generated in a CANDU reactor comes from the in situ fission of plutonium created in the uranium fuel). like most power reactors in the world. 154 Disarmament Canada is a member of every international disarmament organization and is committed to pushing for an end to nuclear weapons testing. but the material for India's most recent nuclear test. and in theory is therefore much less likely to lead to the development of weaponized missile fuel. Canada discussed building a reconnaissance satellite to monitor adherence to such treaties. are subject to safeguards under the United Nations which prevent possible diversion of plutonium.[33] Canada continues to promote peaceful nuclear technology exemplified by the CANDU reactor. This was about a year prior to work on Anthrax that took place at Grosse Ile. particularly in the Territories. In the 1970s. bans on weapons in outer space. when the Canadian government approved a plan to test cruise missiles in Alberta. However. However. a ban on all chemical and biological weapons. reduction in nuclear arsenals.Canada crash of a Hudson bomber just east of Gander. Canada maintains a division of its Foreign Affairs department devoted to pursuing these ends. while en route to England for work related to his research on the Franks flying suit. but this is controversial . It also dedicates significant resources in trying to verify that current treaties are being obeyed. is thought to come from the locally-designed Dhruva reactor. Quebec beginning in 1942. However. The plutonium for the initial bombs came from the older CIRUS reactor built by Canada (see Nuclear Weapons above). Canada has volunteered to help destroy some of the leftover chemical weapons of the USSR. is a consistent and internationally accepted level of proliferation risk. .[34] and this plutonium could be used in a nuclear explosive if separated and converted to metallic form (albeit only as reactor-grade plutonium. has recently overshadowed other issues in military circles. com/books?id=sT5Asq_OKmoC&pg=PP1). candu. Dundurn Press Ltd.S. September..com/books?id=3HjXd5HJYlwC&pg=PP1). Dundurn Press Ltd.org/opinion_ge. justice. ca/ cnf_sectionF. 1931 . UBC Press. Maloney (25 July 2007). stfx.google. ISBN–978-0-7748-0888-0 External links € Edwards.google. Canadian nuclear weapons: the untold story of Canada's Cold War arsenal (http:// books. Statute of Westminster. ISBN–978-1-55002-299-5 € John Clearwater (1999). On This Day. 1983. G. ISBN–978-1-55002-329-9. nuclear weapons in Canada (http://books. ca/ IDC-1-71-208-1040-10/ conflict_war/ cruise_missile_test/ ) . ca/ on_this_day/ 09/ 10/ ) [30] Sea-dumped munitions: An unseen threat (http:/ / web. pdf) . Avoiding Armageddon: Canadian military strategy and nuclear weapons. Ben. [34] Rouben. archive.com/ books?id=I3_oaypyhB8C&pg=PP1).ccnr. € Sean M.Canada 155 References [2] Final Report of the French Constitutional Drafting Committee. U. Learning to love the bomb: Canada's nuclear weapons during the Cold War (http://books. gc.html) Montreal Gazette. . 2002. Inc. € Andrew Richter (2002).Enactment No. org/ web/ 20090613023230/ http:/ / www. ca/ eng/ pi/ const/ lawreg-loireg/ p1t171. 9 August 1998. org/ library/ 20040501. Sept. org). ca/ research/ polgov/ UnseenThreat. cbc.CANTEACH (http:/ / canteach. candu. [33] Cruise missile testing coming to Canada (http:/ / archives. html) [3] CBC Archives.CBC. "Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War 1937-1947". 1950-63 (http:/ /books. nuclearfaq. Potomac Books. John. 10. htm#x1 Further reading € John Clearwater (1998). ISBN 0-7710-1724-3. cbc. [35] http:/ / www. 17 (http:/ / www. 1939 (http:/ / archives.google. ISBN–978-1-57488-616-0. Introduction to Reactor Physics (http:/ / canteach.com/books?id=0s2V4fxHfS4C&pg=PP1). July 15. htm) [32] Bryden. Canada and the Bomb: Past and Future (http://www.google. 1964 July 29.4 Mt (November 17.000 km Yes (1992. one of five recognized powers) Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma . 1992) [] [1] [] [2] Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile Maximum missile range NPT signatory 45 434 ~240 14.000‚kt (May 21. 1996 4 Mt € € Atmospheric .China 156 China China First nuclear weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test October 16. 1976) Underground .660~1. China's first nuclear test took place in 1964 and first hydrogen bomb test occurred in 1967. the country could "more than double" the "number of warheads on missiles that could threaten the United States by the mid-2020s". This. which repeated its nuclear policies of maintaining a minimum deterrent with a no-first-use pledge. According to some estimates. including chemical and nuclear weapons. Yet China has yet to define what it means by a "minimum deterrent posture". invites concern as to the scale and intention of China‚s nuclear upgrade".China € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 157 Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category The People's Republic of China has developed and possessed weapons of mass destruction. which would make it the second smallest nuclear arsenal amongst the five nuclear weapon states acknowledged by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.[] Early in 2011. Tests continued until 1996 when it signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). China has acceded to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) in 1984 and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1997.[] . China published a defense white paper. China is estimated by the Federation of American Scientists to have an arsenal of about 180 active nuclear weapon warheads and 240 total warheads as of 2009. together with the fact that "it is deploying four new nuclear-capable ballistic missiles. China 158 Chemical weapons China signed the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) on January 13. occurred on 16 October 1964. It has declared only three former chemical production facilities that may have produced mustard gas.[9] Nuclear weapons History Mao Zedong decided to begin a Chinese nuclear-weapons program during the First Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1954-1955 over the Quemoy and Matsu Islands. The United States acted upon the allegations on January 16. code-named 596.[6] Kanatjan Alibekov. Construction of uranium enrichment plants in Baotou and Lanzhou began in 1958. however. 1997. said that China suffered a serious accident at one of its biological weapons plants in the late 1980s. The Soviet Union provided assistance in the early Chinese program by sending advisers to help in the facilities devoted to fissile material production. Kennedy and Lyndon B. when it imposed sanctions on three Chinese firms accused of supplying Iran with materials used in the manufacture of chemical and biological weapons. While he did not expect to be able to match the large American nuclear arsenal. but Soviet leader Nikita Khruschev did not display interest. The first Chinese nuclear test. phosgene and Lewisite.[3] In the official declaration submitted to OPCW Chinese government has declared that it had possessed small arsenal of chemical weapons in the past but that it had destroyed it before ratifying Convention. Bennett (R-Utah) in January 1997. 2002. In response to this.[] In July 1960. The Soviets suspected that two separate epidemics of hemorrhagic fever that swept the region in the late 1980s were caused by an accident in a lab where Chinese scientists were weaponizing viral diseases.[10] The American government under John F. and a plutonium facility in Jiuquan and the Lop Nur nuclear test site by 1960.[] . perhaps with the aid of Taiwan or the Soviet Union.[8] Albright stated that she had received reports regarding transfers of dual-use items from Chinese entities to the Iranian government which concerned her and that the United States had to encourage China to adopt comprehensive export controls to prevent assistance to Iran's alleged biological weapons program. China issued export control protocols on dual use biological technology in late 2002. However. China was reported to have had an active biological weapons program in the 1980s. former director of one of the Soviet germ-warfare programs. 1993.[5] Biological weapons China is currently a signatory of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention and Chinese officials have stated that China has never engaged in biological activities with offensive military applications. and promised to provide a prototype bomb. during the Sino-Soviet split. Johnson was concerned about the program and studied ways to sabotage or attack it. Mao believed that even a few bombs would increase China's diplomatic credibility.[4] China was found to have supplied Albania with a small stockpile of chemical weapons in the 1970s during the Cold War. The CWC was ratified April 25. all Soviet assistance with the Chinese nuclear program was abruptly terminated and all Soviet technicians were withdrawn from the program. Alibekov asserted that Soviet reconnaissance satellites identified a biological weapons laboratory and plant near a site for testing nuclear warheads.[7] US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright expressed her concerns over possible Chinese biological weapon transfers to Iran and other nations in a letter to Senator Robert E. notably by the Cox Commission. 1964. hidden in a sophisticated tunnel network. unknown.S. government reports give historical estimates. STRATCOM commander C.S.2020 report estimates the 1999 Nuclear Weapons' Inventory as between 140 and 157. at the Lop Nur test site.[16] China has made significant improvements in its miniaturization techniques since the 1980s.S.S.[] Several non-official sources estimate that China has around 400 nuclear warheads. The tunnel network was revealed after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake collapsed tunnels in the hills.[19] One three year study by Georgetown University raised the possibility that China had 3 000 nuclear weapons. and estimated a 4 800 km (3 000 mile) network. The 1984 Defense Intelligence Agency's Defense Estimative Brief estimates the Chinese nuclear stockpile as consisting of between 150 and 160 warheads. In 2004." [15] China's first test of a nuclear device took place on October 16. There have been accusations.[18] In 2012. that this was done primarily by covertly acquiring the U. U. However. The study was based on state media footage showing tunnel entrances. China.[12] The Defense Intelligence Agency's The Decades Ahead: 1999 .[citation needed] Chinese scientists have stated that they have made advances in these areas.000. [22] A retired Russian officer also claimed that China had many more nuclear weapons..[11] A 1993 United States National Security Council report estimated that China's nuclear deterrent force relied on 60 to 70 nuclear armed ballistic missiles.S. Several declassified U. [23] . China has confirmed the existing of the tunnel network. Although the total number of nuclear weapons in the Chinese arsenal is A mock-up of China's first nuclear bomb.[13] In 2004 the U. This was China's 22nd underground test and 45th test overall. According to the Australian Geological Survey Organization in Canberra. possesses the smallest nuclear arsenal. as of 2005[17] estimates vary from as low as 80 to as high as 2.China 159 Warheads Because of strict secrecy it is very difficult to determine the exact size and composition of China's nuclear forces. Department of Defense assessed that China had about 20 intercontinental ballistic missiles capable of targeting the United States. the US military was ordered by law to study the possibility of this tunnel network concealing a nuclear arsenal. China stated that "among the nuclear-weapon states. the yield of the 1996 test was 1-5 kilotons. Robert Kehler said that the best estimates where "in the range of several hundred" warheads and FAS estimated the current total to be "approximately 240 warheads".. estimating the arsenal at 1 800 nuclear weapons." implying China has fewer than the United Kingdom's 200 nuclear weapons. Defense Intelligence Agency estimate presented to the Senate Armed Services Committee was that "China currently has more than 100 nuclear warheads. intelligence estimates suggest a much smaller nuclear force than many non-governmental organizations. 1996. but insist that these advances were made without espionage.[14] In 2006 a U.'s W88 nuclear warhead design as well as guided ballistic missile technology.[20] [21] In response. China's last nuclear test was on July 29. [24] Delivery Systems Estimates 2010 IISS Military Balance The following are estimates of China's strategic missile forces from the International Institute of Strategic Studies Military Balance 2010.[25] According to these estimates.200+ km 7. Historically. and the design for a compact nuclear weapon. In addition.200+ km . the Chinese Foreign Ministry released a white paper stating that the government would not be the first to use nuclear weapons at any time and under any circumstances. which China ratified in 1992. China has up to 90 inter-continental range ballistic missiles (66 land-based ICBMs and 24 submarine-based JL-2 SLBMs).[] In 2005.750+ km 600–km 300–km 3. China is believed to have given Pakistan a "package" including uranium enrichment technology.000+ km 1."[] Chinese public policy has always been one of the "no first use rule" while maintaining a deterrent retaliatory force targeted for countervalue targets. China has been implicated in the development of the Pakistani nuclear program.China 160 Nuclear policy China is one of the five nuclear weapons states (NWS) recognized by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Type Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles DF-5A (CSS-4 Mod 2) ICBM 20 13. China is the only NWS[] to give an unqualified security assurance to non-nuclear-weapon states: "China undertakes not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon States or nuclear-weapon-free zones at any time or under any circumstances.500–km Missiles Estimated Range DF-31A (CSS-10 Mod 2) road-mobile ICBM 24 DF-31 (CSS-10) road-mobile ICBM DF-4 (CSS-3) ICBM Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles DF-3A (CSS-2 Mod) IRBM Medium Range Ballistic Missiles DF-21C (CSS-5 Mod 3) road-mobile MRBM 36 DF-21 (CSS-5) road-mobile MRBM Short Range Ballistic Missiles DF-15 (CSS-6) road-mobile SRBM DF-11A (CSS-7 Mod 2) road-mobile SRBM Land Attack Cruise Missiles DH-10 LACM Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles JL-1 SLBM JL-2 SLBM Total 12 24 478 54 96 108 80 2 12 10 3.770+ km 7. the paper went on to state that this "no first use" policy would remain unchanged in the future and that China would not use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against any non-nuclear-weapon states or nuclear-weapon-free zones. high-enriched uranium. In the early 1980s.000+ km 1. not counting MIRV warheads.750+ km 1.000+ km 11.200+ km 5. 1971 1980 1981 1991 2006? 2007€2009 3. Nuclear War Planning.a.[27]:202 Chinese Nuclear Forces. n.770+ km 7.S.400+ km 13.100–km 5500–km 13.200+ km CSS-5 MRBM Mod 1/2 75-85 CSS-6 SRBM CSS-7 SRBM DH-10 LACM JL-1 SLBM JL-2 SLBM Total 90-110 120-140 45-55 ? ? 375-459 2006 FAS & NRDC report The following table is an overview of PRC nuclear forces taken from a November 2006 report by Hans M.a.a.3 Mt 1 x 4-5 Mt 1 x 200-300 kt 1x? 16 22 20 35 n.100–km 1-3 x bomb 100 20 CSS-NX-3 CSS-NX-4 1986 2008-2010 ? 1. 93 16 22 20 35 n.000+ km 1 x 200-300 kt 1x? 12 n./NATO designation Year deployed Land-based missiles DF-3A DF-4 DF-5A DF-21A DF-31 DF-31A Subtotal Submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs)** JL-1 JL-2 Subtotal Total strategic ballistic missiles Aircraft*** Hong-6 B-6 1965 3. Robert S.270+ km 1 x ? . Kristensen.000–km 2.S. n.200+ km 11.000+ km 5. 12 105 CSS-2 CSS-3 CSS-4 Mod 2 CSS-5 Mod 1/2 (CSS-X-10) n. 12 105 12 n.500+ km 1. and Matthew G.770+ km 8.000+ km 7. Norris.a.250+ km 1 x 3. 93 Range Warhead x yield Number deployed Warheads deployed 11.a. 2006 China designation U.a.a.150–km 7.China 161 2010 DoD annual PRC military report The following are estimates from the United States Department of Defense 2010 report to Congress concerning the Military Power of the People's Republic of China[26] Type CSS-2 IRBM CSS-3 ICBM DF-5A (CSS-4) ICBM DF-31 ICBM DF-31A ICBM Launchers 5-10 10-15 20 <10 10-15 Missiles 15-20 15-20 20 <10 10-15 85-95 350-400 700-750 200-500 ? ? 1395-1829 Estimated Range 3.200+ km 1.750+ km 600–km 300–km 1.3 Mt 1 x 3. McKinzie of the Federation of American Scientists and the Natural Resources Defense Council titled Chinese Nuclear Forces and U. three-stage. most Western analysts believe China has deployed anywhere from 18 to 36 Dongfeng 5 ("East Wind") intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) since the 1980s. liquid-fueled missile with a range of 13.[citation needed] The Dongfeng 5A is a single-warhead.a. Air Force. ? n.China 162 Attack Subtotal Short-range tactical weapons DF-15 DH-10? Total CSS-6 (LACM) 1990 2006-2007 ? 600–km 1 x low ~300 n. others?) 1 x bomb 20 40 ~1.S.000+ km.S. General Eugene Habiger of the U.500–km ? 1 x low ? Land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles Nuclear weapons Background € € € € € € € € € € € € History Warfare Arms race Design Testing Effects Delivery Espionage Proliferation Arsenals Terrorism Opposition Nuclear-armed states € € € € € € € € € € United States Russia United Kingdom France China Israel India Pakistan North Korea South Africa (former) Although unconfirmed. ~145 (Q-5. In 2000. testified before Congress that China has 18 .a. Strategic Command. then-commander of the U. 00–kN.[27]:61 Tactical cruise missiles The CJ-10 long-range cruise missile made its first public appearance during the military parade on the 60th Anniversary of the People's Republic of China as a part of the Second Artillery Corps' long range conventional missile forces. a diameter of 2.China silo-based DF-5s. CSS-10) is a medium-range. and a fin span of 2.a. the YJ-62 serves as the People's Liberation Army Navy's latest development into naval rocketry. and is used to transport nuclear weapons and forces. three stage. resulting in a relatively poor CEP of 1.05 m.[27]:71-72 The DF-5 had its first flight in 1971 and was in operational service 10 years later.[27]:103 DF-4/CSS-3 The Dong Feng 4 or DF-4 (also known as the CSS-3) is a long-range two-stage Chinese intermediate-range ballistic missile with liquid fuel (nitric acid/UDMH).224.25 m.[28] Since the early 21st century. US Representative Michael Turner[30] referring to 2009 Chinese media reports said ƒThis network of tunnels could be in excess of 5. a takeoff weight of 82000–kg. It has a length 32. It was thought to be deployed in limited numbers in underground silos beginning in 1980.„. A similar naval cruise missile.500–km.110 miles).k.35 m. an intercontinental ballistic missile with a range of 11. the Second Artillery Corps have also deployed up to 10 Solid-fueled mobile DF-31 ICBMs. a length of 28.000 kilometers. It is equipped with a 2190–kg nuclear warhead with 3300 kt explosive yield. targeted at regional theater targets. China stores many of its missiles in huge underground tunnel complexes. It weighs 183 tonnes and has an estimated range of 12.200+ km with possibly 3-6 multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) capability. with a range of 7.200+ km and possibly up to 3 MIRVs. solid propellant intercontinental ballistic missile developed by the People's Republic of China.500 meters.6 m and a diameter of 3. was also revealed during the parade. the CJ-10 represents the next generation in rocket weapons technology in the PLA.[31] the Chinese Army newsletter calls this tunnel system an underground Great Wall of China.[32] 163 Medium range ballistic missiles Approximately 55% of China's missiles are in the medium range category.[citation needed] .74 m. Long range ballistic missiles The Chinese categorize long-range ballistic missiles as ones with a range between 3000 and 8000–km. One of the downsides of the missile was that it took between 30 and 60 minutes to fuel. and its range is 5.[27]:67 The DF-4 has a takeoff thrust of 1.[citation needed] Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) DF-5A/CSS-4 Mod 2 The Dongfeng 5 or DF-5 is a 3 stage Chinese ICBM. It is operated by the Second Artillery Corps (SAC) which is estimated to have 8-12 missiles in inventory[2].[27]:68 The missile uses inertial guidance.000€15.000 kilometers (3. the YJ-62. It is a land-based variant of the submarine-launched JL-2.[29] China has also developed the DF-31A.[citation needed] DF-31/CSS-10 The Dong Feng 31 (a. China DF-41/CSS-X-10 The DF-41 or CSS-X-10 is an intercontinental ballistic missile developed by China. It has a range of approximately 12. Although not confirmed. These are the first domestically developed long-range cruise missiles for China.000–km. which are maneuverable reentry vehicles.800–km. HN-2. This submarine will be capable of carrying 12 of the longer ranged. It is suspected that the Type 092 is being converted into a cruise missile submarine. It can carry up to 10 nuclear warheads. with over 4. It has a range of 2. and the HN-3 has a range of 3.000–km and can cover any position on the planet. integrated inertial navigation system.000-14. The HN-1 has a range of 600–km. The missile is estimated to have a circular error probable (CEP) of 10 meters. Some Chinese sources states that the submarine is already undergoing trials. it is suspected that the CJ-10 could carry nuclear warheads.[33][34][35][36] 164 Nuclear cruise missiles The US DoD estimated in 2006 that the PRC was developing ground.000–km range. and HN-3. A second Type 092 was reportedly lost in an accident in 1985. more modern JL-2s with a range of approximately 14000–km. the Type 095 submarine. Reportedly based on the Kh-SD/65 missiles.[41] Also a new nuclear attack submarine is under development.[][] Sea-based weapons The submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) stockpile of the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) is thought to be relatively new. and digital scene-matching terminal-homing system. CJ-10 The ChangJian-10 (Long Sword 10) is a cruise missile developed by China. The Type 092 is equipped with 12 JL-1 SLBMs with a range of 2150€2500–km. The CF-1 has a range of 400–km while the CF-2 has a range of 800–km. based on the Hongniao missile family.[38][39] HongNiao missile family There are three missiles in this family: the HN-1. GPS. The Chinese navy has developed Type 094 ballistic missile submarine. China launched its first second-generation nuclear submarine in April 1981. The JL-1 is a modified DF-21 missile.[42][43] . the Hongniao (or Red Bird) missiles are some of the first nuclear-capable cruise missiles in China.and air-launched cruise missiles that could easily be converted to carry nuclear warheads once developed.[][][40] ChangFeng missile family There are 2 missiles in the Chang Feng (or Long Wind) family: CF-1 and CF-2. The navy currently has a 1 Type 092 Xia class SSBN at roughly 8000 tons displacement. Both variants can carry a 10–kt nuclear warhead. terrain contour mapping system.[37] DH-10 The DongHai 10 (DH-10) is a cruise missile developed in the People's Republic of China. According to Jane's Defense Weekly. An air-launched variant (named CJ-20) has also been developed. claimed to be able to carry up to 24 JL-2 ballistic missiles each. the DH-10 is a second-generation land-attack cruise missile (LACM).[citation needed] China is also developing the Type 096 submarine.200–km. the HN-2 has a range of 1. open source satellite imagery has shown that at least 2 of these have been completed. able to carry nuclear weapons.[47][48] Missile ranges Maximum Ranges for China‚s Conventional SRBM Force. Notes [2] [3] [4] [5] http:/ / www. org/ html/ db/ members_ratifyer. currently. Note: China currently is capable of deploying ballistic missile forces to support a variety of regional contingencies. Chemical. These bombers are outfitted to carry nuclear as well as conventional weapons. com/ Primer. in/ idsacomments/ DF-41ChinasanswertotheUSBMDefforts_ArjunSubramaniam_121112 States Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention (http:/ / www. China Builds the Bomb (Stanford University Press. carnegieendowment. html) Albania's Chemical Cache Raises Fears About Others (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. New York Times. Country Profile: China (http:/ / www. China has also bought the advanced Sukhoi Su-30 from Russia. Wiley-IEEE. 1999 [8] Leonard Spector. April 5.Washington Post. While the H-6 fleet is aging. mil/ publicaffairs/ Testimonies/ statement24. theepochtimes. 121. DF-31A. cfm?fa=view& id=129). a stealthy variant of the Xian JH-7.[27]:93-98 The Chinese have also produced the Xian JH-7 Flying Leopard fighter-bomber with a range and payload exceeding the F-111 (currently about 80 are in service) capable of delivering a nuclear strike. Introduction to Weapons of Mass Destruction: Radiological. html) NTI Research Library: country profile: China (http:/ / www. 1991).000 Deaths" Epoch Times. and Biological.[27]:102 China is alleged to be testing rumored new H-8 and H-9 strategic bombers which are either described as an upgraded H-6 or an aircraft in the same class as the US B-2. edu/ ~nsarchiv/ news/ 19990527/ 01-01. 53. org/ e_research/ profiles/ China/ Biological/ index. Actual coverage would be non-contiguous and dependent upon precise deployment sites. armscontrolwonk. Page A01 [6] Roland Everett Langford. gwu. html [16] "Chinese Nuclear Tests Allegedly Cause 750. as well as the soon-to-be acquired S-300PMU2. Note: This map depicts notional coverage provided by China‚s SA-10. html) [10] John Lewis and Litai Xue. com/ ac2/ wp-dyn/ A61698-2005Jan9?language=printer) .China 165 Heavy bomber group China's bomber force consists mostly of Chinese-made versions of Soviet aircraft. (http:/ / www. about 100 Su-30s (MKK and MK2 variants) have been purchased by China. 1996 [9] Nuclear Threat Initiative. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. and JL-2. idsa. dia. Monday 10 January 2005. The Su-30 is capable of carrying tactical nuclear weapons. Surface-to-Air Missile Coverage over the Taiwan Strait. March 30. org/ publications/ index. [11] http:/ / www. Chinese Assistance to Iran's Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missile Programs (http:/ / www. Newer systems. opcw. htm [13] (http:/ / www.[44][45][46] China is also testing the JH-7B strike fighter. will give China a more survivable nuclear force. Medium and Intercontinental Range Ballistic Missiles. SA-20 SAM systems. September 12. nti. it is not as old as the American B-52 Stratofortress. Note: China currently is capable of targeting its nuclear forces throughout the region and most of the world. such as the DF-31. 2004 [7] William J Broad. including the continental United States. com/ n2/ content/ view/ 14535/ ) . org/ e_research/ profiles/ China/ index. nti. 61. 2009. pdf) [15] http:/ / www. The People's Liberation Army Air Force has 120 H-6s (a variant of the Tupolev Tu-16). Soviet Defector Says China Had Accident at a Germ Plant. Chinese Nuclear Forces and U.S.csis. html [32] http:/ / english. fas. Hans.org/irp/threat/930728-wmd.htm).596 test (http://sonicbomb. iiss. € Nuclear Notebook: Chinese nuclear forces. Nuclear War Planning (http:// www. 2004/04/27 € FY04 Report to Congress on PRC Military Power (http://www.metapress. org/ nuke/ guide/ china/ Book2006. straitstimes. 1. Office of the Secretary of Defense.China [17] http:/ / en." (http:/ / www. Ministry of Foreign Affairs.com/nuclear/default. php?title=People%27s_Republic_of_China_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction& action=edit [19] Kristensen. Nov/Dec 2003.pdf).sinodefence. pdf) [27] Kristensen.org/country-profiles/china/) € PLA Strategic Missile Force . U.org/nuke/guide/china/Book2006. Norris. defense.com/content/1l02746205r708t6/ ?p=7fe893d4b1cf48adaaa1c45dbd1e23b3&pi=0). Military Power of the People‚s Republic of China.org/nuke/guide/summary.S.pdf) € China Nuclear Forces Guide (http://www. [28] (http:/ / www. (2006). Chinese Nuclear Forces and U. 27. November 2006.org/media/csis/ pubs/060620_china_nuclear_report. Nuclear War Planning (http:/ / www. [24] Matthew Kroenig. 24 April 1984 € Report to Congress on Status of China. Hans M.S. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=146) at sonicbomb. pp. "The ambiguous arsenal" (http://thebulletin.org (http://www.com/modules. fas. Nuclear Weapons Systems in China (http://www. United States National Security Council. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.mil/pubs/d20040528PRC.com/content/u1r177j304r10658/ ?p=bcd107edf65d4692a6e1aa63f1ecf566&pi=6). Matthew G. Defense Intelligence Agency.htm).fas. [25] IISS Military Balance 2010 (http:/ / www. com/ BreakingNews/ Asia/ Story/ STIStory_723617. 2010). php) FAS. 2006. php?art_ofn=mj05lewis) [30] http:/ / chinadigitaltimes. net/ 2011/ 10/ u-s-lawmaker-warns-of-chinas-nuclear-strategy [31] http:/ / www. com/ News/ editorials/ archives/ 2006/ 12/ 06/ 2003339341 [43] http:/ / www. [42] http:/ / www. 1993 € Nuclear Files. com/ Nuclear-Attack-Submarines/ Type-095_a001843001.fas. 2006 € Fact Sheet: China: Nuclear Disarmament and Reduction (http://www. org/ w/ index.asp) € Jeffrey Lewis.php?name=Content& pa=showpage&pid=153&page=2) € Conference on U.Annual Report to Congress: Military Power of the People's Republic of China 2010 (PDF) (http:/ / www. wikipedia. McKinzie.com (http://sonicbomb. Robert S. 26.pdf).fmprc.defenselink.-China Strategic Nuclear Dynamics (http://www. People's Republic of China. 2006.metapress.htm). gov/ pubs/ pdfs/ 2010_CMPR_Final. org/ publications/ military-balance/ ) [26] Office of the Secretary of Defense . May 23. chosun.fas. June 20€21. taipeitimes.nti. org/ blog/ ssp/ 2012/ 08/ china-nukes.nuclearfiles. aspx 166 Further reading € Federation of American Scientists et al.htm).com) € First nuclear test Video .org/nuke/guide/china/) Federation of American Scientists External links € Chinese Nuclear Weapon Testing Video (http://sonicbomb. pdf). thebulletin.gov. html [37] U. Federation of American Scientists € Nuclear Threat Initiative on China (http://www.Chinese Defence Today (http://www. July 28. Exporting the Bomb: Technology Transfer and the Spread of Nuclear Weapons (Cornell University Press. India and Pakistan Nuclear and Ballistic Missile Programs (http://www. 2003 (http://thebulletin. Department of Defense.gwu. Federation of American Scientists and Natural Resources Defense Council.com/modules.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/jks/cjjk/ 2622/t93539. May/June 2005. "STRATCOM Commander Rejects High Estimates for Chinese Nuclear Arsenal. org/ article.S.S.edu/~nsarchiv/news/ 19990527/01-01.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/proliferation/china/ ) Information on the background of nuclear weapons in China . deagel. fas. com/ site/ data/ html_dir/ 2009/ 12/ 14/ 2009121400292. € Defense Estimative Brief. 22 August 2012. Department of Defense € Status of Nuclear Powers and Their Nuclear Capabilities (http://www. htm) Current information on nuclear stockpiles in China € Parallel History Project On Cooperative Security (http://www.China € Nuclear Files. Robert S.com/content/25094v7235832574/ ?p=32f5d223f2ab4b698a1c3f6227d32fff&pi=8). October 2002 € Chinese nuclear forces.org) € Annotated bibliography for the Chinese nuclear weapons program from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http://alsos.cfm?navinfo=16034).ethz. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http://www.isn.ch/collections/coll_china_wapa/ negin_smirnov_engl. 2008 (http://thebulletin.aspx?keyword=chinese+nuclear+weapons&creator=&title=& media=all&genre=all&disc=all&level=all&sortby=relevance&results=10&period=15) 167 .metapress. Kristensen. Account of Soviet-China nuclear technology transfer.org (http://www.wlu.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/nuclear-stockpiles.php.thebulletin. Norris and Hans M.nuclearfiles.edu/adv_rst. 1968 January 27. (M51 SLBM) Yes (1992. 1996 2. one of five recognized powers) Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € Albania Algeria Argentina .France 168 France France First nuclear weapon test First fusion weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile Maximum missile range NPT signatory February 13.6 Mt (August 20. 1960 August 23. 1968) 210 540 (in 1992) 298 (in 2011) >10.000 mi.000 km/6. France € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 169 Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category . and acceded to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) in 1984. ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1995. developed in the late 1950s and 1960s to give France the ability to distance itself from NATO while having a means of nuclear deterrence under sovereign control. making it the third-largest in the world. The French military is currently thought to retain a weapons stockpile of around 300 operational nuclear warheads. . France is one of the five "Nuclear Weapons States" under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. which gave it the option to conduct further nuclear tests until it signed and ratified the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996 and 1998 respectively.[1][2] France was the fourth country to test an independently developed nuclear weapon in 1960.France 170 Nuclear weapons Background € € € € € € € € € € € € History Warfare Arms race Design Testing Effects Delivery Espionage Proliferation Arsenals Terrorism Opposition Nuclear-armed states € € € € € € € € € € United States Russia United Kingdom France China Israel India Pakistan North Korea South Africa (former) France is known to have an arsenal of weapons of mass destruction. but is not known to possess or develop any chemical or biological weapons. France denies currently having chemical weapons. France had also ratified the Geneva Protocol in 1926.[3] The weapons are part of the national Force de frappe. under the government of Charles de Gaulle. France did not sign the Partial Test Ban Treaty. I. apparently leading the field with an early test of the technology in 1967 [10] and an 'actual' neutron bomb in 1980. one "national" for the Force de Frappe's role as a solely French deterrent. The United States.M.S. Because the French program attracted "the best brains" of the nation. This was discontinued after the warWikipedia:Please clarify because of the instability of the Fourth Republic and the lack of finance available. and were told whether they were correct. a byproduct of which would be plutonium. in the then French Sahara. the final decisions to build an atomic bomb were taken. But after the Liberation in 1945.[] France is understood to have tested neutron or enhanced radiation bombs in the past. In 1958 de Gaulle became President and Germany and Italy were excluded. a new nuclear tests facility replacing the C. There was no formal commitment to a nuclear weapons program at that time. The intervention of the United States in the Suez Crisis that year is credited with convincing France that it needed to accelerate its own nuclear weapons program to remain a global power. The aid was secret.E. the first French reactor went critical in 1948 and small amounts of plutonium were extracted in 1949. The Nixon administration. The relationship also improved the two nations' military ties. Because the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 prohibited sharing information on nuclear weapon design. in the 1950s a civilian nuclear research program was started.[4] During the Second World War Goldschmidt invented the now-standard method for extracting plutonium while working as part of the British/Canadian team participating in the Manhattan Project. a method known as "negative guidance" or "Twenty Questions" was used. however.[8] The West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer told his cabinet that he "wanted to achieve. unlike previous presidencies. French scientists described to their American counterparts their research. intelligence on Soviet anti-missile defenses. as quickly as possible. the chance of producing our own nuclear weapons". began providing technical assistance in the early 1970s through the 1980s.France 171 History France was one of the nuclear pioneers. France developed its nuclear and thermonuclear bombs without outside assistance. one that would defend France even if the United States refused to risk its own cities by assisting Western Europe in a nuclear war. missile design.E.[11] . and advanced computer technology. going back to the work of Marie Curie. France had to start again almost from scratch. radiation hardening. did not oppose its allies' possession of atomic weapons and believed that the Soviets would find having multiple nuclear-armed Western opponents more difficult.S.[9] The idea was short-lived. although plans were made to build reactors for the large scale production of plutonium. Areas in which the French received help included MIRV.[] In 1956 the French agreed to secretly build the Dimona nuclear reactor in Israel and soon after agreed to construct a reprocessing plant for the extraction of plutonium at the site. France developed two separate nuclear targeting plans.E. and a successful test took place in 1960. In 1956 a secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy was formed and a development program for delivery vehicles was started. French president Renœ Coty decided on the creation of the C. Since then France has developed and maintained its own nuclear deterrent. and one coordinated with NATO. and under cover of the peaceful use of nuclear power the French signed deals with Germany and Italy to work together on nuclear weapons development. the Americans benefited from French research as well. The following year Euratom was created. through EURATOM. Nevertheless.[5] However. despite its departure from NATO's command structure in 1966. soon after Suez and the resulting diplomatic tension with both the USSR and the United States.[6] In 1957. unlike the relationship with the British nuclear program.[7] With the return of Charles de Gaulle to the presidency of France in the midst of the May 1958 crisis. Curie‚s last assistant Bertrand Goldschmidt became the father of the French Bomb. [12][13] Saharan experiments centers (1960€1966) After studying Rœunion. The Evian agreements included a secret article which stated that "Algeria concede.E.[16] After the independence of Algeria on 5 July 1962. four times more powerful than Hiroshima and designed as an underground shaft test. measured on the site 93 microsieverts by hour of gamma ray. the third atomic bomb. soldiers and Algerian workers were exposed to lower levels of radiation.. likely due in part to the Algerian War. Pierre Messmer.[15] Gerboise Rouge (5kt). a shower after each test according to L'Humanit„. and French Polynesia. head of the Special Weapons Section. sites and military installations which are necessary to it [France]" during five years. from 7 November 1961 to 16 February 1966. General Charles Ailleret. and Clipperton Island. also in the Algerian Sahara. The 13 underground tests were carried out at In Ekker.M. and 700–km/435–mi. USSR. which he always attributed to the Beryl incident. Military.[14] The device had a 70 kiloton yield. 1962. proposed two possible nuclear test sites for France in a January 1957 report: French Algeria in the Sahara Desert.France 172 Testing There were 210 French nuclear tests from 1960 until 1996. The first. to France the use of certain air bases. radioactive rock and dust were released into the atmosphere. These four atmospheric tests were carried out at with a forward base at Hammoudia near Reggane.S. Three other atmospheric tests were carried out from 1 April 1960 to 25 April 1961. south of Bœchar.[18] The soldiers were exposed to as much as 600 mSv. during the "Bœryl" test.[] A series of atmospheric nuclear tests was conducted by the Centre Saharien d'Exp„rimentations Militaires ("Saharan Military Experiments Center") from February 1960 until April 1961. terrains. Nine soldiers of the 621st Groupe d'Armes Spœciales unit were heavily contaminated by radiation. when the radioactive cloud produced by the blast passed over the command post. In 2006. Nigeria and Ghana. The explosion took place at 40–km from the military base of Reggane. which is the last town on the Tanezrouft Track heading south across the Sahara to Mali. 1967. often without wearing any protection. Bruno Barillot.. the French military moved to In Ecker. Experimentations lasted from November 1961 until February 1966. estimated at about 50 mSv. half as powerful as Hiroshima. Although he recommended against Polynesia because of its distance from France and lack of a large airport. As many as 100 additional personnel. exploded on 27 December 1960. 17 of them were done in the Algerian Sahara between 1960 and 1966. called "Gerboise bleue" ("blue jerboa") took place on 13 February 1960 in Algeria. 150–km/93–mi. and the Minister of Research. Morocco. workers and the nomadic Touareg population of the region were present at the test sites. They escaped as they could. Gaston Palewski. New Caledonia. The General Pierre Marie Gallois was named le pˆre de la bombe A ("Father of the A-bomb"). following the 19 March Evian agreements. were present. Egypt. By July 1. An accident happened on May 1. 193 were carried out in French Polynesia. At most. including officials. all French facilities were evacuated. due to an unexpected change in wind direction. north of Tamanrasset. Although Algeria became independent in 1962 France continued nuclear tests there until 1966 although the later tests were underground rather than atmospheric.[15] The incident was documented in the 2006 docudrama "Vive La Bombe!"[19] . without any significant protection.[17] Due to improper sealing of the shaft. provoking protests from Japan. specialist of nuclear tests. The C. Ailleret stated that Algeria should be chosen "provisionally". equivalent to 1% of the official admissible yearly dose. The Minister of Armed Forces. Palewski died in 1984 of leukemia. was therefore replaced by the Centre d'Exp„rimentations Militaires des Oasis ("Military Experiments Center of the Oasis") underground tests facility. starting in the middle of the Algerian War. which could not be done in Algeria. Pacific experiments center (1966€1996) Despite its initial choice of Algeria for nuclear tests. two years before the first Sahara test. (Centre d'Exp„rimentations Militaires des Oasis): In Ekker. France began again its search for new testing sites due to potential political problems with Algeria and the possibility of a ban on above-ground tests.E. France has used supercomputers to simulate and study nuclear explosions.O. Pyrenees. The Polynesian people and leaders broadly supported the choice.France 173 Saharan facilities € C. Mururoa and Fangataufa in French Polynesia were chosen that year. President Charles de Gaulle announced the choice on 3 January 1963. Simulation programme (1996-2012) More recently.M.E. west of In-Salah.6 megaton blast. engineers found problems with most of the possible sites in metropolitan France. as well as performing underground tests in the Alps. (Centre Saharien d'Exp„rimentations Militaires): Reggane.E. but decided that it needed to be able to also perform above-ground tests of hydrogen bombs. Algeria: used for underground tests from 1961 to 1967. Algeria: used for launching rockets from 1947 to 1967. although the tests became controversial after they began.E.I. from Tamanrasset. A fission device ignited a lithium 6 deuteride secondary inside a jacket of highly enriched uranium to create a 2. € C. On 24 August 1968 France detonated its first thermonuclear weapon … codenamed Canopus … over Fangataufa. southwest of Colomb-Bœchar. or Corsica. 120–km/75–mi. By 1958. (Centre Interarm„es d'Essais d'Engins Sp„ciaux): Hammaguir.Algeria: used for atmospheric tests from 1960 to 1961. spending much more money and resources than would be justified by the official explanation of tourism. 150–km/93–mi. the French government decided to build Faa'a International Airport in Tahiti. especially among Polynesian separatists.[] By 1962 France hoped in its negotiations with the Algerian independence movement to retain the Sahara as a test site until 1968. describing it as a benefit to Polynesia's weak economy. in the Hoggar.[] A total of 193 nuclear tests were carried out in Polynesia from 1966 to 1996.S. Current nuclear doctrine and strategy . however. Tanezrouft. Many overseas France islands were studied. [20] € C.S.M. Tan Afella. [28] € The French Military conducted almost 200 nuclear tests at Mururoa and Fangataufa atolls over a thirty-year period ending 1996. [24] € In 1972. Two members of DGSE were captured and sentenced. During the time. caused worldwide protest. noted that France would be willing to use nuclear weapons against a state attacking France via terrorist means. French President Jacques Chirac. Greenpeace and an amalgam of New Zealand peace groups managed to delay nuclear tests by several weeks by trespassing with a ship in the testing zone. each of which carry nuclear-capable fighter aircraft € From the early 1960s New Zealand peace groups CND and the Peace Media had been organising nationwide anti nuclear campaigns in protest of atmospheric testing in French Polynesia. just one year before the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was to be signed. President Nicolas Sarkozy announced that France will reduce its plane-based nuclear arsenal (which currently consists of 60 TN 81 warheads) by a third (i. David McTaggart. Boy Roel.France 174 In 2006. of which five were without significant nuclear yield. Spirit of Peace. as it prepared for another protest of nuclear testing in French military zones. He noted that the French nuclear forces had been configured for this option. New Zealand.[27] € In 1985 the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior was bombed and sunk by the French DGSE in Auckland. New Zealand Prime Minister Norman Kirk as a symbolic act of protest sent two navy frigates. 46 of them atmospheric. These tests were meant to provide the nation with enough data to improve further nuclear technology without needing additional series of tests. an official French government report by INSERM confirmed the link between an increase in the cases of thyroid cancer and France‚s atmospheric nuclear tests in the territory since 1966. a fleet oiler of the Royal Australian Navy.[22][23] Anti nuclear tests protests € By 1968 only France and China were detonating nuclear weapons in the open air and the contamination caused by the H Bomb blast led to a global protest movement against further French atmospheric tests. but eventually repatriated to France in a controversial affair. drowned on the sinking ship while attempting to recover his photographic equipment.[26] They were accompanied by HMAS Supply.[5] French nuclear-powered aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle and the American nuclear-powered carrier USS Enterprise (left).[29] . thus bringing the total French nuclear arsenal to fewer than 300 warheads. Fernando Pereira of Portugal. These included two large national petitions presented to the New Zealand government which led to a joint New Zealand and Australian Government action to take France to the International Court of Justice (1972). 20 warheads).e.[25] € In 1973. to Mururoa. € French president Jacques Chirac‚s decision to run a nuclear test series at Mururoa in 1995. photographer. was beaten and severely injured by members of the French military. including an embargo of French wine. One crew member. the skipper. In August 2006. Magic Island and the Tanmure to sail into the test exclusion zone.[21] On 21 March 2008. HMNZS Canterbury and HMNZS Otago. € In 1973 the New Zealand Peace Media organised an international flotilla of protest yachts including the Fri. [36] . 150. while the French government had given an estimate of just 500.[15] One French veteran of the 1960s nuclear tests in Algeria described being given no protective clothing or masks.[33] Following this rejection. only 12% have declared being in good health. overseen by a French judge magistrate. in the campaign group "Truth and Justice".[30] Along with the Polynesian NGO Moruroa e tatou. citing laws which set a statute of limitations for damages to 1976.[32] Defence Minister Hervœ Morin said the government would create a board of physicians.[15] An international symposium on the consequences of test carried out in Algeria took place on 13 and 14 February 2007. and again by a Paris appeals court. to determine if individual cases were caused by French testing. On 7 June 2003. for the first time. in Algeria or in French Polynesia.000 still living victims of ill effects from the 1960-66 testing there.[35] Algerian groups had also complained that these restrictions would deny compensation to many victims. The government of France had consistently denied. Polynesian groups said the bill would also unduly restrict applicants to those who had been in small areas near the test zones.[32][34] Pressure groups. and if individuals were suffering from illnesses on a United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation list of eighteen disorders linked to exposure to testing. under the official oversight of President Abdelaziz Bouteflika. "Association des v„t„rans des essais nucl„aires") was created in 2001.[31] One of several veteran‚s groups claiming to organise those suffering ill effects. One Algerian group estimated there were 27. the military court of Tours granted an invalidity pension to a veteran of the Sahara tests.[32] Several French veterans and African and Polynesian campaign groups have waged court cases and public relations struggles demanding government reparations.[30] Test victims compensation In both Algeria and French Polynesia there have been long standing demands for compensation from those who claim injury from France‚s nuclear testing program. who claim to have suffered health effects from nuclear testing in the 1960s had their claims denied by the government Commission for the Indemnification of Victims of Penal Infraction (CIVI). while being ordered to witness the tests at so close a range that the flash penetrated through the arm he used to cover his eyes.000 civilians–€ without taking into account the local population–€ are estimated to have been on the location of nuclear tests. In May 2009. the AVEN announced on 27 November 2002 that it would depose a complaint against X (unknown) for involuntary homicide and putting someone‚s life in danger. the government announced it would create a 10m Euro compensation fund for military and civilian victims of its testing programme. not taking into account the pervasive pollution and radiation. According to a poll made by the AVEN with its members. AVEN had 4500 members in early 2009.France 175 Veterans' associations and symposium An association gathering veterans of nuclear tests (AVEN. a group of twelve French veterans. since the late 1960s. that injury to military personnel and civilians had been caused by their nuclear testing. including the Veterans group "Truth and Justice" criticised the programme as too restrictive in illnesses covered and too bureaucratic. both those carried out in the 1960s and the Polynesian tests of 1990€1996. 27 May 2009. defense. Franz Josef Strauss . L'Expression (Algeria). millbanksystems. The country ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) in 1995. org/ France/ FranceOrigin. fr/ content/ download/ 60823/ 571529/ file/ SAHARA.3784844. L'Humanit„. univ-perp. xml) [24] http:/ / www. france24. govt. com/ en/ 20090527-nuclear-compensation-bill-disappoints-victims-france-justice). "La voix de l‚oranie" (Oran. Marie-Christine Soigneux. [14] French Senate report #179: The first French tests in the Sahara (http:/ / www. 72 ans. Tuesday 24 March 2009. 2002) [5] Origin of the Force de Frappe (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive.BBC news. com/ hostednews/ afp/ article/ ALeqM5g-1ldRO7kq73hvOjv93wPTGz7j1Q). bbc. html) [15] La bombe atomique en hœritage (http:/ / www. leparisien. html [25] http:/ / library. [35] Nuclear compensation bill falls short of expectations (http:/ / www. France 24. [33] Court denies nuclear test victims compensation (http:/ / www. the NPT. p. html) (WISE/NIRS Nuclear Monitor) [10] BBC News: Neutron bomb: Why 'clean' is deadly (http:/ / news. [31] ¾ J‚ai participœ au premier essai dans le Sahara ¿ DANIEL BOURDON. stm) [11] UK parliamentary question on whether condemnation was considered by Thatcher government (http:/ / hansard. 27 May 2009. France 24. co. com/ commons/ 1980/ jul/ 16/ french-neutron-bomb) [12] Treize ans apr-s le dernier des essais nuclœaires fran²ais. lamontagne. com/ article. bullerdc.Telegraph (http:/ / www. Algeria). lci. de Thourotte (http:/ / www. co. uk/ news/ main. presse. org/ nuclear/ nudb/ datab16. AFP. html). bbc. Julien PEYRON. France24. 2007 [16] 1960: France explodes third atomic bomb (http:/ / news. p. html) (Nuclear Weapon Archive) [6] Stuck in the Canal. html#toc32) . Le Montange (Clermont-Ferrand). disarmsecure. pdf) [8] Die Erinnerungen. ecovisionfestival.Editorial in The New York Times. nl/ wise/ beyondbomb/ 4-2. pdf) [19] VIVE LA BOMBE! (http:/ / www. france24. stm) . nrdc.24 . com/ [28] Les essais nucleaires (http:/ / www. fr/ editions_locales/ montlucon/ les_victimes_des_essais_nucleaires_enfin_reconnues@CARGNjFdJSsHFh8MBxg-. senat. mururoavet. Hervœ ASQUIN. Thursday 19 January 2006 [22] Nuclœaire : Mise ½ l'eau du terrible devant Sarkozy . telegraph. and the European Option (http:/ / www10. htm [21] France 'would use nuclear arms' (http:/ / news.. Tuesday 24 March 2009. [13] Four decades of French nuclear testing (http:/ / www.Berlin 1989. lexpressiondz. com/ article/ 2/ 2009-05-18/ 63841. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=337& Itemid=168& lang=english) [20] http:/ / fuseurop. Le Parisien. html) [18] Dossier de prœsentation des essais nuclœaires et leur suivi au Sahara (http:/ / www. com/ en/ 20090324-govt-earmarks-10-million-euros-compensate-nuclear-test-victims-france-algeria-polynesia). com/ edizione2007/ / index. References [3] Table of French Nuclear Forces (http:/ / www. fr/ sahara_e. l'indemnisation des victimes en marche (http:/ / www. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2008/ 03/ 22/ wsarko222. php3?id_article=9477). France24. el-annabi. Sur quels crit-res sera œvaluœ le handicap? (http:/ / www. 18 May 2009. uk/ onthisday/ hi/ dates/ stories/ december/ 27/ newsid_2985000/ 2985200. 21 May 2009. gouv. Wednesday 27 May 2009 [36] VICTIMES ALGÀRIENNES DES ESSAIS NUCLÀAIRES FRANÁAIS.report of the French Senate (in French) [30] Les victimes des essais nuclœaires enfin reconnues (http:/ / www. fr/ infos/ france/ politique/ 0. February 21. gouv.00-mise-eau-terrible-devant-sarkozy-. com/ en/ 20090522-france-denies-reparations-victims-nuclear-tests-1960s-algeria). BBC On This Day [17] France‚s Nuclear Weapons (http:/ / nuclearweaponarchive. fr/ content/ download/ 60823/ 571529/ file/ SAHARA. antenna. html). bbc. asp) (Natural Resources Defense Council. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 4627862. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 395689. google. fr/ journal/ 2007-02-21/ 2007-02-21-846342). co. France had also ratified the Geneva Protocol in 1926. 28 October 2006 [7] (http:/ / www. Friday 22 May 2009 [34] Essais nuclœaires fran²ais au sud de l‚Algœrie: La France dœfinit six crit-res (http:/ / actualite. co. html) [23] France cuts its nuclear weapons by a third . france24. and acceded to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) in 1984. fr/ rap/ o97-179/ o97-1798. fr/ rap/ o97-179/ o97-1799. 24 May 2009. David . [32] Government earmarks ‡10 million for nuclear test victims (http:/ / www. php). org/ France/ FranceOrigin. stm). senat. Fromkin. defense.France 176 Non-nuclear WMD France states that it does not currently have chemical weapons. 314 [9] Germany. fr/ abo-oise/ j-ai-participe-au-premier-essai-dans-le-sahara-24-05-2009-524072. france24.LCI (http:/ / tf1. nz/ cgi-bin/ library/ liinquiry?acc=00000711 [26] http:/ / www. humanite. org/ publications/ papers/ index.France . com/ en/ 20090324-four-decades-french-nuclear-tests-atomic-bomb-gerboise-bleue-algeria-polynesia). metapress.org/e_research/profiles/france/index_2701. € Nuclear policy: France stands alone (http://thebulletin.com/content/f81x51w723j70458/ ?p=5a349b234b2a4525b6455a8c6ab292b6&pi=11) July/August 2004 € The French atomic energy program (http://books.E.com (http://www.org) € Nuclear Notebook: French nuclear forces. a ship about to protest French nuclear tests) Nuclear Files. 25 January 2006.com/en/free/0000024. € € € € € .org (http://www.google. € Country overview: France (http://www.thebulletin.google.sonicbomb.metapress. com) € A Change in the French Nuclear Doctrine? (http://www.France 177 External links € In-depth background of the Development of the French Program (http://www.com/content/ k01h5q0wg50353k5/fulltext.com/modules.com/books?id=TQkAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39) September 1962 Greenpeace movie (http://video.html) (from the Nuclear Threat Initiative) € Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http://www.wilsoncenter.org) Annotated bibliography for the French nuclear weapons program from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http://alsos. htm) (current information on nuclear stockpiles in France) (French) Archives sur le Centre d'Expœrimentations Nuclœaires du Pacifique (C.nti. org/nuclear-history-documents/) The Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project has primary source documents on US-French nuclear relations. php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=112) at sonicbomb.aspx?keyword=french+nuclear+weapons&creator=&title=& media=all&genre=all&disc=all&level=all&sortby=relevance&results=10&period=15) The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http://www.) ½ Moruroa.edu/adv_rst. September/October 2008. Hao et Fangataufa (http://www.wlu.isria.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/nuclear-stockpiles. Charles ISRIA.php).nuclearfiles.pdf).point-zero-penelope.P. 2008 (http://thebulletin.com/videoplay?docid=4363730934900311131) (on the French bombing of the Rainbow Warrior. Rault.com/ doc/56032100/France-and-Greatness-the-Development-of-the-French-Nuclear-Program) € Video archive of French Nuclear Testing (http://sonicbomb.scribd. Germany 178 Germany Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . sarin. a decision which stemmed from his own experience with chemical weapons in World War I. Germany worked to develop nuclear weapons. Germany produced about 78. a 250–kg bomb and a 150–mm rocket. Germany developed and used chemical weapons. and soman but refrained from their use on the battlefield. the United States. although it participates in the NATO nuclear weapons sharing arrangements and trains for delivering nuclear weapons. In total. and other WMD. . Germany used and developed what we would today describe as weapons of mass destruction.Germany € 179 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Though Germany is one of the most technologically advanced countries in the world. Germany produces components that can be used for creating deadly agents. Adolf Hitler was against using tabun as the final trump card. Along with most other industrial nations. German companies provided Iraq with precursors of chemical agents used by Iraq to engage in chemical warfare during the Iran€Iraq War. The first nerve gas.[1] History World War I As one of the major combatants in World War I. tabun. see German nuclear energy project. though Allied scientists ultimately beat the Germans to this goal .000 tons of tabun and 1. including human experimentation with mustard gas.000 tons of chemical weapons. Spain. since World War II it has generally refrained from using this technology to outfit its own armed forces with weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Germany stockpiled tabun.[2] Even when the Soviets neared Berlin. was invented by the German researcher Gerhard Schrader in 1937. chemical weapons.000 pounds (450–kg) of sarin. German scientists also did research on other chemical weapons during the war. During the war.[2] Delivery systems for the nerve agents included 105–mm and 150–mm artillery shells.the international team included many displaced œmigrœ scientists from Germany itself. During World War I. World War II During World War II. These weapons were subsequently employed by the Allies. Germany is among the powers which possess the ability to create nuclear weapons but has agreed not to do so (under the terms of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as reaffirmed by the Two Plus Four Treaty). the Netherlands.[2] By 1945 the nation produced about 12. India. Alongside other companies from the United Kingdom. for instance mustard gas. Belgium. and Brazil. Under cover of the peaceful use of nuclear power. nuclear weapons were deployed in Germany by both the United States (in West Germany) and the Soviet Union (in East Germany). Euratom continued as the European agency for the peaceful use of nuclear technology. In 1977. at which the [NPT] treaty would no longer be controlling". West Germany hoped to develop the basis of a nuclear weapons programme with France and Italy. nuclear bombs[7] Even if the NATO argument is considered legally correct. so there is no breach of the NPT. The United States provides about 60 tactical B61 nuclear bombs for use by Germany under a NATO nuclear weapons sharing agreement. respectively). biological.Germany 180 Cold War and beyond As part of the accession negotiations of West Germany to the Western European Union at the London and Paris Conferences. and chemical weapons. becoming part of the structure of the European Economic Community in 1967.. Germany ratified the Geneva Protocol on 25 April 1929. both West and East Germany ratified the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany. Despite not being among the nuclear powers during the Cold War. insists its forces control the weapons and that no transfer of the nuclear bombs or control over them is intended "unless and until a decision were made to go to war.".S. as quickly as possible. The German military was allowed to possess conventional weapons systems with nonconventional capabilities.[6] The idea was short-lived. provided that they were outfitted for a purely conventional role. straddling the division of the Eastern and Western blocs in Europe. The bombs are stored at B™chel and Ramstein Air Bases. Before German reunification in 1990. Germany reaffirmed its renunciation of the manufacture. However German pilots and other staff practice handling and delivering the U. was a likely battlefield in any escalation of the Cold War and battlefield use of nuclear weapons would be devastating to German territory.. Germany itself.. many countries believe this violates Articles I and II of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). the country was forbidden (by Protocol No III [3] to the revised Treaty of Brussels of 23 October 1954) to possess Nuclear. West German chancellor Helmut Schmidt expressed concern over the capability of NATO's nuclear forces compared to those of the Soviets. Germany had a political and military interest in the balance of nuclear capability. after the Soviet deployment of the new SS-20 IRBM. Later in the Cold War under the chancellorship of Helmut Kohl.S.. This was reiterated in domestic law by the War Weapons Control Act (Kriegswaffenkontrollgesetz). These dates signify ratification by the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). In addition to banning a foreign military presence in the former East Germany. the United States and United Kingdom. Particularly. the Biological Weapons Convention on 7 April 1983 and the Chemical Weapons Convention on 12 August 1994. the treaty also banned nuclear weapons or nuclear weapon carriers to be stationed in the area.. where Germany has committed: ". because their major use was not deterrence but battlefield employment.[5] The West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer told his cabinet that he "wanted to achieve. As well as being a breach of the Protocols to the (revised) Treaty of Brussels. the chance of producing our own nuclear weapons". and in time of war would be delivered by Luftwaffe Panavia Tornado warplanes. or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices . possession. In 1958 Charles De Gaulle became President of France and Germany and Italy were excluded from the weapons project. such peacetime . they addressed the eagerness of Germany's NATO allies. to seek restrictions on long-range strategic weapons while modernizing their short-range and tactical nuclear systems. the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty on 2 May 1975. In 1957 the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) was created to promote the use of nuclear energy in Europe. the West German government expressed concern about the progress of the nuclear arms race. not to receive the transfer from any transferor whatsoever of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or of control over such weapons or explosive devices directly.[4] During the Cold War. during the division of Germany the NPT and the BWC were ratified separately by the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) (on 31 October 1969 and 28 November 1972. making it a permanent Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone. or indirectly . Biological or Chemical weapons.. Germany wanted to see such short range systems eliminated. The U. through EURATOM. and control of nuclear. fas.homelandsecurityus. html) Federation of atomic scientists.Germany operations could arguably contravene both the objective and the spirit of the NPT. Iraqi money and German brains cooperated in building chemical weapons. de/ politik/ div/ . ( PDF (http:/ / www.com/?fn=artd(1585)) € (http://www. de/ politik/ deutschland/ 0. ieer. (1-12-2003) Fresh information on the Iraqi chemical program. html): Chapter 2 . There are also several power reactors in Germany that could be used to produce bomb-grade plutonium if desired. army. of course. the NPT. and URENCO operates a centrifuge uranium enrichment plant in Germany.History of Chemical and Biological Warfare: An American Perspective. Textbooks of Military Medicine. Franz Josef Strauss .pdf) External links € Germany. Jeffery K. mil/ published_volumes/ chemBio/ chembio. Germany has the skills and resources to create its own nuclear weapons quite quickly if desired. highly unlikely in the present benign security environment. [2] Smart. WISE € Nerve gases: history (http://www. Borden Institute. html) [8] Tagesspiegel: Ex-Minister: Atomwaffen f™r Deutschland (http:/ / www. tagesspiegel. The Zippe-type centrifuge was.[9] 181 References [1] Al Isa. bordeninstitute.netiran. yale.Berlin 1989. pdf): p. 2007 [9] Spiegel Online: "Spiegel" . invented by captured Germans working in the Soviet Union in the 1950s.com . (2001) Nuclear sharing: is it legal? (http:/ / www. mil/ au/ awc/ awcgate/ medaspec/ Ch-2electrv699. 14).html) at Espionageinfo. html) 15. stating that Germany "had no interest in possessing nuclear weapons". accessed January 4.org/nuclear/euro/euro.espionageinfo. indeed. Matthias K™ntzel. K. org/ sdafiles/ vol_9/ 9-3/ nato. 314 [6] Germany. Like other countries of its size and wealth. former defence secretary Rupert Scholz stated that Germany should strive to become a nuclear power.505887. af.nl/wise/beyondbomb/4-2.art771. edu/ 20th_century/ we005. (http:/ / www. spiegel.2230467) January 27th.th September 2007 € (http://www. antenna. I.00. 2009. Referenced 21-11-2006. Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare (http:/ / www. The NPT. and the European Option (http:/ / www10.htm) € (http://www. Al Zaman. nl/ wise/ beyondbomb/ 4-2. Such a development is. In 2007. London. au. [3] http:/ / avalon. asp [5] Die Erinnerungen. and the European Option (http://www10.1518. html) (WISE/NIRS Nuclear Monitor) [7] Nassauer. PDF via Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base.com/Mo-Ne/Nerve-Gas. law.antenna.net/nuclear.nrdc. org/ nuke/ guide/ iraq/ cw/ az120103.[8] In September 2007 the French president Sarkozy offered Germany to participate in the control over the French nuclear arsenal. Chancellor Merkel and foreign minister Steinmeier declined the offer however. p.html).Sarkozy bot Deutschland Beteiligung an Atomwaffen an (http:/ / www. O. ) 80€100 (2011 est.) 2500 km (Agni II) No [] [] [2][] [1] Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country .India 182 India India Nuclear program start date 1967 First nuclear weapon test First fusion weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile Maximum missile range NPT signatory 18 May 1974 (Smiling Buddha) 11 May 1998 (declared) 13 May 1998 20€60 kt total in Pokhran-II (yield is disputed) 6 80€100 (2011 est. India € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 183 Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category . which is equivalent to roughly 1000 nuclear weapons. surface ships. which India argues entrenches the status quo of the existing nuclear weapons states whilst preventing general nuclear disarmament. India has ambitions of possessing a nuclear triad in the near future when Arihant. which is home to the CIRUS reactor. recent estimates suggest that India has between 80 and 100 nuclear weapons. the lead ship of India's Arihant class of nuclear-powered submarines formally joins the Indian Navy in 2012 after undergoing extensive sea-trials. to the indigenous Dhruva reactor. Although it lacks an operational ballistic missile submarine. Though India has not made any official statements about the size of its nuclear arsenal.[] As of 1999. nuclear-capable aircraft.[4][5] India is not a signatory to the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).[] consistent with earlier estimates that it had produced enough weapons-grade plutonium for up to 75€110 nuclear weapons. and submarines under development as possible delivery systems and platforms." The test . which it called a "peaceful nuclear explosion. and to a plutonium separation facility.[3] Production of weapons-grade plutonium is believed to be taking place at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre.and intermediate-range ballistic missiles.India 184 Nuclear weapons Background € € € € € € € € € € € € History Warfare Arms race Design Testing Effects Delivery Espionage Proliferation Arsenals Terrorism Opposition Nuclear-armed states € € € € € € € € € € United States Russia United Kingdom France China Israel India Pakistan North Korea South Africa (former) India possesses nuclear weapons and maintains short. acquired from Canada and shut down in 2010.[6] India tested a nuclear device in 1974 (code-named "Smiling Buddha"). India was estimated to have 4200–kg of separated reactor-grade plutonium from its power reactors. [10] India's first nuclear test occurred on 18 May 1974. Homi Bhabha when he founded the nuclear research center. heavy water production facilities. In 1998. the United States and Japan imposed sanctions on India. Indian National Security Advisor Shivshankar Menon signaled a significant shift from "No first use" to "no first use against non-nuclear weapon states" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of National Defence College in New Delhi on 21 October 2010.[7] India performed further nuclear tests in 1998 (code-named "Operation Shakti"). but will respond with punitive retaliation should deterrence fail" and that decisions to authorize the use of nuclear weapons would be made by the Prime Minister or his 'designated successor(s).[9][] India's loss of territory to China in a brief Himilayan border war in October 1962. This also stimulated the early work of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. and raised concerns that nuclear technology supplied for peaceful purposes could be diverted to weapons purposes. every country will have to devise and use the latest devices for its protection. a uranium enrichment plant. provided the New Delhi government impetus for developing nuclear weapons as a means of deterring potential Chinese aggression. uranium mining and milling sites.[] Since then India has conducted another series of tests at the Pokhran test range in the state of Rajasthan in 1998. Jawaharlal Nehru. fuel fabrication facilities.[citation needed] Doctrine India has a declared nuclear no-first-use policy and is in the process of developing a nuclear doctrine based on "credible minimum deterrence. the Institute of Fundamental Research. announced: ‚ As long as the world is constituted as it is."[12][13]Wikipedia:Link rot . which have since been lifted. India remains committed to its nuclear no-first-use policy. the Indian government released a draft of Shakti I: a thermonuclear device detonated on 11 the doctrine[11]Wikipedia:Link rot which asserts that nuclear weapons May 1998 as part of the Pokhran-II tests. despite the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan in 2001-2002. ƒ India's nuclear program started on March 1944 and its three-stage indigenous efforts in technology were established by dr. a doctrine Menon said reflected India's "strategic culture." In August 1999. soon to be India's first Prime Minister. "retaliation only". The [] are solely for deterrence and that India will pursue a policy of nuclear yield was reported to be 45 kt. which includes at least 10 nuclear reactors. The document also maintains that India "will not be the first to initiate a nuclear first strike.'"[11] According to the NRDC. [8] she will inevitably try to defend herself by all means at her disposal. I have no doubt India will develop her scientific researches and I hope Indian scientists will use the atomic force for constructive purposes. as a response to the continuing tests. and extensive nuclear research capabilities. with its emphasis on minimal deterrence. 185 History As early as 26 June 1946. But if India is threatened. India has an extensive civil and military nuclear program.India used plutonium produced in the Canadian-supplied CIRUS reactor. India has signed and ratified both the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention. India also possesses the capability to produce aerosols and has numerous potential delivery systems ranging from crop dusters to sophisticated ballistic missiles.P."[] . However.[17][18] This was cross-checked by inspectors of the United Nations.[15][16] By the end of 2006. There is no clear evidence.J. It is cruel to human beings.044 tonnes of sulphur mustard). in October 2002. It is also widely acknowledged that India has an extensive civilian chemical and pharmaceutical industry and annually exports considerable quantities of chemicals to countries such as the United Kingdom. Some of India‚s facilities are being used to support research and development for BW defense purposes. To reiterate the latter point. 2009 that it had destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons in compliance with the international Chemical Weapons Convention. Others suggested that the fact that India has found chemical weapons dispensable highlighted its confidence in the conventional weapons system at its command. since the dread of chemical weapons could be created only in those countries that do not have nuclear weapons. and produces the bulk of its own chemicals for domestic consumption. but has chosen not to do so. with an Air Force officer.[14] and ratified it on 2 September 1996. According to India's ex-Army Chief General Sunderji. and Taiwan. India declared its stock of chemical weapons (1. a country having the capability of making nuclear weapons does not need to have chemical weapons. In terms of delivery. it is the Prime Minister who has his finger "on the button. In June 1997. Abdul Kalam asserted that "we [India] will not make biological weapons. New Delhi does possess the scientific capability and infrastructure to launch an offensive BW program. that directly points toward an offensive BW program. Indian President A.. United States. India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons/material stockpile and was granted extension for destroying (the remaining stocks by April 2009) and was expected to achieve 100 percent destruction within that timeframe.[] Biological warfare India has a well-developed biotechnology infrastructure that includes numerous pharmaceutical production facilities bio-containment laboratories (including BSL-3 and BSL-4) for working with lethal pathogens. India has an advanced commercial chemical industry. It also has highly qualified scientists with expertise in infectious diseases. missiles and assets.[] No information exists in the public domain suggesting interest by the Indian government in delivery of biological agents by these or any other means.[15] India informed the United Nations in May. as the Commander-in-Chief. the civil leadership. in the form of the CCS (Cabinet Committee on Security) is the only body authorized to order a nuclear strike against another offending strike: In effect. With this India has become third country after South Korea and Albania to do so. The joint services SNC is the custodian of all of India's nuclear weapons. circumstantial or otherwise. By doing this India became one of the original signatories of the Chemical Weapons Convention [CWC] in 1993. Air Marshal Asthana. It is also responsible for executing all aspects of India's nuclear policy." Weapon type Chemical weapons In 1992 India signed the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)..India 186 Hardware Command and control India's Strategic Nuclear Command was formally established in 2003. stating that it did not have chemical weapons and the capacity or capability to manufacture chemical weapons. India has ratified the BWC and pledges to abide by its obligations. it was estimated that India had between 40 and 50 warheads.[21] € As of February 2011.000–kg 500–kg . if 5–kg is required each.1. with about 50 of them fully operational.800–km Range Payload 1.4. Sinha.500–kg 1.000–km . Information on the missiles is given below.000–kg . enough for 65 nuclear weapons.[23] € On 24 July 2012.000–kg 2.000–km .5. They also stated that the construction of a second plutonium producing reactor at Vishakapatnam and commissioning of the fast breeder reactor near Kalpakkam would significantly increase India's plutonium production capacity.000–km . claimed that India is capable of producing 130 kilograms of weapons-grade plutonium per year from six "unsafeguarded" reactors not included in the nuclear deal between India and the United States.10.490–kg 500–kg .000 nuclear weapons. He also estimated that India had 4.1. the Federation of American Scientists estimated that India had a stockpile of 80-100 weapons.[][] By the end of 2004.000–km 5.[19] € In November 2008.000–km 5.[24] Delivery systems Below is the list of missiles currently in India's inventory or under development that can carry nuclear warheads.000–km .400–kg Under development 350–km 1. the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists estimated that India has about 70 assembled nuclear warheads.India 187 Weapon inventory € In 2005.000–km 500–kg 1000–kg Developed but not used Under development . published by the Institute for Science and International Security in 2000.000–km 1.1.200–kg of reactor grade plutonium which is enough to build 1. India's nuclear capable missiles Name Agni-I Agni-II Agni-III Agni-IV Agni-V Agni-VI Dhanush Nirbhay SRBM MRBM IRBM MRBM ICBM ICBM SRBM Subsonic Cruise Missile Class 700–km 2.3. scientists estimated that India has an arsenal of 80-100 nuclear weapons and has not converted its entire stockpile of 520–kg of weapon grade plutonium into weapons.[22] € Former Research and Analysis Wing official J.000–km 3.[20] € A report by David Albright.S. two U.500–kg+ Status Operational Operational Inducted Induction by 2014-15 Induction by 2014-15 8. estimated that India at end of 1999 had 310 kilograms of weapons-grade plutonium. Agni II was India's first long range missile Agni missile range. he estimates India had 445 kilograms of weapons-grade plutonium which is enough for around 85 nuclear weapons.K. Most of these launches put light satellites into near-earth orbit.000–km 6. Prithvi The Prithvi (Sanskrit: "Earth") I is mobile liquid-fueled 150 kilometer tactical missile currently deployed with army units. during the 1980s. Elements of the SLV-3 were subsequently incorporated into two new programs.1000–kg 1000–kg 1000–kg 150–kg . Trishul missile (Surface to Air) and Nag Missile (Anti Tank). Other projects such Indian Ballistic Missile Defense Program have derived from the IGMDP. 2 K-5 Shaurya SLBM SLBM SLBM TBM Ballistic missiles Under former president Dr.1. it will be deployed with air force units for the purpose of deep target attacking maneuvers against objectives such as air fields. using its commercial space-launch program to develop the skills and infrastructure needed to support an offensive ballistic missile program. the new polar-space launch vehicle (PSLV) was equipped with six SLV-3 motors strapped to the PSLV's first stage. The Agni IRBM technology demonstrator uses the SLV-3 booster as its first stage.500–km 5.000–km 700–km . the Prithvi II.200–km 3.India 188 Brahmos I Brahmos II P-70 Ametist P-270 Moskit Popeye Prithvi-I Prithvi-II Prithvi-III Supersonic Cruise Missile 290–km Hypersonic Cruise Missile 290–km Anti-shipping Missile 65–km 300–kg 300–kg 530–kg 320–kg 340–kg 1000–kg 500–kg 500–kg 150–kg .2. In the first. It is suspected that any nuclear missions will be executed by the Prithvi II. India conducted a series of space launches using the solid-fueled SLV-3 booster. For example. is essentially a longer-ranged version of the Prithvi I except that it has a 250-kilometer range and a lighter payload.[25] India has methodically built an indigenous missile production capability. € Prithvi I–… Army Version (150–km range with a payload of 1.000–kg) € Prithvi II–… Air Force Version (250–km range with a payload of 500–kg) € Prithvi III–… Naval Version (350–km range with a payload of 500–kg) . Based on the same design.1000–kg 150–kg . India became only the fourth country to have Anti Ballistic capability when India tested two systems the AAD and PAD. When fielded. and short range missiles such as the Prithvi ballistic missile (Surface to Surface). Akash missile (Surface to Air). the Prithvi II has completed development and is now in production. Currently. In 2005.000–kg Operational Under development Operational Operational Operational Operational Operational Operational Awaiting Arihant SSBN's Under trials Under development Under development Operational Supersonic Cruise Missile 120–km ASM SRBM SRBM SRBM 78–km 150–km 250–km 350–km 700–km . including the intermediate range Agni missile (Surface to Surface).200–km Sagarika (K-15) SLBM K-4 mk. The missile is of particular interest to the United States (and potential buyers) in that has the capability of maneuvering in flight so as to follow one of several different pre-programmed trajectories.2. It is claimed that this missile is equipped only with various conventional warheads (which stay attached to the missile over the entire flight path). a modified Prithvi. Abdul Kalam India pursued the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) which was an Indian Ministry of Defense program for the development of a comprehensive range of missiles. 1 K-4 mk. India successfully test-fired an Agni-III.[36] In addition. known as the Agni-III SL.300 to 4.200–mi).[35]Wikipedia:Citing sources#What information to include India's DRDO is also working on a submarine-launched ballistic missile version of the Agni-III missile. the Agni-II has a solid-fueled second stage. This missile is expected to provide India with a credible sea-based second strike capability.[34] The missile is capable of carrying a nuclear payload within the range of 600 to 1.[30] Unlike the Agni-I. Indian Air Force and the Indian Navy.[26] It can fire either the 250–km or the 350–km range missiles. The initial project framework of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program outlines the variants in the following manner.900–mi) and can carry a payload of 1.[37][38] Surya The report of Surya ICBM (Sanskrit: Sun) has not been confirmed by officials of the Indian government and have repeatedly denied the existence of the project. . Supposedly it is a customised version of the Prithvi and that the additional customizations in missile configuration are to certify it for seaworthiness.000–km.500-kilometre (3. the missile was again tested from the INS Subhadra and was this time successful. INS Subhadra is a vessel which was modified and the missile was launched from the reinforced helicopter deck.500–mi). The 250–km variant was tested but the tests were considered partially successful.000 kilograms (2.400–mi) range Agni-V ICBM was tested successfully on 19 April 2012.[29] Nuclear-capable Agni-II missiles have a range of up to 3. Its low range acts against it and thus it is seen a weapons either to be used to destroy an aircraft carrier or an enemy port.000 kilometres (1. its range can be extended to 4.[28] Then the following year in December the missile's 350–km version was tested from the INS Rajput and hit the land based target. Dhanush Dhanush (Sanskrit: Bow) is a naval variant of the Prithvi missile.[] Surya (meaning Sun in Sanskrit and many other Indian languages) is the codename for the first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile that India is reported to be developing. Indian Navy's K-15 Sagarika submarine-launched ballistic missile is reported to be a variant of the Dhanush missile.200–lb). the 5. the Agni-III SL will have a range of 3.[31] In July 2006.000 kilometres (2.500 kilometres (2.[27] The ship-launched Dhanush Ballistic Missile was tested from INS Subhadra of the Sukanya class patrol craft in 2000.[] In 2004. in October 2009 India conducted 2 simultenous user trials of 350–km extended range Prithvi II to be used for strategic purposes.[] Agni The Agni (Sanskrit: Fire) missile system comprises six missiles: € € € € € € Agni I Agni II Agni III Agni IV Agni V Agni VI[] 189 The Agni-I uses the SLV-3 booster (from India's space program) for its first stage and a liquid-fueled Prithvi for its second stage. The DRDO is believed to have begun the project in 1994.India The Prithvi missile project encompassed developing 3 variants for use by the Indian Army.800 kilograms (1.[32] a two-stage nuclear-capable ballistic missile with a range of 3. Dhanush has to be launched from a hydraulically stabilized launch pad. According to Indian defense sources.[33] Both stages of the Agni-III utilize solid-fuel propellants.000 lb) including decoys and other anti-ballistic counter-measures. The Surya ICBM is an ICBM program that has been mentioned repeatedly in the Indian press . the Shaurya invulnerability to anti-missile systems will be tested.[47] Sagarika has already been test-fired from an underwater pontoon.000–km[] to 10.[] Four decades of investments in a missile-related design.5 meters.[40] It is believed to be a three-stage design.[46] Sagarika will form part of the triad in India's nuclear deterrence and will provide with retaliatory nuclear strike capability.[44] The development of this missile started in 1991.[43] When Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems Advanced Air Defence (AAD) and Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) are to be tested again.[39] Estimates of the range of this missile vary from 5.[42] Shaurya Missile is considered a land version of the Sagarika. with the first two stages using solid propellants and the third-stage using liquid. India's sophisticated civilian satellite launch capability makes it one of the few developing states theoretically capable of building an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). defense scientists say the high-speed. This was handed over to the Indian Navy for trials. The DRDO scientists also have said that if Shaurya is successful and manages to avoid anti ballistic missile radars then the missile can even be used to improve the AAD and PAD systems. either the silos will have to be constructed closer to India's borders or longer-range missiles will have to be developed. In 2007. weighs seven tonnes and can carry a pay load of up to 500–kg. The Shaurya missile provides India with a significant second strike capability. The missile was successfully test fired thrice. The first confirmation about the missile came in 1998.[41] Shaurya The Shaurya missile (Sanskrit: Valour) is a short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile developed by DRDO of India for use by the Indian Army. More significantly.[] As of 2009 it was reported that the government had not considered an 8. the Times of India reported that the DRDO is yet to reveal whether India's currently proposed ICBM will be called Agni-V (or Surya-1). This missile has a length of 8. The Shaurya system will require some more tests before it becomes fully operational in two-three years. two-stage Shaurya has high maneuverability which also makes it less vulnerable to existing anti-missile defense systems. Sagarika missile is being integrated with the Arihant class submarine that is expected to begin sea trials by 2009. Moreover. It has a range of 600–km and is capable of carrying a payload of one-tonne conventional or nuclear warhead. 190 .000-km range ICBM. the specifications of the missile are not known and the entire program continues to remain highly speculative.[] Eventually it could be introduced into as many as 5 ballistic missile submarines. Shaurya missiles can remain hidden or camouflaged in underground silos from enemy surveillance or satellites till they are fired from the special storage-cum-launch canisters. Sagarika Sagarika (Sanskrit: Wave / Born from the Ocean) is a nuclear capable submarine-launched ballistic missile with a range of 750–km.India As the missile is yet to be developed. It also houses the gas generator to eject the missile from the canister before its solid propellant motors take over to hurl it at the intended target. The composite canister makes the missile much easier to store for long periods without maintenance as well as to handle and transport. but now DRDO is planning a full-fledged test of the missile from a submarine and for this purpose may use the services of a Russian sub-marine. The Indian Navy plans to introduce the missile into service by the end of 2010.[45] The development of the underwater missile launcher known as the Project 78 (P78) was completed in 2001.000–km. and manufacturing infrastructure have also made this sector less vulnerable to long-term disruption by technology denial regimes. development. This missile is stored in a composite canister just like the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile. DRDO Defence scientists admit that given Shaurya's limited range at present. India bought around 200 Klub missiles and now it is believed that the Moskit have been kept in reserve but can still be used. subsonic cruise missile being developed in India. The first test flight of the missile is expected in the year 2012.A's India has a number of Moskit supersonic nuclear capable cruise missile .[52] The Russian 3M-54 Klub is a multi-role missile P-70 Ametist cruise missile system developed by the Novator Design Bureau (OKB-8) with a range of 250–km-300–km and an average speed of . 91RE1 and 91RE2 variants. there are still reports that they are kept in reserve and can still be used due to their upgrades in the late 1990s.[] The P-270 Moskit is a Russian supersonic ramjet powered cruise missile capable of being launched from land and ships. stealth missile[49] capable of delivering 24 different types of warheads depending on mission requirements and will use inertial navigation system for guidance. Nirbhay will be a terrain hugging.[54] Both the Klub-N and Klub-S have been tested successfully.5 to 2. aircraft or land.S.[55] Moskit India has a number of operational Moskits. The missile will have a range of 1.8 Mach with a maximum of 2.[51] 3M-54 Klub India has acquired around 200 3M-54 Klub for arming Talwar class frigate. P-70 Ametist India has Soviet P-70 Ametist submarine-launched cruise missiles. Although they are extremely old and incompetent due to their low range and speed.8 and is the world's fastest cruise missile. the Indian Army. The Navy has shown interest in buying more Klubs which would be incorporated on to the S-1000 submarine if bought by India. It is a joint venture between India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroeyenia who have together formed the BrahMos Aerospace Private Limited. Kolkata class destroyer and Sindhughosh class submarine. 3M-54E1. It is about three-and-a-half times faster than the U. India is also keen on other Former Soviet cruise missile such as the P-700 Granit and P-500 Bazalt.[48] The Nirbhay will be able to be launched from multiple platforms on land. ships. The missiles can carry nuclear warheads and have a range of 50€65–km.[56] It travels at speeds of Mach 2.9 Mach. In addition the Navy has plans to arm the Tu-142 and Tu-22M with an air-launched version. India has most probably bought both land and ship variants which have a range of 120–km.India 191 Cruise missiles Nirbhay Nirbhay (Sanskrit "Fearless") is a long range.[53] India has both the Klub-N and Klub-S variant to be used for Ships and Submarines respectively.[50] There are plans to arm the IL-76MDs with the aerial version of the missile.000–km and will arm three services. Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force. Due to Klub's longer range than BrahMos it may also be used in the Mirage 2000 and Su-30 MKI too. India currently has the 3M-54E. Shivalik class frigate. sea and air.[] The missile were mostly probably bought in the early 1990s and may be used today as canister-launched land-based cruise missiles instead of submarine-launched cruise missiles. Brahmos BrahMos is a supersonic cruise missile that can be launched from submarines. sea. Although BrahMos is primarily an anti-ship missile. A hypersonic version of the missile is also presently under development (Lab Tested with 5. or a sufficient blast to destroy a number of them.[57] The ship-launched and land-based missiles can carry a 200–kg warhead. suggesting a different tactical paradigm to achieve the objective). 192 Surface to air missile Akash Akash (Sanskrit: Sky) is India's medium range surface-to-air missile defense system The missile can target aircraft up to 30–km away. Akash SAM Along with India. a limited number of other countries including the US and Russia have developed operational multi-target handling surface-to-air missile systems capable of carrying a nuclear warhead. It has a two-stage propulsion system. The BrahMos is currently being configured for aerial deployment with the Su-30MKI as its carrier. The high speed of the BrahMos likely gives it better target-penetration characteristics than lighter subsonic cruise-missiles such as the Tomahawk. giving the BrahMos a longer range than a pure rocket-powered missile would achieve. BrahMos claims to have the capability of attacking surface targets as low as 10 meters in altitude. the BrahMos has almost 32 times the initial kinetic energy of a Tomahawk missile (although it pays for this by having only 3/5 the payload and a fraction of the range despite weighing twice as much. It can gain a speed of Mach 2. it can also engage land based targets.[60] A nuclear warhead could potentially give the missile the capability to destroy both aircraft and warheads from ballistic missiles. which could mean either separate.8. and has a maximum range of 290–km.26 Mach Speed). Being twice as heavy and almost four times faster than the Tomahawk. India has produced more than 110 Brahmos by March 2011 as per SIPRI. Air-breathing ramjet propulsion is much more fuel-efficient than rocket propulsion.000 m. inducted 1 regiment of Brahmos Type-I GLCM with 67 missiles. The missile is described as being able to strike several targets simultaneously. The air-launched version has a smaller booster and additional tail fins for added stability during launch. with a solid-propellant rocket for initial acceleration and a liquid-fueled ramjet responsible for sustained supersonic cruise. It can be launched either in a vertical or inclined position and is capable of covering targets over a 360 degree horizon. The BrahMos missile has an identical configuration for land. . independently targetable warheads. and sub-sea platforms.India subsonic Harpoon cruise missile. with a reported payload of 60–kg.[58] Akash can be fired from both tracked and wheeled platforms. at altitudes up to 18. whereas the aircraft-launched variant (BrahMos A) can carry a 300–kg warhead.[59] Akash is said to be capable of both conventional and nuclear warheads. which will undergo sea-trials for up to two years. a Charlie-class submarine was leased by the Indian Navy for three years from the Soviet Union. The submarine was leased to India between 1988 and 1991 mainly for India to gain experience in the operations of a nuclear submarine. In 2000.[65] The Indian version was reportedly armed with the 300–km range 3M-54 Klub nuclear-capable missiles. India has built one and is building two more nuclear submarines under the Arihant class submarine plan. INS Arihant was launched on 26 July 2009. until 1991. will then be equipped with an unknown number of K-15 Sagarika SLBMs. The acquisition was to help the Indian Navy prepare for the introduction of the ATV. India plans to have as many as 25 nuclear submarines capable of carrying missiles with nuclear warheads. it has an option to buy them.[63] The vessel. The INS Tabar and other Talwar class frigates are armed with the Nuclear capable 3M-54 Klub cruise missiles. INS Chakra (Russian submarine K-152 Nerpa) Former leased Charlie-Class submarine 6 Sindhughosh Class submarines can fire nuclear capable cruise missile. As of July 2007. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh thanked Russia during the launch ceremony.[citation needed] Currently. Arihant class submarine The Arihant class submarines (Sanskrit: Slayer of Enemies) are a class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines being constructed for the Indian Navy in the Shipbuilding Centre at Visakhapatnam under the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) Project.[61][62] A CIA report claimed that Russia provided technological aid to the naval nuclear propulsion program. when an accident on board killed 20 sailors but no damage occurred to the submarine.[64] The second and third submarines of the class may incorporate the Nirbhay as well. The Akulas were to be delivered to the Indian Navy in 2008 on a lease of at least seven years and up to ten years. in which at the end of the lease.[][] The submarines will be armed with ballistic missiles. expressing appreciation for the close strategic partnership with Russia. 3M-54 Klub. The cost to India of acquiring two Akula submarines and their support infrastructure along with training of the crews had been estimated at $2 billion. The first of these.[] Supposedly on 9 November 2008 one of the two submarines was conducting tests. Though this deal fell apart for some time due to the Indians demanding an . Former leasing of Soviet submarines In 1988 INS Chakra (Sanskrit: Wheel). negotiations between India and Russia were conducted into the leasing of two incomplete Akula class. India currently maintains six submarines of the Sindhughosh Class that can launch the nuclear-capable 3M-54 Klub cruise missiles. It was decommissioned in 1991. the missiles Sagarika and Dhanush had undergone three successful tests each.India 193 Delivery mechanisms Nuclear submarines According to some accounts. India also maintains ships such as destroyers. the Nirbhay missile is also to be incorporated into Talwar class frigates and Shivalik class frigates. the INS Sindhuraj (Sanskrit: King of the Ocean).[] . Other vessels of the 3M-54 Klub and may also incorporate the nuclear Shivalik Class and Talwar Class are to be armed with the BrahMos and capable Nirbhay missile in the future. In years to come. In addition Kolkata Class will also incorporate the Russian nuclear 3M-54 Klub cruise missile. 194 Frigates. All these frigates is the INS Shivalik when under sea trials. INS Tabar and INS Trishul are Talwar class vessel armed with supersonic nuclear 3M-54 Klub cruise missiles while INS Shivalik was the first vessel of the The Shivalik class frigates are armed with the Shivalik class to incorporate the 3M-54 Klub.[52] The ship-launched Dhanush Ballistic Missile was tested from INS Subhadra of the Sukanya class patrol craft in 2000.India upgrade/improvement in some of its safety features. INS Sindhuratna (Sanskrit: Gem of the Ocean).[] India bought 10 Kilo class (in India known as Sindhughosh Class) submarine of which 6 have been refitted by the Russian Navy so that the they can launch cruise missiles such as the nuclear capable 3M-54 Klub. The first submarine will be named INS Chakra. destroyers and aircraft carriers Other than submarines. INS Sindhushastra (Sanskrit: Weapon of the Ocean). Seen here 3M-54 Klub missiles by 2009 and 2010 respectively. Russia's President Dmitry Medvedev on his official trip to New Delhi said that the deal was back on track and that "The talk is not about selling submarines into India's property. the missile was again tested from the INS Subhadra and was this time successful. but defence experts state that the so-called lease agreement is only to divert international attention and that it would be eventually modified and India would inevitably keep the subs.[67] Home voyage under Indian control from the Russian port of Vladivostok to its Indian base Visakhapatnam commenced January. The 250–km variant was tested but the tests were considered partially successful. modified patrol crafts and frigates which can launch nuclear capable ballistic and cruise missiles. Rajput Class.[69][70] Cruise missile submarines The Sindhughosh class submarines of the Indian Navy. known as the S1000. are also equipped with Barak 1 missiles or other SAMs and harbour helicopters such as the HAL Dhruv.[71] The Amur will be most probably fitted with P-700 Granit or the Klub cruise missile capable of carrying nuclear warheads.[66] However. 2012. Kolkata Class and Delhi Class are Destroyers of the Indian Navy that may be armed with nuclear capable missile-Nirbhay. INS Subhadra is a patrol vessel which was modified and the missile was launched from the reinforced helicopter deck. According to GlobalSecurity India is already building the S1000 cruise missile submarines in Mazagon Docks. INS Sindhuvir (Sanskrit: Warrior of the Ocean). Talwar class frigate and Shivalik class frigate are frigates of the Indian Navy that can fire nuclear capable cruise missiles.[68] INS Chakra was inducted into the Indian Navy on 4 April 2012. but about their rent by India's navy".[28] Then the following year in December the missile's 350–km version was tested from the INS Rajput and hit the land based target. Amur class submarines Russia has also offered the advanced Amur class Submarine.[] In 2004. unlike the earlier deal the modified deal states that India can only rent and not buy the subs. INS Sindhukesari (Sanskrit: Lion of the Ocean) and INS Sindhuvijay (Sanskrit: Conqueror of the Ocean) are capable of launching 3M-54 Klub and BrahMos nuclear-capable cruise missiles. to be able to be armed with nuclear weapons. India has leased four Russian Tupolev Tu-22M3 bombers. Nuclear-capable aircraft are also seen as a less expensive way of dropping nuclear warheads as well as being as effective. which could carry air-launched cruise missiles. they have the capacity to be armed with them.[73] Dassault Mirage 2000. Indian Air Force Mirage 2000H. India is also a potential customer for a Slava class cruiser which also incorporates the P-500 Bazalt.India INS Vikramaditya Aircraft Carrier (formerly known as Admiral Gorshkov) was fitted with P-500 Bazalt nuclear capable cruise missiles of the range of 550–km. 195 Nuclear-capable aircraft India currently has fourth generation jet fighters capable of launching nuclear weapons.[76] On the other hand.000–km without refueling. Both the HAL Tejas and Su-30MKI can travel excess of 3. this allows India to attack targets far away in an effective manner only using planes rather than delivery systems such as the Agni. The Sukhoi Su-30MKI. The HAL Tejas is India's only indigenous plane to be armed with nuclear weapons. The Mirage 2000Hs were heavily customised during the Kargil War and is the only other version.[80] India is expected to buy up to 200 Sukhoi PAK-FA stealth fighter jets. thus making India less dependent on Russia. India has reportedly upgraded its Russian-built Tu-142 maritime patrol aircraft to carry air-launched cruise missiles.[77] The MKI variant features several improvements over the basic K and MK variants and is classified as a 4.[74] and MiG-29[75] serve in the Indian Air Force and are also seen as a means to deliver nuclear weapons.[81] . other than the French 2000N. developed jointly by Russia and India.[72] The Vikramaditya could still be armed with this after its refit.[73] It is primarily an air superiority fighter with air-to-ground attack capabilities. IAF Sukhoi Su-30 MKI Though the MiG-29 like the HAL Tejas after many test flights have not been tested to use nuclear weapons. In addition India maintains SEPECAT Jaguar and MiG-27M which can be used to drop gravity bombs.5 generation fighter.[78][79] Due to similar features and components. the Su-30MKI is capable of carrying nuclear weapons and is tailor-made for Indian specifications. the MKI variant is often considered to be a customized Indian variant of the Sukhoi Su-35. [] India voted against the UN General Assembly resolution endorsing the CTBT.India 196 Ballistic missile defense (BMD) India has an active Anti-ballistic missile (ABM) development effort using indigenously developed and integrated radars and locally designed missiles. which was adopted on 10 September 1996. The PAD missile has the secondary stage of the Prithvi missile and can reach altitude of 80–km. the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) approved safeguards agreement with India under which the former will gradually gain access to India's civilian nuclear reactors. India opposed the provision in Article XIV of the CTBT that requires India's ratification for the treaty to enter into force. the target missile was intercepted at an 50–km altitude. During the test. Foreign Minister I.[83] India became the fourth nation in the world to acquire such a capability and the third nation to develop it through indigenous effort.000–km. which India argued was a violation of its sovereign right to choose whether it would sign the treaty. These high speed missiles (AD-1 and AD-2) are being developed to intercept ballistic missiles with the range of 5. India has also shown interest in the Russian S-400." India also demanded that the treaty ban laboratory simulations. saying that "India favors any step aimed at destroying nuclear weapons.Gujral reiterated India's opposition to the treaty. but considers that the treaty in its current form is not comprehensive and bans only certain types of tests. but did accede to the Partial Test Ban Treaty in October 1963. In early February 1997. India objected to the lack of provision for universal nuclear disarmament "within a time-bound framework. Two new anti ballistic missiles that can intercept IRBM/ICBMs are being developed. In addition. the missiles will work in tandem to ensure a hit probability of 99.8 percent. India successfully conducted the PADE (Prithvi Air Defence Exercise) in which an Anti-ballistic missile.[84] On 6 December 2007 the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) missile system was tested successfully. India is a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). According to DRDO scientist V K Saraswat.[82] In November 2006.[87] India's Advanced Air Defense (AAD) interceptor missile India also has Russian S300 PMU-2 and it is used as an interceptor for ballistic missiles. Akash is used to destroy low range missiles and is capable of destroying various targets and is one of the few of its kind systems in the world." In August 2008. and four of its 17 nuclear reactors are subject to IAEA safeguards.[89] In September 2008. India announced its lack of intention to accede to the NPT as late as 1997 by voting against the paragraph of a General Assembly Resolution[88] which urged all non-signatories of the treaty to accede to it at the earliest possible date.K. the Nuclear Suppliers Group granted India a waiver allowing it to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other . the most advanced anti-ballistic missile.[85] This missile is an Endoatmospheric (inside the atmosphere) interceptor with an altitude of 30–km. International Response India is not a signatory to either the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) or the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). called the Prithvi Air Defense (PAD) an Exoatmospheric (outside the atmosphere) interceptor system intercepted a Prithvi-II ballistic missile. An indigenous nuclear tipped surface to air missile.[86] Induction of the system into services is expected to be in 2010. gov. dominicantoday. and Hans M. in/ currsci/ jan25/ articles20. 7 May 2009. india. . nti.[92] United States. business-standard. com/ news531700. Kristensen [20] Norris. Archived on 2 September 2009. ias. org/ policy/ CTBT/ nuclear_doctrine_aug_17_1999. 7 May 2005. India has signed nuclear deals with several countries including France. isis-online. Retrieved 21 August 2011. org/ about-opcw/ member-states/ status-of-participation-in-the-cwc/ ?tx_damfrontend_pi1) [15] Dominican Today . yahoo. see :Thermonuclear weapon yield estimations of the Operation Shakti [6] US wants India to sign NPT (http:/ / www.India to destroy chemical weapons stockpile by 2009 (http:/ / www. her security concerns and the recent tests (http:/ / www. India•s nuclear capability.[96][97] 197 Agni-III ballistic missile Brahmos. (Archived from the original at (http:/ / www. pdf)). html) [12] Speech by NSA Shri Shivshankar Menon at NDC on ƒThe Role of Force in Strategic Affairs„: Web-site of Ministry of External Affairs (Govt.India destroys its chemical weapons stockpile (http:/ / zeenews. com/ NewsDetailsPage/ newsDetails211010n. com/ 43/ 20090514/ 812/ tnl-india-destroys-its-chemical-weapons. indianembassy. David. pdf). com/ doc/ 1P1-3987660. org/ global_stocks/ end2003/ india_military_plutonium. org/ e_research/ profiles/ india/ nuclear/ 2296_6267. Robert S. org/ global_stocks/ end2003/ india_military_plutonium. "India's Military Plutonium Inventory. of India) (http:/ / www. Namibia. org/ web/ 20090902165001/ http:/ / www. mea.[90] The implementation of this waiver makes India the only known country with nuclear weapons which is not a party to the NPT but is still allowed to carry out nuclear commerce with the rest of the world. [7] (http:/ / www. Robert S. End 2004" (http:/ / web.India countries. opcw. php) [14] [pointer]=49 (http:/ / www. ac. archive. indiablooms. html) [17] Zee News . com/ india/ news/ us-wants-india-to-sign-npt/ 357348/ ) Business Standard. M. in/ mystart. January 1999. html) [19] Norris. html) [8] B. and Hans M. Kristensen [21] Albright.[91] Since the implementation of NSG waiver. html) [18] (http:/ / in. Israeli-built air to ground missile Soviet-built Charlie I class cruise missile submarine INS Chakra of the Indian Navy References [1] For more readings and citations. php?id=530116584) [13] NSA Shivshankar Menon at NDC (Speech) : india Blooms (http:/ / www. htm). highbeam.[93] Mongolia. com/ dr/ world/ 2007/ 12/ 30/ 26543/ India-to-destroy-chemical-weapons-stockpile-by-2009) [16] India declares its stock of chemical weapons (http:/ / www. Indo-Russian cruise missile Popeye. isis-online. Indian Academy of Sciences. Udgaonkar.[94] and Kazakhstan[95] while the framework for similar deals with Canada and United Kingdom are also being prepared. [11] Draft Report of National Security Advisory Board on Indian Nuclear Doctrine (http:/ / www. news. india-defence. Ravi. com/ reports/ 2106) [28] (http:/ / www.S.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/index. ptinews. htm). globalsecurity.globalsecurity. August 2007 edition [65] Project 971 Shuka-B Akula class (http:/ / www. html) [73] (http:/ / www. in/ samachar/ dec15-06/ h1. com/ NAVY/ Klub. html India Today news article: INS Chakra formally inducted into Indian Navy [72] (http:/ / www. . outlookindia.nuclearfiles. org/ military/ world/ india/ s-akula. com/ oldsite/ show_news. org/ programs/ ssp/ nukes/ nuclearweapons/ nukestatus. hindu. [23] India can make 50 nuclear warheads a year (http:/ / www. com/ NAVY/ ships/ future/ 193-ins-vikramaditya. yahoo. htm) www. html) [58] Asian tribune: Upgraded version of •Akash‚ test fired. shtml) [74] history [82] Interview: Vijay Kumar Saraswat Chief Controller of Research and Development. By Hemanta Kumar Rout (http:/ / www. com/ MISSILES/ Prithvi. com/ 2006/ 06/ 19/ stories/ 2006061904331200.org (http://www. intoday. com/ defence/ air_forces/ news/ jawa/ jawa010108_1_n. in/ story/ ins-chakra-inducted-into-indian-navy/ 1/ 182955. news. Air Force to place order for Akash missile system (http:/ / www. com/ 2008/ 04/ 13/ stories/ 2008041359371000. com/ pti\ptisite. bharat-rakshak.Daily Times [38] http:/ / www.org (http://www.wilsoncenter. com/ pti_news. Retrieved 19 April 2008. php?id=2524130) [83] Prithvi Mission Milestone in Missile Defence (http:/ / mod.com [66] (http:/ / in. nsf/ 0/ 3AA1B3B19AE0CD276525754500564CCB?OpenDocument) 198 External links € Indian Nuclear Weapons program (http://nuclearweaponarchive. org/nuclear-history-documents/) The Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project contains a collection of primary source documents on Indian nuclear development.India [22] Status of World Nuclear Forces (http:/ / www. php?id=12250) [59] Sharma. nic.html) A good article with very detailed information € Nuclear Files. India develops new anti-missile system (http:/ / www. html) [69] http:/ / economictimes.wlu. co. The Hindu.aspx?keyword=indian*nuclear*weapons*program&creator=&title=& media=all&genre=all&disc=all&level=all&sortby=relevance&results=10&period=15) € The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http://www. indiatimes. bharat-rakshak. html) [35] Facts about India‚s Agni-III missile . bharat-rakshak.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/nuclear-stockpiles. 13 April 2008. cms Economic Times news article: INS Chakra: Govt inducts Russian-origin Akula II class Nerpa into Navy [70] http:/ / indiatoday. janes.org/India/IndiaOrigin. uk/ news/ world-asia-india-17738633 India test launches Agni-V long-range missile [52] (http:/ / www. hindu.htm) India's nuclear conflict with Pakistan. 21 February 2011. € The National Security Archive's "Nuclear Vault" (http://www. [62] "Indian nuclear submarine". India‚s DRDO (http:/ / www.nuclearfiles.info/index. htm) (http:/ / www.net/missile-testing-ranges-of-india/) € Video interviews taken at the 2008 NPT PrepCom on the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act (http://npt-webcast.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/post-cold-war/ india-pakistan/india-pakistan-conflict. com/ news/ politics/ nation/ ins-chakra-govt-inducts-8000-ton-russian-origin-akula-ii-class-nerpa-into-navy/ articleshow/ 12526102. Federation of American Scientists.php?p=stichworte) € Annotated bibliography for India's nuclear weapons program from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http://alsos. com/ 137/ 20081215/ 738/ tnl-russia-mulls-nuclear-sub-lease-to-in. html). defensenews. htm) Current information on nuclear stockpiles in India € Missile testing ranges of India (http://frontierindia.htm) features a number of compilations of declassified U. asp?id=432771). [84] Outlook India.edu/adv_rst. 27 November 2006. com/ aero/ story. [97] (http:/ / www. asiantribune. fas. India Today. government documents related to India's nuclear program.background and the current situation € Nuclear Files. htm). bbc. Iran 199 Iran Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . [] In November 2009. a public and categorical religious decree (fatwa) against the development. U.[29][15] the Council demanded that Iran suspend its nuclear enrichment activities[16][17] and imposed sanctions against Iran[][][18][19] when Iran refused to do so. the IAEA Board of Governors adopted[21] a resolution against Iran which urged Iran to apply the modified Code 3.000 Iranian troops and civilians were victims of chemical weapons during the 1980s Iran€Iraq War.S.[20] The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran.[9] In 2009.[4][5] The IAEA has confirmed the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran.[12] while Russian President Dmitry Medvedev said Iran was getting closer to having the capability to produce nuclear weapons.[22] ."[] Iran said the "hasty and undue" resolution would "jeopardize the conducive environment vitally needed" for successful negotiations[] and lead to cooperation not exceeding its "legal obligations to the body".[][] though it is approved by some relatively minor clerics.[] Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has argued that the sanctions are illegal. the United States Intelligence Community assessed that Iran had ended "nuclear weapon design and weaponization work" in 2003.[] Iran has first-hand knowledge of WMD effects…over 100. stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons has been issued by the supreme leader of the Islamic Republic Ali Khamenei along with other clerics.[22] and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)."[][10] Some European intelligence believes Iran has resumed its alleged nuclear weapons design work.[1][2] On ideological grounds.[] and expressed "serious concern" that Iran had not cooperated on issues that needed "to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program.[13][14] Iran has called for nuclear weapons states to disarm and for the Middle East to be a nuclear weapon free zone.[] urged Iran to implement and ratify the Additional Protocol.[3] Iran has stated its uranium enrichment program is exclusively for peaceful purposes. intelligence assessed that Iranian intentions were unknown but that if Iran pursued a nuclear weapon it would be "unlikely to achieve this capability before 2013" and acknowledged "the possibility that this capability may not be attained until after 2015.Iran € 200 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Iran is not known to currently possess weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and has signed treaties repudiating the possession of weapons of mass destruction including the Biological Weapons Convention. production. but has also said it "needs to have confidence in the absence of possible military dimensions to Iran‚s nuclear programme.[8] In a 2007 National Intelligence Estimate. but not the absence of undeclared activities."[6][7] The IAEA has pointed out that Iran is not implementing the requirements of UN Security Council Resolutions and needs to cooperate to clarify outstanding issues and meet requirement to provide early design information on its nuclear facilities.[] the Chemical Weapons Convention.[] After the IAEA voted in a rare non-consensus decision to find Iran in non-compliance with its NPT Safeguards Agreement and to report that non-compliance to the UN Security Council.1 to its Safeguard Agreement.[11] Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin said he had seen no evidence of any nuclear weapons program in Iran.[] The Non-Aligned Movement has called on both sides to work through the IAEA for a solution. Iran received basic nuclear research facilities from the United States. Fueled by high oil prices in the 1970s.[] The Non-Aligned Movement called on both sides to work through the IAEA for a solution.Iran 201 Nuclear weapons Overview In September 2005. Iran's representative to the UN argued that the sanctions compelled Iran to abandon its rights under the NPT to peaceful nuclear technology. in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions. while Iran says it is aimed solely at producing electricity. said he had no evidence Iran was building nuclear weapons and accused US leaders of adding "fuel to the fire" with their rhetoric. and the Quds Force a "supporter of terrorism".[30] During that time. were related to a nuclear weapons program. His irresponsible attitude of sticking his head in the sand over Iran's nuclear programme should lead to his impeachment. who emerged as an important American ally in the Persian Gulf. the United States declared the Revolutionary Guards a "proliferator of weapons of mass destruction"... the IAEA Board of Governors. Israel is a member of the IAEA.[25] On 31 July 2006. under pressure from the United States. the leadership of President Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and Supreme Leader Ali Hosseini Khamenei sought to revive Iran‚s overt nuclear civilian program and expand undeclared nuclear activities during the 1990s.[28] History Iran‚s nuclear program began as a result of the Cold War alliance between the United States and the shah of Iran.[23] recalled a previous Iranian "policy of concealment" regarding its enrichment program[] and found that Iran had violated its NPT Safeguards Agreement.[] Iran responded that "it is incongruent for a country [US] who itself is a producer of weapons of mass destruction to take such a decision. saying: "The policies followed by ElBaradei endanger world peace. Iran . days before the IAEA was to publish its latest report. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. whose revolution displaced the shah's monarchy in 1979 and ruled the newly-established Islamic Republic of Iran until his death in 1989.[26] On 25 October 2007. Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. the UN Security Council imposed sanctions against Iran. In return.[] Another IAEA report stated "there is no evidence that the previously undeclared nuclear material and activities .[] Under the Atoms for Peace program. Following the death of Ayotollah Khomeini. Israeli Deputy Prime Minister Shaul Mofaz called for ElBaradei to be sacked."[] Iran has claimed that the military threat posed by Israel and the United States is forcing it to restrict the release of information on its nuclear program. rejected or withdrew from signed commercial deals with the Iranian nuclear authority. Iran sought to purchase large-scale nuclear facilities from Western suppliers in order to develop nuclear power and fuel-cycle facilities with both civilian and potential military applications.[27] Speaking in Washington in November 2007.[29] Sensing a heightened risk of nuclear proliferation. and is widely believed to currently be the only nuclear-armed state in the region. For its part in the conflict-ridden Middle East. director of the IAEA at the time. the United States convinced western allies to limit the export of nuclear fuel-cycle facilities to Iran. the shah established the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI). Tehran signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in 1968. According to a strategic dossier from International Institute for Strategic Studies.[24] Gawdat Bahgat of the National Defense University speculates that Iran may have a lack of confidence in the international community which was reinforced when many nations.[] In March 1974. placed little emphasis on nuclear weapons development because it was viewed as a suspicious western innovation.[] which were later tightened on 24 March 2007. but it is not itself a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty."[] Mohamed ElBaradei.[] On 23 December 2006.[] because Iran refused to suspend enrichment. many of Iran‚s top scientists fled the country while the United States organized an international campaign to block any nuclear assistance to Iran." Israel and some western governments fear Iran is using its nuclear programme as a covert means to develop weapons. the Security Council passed a resolution demanding Iran suspend its enrichment program.[] US intelligence predicted in August 2005 that Iran could have the key ingredients for a nuclear weapon by 2015. [35] A National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) is the most authoritative written judgment concerning a national security issue prepared by the Director of Central Intelligence. The 1990s also saw Iran expand its furtive nuclear research into conversion. That day is still 2€3 years away at the earliest.Iran turned away from Western suppliers and obtained nuclear assistance from Russian and China in a number of key areas. hampering but not halting the country‚s nuclear development.„[] Full exposure of Iran‚s nuclear activities came in 2002.000 centrifuges operating smoothly. but "no evidence" of "an active weaponization program" as of October 2007. said Tehran would not be able to produce enough material for a nuclear bomb before 2010 and would only be able to make it into a weapon by about 2015. Russia has said there was no proof Iran has ever run a nuclear weapons program. milling and conversation. assuming no technical problems." but denied its allegations of Iran having had a nuclear weapons program before 2003. the National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) declared the Natanz project in August of that year. when an Iranian exiled opposition group. enrichment and plutonium separation. stated that he had seen "maybe some studies about possible weaponization". Mohamed ElBaradei.S. overstate. Iran was able to begin the construction of pilot-scale and industrial-scale enrichment facilities at Natanz around 2000. said intelligence has a "recently reinforced propensity to underscore. Washington intervened with Moscow and Beijing to prevent Iran from fully acquiring its list of nuclear power and fuel-cycle facilities.[] € In December 2007.[33][] Iranian Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki said 70 percent of the U. even assuming Iran was trying to develop a nuclear bomb. Mohamed ElBaradei. they would require "between another three and eight years to succeed". the head of German intelligence service.[] € On 22 October 2007. should it choose to do so: € A 2005 assessment by the International Institute for Strategic Studies concluded "if Iran threw caution to the wind. the IISS estimates it would take an additional 9-11 months to produce 25–kg of highly enriched uranium.[] However. if it chose to develop one. Mohamed ElBaradei repeated that. as well as technology for heavy-water research reactors.[] Iran remains legally bound to the NPT and states its support for the treaty.[] Thomas Fingar. and sought a nuclear weapon capability as quickly as possible without regard for international reaction.[] and that US intelligence does not know whether Iran intends to develop nuclear weapons.[31] € In 2006 Ernst Uhrlau. There are various estimates of when Iran might be able to produce a nuclear weapon. enough for one implosion-type weapon. that it is unlikely that Iran would flatly ignore international reactions and develop nuclear weapons anyway. Khan network.[32] € A 2007 annual review the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London stated that "If and when Iran does have 3. The report concludes. however. but believes Iran could at least be keeping the option to develop them 202 .S. ƒMost importantly. or 'hype' the findings in order to get people to pay attention" and that the 2007 NIE was intended to send the message "you do not have a lot of time but you appear to have a diplomatic or non-military option". said on 24 May 2007 that Iran could take between 3 and 8 years to make a bomb if it went down that route."[] € The former head of the IAEA.[] € A 2005 US National Intelligence Estimate stated that Iran was ten years from making a nuclear weapon. report was "true and positive. The new estimate says that the enrichment program could still provide Iran with enough raw material to produce a nuclear weapon sometime by the middle of next decade. the United States National Intelligence Estimate (representing the consensus view of all 16 American intelligence agencies) concluded with a "high level of confidence" that Iran had halted its nuclear weapons program in 2003 and "with moderate confidence" that the program remains frozen as of mid-2007. Since that time.. including uranium mining. Director of National Intelligence said in February 2009 that Iran would not realistically be able to a get a nuclear weapon until 2013. but that intelligence agencies "do not know whether it currently intends to develop nuclear weapons" at some future date. former Chairman of the National Intelligence Council until December 2008. on the basis of additional centrifuge assistance from the A. in reference to the 2007 Iran NIE and using intelligence to anticipate opportunities and shape the future.[36] € The U. an assessment shared by "all the intelligence services". it might be able to produce enough HEU for a single nuclear weapon by the end of this decade".Q. international pressure on Iran has remained steady.[34] The former head of the IAEA. the IAEA Secretariat reported that "the Agency has not seen indications of diversion of nuclear material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices . Iran furnished the IAEA with copies. On 6 March 2006. head of the global intelligence company Stratfor. after three years of intensive verification. and research and development locations. there remain uncertainties with regard to both the scope and the nature of Iran's nuclear programme". Iran voluntarily signed.[] However.[] € On 12 February 2010 US think tank expert David Albright.. but did not ratify or bring into force.[41] 203 IAEA The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an autonomous international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for military purposes.N. however. "A senior U. however when the IAEA reported Iran's non-compliance to the United Nations Security Council on 4 February 2006 Iran withdrew from its voluntary adherence to the Additional Protocol.[40] € An IAEA report issued 8 November 2011 provided detailed information outlining the IAEA's concerns about the possible military dimensions of Iran's nuclear program. certain military-owned workshops. and British intelligence say that under a worst case scenario it would take Iran a minimum of 18 months to develop a nuclear weapon if it chose to build one. On 18 December 2003. which is only necessary to make nuclear weapons. an Additional Protocol that allows IAEA inspectors access to individuals. saying Iran had explained both and they could plausibly be classified as byproducts of peaceful nuclear activities.[] On 12 May 2006.[] though the documents did not have the necessary technical details to actually manufacture a bomb. documentation relating to procurement.Iran open. the inspectors did find some sensitive documents. weapons inspector Scott Ritter. appeared. the head of the Institute for Science and International Security.[][][] On 31 July 2006. claiming not to have used the information for weapons work.[][38] Physicists say that if Iran were to choose to develop a nuclear weapon. noting that Iran had pursued a structured program or activities relevant to the development of nuclear weapons. His claim was criticized by former chief U. dual-use equipment. but it is not clear if this is contamination from centrifuges that had been previously found [from imported material] or something new. and it would have to first purify its uranium and weaponize its uranium. which it had obtained along with other technology and parts in 1987 and the mid-1990s. has said Iran is "decades away" from developing any credible nuclear-arms capacity. claims that highly-enriched uranium (well over the 3.[42] It is thought this material was sold to them by Abdul Qadeer Khan..[] In late 2006. and possessed enough centrifuges to produce weapons-grade uranium. "New traces of plutonium and enriched uranium€ potential material for atomic warheads€ have been found [by the IAEA] in a nuclear waste facility in Iran. official who was familiar with the report cautioned against reading too much into the findings of traces of highly enriched uranium and plutonium.[39] George Friedman."[43] In 2007 these traces were determined to have come from leaking used highly enriched uranium fuel .[37] Mossad Chief Meir Dagan was more cautious. German." However. French. it would have to withdraw from the International Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and expel International Atomic Energy Agency inspectors from the country. including instructions and diagrams on how to make uranium into a sphere." said one diplomat close to the UN International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). "They have found particles of highly enriched uranium [HEU].[] An anonymous source in the German Foreign Intelligence Service (BND) whose rank was not provided has gone further and claimed Iran could produce a nuclear bomb and conduct an underground test in 6 months if it wanted to and further asserted that Iran had already mastered the full uranium enrichment cycle. the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its uranium enrichment activities. These reports have not yet been officially confirmed by the IAEA (as of 1 June 2006).5% enriched level) was reported to have been found "at a site where Iran has denied such sensitive atomic work".N. said in a report that Iran was seeking to "make sufficient weapons-grade uranium". saying recently that it would take the Iranians until 2014.[] Iran agreed voluntarily to implement the Additional Protocol provisionally. Dr.[][48][49] Its findings conclude that Iran has made important strides towards clarifying its past activities. ElBaradei said he would welcome seeing it. according to the International Herald Tribune. was provided only several days before the report was published. Answers provided by Iran regarding the past P-1 and P-2 centrifuge programs were found to be consistent with the IAEA's own findings. and requests for access to certain military workshops have been denied.[45] In September 2007 the IAEA announced it has been able to verify that Iran's declared nuclear material has not been diverted from peaceful use. Mohamed ElBaradei."[] In November 2007 ElBaradei circulated a report to the upcoming meeting of the IAEA Board of Governors. The report also confirmed that Iran now possesses 3000 centrifuges. and has continued to enrich uranium in the past year. though the feed rate is below the maximum for a facility of this design." The IHT report went on to say that "ElBaradei said he was worried about the growing rhetoric from the U. because there is still a lot of question marks.S. ElBaradei stated it would be helpful if "we were able to share with Iran more of the material that is at the centre of these concerns". and by August 2007 a plan for monitoring the Natanz uranium enrichment plant will have been finalised. and that we are faced right now with the issue of whether Iran should be bombed or allowed to have the bomb". even if Iran did intend to develop a nuclear bomb. but that other issues of concern had reached a "dead end" unless Iran were to fully cooperate with the agency. The IAEA is not able to conclusively confirm that Iran isn't currently enriching uranium for military purposes.[50] In his final November 2009 statement to the IAEA Board of Governors.[47] In October 2007.S. Data regarding the P-2 centrifuge.[44] In August 2007 the IAEA announced that Iran has agreed to a plan to resolve key questions regarding its past nuclear activities. Have we seen an active weaponization program? No. Mohamed ElBaradei said the Agency continued to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran. a 10-fold increase over the past year. The IAEA described this as a "significant step forward". including provided access to documentation and officials involved in centrifuge design in the 1980s and 1990s. The IHT quoted ElBaredei as stating that. telling Le Monde that. Director-General Mohamed ElBaradei said at the time. as its inspections have been restricted to workshops previously declared as part of the civilian uranium enrichment program. In response to the report the US has vowed to push for more sanctions.[] In July 2007 the IAEA announced that Iran has agreed to allow inspectors to visit its Arak nuclear plant.. which Ahmadinejad has claimed will quadruple production of enriched uranium. While the IAEA has been unable to verify some "important aspects" regarding the nature and scope of Iran's nuclear work. the agency and Iranian officials agreed on a plan to resolve all outstanding issues. the report noted that "As a result. ElBaradei remarked that "Iran does not constitute a certain and immediate threat for the international community". However. supplied to Iran in 1967.[46] In an interview with Radio Audizioni Italiane the same month. which he noted focused on Iran's alleged intentions to build a nuclear weapon rather than evidence the country was actively doing so.[] In late October 2007. which the U. Iran has ignored the demands of the UN Security council. the former head of the IAEA. stated that he had seen "no evidence" of Iran developing nuclear weapons." said Mohamed ElBaradei. He went on to note that "all the intelligence services" agree with this assessment and that he wanted to "get people away from the idea that Iran will be a threat from tomorrow. the agency's knowledge about Iran's current nuclear program is diminishing". "That's why we have said that we cannot give Iran a pass right now. ElBaradei amplified these remarks.Iran from the Tehran Research Reactor. whilst Iran has called for an apology from the US. If there is actual evidence. and also said it would be helpful if Iran fully implemented the Subsidiary Arrangements to its Safeguards Agreement and fully implemented 204 . who led the International Atomic Energy Agency. "We have information that there has been maybe some studies about possible weaponization." "But have we seen Iran having the nuclear material that can readily be used into a weapon? No. the IAEA plan to discuss this issue further in December. they would need "between another three and eight years to succeed". and the matter was closed. [51] On 18 February 2010 the IAEA released a new report on Iran's nuclear program. but scrapped it as US intelligence insists. But that doesn't mean there is a master plan for a nuclear weapon."[] Outside experts note that the parts of the report made public lack many dates associated with Iran's alleged activities meaning it is possible Iran had a Project 110 at one time.Iran the Additional Protocol. a nuclear weapon today .[53] PressTV reported that the report verified the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran and that Iran started enriching uranium to a higher level in the presence of IAEA inspectors. payment invoices. they will tell you they are still four or five years away from a weapon.. ElBaradei said Iran's failure to report the existence of a new fuel enrichment facility until September 2009 was inconsistent with its obligations under the Subsidiary Arrangements to its Safeguards Agreement." They wrote that there was "no independent assessment that Iran is engaged in weapons work" and that this was "hardly the first time that the agency has discussed potential evidence of Tehran's nuclear weapons research". selective and inaccurate" manner. but even if you talk to MI6 or the CIA.[58] The New York Times article cited classified US intelligence reports asserting that Professor Mohsen Fakhrizadeh is in charge of the projects.[54] In an April 2010 interview with the BBC. writing in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. one of the documents it briefly displayed at a meeting of the agency's member countries in Vienna last year.[] "We are looking to those suppliers of information to help us on the question of authenticity. who ran the CIA's nonproliferation center and served as deputy director of the presidential commission on weapons of mass destruction. or we have new information that Iran is developing. So. it's a question of allegations..[56] Iran has asserted that the documents are a fabrication. no new information has been revealed. from Mr. allegations Project 110 and Project 111 could be names for Iranian efforts for designing a nuclear warhead and making it work with an Iranian missile. Sooner or later that will happen. ElBaradei closed by saying international negotiations represented a "unique opportunity to address a humanitarian need and create space for negotiations"."[55] Alleged weaponization studies Former IAEA Director General ElBaradei said in 2009 that the agency had been provided with "no credible evidence" that Iran is developing nuclear weapons. wrote "if someone has a good idea for a missile program. or more than a handful of names and locations possibly connected to the projects. while Iranian officials assert these projects are a fiction made up by the United States."[60] Former IAEA Director Mohamed ElBaradei said the Agency didn't have any information that nuclear material has been used and didn't have any information that any components of nuclear weapons had been manufactured. ElBaradei further said the building of trust between the parties would "not happen until the two sides sit around the negotiating table and address their grievances.[57] when a November 2009 article in The Guardian said the allegations included Iran's weapon design activities using two point implosion designs. while the IAEA has urged Iran to be more cooperative and Member States to provide more information about the allegations to be shared with Iran. ending with a warhead exploding about 650 yards above ground € approximately the altitude from which the bomb dropped on Hiroshima was detonated. we have time to engage. showed the chronology of a missile launching.[59] The Washington Post reports that "nowhere are there construction orders. former IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei said Western nations were seeking harsher sanctions "out of frustration". suggested "the media has seriously misrepresented the actual contents of the report" and that "in fact. there is a concern about Iran's future intentions."[] Gordon Oehler. Fakrizadeh's projects. he'll get that program through. because that is really a major issue.S.[] but the New York Times reported in January 2009 that the IAEA is investigating U. and he has really good connections.[] The article further reported that "while the international agency readily concedes that the evidence about the two projects remains murky." ElBaradei further said." he said. Ivan Oelrich and Ivanka Barzashka. It is not an issue that involves nuclear material.[52] Iran's envoy to the UN atomic watchdog criticized Western powers for interpreting the IAEA report in an "exaggerated. "I don't think Iran is developing.[61] 205 .[56] ElBaradei has strongly denied reports that the agency had concluded Iran had developed technology needed to assemble a nuclear warhead. Alexander Zmeyevskiy. and claimed the document appeared to be from an office in Iran's Defense Ministry and may have been from around 2007. The report further said.[62] ElBaradei has angrily rejected claims from Israel. France and the US that he had suppressed the internal IAEA report. Additionally. has been shared with the Board. as well as being against Islamic religious principles. that it was unclear when the document was written.A. "it would be helpful if Member States which have provided documentation to the Agency would agree to share more of that documentation with Iran.[] Russia's representative to the IAEA. The Times claimed that a document from an unnamed Asian intelligence agency described the use of a neutron source which has no use other than in a nuclear weapon." Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad said in response to the documents." said Thomas B. Iran questions why it shouldn't be allowed to diversify its sources of energy. a senior scientist in the nuclear program of the Natural Resources Defense Council.I. it was unclear whether the paper provided any new insights into the state of Iranian weapons research. as appropriate.[] "It's very troubling € if real. and we have seen no evidence of an Iranian decision to build them. said the media leak may be being used "as a pretext for inciting the campaign against Iran. has noted that though the IAEA is in possession of these documents.[73] 206 The Iranian stance Iran states that the purpose of its nuclear program is the generation of power and that any other use would be a violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty."[] Anton Khlopkov."[72] "I think that some of the claims about our nuclear issue have turned into a repetitive and tasteless joke."[68] A senior U.Iran In August 2009 an article in the Israeli newspaper Haaretz alleged that ElBaradei had "censored" evidence obtained by IAEA inspectors over the preceding few months. Cochran.[] ElBaradei said he and the Agency have repeatedly said the rumors of censorship were "totally baseless. or weapon parts marketed to research centres. totally groundless.[65] In December 2009. of which it is a signatory." "The Agency is still awaiting a reply from Iran to its request to meet relevant Iranian authorities in connection with these issues". It points to the fact that Iran's population has more than doubled in 20 years. saying all relevant and confirmed information had been presented to member states.[69] The C. Iran claims that nuclear power is necessary for a booming population and rapidly-industrialising nation. and that burning fossil fuel in large amounts harms Iran's environment drastically.."[56] On 16 November 2009 the Director General provided a report to the Board of Governors. did not declare whether it believes the document was real. the IAEA's findings "do not contain any conclusions about the presence of undeclared nuclear activities in Iran. the founding director of the Center for Energy and Security Studies. if genuine. professor emeritus of theoretical physics at Sussex University. and European spy agencies also did not give any authentication to the document. and which need to be clarified to exclude the existence of possible military dimensions to Iran's nuclear programme."[63][64] Russia has denied allegations of "continued Russian assistance to Iran's nuclear weapons program" as "totally groundless" and said the November 2009 IAEA report reaffirmed the absence of a military component in Iran's efforts in the nuclear field. The report stated "there remain a number of outstanding issues which give rise to concerns."[71] Iran pointed out the claims had not been verified by the International Atomic Energy Agency and argued that "some countries are angry that our people defend their nuclear rights. All information that we have received that has been vetted.[] The Institute for Science and International Security. official who saw the document said it may or may not be authentic. the country regularly imports gasoline and electricity.[] Western intelligence agencies said that. wrote in that "nothing in the published 'intelligence documents' shows Iran is close to having nuclear weapons" and argued that it is "unlikely that nuclear weapon projects would be distributed among several universities. the report said. assessed in accordance with our standard practices. said that it "urges caution and further assessment" of the document and noted that "the document does not mention nuclear weapons .N."[70] Former Russian Prime Minister Yevgeny Primakov has also said after the public publications of the documents "Russia has no concrete information that Iran is planning to construct a weapon". especially when there are .[66][67] Norman Dombey. and that it was unclear whether any experiments had ever actually been performed. [] On 3 December 2004. agrees "Iran's claims to need nuclear power could be genuine". 207 .Weapon States to fulfill their international obligations continue to be a source of threat for the international community". Harnessing nuclear power costs a fraction of this. claiming that developing the excess capacity in its oil industry would cost it $40 billion.[80] On 6 August 2005. On 14 November 2004. stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons are forbidden under Islam and that Iran shall never acquire these weapons. as a confidence-building measure for a reasonable period of time. On 9 August 2005 Iran's Supreme Leader. with all its branches. not to speak of paying for the power plants. I say unequivocally that for no price will we be willing to relinquish our legal and international right. they will deny access to other states and thus deepen the divide between powerful countries and the rest of the international community .[] Iran has proposed that the Middle East be established as a proposed Nuclear Weapon Free Zone.. we expect to soon join the club of the countries that have a nuclear industry. Furthermore. economically viable and proliferation-proof civil nuclear power generation and research program. Iran states that "the failure of certain Nuclear.[] Iran has called on the state of Israel to sign the NPT. accept inspection of its nuclear facilities.. Building reactors is expensive. in which we are not interested.[] Iran also states that "the only country that has ever used nuclear weapons still maintains a sizable arsenal of thousands of nuclear warheads" and calls for a stop to the transfer of technology to non-NPT states. but subsequent operating costs are low and stable. I also say unequivocally to those who make false claims: Iran is not pursuing nuclear weapons. but it will not give up its rights. France and Germany. and further says that it "has constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency". General Assembly said "We are concerned that once certain powerful states completely control nuclear energy resources and technology. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei.[] Iran has called for the development of a follow-up committee to ensure compliance with global nuclear disarmanent. the former UN weapons inspector in Iraq. Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani alluded to Iran's position on nuclear energy: God willing. Iran's former president and an Islamic cleric.Iran fears of its oil fields eventually being depleted. We hope that you come to your senses soon and do not get the world involved in disputes and crises. not simple electricity generation. Iran argues that nuclear power makes fairly good economic sense. peaceful use of nuclear energy without possession of a nuclear fuel cycle is an empty proposition". and place its nuclear facilities under IAEA safeguards.[77] Iran states it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT. considering Iran has abundant supplies of accessible uranium ore." The Europeans. and increasingly competitive as fossil-fuel prices rise.[] Twelve other countries are known to operate uranium enrichment facilities.[] Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in a 2005 speech to the U. We want to get what we're entitled to. of John Hopkin's Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering. Iran's chief nuclear negotiator said that his country agreed to voluntarily and temporarily suspend the uranium enrichment program after pressure from the European Union on behalf of the United Kingdom.[] Iran has criticized the European Union because it believes it has taken no steps to reduce the danger of nuclear weapons in the Middle East.[78] Iran and many other nations without nuclear weapons have said that the present situation whereby Nuclear Weapon States monopolise the right to possess nuclear weapons is "highly discriminatory".[75] These claims have been echoed [76] by Scott Ritter. with six months mentioned as a reference. and they have pushed for steps to accelerate the process of nuclear disarmament. It continues to argue that its valuable oil should be used for high value products and export. Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has publicly stated Iran is not developing nuclear weapons. issued a fatwa that the production.N. Iran rejected a 34 page European Union proposal intended to help Iran build "a safe. Your provocation will not make us pursue nuclear weapons. Roger Stern. except the military one. The text of the fatwa has not been released although it was referenced in an official statement at a meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna.[74] Iran also raises funding questions. intended to entice Iran into a binding commitment not to develop uranium enrichment capability by offering to provide fuel and other long-term support that would facilitate electricity generation with nuclear energy.[][93] In an interview in October 2011. a news website run by Iranian exiles (the Fedayeen Khalq [People's Commandos] leftist terrorist group). we should give medicine. Germany halted construction of the Bushehr reactor.[92] this route is much less desirable because far more material is required to achieve a sustained nuclear chain reaction.[] HEU enriched to 90% and above is most typically used in a weapons development program. a student of Qom's fundamentalist cleric Mesbah Yazdi. "We had already announced that any plan has to recognize Iran's right to enrich uranium".. When someone is sick.[88] Iran began using a single cascade to enrich uranium "up to 19.[81] After the Iranian Revolution. Security Council sanctions aimed at curtailing its uranium-enrichment activities unfairly target its medical sector. using a small cascade of 164 gas centrifuges. Rooz. On 21 February 2006.these websites have tried to misquote me. Russia agreed not to provide an enrichment plant and terminated cooperation on several other nuclear-related technologies.[83] reported that Hojatoleslam Mohsen Gharavian. Iran argues that these experiences contribute to a perception that foreign nuclear supplies are potentially subject to being interrupted.[87] In February 2010.N. It's as simple as that. in part for entry into force of a U. prompting the IAEA to refer the issue to the UN Security Council. and that it could produce the uranium itself or buy the uranium from abroad. They hurt normal people.[85] On 21 February 2007. the United States cut off supply of highly enriched uranium (HEU) fuel for the Tehran Research Reactor. saying "We do not seek nuclear weapons and the Islamic religion encourages coexistence along with peace and friendship. If we can't help them.[86] Iran has said that U. some will die. including laser isotope separation.[82] Iran resumed its uranium enrichment program in January 2006. we say fine.-China civil nuclear cooperation agreement). spoke about the necessity of using nuclear weapons as a means to retaliate and announced that "based on religious law." said an Iranian nuclear medicine specialist..[84] In an interview with the Islamic Republic News Agency the same day.[91] Though HEU enriched to levels exceeding 20% is considered technically usable in a nuclear explosive device.S. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad made the following statement: "If they say that we should close down our fuel production facilities to resume talks... not leaders."[] On 11 April 2006. "This is about human beings.[] In May 2006 some members of the Iranian legislature ("Majlis" or Parliament) sent a letter to UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan threatening to withdraw from the NPT if Iran's right to peaceful use of nuclear technology under the treaty was not protected.8%". . the same day the UN deadline to suspend nuclear activities expired. What is the use of that?" Vice President of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran Ghannadi framed the debate as a humanitarian issue.[89][90] to match the previously foreign supplied fuel. . Gharavian rejected these reports. and Ukraine agreed not to provide the turbine for Bushehr. President Ahmadinejad of Iran said: 208 . In the televised address from the city of Mashhad he said. to refuel the Tehran Research Reactor which produces medical isotopes.5 percent level." Iran informed the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that fuel obtained from Argentina in 1993 would run out by the end of 2010. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announced Iranian scientists working at the pilot facility at Natanz had successfully enriched uranium to the 3. . Iranian Foreign Ministry spokesman Hamid Reza Asefi rejected the proposal saying.[] 20% is the upper threshold for low enriched uranium (LEU). "We have thousands of patients a month at our hospital alone . An Iranian Jew from California claimed "I don't believe in these sanctions. and Iran never received uranium from France which it asserted it was entitled to. "I am officially announcing that Iran has joined the group of those countries which have nuclear technology".. everything depends on our purpose". The White House's spokesperson Tony Snow rejected the offer and called it a "false offer". but those who enter talks with us should also close down their nuclear fuel production activities".Iran with US agreement. China terminated several nuclear projects (in return. [100] € The United States has also provided information to the IAEA on Iranian studies related to weapons design. It could also . should Iran continue its efforts and tolerate all international treasures only to build a nuclear bomb. as further indications of a military intent to Iran's nuclear program. the US.[29] The United States. and to develop nuclear weapons. We think they are stupid because the era of nuclear bombs is over. as senior U. and others have recently provided more intelligence to the agency. This cooperation would include an assured supply of fuel for Iran's nuclear reactors. a situation that resulted in India's nuclear weapons program in the 1960s. destructive and dangerous. found Iran in noncompliance with its NPT safeguards agreement for a 1985€2003 "policy of concealment"[] regarding its efforts to develop enrichment and reprocessing technologies. We said those who are seeking to build nuclear bombs or those who stockpile. Leader of the Islamic Revolution Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei said: "The Iranian nation has never pursued and will never pursue nuclear weapons.[103][104] € The United States acknowledges Iran's right to nuclear power. it can be used for peaceful energy generation. since "intent is in the eye of the beholder". reportedly approved by Ayatollah Khamanei. officials doubted its authenticity. A nuclear-armed Iran would dramatically change the balance of power in the Middle East.S.S. resistance to an Iranian nuclear program lies in Middle Eastern geopolitics. activities. logically.Iran "We have already expressed our views about nuclear bombs.[97] the IAEA[98] and others[99] consider these technologies to be of particular concern because they can be used to produce fissile material for use in nuclear weapons. religiously and theoretically. € The United States has argued that Iran's concealment of efforts to develop sensitive nuclear technology is prima facie evidence of Iran's intention to develop nuclear weapons.S. The Swiss ambassador to Iran sent the State Department a two page document. There is no doubt that the decision makers in the countries opposing us know well that Iran is not after nuclear weapons because the Islamic Republic. including a the intention of diverting a civilian nuclear energy program to the manufacture of weapons. Others have noted that while possession of the technology "contributes to the latency of non-nuclear weapon states in their potential to acquire nuclear weapons" but that such latency is not necessarily evidence of intent to proceed toward the acquisition of nuclear weapons. in a meeting in Tehran with the director and officials of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI) and nuclear scientists."[95] 209 The U. Some nuclear technology is dual-use. weakening US influence. [Why] for example. stance € The United States argues that Iran has violated both Article III and Article II of the NPT.[102] however. The Iranians offered full transparency of its nuclear programme and withdrawal of support from Hamas and Hezbollah in exchange for security assurances and normalization of diplomatic relations.e. i.[96] The IAEA Board of Governors.S. they are politically and mentally retarded. intelligence provided to it through 2007 has proven inaccurate or not led to significant discoveries inside Iran. outlining a road map towards normalization of relations between the two states. or at a minimum to develop a latent nuclear weapons capability. the US feels that it must guard against even the possibility of Iran obtaining a nuclear weapons capability. based on a laptop computer reportedly linked to Iranian weapons programs. Russia and China in offering nuclear and other economic and technological cooperation with Iran if it suspends uranium enrichment. In essence. considers the possession of nuclear weapons a grave sin and believes the proliferation of such weapons is senseless.[101] The IAEA has said U.[105] € A potential reason behind U. The Bush Administration did not respond to the proposal. and other links between Iran's military and its nuclear program. and has joined with the EU-3. The United States has pointed to other information reported by the IAEA. including the "Green Salt" project. or a few nuclear bombs that are useless? They can never be used!"[94] On 22 February 2012.[39] € In May 2003. in a rare divided vote. the possession of a document on manufacturing uranium metal hemispheres. Nimitz and Stennis "prepares to take on Iran". One Iranian reformer said after the office opened that many "partners are simply too afraid to work with us anymore".S. the daughter of Vice President Dick Cheney. with a "high level of confidence".Iran encourage other Middle Eastern nations to develop nuclear weapons of their own further reducing US influence in a critical region.[108] The IAEA has on some occasions criticised the stance of the U. "The CIA found no conclusive evidence. Iran has agreed with IAEA requests to answer unresolved questions about its nuclear program. President Bush claimed that "All options were on the table". the majority leader.[111] € Iran has been repeatedly threatened with a nuclear first strike by the United States. Senator Harry Reid. the US secretary of state Condoleezza Rice required former IAEA head Mohamed ElBaradei to either "toughen his stance on Iran" or fail to be chosen for a third term as IAEA head. ElBaradei often criticized what he called "war mongering. Secretary of State.[112] Investigative reporter Seymour Hersh has reported that the Bush administration has been planning the use of nuclear weapons against Iran[113] When specifically questioned about the potential use of nuclear weapons against Iran." only to be told by Rice to mind his business. with spokesman Scott McClellan saying." adding that a current senior intelligence official confirmed the assessment. said he hoped the administration would "appropriately adjust its rhetoric and policy". It is hard to read his reply in any other way. cautioned the IAEA not to interfere with international diplomacy over Iran's alleged weapons program.S.[115] € In December 2007.[117] Iran has argued the office was tasked with drawing up plans to overthrow its government. Seymour Hersh described a classified draft assessment by the Central Intelligence Agency "challenging the White House's assumptions about how close Iran might be to building a nuclear bomb.[118] The US Congress has reportedly appropriated more than $120 million to fund the project. they "continue to show that Iran is moving in the wrong direction". The Daily Telegraph reported that the United States Fifth Fleet. even against non-nuclear armed states. as yet. on Iran's program.[106] € In 2003.[109] The United States denounced Iran's successful enrichment of uranium to fuel grade in April 2006. "the president of the United States directly threatened Iran with a preemptive nuclear strike. The new estimate says that the enrichment program could still provide Iran with enough raw material to produce a nuclear weapon sometime by the middle of next decade but that intelligence agencies "do not know whether it currently intends to develop nuclear weapons" at some future date.S.[119] Investigative journalist Seymour Hersh also revealed in July 2008 Congress also agreed to a $400-million funding request for a major escalation in covert operations inside Iran. According to the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. He continued. including the Nimitz-class supercarriers Eisenhower.[120] 210 . partially defined the office's mission as "to promote a democratic transition in the Islamic republic"[116] and to help "defeat" the Iranian regime.[107] In June 2005.[110] On 25 February 2007. of a secret Iranian nuclear-weapons program running parallel to the civilian operations that Iran has declared to the International Atomic Energy Agency. Nuclear Posture Review made public in 2002 specifically envisioned the use of nuclear weapons on a first strike basis.S. In November 2006. and that the office had "a chilling effect". She said the IAEA's role should be limited to carrying out inspections and offering a "clear declaration and clear reporting on what the Iranians are doing. whether and when and if they are living up to the agreements they have signed. The U. that Iran had halted its nuclear weapons program in 2003 and that the program remains frozen. U."[114] € In September 2007. Condoleezza Rice. The U." Former IAEA Director General ElBaradei called for less emphasis on additional UN sanctions and more emphasis on enhanced cooperation between the IAEA and Tehran.[33][] € In November 2008. it was reported that the US State Department had opened an Office of Iranian Affairs (OIA) € overseen by Elizabeth Cheney. the United States insisted that Tehran be "held accountable" for seeking to build nuclear arms in violation of its agreements. the United States National Intelligence Estimate (which represents the consensus view of all 16 American spy agencies) concluded. S. Normalization of political ties could be part of the equation. However.[125] Iran said the launch was a step to remove the scientific monopoly certain world countries are trying to impose on the world."[133] € Lieutenant General Ronald Burgess.S. Frederick Fleitz.[123] The U. policy must be thoroughly multilateral and suggested recognizing Iranian enrichment while getting Iran to agree to limits on its enrichment. including those related to its missile and nuclear programs. said that the original 2007 National Intelligence Estimate on Iran "became contentious.S. and that Iran is the main nuclear threat in the Middle East.[131] while other "top advisers" in the Obama administration "say they no longer believe" the key finding of the 2007 National Intelligence Estimate".S. Iran launched its first domestically produced[] satellite Omid (meaning "Hope") in to space. took issue with a February 2011 revision of the 2007 National Intelligence Estimate on Iran's nuclear weapons program in a Wall Street Journal op-ed titled "America's Intelligence Denial on Iran [135]. "In return.[132] Thomas Fingar.S. Independent U. the chief of the Defense Intelligence Agency. a former CIA analyst and House Intelligence Committee staff member.[128] In October 2009.S. He noted that the CIA prevented him from releasing the names of the outside reviewers of the 2011 Iran estimate. that a military strike would knock out Iran's program. In addition. that "we can cripple Iran with sanctions". specifically said it would continue "to address the threats posed by Iran. Ploughshares Fund President Joseph Cirincione outlined "five persistent myths about Iran's nuclear program": that Iran is on the verge of developing a nuclear weapon. Iran has implemented the Additional Protocol and developed commercial nuclear power under strict International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards using a fuel leasing approach with fuel supplied by Russia and spent fuel returned to Russia. in part. former Chairman of the National Intelligence Council until December 2008.[citation needed] Some advisors within the Obama administration reaffirmed the intelligence conclusions.[129] € In 2009.€Russian leadership. some of the current sanctions in place would be suspended.[122] The United States claimed Iran's activities could be linked to the development of a military nuclear capability and that the activities were of "great concern". Fleitz stated that he was not permitted by CIA censors to discuss his specific concerns about the estimate." Haass said." In the op-ed.[134] € On 20 July 2011. Fleitz also claimed the estimate had a four-member outside review board that he viewed as biased since three of the reviewers held the same ideological and political views and two of them were from the same Washington DC think tank. Fleitz claimed the new estimate had serious problems and underplayed the threat from Iran's pursuit of nuclear weapons program much as the 2007 version did. saying it would use all elements of its national power to deal with Tehran's actions. 211 . intelligence community. the thirtieth anniversary of the Islamic Revolution in Iran. President of the Council on Foreign Relations.Wikipedia:Link rot[121] Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad described the successful launching of the Omid data-processing satellite as a very big source of pride for Iran and said the project improved Iran's status in the world. Iran should be offered assured access to adequate supplies of nuclear fuel for the purpose of producing electricity."[124] Despite the U. Security Consultant Linton F.S. intelligence believes Iran ended "nuclear weapon design and weaponization work" in 2003.S.[126] Iraqi National Security Advisor Muwafaq al-Rubaie said Iraq was very pleased with the launch of Iran's peaceful data-processing national satellite. said in January 2010 that there is no evidence that Iran has made a decision to build a nuclear weapon and that the key findings of a 2007 National Intelligence Estimate are all still correct.Iran € On 2 February 2009."[130] € A 2009 U. congressional research paper says U. because the White House instructed the Intelligence Community to release an unclassified version of the report's key judgments but declined to take responsibility for ordering its release. Richard N. that a new government in Iran would abandon the nuclear program. Brooks wrote that in an ideal future "Iran has abandoned its plans for nuclear weapons due to consistent international pressure under joint U.[127] € In March 2009.[] The intelligence consensus was affirmed by leaders of the U. Haass. wrote that U. [citation needed] The UN Security Council has demanded Iran freeze all forms of uranium enrichment.[] Former Defense Secretary and former CIA Director Robert Gates stated in October 2012 that sanctions were beginning to have an effect and that "the results of an American or Israeli military strike on Iran could.[] Iran has argued these demands unfairly compel it to abandon its rights under the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty to peaceful nuclear technology for civilian energy purposes. who retired in 2008 as head of U. I don't have any proof. but it should also fulfil its corresponding responsibility and commitment". in my view. Zongo Saidou. said that as far as he knew.[] . the official representative of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan. "Let's not precipitate something. Hayden."[] In February 2012. said in August 2012 that a unilateral Israeli attack on Iran would delay but not destroy Iran's nuclear program and that he did not wish to be ƒcomplicit„ in such an attack. James R. said "the references to the anonymous sources and unknown documents show groundlessness of these insinuations.350 tons of purified uranium ore in violation of UN Security Council sanctions."[] 212 Other international responses The claims and counter claims have put an immense amount of pressure on Iran to reveal all aspects of its nuclear program to date. General Michael V.N."[][] General Martin Dempsey.Iran € Several high U. Clapper.[] In April 2008.[137] Russia said it had no knowledge of an alleged Iranian plan to import purified uranium ore from Kazakhstan. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. a sanctions advisor for the U.[138] "Such fabrications of news are part of the psychological warfare (against Iran) to serve the political interests of the hegemonic powers. said in January 2012 that Israel was not able to inflict significant damage on Iran's nuclear sites.[136] An intelligence report from an unknown country alleged that rogue employees of Kazakhstan were prepared to sell Iran 1. "No one that I'm aware of thinks that there's any real positive outcome of a military strike or some kind of conflict. prove catastrophic. He said. Gen. United Nations In 2009.S. the United Nations built a seismic monitoring station in Turkmenistan near its border with Iran. Defense Secretary Leon E. Fallon. several news agencies reported that China had supplied the IAEA with intelligence on Iran's nuclear program following a report by Associated Press reporter George Jahn based on anonymous diplomatic sources.[139] Askar Abdrahmanov. Iran has been slow to respond. to detect tremors from nuclear explosions.[] On 29 December 2009. Iran enjoys the right to peaceful use of nuclear power. Admiral William J. In May 2006 Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Liu Jianchao stated "As a signatory to the Non-Proliferation Treaty.. He also stated that sanctions were having an effect and should be given time to work.N. said.'s member nations had alerted the sanctions committee about allegations of sales of uranium to Iran from Kazakhstan. none of the U. military and intelligence officials have stated that the effects of an Israeli attack on Iran's nuclear facilities would not be preventive. and that a premature attack might damage the 'international coalition' against Iran. director of National Intelligence. Kazakhstan denied the reports. He added "It is urgently needed that Iran should fully cooperate with the IAEA and regain the confidence of the international community in its nuclear program".S. and Lt. said in February 2012 that an Israeli attack would only delay Iran's program by one or two years. haunting us for generations in that part of the world." He advocated negotiating with Iran and deterring Iran from aggressive actions and said. former CIA Director. "We don't have any official information yet regarding this kind of exchange between the two countries. Panetta said in December 2011. "They only have the ability to make this worse."[140] China The Chinese Foreign Ministry supports the peaceful resolution of the Iran nuclear issue through diplomacy and negotiations. "I don't have any information. claiming the pressure is solely an attempt by the US government to prevent it from obtaining nuclear technology." Iran said. Central Command." Saidou said." Saidou said.[39] Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Jiang Yu described these reports as "completely groundless and out of ulterior motives". [143] France On 16 February 2006 French Foreign Minister Philippe Douste-Blazy said "No civilian nuclear programme can explain the Iranian nuclear programme. the EastWest Institute released a joint U." The report said if Iran did pursue this capability. Russian Major-General Pavel S. China reiterated its calls for diplomatic efforts on the Iran nuclear issue over sanctions. a former Russian prime minister considered the doyen of Moscow's Middle East 213 .Iran In January 2010. which has been developing its nuclear power industry and nuclear fuel cycle. indicated that if Iran possessed a nuclear weapon." Lavrov said. is not imminent." The report said there was no specific evidence that Iran was seeking the ability to attack Europe and that "it is indeed difficult to imagine the circumstances in which Iran would do so."[142] In March 2012. placement of nuclear facilities under IAEA safeguards. Brazil. speaking "off the record" to reporters from The New York Times. adding that Iran nonetheless has the right to pursue nuclear activities for peaceful purposes. "It is absolutely clear that the problem can be settled exclusively by political and diplomatic methods and any other scenarios. such requirements are not imposed on." Russia In 2005.[149] Yevgeny Primakov. are completely unacceptable. Chirac alluded to mutually assured destruction when he stated:[] "Where will it drop it. including uranium enrichment. where he met with Iranian leader Mahmoud Ahmadinejad."[144] On 5 December 2007 Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov said he had seen no evidence of any nuclear weapons program in Iran. former French President Jacques Chirac. "Dialogue and negotiations are the right ways of properly solving the Iran nuclear issue.[148] In December 2009.[146] In 2009.[] On 16 October 2007 Vladimir Putin visited Tehran. The report concluded that there was "no IRBM/ICBM threat from Iran and that such a threat. the weapon could not be used. and there is still room for diplomatic efforts. for example. the adoption of the Additional Protocol (which provides for the right of inspection of any facility at any time with no prior notice). The report said Iran ending "IAEA containment and surveillance of the nuclear material and all installed cascades at the Fuel Enrichment Plan" might serve as an early warning of Iranian intentions. no matter how old. it would need six to eight years to develop a missile capable of carrying a 1. Iran to participate in the Second Caspian Summit. Zolotarev argued Iran's security could be partially be assured by supplying Iran with modern missile and air defense systems and offering for Iran to take part in the work of one of the data exchange centers in exchange for "concrete non-proliferation obligations".000 kilometers. nor Russia's and Iran's commitments to repatriate spent nuclear fuel to Russia is seen as a good enough argument by the United States.S." said Chinese spokesperson Jiang Yu. Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi said that "China is opposed to any country in the Middle East.".000 kilogram warhead 2. including Iran. Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said that the Iran nuclear issue would be resolved by diplomatic methods exclusively."[] In January 2007.[147] In May 2009. especially use-of-force scenarios. "We hope the relevant parties take more flexible and pragmatic measures and step up diplomatic efforts in a bid to resume talks as soon as possible. even if it were to emerge.[145] At a press conference after the summit Putin said that "Iran has the right to develop their peaceful nuclear programs without any restrictions". It is a clandestine military nuclear programme. this bomb? On Israel? It would not have gone 200 meters into the atmosphere before Tehran would be razed." Ryabev argued that "at the same time. Yin Gang of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences has said that "China will not stop Israel if it decides to attack Iran.-Russian Threat Assessment on Iran's Nuclear and Missile Potential." said Jiang. Russian Advisor to Minister of Atomic Energy Lev Ryabev asserted that "neither the signing by Iran of the NPT.[141] When speaking about Iran's nuclear program and China's foreign policy in the Middle East. developing and possessing nuclear weapons. France. former Cabinet Ministers. in the words of the Foreign Office spokesperson "suspends all enrichment related activities. scientists and campaigners joined a delegation to Downing Street opposing military intervention in Iran. [T]he chances of Iran € or for that matter any other nuclear power € unleashing a nuclear strike against Israel. France. It would lead to greater risks to international stability.S.[151] The UK is therefore one of the countries that has stated that Iran would be provided with enriched fuel and support to develop a modern nuclear power program if it. The letters carried the signatures of academics.. CASMII delegation [153] Israel Israel. and to potentially land Mossad agents on the Iranian coast." Primakov said. which is not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and which is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons. an out-of the-blue scenario.[159] George Friedman. gather intelligence.[162] In May 2010.[25] Iran and the Arab League have proposed the that the Middle East be established as a Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. which has nuclear readiness but does not have a bomb. Their reported missions were to deter Iran. The delegation delivered two letters to Prime Minister Tony Blair from 1. and has urged all countries to sign and adhere the 1970 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin said that Russia opposes Iran developing nuclear-weapons capability. Putin said."."[] Walter Pincus of the Washington Post has written that Israel's stance on nuclear arms complicates efforts against Iran. It may be more like Japan. has said Iran is "decades away" from developing any credible nuclear-arms capacity and that an attack on Iran would have grave repercussions for the global economy.[150] United Kingdom The United Kingdom is part of the EU3+3 (UK. answer all the outstanding issues relating to Iran's nuclear programme and implement the additional protocol agreed with the IAEA". Israeli academic Avner Cohen has observed "that the prospect of a deliberate Iranian first nuclear strike on Israel. politicians and scientists including some of 5 physicists who are Nobel Laureates. former chairman of the U.[161] The UN Security Council has also pushed for a nuclear-weapon free zone in the Middle East. On 8 May 2006. said he did not believe that Iran had made a decision to acquire nuclear weapons. Germany. Joint Chiefs of Staff. General Sir Hugh Beach. Israel has issued several veiled and explicit threats to attack Iran. "Russia is not interested in Iran becoming a nuclear power. China and Russia) group of countries that are engaged in ongoing discussions with Iran.800 physicists warning that the military intervention and the use of nuclear weapons would have disastrous consequences for the security of Britain and the rest of world. Germany and Russia) put forward the three Security Council resolutions that have been passed in the UN. Israel reportedly deployed Dolphin class submarines with nuclear missiles capable of reaching any target in Iran in the Persian Gulf..[] If Iran ever did develop nuclear weapons. is virtually nonexistent.Iran experts.[154] has frequently claimed that Iran is actively pursuing a nuclear weapons program.[152] The UK (with China.[][] Israel said in May 2010 it would not consider taking part in nuclear weapon-free zone discussions or joining the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty.[155] Arguing an "existential threat from Iran". which has nuclear capabilities itself. head of the global intelligence company Stratfor. Former Deputy Commander-in-Chief of British Land Forces. strike me as close to zero. US. has cautioned that an Israeli air attack on Iran would be high-risk and warned against Israel striking Iran.[] In February 2012. Russia has no concrete information that Iran is planning to construct a weapon.[160] Gawdat Bahgat of the National Defense University believes Iran's nuclear program is partially formed on the potential threat of a nuclear Israel.[163] 214 .[156][157][158] Mike Mullen. even though he says former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto once told him the Iranians offered more than $4 billion for the technology. On 12 May 2006 AP published an interview with Pakistan's former Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan Army General Mirza Aslam Beg In the AP interview. Security Council abstained from a vote in March 2008 on a U.[164] Islamic world The A. Beg detailed nearly 20 years of Iranian approaches to obtain conventional arms and then technology for nuclear weapons." World map with List of countries with nuclear weaponsnuclear weapons development status represented by color. which has the second largest Muslim population in the world is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and already possesses nuclear weapons.Q. Most believe that Iran has the right to its nuclear program and do not support international pressure to force it to curtail its program. the Netherlands had launched an operation to infiltrate and sabotage the Iranian weapons industry.N. the outcome would be more positive for the region than negative. He described an Iranian visit in 1990. the Arab public does not appear to see Iran as a major threat. [168] In an article in 2005 about nuclear proliferation he stated "I would not like my future generations to live in the neighborhood of "nuclear capable Israel.N. They didn't want the technology. but have not widely adopted them Indonesia. College Park conducted in Egypt. Jordan. A plurality of Arabs (44%) believes that if Iran were to acquire nuclear weapons. Morocco. Survey of the Anwar Sadat Chair for Peace and Development at the University of Maryland. Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono speaking at a joint news conference with Iran's President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in Tehran in March 2008 said[167] "Iran's nuclear program is of a peaceful nature and must not be politicized" Pakistan.[] "In contrast with the fears of many Arab governments. Saudi Arabia and the UAE in March 2008 noted the following as a key finding. resolution to impose a third set of sanctions on Iran. But he insists the Pakistani government didn't help. but ended the operation due to increasing fears of an American or Israeli attack on Iran's nuclear facilities. They asked: 'Can we have a bomb?' My answer was: By all means you can have it but you must make it yourself. when he was Chief of Army Staff. Khan network."" . the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation and a non-permanent member of the U. ––Five "nuclear weapons states" from the NPT––Other states known to possess nuclear weapons––States formerly possessing nuclear weapons––States suspected of being in the process of developing nuclear weapons and/or nuclear programs––States which at one point had nuclear weapons and/or nuclear weapons research programs––States that possess nuclear weapons."[165] The 2008 Annual Arab Public Opinion Poll.Iran 215 Netherlands According to a Dutch newspaper. also supplied Iran with critical technology for its uranium enrichment program. Nobody gave it to us. established to procure equipment and material for Pakistan's nuclear weapons program (gas-centrifuge based programme). Beg said he is sure Iran has had enough time to develop them. Lebanon. and helped "put Iran on a fast track toward becoming a nuclear weapons power.[166] It was the only country out of the 10 non-permanent members to abstain. Iran "Countries acquire the (nuclear) capability on their own, as we have done it. Iran will do the same, because they are threatened by Israel."[169] The San Francisco Chronicle reported on 31 October 2003, that Grand Ayatollahs, like Ayatollah Yousef Sanei, and Iranian clerics led by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei have repeatedly declared that Islam forbids the development and use of all weapons of mass destruction. SFGate.com quoted Ayatollah Ali Khamenei as saying: "The Islamic Republic of Iran, based on its fundamental religious and legal beliefs, would never resort to the use of weapons of mass destruction. In contrast to the propaganda of our enemies, fundamentally we are against any production of weapons of mass destruction in any form."[] On 21 April 2006, at a Hamas rally in Damascus, Anwar Raja, the Lebanon based representative of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, a party that achieved 4.25% of the votes and holds 3 out the 132 seats in the Palestinian Legislative Council following the election declared: "The Muslim, Iranian, fighting people now possess nuclear capabilities. My brother, the Iranian representative sitting here, let me tell you that we, the Palestinian people, are in favour of Iran having a nuclear bomb, not just energy for peaceful purposes."[] On 3 May 2006 Iraqi Shia cleric Ayatollah Ahmad Husseini Al Baghdadi, who opposes the presence of US forces in Iraq and is an advocate of violent jihad was interviewed on Syrian TV. In his interview he said:[170] "How can they face Iran? How come Israel has 50 nuclear bombs? Why are they selective? Why shouldn't an Islamic or Arab country have a nuclear bomb? I am not referring to the Iranian program, which the Iranians say is for peaceful purposes. I am talking about a nuclear bomb." "This Arab Islamic nation must obtain a nuclear bomb. Without a nuclear bomb, we will continue to be oppressed," The Baku declaration A declaration signed on 20 June 2006 by the foreign ministers of 56 nations of the 57-member Organisation of the Islamic Conference stated that "the only way to resolve Iran's nuclear issue is to resume negotiations without any preconditions and to enhance co-operation with the involvement of all relevant parties". Qatar and Arab vote against the U.N. Security Council resolution 31 July 2006: The UN Security Council gives until 31 August 2006 for Iran to suspend all uranium enrichment and related activities or face the prospect of sanctions.[171] The draft passed by a vote of 14€1 (Qatar, which represents Arab states on the council, opposing). The same day, Iran's U.N. Ambassador Javad Zarif qualified the resolution as "arbitrary" and illegal because the NTP protocol explicitly guarantees under international law Iran's right to pursue nuclear activities for peaceful purposes. In response to today's vote at the UN, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad said that his country will revise his position vis-½-vis the economic/incentive package offered previously by the G-6 (5 permanent Security council members plus Germany.)[172] In December 2006, the Gulf Cooperation Council called for a nuclear weapons free Middle East and recognition of the right of a country to expertise in the field of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.[173] 216 Iran 217 The Non-Aligned Movement The Non-Aligned Movement has said that the present situation whereby Nuclear Weapon States monopolise the right to possess nuclear weapons is "highly discriminatory", and they have pushed for steps to accelerate the process of nuclear disarmament.[] On 16 September 2006 in Havana, Cuba, all of the 118 Non-Aligned Movement member countries, at the summit level, declared supporting Iran's nuclear program for civilian purposes in their final written statement.[174] That is a clear majority of the 192 countries comprising the entire United Nations, which comprise 55% of the world population. On 11 September 2007 the Non-Aligned Movement rejected any "interference" in Iran's nuclear transparency deal with U.N. inspectors by Western countries through the UN Security Council.[] On 30 July 2008 the Non-Aligned Movement welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. The movement further called for the establishment of a nuclear weapons free zone in the Middle East and called for a comprehensive multilaterally negotiated instrument which prohibits threats of attacks on nuclear facilities devoted to peaceful uses of nuclear energy.[175] Biological weapons Iran ratified the Biological Weapons Convention on 22 August 1973.[] Iran has advanced biology and genetic engineering research programs supporting an industry that produces world-class vaccines for both domestic use and export.[] The dual-use nature of these facilities means that Iran, like any country with advanced biological research programs, could easily produce biological warfare agents. A 2005 report from the United States Department of State claimed that Iran began work on offensive biological weapons during the Iran€Iraq War, and that their large legitimate bio-technological and bio-medical industry "could easily hide pilot to industrial-scale production capabilities for a potential BW program, and could mask procurement of BW-related process equipment". The report further said that "available information about Iranian activities indicates a maturing offensive program with a rapidly evolving capability that may soon include the ability to deliver these weapons by a variety of means".[176] According to the Nuclear Threat Initiative, Iran is known to possess cultures of the many biological agents for legitimate scientific purposes which have been weaponised by other nations in the past, or could theoretically be weaponised. Although they do not allege that Iran has attempted to weaponise them, Iran possesses sufficient biological facilities to potentially do so.[] Iran 218 Chemical weapons Iran has experienced attack by chemical warfare (CW) on the battlefield and suffered hundreds of thousands of casualties, both civilian and military, in such attacks during the 1980€88 Iran€Iraq War. As a result, Iran has promulgated a very public stance against the use of chemical weapons, making numerous vitriolic comments against Iraq's use of such weapons in international forums. Iran is not known to have resorted to using chemical weapons in retaliation for Iraqi chemical weapons attacks during the Iran€Iraq War, though it would have been Iranian soldier with gas mask under Chemical bombardment by Iraqi forces in the legally entitled to do so under the battlefield during the Iran€Iraq War. then-existing international treaties on the use of chemical weapons which only prohibited the first use of such weapons. Following its experiences during the Iran€Iraq War, Iran signed the Chemical Weapons Convention on 13 January 1993 and ratified it on 3 November 1997. In the official declaration submitted to OPCW Iranian government admitted that it had produced mustard gas in 1980s but that ceased the offensive program and destroyed the stockpiles of operational weapons after the end of war with Iraq.[177] A U.S. Central Intelligence Agency report dated January 2001 speculated that Iran had manufactured and stockpiled chemical weapons € including blister, blood, choking, and probably nerve agents, and the bombs and artillery shells to deliver them. It further claimed that during the first half of 2001, Iran continued to seek production technology, training, expertise, equipment, and chemicals from entities in Russia and China that could be used to help Iran reach its goal of having indigenous nerve agent production capability.[] However the certainty of this assessment declined and in 2007 the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency limited its public assessment to just noting that "Iran has a large and growing commercial chemical industry that could be used to support a chemical agent mobilization capability."[178] Iran is a signatory of the Chemical Weapons Convention, which bans chemical weapons, delivery systems, and production facilities.[22] Iran has reiterated its commitment to the CWC and its full support for the work of the OPCW, in particular in view of the considerable suffering these weapons have caused to the Iranian people.[179] Iran has not made any declaration of a weapons stockpile under the treaty.[180] Delivery systems Missiles A Shahab-4 with a range of 2,000–km and a payload of 1,000–kg is believed to be under development. Iran has stated the Shahab-3 is the last of its war missiles and the Shahab-4 is being developed to give the country the capability of launching communications and surveillance satellites. A Shahab-5, an intercontinental ballistic missile with a 10,000–km range, has been alleged but not proven to be under development.[] Iran has 12 X-55 long range cruise missiles purchased without nuclear warheads from Ukraine in 2001. The X-55 has a range of 2,500 to 3,000 kilometers.[] Iran's most advanced missile, the Fajr-3, has an unknown range but is estimated to be 2,500–km. The missile is radar evading and can strike targets simultaneously using multiple warheads.[181] Iran On 2 November 2006, Iran fired unarmed missiles to begin 10 days of military war games. Iranian state television reported "dozens of missiles were fired including Shahab-2 and Shahab-3 missiles. The missiles had ranges from 300 km to up to 2,000–km...Iranian experts have made some changes to Shahab-3 missiles installing cluster warheads in them with the capacity to carry 1,400 bombs." These launches come after some United States-led military exercises in the Persian Gulf on 30 October 2006, meant to train for blocking the transport of weapons of mass destruction.[182] The Sejil is a two-stage, solid-propellant, surface-to-surface missile (SSM) produced by Iran with a reported 1,930–km (1,200–mi) range. A successful test launch took place on 12 November 2008.[183] According to Jane's Information Group, details of the design other than the number of stages and that it uses solid fuel have not been released. Uzi Ruben, former director of Israel's Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, indicated that, "Unlike other Iranian missiles, the Sajil bears no resemblance to any North Korean, Russian, Chinese or Pakistani (missile technology). It demonstrates a significant leap in Iran's missile capabilities." Rubin went on to state that the Sejil-1 " ... places Iran in the realm of multiple-stage missiles, which means that they are on the way to having intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) capabilities ..."[184] As a weapon, the Sejil-1 presents much more challenge to Iran's potential enemies, as solid-fuel missiles can be launched with much less notice than liquid-fueled missiles, making them more difficult to strike prior to launch.[185] Sejil-2 is an upgraded version of the Sejil. The Sejil-2 two-stage solid-fuel missile has a 2,000–km range and was first test fired on 20 May 2009.[186] The Sejil-2 surface-to-surface medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) was first tested eight months prior to the actual test launch, which took place in the central Iranian province of Semnan.[187] Improvements include better navigation system, better targeting system, more payload, longer range, faster lift-off, longer storage time, quicker launch, and lower detection possibility.[188] 219 Iran's Nuclear Capable Missiles Name/Designation Class Range (varies with payload weight) Payload Status Fajr-3 Shahab-2 Shahab-3 Shahab-4 Sejil-1 Sejil-2 MRBM 2,000–km SRBM 300€2,000–km Unknown Operational 6,370€6,500–kg Operational 990–kg 1,000–kg Unknown Unknown Operational Under Development Operational Operational MRBM 2,100–km MRBM 2,000–km MRBM 1,930–km MRBM 2,000–km Aircraft Any aircraft could potentially be used to host some form of WMD distribution system. Iran has a varied air force with planes purchased from many countries, including the United States. Due to sanctions, the Iranian government has encouraged production of domestically manufactured planes and, since 2002, has built its own transport aircraft, fighters, and gunship helicopters. References [1] [2] [5] [8] "Nuclear proliferation: The Islamic Republic of Iran", Gawdat Bahgat, Iranian Studies Journal, vol. 39(3), September 2006 Center for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. (€•‚ ƒ„…†…‡ˆ ‰ ƒ„Š‹„Œ• Ž•••) Tehran Times: Iran wants new nuclear fuel talks (http:/ / www. tehrantimes. com/ index_View. asp?code=207020) International Atomic Energy Agency, Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and relevant provisions of Security Council resolutions 1737 (2006), 1747 (2007), 1803 (2008) and 1835 (2008) in the Islamic Republic of Iran (http:/ / www. iaea. org/ Publications/ Documents/ Board/ 2010/ gov2010-28. pdf), GOV/2010/28, 31 May 2010. Iran [9] Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities (http:/ / www. dni. gov/ press_releases/ 20071203_release. pdf), National Intelligence Estimate, November 2007. [10] Dennis Blair: Annual Threat Assessment of the Intelligence Community for the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (2009) (http:/ / intelligence. senate. gov/ 090212/ blair. pdf) 220 We judge in fall 2003 Tehran halted its nuclear weapons design and weaponization activities and that the halt lasted at least several years... Although we do not know whether Iran currently intends to develop nuclear weapons, we assess Tehran at a minimum is keeping open the option to develop them... develop nuclear weapons, we assess Tehran at a minimum is keeping open the option to develop them. [16] Resolution 1696 (2006) (http:/ / daccessdds. un. org/ doc/ UNDOC/ GEN/ N06/ 450/ 22/ PDF/ N0645022. pdf?OpenElement) [21] France24: UN atomic watchdog censures Iran: diplomats (http:/ / www. france24. com/ en/ node/ 4935014) Of the 35-member board of governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency, 25 countries voted in favour of the resolution, diplomats said. Three countries € Venezula, Malaysia and Cuba € voted against the resolution. Six countries € Afghanistan, Brazil, Egypt, Pakistan, South Africa and Turkey € abstained. One country, Azerbaijan, was absent from the vote. [24] Iran Defends Nuclear Secrecy (http:/ / www. nti. org/ d_newswire/ issues/ 2007_4_2. html#Iran) [25] " Nuclear proliferation: The Islamic Republic of Iran (http:/ / taylorandfrancis. metapress. com/ index/ L368854758H065M1. pdf)", Gawdat Bahgat, Iranian Studies Journal, vol. 39(3), September 2006 [27] No evidence Iran is making nukes: ElBaradei (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ heraldsun/ story/ 0,21985,22664498-5005961,00. html) [32] Iran could have nuclear bomb by 2015 (http:/ / uk. reuters. com/ article/ worldNews/ idUKL242351720061024) Reuters 24 October 2006 [33] U.S. Says Iran Ended Atomic Arms Work (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 12/ 03/ world/ middleeast/ 03cnd-iran. html?_r=1& hp& oref=slogin) New York Times 3 December 2007 [37] France24: US intelligence unsure of Iran's nuclear weapons intentions: chief (http:/ / www. france24. com/ en/ 20090212-us-intelligence-unsure-irans-nuclear-weapons-intentions-chief) [38] Iran could 'set off a uranium bomb within 6 months' € German media (http:/ / en. rian. ru/ world/ 20090716/ 155542118. html) RIA Novosti. 16 July 2009 [42] Iran made 15-page document available to IAEA inspectors (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ wmd/ library/ news/ iran/ 2007/ iran-070224-irna01. htm), GlobalSecurity.org, 24 February 2006 [47] Tehran not an 'immediate threat' (http:/ / www. dailytimes. com. pk/ default. asp?page=2007\09\22\story_22-9-2007_pg4_14) Daily Times 22 September 2007 [56] International Atomic Energy Agency: Transcript of the IAEA Director General's Remarks at the Joint Press Conference with the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran, 4 October 2009 (http:/ / www. iaea. org/ NewsCenter/ Transcripts/ 2009/ transcript051009. pdf) [58] Iran tested advanced nuclear warhead design € secret report (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2009/ nov/ 05/ iran-tested-nuclear-warhead-design), Julian Borger, guardian.co.uk, 5 November 2009 [59] Christian Science Monitor: Iran's nuclear disclosures: why they matter (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2009/ 1017/ p19s01-usfp. html) [69] Forbes: US sees Iran edging closer to nuclear arms knowhow (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ feeds/ ap/ 2009/ 12/ 16/ general-us-us-iran_7218153. html) [75] Saghand Mining Department Website (http:/ / www. aeoi. org. ir/ newweb/ Fuel/ Saghand/ Saghand. htm) [76] http:/ / www. campaigniran. org/ casmii/ index. php?q=node/ 1493 [77] Roger Stern, The Iranian petroleum crisis and United States national security (http:/ / www. pnas. org_cgi_doi_10. 1073_pnas. 06039031), International Journal of Economic Sciences, PNAS, Vol.104, No.1, 2007, pp. 377€382. 04 [79] (http:/ / memritv. org/ Transcript. asp?P1=399) [82] "Internationalization of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Goals, Strategies, and Challenges (2009). (page 37) (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook/ 12477/ png/ 37. png), (page 38) (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook/ 12477/ png/ 38. png). Nuclear and Radiation Studies Board (NRSB) [83] "Terrorist Organization Profile: Fedayeen Khalq (People's Commandos)" by the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism http:/ / www. start. umd. edu/ start/ data_collections/ tops/ terrorist_organization_profile. asp?id=4018 [89] International Atomic Energy Agency: Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and relevant provisions of Security Council resolutions 1737 (2006), 1747 (2007), 1803 (2008) and 1835 (2008) in the Islamic Republic of Iran (http:/ / www. iaea. org/ Publications/ Documents/ Board/ 2010/ gov2010-10. pdf). 18 February 2010. [91] International Atomic Energy Agency: Research Reactor Spent Fuel Status (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/ csp_004c/ PDFfiles/ 003. pdf) Strictly speaking, fuels enriched to 20% 235U are classified as HEU. Since many facilities with LEU cite a nominal enrichment of 20%, we have modified the definition of LEU to be  20% U for the purposes of RRSFDB. Since any fuel with exactly 20% enrichment before irradiation will have <20% enrichment after significant burnup, this does not violate the accepted definition. Iran [92] Definition of Weapons-Usable Uranium-233 (http:/ / www. ornl. gov/ sci/ radiation_transport_criticality/ HopperPubs/ DefWeaponsUsableU-233ORNLTM13517. pdf), C.W. Forsberg et al., ORNL/TM-13517, March 1998 [93] American Institute of Physics: The gas centrifuge and nuclear weapons proliferation (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=PHTOAD000061000009000040000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes) 221 The most difficult step in building a nuclear weapon is the production of fissile material [94] CNN news. Fareed Zakaria interviews Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Published October 22nd, 2011. Retrieved: February 24th 2012. (http:/ / globalpublicsquare. blogs. cnn. com/ 2011/ 10/ 22/ ahmadinejad-on-gadhafi-syria-alleged-plot-nuclear-weapons-and-americas-role/ ) [95] Press TV. Title: Iran will never seek nuclear weapons. Published: Wed Feb 22, 2012. Retrieved: February 24th 2012. (http:/ / www. presstv. ir/ detail/ 228014. html) [96] Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments (http:/ / www. state. gov/ t/ vci/ rls/ rpt/ 51977. htm#chapter6) [97] Promoting Expanded and Responsible Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy (http:/ / www. state. gov/ t/ isn/ rls/ other/ 83210. htm) [99] See paragraphs 6 and 7 of the Nuclear Suppliers Group Guidelines (http:/ / www. nuclearsuppliersgroup. org/ PDF/ infcirc254r8p1-060320. pdf) [101] Statement by Ambassador Gregory L. Schulte, 13 September 2006 (http:/ / vienna. usmission. gov/ sp_iaea_board. html) [103] Steve Coll, 'Will Iran Get That Bomb?', review of Parsi in New York Review of Books, 24 May 2012, pp.34-36, p.35. [105] Letter dated 13 July 2006 from the Permanent Representative of France to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council (http:/ / daccessdds. un. org/ doc/ UNDOC/ GEN/ N06/ 429/ 12/ PDF/ N0642912. pdf?OpenElement) [110] Annals of National Security: The Next Act (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ printables/ fact/ 061127fa_fact) [111] The Daily Telegraph: American armada prepares to take on Iran (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main. jhtml;jsessionid=3HEC3P3EVSP2FQFIQMFCFFOAVCBQYIV0?xml=/ news/ 2007/ 02/ 24/ wiran24. xml) [114] Robert S. Norris and Hans M. Kristensen [128] United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations: Statement of Richard N. Haass (March 2009) (http:/ / foreign. senate. gov/ testimony/ 2009/ HaassTestimony090303a. pdf) [130] Future of the Nuclear Security Environment in 2015: Proceedings of a Russian-U.S. Workshop (2009) (page 3) (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook/ 12590/ png/ 3. png), Committee on International Security and Arms Control (CISAC). [132] U.S. Sees an Opportunity to Press Iran on Nuclear Fuel (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 01/ 03/ world/ middleeast/ 03iran. html?pagewanted=print) By DAVID E. SANGER and WILLIAM J. BROAD, 3 January 2010 [134] National Public Radio: Quotes from Payvand News of Iran € News, photos, topics, and quotes (http:/ / topics. npr. org/ quote/ 0bHDgsgcS8b1l) [135] http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB10001424052702303661904576453800512114910. html [140] Kazakhstan Today: IAEA did not receive information of uranium deliveries by Kazakhstan to Iran (http:/ / eng. gazeta. kz/ art. asp?aid=141738) [142] Melman, Yossi. "'China will not stop Israel if it decides to attack Iran'." (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ print-edition/ features/ china-will-not-stop-israel-if-it-decides-to-attack-iran-1. 385950) Haaretz Newspaper, 22 September 2011. [144] Strengthening U.S-Russian Cooperation on Nuclear Nonproliferation (2005) Development, Security, and Cooperation (DSC) (page 57) (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook/ 0309096693/ gifmid/ 57. gif). The National Academies Press. [145] Putin Positive on Second Caspian Summit Results, Meets With Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (http:/ / president. kremlin. ru/ text/ news/ 2007/ 10/ 148432. shtml), 16 October 2007, Kremlin.ru [146] Answer to a Question at the Joint Press Conference Following the Second Caspian Summit (http:/ / president. kremlin. ru/ eng/ speeches/ 2007/ 10/ 16/ 2020_type82914type82915_148460. shtml), 16 October 2007, Tehran, Kremlin.ru [147] Future of the Nuclear Security Environment in 2015: Proceedings of a Russian-U.S. Workshop (2009). (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook/ 12590/ png/ 235. png) (Page 235)] Committee on International Security and Arms Control (CISAC) [153] http:/ / www. payvand. com/ news/ 06/ may/ 1113. html [155] Haaretz: Rabin's long memory and the NIE report on Iran (https:/ / conf. haaretz. co. il/ hasen/ pages/ ShArtStEng. jhtml?itemNo=935807& contrassID=25& subContrassID=0& title='Rabin's long memory and the NIE report on Iran'& dyn_server=172. 20. 5. 5) [168] http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ s/ ap/ 20060512/ ap_on_re_as/ iran_pakistan_nuclear [171] (http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ s/ afp/ 20060801/ ts_afp/ irannuclearpolitics_060801153716;_ylt=AvEzqtNKnfGOKngP08lDX1pSw60A;_ylu=X3oDMTBiMW04NW9mBHNlYwMlJVRPUCUl) [176] Bureau of Verification and Compliance, U.S. Department of State, "Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments" (30 August 2005). [177] Iranian Use of Chemical Weapons: A Critical Analysis of Past Allegations (http:/ / cns. miis. edu/ archive/ cns/ programs/ dc/ briefs/ 030701. htm) [181] (http:/ / www. missiledefenseadvocacy. org/ index/ Iran2006. html) [182] (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2006/ WORLD/ meast/ 11/ 02/ iran. manoeuvres. reut/ index. html?section=cnn_latest) Iran 222 External links € Annotated Google map of Iranian nuclear sites (http://www.communitywalk.com/map/3078) € In Focus : IAEA and Iran (http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/IaeaIran/index.shtml) € Q & A with Director General of the IAEA on Iran, International Atomic Energy Agency, 22 February 2008, Video (http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Multimedia/Videos/DG/QandA220208/index.html) (5 min 43 s), Transcript (http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Transcripts/2008/transcr220208.html). € Report by the Director General of IAEA: Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement and relevant provisions of Security Council resolutions 1737 (2006) and 1747 (2007) in the Islamic Republic of Iran (http:// www.isis-online.org/publications/iran/IAEA_Iran_Report_22Feb2008.pdf), 22 February 2008, GOV/2008/4. € Technical Addendum to the Joint Threat Assessment on the Iran's Nuclear and Missile Potential: A Technical Assessment of Iran's Ballistic Missile Program (http://docs.ewi.info/JTA_TA_Program.pdf), by Theodore Postol, 6 May 2009. Analysis € Towards Transatlantic Cooperation in Meeting the Iranian Nuclear Challenge (http://www.ifri.org/downloads/ Prolif_Paper_Perkovich.pdf) € analysis by George Perkovich, IFRI Proliferation Papers n”14, 2005 € Iran's Nuclear History (http://www.payvand.com/news/03/oct/1015.html), Prof. Mohammad Sahimi, Chairman of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering at the University of Southern California, and member of the Union of Concerned Scientists, 2 October 2003 € Iran's Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities: A Pattern of Peaceful Intent? (http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/ library/report/2005/iran-fuel-cycle-brief_dos_2005.pdf)–PDF–(2.36–MB), US State Department, September 2005€presentation of US position. Satellite photography and quotes from Iranian leaders are documented and analyzed. € Iran as a Pioneer Case for Multilateral Nuclear Arrangements (http://mit.edu/stgs/irancrisis.html). Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. € Europe's Iran Policy: Breaking out of the Spiral of Mistrust (http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/ _c-476/_nr-1320/i.html) by Prof. Volker Perthes, head of the German Institute for International and Security Affairs in Berlin € Iran needs nuclear energy, not weapons (http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:Wv7d_FdiMH0J:mondediplo. com/2005/11/02iran), Le Monde diplomatique, November 2005 € questions whether Iran's nuclear program was really clandestine as commonly claimed. € Forced to Fuel (http://hir.harvard.edu/articles/1294/) (Harvard Int'l Law Review, Vol. 26 No. 4 € Winter 2005) lays out the case for nuclear energy in Iran, by Prof. Muhammad Sahimi. € If Iran Gets Nukes (http://www.antiwar.com/orig/bayyenat.php?articleid=8401) by Abolghasem Bayyena, Antiwar.com, 17 January 2006 € Gareth Porter, The Iranian Nuke Forgeries: CIA Determines Documents were Fabricated, CounterPunch, 29 December 2009, (http://www.counterpunch.org/porter12292009.html). € Rethinking U.S. Policy Toward Iran (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jayshree-bajoria/ us-policy-iran_b_977710.html), Jayshree Bajoria| Huffington Post| 23 September 2011 Political statements € Iran's Continuing Pursuit of Weapons of Mass Destruction (http://www.state.gov/t/us/rm/33909.htm) Testimony by John R. Bolton, Under Secretary for Arms Control and International Security, before the House International Relations Committee Subcommittee on the Middle East and Central Asia, Washington DC, 24 June 2004 € Iranian Response to UN Security Council Resolution (http://www.un.int/iran/statements/securitycouncil/ articles/69.pdf) Ambassador Javad Zarif's statement to the UN Security Counsel in response to the resolution requiring Iran to suspend enrichment, 31 July 2006. org) 223 Iraq Colin Powell holding a model vial of anthrax while giving a presentation to the United Nations Security Council Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India .Iran € Video-Interviews with Ali Asghar Soltanieh (Amb.php?p=stichworte/) Organizations € CASMII € The Campaign Against Sanctions and Military Intervention in Iran (http://www. Iran) during the NPT PrepCom 2008 (http://npt-webcast.campaigniran. info/index. which demanded Saddam give "immediate.[4] The United States asserted this was a breach of Resolution 1441 but failed to convince the UN Security Council to pass a new resolution authorizing the . though no nuclear bomb was built. [citation needed] After the 1990-1991 Persian Gulf War. Iraq was believed to have weapons of mass destruction (WMD). with varying degrees of Iraqi cooperation and obstruction. the United States called for withdrawal of all UN and IAEA inspectors in 1998. Inspections by the UN to resolve the status of unresolved disarmament questions restarted from November 2002 until March 2003. resulting in Operation Desert Fox. He concluded that it would take ƒbut months„ to resolve the key remaining disarmament tasks.[1] In response to diminishing Iraqi cooperation with UNSCOM. the United Nations located and destroyed large quantities of Iraqi chemical weapons and related equipment and materials throughout the early 1990s. unconditional and active cooperation" with UN and IAEA inspections.[3] During the lead-up to war in March 2003. The United States and the UK asserted that Saddam Hussein still possessed large hidden stockpiles of WMD in 2003. Hussein was internationally known for his use of chemical weapons in the 1980s against Iranian and Kurdish civilians during and after the Iran€Iraq War.Iraq € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 224 Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category During the regime of Saddam Hussein. United Nations weapons inspector Hans Blix had found no stockpiles of WMD and had made significant progress toward resolving open issues of disarmament noting "proactive" but not always the "immediate" Iraqi cooperation as called for by UN Security Council Resolution 1441.[2] under UN Security Council Resolution 1441. It is also known that in the 1980s he pursued an extensive biological weapons program and a nuclear weapons program. and that he was clandestinely procuring and producing more. shortly before his country was attacked. [5][6][7] Despite being unable to get a new resolution authorizing force and citing section 3 of the Joint Resolution passed by the U.S.[15] Bush later said that the biggest regret of his presidency was "the intelligence failure" in Iraq. Britain will help the Iraqi government dispose of what is left of Saddam's chemical weapons. programme was infiltrated.S. The teams will work to safely destroy remnants of munitions and chemical warfare agents left over from Saddam's regime.[14] Later U.[18] In 2012. Bush asserted peaceful measures could not disarm Iraq of the weapons he alleged it to have and launched a second Gulf War. abandoned. destroyed by Israel and Iran in 1989.-led inspections agreed that Iraq had earlier abandoned its WMD programs. but asserted Iraq had an intention to pursue those programs if UN sanctions were ever lifted. "then watched in shock as it was used to justify the war". Al-Hussein (400km) Yes Maximum missile range NPT signatory .[16] while the Senate Intelligence Committee found in 2008 that his administration "misrepresented the intelligence and the threat from Iraq". Congress.1980s Iraq Nuclear program start date 1959 First nuclear weapon test First fusion weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile None None None None None None None.[19] 225 Program development 1960s . Officially program ended in 1990.[9] despite multiple dissenting opinions[10] and questions of integrity[11][12][13] about the underlying intelligence.Iraq use of force due to lack of evidence.[8] President George W.[17] A key CIA informant in Iraq admitted that he lied about his allegations. In 1983. an administrative building. Brazil secretly aided the Iraqi nuclear weapon program by supplying natural uranium dioxide between 1981 and 1982 without notifying the IAEA. German engineers presented centrifuge data that helped Iraq expand its nuclear weapons program. All told. and equipment for processing uranium to nuclear weapon grade. bunkers. Israel claimed that Iraq was nearing production of nuclear weapons. tanks. and destroyed the French-built reactor in 1981.[20] 1968–€ a Soviet supplied IRT-2000 research reactor together with a number of other facilities that could be used for radioisotope production was built close to Baghdad. The Tuwaythah Nuclear Research Facility. was assassinated by Mossad. Egyptian born-Iraqi nuclear scientist dr. milling machines. Baghdad. grinding machines. Yahya El Mashad.[25][26][27][][28] As part of Project 922.000 shells and rockets designed for chemical weapons. Laboratory equipment and other information was provided. Around 21% of Iraq‚s international chemical weapon equipment was of French origin.[citation needed] Later. Strains of dual-use biological material also helped advance Iraq‚s biological warfare program.[23] Baghdad Nuclear Research Facility . 52% of Iraq's international chemical weapon equipment was of German origin. After 6 months Paris agreed to sell 72–kg of 93% Uranium[] and built a nuclear power plant without International Atomic Energy Agency control at a price of $3 billion. sarin. and low-enriched uranium. In 1988. and tear gasses in all. head of Iraqi Osirak reactor.10 March 1991. and first production buildings in the early 1980s under the cover of a pesticide plant. The State Establishment for Pesticide Production (SEPP) ordered culture media and incubators from Germany's Water Engineering Trading.[24] Iraq's weapons of mass destruction programs were assisted by a wide variety of firms and governments in the 1970s and 1980s.[21][22] 1975–€ Saddam Hussein arrived in Moscow and asked about building an advanced model of an atomic power station. natural. a similar operation was undertaken when it was reported that Abdul Rasul.[29] Western help with Iraq's WMD program France built Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor in the late 1970s. Israel's Mossad ran a secret and clandestine operations to either infiltrate Iraqi nuclear program and removed or killed its associated personalities. Italy gave Iraq plutonium extraction facilities that advanced Iraq‚s nuclear weapon program along with 75. In the early 1970s. This work allowed Iraq to produce 150 tons of mustard agent and 60 tons of Tabun in 1983 and 1984 respectively. tabun. Moscow would approve only if the station was regulated by the International Atomic Energy Agency. involving many German engineers. but Iraq refused. head of the Iraqi nuclear program. electrical discharge machines.[citation needed] . In 1980. vessels.Iraq 226 1959–€ August 17 USSR and Iraq wrote an agreement about building a nuclear power plant and established a nuclear program as part of their mutual understanding. Post-strike. Swiss companies aided in Iraq‚s nuclear weapons development in the form of specialized presses. was poisoned in Paris during a lunch. Five other German firms supplied equipment to manufacture botulin toxin and mycotoxin for germ warfare.027 tons of precursors of mustard gas. which superseded the one from 1959. continuing throughout the decade. Saddam Hussein ordered the creation of a clandestine nuclear weapons program. a French company built a turnkey factory which helped make nuclear fuel. and columns used for the production of chemical weapons. Between 1979 and 1982 Italy gave depleted. German firms such as Karl Kobe helped build Iraqi chemical weapons facilities such as laboratories. delegated by French officials. About 100 tons of mustard gas also came from Brazil. Yet an agreement of co-operation was signed on April 15. Meanwhile. Other German firms sent 1. France also provided glass-lined reactors. [32] In the late 1980s. the Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center reported that eight of 69 Iraqi prisoners of war whose blood was tested showed a current immunity to smallpox.[30] The non-profit American Type Culture Collection and the Centers for Disease Control sold or sent biological samples of anthrax. while others were used for vaccine development. and mustard gases. were seized at Heathrow Airport. some of which were used in Iraq's nuclear program. tabun. leading Iran to develop and deploy a mustard gas capability. The nation also provided heat exchangers. Iraq was using poison gas with great effectiveness against Iranian "human wave" UN weapons inspectors in Iran for Survey use of chemical weapons attacks.500 tons of weapons designed for carrying chemical munitions. 4. tabun. The Scott Report uncovered much of the secrecy that had surrounded the Arms-to-Iraq affair when it became known.[34] Many other countries contributed as well.[31] For example. India gave 2.000 munitions designed for chemical warfare.343 tons of precursors to VX. China provided 45. By 1984. Sarin.500 munitions designed for carrying chemical weapons. An Austrian company gave Iraq calutrons for enriching uranium. 1991. Niger provided yellowcake in 1981. columns and tanks for Iraq‚s chemical warfare program. tanks. since Iraq's nuclear program in the early 1980s was officially viewed internationally as for energy production. they provided reactors. Luxembourg gave Iraq 650 tons of mustard gas precursors.[35] 227 Iran€Iraq War In 1980 the U. and tear gases to Iraq. Egypt gave 2. condensers. the Iraqi military settled on the American Type Culture Collection strain 14578 as the exclusive anthrax strain for use as a biological weapon. In March 1990. Defense Intelligence Agency filed a report stating that Iraq had been actively acquiring chemical weapons capacities for several years. the British government secretly gave the arms company Matrix Churchill permission to supply parts for Saddam Hussein's weapons program. condensers. which Iraq claimed it needed for medical research. Singapore gave 4. a case of nuclear triggers bound for Iraq. tabun. and mustard gases to Iraq. not weapons.[37] The United Nations reported many similar attacks occurred the following year. In addition. in medically accurate terms. A number of these materials were used for Iraq's biological weapons research program. sarin. Portugal provided yellowcake between 1980 and 1982. Spain gave Iraq 57.4% of the international sales. The assumption being that Iraq . the first reported use of chemical weapons took place when Tehran radio reported a poison gas attack on Susangerd by Iraqi forces.[33] The British government also financed a chlorine factory that was intended to be used for manufacturing mustard gas.Wikipedia:Verifiability Chemical weapons by Iraqi Army were used extensively against Iran during the Iran€Iraq War. two months into the Iran€Iraq War. the same prisoners had also been inoculated for anthrax. West Nile virus and botulism to Iraq up until 1989.400 tons of tabun and sarin precursors to Iraq and 28.261 tons of precursors for sarin.S. and columns for the Iraqi chemical weapons infrastructure. which had not occurred naturally in Iraq since 1971. while British Industry supplied Gerald Bull as he developed the Iraqi supergun.515 tons of precursors for VX.Iraq The United States exported support for Iraq during the Iran€Iraq war over $500 million worth of dual use exports to Iraq that were approved by the Commerce department. Among them were advanced computers. military smallpox casualties he said he saw in 1985 or 1986. according to Charles Duelfer.[38][39] On January 14. there were no UN prohibitions against it. Two weeks later. The Dutch gave 4. the Defense Intelligence Agency said an Iraqi agent described. which can hardly be said to be for energy. mustard.[36] In November 1980. which later proved to be accurate. lung and skin complications. 1931. At the time of the attack the town was held by Iranian troops and Iraqi Kurdish guerrillas allied with Tehran. imports of Iraqi oil. it does cover attacks on other villages during the Iraqi "Anfal" operation alleged to have included bombing with chemical weapons. opened on charges of genocide against the Kurds.000 survivors. partly due to a mistaken DIA assessment which blamed Iran for the attack. this statement was opposed by the United States. and eventually prevented it from taking effect.000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1. 2006. according to the Organization for Veterans.[42] On March 23. despite the wishes of the majority to condemn this use. including Hassan al-Majid ("Chemical Ali").[citation needed] On August 21.[citation needed] For example. No resolution was passed during the war that specifically criticized Iraq's use of chemical weapons. chronic conditions.S. calling it premature. some 5. the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty on October 29.000 wounded.[citation needed] Many others were hit by mustard gas. cutting off all U. While this trial does not cover the Halabja attack. Despite the removal of Saddam and his regime by American forces. 1988 western media sources reported from Halabja in Iraqi Kurdistan. according to official reports.S. 1969.000 people had been killed and 20. only after Japan. the sole country to vote against it in the Security Council (the UK abstained).[41] Iran today is the world's second-most afflicted country by weapons of mass destruction. This included information to target chemical weapons strikes. the United States and the UK blocked condemnation of Iraq's known chemical weapons attacks at the UN Security Council. but WMDs were used at least once to crush the popular uprisings against Kurds in 1991. many of whom have developed blood.[40] Most of these occurred during the Iran€Iraq War. The Washington Post reported that in 1984 the CIA secretly started providing intelligence to the Iraqi army during the Iran-Iraq War. The same year it was confirmed beyond doubt by European doctors and UN expert missions that Iraq was employing chemical weapons against the Iranians. but did not ratify until June 11.[] Chemical weapons were used extensively.000 Iranian soldiers immediately. Later estimates were that 7. with more than 100. The Reagan administration opposed the bill. Senate unanimously passed[citation needed] the Prevention of Genocide Act of 1988. Of the 90.[43] The Iraqis blamed the Halabja attack on Iranian forces. Iraq has not signed to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Later that year the U. On March 21.S. The official estimate does not include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or the children and relatives of veterans. The Halabja poison gas attack caused an international outcry against the Iraqis.[44] 228 Chemical weapon attacks .000 Iranian soldiers as victims of Saddam Hussein's chemical weapons during the eight-year war with Iraq. the trial of Saddam Hussein and six codefendants. that several days before Iraq had launched a large scale chemical assault on the town. This was still the position of Saddam Hussein in his December 2003 captivity.000 are still hospitalized with severe. assistance to Iraq and stopping U. 1986 the United Nation Security Council recognized that "chemical weapons on many occasions have been used by Iraqi forces against Iranian forces". signed the Biological Weapons Convention in 1972. 1991.Iraq used both smallpox and anthrax during this war[] All of this occurring while Iraq was a party to the Geneva Protocol on September 8. there is deep resentment and anger in Iran that it was Western nations that helped Iraq develop and direct its chemical weapons arsenal in the first place and that the world did nothing to punish Iraq for its use of chemical weapons throughout the war. Nerve gas agents killed about 20. 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait and was widely condemned internationally.000s Kurdish/Iranian 1. concur with this view: there were far too many technological challenges unsolved.000 Iranians 8. writing for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.[46] An international coalition of nations. older atrocities and his WMD arsenal were also given attention. weapons inspectors interviewed British-educated Iraqi biologist Rihab Rashid Taha.[citation needed] Iraq's nuclear weapons program suffered a serious setback in 1981 when the Osiraq reactor.000s Iranians 100s or 1.500 Iranians 50-100 Iranians 3.000 Iranians 1.[48][49] Between Persian Gulf Wars UNSCOM inspections 1991-1998 The United Nations Special Commission on Iraq (UNSCOM) was set up after the 1990 invasion of Kuwait to inspect Iraqi weapons facilities.[citation needed] As stories of atrocities from the occupation of Kuwait spread.001 Iranian/Kurdish February€March 1984 March 1984 March 1985 February 1986 December 1986 April 1987 2.Iraq 229 Location Haij Umran Panjwin Majnoon Island al-Basrah Hawizah Marsh al-Faw Um ar-Rasas al-Basrah Sumar/Mehran Halabjah al-Faw Fish Lake Majnoon Islands Weapon Used Mustard Mustard Mustard Tabun Mustard & Tabun Mustard & Tabun Mustard Mustard & Tabun Date August 1983 Casualties fewer than 100 Iranian/Kurdish October€November 1983 3.[47] In the terms of the UN ceasefire set out in Security Council Resolution 686. liberated Kuwait in 1991. which would have been capable of breeding weapons-useable nuclear material. on one occasion. Defense Intelligence Agency.000s Iranians 5. and in Resolution 687.[45] The policy of the United States on Hussein's government changed rapidly.000 Iranians 7. screaming and.000s Iranians 100s or 1.S. was bombed by Israel before it could be commissioned. and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was to verify the destruction of Iraq's nuclear program. The UN Special Commission on weapons (UNSCOM) was created to carry out weapons inspections in Iraq.000s Iranians Unknown Mustard & nerve agent October 1987 Mustard & nerve agent March 1988 Mustard & nerve agent April 1988 Mustard & nerve agent May 1988 Mustard & nerve agent June 1988 South-central border Mustard & nerve agent July 1988 an-Najaf Karbala area Nerve agent & CS March 1991 (Source:[]) The 1991 Persian Gulf War On August 2. shouting. possessing or using chemical. It was headed first by Rolf Ekœus and later by Richard Butler. as it was feared Saddam intended to attack other oil-rich nations in the region such as Saudi Arabia. smashing a . According to a 1999 report from the U.000 Iranians 3. During several visits to Iraq by UNSCOM. biological and nuclear weapons by resolution 686. Iraq was forbidden from developing. the normally mild-mannered Taha exploded into violent rages whenever UNSCOM questioned her about al-Hakam. led by the United States. they say. Also proscribed by the treaty were missiles with a range of more than 150 kilometres.[] David Albright and Mark Hibbs.000 to 10.000s Iranians 100s or 1. Taha admitted to the inspectors that she had grown 19. the Iraqi government charged that Ritter was working for the CIA and refused UNSCOM access to certain sites like Baath Party headquarters. She also admitted conducting research into cholera." However. Iraq's hospital consumption of growth medium was just 200–kg a year. UNSCOM found the munitions dumped in a river near al-Hakam. UNSCOM unanimously determined that after seven years of attempts to establish the extent of Iraq‚s chemical weapons programs. March 1995. June 1996 came only after pressure from UNSCOM. It was because of the discovery of Taha's work with camel pox that the U. though there was no evidence the Iraqis had used large primates in their experiments.000 litres of botulinum toxin. In hospitals.000 litres of aflatoxins.Iraq chair. charges which Butler has denied.[] UNSCOM also learned that. Charles Duelfer.[52] 8. though no evidence was produced to support these allegations." The facility was destroyed by UNSCOM in 1996. one measuring 5 cubic meters. which can cause liver failure. a bacterium that can cause gas gangrene. the inspectors were told. later told reporters. During one inspection. after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. During one experiment. Clostridium perfringens. Ritter's team demanded to see documents from Abu Ghraib prison showing a prisoner count. 50 prisoners from the Abu Ghraib prison were transferred to a military post in al-Haditha. proteins and minerals that provides nutrients for microorganisms to grow. UNSCOM's principal weapons inspector. UNSCOM's deputy executive chairman. between July 1 and August 15. she told journalist Jane Corbin of the BBC's Panorama program. yet in 1988. many allegations have since been made against the agency commission under Butler.[citation needed] Iraqi opposition groups say that scientists sprayed the prisoners with anthrax. Taha's team was ordered to set up a program to weaponize the biological agents. while insisting that al-Hakam was a chicken-feed plant. Iraq imported 39 tons of it. but which is safer for researchers to work with. According to former weapons inspector Scott Ritter in his 1999 book Endgame: Solving the Iraq Crisis.[54][55] In April 1991 Iraq provided its first of what would be several declarations of its chemical weapons programs. in the northwest of Iraq. and ricin. and British intelligence services feared Saddam Hussein may have been planning to weaponize the smallpox virus. a disease that uses the same growth techniques as smallpox. By January 1991. swabs from patients are placed in dishes containing growth medium for diagnostic purposes. Shown this evidence by UNSCOM.[] Iraq then provided its first biological weapons declaration 230 . "We never intended to use it". salmonella. Asked to explain the missing documents. 12 prisoners were tied to posts while shells loaded with anthrax were blown up nearby.[citation needed] The inspectors feared that Taha's team had experimented on human beings. UNSCOM learned that. and 50 bombs and five missile warheads with anthrax. Iraq had a smallpox outbreak in 1971 and the Weapons Intelligence.[51] In 1995. that Iraq had still not given the Commission sufficient information for them to conclude that Iraq had undertaken all the disarmament steps required by the UNSC resolutions concerning chemical weapons. in August 1990. The inspectors seized photographs showing beagles having convulsions inside sealed containers. Rod Barton from Australia. Dr. In an interview with the BBC. a team of 100 scientists and support staff had filled 157 bombs and 16 missile warheads with botulin toxin. It can be used in hospitals and microbiology/molecular biology research laboratories. 1995. and camel pox.[] Subsequent declarations submitted by Iraq in June 1992 . "We never wanted to cause harm or damage to anybody. foot and mouth disease. 2. Taha denied the Iraqi government had weaponized the bacteria.[] In February 1998 . showed Taha documents obtained by UNSCOM that showed the Iraqi government had just purchased 10 tons of growth medium from a British company called Oxoid. they discovered two primate-sized inhalation chambers. UNSCOM also discovered that Taha's team had conducted inhalation experiments on donkeys from England and on beagles from Germany. "beginning with the extensive air defenses surrounding it. Growth media is a mixture of sugars.[] In August 1991 Iraq had declared to the UNSCOM biological inspection team that it did indeed have a biological weapons program but that it was for defensive purposes. Ritter writes that they discovered the records for July and August 1995 were missing.[53] Although Ekœus has said that he resisted attempts at such espionage.000 litres of anthrax.S. Nonproliferation and Arms Control Center (WINPAC) believed the Iraqi government retained contaminated material.[50] "There were a few things that were peculiar about this animal-feed production plant". " In 1998 the UNSCOM weapons inspectors left Iraq.S. "Iraq retains the capability to launch a chemical strike.[] But Iraq still denied weaponization. 1998. Scott Ritter stated that. long-range ballistic missiles to deliver these weapons. "expelled" from the country by Iraqi officials (as alleged by George W. biological and chemical capabilities. and British airstrikes[citation needed] which eventually took place from December 16€19. Ambassador Peter Burleigh. and he strongly criticized the Bill Clinton administration for misusing the commission's resources to eavesdrop on the Iraqi military. 1999. it was U.[] More declarations would follow in June 1996 and September 1997.[59] 2001 saw the theatrical release of his documentary on the UNSCOM weapons inspections in Iraq. According to Butler himself in his book Saddam Defiant. Ritter said on August 27. but because Iraq had preemptively destroyed some stockpiles and claimed they had never existed. So from a qualitative standpoint. 1998. 1998. 231 Between inspections: 1998-2002 In August. fled Iraq for Jordan. Iraq today possesses no meaningful weapons of mass destruction capability. Further UNSCOM pressure resulted in a third prohibited biological weapons disclosure from Iraq in August 1995. unknown to Ritter.[] At this time Iraq admitted that it had achieved the ability to produce longer-range missiles than had previously been admitted to. Can Iraq produce today chemical weapons on a meaningful scale? No! Can Iraq produce biological weapons on a meaningful scale? No! Ballistic missiles? No! It is 'no' across the board. or they chose to leave because they felt their hands were tied sufficiently to see the mission as hopeless. not because Iraq still had any hidden weapons. Ritter responded to an interviewer.[] A second disclosure of the biological weapons came in March 1995.[57] In June. and long-range ballistic missiles capable of delivering such weapons.[60] In 2002. Ritter resigned his position as UN weapons inspector and sharply criticized the Clinton administration and the UN Security Council for not being vigorous enough about insisting that Iraq's weapons of mass destruction be destroyed. Iraq was forced to reveal that its biological warfare program was much more extensive than was previously admitted and that the program included weaponization. had received Oil-for-Food coupons from the Iraqi regime. Only after General Hussein Kamel al-Majid. Iraq has been disarmed. saying: "When you ask the question. Bush in his "axis of evil" speech).[] In August 1998.[] At this point Iraq provides UNSCOM and IAEA with more documentation that turns out Hussein Kamel al-Majid had hidden on chicken farm. and in a second statement. acting on instructions from Washington. Technical 100% verification was not possible. "Iraq is not disarming". absent effective monitoring. There is considerable debate about whether they were "withdrawn". as of 1998. Minister of Industry and Minerals and former Director of Iraq's Military Industrialization Corporation. with responsibility for all of Iraq's weapons programs."[56] Ritter later accused some UNSCOM personnel of spying. said Ritter.Iraq shortly after. After UNSCOM determined such declarations to be incomplete. more pressure was placed on Iraq to declare fully and completely. Iraq was forced to admit for the first time the existence of an offensive biological weapons program. he penned a piece for Arms Control Today entiled The Case for Iraq's Qualitative Disarmament. However. had been verified as destroyed. In Shifting Sands: The Truth About Unscom and the Disarming of Iraq. who suggested Butler pull his team from Iraq in order to protect them from the forthcoming U. Ritter also accused UN Secretary General Kofi Annan of assisting Iraqi efforts at impeding UNSCOM's work.S. the biological weapons team and UNSCOM Executive Chairman assessed that Iraq‚s declarations were as yet ƒunverifiable„ and ƒincomplete and inadequate„. Many people were surprised by Ritter's . in April and July 1998. and even certain aspects of their nuclear weaponization program. 90€95% of Iraq's nuclear. 'Does Iraq possess militarily viable biological or chemical weapons?' the answer is no! It is a resounding NO."[58] In June 2000. These documents gave further revelation to Iraq‚s development of VX gas and its attempts to develop a nuclear weapon. Scott Ritter remarked that Iraq could "reconstitute chemical biological weapons. After UNSCOM's investigations and the discovery of inreffutable evidence. The film was funded by an Iraqi-American businessman who. seven years after the first declarations were given in 1991. Saddam had issued a secret order that Iraq did not have to abide by any UN Resolution since in his view the United States had broken international law. although "Iraq appears not to have come to a genuine acceptance of the disarmament. . including mustard gas. in a letter to Hans Blix. it concluded that without such foreign sources.." Some U."[65] On March 7. which are now taken by the Iraqi side with a view to resolving some long-standing open disarmament issues.[68] The International Institute for Strategic Studies in Britain published in September 2002 a review of Iraq's military capability. After that Iraq remained without any outside weapons inspectors for four years. UNSCOM was withdrawn at the request of the United States before Operation Desert Fox. The United States claimed that Iraq's latest weapons declaration left materials and munitions unaccounted for. not UN inspectors. the United States used the United Nations inspection team to send an American spy into Baghdad to install a highly sophisticated electronic eavesdropping system. There were no weapon inspections in Iraq for nearly four years after the UN departed from Iraq in 1998. Iraq produced 600 metric tons of chemical agents. . the Iraqis claimed that all such material had been destroyed.[66] In addition. unconditionally and actively" with UNMOVIC. can be seen as "active".[62] In doing so.[69] However. officials understood this contradictory statement as a declaration of noncompliance. in a last-ditch attempt to uncover Saddam Hussein's covert weapons and intelligence networks. the question is now asked whether Iraq has cooperated "immediately. he was merely confirming what had been known since 1999: according to the New York Times for Jan.[61] During the 2002€2003 build-up to war Ritter criticized the Bush administration and maintained that it had provided no credible evidence that Iraq had reconstituted a significant WMD capability.[citation needed] 232 2003 Iraq War Possession of WMDs was cited by the United States as the primary motivation instigating the Iraq War. UNSCOM. VX and . however. 1999. "In March [1998]. to prove that they no longer had weapons of mass destruction. Bush administration as well as Congress went so far as to express concern about nuclear weapons. In particular. we will never hesitate to possess the weapons to defend Iraq and the Arab nation". The numbers were viewed as overly optimistic by many critics (such as the Federation of American Scientists and the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists). In 1998."[63][64] UNSCOM encountered various difficulties and a lack of cooperation by the Iraqi government. and Iraq asserted that they would never be invited back. Nor do they necessarily cover all areas of relevance. 8. Hans Blix stated: "Against this background. in an address to the Security Council. Subsequently the Security Council issued resolution 1441 authorizing new inspections in Iraq. According to reports from the previous UN inspection agency. UNSCOM's own estimate was that 90-95% of Iraqi WMDs had been successfully destroyed before its 1998 withdrawal. Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) was complete. There is dispute about whether Iraq still had WMD programs after 1998 and whether its cooperation with the United Nations Monitoring. Despite this.. The carefully worded UN resolution put the burden on Iraq. Prelude In late 2002 Saddam Hussein. or even "proactive". invited UN weapons inspectors back into the country. it would take years at a bare minimum. and concluded that Iraq could assemble nuclear weapons within months if fissile material from foreign sources were obtained. Hussein Kamel al-Majid. something which had been stated years earlier by Iraq's highest ranking defector. various figures in the George W. During this time speculations arose that Iraq had actively resumed its WMD programmes. In an interview with Time in September 2002 Ritter said there were attempts to use UNSCOM for spying on Iraq. while the numerous initiatives. Chief weapons inspector Hans Blix said in January 2003 that "access has been provided to all sites we have wanted to inspect" and Iraq had "cooperated rather well" in that regard.S. as is required under paragraph 9 of resolution 1441 (2002). .Iraq turnaround in his view of Iraq during a period when no inspections were made. these initiatives 3€4 months into the new resolution cannot be said to constitute "immediate" cooperation.[67] In 2001 Saddam stated that "we are not at all seeking to build up weapons or look for the most harmful weapons . related to the AS2 missiles € € € € € € 2 large propellant casting chambers 14 155–mm shells filled with mustard gas.000 rockets and 15.000 artillery shells. Some former UNSCOM inspectors disagree about whether the United States could know for certain whether or not Iraq had renewed production of weapons of mass destruction. and finally he said botulinum toxin and liquid anthrax last about three years. Iraq told the United Nations that it had produced at least 30.[73] Those include: € 50 deployed Al-Samoud 2 missiles € Various equipment. former inspector Jonathan Tucker said. United Nations weapons inspectors reported that they had found no indication that Iraq possessed nuclear weapons or an active program. after the war." Similarly. with chemical agents. In fact.6–kg of expired growth media 233 Scott Ritter argued that the WMDs Saddam had in his possession all those years ago.Iraq sarin. including anthrax and other toxins it could put on missiles. would have long since turned to harmless substances. Since sites had been found which evidenced the destruction of chemical weaponry. the total amount of proscribed items destroyed by UNMOVIC in Iraq can be gathered. if retained. the mustard gas totaling approximately 49 litres and still at high purity Approximately 500 ml of thiodiglycol Some 122–mm chemical warheads Some chemical equipment 224. and nearly 25.[74][] . "Nobody really knows what Iraq has. VX lasts a bit longer (but not much longer).[citation needed] In January 2003. that are still unaccounted for. He stated that Iraqi Sarin and tabun have a shelf life of approximately five years. including vehicles. Robert Gallucci said. and there's no reason for us to assume we'd find out if they had. UNSCOM was actively working with Iraq on methods to ascertain for certain whether the amounts destroyed matched up with the amounts that Iraq had produced. engines and warheads." However. but that all of it had been destroyed. You really can't tell from a satellite image what's going on inside a factory.000 liters of biological agents. Hans Blix said in late January 2003 that Iraq had "not genuinely accepted UN resolutions demanding that it disarm. a fair assessment would be they could fabricate a nuclear weapon."[70] He claimed there were some materials which had not been accounted for. in 1995.[71][72] In the next quarterly report. "If Iraq had [uranium or plutonium]. A material breach of resolution 687 would revive the authority to use force under resolution 678. to announce the beginning of Operation Iraqi General Goldsmith wrote "it is plain that Iraq has failed [75] Freedom. He said that Security Council resolution 678 authorised force against Iraq.S.‚ [stated then U. the United States announced that forces would be sent to verify his disarmament and a transition to a new government.the concern that on a decision so crucial we should not rush into military action. Bush addresses the nation from the Oval Office. Most member governments of the allies will not live at the mercy of an outlaw regime that threatens the United Nations Security Council made clear that after peace with weapons of mass murder. as one of the co-sponsors of the text we have adopted: there is no "automaticity" in this Resolution. the second is support for terrorism. there have always been three fundamental concerns. at the time 1441 was passed. One is weapons of mass destruction. government bureaucracy. In resolution 1441 the Security Council determined that Iraq was in material breach of resolution 687 because it had not fully carried out its obligations to disarm. Ambassador Negroponte] •Whatever violation there is. American President George W. and UK representatives stated explicitly that 1441 contained no provision for military action. the third is the criminal treatment of the Iraqi people. or is judged to exist.[77] The UN itself never had the chance to declare that Iraq had failed to take its "final opportunity" to comply as the U. David Kay. which imposed continuing obligations on Iraq to eliminate its weapons of mass destruction. Let me be equally clear in response. We heard loud and clear during the negotiations the concerns about "automaticity" and "hidden triggers" . Attorney General of the UK. Lord Goldsmith. 2003. use of force.S.S.[78] As the deadline approached. will be dealt with in the council.S. we settled on the one issue that everyone could agree on. which was suspended but not terminated by resolution 687. and in that regard we have met the principal concerns that have been expressed for the resolution. Actually I guess you could say there's a fourth overriding one which is the connection between the first two. that on a decision so crucial any Iraqi violations should be discussed by the Council. which was weapons of mass destruction as the core reason. 'There's no 'automaticity' and this is a two-stage process. and the council will have an opportunity to consider the matter before any other action is taken.Iraq 234 Legal justification On March 17. given Iraq a final chance to comply. Indeed. As the New York Times noted about the negotiations. Paul Wolfowitz stated in an interview with Vanity Fair magazine that the issue of weapons of mass destruction was the point of greatest agreement among Bush's team among the reasons to remove Saddam Hussein from power. 2003. made the following comment: . both the U.[citation needed] Coalition expanded intelligence On May 30. "The truth is that for reasons that have a lot to do with the U. UK Attorney March 19. Although resolution 1441 had President George W. former head of the Iraq Survey Group. Bush stated that Saddam Hussein had 48 hours to step down and leave Iraq." The Senate committee found that many of the administration's pre-war statements about Iraqi resolution 1441 there still was no authorization for the WMD were not supported by the underlying intelligence. invasion made it a moot point. He said. set out his government's legal justification for an invasion of Iraq."[79] In an interview with BBC in June 2004. 2003. "The people of the United States and our friends and so to comply". Sir Jeremy Greenstock concurred.‚[76] The British ambassador to the UN. but. He goes into northern Iraq and meets up with Ahmad Chalabi. In fact. And here we are. He walks in and says. U. and yet they allow him to go on CNN. Saddam's "Bombmaker" [which was the title of Hamza's book. We got a name of everybody. British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw announced an independent inquiry. I got a problem with the American media.[citation needed] The story was followed up with television appearances by Colin Powell. especially the administrative records. He still maintained that "with every fiber of instinct and conviction" Iraq did have weapons of mass destruction. and the top of the list. what they did. MSNBC. the New York Times published a number of stories claiming to prove that Iraq possessed WMD.S. in fact. Senator Pat Roberts announced that the U. written by Judith Miller helped persuade the American public that Iraq had WMD: in September 2002 she wrote about an intercepted shipment of aluminum tubes which the NYT said were to be used to develop nuclear material. is allowed to sit in front of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and give testimony as a expert witness. and earned the nickname afterwards] was a man named Jafar Dhia Jafar. a former UNSCOM weapons inspector heavily criticized the Bush administration and media outlets for using the testimony of alleged former Iraqi nuclear scientist Khidir Hamza. as a part of its ongoing oversight of the intelligence community. On February 3. even if they were wrong about weapons of mass destruction. who defected from Iraq in 1994. that history would forgive the United States and United Kingdom. So they call the CIA and they say. the British Prime Minister Tony Blair said in an address to the U. to examine the reliability of British intelligence relating to alleged weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. He had no knowledge of it because he worked as a kickback specialist for Hussein Kamel in the Presidential Palace. and I've told them over and over and over again that this man is a documentable fraud. Secretary of State Colin Powell at the UN Security Council in the lead up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq . 2003.Iraq "Anyone out there holding‰€ as I gather Prime Minister Blair has recently said‰€ the prospect that. Because in 1990.[citation needed] It is now generally understood that they were not intended (or well suited) for that purpose but rather for artillery rockets. "We know who you are. Scott Ritter. and testify as if he actually knows what he is talking about. he was rejected by all intelligence services at the time. Select Committee on Intelligence that he chaired would. Donald Rumsfeld and Condoleezza Rice all pointing to the story as part of the basis for taking military action against Iraq. I got a problem with that. the Iraq Survey Group is going to unmask actual weapons of mass destruction. a fake. not Khidir Hamza. 2004. the US Government knows is a fraud.S. Miller's sources 235 Presentation slide used by U. We seized the entire records of the Iraqi Nuclear program. where they worked. I'm Saddam's "Bombmaker". One story in particular. he's a fraud." In 2002.S. CNBC. we didn't find his name at all. the Committee released the Senate Report of Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq.S. conduct a Review of intelligence on Iraqi weapons of mass destruction. go sell your story to someone else.[80] On June 4. 2003. 2004. as a rationale for invading Iraq. 2004. and if you go down the list of the senior administrative personnel you will not find Hamza's name in there. someone who the CIA knows is a fraud. Congress.[81] The Butler Review was published July 14. In the buildup to the 2003 war. he didn't work for the Iraqi nuclear program. On July 17. [is] really delusional. you're not Saddam's 'Bombmaker'. On July 9. to be chaired by Lord Butler of Brockwell." And he was released. an Iraqi exile favorable to a U. 2003. pumps." Senator John Kerry (D-Mass. specifically regarding the 2003 invasion of Iraq and 236 . Andrew Gilligan appears on the BBC's Today program early in the morning. October 9. There is little question that Saddam Hussein wants to develop nuclear weapons.[citation needed] Despite the intelligence lapse.discovered. chaired by Charles Robb and Laurence Silberman. 2006. Secretary of State Colin Powell had told the United Nations Security Council. but were incorporated in the work of the Iraqi Survey Group. President George W. all U." The trailers had been a key part of the argument for the 2003 invasion.A.[86] "[No] one in this country probably was more surprised than I when weapons of mass destruction were not used against our troops as they moved toward Baghdad. 2005.[citation needed] Miller is also listed as a speaker for The Middle East Forum. one of the experts told reporters that they privately called the trailers "the biggest sand toilets in the world. 2003. Bush named an Iraq Intelligence Commission. he had the capability of making weapons of mass destruction.. Among the contentions he makes in his report are that the government "ordered (the September Dossier.S..[83] "According to the CIA's report." The Pentagon team had been sent to investigate the trailers after the invasion. and the next day.S. which led the official search for Iraqi weapons of mass destruction.Iraq were introduced to her by Ahmed Chalabi.I. report on Iraqi WMDs considered to be the most reliable one available at that time. We know what the fermenters look like. troops failed to find weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. The survey group's final report in September 2004‰€ 15 months after the technical report was written‰€ said the trailers were "impractical" for biological weapons production and were "almost certainly intended" for manufacturing hydrogen for weather balloons.Congressional Record. Bush stood by his decision to invade Iraq stating: But what wasn't wrong was Saddam Hussein had invaded a country. a secret Defense Intelligence Agency fact-finding mission in Iraq reported unanimously to intelligence officials in Washington that two trailers captured in Iraq by Kurdish troops "had nothing to do with biological weapons. President Bush stated that he "fully understood that the intelligence was wrong. and ordered more facts to be. In a speech before the World Affairs Council of Charlotte.) ." The broadcast is not repeated.[85] On May 27. intelligence experts agree that Iraq is seeking nuclear weapons.S. He was a state sponsor of terror." The report was classified. compressors and other parts look like. on April 7. 2002[84] On May 29." The White House continued to refer to the trailers as mobile biological laboratories throughout the year. Removing Saddam Hussein was the right thing for world peace and the security of our country. 2004. he was firing at our pilots. It appears that in the cases where Iraqi exiles were used for the stories about WMD were either ignorant as to the real status of Iraq's WMD or lied to journalists to achieve their own ends. a British Government dossier on WMD) to be sexed up. but a Washington Post report of April 12. he had used weapons of mass destruction. invasion of Iraq.[87] On February 6. NC.[citation needed] In May 2004 the New York Times published an editorial which stated that its journalism in the build up to war had sometimes been lax. and [he was] just as disappointed as everybody else" when U." General Tommy Franks December 2. "We have firsthand descriptions of biological weapons factories on wheels and on rails. It is still classified. to investigate U.S. intelligence. and the Pentagon field report remained classified. to be made more exciting. with the October 2002 C. The team of experts unanimously found "no connection to anything biological". 2006 disclosed some of the details of the report. an organization which openly declared support for an invasion. We know what the tanks.S. U.[82] Intelligence shortly before the 2003 invasion of Iraq was heavily used as support arguments in favor of military intervention. According to the Post: A spokesman for the DIA asserted that the team's findings were neither ignored nor suppressed. the CIA publicly released the assessment of its Washington analysts that the trailers were "mobile biological weapons production. weapons inspector David Kay told the Associated Press that "he doubted the shell or the nerve agent came from a hidden stockpile. it was reported that sarin gas warheads dating back to the last Iran€Iraq War were found in South Central Iraq by Polish Allies. Dr Hans Blix. Mark Kimmitt. in an interview on BBC TV. There were several reports of radiation sickness in the area.S. 2004."[39] In a July 2. 237 Iraq Survey Group On May 30.000 each."[] It is likely that the insurgents who planted the bomb did not know it contained sarin. the International Atomic Energy Agency reported that tons of uranium. 2004.[89] On May 2. although he didn't rule out that possibility. a shell containing mustard gas was found in the middle of a street west of Baghdad. according to Brig. the U."[92] Among the key findings of the final ISG report were: 1.[90] but it turned out that the warheads did not in fact contain sarin gas but "were all empty and tested negative for any type of chemicals"…and it transpired that the Poles had bought the shells for $5.Iraq Iraq's weapons of mass destruction.[] Former U.S.[88] Various nuclear facilities.[] On May 16.S. The Iraq Survey Group investigation reported that it had been previously "stored improperly". May 3.S. and another U. including the Baghdad Nuclear Research Facility and Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center. a fact finding mission from the coalition of the Iraq occupation into the WMD programs developed by Iraq.S. and that the vast majority had remained on site. but secondary. It has been suggested that the documents and suspected weapons sites were looted and burned in Iraq by looters in the final days of the war.[39] The shell exploded and two U. On February 8. as well as other radioactive materials such as thorium. Charles Duelfer. were found looted in the month following the invasion. On October 6. 2003) On June 20. and thus the gas was "ineffective" as a useful chemical agent. announced to the U. Gen. the head of the Iraq Survey Group (ISG). when UN sanctions were imposed. Department of Defense briefed the media that it was ready to formally begin the work of the Iraq Survey Group (ISG). a 152–mm artillery shell was used as an improvised bomb. All senior level Iraqi officials considered Iran to be Iraq‚s principal enemy in the region. The U. 2003. 2004." Kay also considered it possible that the shell was "an old relic overlooked when Saddam said he had destroyed such weapons in the mid-1990s. 2004. Department of Defense intelligence officials that tests showed the two-chambered shell contained the chemical agent sarin. The Polish troops secured munitions on June 23. "Iran was the pre-eminent motivator of [Iraq's WMD] policy.S.S. accused the U. Officials from the Defense Department commented that they were not certain if use was to be made of the device as a bomb. 2004. On September 30. 2003.[91] The United States abandoned its search for WMDs in Iraq on January 12. Iraq Survey Group Final Report concluded that "ISG has not found evidence that Saddam Husayn (sic) possessed WMD stocks in 2003. taking over from the British-American 75th Exploitation Task Force. 2004.S. 2005. 2004. article published by The Associated Press and Fox News. in order to strengthen the case for the 2003 war against the government of Saddam Hussein. but the available evidence from its investigation…including detainee interviews and document exploitation…leaves open the possibility that some weapons existed in Iraq although not of a militarily significant capability. the shell being "likely" to have contained three to four liters of the substance (in the form of its two unmixed precursor chemicals prior to the aforementioned explosion that had not effectively mixed them). had been recovered. The wish to balance Israel and acquire status and influence in the Arab world were also considerations. (Gellman. On May 18 it was reported by U."[] . soldiers were treated for minor exposure to a nerve agent (nausea and dilated pupils). official confirmed that the shell did not have the markings of a chemical agent.[] The Iraq Survey Group later concluded that the shell "probably originated with a batch that was stored in a Al Muthanna CW complex basement during the late 1980s for the purpose of leakage testing. Senate Armed Services Committee that the group found no evidence that Iraq under Saddam Hussein had produced and stockpiled any weapons of mass destruction since 1991. and UK governments of dramatising the threat of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. " "ISG has gathered testimony from missile designers at Al Kindi State Company that Iraq has reinitiated work on converting SA-2 Surface-to-Air Missiles into ballistic missiles with a range goal of about 250–km. stored at his home–€ buried in the front yard–€ awaiting orders from Baghdad to proceed. dramatically breached UN restrictions placed on Iraq after the 1991 Persian Gulf War. body of evidence suggesting that Saddam pursued a strategy to maintain a capability to return to WMD after sanctions were lifted. Concealment of nuclear program in its entirety.-sponsored search for WMD had at this point cost $300 million and was projected to cost around $600 million more. "So there was a WMD program.[] In other cases. the ISG team has discovered sufficient evidence to date to conclude that the Iraqi regime was committed to delivery system improvements that would have. In David Kay's statement on the interim report of the ISG[95] the following paragraphs are found: "We have not yet found stocks of weapons. equipment and materials subject to UN monitoring had been kept hidden from UN inspectors."[] 3.S.[94] The U. 2003." In his book. "Saddam did not consider the United States a natural adversary. "ought to have been declared to the UN. the Iraqi physicist explains that his nuclear stash was the key that could have unlocked and restarted Saddam's bombmaking program.. However. On October 3. It was going ahead. and he hoped that Iraq might again enjoy improved relations with the United States. despite the presence of UNMOVIC. according to Tariq •Aziz and the presidential secretary. as with Iraq's BW program. 4. Iraq concealed key elements of its program and preserved what it could of the professional capabilities of its nuclear scientific community.S." It also concluded that there was a possible intent to restart all banned weapons programs as soon as multilateral sanctions against it had been dropped."[93] No senior Iraqi official interviewed by the ISG believed that Saddam had forsaken WMD forever. Weapons inspectors in Iraq do find some "biological laboratories" and a collection of "reference strains". including a strain of botulinum bacteria. and 7. After he was captured by U. 5. forces in Baghdad in 2003. handed over blueprints for a nuclear centrifuge along with some actual centrifuge components. but [there is] the possibility that some weapons existed in Iraq." Kay testifies that Iraq had not fully complied with UN inspections. the world digests David Kay's Iraq Survey Group report that finds no stockpiles of WMD in Iraq." "With regard to delivery systems. Saddam's ambitions in the nuclear area were secondary to his prime objective of ending UN sanctions. yet fragmentary and circumstantial. although it states the government intended to develop more weapons with additional capabilities. although not of a militarily significant capability. "I had to maintain the program to the bitter end. In some cases. it would require a massive investment and a re-creation of thousands of centrifuges in order to reconstitute a full centrifugal enrichment program. 6. Kay would say in a later interview. with Hussein pursuing WMD proliferation in the future: "There is an extensive. A limited number of post-1995 activities would have aided the reconstitution of the nuclear weapons program once sanctions were lifted. "The Bomb in My Garden".. Engineering work was reportedly underway in early 2003. We are actively engaged in searching for such weapons based on information being supplied to us by Iraqis. who ran Saddam's nuclear centrifuge program until 1997. The report found that "The ISG has not found evidence that Saddam possessed WMD stocks in 2003." 238 . This program was not declared to the UN. Evidence of the maturity and significance of the pre-1991 Iraqi Nuclear Program but found that Iraq's ability to reconstitute a nuclear weapons program progressively decayed after that date. After Desert Storm. as he did Iran and Israel. He said. but we are not yet at the point where we can say definitively either that such weapon stocks do not exist or that they existed before the war and our only task is to find where they have gone. It was rudimentary in many areas". Mahdi Obeidi.Iraq 2. if OIF had not occurred. Dr. Iraq had simply lied to the UN in its weapons programs. Aggressive UN inspections after Desert Storm forced Saddam to admit the existence of the program and destroy or surrender components of the program. [101][102] The Washington Post reported that "the U. On June 21. and as others are investigating it. Ten modified missiles were delivered to the military prior to OIF and two of these were fired from Umm Qasr during OIF–€ one was shot down and one hit Kuwait. arrived in Montreal as part of a top-secret U."[96] In responding to a question by Mr. Kay described Iraq's nuclear. In June 2004. and then long forgotten. 2003 when several large drums tested positive–€ continued to be reported in the same way. the United States removed 2 tons of low-enriched uranium from Iraq. and biological weapons programs as being in a "rudimentary" stage. Mr. Saddam was not controlling the society any longer. 2004 interview with Tom Brokaw of NBC news. In a January 26. included a two-week airlift from Baghdad and a 239 ." Another notable statement is the following: "We have discovered dozens of WMD-related program activities and significant amounts of equipment that Iraq concealed from the United Nations during the inspections that began in late 2002.[97] Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq. that Iraq undertook a program aimed at increasing the HY-2's range and permitting its use as a land-attack missile. military announced in 2004 in Iraq that several crates of the old shells had been uncovered and that they contained a blister agent that was no longer active. chemical weapons". and most probably forgotten. the ISG had uncovered remnants of Iraq's 1980s-era WMD programs. During the invasion itself. which ended in 1988. when Icelandic munitions experts and Danish military engineers discovered 36 120-mm mortar rounds containing liquid buried in Southern Iraq.[98] It appears that the rounds have been buried. These efforts extended the HY-2's range from its original 100–km to 150€180–km. In the marketplace of terrorism and of WMD. have claimed that Kay's report is a "worst case analysis"[100] Beginning in 2003.S. many cases–€ most notably on April 7. After the war. operation. This transport of the seed material for higher-grade nuclear enrichment.S. since the Iran€Iraq War. It•s not a technical judgment. 2006 Rick Santorum claimed that "we have found weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. He also stated that "What we did find. which is corroborated in part by a captured document. sufficient raw material for a single nuclear weapon. by Iraqi troops during their eight-year war with Iran."[103] On July 2008. a total of "approximately 500 weapons munitions which contain degraded mustard or sarin nerve agent" had been found scattered throughout the country. While initial tests suggested that the rounds contained a blister agent." It said the shells "had been buried near the Iranian border. a huge stockpile of concentrated natural uranium. then head of UNMOVIC. several reported finds of chemical weapons were announced. we found a lot of terrorist groups and individuals that passed through Iraq. Demetrius Perricos. Bush's critics derided Bush for unclear wording and trying to "lower the bar" on confirming his pre-war WMD-claims. stated that the Kay report contained little information not already known by UNMOVIC. Iraq well could have been that supplier if the war had not intervened.[citation needed] subsequent analysis by American and Danish experts showed that no chemical agent was present. chemical. Mr. citing a declassified June 6 letter to Pete Hoekstra saying that since the 2003 invasion. and were later retracted. there were half a dozen incidents in which the U.Iraq "ISG has developed multiple sources of testimony.S. All of these claims were based on field reports. Some of the munitions were in an advanced state of decay and most of the weaponry would likely have been unusable. Another such post-war case occurred on January 9. 550 metric tonnes of "yellowcake" the last major remnant of Saddam Hussein's nuclear program. I think Baghdad was actually becoming more dangerous in the last two years than even we realized. 2004." The phrase 'WMD-related program activities' was later used in George Bush's state of the union speech. an imminent threat is a political judgment.[99] Many organizations. a chemical weapon banned by the Geneva Convention. Kay answered: Tom. Brokaw as to whether Iraq was a "gathering threat" as President Bush had asserted before the invasion. such as the journal Biosecurity and Bioterrorism. military announced that it had found chemical weapons. [107] These munitions meet the technical definition of weapons of mass destruction. Maples said. though agent remaining in the weapons would be very valuable to terrorists and insurgents. Badly corroded.. The Iraqi government sold the yellowcake to a Canadian uranium producer.[108] 2009 Declaration Iraq became a member state of the Chemical Weapons Convention in 2009. Congressman Peter Hoekstra called for the U. while U. "We cooperated with the resolutions 100 percent and you all know that. "These are chemical weapons as defined under the Chemical Weapons Convention. they could not currently be used as originally intended. they do constitute weapons of mass destruction." However. John Chu told the House Armed Services Committee." Army Col. top weapons program official Amer Mohammed Rashid.[106] Chemical Weapons Recovered On June 21. so we're giving you all the details. We have nothing. government to put the remaining documents on the Internet so Arabic speakers around the world can help translate the documents." At one 1996 presidential meeting. although it was noted that the bunkers were damaged in the 2003 war and even inspection of the site must be carefully planned."[104] 240 Captured documents Operation Iraqi Freedom documents refers to some 48.. military during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. House of Representatives Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence released key points from a classified report from the National Ground Intelligence Center on the recovery of a small number of degraded chemical munitions in Iraq. Luhan stated at the time: "These are legacy weapons. according to the commander of the National Ground Intelligence Center. "Repeatedly in the transcripts.[109] .S.S. describes his conversation with UN weapons inspector Rolf Ekeus: "We don't have anything to hide. and shut down those programs and the nuclear-bomb program.N.. and the 5 percent they claim we have not executed could take them 10 years to (verify). audiotapes and videotapes that were captured by the U. as well as five former chemical weapons production facilities" according to OPCW Director General Rogelio Pfirter.000 boxes of documents. Associated Press reported. Cameco Corp. which had never produced a weapon. The report stated that "Coalition forces have recovered approximately 500 weapons munitions which contain degraded mustard or sarin nerve agent. remnants. The weapons were not believed to be in a usable state. The munitions addressed in the report were produced in the 1980s. some precursors. Many of these documents seem to make clear that Saddam's regime had given up on seeking a WMD capability by the mid-1990s." At another meeting Saddam told his deputies. The declaration contained no surprises." He declined to discuss how many weapons were stored in the bunkers or what materials they contained. declaring "two bunkers with filled and unfilled chemical weapons munitions. Maples said.[109] No plans were announced at that time for the destruction of the material. personnel afterward secured the chemical munitions in the bunkers. 2006 the U.S.S. Saddam and his lieutenants remind each other that Iraq destroyed its chemical and biological weapons in the early 1990s. all are thought to be pre-Gulf War munitions.Iraq voyage across two oceans. and yes .[109] The production facilities were "put out of commission" by airstrikes during the 1991 conflict. in a transaction the official described as worth "tens of millions of dollars. OPCW spokesman Michael Luhan indicated."[105] U. Don't think for a minute that we still have WMD. its subsequent correction does not alter people's beliefs unless they are suspicious about the motives underlying the events the news stories are about. Media source Respondents believing evidence of WMD had been found in Iraq Fox CBS NBC CNN ABC Print media PBS€NPR 33% 23% 20% 20% 19% 17% 11% Based on a series of polls taken from June€September 2003. The Death Lobby: How the West Armed Iraq. org/ act/ 2003_09/ Cleminson_09) Arms Control Association. they do so irrespective of how certain they are that the corrections occurred. armscontrol. 1991. Martin and Pidd. September 2003 [8] Text of Joint Resolution Authorizing the Use of Force on Iraq. State Department warned the White House nine months ago that it was "highly dubious" that Iraq had sought to acquire uranium for nuclear weapons from Africa." The Boston Globe July 19. Vol 3.[110] a group of researchers assessed the effects reports and retractions in the media had on people‚s memory regarding the search for WMD in Iraq during the 2003 Iraq War.21. pbs. org/ newshour/ bb/ middle_east/ july-dec02/ joint_resolution_10-11-02. "Biological Warfare". even if they are subsequently disconfirmed. [32] Duelfer. pdf). uk/ world/ 2011/ feb/ 15/ defector-admits-wmd-lies-iraq-war). Kenneth R. Australian and German citizens were more responsive to retractions. while they were not. Results showed that US citizens generally did not correct initial misconceptions regarding WMD. 30 September 2004. Those who obtained their news primarily from Fox News were three times as likely to believe that evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq than those who relied on PBS and NPR for their news. yahoo. Once information is published. 2. called uranium link 'dubious'. cia. What Happened to Saddam's Weapons of Mass Destruction? (http:/ / www. gov/ duelfer/ Iraqs_WMD_Vol3. Associated Press [30] Timmerman. 2003. html). March 1994 . co. Charles. Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor to the Director of Central Intelligence on Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction (http:/ / www. Michael. p.Iraq 241 Media perception In a study published in 2005.[111] References [1] Cleminson. can assist in the creation of false memories in a substantial proportion of people. October 11. History Today. foia. Dependence on the initial source of information led to a substantial minority of Americans exhibiting false memory that WMD were indeed discovered. html). Helen (2011-02-15) Defector admits to WMD lies that triggered Iraq war (http:/ / www. Houghton Mifflin Company. and also questioned whether the regime had pursued special aluminum tubes for the same purpose. A poll conducted between June and September 2003 asked people whether they thought evidence of WMD had been discovered in Iraq since the war ended. The repetition of tentative news stories. This led to three conclusions: 1. even following disconfirmation. and one third more likely than those who primarily watched CBS. guardian. 3. [33] Hidden assets. The study focused on populations in two coalition countries (Australia and USA) and one opposed to the war (Germany). com/ uk-experts-help-iraq-destroy-chemical-residues-144204378."Bush staff was warned on Iraq data: State Dept. They were also asked which media sources they relied upon. New York. When people ignore corrections. Ronald. according to excerpts from an intelligence document the White House made public yesterday [18] Chulov. The Guardian [19] Britain to help destroy chemical weapons (http:/ / news. 2002 [13] Kranish. Joint Resolution on Iraq (http:/ / www. prospect-magazine. the Media and the Iraq War (http:/ / web. € Annotated bibliography for the Iraqi nuclear weapons program from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http://alsos.aspx?browse=warfare/Iraqi%Nuclear%Weapons%Program) . org/ web/ 20060210232719/ www.Iraq WMD Controversy (http://search. asp) Arms Control Association June 2000 [60] The Iraqi Threat: How Real Is It? (http:/ / www.washingtonpost. € Teaser of upcoming documentary film Land of Confusion (http://www. cgi?f=/ n/ a/ 2006/ 03/ 21/ international/ i110439S02.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/07/AR2007120701619_pf. Iraq Declares Stockpile (http:/ / www. org/ OnlineReports/ Iraq/ IraqMedia_Oct03/ IraqMedia_Oct03_rpt. 2009 [111] Misperceptions.php?id=10101) Prospect magazine € LookSmart .zerechakfilms. html) North Country Public Radio October 7. northcountrypublicradio.html) € Richard S.library. pdf). archive. Tracey.wlu. org/ act/ 2000_06/ iraqjun.airpower.tkl?q=iraq&search_crit=subject&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form) € WMD theories and conspiracies (http://www.maxwell. globalsecuritynewswire. org/ Publications/ Articles/ Malone/ PublArtiMaloUNNS_Print. sfgate.Iraq [54] (http:/ / www. ipacademy. htm) [59] The Case for Iraq's Qualitative Disarmament (http:/ / www.looksmart. PIPA.mil/airchronicles/cc/tracey. Global Security Newswire. af.html). php). 2006 [109] India Completes Chemical Weapons Disposal.unt.com) featuring Pennsylvania Army National Guard Soldiers assigned to the Iraq Survey Group in 2004-05.edu/qsearch. 23 January 2007. April 27. org/ gsn/ nw_20090427_8248.edu/govdocs/crs/ search. org/ news/ ritter. 2 October 2003 242 External links € Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Iraq (http://digital. 2002 [105] Documents Show Saddam's WMD Frustrations (http:/ / www.uk/article_details. armscontrol. pipa. Trapped by a Mindset: The Iraq WMD Intelligence Failure (http://www. Chris Schneidmiller. DTL) Associated PressMarch 21. Air & Space Power Journal.co. com/ cgi-bin/ article.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317911/ us53828/us56177/us70842/us527912/us10101686/us290330/us10151623/us10152821/) directory category € Washington Post article by Arthur Keller a former CIA case worker who worked on trying to find WMDs in Iraq (http://www. Israel 243 Israel Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . Israel has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[8] The Israeli government maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity on whether it has nuclear weapons.500–km. and which are believed to provide a second-strike option."[9] Former International Atomic Energy Agency Director General Mohamed ElBaradei regarded Israel as a state possessing nuclear weapons. it has been estimated that Israel possesses from 75 to as many as 400 nuclear weapons.[5] Israel is believed to manufacture its nuclear weapons at the Negev Nuclear Research Center. saying only that it would "not be the first to introduce nuclear weapons in the Middle East. including neutron bombs. Delivery mechanisms include Jericho intercontinental ballistic missiles. but supports establishment of a Middle East Zone free of weapons of mass destruction. which can be launched from the Israeli Navy's Dolphin-class submarines. Israel's nuclear-capable ballistic missiles are believed to be buried so far underground that they would survive a nuclear attack.[2][3][4] Israel is also reported to possess a wide range of different systems. tactical nuclear weapons.[] Officially Israel neither confirms nor denies possessing nuclear weapons.[11] . Nuclear weapons It is believed that Israel had possessed an operational nuclear weapons capability by 1967. Israel is believed to have an offshore nuclear second-strike capability. with the mass production of nuclear warheads occurring immediately after the Six-Day War.[7] Although the Israeli Air Force lacks strategic bombers. a technician at the Negev Nuclear Research Center who served an 18-year prison sentence as a result. using submarine-launched nuclear-capable cruise missiles. with a range of 11.[10] Much of what is known about Israel's nuclear program comes from revelations in 1986 by Mordechai Vanunu. its F-15I and F-16I Sufa fighter aircraft are capable of delivering nuclear weapons at strategic distances using their Aerial refueling fleet of modified Boeing 707's. and suitcase nukes. and an offensive biological warfare program.[] Although no official statistics exist. and to be one of four nuclear-armed countries not recognized as a Nuclear Weapons State by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). which are reported to include thermonuclear weapons in the megaton range.Israel € 244 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Israel is widely believed to possess weapons of mass destruction.[1] The US Congress Office of Technology Assessment has recorded Israel as a country generally reported as having undeclared chemical warfare capabilities.[][6] Additionally. . . Special Report no. com/ doc/ 6088311/ Missile-Survey-Ballistic-and-Cruise-Missiles-of-Foreign-Countries [8] http:/ / www. Amos.[15] In 1993. 14-15.Israel 245 Chemical weapons Israel has signed but not ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). premium-1.[12] There are speculations that a chemical weapons program might be located at the Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR[13]) in Ness Ziona.[18] Biological weapons Israel is believed to have developed an offensive biological warfare capability. Kenneth S. as could occur with the transfer of Syria's chemical weapons to Hezbollah." (http:/ / www. csis. Seymour M. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development. a CWC schedule 2 chemical used in the synthesis of sarin nerve gas. haaretz.[14] 190 liters of dimethyl methylphosphonate. com/ news/ diplomacy-defense/ attack-on-syrian-chemical-stockpiles-could-lead-to-broader-campaign-says-idf-chief-of-staff. There's no doubt they've had stuff for years. was discovered in the cargo of El Al Flight 1862 after it crashed in 1992 en route to Tel Aviv. The Samson Option. 453122?localLinksEnabled=false) Haaretz Newspaper. haaretz. Israel insisted the material was non-toxic. said in 1998 "I have no doubt that Israel has worked on both chemical and biological offensive things for a long time.„ Jane's Intelligence Review. The shipment was from a U. un. the U."[16] Israel is not well prepared to defend against a chemical weapons attack. com/ blogs/ east-side-story/ israel-is-unprepared-to-face-the-threat-of-syria-s-chemical-weapons.[21] References [2] http:/ / www. org/ media/ csis/ pubs/ 090316_israelistrikeiran. Department of Commerce license. 24 July 2012.S.S. aspx?src=TREATY& mtdsg_no=XXVI-3& chapter=26& lang=en). [18] Cohen. Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (http:/ / treaties. Accessed 14 January 2009.[] Israel is not a signatory to the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC).' says IDF Chief of Staff. 1991. chemical plant to the IIBR under a U. it is speculated that Israel retains an active ability to produce and disseminate biological weapons.[] Former US deputy assistant secretary of defense responsible for chemical and biological defense. 14. scribd.. pdf [3] Brower. undeclared biological warfare program. Bill Richardson. (February 1997).[] The US Congress Office of Technology Assessment records Israel as a country possessing a long-term.[20] It has not been possible to conclude whether Israel currently maintains an offensive biological weapons program. htm [12] United Nations Treaty Collection. 453345?localLinksEnabled=false) Haaretz Newspaper. [17] Harel. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ israel/ iaf. New York: Random House. "Israel is unprepared to face the threat of Syria's chemical weapons." (http:/ / www. 23 July 2012. org/ Pages/ ViewDetails. [13] . [5] Hersh. Gili.[19] It is assumed that the Israel Institute for Biological Research in Ness Ziona develops vaccines and antidotes for chemical and biological warfare.220 [6] http:/ / www. Congress Office of Technology Assessment WMD proliferation assessment recorded Israel as a country generally reported as having undeclared offensive chemical warfare capabilities. "Attack on Syrian chemical stockpiles could lead to 'broader campaign. ƒA Propensity for Conflict: Potential Scenarios and Outcomes of War in the Middle East.. ISBN 0-394-57006-5 p. premium-1. Production.[17] However IDF CoS Benny Gantz has warned that an Israeli strike to prevent this could result in a "wider conflict". and that it had been clearly listed on the cargo manifest in accordance with international regulations. was to have been used to test filters that protect against chemical weapons.S. September/October 2002 € The Bomb That Never Is (http://www. Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (http://www. 2002.maybe then it might achieve at least de facto recognition. from the past to the present (http://www. in the context of the peace agreements and talks with the United States.while committing itself to no nuclear testing and pledging to build its defense system on conventional weapons as in the past . and a Hebrew translation of the book has appeared here.gwu.htm) By Ronen Bergman The publication of Dr. Vol 56.org/nuke/guide/israel/ nuke/biblio.wisconsinproject.org/countries/israel/plut.pdf) by Mark Gorwitz. April 28.fas. if not international legitimacy.org/article. by Avner Cohen and William Burr. Farr. 2006 (originally published at Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No.org/countries/israel/uranium.html) The Risk Report Volume 2 Number 4 (July€August 1996).org/irp/threat/svr_nuke. Tuesday. by Avner Cohen.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB189/index.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/ farr. € The Third Temple's Holy Of Holies: Israel's Nuclear Weapons (http://www.org/issues/2000/mj00/mj00cohen. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.com/exec/ obidos/ASIN/0394570065/) Seymour M Hersh. Avner Cohen's book and of the Vanunu trial transcripts set off alarm bells for the Defense Ministry's chief of security.full).wisconsinproject.htm) By Reuven Pedatzur Ha'aretz.sagepub. June 2005 € Israeli Nuclear Forces (http://bos. € Israel The Nuclear Potential of Individual Countries Treaty on Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons (http:// www. 2000…Cohen published "Israel and the Bomb" in the United States.fas. for its nuclear weaponry. May/June 2006 (http://www. who is striving to protect the traditional opacity regarding Israel's nuclear affairs.html) The Risk Report Volume 2 Number 4 (July€August 1996).S.htm) Warner D. No. Israel were to confirm its nuclear capability . € Israel: Uranium Processing and Enrichment (http://www. U. € Blast.htm).org/news/israel/000806-eye-haaretz.org/news/israel/000728-israel-1. 189 (http://www. Army. 3 pp.Israel 246 Literature John Douglas-Gray's thriller 'The Novak Legacy.amazon.–22€23 € Israel and the Bomb (http://www.htm#israel) Problems of Extension Appendix 2 Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service 6 April 1995 € The Samson Option. In the eyes of the defense establishment.' External links € Israel Crosses the Threshold. to be used only as a "last resort" and a tool for safeguarding peace after Israel withdraws. 28 July 2000…If. September 1999 € Israel: Plutonium Production (http://www. € Fighting to preserve the tattered veil of secrecy (http://www.html). August 8.thebulletin.edu/~nsarchiv/israel/) (Columbia University press. [New York: Random House. May/June 2000.com/content/58/5/73. including declassified documents. € Obsessive secrecy undermines democracy (http://www. 1991] .fas. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Cohen has committed a double sin.fas.php?art_ofn=mj06cohen)) € Bibliography of Israeli Nuclear Science Publications (http://www.thebulletin.gwu.fas.org/news/israel/000808-israel-1. 1998). LTC.htm) By Yirmiyahu Yovel Ha'aretz.fas. Japan 247 Japan Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . such as dumplings and vegetables. As of 2005. JGSDF admitted possession of sarin for samples. Korean. This employment was largely viewed as ineffective. typhoid. repeated seasonal outbreaks after the conclusion of the war bring the death toll much higher.Japan € 248 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Beginning in the mid-1930s.Wikipedia:Please clarify In 1995.[2] However. against Chinese troops and guerillas in China. Other battles include Kaimingye germ weapon attack. ratified it in 1995 and was thus a state party upon entering into force in 1997. firsthand accounts testify the Japanese infected civilians through the distribution of plague-infested foodstuffs. Bioweapons During the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) and World War II. canisters that were abandoned by Japan in their hasty retreat are still being dug up in construction sites. 60 years after the end of the war. largely due to plague and cholera outbreaks. During Changde chemical weapon attack attacks. the nation of Japan conducted numerous attempts to acquire and develop weapons of mass destruction. JSDF possess chemical weapons facilities and some samples for protection which it said JGSDF Central NBC protection Troop. The 1943 Battle of Changde saw Japanese use of both bioweapons and chemical weapons.[citation needed] . Japan signed the Chemical Weapons Convention. dysentery. Experiments involving chemical weapons were conducted on live prisoners (Unit 516). causing injuries and allegedly even deaths. the Japanese also employed biological warfare by intentionally spreading cholera. Russian. amongst others during the Changde chemical weapon attack.[1] In military campaigns. For example. Chemical weapons The Japanese used mustard gas and the blister agent Lewisite. In addition. Such estimates report over 580. bubonic plague. American and other nationalities as well as some Japanese criminals from the Japanese mainlands. Unit 731 and other Special Research Units of the Imperial Japanese Army conducted human experimentation on thousands.000 victims. There are also reports of contaminated water supplies. due to inefficient delivery systems. and the Japanese conducted a serious. In December 1993. though futile. and anthrax. nuclear weapon program. However. which alleges a more active Japanese usage. mostly Chinese. information has surfaced in the last decade. the Japanese army used biological weapons on Chinese soldiers and civilians. After the end of World War II the nation was forced to cease all production and abandoned their experiments. Like the German nuclear weapons program.[3] For this reason Japan is often said to be a "screwdriver's turn"[4][5] away from possessing nuclear weapons. html) Netherlands Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel . raw materials. com/ 731/ 731caveat. it suffered from an array of problems. it has been argued that Japan has the technology. possession. or introduction of nuclear weapons.Japan 249 Nuclear weapons A Japanese program to develop nuclear weapons was conducted during World War II. and was ultimately unable to progress beyond the laboratory stage before the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Japanese surrender in August 1945. and the capital to produce nuclear weapons within one year if necessary. aiipowmia. The postwar Constitution forbids the establishment of offensive military forces. ruling out the production. and in 1967 it adopted the Three Non-Nuclear Principles. and some analysts consider it a de facto nuclear state for this reason. While there are currently no known plans in Japan to produce nuclear weapons. References [1] AII POW-MIA Unit 731 (http:/ / www. The Netherlands is also one of the producers of components that can be used for creating deadly agents. In the past (1960's till 1990's) the Netherlands took part in deployments of NATO nuclear artillery shells for its self-propelled howitzers and missile artillery units. based at former Airbase Valkenburg near Leiden and Cura²ao in the Caribbean were assigned U.Netherlands € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 250 Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Although the Netherlands does not have weapons of mass destruction made by itself. it has weapons of mass destruction made by another country.e. Several Dutch companies provided Iraq with components for these weapons. These weapons were originally the Mk 101 Lulu yielding 11 kT. nuclear weapons. the country participates in the NATO nuclear weapons sharing arrangements and trains for delivering U. . It also ratified the Biological Weapons Convention on 10 April 1972 and the Chemical Weapons Convention on 30 June 1995. The Netherlands ratified the Geneva Protocol on 31 October 1930. These 8–inch shells and warheads for Honest John and later Lance missiles were stored at the special ammunition storages 't Harde and Havelterberg. United States-NATO nuclear weapons sharing The Netherlands ratified the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) on 2 May 1975.S.S. Navy Nuclear Depth Bombs (NDB) for use in anti-submarine warfare.. chemical weapons and other kinds of weapons of mass destruction. and a later replacement the Mk-57 (also referred to as the B-57). i. They are not operational anymore. Until 2006 Royal Netherlands Navy P-3 Orion aircraft and their predecessors the P-2 Neptunes. Germany.S. not to receive the transfer from any transferor whatsoever of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or of control over such weapons or explosive devices directly. on request of the Defense Department..[citation needed] Poison gas experiments On February 20. and a modified French gas called Stof X (Substance X). At present (2008) the USAF still provides 22 tactical B61 nuclear bombs for use by the Netherlands under the NATO nuclear weapons sharing agreement. Dutch companies provided Iraq with the chemicals used as precursors to produce chemical weapons for use against Iran in the Iran€Iraq War. or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices . or indirectly . soman.". 2000 Iranians who suffered from chemical warfare during the Iran€Iraq War (1980€1988) submitted an indictment some years ago with a Tehran court against nine companies that had provided Saddam Hussein with these chemicals. it was revealed that the Netherlands had conducted chemical warfare experiments with nerve gas in the early 1950s.Netherlands The NDBs were stored under U. 455 American and European companies provided aid to Iraq during its war with Iran and two thirds of the companies were German. insists its forces control the weapons and that no transfer of the nuclear bombs or control over them is intended "unless and until a decision were made to go to war.. Cornwall. Marine guard at RAF St. France.[2] After 1956. The experiments were carried out on animals in the village of Harskamp and at the island Vlieland on the Vliehors bombing range. These weapons are stored at Volkel Air Base and in time of war they may be delivered by Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16 warplanes. which utilized 6 kilograms of Stof X. and Brazil.[] 251 Dutch production of CW precursor chemicals Alongside other companies from the United Kingdom. The storage arrangements were agreed between the British Prime Minister Harold Wilson and President Johnson in 1965 in a secret memorandum now declassified in the UK archives. at which the [NPT] treaty would no longer be controlling".[1] Many countriesWikipedia:Avoid weasel words believe this violates Articles I and II of the NPT.S. Spain. They consisted of the use of sarin. there were only experiments conducted jointly with France and Belgium in the desert of Algeria. These experiments were conducted by the TNO organization. UK. India.[3] . The reason behind these experiments was the fear of an attack by the Soviet Union... 2008. the United States. Belgium. Mawgan. with 60 similar weapons stored there for RAF Shackleton and Nimrod aircraft. where the Netherlands has committed:[citation needed] ". The U. so there is no breach of the NPT. tabun.000-page report about the conflict and named the entire suite of companies involved. which was more poisonous than sarin.. The United Nations published a 12.. € UK-U. Contained in an exchange of letters between Prime Minister Harold Wilson and Pres Lyndon B.Johnson. ISBN–0-8133-1612-X. nl/ algemeen/ binnenland/ nederland-deed-in-jaren-50-proeven-met-gifgas-1..Netherlands 252 Notes [2] UNIQ-nowiki-0-6a261ad2651cd843-QINU [3] NRC newspaper. 1965. Vol. Oxford: Westview Press. Robert S.5. declassified 2002. Memorandum of Understanding of Use of Nuclear Weapons. Richard Fieldhouse (1994). French and Chinese Nuclear Weapons. Nuclear Weapons Databook. British. bndestem. London filed as DEFE 24/691-E28 € To Dutch Navy weapons sharing and storage € Radiator. 2008 (http:/ / www. and now in the UK National Archives. 581237) References € Norris.S. Andrew Burrows. DEFE 24/691-E28. Southern Region CND. 19 feb. April 1984 . ) 3. 2013 6~40 kt [] (The yield is disputed.North Korea 253 North Korea Democratic People's Republic of Korea Nuclear program start date 1957 First nuclear weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test October 9. The North-Korean government never announced the exact yield.000 km (BM25 Musudan) Yes. possibly 5 [][1] [] Total tests Current stockpile Maximum missile range NPT signatory 12-27 nuclear weapons equivalents (ISIS mid-range estimate) 4. but withdrew in 2003 Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada . 2006 February 12. North Korea € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 254 PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Nuclear weapons Background € € € € € History Warfare Arms race Design Testing . North Korea € € € € € € € 255 Effects Delivery Espionage Proliferation Arsenals Terrorism Opposition Nuclear-armed states € € € € € € € € € € United States Russia United Kingdom France China Israel India Pakistan North Korea South Africa (former) North Korea and weapons of mass destruction . [8] North Korea has officially reported it as a successful nuclear test with a lighter warhead. the USGS detected a magnitude 5. each weapon is assumed to contain 20 kilograms of weapon-grade uranium.[10] . Both the United States Geological Survey and Japanese seismological authorities detected an earthquake with a preliminary estimated magnitude of 4.1 seismic disturbance.[2][3] Ri Je Son was also mentioned in this role in 2002 in a United Nations article. and help North Korea supply some energy needs through nuclear reactors. estimated the yield at 40 kilotons. to discuss nuclear matters.North Korea 256 Events Missile tests 1993 1998 2006 2009 Nuclear tests 2006 2009 2013 Weapons Taepodong-1 Taepodong-2 See also Tonghae Satellite Launching Ground Ryanggang explosion Yongbyon Korean People's Army Songun North Korea (officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea or DPRK) declared in 2009 that it had developed a nuclear weapon. the North Korean government further confirmed that it had nuclear weapons. The CIA assesses that North Korea also has a substantial arsenal of chemical weapons." (For uranium weapons. South Korean sources put the yield estimation at 6 to 7kt of TNT However. the North Korean government issued an announcement that it had successfully conducted a nuclear test for the first time.[5] On May 25.[7] reported to be a third underground nuclear test. an opinion shared by IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei.)[] On February 11. a 1994 agreement between the states to limit North Korea's nuclear ambitions.[] The Korea Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources estimated the yield as 7.7 seismic event. a state-run geology research institute in Germany. The Director General of the General Department of Atomic Energy (GDAE) of DPRK. and yet delivers more force than before without mentioning the exact yield. corroborating some aspects of the North Korean claims.[][9] while South Korean sources later revised the yield to 6-9 kilotons using the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization‚s calculation method. North Korea conducted another nuclear test. North Korea was a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty but withdrew in 2003. 2009.[] Although there is no official information about the test's location. North Korea could have 14 to 48 "nuclear weapon equivalents. which is believed to have been the cause of a magnitude 4.3 in North Korea. 2007.8 kilotons.7-7. citing the failure of the United States to fulfill its end of the Agreed Framework. Kilju County.[4] On October 9. begin normalization of relations. in the north-eastern part of North Korea.[] On January 6. 2013. the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources.[] In April 2009.[6] By 2016. 2006. it is believed that it happened at the site of the first nuclear test at Mantapsan. The IAEA has met with Ri Je Son. and is widely believed to possess a small stockpile of relatively simple nuclear weapons. reports surfaced that North Korea has become a "fully fledged nuclear power". informed the North Korean representatives that the U. North Korean and American/South Korean forces operate in extreme proximity to the border. The deployment of the U. and continued to be pivotal trading partners and diplomatic pillars to North Korea until the 1990s.[][] North Korea denounced the abrogation of paragraph 13(d) as an attempt to wreck the armistice agreement and turn Korea into a U. Army's Second Infantry Division on the Korean peninsula and the American military presence at the DMZ are publicly regarded by North Korea as an occupying army. From January 1957 the U.[] In 1963 North Korea asked the Soviet Union for help in developing nuclear weapons.S. and forward deployment of its conventional forces so that the use of nuclear weapons against it would endanger South Korean and U. At the U. military intention was to introduce atomic weapons into Korea. so preventing the introduction of nuclear weapons and missiles. military coup d'œtat that brought General Park Chung-hee to power in the south.[12] During the Korean War. General Assembly in November 1957 the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia condemned the decision of the United Nations Command to introduce nuclear weapons into Korea. including the Axe Murder Incident of 1976. China later. However. China was also growing closer and friendlier with Seoul. after its nuclear tests. 1953.S.N. forces as well.S. In several areas.S. breaking the Armistice Agreement. North Korea‚s ties with China also decreased. 1961. adding to tension. This tension has led to numerous clashes.S. forces.S.[] a year later adding nuclear armed Matador cruise missiles with the range to reach China and the Soviet Union. Command no longer considered itself bound by paragraph 13(d) of the armistice. when it was liberated from the defeated Japan after World War II.[] In January 1958 nuclear armed Honest John missiles and 280mm atomic cannons were deployed to South Korea. and then agreed this. North Korea sought a mutual defense treaty with the Soviet Union and China. Department of State that the U. These diplomatic losses coupled with future sanctions from countries such as the United States continue to isolate North Korea from the rest of the world.S.S. instead the Soviet Union agreed to help North Korea develop a peaceful nuclear energy program. conduct military patrols within the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). including the training of nuclear scientists. both sides. atomic warfare zone.[13] In September 1956 the U.North Korea 257 Chronology of events Korean War Korea has been a divided country since 1945.N.[11] The United Nations Command Military Armistice Commission (UNCMAC) serves the purpose of regulating and supervising the conditions of the Armistice agreement. 1957. meeting of the Military Armistice Commission the U. In the wake of the student-led April 19 movement in 1960 that overthrew the South Korean president Rhee Syngman and the May 16.S. The U. However. The fall of the Soviet Union and the end of communism in Europe caused significant change with Moscow and Pyongyang‚s relations. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Radford told the U. The Korean War was fought from June 25. 1950. paragraph 13(d) of the Korean Armistice Agreement mandated that both sides should not introduce new types of weapons into Korea. decided to unilaterally abrogate paragraph 13(d).S. China ultimately established diplomatic relations with South Korea in August 1992. North Korea was dependent on military assistance from both the Soviet Union and China. until an Armistice Agreement was signed on July 27. As part of the Armistice. including U. This divide was further widened when Russia entered into diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1990. .[][] At a June 21. USSR and China were not just assistants in military. on President Eisenhower's instruction.[] North Korea responded militarily by digging massive underground fortifications resistant to nuclear attack. but was refused. In the early 1960s security concerns in the region and an apparent Soviet dismissal of these concerns hastened the DPRK's efforts to acquire the technology to produce nuclear weapons.[] Tensions between North and South have run high on numerous occasions since 1953. despite concerns by United Nations allies. similarly rejected North Korean requests for help with developing nuclear weapons.[] In August 1957 NSC 5702/2[14] permitting the deployment of nuclear weapons in Korea was approved. National Security Council considered. as recently declassified Russian." North Korea accused South Korea of conspiring with the United States to attack it. claiming that "the South Korean military is openly clamoring that the development and introduction of new weapons are to target the North. North Korean leaders recognized the need for a new security relationship with a major power since Pyongyang could not afford to maintain its military posture. As a North Korean official explained to Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin in 1965. despite the military posture of the anti-communist Park regime. At the same time of the test North Korea tested two short range missiles (reported a South Korean News Network YTN–€ not officially confirmed). Khan stated that he had personally helped transfer $3 million in gratuities to senior Pakistan's military officers.[15] Perhaps the two most important factors in North Korea's attempts to obtain nuclear weapons and become militarily self-reliant were the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 and the prospect of a U. out of fear that they would share the technology with China. and stated that only six-party talks that also include the People's Republic of China. On October 9.S. as long as the Soviets improved relations with the United States. allegedly claimed that North Korea had gained access to Pakistan's nuclear technology in the late 1990s by paying bribes to Pakistan's senior military officials. Hungarian.€Japan€ROK alliance following the 1965 establishment of diplomatic relations between the ROK and Japan. Abdul Qadeer Khan.[20] 258 . Japan."[16] However. North Korea sought a non-aggression pact with the United States.S. they could not count on that the Soviet government would keep the obligations related to the defense of Korea it assumed in the Treaty of Friendship. North Korea refused to speak in the context of six-party talks. though he never provided any proofs to his claims. On May 25.000. an accusation made frequently by the North and routinely denied by the United States. the official claimed that "the Soviet Union had betrayed Cuba at the time of the Caribbean crisis. North Korean leaders therefore sought to forge a new relationship with the United States. Cooperation and Mutual Assistance. rejected North Korean calls for bilateral talks concerning a non-aggression pact. stating that it would only accept bilateral talks with the United States. the only power strong enough to step into the vacuum left by the collapse of the Soviet Union. From the early 1990s. 2006." In explaining the cause of such mistrust. Conversely. Both the United States Geological Survey and Japanese seismological authorities detected an earthquake with a preliminary estimated magnitude of 4.3 in North Korea. thus such forums lacked accountability. 2006. This led to a diplomatic stalemate.[18] The United Nations Security Council condemned the test in Resolution 1874. North Korea conducted a second test of a nuclear weapon at the same location as the original test (not confirmed). North Korea's Minju Joson newspaper accused South Korea of building up arms in order to attack the country. the key figure in Pakistan's nuclear weapons development. and South Korea are acceptable. "the Korean leaders were distrustful of the CPSU and the Soviet government. no communist governments were willing to share the technology with the North Koreans. a claim Pakistan's senior officials disputed. In July 2011. 2009. The U. The American stance was that North Korea had violated prior bilateral agreements. Kim Il-sung reportedly did not trust that the Soviets would live up to the conditions of the mutual defense pact and guarantee North Korea's security since they betrayed Castro by withdrawing nuclear missiles in an effort to improve relations with the United States. and therefore they were compelled to keep an army of 700.000 and a police force of 200. Russia.[] On November 19. The test weapon was of the same magnitude as the atomic bombs dropped on Japan in the 2nd World War. (confirmed South Korea and Russia). and East German materials confirm. the North Korean government issued an announcement that it had successfully conducted a nuclear test for the first time.[19] North Korea is not a member state of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CNTBTO).North Korea Soviet leaders reportedly did not even consider such a pact necessary.[17] With the collapse of the Soviet Union. Kim Il-sung said. throughout the first nuclear crisis. corroborating some aspects of the North Korean claims. because America persuaded the KEBO board to stop shipments of oil. However.[30] Additionally. officials stated that the United States was not planning any immediate military action. was on the board of ABB when it won this deal.North Korea 259 North Korea‚€ United States relations After the loss of partners in the former USSR and China. in 2006 The primary problem is that the current U. During the delegation Vice Minister Kim also stated the need for haste."[24] The Swiss based company ABB in 2000 signed a $200 million contract to deliver equipment and services for two nuclear power stations at Kumho.S. The Obama administration has demonstrated more willingness to negotiate with North Korea than the previous administration and has indicated that de-nuclearizing the Korean peninsula is a priority. Hecker. The Agreed Framework pact with the United States was created to ensure that two light reactors were shipped to North Korea. Donald Rumsfeld. North Korea withdrew from the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty. The Bush administration considers the 1994 Agreed Framework to have been a flawed agreement. Victoria Clark. said that Rumsfeld did not recall it being brought before the board at any time. The Vice President has summed up the approach as: "We don‚t negotiate with evil. However. North Korea continued to show interest in resuming six-party talks. an American delegate. the pact was terminated. was sent to observe the situation. it would then be open to charges of "appeasing" Pyongyang. Under the 1994 Agreed Framework. the reprocessing plant was running at the time of the visit. food aid (which has now been cancelled due to North Korea's April 2012 long-range missile test). administration fundamentally doesn‚t want an agreement with North Korea. 2001 attacks.S. Siegfried S. Furthermore. The People's Republic of China and South Korea are also very worried about the economic and social consequences should this situation cause the North Korean government to collapse. the U. On January 21. co-director of the Foreign Policy in Focus. Secretary of Defence.S.[21][22] Such reactors are considered "more proliferation-resistant than North Korea's graphite-moderated reactors. North Korea looked to strengthen ties with the United States. we defeat evil. North Korean Vice Minister Kim expressed concern over inviting the delegate over.[28] Japan and South Korea are especially concerned about North Korean counter-strikes following possible military action against North Korea. and a February 2012 bilateral meeting in Beijing that resulted in an agreement to halt uranium enrichment in exchange for U. the 2012 Defense Strategic Guidance Report[31] declared a rebalancing of national security and military focus towards the Asia-Pacific region with special mention of North Korea: . The delegate suggested that the visit allowed the United States to confirm North Korea‚s nuclear capabilities.[29] Recent bilateral activities between the United States and North Korea have included an April 2011 visit by former President Jimmy Carter. While none of the parties desire a North Korea with nuclear weapons.S. Furthermore. who later became the U. a July 2011 meeting between U.S. suggesting that time spent without negotiation would be time North Korea could spend repurposing more plutonium.S. 2004. It doesn‚t want be saddled with a similar agreement. for if it did sign one.[26] According to John Feffer. U.[25] Even though U. Bush had named North Korea as part of an "Axis of evil" following the September 11. The delegate‚s visit ended with Vice Minister Kim asking whether or not the United States would refrain from action if repurposing was finished. government agreed to facilitate the supply of two light water reactors to North Korea (which were never completed).S."[27] Diplomatic efforts at resolving the North Korean situation are complicated by the different goals and interests of the nations of the region. on North Korea's east coast. During the visit North Korea admitted to repurposing plutonium so that they could be used for creating nuclear weaponry (see Nuclear Deterrence). President George W. During the visit. but a Pentagon spokeswoman. after the delegate requested later discussions. but was ultimately unsuccessful."[23] but not "proliferation proof. Special Representative for North Korea Policy Stephen Bosworth and North Korean First Vice Foreign Minister Kim Gye Gwan. the Vice Minister had to decline. in order to make a deterrent it is required that a state have the following three things: 1."[31] In February 2012. satellites. The United States reaffirmed that it had no hostile intent toward the DPRK and was prepared to improve bilateral relationships. Finally. have argued that North Korea is using nuclear weapons primarily as a political tool to begin re-establishing normal relations with the U. Additionally. the activity around the Yongbyon facility may have been done expressly to draw the attention of U. For North Korea. Some estimates have claimed that as many as 3 of the 200 Rodong-1 missiles currently deployed may be . and to end the long-standing economic embargo against North Korea. the two stressed that North Korea is in possession of a nuclear deterrent and that U.." but said it would proceed cautiously and that talks would resume only after North Korea made steps toward fulfilling its promise. The delegate reports confirming only the first requirement. if limited.[36] They point out that the threat of nuclear weapons is the only thing that has brought the U. enabling them to further their goals without fear of reprisal.) The ability to make plutonium metal 2. Bruce Cumings asserted that based on information gathered by the CIA. Further to this argument is the observation that many parties have a vested interest in the claim that North Korea has nuclear weapons.[34] The United States has on occasion turned a blind eye to relations between Egypt and North Korea.. Others argue that North Korea is developing nuclear weapons for the same reason most other countries develop them…namely to give their nation a sense of power in the world.[35] 260 Nuclear deterrence Former South Korean Government sources Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words. and agreed to ship humanitarian food aid to North Korea.S delegate. as well as some scholars and analysts. Japan and South Korea into serious negotiations. and that the strategic military balance has irrevocably shifted in the aftermath of North Korea's nuclear test.[][32][33] The United States called the move "important. which prohibits the use of force as a tool for resolving international disputes. According to Hecker. This agreement included a moratorium on long-range missiles tests.) The ability to integrate the nuclear device into a delivery system. to the point where Egypt has had assistance in creating missiles and munitions. North Korea announced that it would suspend uranium enrichment at the Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center and not conduct any further tests of nuclear weapons while productive negotiations involving the United States continue.S actions have caused them to strengthen the deterrent. North Korea agreed to allow IAEA inspectors to monitor operations at Yongbyon.North Korea "We will maintain peace on the Korean Peninsula by effectively working with allies and other regional states to deter and defend against provocation from North Korea. which is actively pursuing a nuclear weapons program. have stated that they will not return to the Sunshine policy before North Korea gives up their nuclear weapons. but that they had enough material to create such weapons should they choose to do so. and it has gained increasing support as a result. He also pointed out that the CIA had not claimed North Korea had nuclear weapons. the threat of a nuclear-armed North Korea has fed South Korea's perceived need for a larger standing army and defence force. This desire has become increasingly relevant given the ability of North Korea's Rodong-1 missile to strike Tokyo.S.S. it has been a bargaining tool for opening diplomatic discussions. This was done in both quality and quantity.[] However. In a lecture in 1993. North Korea and Egypt have been trading partners for years. Nuclear posturing has also been seen as a threat that could force the re-unification of the Korean peninsula. currently the ruling party in South Korea. the United States decided not to proceed with the promised food aid. discussions with Ambassador Li and Vice Minister Kim in Pyongyang. During the 2004 visit by the U.S. The Grand National Party.) The ability to design and build a nuclear device 3.[37] Some LDP politicians in Japan have openly expressed a desire to change Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution. South Korean newspapers have warned that North Korea's nuclear arsenal could destroy South Korea's conventional forces. Japan and South Korea. The nuclear development program can be manipulated in exchange for foreign aid. after North Korea conducted a provocative long-range missile test in April 2012 that ended in failure. S. On March 17. North Korea rejected the suggestion that it demolish its two larger reactors. According to the agreement. An attack on a plutonium production reactor. 2009. 2008. China. may prevent or delay later nuclear attacks. begun in 2003. It was the second such test and it was said to be much more powerful than the first. Geological Survey reported a magnitude 4. The confirmation came little more than an hour after the U. though such an act could be seen as an act of war and subject to retaliation (albeit with conventional weaponry). Perhaps because of this both the Clinton and Bush administrations did not attempt an attack on North Korean nuclear facilities. 2007. other agencies such as the International Data Center of the CTBTO. involving North Korea.[39] This had been delayed from April due to a dispute with the United States over Banco Delta Asia.S. International Atomic Energy Agency inspectors confirm the shutdown of North Korea's Yongbyon nuclear reactor. a list of its nuclear programs will be submitted and the nuclear facility will be disabled in exchange for fuel aid and normalization talks with the U.[41] 261 Reactivation During 2008 tensions resurfaced between North Korea and the U. and the Japanese Meteorological Center. Other avenues leading to the same result have failed: during the 2006 negotiations.S. the talks began to break down after the United States insisted on more intrusive verification measures than North Korea was prepared to accept. the two light-water moderated plants would be an important source of electricity in a nation with scant resources. Russia. their accuracy is so poor that they are only valid delivery systems when targeted on very large military installations or cities. Moreover.[43] On April 25. The same day a successful short range missile test was also conducted. due to disagreements over the six-party talks disarmament process. IAEA inspectors were forbidden by the North Korean government to conduct further inspections of the site. such as that carried out by the Israelis on the Iraqi reactor complex at Osirak (Operation Opera). the U. The agreement was reached following a series of six-party talks.S.[38] Further fears about North Korea's ability to generate weapons-grade fissile materials in its projected civilian nuclear reactors have led to the consideration of the threat posed by the entire Rodong-1 missile fleet being armed with nuclear warheads and targeted on the Japanese home islands. however. but on July 14.North Korea fitted with nuclear warheads.[45] On May 25.7 seismic disturbance on the proximity of the site of North Korea's first nuclear test conducted in October 2006. State Sponsors of Terrorism list and the Yongbyon deactivation process was expected to resume.S.[40] North Korea's ability to fulfill its energy needs has been deteriorating since the 1990s. (The missiles are able to cover 90% of Japanese territory.) Because it is impossible to be certain of shooting down every ballistic missile.[44] and that spent fuel reprocessing for arms-grade plutonium has been restored. Although North Korea's indigenous nuclear power-generating capacity is insignificant. the North Korean government announced that the country's nuclear facilities have been reactivated. According to one account. removed North Korea from the U. But two days later. South Korea. 2009. and Japan. North Korea's Korean Central News Agency . Donald Rumsfeld demonstrated the severe lack of electricity for the entire nation in a photograph released in October 2006. it is preferable to ensure that the weapons cannot be manufactured in the first place. North Korea confirmed to have performed a USGS image of the earthquake caused by the nuclear test. "successful" underground nuclear test. also registered the seismic variations.S.[42] On October 8. Japan and the U. North Korea told delegates at international nuclear talks that it is preparing to shut down its main nuclear facility. enough for approximately 10 weapons. The older reactor is a Russian supplied IRT-2000 research reactor completed in 1967. The International Atomic Energy Agency had these under full surveillance until later being denied the ability to observe North Korean power plants. Because the light water reactors would require enriched uranium to be imported from outside . North Korea said that it planned to withdraw from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and refused to allow inspectors access to its nuclear sites. The second partially constructed reactor was in nearby Taechon.000 fuel rods and can yield a maximum of 27€29–kg of plutonium if Research Center left in the reactor for optimal burnup. enough for approximately 40 weapons.[46] 262 Nuclear weapons Hardware Plutonium North Korea has had two operating reactors. the 5MWe reactor was shut down for a period of seventy to a hundred days. It was to be 50MWe and able to produce 60–kg of plutonium per year. The U. It was to be 200 MWe and able to produce roughly 220–kg of plutonium annually. In this time it is estimated that up to fifteen kilograms of plutonium could have been extracted. A full core 5 MWe experimental reactor at Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific consists of 8.[50] The North Korean Plutonium Stock. 1993. though the Joint Atomic Energy Intelligence Committee said that the amount was no more than a few hundred grams. The material required to make a single bomb is approximately four to eight kilograms. North Korea has unloaded the reactor before reaching the maximum burnup level. 2005. where practically all of its plutonium has been produced.[48] Nevertheless.S.[49] North Korea's main reactor. Reprocessing (also known as separation) is known to have taken place in 2003 for the first core and 2005 for the second core.[54] Faced with diplomatic pressure after UN Security Council Resolution 825 and the threat of American military air strikes against the reactor. North Korea unloaded its reactors again. In 1989. Mid-2006. There are three known cores which were unloaded in 1994 (under IAEA supervision in accordance with the Agreed Framework).North Korea said the test was conducted as part of the measures to bolster up its nuclear deterrent for self-defense in every way. it is estimated to be able to produce 0. By 1994. Department of Energy estimated that this reactor could have been used to produce up to 1€2–kg of plutonium. plutonium separation takes place in campaigns. The first of these two partially constructed reactors was also in the Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. and 2007. Hence.[53] On March 12. but that have since become unsalvageable since maintenance of their construction sites was not allowed under the Agreed Framework.[47] Uranium irradiated in this reactor was used in North Korea's first plutonium separation experiments in 1975. North Korea also had two additional graphite moderated reactors being built.[51] Often. is a 5MWe gas-graphite moderated Magnox type reactor. the United States believed that North Korea had enough reprocessed plutonium to produce about 10 bombs with the amount of plutonium increasing. the primary purpose of the reactor is not to produce plutonium and North Korea has had trouble acquiring enough fuel for constant operation.9 grams of plutonium per thermal megawatt every day of its operations.[52] Under normal operation. both located at the Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. North Korea agreed to dismantle its plutonium program as part of the Agreed Framework in which South Korea and the United States would provide North Korea with light water reactors and fuel oil until those reactors could be completed. the reactor can produce about 6–kg of plutonium per year although the reactor would need to be shut down and the fuel rods extracted to begin the plutonium separation process. In 1994. 263 . with bureaucratic red tape and political obstacles from the North Korea. He claimed in an interview with ABC News that the Pakistan Government. Dr. and in late 2002. The United States argued North Korea violated its commitment not to have enrichment facilities. Enriched uranium and foreign assistance With the abandonment of its plutonium program. intelligence officials. officials claimed North Korea began an enriched uranium program. Nuclear Test. military base & unidentified underground facility € Kiljugun € Extensive military buildup with motorized troop formations and construction of new advanced underground facility € Site of May 25.[57] This program was publicized in October 2002 when the United States asked North Korean officials about the program. had failed to build the promised light water reactors because the United States failed to uphold their end of the agreement by providing energy aid.North Korea North Korea. However. on uranium enrichment and information to North Korea in exchange for missile technology around 1990€1996. and claimed that North Korea's nuclear program was well advanced before his visit. supplied key data. approximately 70 test explosions of North Korean munitions took place. existence of underground facility € Taechongun € 200MWe Nuclear Energy Plant construction site. 2008.S. In addition. Pyongan Bukdo (North Pyongan) Province € 4 Sites: € Yongbyonsi € 2 Sites € Location of Yongbyon Nuclear Research Center. Abdul Qadeer Khan. under Shaukat Aziz. its "graphite moderated reactors and related facilities"). 2009.[56] On May 30. nuclear fuel fabrication site. President Pervez Musharraf and Prime minister Shaukat Aziz acknowledged in 2005 that Khan had provided centrifuges and their designs to North Korea. making it more difficult to divert nuclear waste to be reprocessed into plutonium. Prime minister Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan.S. HE test site. or potentially military purpose:[55] 1. U. established to advance the implementation of the Agreed Framework. Chagangdo Province € 1 Site: Kanggyesi € Production center of North Korea's advanced equipment and munitions since 1956. North Korea explicitly agreed to freeze plutonium programs (specifically. North Korea returned to using its old reactors. now denies involvement with the spread of nuclear arms to those countries. extensive intelligence of highly advanced underground facility. Nuclear Test 2. € Phunggyere € Site of October 9. there is a gas-graphite reactor. In 2006. nuclear waste storage site € Kusungsi € Between 1997 and September 2002. The agreement also committed North Korea to implement the Joint Declaration on the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. ABC News reported that Khan.[58] Under the Agreed Framework. Hamgyong Bukdo (North Hamgyong) Province € 2 Sites: € Chungjinsi € Nuclear fuel storage site. Location of unidentified underground facility and nuclear arms/energy related facilities known to exist 4. 3. who previously confessed to his involvement with Iran and North Korea. according to U. the amount of reactor fuel and waste could be more easily tracked. through Pakistan's former top scientist. 2006. and President Pervez Musharraf forced him to be a "scapegoat" for the "national interest". and the facility's Experimental Test Explosion facility and two unidentified underground facilities. Also. Pyongan Namdo (South Pyongan) Province € 1 Site: Pyongsungsi € Location of National Science Academy and extensive underground facility whose purpose is not known. stored in CDs. there were eight sites identified as potential test explosion sites for current (and future) tests according to a statement by the South Korean Parliament. He also denied ever traveling to Iran or Libya. These sites are distinguished from a number of other nuclear materials production facilities in that they are thought to be most closely identified with a military. Also. in which both Koreas committed not to have enrichment or reprocessing facilities. the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO). allegedly. North Korea can increase their safety when handling hazardous material.500 tons in peacetime. In 2007. By creating binary agents. during World War II.[64] South Korea estimates North Korea to have roughly 5. sarin. officials were no longer making this a major issue in the six-party talks. referring to the alleged test as "a great event that demonstrated the rapidly developing cutting-edge science and technology of the DPRK". It reportedly acquired the technology necessary to produce tabun and mustard gas as early as the 1950s. hydrogen cyanide (AC). and a high of 12. chemical agents and protection against them from the Soviet Union and China. Binary agents are toxic only when the two chemicals (normally physically separated) are combined. In 2013.[63] Using a study by the International Institute of Strategic Studies in London. The Democratic People‚s Republic of Korea likely concentrated on weapons such as mustard.[60][61] Biological and chemical weapons North Korea acceded to the Biological Weapons Convention in 1987.[] Deployment of chemical and biological weapons is fairly simple and can be fired from artillery.[citation needed] Since 1989 North Korea has been believed to have the capability to indigenously produce nerve. sneaked in food. and made no mention of plans to use fusion technology in its nuclear weapons program. North Korea may have also began the production of binary agents. Furthermore. choking and blood chemical agents in bulk.000 tons worth of biological and chemical weapons. North Korea may be able to create up to 20. suits. mustard-family (H or HD). also makes mention of efforts by North Korean scientists to develop "safe and environment-friendly new energy". The South Korean government further estimated production capability. North Korea soon thereafter expelled United Nations inspectors and withdrew from the Non-Proliferation Treaty. blister. soman (GD).[59] This claim has been greeted with skepticism.S. despite decades of advanced research work around the world. North Korea has spent substantial resources in defensive measures such as extensive training in the use of gas masks. tabun (GA). The range of chemical weapons North Korea had been capable of producing during the nineties was said to hold a plethora of weapons. North Korea maintains at least eight industrial facilities that are capable of creating biochemical weaponry. dropped from aircraft. the Rodong Sinmun announced in an article that North Korea had successfully carried out a nuclear fusion reaction. and V-agents (VM and VX). to at most a few thousand tons. Under emergency situations. North Korea itself holds a plethora of natural raw resources.000 tons of chemical agents annually. However.[][][] 264 Nuclear fusion claims In May 2010. sarin (GB). North Korea responded by announcing plans to reactivate a dormant nuclear fuel processing program and power plant north of Pyongyang. 1989.[62] In 1945. natural disasters and increasing economic restrictions hindered North Korea‚s ability to manufacture biochemical weapons. chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS). during the 1990s. and the Geneva Protocol on January 4. phosgene (CG and CX). it was confirmed that there was a stockpile of biological and chemical weaponry. The country is believed to possess a substantial arsenal of chemical weapons. and the years up to 1959 were filled with swift development in North Korea‚s chemical industry. as no country has successfully mastered nuclear fusion. U. the South Korean Defense Ministry speculated that North Korea may be trying to develop a "hydrogen bomb" and such a device may be North Korea's next weapons test. with a low of 4. The aforementioned article. the United States persuaded the KEDO Board to suspend fuel oil shipments. and V-agents for operational and technical reasons. but has not signed the Chemical Weapons Convention.000 tons in wartime. reports emanating from Washington suggested that the 2002 CIA reports indicating that North Korea was developing uranium enrichment technology had overstated or misread the intelligence. chloroacetophenone (CN). such as: adamsite (DM).[] North Korean military units .North Korea In December 2002. detectors and decontamination systems for both the civilian populace and the military. which led to the end of the Agreed Framework. The United States estimates North Korea‚s stockpile of chemical weaponry from at least a few hundred tons. or fired from any other delivery system. North Korea gained technologies. phosgene. [] A local production basis was established. and could carry a nuclear warhead. Two days later. the launch still violates the UN Security Council's decision. interests in the Western hemisphere.000€6. and chemical (NBC) training exercises in a chemical environment. 2009.S. it was reported that North Korea has chemical weapons. more advanced types of missiles were developed.[] The tests are seen by world powers as a symbol of defiance to the United Nations set over North Korea . but launch procedures are lengthy and visible. With time. It is not known if this missile is capable of carrying the nuclear weapons North Korea may have developed. Taepodong-2 could reach western parts of Continental United States.[67] North Korea could hypothetically deliver a warhead to almost all countries in Southeast Asia. The Taepodong-2 missile was unsuccessfully tested on July 4. where gas masks are only provided to the military and top government officials. with an expected range of 5.000–km.[] With the development of the Taepodong-2 missile.[68] North Korea claims they have demonstrated the 4000–km range and reliability of its new Musudan missile. The USSR had refused to supply Scuds to North Korea. A missile test or a satellite attempt. as well as the western side of North America. with a light payload. which has a range of 2.[] In 2010. on July 4.490–km).[][66] North Korea has also developed the Taepodong-1 missile. within 7€10 years. This means North Korea may be able to develop/deploy mobile ICBMs. Russia and China. North Korea's total range with its Nodong missiles estimated as 900–km with a 1000–kg payload.500–km. which can survive a U. though with low accuracy.550 miles (2.S. Eventually North Korea equipped itself with ballistic missiles. 2006. capable of reaching Japan. DPRK first received shipments of short-range ballistic missiles from its main ally.[citation needed] A few Taepodong-2 missiles may exist. The Taepodong-2 could theoretically hit the western United States and other U. biological. North Korea test fired a series of at least four surface-to-ship cruise missiles into the Sea of Japan (East Sea). The BM25 Musudan is a North Korean designed intermediate-range ballistic missile with range capabilities of up to 1.S. Because the Unha-2's first stage engine is the Musudan (Nodong-B / Taepodong-X). the DPRK received several longer range Scud-B missiles from Egypt (which in turn received those missiles from the USSR. first strike. The first weapons of this kind to be delivered were the tactical FROG-series.North Korea conduct regular nuclear. or was operational. North Korea launched the Unha-2 space booster (allegedly based on the long-range Taepodong-2). Testing Early 2000s North Korea's ability to deliver weapons of mass destruction to a hypothetical target is somewhat limited by its missile technology. the Soviet Union.[] In the late 1970s or early 1980s. U. The current model of the Taepodong-2 could not carry nuclear warheads to the United States. which could cause millions of casualties in South Korea. they proceeded to test fire a further seven Scud-type ballistic missiles into the same sea. intelligence estimates that the weapon will not be operational for another 11 years. As of 2010. and the first modified copy was named Hwasong-5. Western sources had no indication that the missile system had ever been tested. As of 2005. the third stage still failed to separate properly.[69] On July 2.[] 2009 On April 5. 2009. Although the launch was more successful than the 2006 test.[] enough to reach South Korea.[65] 265 Delivery systems History In the 1960s. and parts of Japan. North Korean chemical and biological warfare units are equipped with decontamination and detection equipment. Bulgaria and Poland). but it is unlikely to have been deployed. Former CIA director George Tenet has claimed that. € Hwasong-6–€ later Scud modification. road-mobile missile with a 650–kg warhead.S. military presence in South Korea. Has been tested with a satellite payload in 1998. the satellite itself failed to reach orbit. after Pyongyang's atomic test in May 2009. Apparently this is the most widely deployed North Korean missile.S.[] Japan Ministry of Defense's analyst Takesada points out that North Korea's desire of unification is similar to North Vietnam.000 kilometers.500–km maximum range. It has been tested successfully.[] It has been suggested that the test firing of missiles is an act of defiance against the United States national holiday.[] These launches come only a week after U. the second launch of this space launch vehicle took place on December 12. at 09:51–am local time and placed an object into orbit. It was tested successfully as the first or second stage of Unha. but the missile flew several thousand kilometers before falling in the Pacific Ocean. apparently deployed either in the late 1990s or early 2000s (decade). The satellite failed. and indicated North Korea was a long way from having a credible ICBM. President Barack Obama extended U. and is most probably an improved version of the Soviet Termit missile (NATO codename "Styx"). a space booster variant was launched with a satellite on board. when the missile failed 40 seconds after launch.300 and 1.[73][74] € Musudan-1–€ a modified copy of the Soviet R-27 Zyb SLBM. € Hwasong-5–€ initial Scud modification. the Taepodong-1 could have an intercontinental range of nearly 6. Unknown number in service.[71] Successfully tested € KN-1–€ a short-range anti-ship cruise missile. Untested / failed € Taepodong-2–€ North Korea's domestic ICBM attempt. liquid-fueled missile. . Taepodong-X and BM25. solid-fueled. 2012.000 kilometers (most estimates put the range at about 6.North Korea after their nuclear test on May 25. the first and second stages of the missile apparently flew without any problems. Despite the failure of the satellite. The missile. after North Korea deploys several hundred mobile ICBMs aimed at the U.S. € Nodong-1–€ larger and more advanced Scud modification. € KN-2 Toksa–€ a short-range. highly accurate mobile missile. and warns of the possibility of North Korea's compulsory merger with South Korea by threats of nuclear weapons. economic sanctions against North Korea. with an estimated range of 330–km. Estimates of the range vary widely–€ from 4.700–km). First production variants had inertial guidance. 2009. 2009. has a range of 4. later variants featured GPS guidance. Independence Day. € Unha 3–€ After a failed first launch. According to some analysts. It is believed that North Korea has deployed some 150€200 such missiles on mobile launchers. First test occurred in 2006.000–km with a third stage and a payload of less than 100–kg.[70] 266 Delivery Systems There is no evidence that North Korea has been able to miniaturize a nuclear warhead for use on a ballistic missile. Its range is estimated to be around 160 kilometers. As in 1998. yet with an increased range (550€700–km) and a smaller warhead (600€750–kg). also known under the names Nodong-B. € Taepodong-1–€ two-stage Scud-derived missile. Similar to the Hwasong-5. but the missile apparently flew without significant problems. Road-mobile.600–km. with at least 400 missiles in use.[72] Range is estimated to be between 1. modified copy of the Soviet OTR-21.[] This is also a response to the UN's sanctions that were imposed in June 2009. which improves CEP accuracy to 190€250 m. as well as the new UN resolution that any nation can inspect a North Korean vessel that the investigating nation believes is carrying weaponry.500 to 10. taking advantage of any possible decrease in the U. A 2012 display of missiles purporting to be ICBMs were declared fakes by Western analysts. On April 5.S. therefore it is North Korea's longest-ranged operational missile with its 2. Liquid-fueled. which is based on North Korea's Nodong missile. The UN lists KOMID as based in Central District Pyongyang.[76] However it also has offices in Beijing and sales offices worldwide which facilitate weapons sales and seek new customers for North Korean weapons. the U. at 7:39–am local time but disintegrated approximately ninety seconds after launch. to Africa. the Ghauri. and multiple rocket artilleries.[82] Listed directors of Hap Heng include Kim Song in and Ko Myong Hun.[88] –Cuba No confirmed information for North Korea shipping Hwasong-6 missiles to Cuba.[81] North Korea's military has also used the company Hap Heng to sell weapons overseas.[75] 267 International Response Exports In April 2009 the United Nations named the Korea Mining and Development Trading Corporation (aka KOMID) as North Korea's primary arms dealer and main exporter of equipment related to ballistic missiles and conventional weapons. is considered to be a copy of North Korea's Rodong 1. imposed sanctions against Pakistani and North Korean entities for their role in transferring Missile Technology Control Regime Category I ballistic missile-related technology. including missile technologies.[86] Export partners These are countries which allegedly operate North Korean ballistic missiles.North Korea € The Unha 3 rocket was launched on April 13. Hap Heng was based in Macau in the 1990s to handle sales of weapons and missile and nuclear technology to nations such as Pakistan and Iran. including to Burma. In April 1998.[79] KOMID representatives were also involved in a North Korean deal to mass produce Kornet anti-tank guided missiles for Syria[80] and KOMID has also been responsible for the sale of equipment.[83] Ko Myong Hun is now a listed diplomat in Beijing[84] and may be involved in the work of KOMID. and Iran. South America and the Middle East. crops and forestation.[90] –Iran .S. Even in 1999. North Korea claims that the satellite was to monitor weather. worth a total of over $100 million. –Pakistan North Korean entities continued to provide assistance to Pakistan's ballistic missile program during the first half of 1999 in return for nuclear weapons technology [87]. Also in April 1998.[85] A UN sanctions committee report stated that North Korea operates an international smuggling network for nuclear and ballistic missile technology. Syria. intelligence sources said North Korea had sold missile components to Iran. Pakistan flight-tested the Ghauri MRBM. 2012. allegedly bought such or received assistance for establishing local production.[77] KOMID has sold missile technology to Iran[78] and has done deals for missile related technology with the Taiwanese. Pakistan's medium-range ballistic missile.[89] –Egypt Egypt has received technologies and assistance for making both the Hwasong-5 and Hwasong-6. Such assistance is critical for Islamabad's efforts to produce ballistic missiles. and may have as well provided guidance systems or information on longer-range missiles to North Korea from its Condor program. gunboats. –Ethiopia Unconfirmed information for possessing Hwasong-5 missiles. [97] 268 References [1] € to be published [2] http:/ / www. 4. January 8. that the Republic of the Congo has acquired Hwasong-5 missiles. washingtontimes. from the personal collection of V.[95] –Syria Uses two types of North Korean missiles–€ the Hwasong-6 and Rodong-1. Nuclear Posture Review And North Korea (http:/ / www. [16] Report. org/ About/ Policy/ GC/ GC56/ GC56Documents/ English/ gc56-11_en. bbc. and they were kept in storage. .DPR of Korea informs IAEA of intent to lift 'freeze' on nuclear power plants (http:/ / www. armscontrol. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ asia-pacific/ 1908571.-North Korean Agreed Framework at a Glance (http:/ / www. June 17. 001819/1965. org/ apps/ news/ story. 2010).[94] –Republic of the Congo There is some (although unconfirmed) information. but a month later Nigeria rejected the agreement under U. org/ proliferation/ six-party-talks-north-koreas-nuclear-program/ p13593#p4) [29] Wooksik. p.S. Cold War International History Project e-Dossier No. Iran has established local production for the Hwasong-5 (Shahab-1). asp?NewsID=5644& Cr=dprk& Cr1=#. XIX-J-1-j Korea.S. 14. co. (April 16. July 8. 15 TELs with 15 HE warheads. C. [24] (http:/ / news.Washington Times (http:/ / www. org/ factsheets/ agreedframework). 2005. Retrieved January 2012. [22] (http:/ / www. [19] Washington Post. IV-100. pdf [3] Nuke agency wary of N. additional text. [21] The U. un. additional text. 1965. 73. UMo74nekzTw) [15] See Materials on the Discussions with the Delegation of the CC KWP. guardian.[96] –Viet Nam Acquired Hwasong-5/6 missiles in 1998. cfr.[93] –Nigeria In January 2004. from Nautilus Institute For Security and Stability. Tkachenko. Korea's invitation . blueprints and missile parts from North Korea. uk/ world/ 2003/ may/ 09/ nuclear. pressure. Source: MOL. Fact Sheet. iaea. html). published in The Korean Peninsula and Russian Interests (Moscow: Vostochnaya Literatura. 1965. 20. 2000) p. the Nigerian government announced that North Korea agreed to sell it missile technology.[92] –Libya Libya during the reign of Muammar Gaddafi had been known to receive technological assistance. Embassy of Hungary in North Korea to the Hungarian Foreign Ministry.P. com/ news/ 2012/ apr/ 4/ nuke-agency-wary-of-n-koreas-invitation/ ) [4] United Nations News Centre . Arms Control Association. Also possesses some 18 land-based BM25 missiles. org/ publications/ essays/ napsnet/ forum/ 2009-2010/ 10023Cheong. The Military of the United Arab Emirates were not satisfied with the quality of the missiles.[95] –United Arab Emirates 25 Hwasong-5s purchased from North Korea in 1989.Council on Foreign Relations (http:/ / www. 1960.[91] North Korean weapons sales to Iran are estimated to total $2 billion annually. [17] See for example The History of North Korean Attitudes toward Nuclear Weapons and Efforts to Acquire Nuclear Capability.North Korea One of the first buyers of North Korean missiles. Hwasong-6 (Shahab-2) and the Rodong-1 (Shahab-3). doboz. [28] The Six-Party Talks on North Korea's Nuclear Program . nautilus. Japan Times. 2011. "North 'bribed its way to nuclear statehood'". May 17. northkorea). co.[90] –Sudan There is some information that Syria shipped some of its North Korean designed Scud missiles to Sudan in 2004. –Yemen Known to have bought Hwasong-5 missiles from the DPRK in the 1990s–€ a total of 15 missiles. stm). 2006) (http:/ / docs.58xh4pkp.oxfordresearchgroup. (October 1. 2010. By David Albright and Paul Brannan. globalsecurity. [97] (http:/ / yaleglobal.org/eng/index.fas. aeronautics. March 17. p. Retrieved October 4. washingtonpost.00. capabilities. com. org/ wmd/ library/ congress/ 1994_r/ bod3. Paul (June 26.com (http:/ / www. tok2. bbc. Forrest. Berkhout. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. com/ gview?a=v& q=cache:wGkjyeC74ZAJ:www. org/ publications/ dprk/ DPRKplutoniumFEB. pdf+ 8000+ fuel+ rods+ 27+ 29+ kg+ plutonium& hl=en& gl=uk& pid=bl& srcid=ADGEESiEpLQFX_EwxvBe1hzu7oFxYV_G9wGdWcvwYfzQTShQHy-CyCmLFbGYMvM6TYG5GH5nFFMZQgzIGHd0tDhGb5hhBCMZt8d92xyFdqO sig=AFQjCNE1josvTXYwm2uJfhVb51vboNGzOQ) [53] Busch. armscontrol. Vaughn S.-North Korean Nuclear and Missile Diplomacy (http:/ / www. theaustralian. February 2007 (http:/ / www. (2004). Korea Deal (http:/ / www. July 16. stm [89] Hwasong-6 (http:/ / www. [54] Bodansky.S. aeronautics. defense. April 2004 € Second nuclear test conducted by North Korea on May 25. June 1. 205. Gorbachev's foreign policy toward the Korean peninsula. University Press of Kentucky. [49] The North Korean Plutonium Stock. ISBN 978-0-8131-2323-3. html): Demands Began to Undo Nuclear Accord.ifri.php/ analysis-mainmenu-29/articles-by-geo-profile/geo-profiles/147-articles/ 569-second-nuclear-test-conducted-by-north-korea-on-25-may-2009-martin-kalinowski. org/ e_research/ profiles/ Syria/ Missile/ 4126_4337. Congressional Documents. Plutonium and highly enriched uranium. skyrocket.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/proliferation/ north-korea/) Information on the North Korean nuclear program including links to source documents € (http://www.com. [94] North Korea Missile Milestones € 1969€2005 (http:/ / www. 2008.Omaha. wisconsinproject. The Washington Post. p. North Korea claims nuclear fusion success (http:/ / www. htm). "North Korea Earning $2 Billion a Year in Arms Deals with Iran". Ifri. James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies. from The Arms Control Association. [50] Albright. Jerusalem Center for public affairs [92] The Chosun Ilbo. pdf [39] N. February 20. Retrieved February 14. Far-Reaching U. The Australian [65] N.. org/ publications/ dprk/ DPRKplutoniumFEB. AFP. Perceptions and Proposals (http://www. com/ home/ tokorozawa/ faq/ faq24e23.org/downloads/pp33pollack. ISBN 978-0-7734-7817-6. de/ doc_lau/ pekdosan-1.North Korea 269 [30] Kimball. GlobalSecurity. free-lebanon. com/ lfpNews/ 2009/ June/ June3/ June3d/ June3d. omaha. p. 1985€1991: power and reform. Pollack. Walker.org/nuke/guide/ dprk/cw/) € Jonathan D. 251.de [81] KOMID's $100 million sales (http:/ / www. pdf [68] http:/ / www21.org.org. htm). edu/ display. au/ news/ world/ north-korea-claims-nuclear-fusion-success/ story-e6frg6so-1225865505827). "A History of Ballistic Missile Development in the DPRK: First Ballistic Missiles. htm) [91] The Global Range of Iran's Ballistic Missile Program (http:/ / jcpa.com/2005/050601033447. Mellen Press. Brannan. William (1997). D.html)€ Key facts (based on South Korean defense ministry data). [59] May 12. AFP. No end in sight: the continuing menace of nuclear proliferation. Plan Impaired N.org (http://www.html)Wikipedia:Link rot . isis-online. Frans. 2009 (http://npsglobal. 1996: world inventories. 2011) Chronology of U. ru/ archive/ wmd/ ballistic/ ballistic/ hwasong5-01. co. ISBN 978-0-19-828009-5. and policies.au/story/0. Institute for Science and International Security (ISIS). google. Korea threat beyond neighbor . (1999). 303. David. Paris. Pyongyang and the US nuclear gambit (http:/ / www. Seung-Hoo (2000). David.20548721-601. htm) [90] Hwasong-5 information (http:/ / www. 1979€1989". "North Korea's Nuclear Weapon Development: Implications for Future Policy" (http:// www. Korea Plans to Shut Down Nuke Facility (http:/ / newsmax. yale.html) € Nuclear Files. 2009. html) [95] NTI Country overviews:Syria (http:/ / www. skyrocket. ru/ archive/ wmd/ ballistic/ ballistic/ hwasong6-01. gov/ news/ Defense_Strategic_Guidance. & Crail. org/ brief/ brief005-26.nuclearfiles. org/ countries/ nkorea/ north-korea-miles. E.spacewar. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 3467219.uk/publications/ northkorea. A20. com/ archives/ articles/ 2007/ 3/ 16/ 154255. isis-online. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ story/ 2008/ 09/ 26/ ST2008092600020.theaustralian. article?id=1546) External links € Federation of American Scientists guide to North Korean chemical weapons (http://www. pdf). nti. 1994). jpg [74] Pekdosan-1 ("Taepodong-1") (http:/ / space. 2005 € North Korea: Problems. (August 11. 2011. P. [47] Joo. com/ article/ 20101128/ NEWS01/ 711289876) [66] http:/ / www.S. Joseph S. 2007. Spring 2010 € North Korea's missile arsenal (http://www. shtml). isis-online. p. Nathan E. htm). Yossef. 2007. html) [87] http:/ / news.20867.pdf) Proliferation Papers. html) [96] Bermudez. org/ factsheets/ dprkchron). org/ publications/ dprk/ dprkplutonium. [31] http:/ / www. 2008. [42] Glenn Kessler.news.pdf)€ Oxford Research Group. [48] Albright. September 26. time. "The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http:/ /www. by Venkatesan Vembu.shtml) A Collection of stories regarding North Korea's Nuclear Program € Chung Min Lee.doi.metapress.North Korea € Annotated bibliography for the North Korean nuclear weapons program from the Alsos Digital Library (http:// alsos.dnaindia.com/content/brill/eeas/2008/00000007/00000001/art00007) € An analysis of Japan's role in the nuclear talks prior to the commencement of the Six-Party Talks. Nuisance. 2006 € The February 13 Action Plan and the Prospects for the North Korean Nuclear Issue (http://www.com/time/archive/collections/0.pdf).49.org/nkidp) Contains primary source documents related to the DPRK's efforts to obtain nuclear technology dating back to the mid 1960s € TIME Archives (http://www. Ifri.21428. com/content/hn1576020176wg02/fulltext. Also by Linus HagstrÃm.2009.org/). Daily News & Analysis.pdf)Wikipedia:Link rot.831) € An analysis of Japan's role in the Six-Party Talks by Linus HagstrÃm.ifri.pdf)–€ analysis by Narushige Michishita.org/sgp/crs/row/RL31696. or Wielder of Power in the North Korean Nuclear Talks (http://dx.wlu.5. "The Evolution of the North Korean Nuclear Crisis: Implications for Iran" (http://www. Khan hand in North Korea bomb (http://www.aspx?browse=warfare/North+Korean+Nuclear+Weapons+Program) € A.pdf) € Chronology of U. 2005" (http://thebulletin.wilsoncenter. "North Korea‚s nuclear program.Q. Proliferation Papers. May/June 2005 € The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http://www. October 10.com/document/RL33590/) Congressional Research Service.armscontrol.edu/qsearch.org/publications/strategic-dossiers/ north-korean-dossier/north-koreas-weapons-programmes-a-net-asses/north-koreas-ballistic-missile-programme/ ) 270 .00..org/factsheets/ dprkchron) € North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Development and Diplomacy (https://opencrs.fas. Paris.ifri. € IISS North Korea‚s Ballistic Missile Programme (http://www.iiss.thebulletin. ingentaconnect. org/nuclear-history-documents/) The Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project contains primary source material relating to North Korea's nuclear weapon program.c_north_korean_nukes.com/report. Winter 2009 € Norris. € North Korean Nuclear and Missile Diplomacy (http://www. IFRI Proliferation Papers n” 17.S.wilsoncenter.asp?NewsID=1057723). org/10. org/downloads/Prolif_Chung_Min_Lee_NK. € North Korea: Economic Sanctions (http://www.org/ downloads/Proliferation_Paper_Michishita. € Critiquing the Idea of Japanese Exceptionalism: Japan and the Coordination of North Korea Policy (http://www.1525/as. € Normalizing Japan: Supporter. 2007 € North Korean International Documentation Project (http://www. Hans M. Robert S. and Kristensen. 1998 (Chagai-II) 25€40–kt in 1998 [][][][1] (PAEC claim) [] 6 detonations 100-110 warheads [] (2011 estimate) 100-110 warheads [] [] Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile Maximum missile range NPT signatory 2.Pakistan 271 Pakistan Pakistan Nuclear program start date First nuclear weapon test First fusion weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test January 20.500–km (Shaheen-II) No Weapons of mass destruction By type . 1998 (Chagai-I) N/A [][] [] May 30. 1972 May 28. Pakistan 272 € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category . []Wikipedia:Link rot At the Multan meeting. and. Munir Ahmad Khan. in Vienna. Abdul Qadeer Khan also joined the nuclear weapons program.[citation needed] Bhutto was the main architect of this programme and it was here that Bhutto orchestrated nuclear weapons programme and rallied Pakistan's academic scientists to build the atomic bomb for national survival. In December 1972. had been working as Director at the Nuclear Power and Reactor Division of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In 1976. while the rest of the program being run in PAEC and comprising over twenty laboratories and projects was headed by Munir Ahmad Khan. who. then-Chief of Army Staff.[2] This program would reach fruition under President General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. Abdus Salam led the establishment of Theoretical Physics Group (TPG) as he called scientists working at ICTP to report to Munir Ahmad Khan. with Zahid Ali Akbar. in Multan. headed the Kahuta Project.Pakistan 273 Nuclear weapons Background € € € € € € € € € € € € History Warfare Arms race Design Testing Effects Delivery Espionage Proliferation Arsenals Terrorism Opposition Nuclear-armed states € € € € € € € € € € United States Russia United Kingdom France China Israel India Pakistan North Korea South Africa (former) Pakistan began focusing on nuclear weapons development in January 1972 under the leadership of Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. This marked the . Bhutto also appointed nuclear engineer. Pakistan's nuclear weapons development was in response to neighboring India's development of nuclear weapons. who delegated the program to the Chairman of PAEC Munir Ahmad Khan. until then. Bhutto called a meeting of senior academic scientists and engineers on 20–January 1972. which came to known as "Multan meeting". as chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC). Austria. [] Pakistan followed a strict non-nuclear weapon policy since 1956 until 1971. Munir Ahmad Khan. Kahuta.. on May 30.". the goal to develop nuclear weapons received considerable impetus. Foreign minister Sir Zafarullah Khan publicly stated that "Pakistan does not have a policy towards the atom bombs". India rejected the offer. the first confirmed nuclear test by a nation outside the permanent five members of the United Nations Security Council. revealing the facts about the Indian nuclear programme and a weapon production facility in Trombay.[] Finally.[citation needed] Understanding the sensitivity of the issue. Pakistan's fissile material production takes place at Nilore.000 worth pool-type reactor. Munir Ahmad Khan estimated the cost of nuclear technology at that time. Because things were less expensive. At this meeting Munir Khan concluded: "a (nuclear) India would further undermine and threaten Pakistan's security.[citation needed] When asked about the economics of such programme. Pakistan needed a nuclear deterrent. Pakistan responded to India's 1974 nuclear test (see Smiling Buddha) with a number of proposals to prevent a nuclear competition in South Asia. U. as Munir Khan maintained.[] 274 History of Pakistan's nuclear weapons program Nuclear development and non-weapon policy The uneasy relationships with India. Bhutto arranged a meeting with President Ayub Khan December 11.". and Khushab/Jauharabad. President Ayub Khan mentioned that if Pakistan ever needed the (atom) bomb..[] After the 1965 Indo-Pakistan war.[] Pakistani scientists and engineers' working at IAEA became aware of advancing Indian nuclear program towards making the bombs. Therefore. the underground iron-steel tunnel having been long-constructed by provincial Martial Law Administrator General Rahimuddin Khan during the 1980s. On October 1965. Balochistan. Afghanistan. This operation was named Chagai-I by Pakistan. codenamed Smiling Buddha in 1974. and there were no restrictions on nuclear technology. met with Bhutto on emergency basis in Vienna.[] . and for her survival. and Pakistan reached an understanding concerning the peaceful and industrial use of nuclear energy which also includes a $350.[] On 8 December 1953. Munir Khan pointed out to the President that Pakistan must acquire the necessary facilities that would give the country a nuclear weapon capability. after hearing the proposal President Ayub Khan swiftly denied the proposal and quoted: "Pakistan was too poor to spend that much money. Pakistan's nuclear development was peaceful but an effective deterrent against India.Pakistan beginning of Pakistan's pursuit of nuclear detterence capability. The last test of Pakistan was conducted at the sandy Kharan Desert under a codename Chagai-II. which were available free of safeguards and at an affordable cost. on 11 August 1955. Moreover. also in Balochistan.[] In 1953.[] On many different occasions. director at the Nuclear Power and Reactor Division of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Pakistan could somehow acquire it off the shelf. Following India's surprise nuclear test. 1998. Pakistan thus became the 7th country in the world to successfully develop and test nuclear weapons. and that India was moving forward in deploying it. the then costs were not more than $150 million. 1965 at Dorchester Hotel in London.H.[citation needed] Although Pakistan began the development of nuclear weapons in 1972.[] Before 1971. and the energy shortage explains its nuclear policy to become a nuclear power as part of its defence strategy. Foreign minister (later Prime minister) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto aggressively began the advocating the option of "nuclear weapons programmes" but such attempts were dismissed by Finance minister Muhammad Shoaib and chairman I. where weapons-grade plutonium is made by the scientists..S.[] Following the announcement. Pakistan media press welcomed the U.S. that it was freely available. followed by the establishment of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission in 1956. Pakistan detonated five nuclear devices in the Ras Koh Hills in the Chagai district. as Benazir Bhutto maintained in 1995. and major proposals were made in 1960s by several officials and senior scientists but PAEC under its chairman Ishrat Hussain Usmani made no efforts to acquire nuclear fuel cycle for the purposes of active nuclear weapons programme. a few weeks after India's second nuclear test (Operation Shakti). Usmani. Atoms for Peace initiatives. on 28 May 1998. the former Soviet Union. a nuclear engineer. known as PARR-II. Pakistan had lost its geo-political. Munir Ahmad Khan signed a Nuclear cooperation deal and. and CHASNUPP-II. Uranium deposits were discovered in the Dera Ghazi Khan district and the first-ever national award was given to the PAEC. The plant had a capacity of 10. and began its operations in November 1972. Known as KANUPP-I. Pakistan is developing two more nuclear power plants with the an agreement signed with China. then-Foreign Minister of Pakistan. training reactor that went critical in 1989 under Munir Ahmad Khan. At a Vienna meeting on December. allowing Pakistan legally to build 300MWe CHASNUPP-III and CHASNUPP-VI reactors. the work is put on hold since 2009.[] Isolated internationally. which was upgraded to 10 MWe by Nuclear Engineering Division under Munir Ahmad Khan in 1990. it was inaugurated by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as President. in the then East Pakistan. since 2000. and quite obviously . Munir A.S President Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace Program. With these two centers." PAEC's first chairman was Dr.[3] In 1965. provided by the United States Government in 1965.[] Canada build Pakistan's first civil-purpose nuclear power plant. and scientists from PAEC and ANL had led the construction. commissioned in 1965 and consisting of the PARR-I. Currently. the PAEC set up a Mineral Center at Lahore and a similar multidisciplinary Center was set up in Dhaka. Dr. Pakistan became a participant in U. and its construction completed in 1972. strategic.[6] Furthermore. Khan informed Bhutto about the status of Indian nuclear program. and China failed to provide any significant assistance to Pakistan.[6] It was a psychological setback for Pakistanis. Karachi. 27-30–kWe. Pakistan seemed to be in great mortal danger. Mining of uranium began in the same year. light-water. Ishrat Hussain Usmani also sent a large number of scientists to pursue doctorate degrees in the field of Nuclear Technology and Nuclear reactor technology.000–pounds a day. However. at Nilore near Islamabad.[] A second Atomic Research Reactor. The construction began in 1966 as PAEC its general contractor as GE Canada provided nuclear materials and financial assistance.000 square miles (150. Its project director was Parvez Butt.[citation needed] In 1961. and tirelessly advocated for nuclear power in Pakistan. Pakistan had failed to gather any moral support from its key allies.000–km2) of territory as well as losing millions of its citizens to the newly created state of Bangladesh. Salam's efforts finally paid off. was a Pool-type. Having known as KANUPP-II. the Board of Governors of International Atomic Energy Agency gave approval of Sino-Pak Nuclear Deal. The principal facility there was a 5MWe research reactor. Abdus Salam and Dr. and economic influence in South-Asia. began producing electricity in 2000.[citation needed] The next landmark under Dr. the basic research work started.[] The PARR-I reactor was.[citation needed] The first thing that was to be undertaken was the search for Uranium. Nazir Ahmad. began its operation in fall of 2011.[5] Development of nuclear weapons The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 led to Pakistan losing roughly 56. In 2011. and a Canadian firm signed a deal to provide 137MWe CANDU reactor in Paradise Point. Abdus Salam began lobbying for commercial nuclear power plants. Munir Ahmad Khan. The PAEC in 1970 began work on a pilot-scale plant at Dera Ghazi Khan for the concentration of uranium ores.[] The PARR-II reactor was built and provided by PAEC under the IAEA safeguards as IAEA had funded this mega project.[] The 1971 war with India was a crushing defeat for Pakistan. the PAEC completed its feasibility studies in 2009. under the agreement signed by PAEC and ANL.Pakistan 275 Nuclear energy development Pakistan's nuclear energy programme was established and started in 1956 following the establishment of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC).[4] In 1989. This continued for about 3 years from 1960 to 1963. In December 1965. Abdus Salam was the establishment of PINSTECH € Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto visited Vienna where he met IAEA nuclear engineer.[citation needed] The Ayub Khan Military Government made then-Science Advisors to the Government Abdus Salam as the head of the IAEA delegation. Both these plants are of 300MW capacity and are being built at Chashma city of Punjab Province called CHASNUPP-I. the United States and the People's Republic of China. Pakistan Government is planning to build another 400MWe commercial nuclear power plant. the team under Ahsan Mubarak advised the government to not to acquire the whole reprocessing plant. some funding for the continuation of the nuclear development programme came from the large British Pakistani population.[] At the Multan meeting on January 20. even go hungry.[12] amidst skirmishes that led up to the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965 Zulfikar Ali Bhutto announced: 276 ‚ If India builds the bomb. Pakistan's program acquired sensitive uranium enrichment technology and expertise. Munir Ahmad Khan began to work on indigenous development of nuclear fuel cycle and the weapons programme. the Jews have the bomb and now the Hindus have the bomb. Abdul Qadeer Khan. contributed for the United States during the Manhattan Project. Why not the Muslims too have the bomb? ƒ In 1983. Bhutto vowed never to allow a repeat. and after Salam's departure from Pakistan. This is where Dr. Prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was "obsessed" with India's nuclear program. the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) signed a formal agreement to supply Pakistan with a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant capable of extracting 360g of weapons-grade plutonium annually. Munir Ahmad Khan. Dr. including geophysicist dr. Prime Minister Bhutto still needed to recruit and bring in other Pakistani nuclear scientists and engineers who never worked in the United States."[] Raziuddin Siddiqui was a Pakistani theoretical physicist who. but we will get one of our own. we will eat grass and leaves for a thousand years. while the plant would be built indigenously. the Netherlands. Munir Ahmad Khan.[] The TPG. for stealing the blueprints.[] On other side. a Pakistani. Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto drew comparisons with the Treaty of Versailles which Germany was forced to sign in 1919. Bhutto stated.[][][][15][16] Through the late 1970s. Pakistani theoretical physicists at Institute of Theoretical Physics of Quaid-e-Azam University also joined the TPG headed by Salam.[9] Later. Abdus Salam had called theoretical physicists from the ICTP to report of Munir Ahmad Khan. He then established Pakistan's gas-centrifuge program based on the URENCO's Zippe-type centrifuge. worked on both the British nuclear program and the US nuclear program.Pakistan could rely on no one but itself. There. Dr. The Christians [13][14] have the bomb. Ahsan Mubarak. scientists and engineers who were researching under Salam.[] At United Nations Security Council meeting. and the research facilities were expanded throughout the country. Khan was convicted in absentia by the Court of Amsterdam.[10] In 1974. Khan was a German-trained .[] Later. for their own people. In December 1972. a division which contained the pure mathematicians. which was initially headed by Salam until in 1974 when he left the country in protest.[11] In 1965. which directly reported to Abdus Salam in PAEC. after a long negotiation. In 1969. This marked the beginning of the "Theoretical Physics Group" (TPG). days after Operation Smiling Buddha. could also be done by scientists in Pakistan. though the conviction was overturned on a legal technicality.[7] that is why Bhutto immediately came up with the idea of obtaining nuclear weapons to prevent Pakistan from signing another 'Treaty of Versailles' as it did in 1971. began to report to directly to Munir Ahmad Khan. Science Advisor to the President. In later years. "What Raziuddin Siddiqui. The 1975 arrival of Dr.[] The PAEC selected a team five senior scientists.[] The TPG division at PAEC closely collaborated and completed its physics and mathematical calculations on fast-neutron calculations with the Mathematics Group led by Raziuddin Siddiqui and others.[] Professor Salam also had done the groundbreaking work of the "Theoretical Physics Group". a German educated metallurgical engineer. particularly Saudi Arabia. and conduct mathematical calculations on complex hydrodynamical phenomenons and the fast neutron calculations. came into the picture. but key parts important to build the weapons.[] A. was assigned to do research in the development of nuclear weapon devices. 1972. launched the extensive plutonium reprocessing and uranium enrichment programme.[8] Although a few Pakistanis worked on the Manhattan Project who were also willing to return and do the same for their native Pakistan. Some of the initial funding came from oil-rich Arab states. Chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. with his lifelong friend Abdus Salam.[] were sent to Sellafield to receive technical training.Q. Khan then established a proliferation network through Dubai to smuggle URENCO nuclear technology to Khan Research Laboratories. Abdul Qadeer Khan considerably advanced these efforts. had done a groundbreaking work in the nuclear development. in the early 1940s. as part of the non-aligned group of countries.[] Policy Pakistan acceded to the Geneva Protocol on 15 April 1960. Under Khan's direction. trigger mechanism.. or using chemical weapons. ƒ [] …Benazir Bhutto.[] In addition to sending hundreds of young Pakistanis abroad for training. and. The DTD was tasked to manufacture chemical explosive lenses. However.[17] Also. with efforts led by Salam. Pakistan is not widely suspected of either producing biological weapons or having an offensive biological programme. codename Kirana-I.. Pakistan signed and ratified the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) in 1974.[] Pakistan is not known to have an offensive chemical weapons programme.Pakistan metallurgist who brought with him knowledge of gas centrifuge technologies that he had acquired through his position at the classified URENCO uranium enrichment plant in the Netherlands. known as Directorate of Technical Development (DTD) under Dr. Former chairman of the PAEC. invited new states to join the treaty. DTD had also manufactured a miniaturized weapon design by 1987 that could be delivered by all Pakistan Air Force fighter aircraft. agreeing to a bilateral moratorium on nuclear testing. established PINSTECH. stockpiling. This initiative was taken after an year past of both countries publicly tested nuclear devices (See Pokhran-II. which was later improved and tested on 11 March 1983 when PAEC carried out Pakistan's first successful cold test of a nuclear device.[] In 1999. Zaman Sheikh and Hafeez Qureshi. Pakistan is not a party to the Non-Proliferation Treaty(NPT) and. Usmani laid solid groundwork for the civilian nuclear programme. and tampers used in atomic weapon. Chagai-I and II). London's dossier on Pakistan's nuclear weapons program. As for its Biological warfare capability. Ishrat Hussain Usmani‚s contribution to the nuclear energy programme. Thus.. Munir Ahmad Khan was credited as one of the pioneers of Pakistan's atomic bomb by a recent study from the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS).[] However.[] 277 ‚ It took only two weeks and three days for Pakistan to master the field. . A new directorate. Prime Ministers Nawaz Sharif of Pakistan and Atal Bihari Vajpayee of India signed the Lahore Declaration. During the various BTWC Review Conferences. which was inaugurated by Munir Ahmad Khan in 1972. The DTD was later charged with testing Pakistan's first implosion design in 1978. equipping and operating Pakistan's Kahuta facility. the country is reported to have well developed bio-technological facilities and laboratories. devoted entirely to the medical research and applied health sciences.[citation needed] Scientists and engineers under Munir Ahmad Khan developed the nuclear capability for Pakistan within early 1980s.[] Since then Pakistan has been a vocal and staunch supporter for the success of the BTWC. manufacturing.[] In 1972. which was established in 1976. not bound by any of its provisions.. on first nuclear tests on May 1998. Between 1983 and 1990. is also fundamental to the development of atomic energy for civilian purposes as he. he laid the foundations of the Muslim world‚s first nuclear power reactor KANUPP. Dr. He was put in charge of building. was established in March 1974 by Munir Ahmad Khan. that subsequently developed into Pakistan‚s premier nuclear research institution. evidently made from non-weaponized plutonium. Pakistan's representatives have urged more robust participation from state signatories. and in 1993 Pakistan signed and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). have made the case for guarantees for states' rights to engage in peaceful exchanges of biological and toxin materials for purposes of scientific research. consequently. PAEC carried out 24 more cold tests of various nuclear weapon designs. and (detonate) the nuclear devices of our own. Pakistan employed an extensive clandestine network in order to obtain the necessary materials and technology for its developing uranium enrichment capabilities. and under his leadership the PAEC had carried a cold test of nuclear device at Kirana Hills. and has committed itself to refrain from developing. a fuel for atomic bombs."[] Bilateral arms control proposals and confidence building measures Pakistan has over the years proposed a number of bilateral or regional non-proliferation steps to India.[28] Simultaneous adherence to the NPT by India and Pakistan. 1998.[27] Mutual inspections by India and Pakistan of each other's nuclear facilities. and missiles.[22] Estimated Pakistan's nuclear arsenals are probably in the neighborhood of more than 200 by the end of 2009. Only a few grams of tritium can result in an increase of the explosive yield by 300% to 400%. Abdul Qadeer Khan. a Washington-based science think tank has reported. Saran said "the Pakistan military and civilian elite is convinced that the United States has also become a dangerous adversary.[23] A third and a fourth[24] reactor and ancillary buildings are observed to be under construction at the Khushab site. compact. In November 2006. increasing the security so that they could not fall into terrorist hands.[][] Noting recent changes in Pakistan's nuclear doctrine. at Kharan was a quiet successful test of a sophisticated.[32][33] . including:[25] € € € € € € A joint Indo-Pakistan declaration renouncing the acquisition or manufacture of nuclear weapons. The International Atomic Energy Agency Board of Governors approved an agreement with the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission to apply safeguards to new nuclear power plants to be built in the country with Chinese assistance.[26] South Asian Nuclear Weapons Free Zone. Pakistan's nuclear proliferation activities have not been without controversy.[20] According to Dr.[31] India rejected all six proposals. in 1979.[21] Modernisation and expansion Pakistan is increasing its capacity to produce plutonium at its Khushab nuclear facility.[19] In May 2009.Pakistan Since early 1980s.[30] A South Asia Zero-Missile Zone. the Government has taken concrete steps to ensure that Nuclear proliferation is not repeated and have assured the IAEA about the transparency of Pakistan's upcoming Chashma Nuclear Power Complex series of Nuclear Power Plants. The Pakistanis are believed to be spiking their plutonium based nuclear weapons with tritium. in 1987. In an opinion published in The Hindu. in 1979. during the anniversary of Pakistan's first nuclear weapons test.[18] 278 Protection U. the Institute for Science and International Security (ISIS) said the imagery suggests construction of the second Khushab reactor is "likely finished and that the roof beams are being placed on top of the third Khushab reactor hall"."[] Citing new satellite images of the facility. The sixth nuclear test (codename: Chagai-II) on May 30. but "powerful plutonium bomb" designed to be carried by aircraft.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton informed that Pakistan has dispersed its nuclear weapons throughout the country. in 1978. The institute has also claimed that Pakistan has built two more nuclear reactors at Khoshab increasing the number of plutonium producing reactors to three. in 1978. since the arrest of Abdul Qadeer Khan. former Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif claimed that Pakistan‚s nuclear security is the strongest in the world. vessels. Her comments came as new satellite images released by the ISIS suggested Pakistan is increasing its capacity to produce plutonium.S. which seeks to disable. former Indian Foreign Secretary Shyam Saran wrote that Pakistan's expanding nuclear capability is "no longer driven solely by its oft-cited fears of India" but by the "paranoia about U.[29] A bilateral or regional nuclear test-ban treaty. However. attacks on its strategic assets. disarm or take forcible possession of Pakistan's nuclear arsenals and its status as nuclear power. in 1994. Pakistan's nuclear safety program and nuclear security program is the strongest program in the world and there is no such capability in any other country for radical elements to steal or possess nuclear weapons. To acquire the necessary equipment and material for this program. Non-discriminatory rules ensuring every state‚s right to peaceful uses of nuclear energy. as well as centrifuges. including development and deployment of Anti-ballistic missile systems. Strengthen existing international instruments to prevent the militarization of outer space. Khan developed an illicit procurement network. codename Project-706 under the aegis of the PAEC.[] Commenting on the difficulty. not only in order of magnitude but in detailing also. one mathematician who worked with A. bringing with him centrifuge designs he mastered in URENCO. € € € € € Address new issues like access to weapons of mass destruction by non-state actors.[41] The Uranium program proved to be a difficult. which was later used to provide enrichment technology to Libya. In 1989. Munir Khan launched the uranium program. the government separated the program from PAEC and moved the program to Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL). These were deemed essential risk reduction measures in view of the seemingly unending state of misgiving and tension between the two countries. The uranium division at PAEC undertook research on several methods of enrichment. India and Pakistan reached three bilateral agreements on nuclear issues.Q. Pakistan laid out its nuclear disarmament policy and what it sees as the proper goals and requirements for meaningful negotiations: € A commitment by all states to complete verifiable nuclear disarmament.[37] 279 Disarmament policy Pakistan has blocked negotiation of a Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty as it continues to produce fissile material for weapons.Q.[] Abdul Qadeer Khan officially joined this program in 1976. € Normalize the relationship of the three ex-NPT nuclear weapon states with those who are NPT signatories. with A. and when disarmament is universal and verifiable. Universal. challenging and most enduring approach. € Tackle the growth in armed forces and the accumulation and sophistication of conventional tactical weapons."[] Many of Khan's fellow theorists were unsure about the feasibility of the . Khan as its senior scientist. disarmament and proliferation challenges. the Dutch firm where he had worked as a senior scientist. € Eliminate the discrimination in the current non-proliferation regime. Later. None of these agreements limits the nuclear weapons programs of either country in any way. but extremely difficult to evaluate.[] Responding to India's nuclear test In 1974. and the extremely short response time available to them to any perceived attack. including gaseous diffusion. and Iran. including development of ASATs. the two countries signed an agreement to set up and maintain a hotline to warn each other of any accident that could be mistaken for a nuclear attack.[citation needed] Pakistan has repeatedly stressed at international forums like the Conference on Disarmament that it will give up its nuclear weapons only when other nuclear armed states do so. North Korea.[34] Since then they have been regularly exchanging lists of nuclear facilities on January 1 of each year. they agreed not to attack each other's nuclear facilities.[38][39] In a recent statement at the Conference on Disarmament. non-discriminatory and legally binding negative security assurances to non-nuclear weapon states. jet nozzle and laser enrichment techniques.[40] Infrastructure Uranium infrastructure Pakistan's uranium infrastructure is based on the use of gas centrifuges to produce Highly-Enriched Uranium (HEU) at the Khan Research Laboratories (KRL) at Kahuta.Pakistan However. It rejects any unilateral disarmament on its part. € Revitalise the UN disarmament machinery to address international security. A need to address the issue of missiles.[36] In June 2004. Khan quoted in the book "Eating grass" that "hydrodynamical problem in centrifuge was simply stated.[35] Another bilateral agreement was signed in March 2005 where both nations would alert the other on ballistic missile tests. [] 280 Plutonium infrastructure As opposed to uranium. This was not going to work.[] His efforts won him the praise from country's elite politicians and the military science circles. this heavy-water reactor can produce up to 8 to 10–kg of plutonium per year with increase in the production by the development of newer facilities. Various Pakistani industries contributed in 82% of the reactor's construction.Q. Pakistan proved its plutonium capability in a scientific experiment and sixth nuclear test: codename Chagai-II. Khan had difficulty getting his peers listening to him. who informed the world that the reactor was totally indigenous.[] . In late 2006. the Institute for Science and International Security released intelligence reports and imagery showing the construction of a new plutonium reactor at the Khushab nuclear site.[] Despite many setbacks and international embargo."[] Despite A. it was the KRL's HEU that ultimately created the nuclear chain reaction which led the successful detonated of boosted fission devices in an scientific experiment codenamed as: Chagai-I. Khan's strong advocacy. According to public statements made by the U. earlier efforts were directed towards plutonium and necessary infrastructure was built by Bhutto as early as 1970s. 1998.[42] The reactor could also produce H3 if it were loaded with Li6. The reactor is deemed to be large enough to produce enough plutonium to facilitate the creation of as many as "40 to 50 nuclear weapons a year.e.[46] signaling a shift to dual-stream development. because modern nuclear weapon designs use 6Li directly. locally developed and culminated under watchful eyes of PAEC Chairman Munir Ahmad Khan. and he was now debuted as the "father of the uranium" bomb. with Plutonium-based devices supplementing the nation's existing HEU stream to atomic warheads.Q. a reprocessing plant. that it was designed and built by Pakistani scientists and engineers. i."[43][44][45] The New York Times carried the story with the insight that this would be Pakistan's third plutonium reactor. the PAEC began to pursue Plutonium production capabilities.Q.[] In the end of 1970s. Khan] was simply wasting time. The Khushab reactor project was initiated in 1986 by PAEC Chairman Munir Ahmad Khan.[] One scientist recalled his memories in Eating Grass: "No one in the world has used the [gas] centrifuge method to produce military-grade uranium. Khan aggressively continued his research and the program was made feasible by Pakistan in shortest time possible.S. which is not subject to IAEA inspections and safeguards.. thermal) Khushab Reactor Complex at Joharabad.[] On May 28. According to J. Government officials. and in April 1998. Khushab's Plutonium production capacity has allowed Pakistan to develop lighter nuclear warheads that would be easier to deliver to any place in the range of the ballistic missiles. which was completed by 1981 by PAEC and is next to the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH) near Islamabad. Pakistan announced that the nuclear reactor was operational. PAEC swiftly continued its research on plutonium and directed a separated electromagnetic isotope separation program alongside with enrichment. On 30 May 1998.[] sufficient for at least one nuclear weapon. He [A. although this is unnecessary for the purposes of nuclear weapons..Pakistan enriched uranium on time despite A..[citation needed] The Plutonium electromagnetic separation takes place at the New Laboratories. The Project-Director for this project was Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood. the parallel plutonium programme is indigenous. Cirincione of Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. the plutonium program did not forego and pursued it along with the uranium route.[] Since 1972.[] Contrary to popular perception. Consequently Pakistan built the 40-50 MW (megawatt. And the uranium. in 2007. Additionally. the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace estimated a stockpile of approximately 50 weapons. However.S. they will typically use between 15€25–kg of U-235 for their cores. codename Chagai-II. in 2000. made to be carried by small delivery vehicles such as MIRV and cruise missiles."[52][53] Pakistan tested plutonium capability in the sixth nuclear test. A truck-mounted launch system (TEL) armed with 4 Babur cruise missiles on display at the IDEAS 2008 defence exhibition in Karachi. The Pakistanis are believed to be spiking their plutonium based nuclear weapons with tritium. Pakistan. 1998) at Kharan Desert was a successful test of a sophisticated. Correspondingly. with a median of 60. . By contrast. the critical mass of a bare mass sphere of plutonium-239 is 8€10–kg. ƒThe sixth Pakistan nuclear test. Pakistan. Navy Center for Contemporary Conflict estimated that Pakistan possessed between 35 and 95 nuclear warheads. retired Pakistan Army's Brigadier-General Feroz Khan. a few grams of tritium (a by-product of plutonium production reactors and thermonuclear fuel) can increase the overall yield of the bombs by a factor of three to four. U. on 30 May 1998 at Kharan Desert. The most recent analysis. military and intelligence sources estimated that Pakistan's nuclear arsenal may be as large as 100 warheads.[48][49] In 2003.[51] The actual size of Pakistan's nuclear stockpile is hard for experts to gauge owing to the extreme secrecy which surrounds the program in Pakistan. estimates that Pakistan has 70-90 nuclear warheads. the U. codename Chagai-II. the U. Pakistan. only 2€4–kg of plutonium is needed for the same device that would need 20€25–kg of U-235.-based Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) estimated that Pakistan had built 24€48 HEU-based nuclear warheads with HEU reserves for 30-52 additional warheads. Truck-mounted Missiles on display at the IDEAS 2008 defence exhibition in Karachi. Only a few grams of tritium can result in an increase of the explosive yield by 300% to 400%.Pakistan 281 Stockpile Estimates of Pakistan's stockpile of nuclear warheads vary.„[] Pakistani Missiles on display at the IDEAS 2008 defence exhibition in Karachi. like plutonium. is only usable in the core of a bomb in metallic form.S. published in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists in 2010. [citation needed] The critical mass of a bare mass sphere of 90% enriched uranium-235 is 52–kg. which increases the weight of the bomb. (May 30. previously second in command at the Strategic Arms Division of Pakistans' Military told a Pakistani newspaper that Pakistan had "about 80 to 120 genuine warheads. The bomb that destroyed Hiroshima used 60–kg of U-235 while the Nagasaki Pu bomb used only 6–kg of Pu-239. but powerful bomb designed to be carried by missiles. compact. Since all Pakistani bomb designs are implosion-type weapons. However. In this test the most compact and sophisticated design.S.[50] In 2003. Reducing the amount of U-235 in cores from 60–kg in gun-type devices to 25–kg in implosion devices is only possible by using good neutron reflector/tamper material such as beryllium metal.[47] In 2001. was tested. So if Pakistan wants to be a nuclear power with an operational weapon capability. sufficient for 75 bombs as in 2005. Pakistan has built hard and deeply buried storage and launch facilities to retain a second strike capability in a nuclear war. two years past after the atomic tests.[] It was confirmed that Pakistan has built Soviet-style road-mobile missiles. there were only two logistic problems faced by PAEC. they would be producing between 75€100–kg of HEU since 1986. This means that with P2 machines.000-20. The process is then repeated in reverse until UF4 is produced. The low-yield weapons are probably in nuclear bombs carried on fighter-bombers such as the Dassault Mirage III and fitted to Pakistan's short-range ballistic missiles. were questionable at best. Pakistan's first nuclear tests were made in May 1998. beginning at uranium mining and refining. In 2008. Pakistan has addressed issues of survivability in a possible nuclear conflict through second strike capability. Don't assume that the Pakistan's nuclear capability is inferior to the Indians".Pakistan A whole range and variety of weapons using Pu-239 can be easily built. KRL produced 1500–kg of HEU. As for Pakistan's plutonium capability. The UF6 is pumped into the centrifuges for enrichment. One was that Pakistan did not want to be an irresponsible state and the PAEC did not divert spent fuel from the safeguarded KANUPP for reprocessing at the New Labs. Pakistan had 'at least six secret locations' and since then it is believed Pakistan may have many more such secret sites. a friend of Musharraf. Pakistan has been dealing with efforts to develop new weapons and at the same time. Accounting for losses in the production of weapons. when six warheads were tested under codename Chagai-I and Chagai-II.[] 282 Second strike capability According to a US congressional report. when full production of weapons-grade HEU began.[54] In January 2000. have a strategy for surviving a nuclear war. from the early 1970s onwards.[] The US CENTCOM commander. It is estimated that there are approximately 10. the NIE officials stated that the intelligence gathering figures "overstated the capabilities of India's homegrown arsenal and understate those of Pakistan".000 centrifuges in Kahuta. conversion of UO2 into uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) and then into the feedstock for enrichment (UF6).[] told the NBC that longtime assumptions. that "India had an edge in the South Asian strategic balance of power. General Anthony Zinni. The complete mastery of fluorine chemistry and production of highly toxic and corrosive hydrofluoric acid and other fluorine compounds is required. General Zinni quoted to NBC. production of uranium ore or yellow cake. which has been the first choice of every country that built a nuclear arsenal. state-of-the-art air defences around strategic sites. it can be assumed that each weapon would need 20–kg of HEU. It is reported that the yields from these tests were 12–kt. leading to the production of uranium metal. The second one was allocation of resources. Also the production of HEU was voluntarily capped by Pakistan between 1991 and 1997. 30 to 36–kt and four low-yield (below 1–kt) tests. the form in which U-235 is used in a bomb. This was enough to build a whole arsenal of nuclear weapons straight away. it has always been there. conversion of ore into uranium dioxide (UO2) (which is used to make nuclear fuel for natural uranium reactors like Khushab and KANUPP). while the higher-yield warheads are probably fitted to the Shaheen series and Ghauri series ballistic missiles. the United States admitted that it did not know . The PAEC built its own plutonium and tritium production reactor at Khushab. and other concealment measures. based on assured strike platforms like ballistic and cruise missiles (unlike aircraft). beginning in 1985. and the five nuclear tests of 28 May 1998 also consumed HEU. the only solution is with plutonium. However. From these tests Pakistan can be estimated to have developed operational warheads of 20 to 25–kt and 150–kt in the shape of low weight compact designs and may have 300€500–kt[] large-size warheads. known as Khushab-I reactor. So it is safe to assume that between 1986 and 2005 (prior to the 2005 earthquake). both for aircraft delivery and especially for missiles (in which U-235 cannot be used). It requires the complete mastery over the front end of the nuclear fuel cycle. In 1998. both first and second strike. Ultra-centrifugation for obtaining U-235 cannot be done simply by putting natural uranium through the centrifuges. Pakistan is a friendly country with whom we have good economic and political relations. the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress Li Peng rejected all the accusations against China to Indian media and strongly maintained on the ground that "his country was not giving any nuclear arms to Pakistan nor transferring related-technology to it. Li Peng frankly quoted: "We do not help Pakistan in its atomic bomb projects. under codename Kirana-I. Soviet Ambassador to Pakistan. 1990. In February.[] His statement was also traced by Samar Mubarakmand who acknowledged that cold tests were carried out. 1990.Pakistan where all of Pakistan‚s nuclear sites are located. the United States alleged China to have played a major role in the establishment of Pakistan's atomic bomb development infrastructure.S."[] In 1986.P. and in 1998 interview given to Kamran Khan. in 1989. A grand ceremony was held in Beijing where Pakistan's then-Foreign Minister Yakub Khan signed on behalf of Pakistan in the presence of PAEC chairman Munir Ahmad Khan and Chinese Prime Minister. Pakistani defence officials have continued to rebuff and deflect American requests for more details about the location and security of the country‚s nuclear sites. Abdul Qadeer Khan maintained to the fact that."[] But they had been rebuffed by the Chinese.S. the People's Republic of China (PRC) has been repeatedly charged with allegedly transferring missile and related materials to Pakistan. no country allows another country to use their tests site to explode the devices." although the UK conducted such tests in Australia and the United States. support for Taiwan's military build-up which Beijing says is directed against it. Therefore. "due to its sensitivity.000 to 130.[57] Foreign assistance Historically. Russian foreign ministry official Yuriy Korolev stated that there are somewhere between 120. a figure considered extremely large for a developing country. However. President Fran²ois Mitterrand of France visited Pakistan and announced that France had agreed to supply a 900 MWe commercial nuclear power plant to Pakistan.[] China has consistently maintained that it has not sold any weapon parts or components to Pakistan or anyone else. V.[] On August 2001.S.[][59] According to a 2001 Department of Defense report.000 people directly involved in Pakistan's nuclear and missile programs. disclosure. Yakunin. Also in February 1990. This would allow the military to fit several warheads on the same ballistic missile and then launch them at separate targets. the French nuclear power plant deal went into cold storage and the agreement could not be implemented due to financial constraints and the Pakistani government's apathy. China has supplied Pakistan with nuclear materials and has provided critical technical assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities.[56] Personnel In 2010. Pakistan reached agreement with China for the supply of a 300MW commercial CHASHNUPP-1 nuclear power plant. in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[60][61] In 2001 visit to India. of which China is a signatory. in a test site which was built by the Corps of Engineers under the guidance of the PAEC. officials have also disclosed that China had allegedly transferred technology to Pakistan and conducting putative test for it in 1980. who have retorted by referring to the U. it was reported that both countries have signed a mutual treaty of peaceful use of civil nuclear technology agreement in which China would supply Pakistan a civil-purpose nuclear power plant. senior scientists and officials strongly dismissed the U.[55] 283 MIRV capability Pakistani engineers are also said to be in the advance stages of developing MIRV technology for its missiles."[] Talking to a media correspondents and Indian parliamentarians.[58] However.[] The former U. it was reported that US officials confronted China numerous times over this issue and pointed out "rather bluntly"[] to Chinese officials that the evidences from intelligence sources was "powerful. after the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto was dismissed in August. said that the USSR was considering a request from Pakistan for the .[] Despite China strongly dismissing the charges and accusations. The past three decades have seen India's economy eclipse that of Pakistan's. In comparison to population. expressed U. the U. increases instability in South Asia.[] On further military perspective. Declassified documents from 1982. With its relatively smaller conventional force. However.[64] . Pakistan relies on a more proactive nuclear defense policy. the Pakistan Air Force (PAF)."[] Indian political scientist Vipin Narang. Sweden and Turkey. helping drive Pakistan‚s conventional warfare capability and nuclear weapons development: The two countries share an 1800 mile border and have suffered a violent history…four wars in less than seven decades. released in 2012 under the U.Pakistan supply of a nuclear power plant. Finland. has retrospectively contended that "theory of defense is not view to enter into a "nuclear race".S.S.[63] 284 Doctrine Pakistan refuses to adopt a "no-first-use" doctrine. indicating that it would strike India with atomic weapons even if India did not use such weapons first. Nuclear theorist Brigadier-General Feroz Hassan Khan adds: "The cohesive orders and situations of Pakistan unified combatant commands are akin to NATO's position in the Cold War. Theory of deterrence The theory of "N-deterrence" has been frequently being interpreted by the various government-in-time of effect of Pakistan. said that U. allowing the former to outpace the latter in defense expenditure at a decreasing share of GDP. intelligence detected that Pakistan was seeking suspicious procurements from Belgium. Narang supports his arguments by noting to the fact that since India's assured retaliation nuclear posture has not deterred these provocations."[] The strategists in Pakistan Armed Forces has ceded nuclear assets and a degree of nuclear launch code authority to lower-level officers to ensure weapon usability in a "fog of war" scenario. But.S. only to be met with a relatively subdued response from India. but to follow a policy of "peaceful co-existence" in the region.S. Bob Oakley.. stated that "Pakistan's threat of nuclear first-use deterred India from seriously considering conventional military strikes. which Pakistan considers its primary deterrent from Indian conventional offensives or nuclear attack. General Shankar Roychowdhury.[62] After the U.. making credible its deterrence doctrine. however. limited retaliation would be militarily futile. Ambassador to Pakistan. and more significant conventional retaliation is simply off the table. and political power…and the gap continues to grow. it cannot remain oblivious to the developments in South Asia. concerns the civilian-nuclear technology agreements were cancelled by France and Soviet Union. A former Indian Chief of Army Staff. The Soviet and French civilian nuclear power plant was on its way during 1990s. Pakistan‚s asymmetric nuclear posture has significant influence on India's decision ability to retaliate. or the rapid first use of nuclear weapons against conventional attacks to deter their outbreak. The relative weakness in defense warfare is highlighted in Pakistan's nuclear posture."[] India is Pakistan's primary geographic neighbor and primary strategic competitor."[] a Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs report claims. there are geographic gaps and corridors similar to those that existed in Europe that are vulnerable to exploitation by mechanized Indian Army.[] on the other hand."[] The Pakistan Government officials and strategists have consistently emphasized that nuclear deterrence is intended by maintaining a balance to safeguard its sovereignty and ensure peace in the region. economic. when Pakistan-based terror organization carried out deadly attacks on Indian soil. Freedom of Information Act. argues that Pakistan's asymmetric escalation posture. especially in early warning and surveillance. and lacking adequate technical means. Pakistan's passive nuclear posture has neutralized India's conventional options for now. as shown in 2001 and 2008 crises. displeasure at the recent agreement made between France and Pakistan for the sale of a nuclear power plant. Japan. Although the nuclear deterrence theory was officially adopted in 1998 as part of Pakistan's defence theory. India is more powerful than Pakistan by almost every metric of military.S. the theory has had been interpreted by the government since in 1972. [] The NCA is composed of two civic-military committees that advises and console both Prime minister and the President of Pakistan. the senior civilian scientists maintains a tight control of scientific and ethical research. the body which defines nuclear strategy. "Pakistan remains steadfast in its refusal to sign the NPT. Pakistan further consolidated its nuclear weapons infrastructure by placing the Khan Research Laboratories and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission under the control of one Nuclear Defense Complex. we are going to annihilate your cities.Pakistan Pakistan's motive for pursuing a nuclear weapons development program is never to allow another invasion of Pakistan. the body responsible for weapons development and oversight which includes the nation's military and scientific.[] The comprehensive nuclear force planning is integrated with conventional war planning at the National Security Council (NSC). but that Pakistan will do so only after developing a domestic consensus on the issue. it is the high-profile civic-military committee consisting the Cabinet ministers. leadership. including the deployment and employment of strategic forces. According to the U. In November 2009. stating that it would do so only after India joined the Treaty. not all of Pakistan's nuclear facilities are under IAEA safeguards.[] Under the Nuclear Command Authority. said that in addition to expanding its nuclear arsenal. is responsible for the physical protection and to ensure security of all aspects of country's nuclear arsenals. its secretariat. both now chaired by the Prime Minister.[65] President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq allegedly told the Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1987 that. Pakistani officials have stated that signature of the CTBT is in Pakistan's best interest. Pakistan President Asif Ali Zardari announced that he will be replaced by Prime Minister Yusuf Raza Gilani as the chairman of NCA.[66] Pakistan's motive for pursuing a nuclear weapons development program is never to allow another invasion of Pakistan. monitors the progress of weapons development. In 2001. Prime minister and the four services chiefs. Pakistan could broaden the circumstances under which it would be willing to use nuclear weapons.[] The SPD functions under the joint chiefs of staff committee at the Joint Headquarters (JS HQ) and reports directly to the Prime Minister. Pakistan has responded to the report by stating that the United States itself has not ratified the CTBT.[] The final and executive . Consequently. including national laboratories and scientific research and development organisations associated with the development and modernisation of nuclear weapons and their delivery systems. but not its political. and have disavowed any connection with India's decision.[] The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee is the deputy chairman of the Development Control Committee (DCC). all of whom who reserves the right to order the deployment and the operational use of the nuclear weapons. the DCC oversees the systematic progress of weapon systems to fulfil the force goals set by the committee. Strategic Plans Division (SPD).[67] 285 Nuclear Command and Control The government institutional organization authorized to make critical decisions about Pakistan's nuclear posturing is the NCA.[] The NCA has its genesis since 1970s[] and has been constitutionally established in February 2000. The committee includes key senior cabinet ministers as well as the respective military chiefs of staff. it is also responsible for war-time command and control. "If your forces cross our borders by an inch." The Congressional Research Service. 2012. and decides on responses to emerging threats. on the development and deployment of nuclear weapons. and would advise the prime minister on nuclear use.S.[] Through DCC.[] Functioning through the SPD. President. financial and administrative control over all strategic organisations. in a report published on July 23. Defense Department report cited above.[] The Foreign minister and Economic Minister serves as a deputy chairmen of the ECC.[] The ECC reviews presentations on strategic threat perceptions.[] According to the officials of Pakistan's military science circles.[] It also establishes guidelines for effective command-and-control practices to safeguard against the accidental or unauthorised use of nuclear weapons."[] Pakistan has not signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) or the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).[68] The NCA consists of the Employment Control Committee (ECC) and the Development Control Committee (DCC). the DCC exercises technical. S. Pakistan is currently contributing more than $1. concerns are justified because militants have struck at several Pakistani military facilities and bases since 2007.Pakistan political decisions on nuclear arsenals deployments. U. According to this report. Press reports have suggested that the United States has contingency plans to send in special forces to help "secure the Pakistani nuclear arsenal".S."[79] A 2010 study by the Congressional Research Service titled 'Pakistan‚s Nuclear Weapons: Proliferation and Security Issues' noted that even though Pakistan had taken several steps to enhance Nuclear security in recent years 'Instability in Pakistan has called the extent and durability of these reforms into question. the United States does not know the locations of all Pakistani nuclear sites and has been denied access to most of them. IAEA's deputy director general Denis Flory declared Pakistan's nuclear programme safe and secure. during a visit to Pakistan in January 2010. found that Pakistan's stockpile "faces a greater threat from Islamic extremists seeking nuclear weapons than any other nuclear stockpile on earth". and its arsenal of nuclear weapons is expanding. According to former U. But Pakistan is since believed to have developed and implemented its own version of PAL and U.S.[76] A study by Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard University titled 'Securing the Bomb 2010'.[77] According to Rolf Mowatt-Larssen. a sophisticated "weapon release" program which initiates use via specific checks and balances.S. assistance for arsenal security From the end of 2001 the United States has provided material assistance to aid Pakistan in guarding its nuclear material. Gates denied that the United States had plans to take over Pakistan's nuclear weapons.'[80] In April 2011.S.[] 286 U. Secretary of Defense Robert M. the U. which is chaired by the Prime minister.[81][82] According to the IAEA.[] The DCC reaffirmed its policies on development of nuclear energy and arsenals through the country's media. operational use.[] It is this DCC Council where the final political guideles. Nonproliferation. The cost of the program has been almost $100 million.S. night-vision goggles and nuclear detection equipment. the country is unstable. is training an elite unit to recover Pakistani nuclear weapons or materials should they be seized by militants.S. The region has more violent extremists than any other.[72][73] Lisa Curtis of The Heritage Foundation giving testimony before the United States House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Terrorism. warheads and laboratories. discussions and the nuclear arsenals operational deployments are approved by the Prime minister. Specifically the USA has provided helicopters."[78] Nuclear weapons expert David Albright author of 'Peddling Peril' has also expressed concerns that Pakistan's stockpile may not be secure despite assurances by both Pakistan and U. military officials have stated they believe Pakistan's nuclear arsenals to be well secured. and so you have to worry that it could be acquired in Pakistan. multiple attacks on sensitive installations over the previous 2 years and rising tensions.S. He stated Pakistan "has had many leaks from its program of classified information and sensitive nuclear equipment.[75] However.[70][71] Security concerns of the United States Since 2004 the United States government has reportedly been concerned about the safety of Pakistani nuclear facilities and weapons."[74] However Pakistan's government has ridiculed claims that the weapons are not secure. government. intelligence official Rolf Mowatt-Larssen. This was done in the context of growing Anti-Americanism in the Pakistani Armed Forces. possibly from within the Pakistani nuclear security organization.[69] Pakistan turned down the offer of Permissive Action Link (PAL) technology.16 million in IAEA's Nuclear . possibly because it feared the secret implanting of "dead switches". a former investigator with the CIA and the US department of energy there is "a greater possibility of a nuclear meltdown in Pakistan than anywhere else in the world.[72] A report published by The Times in early 2010 states that the U. and nuclear weapons politics are made during the sessions of the Defence Committee of the Cabinet. and Trade concluded that "preventing Pakistan's nuclear weapons and technology from falling into the hands of terrorists should be a top priority for the U. "[] While dismissing all the concerns on the safety of country's nuclear arsenal. General Majid maintains to the fact: "We are shouldering our responsibility with utmost vigilance and confidence. We have put in place a very robust regime that includes "multilayered mechanisms" and processes to secure our strategic assets. the Chairman Joint Chiefs General Tariq Majid exhorted to the world delegation at the National Defence University that.Pakistan Security Fund.[] 287 National Security Council € Defence Committee of Cabinet (DCC) € National Command Authority (NCA) € € € € € € € Ministry of Defence (MoD) Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (JCSC) Strategic Plans Division (SPD) . Hasanabdal Maritime Technologies Complex (MTC). Training will be completed no later than 2013.[84] But on the other hand. Islamabad Project Management Organization (PMO). Karachi . Pakistan consistently maintains that it has tightened the security over the several years.000 people to protect the country's nuclear arsenal. the Pakistani Government also denounced the article. making Pakistan as 10th largest contributor. "World must accept Pakistan as nuclear power. We have reassured the international community on this issue over and over again and our track record since the time our atomic bomb programme was made overt has been unblemished".[83] In response to a November 2011 article in The Atlantic written by Jeffrey Goldberg highlighting concerns about the safety of Pakistan's nuclear weapons program. Khanpur Air Weapon Complex (AWC). the Pakistani Government announced that it would train an additional 8. At the same time. and have provided maximum transparency on our practices.also known as the Strategic Planning Directorate[85] Economic Coordination Committee (ECC) Development Control Committee (DCC) Employment Control Committee (ECC) Financial Monitoring Unit (FMU) Strategic combat commands € Air Force Strategic Command (AFSC) € Army Strategic Forces Command (ASFC) € Naval Strategic Forces Command (NSFC) Weapons development agencies National Engineering & Scientific Commission (NESCOM) € € € € National Development Complex (NDC).[] In 2010. Pakistan 288 Ministry of Defense Production € Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF), Wah € Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC), Kamra € Defense Science and Technology Organization (DESTO), Chattar Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Directorate of Technical Development Directorate of Technical Equipment Directorate of Technical Procurement Directorate of Science & Engineering Services Institute of Nuclear Power, Islamabad Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) New Laboratories, Rawalpindi Pilot Reprocessing Plant PARR-1 and PARR-2 Nuclear Research Reactors Center for Nuclear Studies (CNS), Islamabad Computer Training Center (CTC), Islamabad Nuclear Track Detection Center (Solid State Nuclear Track Detection Center) Khushab Reactor, Khushab Atomic Energy Minerals Centre, Lahore Hard Rock Division, Peshawar Mineral Sands Program, Karachi Baghalchur Uranium Mine, Baghalchur Dera Ghazi Khan Uranium Mine, Dera Ghazi Khan Issa Khel/Kubul Kel Uranium Mines and Mills, Mianwali Multan Heavy Water Production Facility, Multan, Punjab Uranium Conversion Facility, Islamabad Golra Ultracentrifuge Plant, Golra Sihala Ultracentrifuge Plant, Sihala Directorate of Quality Assurance,Islamabad New Labs Nilore,Islamabad Space and Upper Atmospheric Research Commission (SUPARCO) € € € € € € € € € € € Aerospace Institute, Islamabad. Computer Center, Karachi. Control System Laboratories. Sonmian Satellite Launch Center, Sonmiani Beach. Instrumentation Laboratories, Karachi. Material Research Division. Quality Control and Assurance Unit. Rocket Bodies Manufacturing Unit. Solid Composite Propellant Unit. Liquid Composite Propellant Unit Space and Atmospheric Research Center (space Center), Karachi € Static Test Unit, Karachi € Tilla Satellite Launch Center, Tilla, Punjab Pakistan 289 Ministry of Industries & Production € State Engineering Corporation (SEC) € Heavy Mechanical Complex Ltd. (HMC) € Pakistan Steel Mills Limited, Karachi. Delivery systems Land systems As of 2011, Pakistan possesses a wide variety of nuclear capable medium range ballistic missiles with ranges up to 2500–km.[86] Pakistan also possesses nuclear tipped Babur cruise missiles with ranges up to 700–km. In April 2012, Pakistan launched a Hatf-4 Shaheen-1A, said to be capable of carrying a nuclear warhead designed to evade missile-defense systems.[87] The Babur cruise missile range can also be extended to 1000–km or more. These land-based missiles are controlled by Army Strategic Forces Command of Pakistan Army. Pakistan is also believed to be developing tactical nuclear weapons for use on the battlefield with ranges up to 60–km such as the Nasr missile. According to Jeffrey Lewis, director of the East Asia Non-proliferation Program at the Monterey Institute of International Studies, citing a Pakistani news article,[88] Pakistan is developing its own equivalent to the Davy Crockett launcher with miniaturized warhead that may be similar to the W54.[89] Aerial systems The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) is believed to have practiced "toss-bombing" in the 1980s and 1990s, a method of launching weapons from fighter-bombers which can also be used to deliver nuclear warheads.[citation needed] The PAF has two dedicated units (No. 16 Black Panthers and No. 26 Black Spiders) operating 18 aircraft in each squadron (36 aircraft total) of the JF-17 Thunder, believed to be the preferred vehicle for delivery of nuclear weapons.[90] These units are major part of the Air Force Strategic Command, a command responsible for nuclear response. The PAF also operates a fleet of F-16 fighters, of which 18 were delivered in 2012 and confirmed by General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani, are capable of carrying nuclear weapons. With a third squadron being raised, this would bring the total number of dedicated nuclear capable aircraft to a total of 54.[91] The PAF also possesses the Ra'ad air-launched cruise missile which has a range of 350–km and can carry a nuclear warhead with a yield of between 10kt to 35kt.[92] It has also been reported that an air-launched cruise missile (ALCM) with a range of 350–km has been developed by Pakistan, designated Hatf–8 and named Ra'ad ALCM, which may theoretically be armed with a nuclear warhead. It was reported to have been test-fired by a Mirage III fighter and, according to one Western official, is believed to be capable of penetrating some air defence/missile defence systems.[] Naval systems The Pakistan's Navy was first publicly reported to be considering deployment of nuclear weapons on submarines in February 2001. Later in 2003 it was stated by Admiral Shahid Karimullah, then Chief of Naval Staff, that there were no plans for deploying nuclear weapons on submarines but if "forced to" they would be. In 2004, Pakistan Navy established the Naval Strategic Forces Command and made it responsible for countering and battling naval-based weapons of mass destruction. It is believed by most experts that Pakistan is developing a sea-based variant of the Hatf VII Babur, which is a nuclear-capable ground-launched cruise missile.[] With a stockpile of plutonium, Pakistan would be able to produce a variety of miniature nuclear warheads which would allow it to nuclear-tip the C-802 and C-803 anti-ship missiles as well as being able to develop nuclear torpedoes, nuclear depth bombs and nuclear naval mines.[citation needed] Pakistan 290 Future delivery systems Nuclear submarine In response to INS Arihant, India's first nuclear submarine, the Pakistan Navy pushed forward a proposal to build its own nuclear submarine as a direct response to the Indian nuclear submarine program.[93][94][] Many U.S. military experts believe that Pakistan has the capability of building a nuclear submarine and is ready to build such a fleet, but Pakistan's Navy has cautiously monitored the status of India‚s development of nuclear submarines, and has reserved the right to take appropriate measures in response.[] Finally in 2012, the Navy announced it would start work on and construction of a nuclear submarine to better meet the Indian Navy's nuclear threat.[] According to the Navy, the nuclear submarine is an ambitious project, and will be designed and built indigenously. However, the Navy stressed that "the project completion and trials would take anywhere from between 5 to 8 years to build the nuclear submarine after which Pakistan would join the list of countries that has a nuclear submarine."[] References [1] Approximating and calculating the exact, accurate and precise yields are difficult to calculate. Even under very controlled conditions, precise yields can be very hard to determine, and for less controlled conditions the margins of error can be quite large. There are number of different ways that the yields can be determined, including calculations based on blast size, blast brightness, seismographic data, and the strength of the shock wave. The Pakistan Government authorities puts up the yield range from 20-~40kt (as noted by Carey Sublette of the Nuclear Weapon Archives in her report. The explosion measured 5.54 degrees on the Richter Scale, the PAEC provided the data as public domain in the KNET sources. [3] Duff, Michael (2007). Salam + 50: proceedings of the conference, •Abdus Salam and Pakistan. London, United Kingdom: Imperial College Press. pp. 42. [6] , Chapter 3, pp 87. [10] Shahidur Rehman, Long Road to Chagai, Professor Abdus Salam and Pakistan's Fission Weapons Programme, pp51-89, Printwise publications, Islamabad, 1999 [11] Munir Ahmad Khan, How Pakistan made its nuclear fuel cycle, The Nation, (Islamabad) February 7 and 9, 1998. [12] Bhutto on Nuclear weapons (http:/ / www. nuclearweaponarchive. org/ Pakistan/ PakOrigin. html) [15] http:/ / www. expressindia. com/ latest-news/ Lankan-Muslims-in-Dubai-supplied-Nmaterials-to-Pak-A-Q-Khan/ 514870/ [24] ISIS Online Jan 15 2011 (http:/ / isis-online. org/ isis-reports/ detail/ pakistan-appears-to-be-building-a-fourth-military-reactor-at-the-khushab-nu/ 12) [25] http:/ / www. nuclearfiles. org/ menu/ key-issues/ nuclear-weapons/ history/ post-cold-war/ india-pakistan/ background_information/ pakistan_nuclear_weapons_print. htm [26] http:/ / www. stimson. org/ images/ uploads/ research-pdfs/ PAKISTAN_ISRAEL. pdf [27] http:/ / www. worldlii. org/ int/ other/ UNGARsn/ 1979/ 100. pdf [28] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=eOgj3HHDnJkC& pg=PA145& lpg=PA145& dq=Mutual+ inspections+ by+ India+ and+ Pakistan+ of+ each+ others+ nuclear+ facilities+ 1979& source=bl& ots=qyIbzBS7wt& sig=Eeq_2Q3CUSxWKJVJnsn5rKK21LI& hl=en& sa=X& ei=4M-qUMecE8iq0QW61YC4Bg& ved=0CC0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=Mutual%20inspections%20by%20India%20and%20Pakistan%20of%20each%20others%20nuclear%20facilities%201979& f=false [29] http:/ / www. acronym. org. uk/ sppak. htm [30] http:/ / www. apnewsarchive. com/ 1987/ Pakistan-Prime-Minister-Urges-India-To-Accept-Bilateral-Nuclear-Test-Ban-Pact/ id-1a52fa098629fd045872b95bfd5f59b8 [31] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=2jypQ7XYvTIC& pg=PA123& lpg=PA123& dq=south+ asia+ zero+ missile+ zone& source=bl& ots=AO-F2i5eDC& sig=rkIKnypMEYFdsKHb0k5I4Xb0vHo& hl=en& sa=X& ei=3s6qUPrcJ-bH0QWIxoDIAg& ved=0CEYQ6AEwBw#v=onepage& q=south%20asia%20zero%20missile%20zone& f=false [32] http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ wmd/ world/ pakistan/ nuke-chron. htm [33] http:/ / ipripak. org/ papers/ india-pakistan. shtml [34] http:/ / dawn. com/ 2011/ 12/ 27/ pakistan-and-india-resume-conventional-cbm-talks/ [35] http:/ / dawn. com/ 2011/ 01/ 01/ pakistan-india-exchange-lists-of-nuclear-installations/ [36] http:/ / www. armscontrol. org/ act/ 2005_11/ NOV-IndiaPak [37] http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ articles/ A55542-2004Jun20. html [40] http:/ / library. fes. de/ pdf-files/ iez/ global/ 05652. pdf [42] Key Issues: Nuclear Energy: Issues: IAEA: World Plutonium Inventories (http:/ / www. nuclearfiles. org/ menu/ key-issues/ nuclear-energy/ issues/ world-plutonium-inventories-ong. htm) [43] BBC NEWS | World | South Asia | Pakistan nuclear report disputed (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 5251936. stm) Pakistan [44] Pakistan Expanding Nuclear Program - washingtonpost.com (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 07/ 23/ AR2006072300737. html) [45] BBC NEWS | World | South Asia | Pakistan 'building new reactor' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 5209894. stm) [46] U.S. Group Says Pakistan Is Building New Reactor - New York Times (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 06/ 23/ world/ asia/ 23pakistan. html) [47] Global nuclear weapons inventories, 1945€2010 (http:/ / thebulletin. metapress. com/ content/ e32v5535wk255382/ fulltext. pdf), Robert S. Norris and Hans M. Kristensen, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, July/August, 2010. [48] Federation of American Scientists (http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ guide/ pakistan/ nuke/ index. html) [49] Center for Defense Information (http:/ / www. cdi. org/ issues/ nukef& f/ database/ panukes. html) [51] Pakistan's Nuclear Arsenal Underestimated, Reports Say (http:/ / www. fas. org/ news/ pakistan/ 2000/ e20000609pakistan. htm) [52] Impact of US wargames on Pakistan N-arms •negative‚ -DAWN - Top Stories; 3 December 2007 (http:/ / www. dawn. com/ 2007/ 12/ 03/ top7. htm) [53] Calculating the Risks in Pakistan - washingtonpost.com (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 12/ 01/ AR2007120101618. html) [58] China tested N-weapons for Pak: US insider The Times of India 6 September 2008 [63] http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ afp/ article/ ALeqM5hzs08xWI6PIZl93fhPsO2d2fHrqg?docId=CNG. 9105d2b2a4f1022f1f467afd59b97c31. 31 [70] New York Times/18 November 2007 (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 11/ 18/ washington/ 18nuke. html) [72] Are Pakistan's nuclear weapons safe? (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 7190033. stm), BBC, 2008-01-23 [73] Obama‚s Worst Pakistan Nightmare (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 01/ 11/ magazine/ 11pakistan-t. html), The New York Times, 2009-01-11 [74] U.S. Policy and Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons: Containing Threats and Encouraging Regional Security (http:/ / www. heritage. org/ Research/ asiaandthepacific/ tst062707. cfm), The Heritage Foundation, 2007-07-06 [75] Elite US troops ready to combat Pakistani nuclear hijacks (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ world/ asia/ article6991056. ece), The Times, 2010-01-17 [76] Elisabeth Bumiller, "Gates Sees Fallout From Troubled Ties With Pakistan", published by The New York Times on 23 January 2010, URL: http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 01/ 24/ world/ asia/ 24military. html. Retrieved 24 January 2010. [77] Pakistan nuclear weapons at risk of theft by terrorists, US study warns (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2010/ apr/ 12/ pakistan-nuclear-weapons-security-fears), The Guardian, 2010-04-12 [78] Could terrorists get hold of a nuclear bomb? (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 8615484. stm), BBC, 2010-04-12 [79] Official: Terrorists seek nuclear material, but lack ability to use it (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2010/ US/ 04/ 13/ nuclear. terrorists/ ), CNN, 2010-04-13 [80] Pakistan‚s Nuclear Weapons: Proliferation and Security Issues (http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/ crs/ nuke/ RL34248. pdf), Congressional Research Service, 2010-02-23 [81] Tehran Times: IAEA declares Pakistan nuclear program safe (http:/ / www. tehrantimes. com/ index_View. asp?code=239445) [82] IAEA declared Pakistan's Nuke programme safe and secure (http:/ / www. dawn. com/ 2011/ 04/ 25/ iaea-declares-pakistan-nuclear-program-safe. html) [83] IAEA terms Pakistan's programme, safe and secure (http:/ / www. thenews. com. pk/ NewsDetail. aspx?ID=14703) [84] http:/ / www. theatlantic. com/ international/ archive/ 2011/ 11/ pakistan-announces-move-to-increase-nuclear-security/ 248002 [90] http:/ / www. app. com. pk/ en_/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=96657& Itemid=2 [91] http:/ / tribune. com. pk/ story/ 338584/ boosting-air-defence-f-16s-replace-americans-at-jacobabad-airbase/ [92] http:/ / www. missilethreat. com/ cruise/ id. 144/ cruise_detail. asp [93] http:/ / idrw. org/ ?p=8896 [94] http:/ / www. defensenews. com/ article/ 20120211/ DEFREG03/ 302110003/ Pakistani-Navy-Develop-Nuclear-Powered-Submarines-Reports?odyssey=mod|newswell|text|World 291 External links € BCCI May have funded Bomb (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/ 0,9171,973732-4,00.html) € The Islamic Bomb (http://www.paktoday.com/islamic.htm) - Tashbih Sayyed € US Report: China Gifted Nuclear Bomb and Pakistan Stole the Technology (http://www. theworldreporter.com/2009/11/us-report-china-gifted-nuclear-bomb-and.html) € The South Asian Strategic Stability Institute Weapons Related Datasets (http://www.sassu.org.uk/html/ datasets.htm) Pakistan € Pakistan Security Research Unit (PSRU) Military and Weapons Section (http://spaces.brad.ac.uk:8080/pages/ viewpage.action?pageId=666) € China,Pakistan and the Bomb The Declassified File on U.S. Policy, 1977-1997 (http://www.gwu.edu/ ~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB114/index.htm)-----National Security Archives. € http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/index.html € Nuclear Notebook: Pakistan's nuclear program, 2005 (http://thebulletin.metapress.com/content/ 485jr988wv3v1551/?p=4d33abb9f91049f1854709f83cdbc44d&pi=19), Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http:// thebulletin.org), Jan/Feb 2002. € Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons Program - The Beginning (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakOrigin. html) € Nuclear Files.org (http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/post-cold-war/ india-pakistan/india-pakistan-conflict.htm) Pakistan's nuclear conflict with India- background and the current situation € Nuclear Files.org (http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/nuclear-stockpiles. htm) Current information on nuclear stockpiles in Pakistan € Ideas Pakistan - International Defense Exhibition at Karachi, Pakistan (http://www.ideaspakistan.com/) € Defense Export Promotion Organization - Ministry of Defense (http://www.depo.org.pk/) € Time line of Pakistan's nuclear weapon development and tests (http://www.cssforum.com.pk/ compulsory-subjects/everyday-science/6253-history-pakistans-pride-nuclear-development-history-pakistan. html) € - Pakistani & Indian Missile Forces (http://www.atomicarchive.com/Reports/India/Missiles.shtml) (Tarmuk missile mentioned here) € - Annotated bibliography on Pakistan's nuclear weapons from the Alsos Digital Library (http://alsos.wlu.edu/ qsearch.aspx?browse=warfare/Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Program) € The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http://www.wilsoncenter. org/nuclear-history-documents/) The Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project contains a collection of primary source documents on Pakistani nuclear development. 292 Poland 293 Poland Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom Poland € 294 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Poland is currently not known or believed to possess weapons of mass destruction. During the Cold War, Soviet nuclear warheads were stockpiled in Poland and designated to deploy within the People's Army of Poland. Poland was also working with Russia to help eliminate the large stockpiles of chemical and biological weapons developed by the Warsaw Pact countries. Poland ratified the Geneva Protocol on 4 February 1929. Chemical weapons Poland ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention on 23 August 1995 and did not declare any offensive program or chemical weapons stockpiles. In 2004 during the G8 Summit the Polish-Russian agreement in the sphere of chemical weapons destruction was reached. The chemical weapons agreement will assist Russia in disposing of its lewisite stockpiles. Biological weapons Poland ratified the Biological Weapons Convention on 25 January 1973 and is not known to have conducted any activity prohibited by the BWC. Nuclear Poland itself has never possessed nuclear weapons, but as the part of Warsaw Pact was equipped with aircraft (such as MiG-21, Su-7 and Su-22), as well as short range ballistic missiles (such as R-300 Elbrus, 9K52 Luna-M and OTR-21 Tochka) that could be used to deliver Soviet nuclear weapons, which would be provided in time of war.[1] Since the end of the World War II the Soviet Union maintained large amounts of troops on Polish territory, these troops were equipped with nuclear weapons. In 1991 Poland announced they would remove the nuclear capable delivery systems from their weapons inventory. They decided to keep about 40 of the OTR-21 Tochka systems armed with conventional warheads for self-defense.[] These launchers have now been completely retired. In the 1970s there was an idea to develop a hydrogen bomb which was kept secret from the Soviet Union, however it was scrapped very quickly. References [1] Luczak 1996, pp. 19€21. € Luczak, Wojciech (July 1996). "Poland's Atomic Adventure". Air International 51 (1): pp. 18€21. ISSN– 0306-5634 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/0306-5634). Romania 295 Romania Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . but the Romanian Government denied such claims.[4] Anti-nuclear rallies Despite of this secret program. Horn claimed that high-level Romanian officials announced that Romania is capable of building such weapons. Romania is considered free of weapons of mass destruction. The military program was started in 1978. together with the program for the first power plant. through its nuclear program and a medium-range missiles development program. The WMD research program (Programul DunŠrea .[1] The program was dismantled after the 1989 Romanian Revolution and currently.[7] ."[5] He also urged the US and USSR to end the arms race which led to the placement of medium-range nuclear missiles in Europe. arguing that only by stopping this race could "humanity . it focused on the usage of radioactive isotopes in medicine and industry. he addressed a crowd of 300.[3] In July 1989. the former director of the research institute. be saved from a catastrophe". CeauÄescu's government did organize massive rallies against nuclear proliferation.. for the first decades.[1] Nuclear program While Romania had a nuclear research program since 1949. using nuclear power just for civilian purposes. one for the development of medium-range missiles and a third which dealt with chemical and biological weapons.. For instance. according to Lucia Hossu Longin.Danube Program) was conducted at the MÅgurele Nuclear Research Institute. but that he remained "firmly resolved to fight against nuclear weapons". the Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Horn accused Romania of posing military threats to Hungary.[2] The defection of Securitate general Ion Mihai Pacepa was.[6] In 1989. to obtain the technology for a certain element needed in the development of nuclear weapons. at least in part related to the order given to him by CeauÄescu. violating its ratification of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty from 1970. Romania had a secret program intended to develop nuclear weapons.000 arguing that people in both East and West should "stop those who are preparing atomic war. during the rule of Nicolae CeauÄescu. at one such rally in December 1981. under the strict supervision of the Securitate.[2] According to Mihai BÅlÅnescu.Romania € 296 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category In the 1980s. CeauÄescu claimed that Romania had the technology to build nuclear weapons. the program had three departments: one which dealt with the development of nuclear weapons. The Washington Post.000 in Romania Protest Nuclear Weapons". html?res=9C0CE0DA153EF933A05757C0A966958260& scp=1& sq=romania nuclear& st=cse). Romania handed over to the IAEA 15 kg of highly enriched uranium fuel for the research reactor. New York Times. July 5. 1990 € http://adevarul. com/ 1989/ 07/ 11/ world/ hungarian-accuses-rumania-of-military-threats. 12 [7] "Romanian Nuclear Claim". Realitatea TV.[9] Heavy water is an important ingredient in the creation of nuclear weapons and the shipment to India was another violation of the Non-Proliferation Treaty.[1] References [1] Tracking Nuclear ProliferationRomania (http:/ / www. 1984. 2009 [4] Hungary Accuses Rumania of Military Threats" (http:/ / www. org/ newshour/ indepth_coverage/ military/ proliferation/ countries/ romania. Romanian leader says". realitatea. July 11.ro/cultura/istorie/ceausescusi-programul-nuclear-romaniei-1_510eb9c04b62ed5875d0aaba/ index.[1] According to a 1992 article in Nucleonics Week. evz. 1981. pbs. April 30.Romania 297 Deals with other countries Romania was also involved on the black market of nuclear technology and materials: after 1989. 10 December 2002 [3] "Pacepa a fugit din ÆarÅ pentru cÅ CeauÄescu l-a obligat sÅ obÆinÅ un element pentru fabricarea bombei atomice. given to Romania by the United States in the 1970s. html). Pittsburgh Post-Gazette October 16. 1992 [9] "Romania Is Reported in Nuclear Deal With India" (http:/ / query. 1989 [5] "300. April 16. Hossu Longin" (http:/ / www. net/ pacepa-a-fugit-din-tara-pentru-ca-ceausescu-l-a-obligat-sa-obtina-un-element-pentru-fabricarea-bombei-atomice--spune-l--hossu-longin_555512. Evenimentul Zilei. Romania announced the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that it had 100 mg of plutonium separated in 1985 at the PiteÄti Nuclear Research Institute and it allowed the IAEA full access to its facilities for inspection and monitoring of other violations of the Non-Proliferation Treaty.html . the CeauÄescu Government improperly diverted a supply of 14 tonnes[8] of heavy water originating in Norway to India. com/ gst/ fullpage. Page 19A [8] "India is pressed on atom project" (http:/ / query. p. San Jose Mercury News. html?scp=1& sq=rumania& st=nyt). com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9E0CE3DD143FF931A25751C0A964958260& sec=& spon=& pagewanted=all). May 2.[1] In 2003. the plutonium was made using a TRIGA research reactor. After the 1989 Revolution After the 1989 Romanian Revolution. New York Times. spune L. February 12. nytimes. html) at PBS. nytimes. December 6. nytimes. A19 [6] "End the arms race. The New York Times. 1989. 2005 [2] "'Baietelul' lui Ceausescu. mort in fasa" (http:/ / www. p. it was revealed that in 1986. ro/ articole/ detalii-articol/ 513785/ Baietelul-lui-Ceausescu-mort-in-fasa/ ). 000' total (2012 est. 1953 24 October 1990 50‚Mt (210‚PJ) (30 October 1961) 715 detonations 30.000 kilometers Yes (1968.) [1] Intercontinental up to 16.Russia 298 Russia Union of Soviet Socialist Republics/Russian Federation First nuclear weapon test First fusion weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile Maximum missile range NPT signatory August 29. 1949 August 12.000 warheads (1986) 9. one of five recognized powers) Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria . [] of which 57% have been destroyed.[2] The organization also claims that Russia has 4.967 tons of chemical weapons in 1997. Russia possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction in the world. Russia is also party to the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention.[1] Other sources however say that the U. has more nuclear warheads and the actual numbers remain a subject of estimations and ongoing constant discussion depending on their respective source.468.[3][] The Soviet Union ratified the Geneva Protocol on January 22. while the U.S.S. The reservations were later dropped on January 18. . 1975 with reservations. 2001. Russia declared an arsenal of 39. a renowned organization for assessing nuclear weapon stockpiles.650 active nuclear warheads. In addition to nuclear weapons.Russia € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 299 Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category According to the Federation of American Scientists. has 2. S.248 warheads.650 active nuclear warheads.[7] An estimate by Hans Kristensen and Robert Norris estimate Russia has approximately 2.[8] Strategic nuclear forces of Russia include:[6] 1. Subsequently. and Tajikistan).281 active strategic nuclear warheads in its arsenal. 3.Russia 300 Nuclear weapons History Post-Soviet Era At the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.700. and following the 1995 Trilateral Agreement between Russia. Ukraine. tactical nuclear weapons of the Strategic Deterrence Forces could be used to "prevent political pressure against Russia and her allies (Armenia. Belarus. Kazakhstan. and the other three states joining as non-nuclear states. in a near future. Kyrgyzstan.723 warheads. It is estimated that the Soviet Union had approximately .100 nuclear warheads while the U. 2. delivery systems like SS-N-30 Bulava.000 deployed tactical warheads. agreeing to join the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons." Thus. Sea based Strategic Fleet: 12 submarines carrying up to 609 warheads. As of July 2009. and Kazakhstan. "Khrushchev‚s nuclear-proliferation process started with Communist China in April 1955. an analyst at the Institute of Political and Military Analysis said Russia has 3.[9] Doctrine of limited nuclear war According to a Russian military doctrine stated in 2003. Land based Strategic Rocket Forces: 489 missiles carrying up to 1.788 warheads. Nuclear arsenal of Russia The exact numbers of nuclear warheads remain a subject of estimations and ongoing constant discussion depending on their respective source. the Russian leadership "is officially contemplating a limited nuclear war". including: 367 ICBMs with 1. has 2. In May 1992. Ukraine. According to Ion Mihai Pacepa. and the USA. when the new ruler in the Kremlin consented to supply Beijing a sample atomic bomb and to help with its mass production. these four states signed the Lisbon Protocol. they employ immobile (silos). they should be able to employ. like SS-27 Topol M. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. 13 SSBNs with 591 warheads and 76 bombers with 884 warheads. the Soviet Union built all the essentials of China‚s new military nuclear industry. Soviet nuclear weapons were deployed in four of the new republics: Russia. the United States has the largest number of deployed nuclear weapons in the world.468. the Soviet Union transferred nuclear technology and weapons to the People's Republic of China as an adversary of the United States and NATO. Belarus and Kazakhstan. a number of Soviet-era nuclear warheads remained on the territories of Belarus. Belarus.[5] Mid-2007 Russia was estimated to have around 3.[1] Alexander Khramchikhin. leaving Russia as the sole inheritor of the Soviet nuclear arsenal. The Federation of American Scientists estimates that Russia possesses 4. with Russia the successor to the Soviet Union as a nuclear state. has some 5. although there are no treaty requirements for it to publish data on these weapons so the exact numbers are unknown. Under the terms of the Lisbon Protocol to the NPT.S. Russia's strategic arsenal reportedly shrunk to 2. Strategic Aviation: 79 bombers carrying up to 884 cruise missiles. which Russia ratified (as the Soviet Union) in 1968.[4] According to 2011 data from the New START Treaty Aggregate Numbers of Strategic Offensive Arms facts sheet. these were transferred to Russia. and mobile delivery systems. 300 more than Russia.[6] Russia also has a large number of tactical nuclear weapons."[11] Russia is one of the five "Nuclear Weapons States" (NWS) under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). while the U. like SS-18 Satan.[10] Nuclear proliferation After the Korean War. in turn.[14] In 2002." in the US. who was deputy-director of Biopreparat.[21] According to Ken Alibek. with or without portable nuclear weapons. ƒIn case there is a loss of power. Stirzhi and Vladimir.[21] The Soviet Union signed the Biological Weapons Convention on April 10. 1975. There were allegations that Russia contributed to North Korean nuclear program. weapons were developed in labs in isolated areas of the Soviet Union including mobilization facilities at Omutininsk. In September 1997. the United States and Russia agreed to reduce their stockpiles to not more than 2.[18] US Congressman Curt Weldon supported claims by Lunev. saying that he exaggerated things.000 nuclear weapons stockpiled at the time of its collapse. If the battery runs low. Russia condemned Korean nuclear tests since then. the US rejected Russian proposals to further reduce each nation's nuclear stockpiles to 1. refused to discuss reduction of tactical nuclear weapons. He said he was attempting to inventory the weapons when he was fired by President Boris Yeltsin in October 1996. Ministry of Health. there is a battery backup.[10] Russia is actively producing and developing new nuclear weapons. Sergey Sinchenko. Russia. Penza and Pokrov and research facilities at Moscow.[13] Indeed. Since then. He described Soviet-made suitcase nukes identified as RA-115s (or RA-115-01s for submersible weapons) which weigh from fifty to sixty pounds. there was a 250-weapon discrepancy. selling it the equipment for the safe storage and transportation of nuclear materials.500. 1972 and ratified the treaty on March 26. several US politicians have expressed worries and promised legislation addressing the threat." [19] Searches of the areas identified by Lunev € who admits he never planted any weapons in the US € have been conducted. In 2003. the program of Biological weapons was run primarily by the "civilian" Biopreparat agency.[12] In 2005. Since 1997 it manufactures Topol-M (SS-27) ICBMs. Ministry of Agriculture. and who defected to the USA in 1992.[20] Biological weapons Soviet program of biological weapons was initially developed by the Ministry of Defense of the Soviet Union (between 1945 and 1973). Ministry of Chemical Industry.„. a businessman told him that he keeps his own nuclear bomb at his dacha outside Moscow. and Soviet Academy of Sciences.[18] He said that "it is surprisingly easy to smuggle nuclear weapons into the US" either across the Mexican border or using a small transport missile that can slip though undetected when launched from a Russian airplane. These portable bombs can last for many years if wired to an electric source.200 warheads each in the SORT treaty.[16] According to high-ranking Russian SVR defector Sergei Tretyakov. the former secretary of the Russian Security Council Alexander Lebed claimed 100 "suitcase sized" nuclear weapons were unaccounted for.[18] Lunev was personally looking for hiding places for weapons caches in the Shenandoah Valley area. The collapse of the Soviet Union allowed for a warming of relations with NATO. "but law-enforcement officials have never found such weapons caches. but "Weldon said later the FBI discredited Lunev. although it also included numerous facilities run by the Soviet Ministry of Defense.[15] Nevertheless. the Soviet biological weapons agency. Fears of a nuclear holocaust lessened.[17] 301 Nuclear sabotage allegations from Russia The highest-ranking GRU defector Stanislav Lunev described alleged Soviet plans for using tactical nuclear weapons for sabotage against the United States in the event of war. said 250 nuclear weapons were unaccounted for.Russia 45. These weapons were tested at several facilities most often at "Rebirth Island" (Vozrozhdeniya) in the Aral Sea by . the weapon has a transmitter that sends a coded message € either by satellite or directly to a GRU post at a Russian embassy or consulate. When comparing documents of nuclear weapons transferred from Ukraine to weapons received by Russia. a legislator from the Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc. In Shchuchye (Kurgan Oblast) (13. although Soviet offensive program was officially ended in 1992.[23] The agents are termed Novichok (newcomer) agents.[21] In 1993.Russia firing the weapons into the air above monkeys tied to posts.2%).967 tons of chemical weapons in 1997 consisting of: € blister agents: Lewisite. Soman. Russia met its treaty obligations by destroying 1% of its chemical agents by the Chemical Weapons Convention's 2002 deadline. 1997.616 MTs) and Category 3 chemicals. and ratified it on November 5. Russia may be still involved in the activities prohibited by BWC. The incident occurred when spores of anthrax were accidentally released from a military facility in the city of Sverdlovsk (formerly. Russia has destroyed 57% of its stockpile. Proliferation Russia has 3 factories for destruction of its chemical weapons arsenal: Gorny in Saratov Oblast.4%) and Leonidovka (Penza Oblast) (17. This extension procedure spelled out in the treaty has been utilized by other countries. Lewisite-mustard-mix (HL) € nerve agents: Sarin.6%). some of which are one order of magnitude more lethal (based on LD50 exposure testing) than VX (the agent with the lowest LD50 in the US arsenal). Maradykovsky (Kirov Oblast) (17. 1979. The extended deadline for complete destruction (April 2012) was not met.[3] As of October 2011.[24][25] . VX Ratification was followed by three years of inaction on chemical weapons destruction because of the August 1998 Russian financial crisis. built with funds from Italy in accordance with the agreement signed between the two countries.[] Russia has stored its chemical weapons (or the required chemicals) which it declared within the CWC at 8 locations: in Gorny (Saratov Oblast) (2. and now again.2%) destruction takes place.8%) and Kizner (Udmurt Republic) (14. mustard.9% of the declared stockpile by mass) and Kambarka (Udmurt Republic) (15. including the United States. Russia also destroyed all of its declared Category 2 (10. the story about the Sverdlovsk anthrax leak was published in Russia. Kambarka in Udmurtia and the latest one Pochep in the Bryansk Oblast 70–km from the border with Ukraine. Russia is expected to be in possession of a series of nerve agents developed in the 1970s and 1980s. The ensuing outbreak of the disease resulted in 94 people becoming infected.9%) stockpiles already have been destroyed. According to Alibek. Russia declared an arsenal of 39.[21] 302 Chemical weapons Russia signed the Chemical Weapons Convention on January 13. 1993. 64 of whom died over a period of six weeks. the monkeys would then be monitored to determine the effects. while installations are under construction in Pochep (Bryansk Oblast) (18. Yekaterinburg) 900 miles east of Moscow on April 2.[22] but requested technical and financial assistance and extensions on the deadlines of 2004 and 2007 due to the environmental challenges of chemical disposal.[] Novichok agents In addition to the chemical weapons declared under the convention. rian. Among them: A plot to crash planes into a reactor.org/e_research/profiles/Russia/index. org/ files/ Securite_defense/ prolif_paper_Trenin. php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=110) at sonicbomb. opcw. New York. [18] Stanislav Lunev. "Comrade J: The Untold Secrets of Russia's Master Spy in America After the End of the Cold War".by a Special Correspondent in Pyongyang and Michael Hirst. pp 232-233. Anchor Books. htm) [14] Nuclear Dangers: Fear Increases of Terrorists Getting Hands on 'Loose' Warheads as Security Slips (http:/ / belfercenter. sagepub. September 7. (http:/ / bos. html) [25] "Italy to help Russia destroy chemical weapons" (http:/ / en.analysis by Dmitri Trenin. 1998.com (http://www. org/ e_research/ profiles/ Russia/ index. opcw. UPI (20 December 2001). telegraph. [21] Alibek. 2005 [11] Tyrants and the Bomb (http:/ / article. IFRI Proliferation Papers n”13. IFRI Proliferation Papers n”13. Inc. co. harvard.by Ion Mihai Pacepa. xinhuanet. ISBN 978-0-399-15439-3. [19] Nicholas Horrock. "Russian nuclear forces. xml) by Adrian Blomfield.ploughshares. org/ nc/ news/ article/ global-campaign-to-destroy-chemical-weapons-passes-60-percent-mark/ ).. nationalreview.opcw. 8 July 2010 (Accessed 19 August 2010) [4] What the Russian papers say | What Russian papers say | RIA Novosti (http:/ / en.Russia 303 References [1] Federation of American Scientists :: Status of World Nuclear Forces (http:/ / www.ifri. 5 June 2007 [7] Russia profile (http:/ / www. Gorbachev (http://www. org/ html/ global/ ra_frameset.analysis by Dmitri Trenin. armscontrol. html) [6] Russia's nuclear capabilities (http:/ / www. Regnery Publishing. Through the Eyes of the Enemy: The Autobiography of Stanislav Lunev.pdf) .html) by National Journal . 2007. html) . htm) [17] Pete Earley. [24] "Russia opens new chemical weapons destruction plant". html) Nuclear Threat Initiative [8] Hans Kristensen and Robert Norris. co. edu/ publication/ 1010/ nuclear_dangers. 2012. com/ english/ 2009-05/ 28/ content_11446860. 2006. telegraph. ISBN 0-89526-390-4. B. 2006.com/modules. html) External links € Video archive of the Soviet Union's Nuclear Testing (http://sonicbomb. Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6 [22] News (http:/ / www. 2005 € Nuclear Threat Initiative on Russia (http://www.org/moment/ video?p=423) € Abolishing Weapons of Mass Destruction: Addressing Cold War and Other Wartime Legacies in the Twenty-First Century By Mikhail S. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2006/ 07/ 09/ wkorea09. ksg. org/ act/ 1997_09/ lebedsept) [13] Russian and Ukrainian Officials Deny New Allegations That Nuclear Warheads Were Lost in the 1990s (http:/ / www. com) € New Video: A World Without Nuclear Weapons (http://www. html) [3] Global Campaign to Destroy Chemical Weapons Passes 60 Percent Mark (http:/ / www. Telegraph. Telegraph. "FBI focusing on portable nuke threat" (http:/ / www. Penguin Books. ru/ papers/ 20090514/ 155022873. and S. ru/ russia/ 20080326/ 102271498. War of Nerves. org/ programs/ ssp/ nukes/ nuclearweapons/ nukestatus.sonicbomb.html) € Russia's Nuclear Policy in the 21st Century Environment (http://www. com/ ?q=YmU3NjM4ZTg3NjViMTUyNWJmYWYzMDE4ZmRhOTQxZmI=) . J. upi. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World€ Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. [16] Russia expresses serious concern over DPRK nuke issue (http:/ / news. fas. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2007/ 06/ 04/ wputin204. russianforces. html) [23] Tucker. html?breadcrumb=/ ) [15] Russia secretly offered North Korea nuclear technology (http:/ / www. uk/ news/ main. RIA Novosti.org/downloads/ prolif_paper_Trenin. rian. org/ current/ ) [10] Russia's Nuclear Policy in the 21st Century Environment (http:/ / ifri. pdf) . [20] Steve Goldstein and Chris Mondics.org/synthesis/ html/s6/p4prt. uk/ news/ main. pages 114-121. xml& sSheet=/ news/ 2006/ 07/ 09/ ixnews. com/ NewsTrack/ Top_News/ 2001/ 12/ 20/ fbi_focusing_on_portable_nuke_threat/ 9007/ ). "Some Weldon-backed allegations unconfirmed. com/ I5/ R4_RussiaAndUkranian. 2006 [12] Russian Officials Deny Claims Of Missing Nuclear Weapons (http:/ / www. ru/ mlitary_news/ 20101128/ 161528556. October 17. OPCW." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. November 2010 (http:/ / en. rian.. nti. National Review. K. and missing suitcase-size Soviet atomic weapons.nti. Handelman. wmdinsights. abstract) [9] Russian strategic nuclear forces (November 2009) (http:/ / www." Philadelphia Inquirer (15 March 2006) A7. com/ content/ 68/ 2/ 87. Center of Ecological Policy of Russia.htm) by Lev Fedorov.com/watch?v=RrOB0GM4rcY) 304 Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia is not known to have a nuclear weapons program. Politics (http://www.org/nuke/guide/summary. 27 July 1994 € Russian Nuclear Weapons (http://www.youtube. € Nuclear Files.[3] Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil . From an official and public standpoint.com/content/ p65l757657634078/?p=2114f00338444b71903d97f57d88c181&pi=0). and is a member of the coalition of countries demanding a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in the Middle East. Moscow.fas.org). having signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. March/April 2006.nuclearfiles.ukinindia.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/nuclear-stockpiles.fas.Link is not available now (http://www.org/nuke/guide/russia/cbw/ jptac008_l94001. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http:// thebulletin.[1][2] Studies of nuclear proliferation have not identified Saudi Arabia as a country of concern.Russia € UK statement on the chemical weapons convention .metapress.asp) € 1999 Nuclear stockpile estimate (http://www. Saudi Arabia has been an opponent of nuclear weapons in the Middle East. Ecology.org (http://www. htm) Current information on nuclear stockpiles in Russia € Chemical Weapons in Russia: History.htm) € Nuclear Notebook: Russian nuclear forces. 2006 (http://thebulletin.com/ press/general/gen_805. UN officials and weapon specialists have suggested this review was prompted by a distancing of relations with the US. or to try to reach agreement on having a nuclear-free Middle East. In 2003. concerns over Iran's nuclear program. a leaked strategy paper laid out three possible options for the Saudi government: to acquire a nuclear deterrent. and the lack of international pressure on Israel to give up its nuclear weapons.[4] . over the years there have been media reports of Saudi Arabia's intent to purchase a nuclear weapon from an outside source. to ally with and become protected by an existing nuclear nation.Saudi Arabia € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 305 Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category However. Pakistan and Saudi Arabia have extremely cordial relations which sometimes attributed as special relationship. and took the discussion where Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto pointed out the advancements made in the Israeli and the Indian nuclear programme to intimidate the Muslim world.[] Since 1998. a programme founded by former prime minister Zulfi Bhutto. Chief Martial Law Administrator and President General Zia-ul-Haq paid a state visit to Saudi Arabia where he unofficially told the King that: "Our achievements are yours".[6] In March 2006. Satellite photos allegedly reveal an underground city and nuclear silos with Ghauri rockets in Al-Sulaiyil. the country has allegedly allotted financial funds for its nuclear program. and as well received scientific assistance from various counties. as part of 2nd OIC conference. with the Saudi royal government in 1974 after the royal family paid a visit to Pakistan in 1974.[] In June 1998.[] It is widely believed that Saudi Arabia has been a sole financier of Pakistan's own integrated atomic bomb project since 1974. south of the capital Riyadh.Saudi Arabia 306 Nuclear program Saudi Arabia has denied manufacturing the nuclear weapons under its peaceful civilian nuclear program.[] This cooperation was allegedly enhanced by socialist prime minister Benazir Bhutto in 1995 and in 1998.[] Soon. the conservative Prime minister Nawaz Sharif took Saudi Arabia in confidence before ordering the nuclear tests (see the codenames Chagai-I and Chagai-II) in Weapon-testing labs-III (WTL) in Chagai remote site in Balochistan Province of Pakistan. to boost Saudi efforts for a civilian nuclear program.[citation needed] Saudi Arabia also facilitated funds for nuclear programs in the Arab world and was also behind providing financial assistance to boost the physics experiments necessary for developing the nuclear weapons.[5] Pakistan's involvement Historically. although both countries sharply denied the existence of such agreement between them. the two nuclear triads. on nuclear physics and the sensitive issues involving the weapon-grade explosives. the Prime Minister paid a farewell visit to King Fahd and publicly thanked Saudi government for supporting the country after conducting the tests. [citation needed] According to Western media reports. Lahore. the Saudi Minister of Defense Prince Sultan traveled with the Prime minister Sharif where he toured a classified institute.[] In 2003 it was reported that Pakistan and Saudi Arabia had entered a secret agreement on "nuclear cooperation" providing Saudi Arabia with nuclear weapons technology in return for access to cheap oil for Pakistan.[] Many in Pakistan's political scientists and historians have summed up that Saudi interests in nuclear technology began in 1970s after Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto introduced Pakistan's leading theoretical physicists (who went on to join the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals).[7] Pakistan has denied aiding Saudi Arabia in any nuclear ambitions.[][] In 1980s. the German magazine Cicero reported that Saudi Arabia had since 2003 received assistance from Pakistan to acquire nuclear missiles and warheads. the Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL) where the leading scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan briefed the Prince and the Prime minister Sharif also.[8] . the United States and Saudi Arabia signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU). including United States and Pakistan. as part of the United States' vintage Atoms for Peace program. Nuclear Deal with United States In May 2008. the Western diplomats and intelligence agencies have long been rumored to have an agreement whereby Pakistan (would) sell Saudi Arabia warheads and its locally developed nuclear technology if security in the Gulf deteriorate. According to these documents.000 documents[citation needed] that alleged long time Saudi support of the Iraqi nuclear weapons program. Pakistan's ambassador to Saudi Arabia. Officials in the West believe Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have an understanding in which Islamabad would supply the kingdom with warheads if security in the Gulf was threatened.[12] Furthermore. In such an eventuality. Saudi Arabia would start work on a new ballistic missile platform. the Saudi-China relationship is a strategic relationship. with the consent of Saudi Arabia. Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao signed a mutual cooperation deal on nuclear energy with King Abdullah. who has served as the Saudi intelligence chief and as ambassador to the United States has suggested that the kingdom might consider producing nuclear weapons if it found itself between the atomic arsenals in Iran and Israel. the Arab States of the Persian Gulf plan to start their own joint civilian nuclear program.[11] Saudi officials denied the allegations. Any threats to Saudi Arabia is also a threat to Pakistan. Mohammed Naeem Khan was quoted as saying that "Pakistan considers the security of Saudi Arabia not just as a diplomatic or an internal matter but as a personal matter. the second-in-command of the Saudi mission to the United Nations.[] Saudi financing of Iraqi nuclear program In 1994. while Premier Jaobao's visit to Middle East. purchase nuclear warheads from overseas and aim to source uranium to develop weapons-grade material. senior Clinton administration officials who were responsible for Mideast affairs at the time Khilewi sought asylum.Saudi Arabia 307 Chinese-Saudi atomic collaboration On January 2012. Prince Turki al-Faisal. the kingdom has planned 16 commercial nuclear power reactors by 2030. but according to Hashim Yamani. The allegations have not been confirmed by any other source. which has raised fears of proliferation. A Western official told The Times that Riyadh could have the nuclear warheads in a matter of days of approaching Islamabad. "There was nothing there. president of the King Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy. Muhammad Khilewi. and US officials have stated that they have no evidence of Saudi assistance to Iraqi nuclear development.[15] Other vendors were also likely to enter into a bidding war if Riyadh indicated that it was seeking nuclear warheads. during the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq." Pelletreau said. (Vartan 2005) Nuclear sharing with Arab states of the Persian Gulf nuclear programs Furthermore." Naeem also said that the Saudi leadership considered Pakistan and Saudi Arabia to be one country. in which the relations [of China and Iran] are a transactional one.[10] Khilewi obtained asylum in the US. the Saudis supported the Iraqi nuclear program with $5 billion on the condition that successful nuclear technology and possibly even nuclear weapons would be transferred to Saudi Arabia.[citation needed] In March 2007. foreign ministers of the six-member Gulf Cooperation Council met in Saudi Arabia to discuss progress in plans agreed in December 2006. said they found nothing in Khilewi's debriefings to back up the Media reports about a Saudi nuclear program.[14] In 2012. He provided a packet of 10. as compare to China-Iran relations. Both Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have denied the existence of any such agreement. including Robert Pelletreau of the State Department and Bruce Riedel of the National Security Council.[13] Recent developments In 2011. Molavi commented. applied for asylum in the United States. it was confirmed that Saudi Arabia would launch its own nuclear weapons program immediately if Iran successfully developed nuclear weapons.[] According to Iranian expert Afshin Molavi of New America Foundation.[16] Western intelligence sources have told The Guardian that the Saudi monarchy has paid for up to 60% of the Pakistan's atomic bomb projects and in .[9][] The details of such cooperation were not fully provided by government-control Saudi Press Agency. for a joint civilian nuclear program. Saudi Arabia return has the option to buy five to six nuclear warheads off the shelf.[17] 308 Missile capability In 1987 it was reported that Saudi Arabia purchased between 50 and 60 Chinese-made CSS-2 intermediate-range ballistic missiles equipped with a high explosive warhead, which have a range of 2,800–km with a payload of either 2,150 or 2,500–kg together with between 10 and 15 transport vehicle systems.[18] References [1] Parties to the NPT (http:/ / disarmament. un. org/ TreatyStatus. nsf/ NPT (in alphabetical order)?OpenView& Start=1. 145) [2] Akaki Dvali. Center for Nonproliferation Studies (nti.org) (March 2004). Will Saudi Arabia Acquire Nuclear Weapons? (http:/ / www. nti. org/ e_research/ e3_40a. html); Arnaud de Borchgrave. Washington Times (22 October 2003) [3] Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), US Congress, Technologies Underlying Weapons of Mass Destruction (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 12/93), p. 239 [4] The Guardian (18 September 2003). Saudis consider nuclear bomb (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ saudi/ story/ 0,11599,1044402,00. html) [5] reportonbusiness.com: Purchase this article (http:/ / www. theglobeandmail. com/ servlet/ story/ RTGAM. 20080516. wsaudioil0516/ BNStory/ Business) [6] Pakistan, Saudi Arabia in secret nuke pact (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ org/ news/ 2003/ 031022-pakistan_saudi-arabia. htm) [7] "Saudia [sic] Arabia working on secret nuclear program with Pakistan help€ report ", AFX News (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ feeds/ afx/ 2006/ 03/ 28/ afx2629000. html) [8] " Pakistan rejects report on N-help to Saudis (http:/ / www. dailytimes. com. pk/ default. asp?page=2006\03\30\story_30-3-2006_pg1_4)", Daily Times (Pakistan), (30 March 2006). [10] Saudi Arabia Special Weapons (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ wmd/ world/ saudi/ index. html) [11] http:/ / cns. miis. edu/ research/ wmdme/ saudi. htm#1 Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East, James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies [12] Akaki Dvali. Center for Nonproliferation Studies (nti.org) (March 2004). Will Saudi Arabia Acquire Nuclear Weapons? (http:/ / www. nti. org/ e_research/ e3_40a. html); Arnaud de Borchgrave. Washington Times (22 October 2003) [13] Saudi defends Gulf Arab atom plans, criticizes Iran | International | Reuters (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ worldNews/ idUSL0521283720070305) [15] http:/ / worldnews. msnbc. msn. com/ _news/ 2012/ 02/ 10/ 10369793-report-saudi-arabia-to-buy-nukes-if-iran-tests-a-bomb [18] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080524155801/ http:/ / www. missilethreat. com/ missilesoftheworld/ id. 3/ missile_detail. asp External links € King Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy (http://www.energy.gov.sa/) (Arabic) (K.A.CARE is a city that aims to develop nuclear energy in Saudi Arabia) South Africa 309 South Africa South Africa Nuclear program start date 1967[] First nuclear weapon test Possible, 22 September 1979 (See Vela Incident) Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown 6 None; the programme was voluntarily dismantled in 1989. 1,300 kilometres (810–mi) (English Electric Canberra) Yes First fusion weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile Maximum missile range NPT signatory From the 1960s to the 1980s, South Africa pursued research into weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. Six nuclear weapons were assembled.[1] Before the anticipated changeover to a majority-elected African National Congress government in the 1990s, the South African government dismantled all of its nuclear weapons, the first nation in the world which voluntarily gave up all nuclear arms it had developed itself. The country has been a signatory of the Biological Weapons Convention since 1975, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty since 1991, and the Chemical Weapons Convention since 1995. Nuclear weapons South Africa 310 Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation South Africa 311 € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Nuclear weapons Background € € € € € € € € € € € € History Warfare Arms race Design Testing Effects Delivery Espionage Proliferation Arsenals Terrorism Opposition Nuclear-armed states € € € € € € € € € € United States Russia United Kingdom France China Israel India Pakistan North Korea South Africa (former) The Republic of South Africa's ambitions to develop nuclear weapons began in 1948 after giving commission to South African Atomic Energy Corporation (SAAEC), the forerunner corporation to oversee nation's uranium mining and industrial trade.[] In 1957, South Africa reached an understanding with the United States after signing a 50-year collaboration under the U.S.-sanctioned programme, the Atoms for Peace.[] The treaty concluded the South African acquisition of a single nuclear research reactor and an accompanying supply of the Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) fuel, located in Pelindaba.[] In 1965, the American subsidiary, the Allis-Chalmers Corporation, delivered the 20MW research nuclear reactor, SAFARI-1, along with ~90% HEU fuel to South African nuclear authority.[] In 1967, South South Africa Africa decided to pursue the plutonium capability and constructed its own reactor, SAFARI-2 reactor also at the Pelindaba, that went critical using 606kg of 2% HEU fuel, and 5.4 tonnes of heavy water, both supplied by the United States.[] The SAFARI-2 reactor was intended to be moderated by heavy water, fueled by natural uranium while the reactor's cooling system used molten sodium.[] However in 1969, the project was abandoned by the South African government because the reactor was draining resources from the uranium enrichment program that was initiated in 1967.[] South Africa began focusing on the success of its uranium enrichment programme which was seen by its scientists as easier compared to plutonium.[] South Africa was able to mine uranium ore domestically, and used aerodynamic nozzle enrichment techniques to produce weapons-grade material. South Africa is suspected of having received technical assistance from various sources, including assistance from Israel in building its first nuclear device. In 1969, a pair of senior South African scientists met with S™ltan Mahmoud, a nuclear engineer from Pakistan at the University of Birmingham, to conduct studies, research and independent experiments on uranium enrichment.[] The South African and Pakistan scientists studied the use of aerodynamic-jet nozzle process to enrich the fuel at the University of Birmingham, later building their nations programs in 1970s.[] However it is not clear how much knowledge they gained and to what extent they cooperated.[] South Africa gained sufficient experience with the nuclear technology to capitalize on the promotion of the U.S. government's Peaceful Nuclear Explosions (PNE) program.[] Finally in 1971, South African minister of mines Carl de Wet gave approval of the country's own PNE programme with the publicly stated objective of using PNEs in the mining industry. The date when the South African PNE programme transformed into a weapons program is a matter of some dispute.[] South Africa developed a small finite deterrence arsenal of gun-type fission weapons in the 1980s. Six were constructed and another was under construction at the time the program ended.[2] 312 Testing the first device The South African Atomic Energy Board (AEB) selected a test site in the Kalahari Desert at the Vastrap weapons range north of Upington. Two test shafts were completed in 1976 and 1977. One shaft was 385 metres deep, the other, 216 metres. In 1977, the AEB established its own high-security weapons research and development facilities at Pelindaba, and during that year the program was transferred from Somchem to Pelindaba. In mid-1977, the AEB produced a gun-type device…without a highly enriched uranium (HEU) core. Although the Y-Plant was operating, it had not yet produced enough weapons-grade uranium for a device. As has happened in programmes in other nations, the development of the devices had outpaced the production of the fissile material. Atomic Energy Commission officials say that a "cold test" (a test without uranium-235) was planned for August 1977. An Armscor official who was not involved at the time said that the test would have been a fully instrumented underground test, with a dummy core. Its major purpose was to test the logistical plans for an actual detonation. How that test was cancelled has been well publicised. Soviet intelligence detected test preparations and in early August alerted the United States; U.S. intelligence confirmed the existence of the test site with an overflight of a Lockheed SR-71 spy plane.[3] On 28 August, the Washington Post quoted a U.S. official: "I'd say we were 99 percent certain that the construction was preparation for an atomic test."[4] The Soviet and Western governments were convinced that South Africa was preparing for a full-scale nuclear test. During the next two weeks in August, the Western nations pressed South Africa not to test. The French foreign minister warned on 22 August of "grave consequences" for French-South African relations. Although he did not elaborate, his statement implied that France was willing to cancel its contract to provide South Africa with the Koeberg nuclear power reactors. it had killed people so much In 1993 Wynand de Villiers said that when the test site was exposed, he ordered its immediate shutdown. The site was abandoned and the holes sealed. One of the shafts was temporarily reopened in 1988 in preparation for another test, which did not take place; the move was intended to strengthen South Africa's bargaining position during negotiations to end the war with Angola and Cuba.[] South Africa 313 Viable delivery The warheads were originally configured to be delivered from one of several aircraft types then in service with the South African Air Force (SAAF), including the Canberra B12 and the Blackburn Buccaneer. Concerns about the vulnerability of the aircraft to the Cuban anti-aircraft defence network in Angola subsequently led the SADF to investigate missile-based delivery systems.[5] The missiles were to be based on the RSA-3 and RSA-4 launchers that had already been built and tested for the South African space programme. Three rockets had already been launched into suborbital trajectories in the late 1980s in support of development of the RSA-3 launched Greensat Orbital Management System (for commercial satellite applications of vehicle tracking and regional planning). Following the decision in 1989 to cancel the nuclear weapons program, the missile programs were allowed to continue until 1992, when military funding ended, and all ballistic missile work was stopped by RSA-3 3 stage LEO rocket mid-1993. In order to join the Missile Technology Control Regime the government had to allow American supervision of the destruction of key facilities applicable to both the long range missile and the space launch programmes.[6] SAAF Canberra B12 with inertial navigation and special sensors package over Transvaal Alleged collaboration with Israel David Albright and Chris McGreal have claimed that South African projects to develop nuclear weapons during the 1970s and 1980s were undertaken with some cooperation from Israel.[][7][8] The United Nations Security Council Resolution 418 of 4 November 1977 introduced a mandatory arms embargo against South Africa, also requiring all states to refrain from "any co-operation with South Africa in the manufacture and development of nuclear weapons".[9] According to the Nuclear Threat Initiative, in 1977 Israel traded 30–grams of tritium for 50 tonnes of South African uranium[citation needed] and in the mid-1980s assisted with the development of the RSA-3 and RSA-4 ballistic missiles, which are similar to Israeli Shavit and Jericho missiles.[] Also in 1977, according to foreign press reports, it was suspected that South Africa signed a pact with Israel that included the transfer of military technology and the manufacture of at least six nuclear bombs.[] In September 1979, a US Vela satellite detected a double flash over the Indian Ocean that was suspected, but never confirmed to be a nuclear test, despite extensive air sampling by WC-135 aircraft of the United States Air Force. If the Vela Incident was a nuclear test, South Africa is one of the countries, possibly in collaboration with Israel, that is suspected of carrying it out. No official confirmation of it being a nuclear test has been made by South Africa, and expert agenciesWikipedia:Avoid weasel words have disagreed on their assessments. In 1997, South African Deputy Foreign Minister Aziz Pahad stated that South Africa had conducted a test, but later retracted his statement as being a report of rumours.[10] In February 1994, Commodore Dieter Gerhardt, the convicted Soviet spy and former commander of South Africa's Simon's Town naval base was reported to have said: "Although I was not directly involved in planning or carrying out the operation, I learned unofficially that the flash was produced by an Israeli-South African test code-named Operation Phoenix. The explosion was clean and was not supposed to be detected. But they were not as smart as they thought, and the weather changed–€ so the Americans were able to pick it up."[11][12] In 2000, Dieter Gerhardt claimed that Israel agreed in 1974 to arm eight Jericho II missiles with "special warheads" for South Africa.[13] South Africa In 2010, The Guardian released South African government documents that it alleged confirmed the existence of Israel's nuclear arsenal. According to The Guardian, the documents were associated with an Israeli offer to sell South Africa nuclear weapons in 1975.[14][15] Israel categorically denied these allegations and said that the documents do not indicate any offer for a sale of nuclear weapons. Israeli President Shimon Peres said that The Guardian article was based on "selective interpretation... and not on concrete facts."[16] Avner Cohen, author of Israel and the Bomb and the forthcoming The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's Bargain with the Bomb, said "Nothing in the documents suggests there was an actual offer by Israel to sell nuclear weapons to the regime in Pretoria."[17] 314 Dismantling South African forces feared the threat of a "domino effect" in favour of Communism, represented in southern Africa by Cuban proxy forces in Angola and threatening Namibia. In 1988 South Africa signed the Tripartite Accord with Cuba and Angola, which led to the withdrawal of South African and Cuban troops from Angola and independence for Namibia. The pre-emptive elimination of nuclear weapons would "make a 'significant contribution...toward peace, stability and progress,'" improving South Africa's relations with and restoring their credibility in regional and international politics. South Africa stood down its nuclear weapons programme in 1989. All the bombs (six constructed and one under construction) were dismantled and South Africa acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty when South African Ambassador to the United States Harry Schwarz signed the treaty in 1991. On 19 August 1994, after completing its inspection, the IAEA confirmed that one partially completed and six fully completed nuclear weapons had been dismantled. As a result, the IAEA was satisfied that South Africa's nuclear programme had been converted to peaceful applications. Following this, South Africa joined the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) as a full member on 5 April 1995. South Africa played a leading role in the establishment of the African Nuclear Weapons Free Zone Treaty (the Treaty of Pelindaba) in 1996, becoming one of the first members in 1997. South Africa also signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996 and ratified it in 1999. The Treaty of Pelindaba came into effect on 15 July 2009 once it had been ratified by 28 countries.[18] This treaty requires that parties will not engage in the research, development, manufacture, stockpiling acquisition, testing, possession, control or stationing of nuclear explosive devices in the territory of parties to the Treaty and the dumping of radioactive wastes in the African zone by Treaty parties. The African Commission on Nuclear Energy, in order to verify compliance with the treaty, has been established and will be headquartered in South Africa.[19] Timeline of South African nuclear weapons programme[20] Year Activity 1950s and 1960s Scientific work on the feasibility of peaceful nuclear explosives and support to nuclear power production efforts 1969 1970 1971 1973 1974 1977 1978 1979 1982 Atomic Energy Board forms group to evaluate technical and economic aspects of nuclear explosives Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) releases report identifying uses for nuclear explosives R&D approval granted for "peaceful use of nuclear explosives" AEC prioritises work on a gun-type design Work on a nuclear device and the Vastrap test site are authorised AEC completes bomb assembly for "cold" test First HEU produced; Armscor assumes control of weapons programme Vela Incident; First bomb with HEU core produced by AEC First deliverable bomb built; work on weapons safety Project Coast started in 1983.htm). some testimony appeared to show that the programme went well beyond defensive purposes.com/ sadf_scrapbook/sanuc. August 2000 € Out of (South) Africa: Pretoria‚s Nuclear Weapons Experience (http://www. google. com/ books?id=vgwAAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA15) David Albright. htm) [11] South Africa and the affordable bomb (http:/ / books. a clandestine government chemical and biological warfare program conducted during the 1980s and 1990s.un. com/ books?id=VAwAAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA1& source=gbs_toc_pages& cad=0_1#PPA37.fas. google.fas. Biological.M1). Roy E. Wolfsthal.org/menu/key-issues/ nuclear-weapons/issues/proliferation/south-africa/index.C.nuclearfiles.org guide to proliferation € South Africa (http://www. pp. Program in Arms Control.org/nuke/guide/rsa/ nuke/stumpf. Washington D. Roy E. com/ books?id=M7wIryQK6UkC& pg=PA10 [6] Jericho (http:/ / web.edu/publications/207/ publication-OutofSouthAfricaPretoria39sNuclearWeaponsExperience.: Carnegie Endowment For International Peace. org/ TreatyStatus. 1996 . External links € Birth and Death of the South African Nuclear Weapons Programme (http://www.org/nuke/guide/rsa/nuke/ ocp27.org . with an eighth under construction Armscor prepares Vastrap for a nuclear test Nuclear weapons dismantled Accedes to NPT 1985 1987 1988 1989 1991 Biological and chemical weapons In October 1998. August 1999 € Nuclear Files. The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http:/ / thebulletin.org/Safrica/index.Pelindaba Treaty .htm). Notes [5] http:/ / books.htm) € The Nuclear Weapon Archive account of South Africa (http://nuclearweaponarchive. Atomic Energy Corporation of South Africa. and International Security. 15 [18] disarmament.illinois. google. ostensibly to produce equipment for defensive purposes. Despite vehement assertions to the contrary. 2005. Horton. org) Jul 1994. ACDIS Occasional Paper. pp 37.archive. USAF Institute for National Security Studies. and Chemical Threats. Jon B.org/web/20091026074007/http://geocities. [12] Proliferation: A flash from the past (http:/ / books. the report of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission included a chapter on Project Coast. astronautix.wisconsinproject.org/countries/safrica/ autopsy. Deadly Arsenals: Nuclear. org/ web/ 20100529204936/ http:/ / www.zaman. Lt.South Africa 315 Three-phase nuclear strategy reviewed First production bomb built. Waldo Stumpf. Disarmament. Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control.html) € Israel conducted nuclear experiment in 1979 (http://www. David Albright. Miriam Rajkumar. un. October 1995 € South Africa and the nuclear option (http://web. Marcus Duvenhage. including masks and protective suits.htm). Horton. Col. seven produced. The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http:/ / thebulletin.View chronological order by deposit (http:/ / disarmament. University of Illinois. archive.com/?bl=hotnews&alt=&trh=20060519& hn=33254) € South Africa's Nuclear Autopsy: The Risk Report (http://www.html) (in pdf). org) Nov 1997. nsf/ Pelindaba Treaty (in chronological order by deposit)?Open) References € Joseph Cirincione. com/ lvfam/ jericho.html). 1998 € Out of South Africa: Pretoria‚s Nuclear Weapons Experience (http://acdis. org/news/safrica/baeckmann.edu/Political_Science/profmat/Israel and the South African bomb. Adolf von Baeckmann.html).wilsoncenter. Gary Dillon and Demetrius Perricos.edu/adv_rst.org/isis-reports/detail/ south-africas-nuclear-weapons-storage-vault/) € Israel and the South African Bomb (http://qcpages. org/nuclear-history-documents/) The Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project conatins primary source material on South Africa's nuclear weapons program.aspx?keyword=south*african*nuclear*program&creator=&title=&media=all& genre=all&disc=all&level=all&sortby=relevance&results=10&period=15) € South Africa's Nuclear Weapons Storage Vault (http://isis-online. IAEA Bulletin Volume 37 Number 1 € Annotated bibliography for the South African Nuclear Program from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues (http://alsos.wlu. 316 Syria Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico .qc.South Africa € Nuclear verification in South Africa (http://www.fas.pdf) € The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project (http://www. Syria € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 317 Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Syria has allegedly researched, and manufactured weapons of mass destruction. History On July 23, 2012 Syria admitted to possessing a stockpile of chemical weapons which it claims are reserved for national defense against foreign countries.[1] During the Syrian civil war in August 2012, the Syrian military restarted chemical weapons testing at a base on the outskirts of Aleppo.[][2] Chemical weapons were a major point of discussion between the Syrian government and world leaders, with military intervention being considered by the West as a potential consequence of the use of such weapons.[3] Chemical Weapons Western non-governmental organizations have stated they believe Syria has an active chemical weapons program.[4][5][6][7] Syria is not a party to the Chemical Weapons Convention, though it denied that it had chemical weapons[8] until admitting it possessed such weapons in 2012.[9] Syria is one of six states that have not signed and eight that have not ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention.[10] Syria reportedly manufactures Sarin, Tabun, VX, and mustard gas types of chemical weapons.[11] Independent assessments indicate that Syrian production could be up to a combined total of a few hundred tons of chemical agent per year.[12] Syria 318 Facilities Syrian chemical weapons production facilities have been identified by Western nonproliferation experts at approximately 5 sites, plus one suspected weapons base:[] € € € € € al-Safira (Scud missile base) Hama (Scud missile base) Homs Latakia Palmyra 2007 explosion In July 2007, a Syrian arms depot exploded, killing at least 15 Syrians. Jane's Defence Weekly, a U.S. magazine reporting on military and corporate affairs, believed that the explosion happened when Iranian and Syrian military personnel attempted to fit a Scud missile with a mustard gas warhead. Syria stated that the blast was accidental and not chemical related.[13] Syrian civil war In July 2012, a spokesman for the foreign ministry indicated that it would use chemical and biological weapons if Syria were attacked by foreign powers during the Syrian civil war. The same spokesman also said that Syria would never use these weapons against Syrian citizens.[9] It later emerged that the Syrian military had restarted testing of chemical weapons at a base on the outskirts of Aleppo in August.[14][15] Major-General Adnan Sillu subsequently stated that prior to his defection, he had been involved in high level talks in which the Syrian government came up with plans to use chemical weapons upon both civilians and opposition forces in important areas, mentioning Aleppo specifically.[16] In early December 2012, Captain Abdul-Salam Abdul-Razzaq, a Syrian army defector who was part of the al-Assad military's "Chemical Weapons Department", said "the regime has already used this kind of weapon, albeit in a limited manner, namely in Baba Amr last year. The regime also threatened to use chemical weapons in al-Zabadani, distributing gas masks and radiation suits to its troops."[17] On 28 September 2012, U.S. Defense Secretary Leon Panetta stated that the Syrian regime had moved its chemical weapons in order to "secure" them.[18] Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said Russia had helped establish contact between the United States and Syria, through which Syria had provided "explanations and assurances" of the security of its chemical weapons facilities.[] In early December 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama expressed "increased concern" over the Syrian government's apparent preparation of its chemical weapons for use, a concern echoed by British Foreign Secretary William Hague. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton warned that such use was a "red line" that would lead to U.S. action.[19][20] On 22 December 2012, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov stated that Syria had consolidated chemical weapons into one or two places to prevent rebels capturing them, and that recent moves that had alarmed Western governments were part of this consolidation.[][] A Syrian defector who worked inside the chemical weapons network has alleged that two senior Syrian officers moved about 100 kg. of chemical weapons materials from a secret military base in Nasiriyah in January 2012. The Syrian source also described construction of special trucks, which could transport and mix the weapons. These mobile mixers were constructed inside Mercedes or Volvo trucks that were similar to refrigerator trucks. Inside were storage tanks, pipes and a motor to drive the mixing machinery, the defector said.[21] There have been multiple unconfirmed reports of chemical weapons use in Syria, possibly 3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate which is generally non-fatal.[22][23] However in response to these reports U.S. National Security Council spokesman stated "The reporting we have seen from media sources regarding alleged chemical weapons incidents in Syria has not been consistent with what we believe to be true about the Syrian chemical weapons program".[] In December Syria 2012, Syrian forces, following the advice of Russian military advisers, concentrated their stockpiles of chemical weapons into two to four main storage areas for reasons of security and safety. [24] [25] On 19 March 2013, the Syrian government and Syrian rebels accused one another of using chemical weapons in an attack in the province of Aleppo.[][] Syrian state television and the government of Russia both blame the rebels for the chemical weapon attack.[][] Reports indicated between 15 and 40 deaths.[] An unnamed Reuters photographer described the gas as having a "chlorine like smell" and said that he saw victims suffocating.[] Rebels allege that a SCUD missile was used to deliver the agent, while the Syrian Information Minister blamed the rebels for the attack;[26][27][] neither side presented clear evidence for its claims.[] According to a spokesman for the Free Syrian Army, the attack occurred in rebel territory,[28] though Reuters photographs showed images of Syrian government soldiers injured in the attack.[][] Senior American officials said that the Syrian rebels do not have the capability to launch chemical weapons, and were skeptical that weapons had been used.[][] 319 Biological Weapons The site at Cerin is also associated with an active biological weapons research and production program. According to NATO Consultant Dr Jill Dekker, Syria has worked on: anthrax, plague, tularemia, botulinium, smallpox, aflotoxin, cholera, ricin and camelpox, and has used Russian help in installing anthrax in missile warheads. She also stated "they view their bio-chemical arsenal as part of a normal weapons program".[29] Nuclear Program Syria Nuclear program start date First nuclear weapon test First fusion weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile Maximum missile range 1979 [30] None None None None None None None Scud-D (700km) Syria 320 NPT signatory Yes Syria is a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and maintains a civil nuclear program. On September 6, 2007, Israel unilaterally bombed a site in Syria which it believed had hosted a nuclear reactor under construction. U.S. intelligence officials claimed low confidence that the site was meant for weapons development.[31] Syrian President Bashar al-Assad has said the site in discussion was just "a military site under construction"[32] and that Syria's goal is a nuclear-free Middle East.[33] Syria allowed the IAEA to visit the site on June 23, 2008, taking environmental samples that revealed the presence of man-made uranium and other materials consistent with a reactor. On May 24, 2011, IAEA Director General Amano released a report which assessed that the destroyed facility was a reactor, and the IAEA Board of Governors voted 17-6 (with 11 abstentions) to report this as non-compliance to the UN Security Council. Open nuclear programs Syria is a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and has repeatedly attempted to purchase small research type nuclear reactors from China, Russia, Argentina, or other countries. Despite these purchases being openly disclosed and IAEA monitored, international pressure has caused all these reactor purchases to be cancelled. Syria has open and IAEA monitored nuclear research programs including a Chinese made non-reactor miniature neutron source.[30] On November 26, 2008 the IAEA Board of Governors approved technical aid for Syria despite Western allegations that the country had a secret atomic program that could eventually be used to make weapons. China, Russia and developing nations, criticized Western "political interference" that they said undermined the IAEA's programme to foster civilian atomic energy development.[34] The top U.N. nuclear official also strongly rebuked Western powers for trying to deny the request, saying this shouldn't be done without evidence and merely on the existence of an investigation.[35] Alleged nuclear reactor Bombing of alleged reactor On September 6, 2007, Israel bombed an officially unidentified site in Syria which it believed had been a nuclear reactor under construction.[36] It was further claimed that the nuclear reactor was not yet operational and no nuclear material had been introduced into it.[37] Top U.S. intelligence officials claimed low confidence that the site was meant for weapons development, noting that there was no reprocessing facility at the site.[31] Western press reports asserted that the Israeli air strike followed a Satellite photo of the destroyed site shipment delivery to Syria by a North Korean freighter, and that North Korea was suspected to be supplying a reactor to Syria for a nuclear weapons program.[38] On October 24, 2007 the Institute for Science and International Security released a report which identified a site in eastern Syria's Deir ez-Zor Governorate province as the suspected reactor. The report speculated about similarities between the Syrian building and North Korea's Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center, but said that it was too early to make a definitive Syria comparison.[39] On October 25, 2007, Western media said the main building and any debris from it following the air strike had been completely dismantled and removed by the Syrians.[40] After refusing to comment on the reports for six months, the Bush administration briefed Congress and the IAEA on April 24, 2008, saying that the U.S. Government was "convinced" that Syria had been building a "covert nuclear reactor" that was "not intended for peaceful purposes."[41] The briefing included releases of satellite photographs of the bombed site and overhead and ground level intelligence photographs of the site under construction, including the alleged reactor vessel steel shell before concrete was poured and of the alleged reactor head structure.[42] Reaction to allegations On June 23, 2008, IAEA inspectors were allowed to visit the Dair Alzour site (also referred to as Al Kibar), and take samples of the debris. On November 19, 2008 an IAEA report stated that "a significant number of natural uranium particles" produced as a result of chemical processing were found at the Al Kibar site;[43] however, the IAEA did not find sufficient evidence to prove Syria is developing Intelligence photo of the alleged reactor head and nuclear weapons.[44] Some American nuclear experts have speculated fuel channels under construction about similarities between the alleged Syrian reactor and North Korea's Yongybon reactor[] but IAEA Director General ElBaradei has pointed out that "there was uranium but it doesn't mean there was a reactor".[45] ElBaradei has shown dissatisfaction with the United States and Israel for only providing the IAEA with photos of the bombed facility in Syria,[46] and has also urged caution against prematurely judging Syria's atomic program by reminding diplomats about false U.S. claims that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction.[47] Russia, China, Iran, and non-aligned countries have also supported giving Syria nuclear guidance despite pressure from the United States.[47] Joseph Cirincione, an expert on nuclear proliferation and head of the Washington-based Ploughshares Fund, commented "we should learn first from the past and be very cautious about any intelligence from the US about other country's weapons."[48] Syria has denounced "the fabrication and forging of facts" in regards to the incident.[49] IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei criticized the strikes and deplored that information regarding the matter had not been shared with his agency earlier.[31] Syria has declined to let the IAEA visit other military sites the United States recently made allegations about, arguing it fears that too much openness on its part would encourage the U.S. to push for years of relentless international scrutiny.[50] Syria has said it will voluntarily cooperate with the IAEA further if it isn't "at the expense of disclosing our military sites or causing a threat to our national security."[51] The Non-Aligned Movement has called for the establishment of a nuclear weapons free zone in the Middle East and called for a comprehensive multilaterally negotiated instrument which prohibits threats of attacks on nuclear facilities devoted to peaceful uses of nuclear energy.[52] The Gulf Cooperation Council has also appealed for a nuclear weapons free Middle East and recognition of the right of a country to expertise in the field of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.[53] The IAEA has also approved a resolution urging all Middle East nations to renounce atomic bombs.[54] 321 Intelligence photo of the alleged reactor vessel under construction Syria 322 IAEA non-compliance finding For nearly three years, Syria refused the IAEA requests for further information on or access to the Dair Alzour site. On May 24, 2011, IAEA Director General Amano released a report concluding that the destroyed building was "very likely" a nuclear reactor, which Syria was required to declare under its NPT safeguards agreement.[55] On June 9, 2011, the IAEA Board of Governors found that this constituted non-compliance, and reported that non-compliance to the UN Security Council.[56] The vote was 17-6, with 11 abstentions.[57] Delivery systems In addition to potential aircraft and artillery delivery systems, Syria has several hundred Scud model B, C, and D missiles and SS-21 missiles. International Partnerships United States diplomatic cables revealed that two Indian firms aided Syrian chemical and biological weapons makers in trying to obtain Australia Group-controlled equipment.[][] One cable stated that India "has a general obligation as a Chemical Weapons Convention State Party to never, under any circumstances, assist anyone in the development of chemical weapons".[] In 2012, Iranian and North Korean officials and scientists were brought to bases and testing areas to aid in the development and use of chemical weapons.[] References [4] Syria Special Weapons Guide (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ wmd/ world/ syria/ index. html) at globalsecurity.org (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org), accessed October 24, 2007. [5] Syria Profile (http:/ / www. nti. org/ e_research/ profiles/ Syria/ index_2066. html) at the Nuclear Threat Initiative (http:/ / www. nti. org), accessed October 24, 2007. [6] Syria and WMD Incentives and Capabilities (http:/ / www2. foi. se/ rapp/ foir1290. pdf), Syria Magnus Normark, Anders Lindblad, Anders Norqvist, BjÃrn SandstrÃm, Louise WaldenstrÃm, Swedish Defense Research Agency report FOI-R--1290--SE, June 2004, ISSN 1650-1942 [8] BBC: Syria denounces US 'lies' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ low/ middle_east/ 2950321. stm) [9] Syria says it will use chemical weapons if attacked (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ world/ story/ 2012-07-23/ Syria-violence-rebels/ 56425402/ 1) Associated Press 23 July 2012 [11] Syria Chemical Weapons (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ wmd/ world/ syria/ cw. htm) at globalsecurity.org (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org), accessed October 24, 2007. [12] http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/ jpost/ access/ 1336965581. html?dids=1336965581:1336965581& FMT=ABS& FMTS=ABS:FT& date=Sep+ 11%2C+ 2007& author=YAAKOV+ KATZ& pub=Jerusalem+ Post& desc=Ministry+ holds+ off+ on+ gas+ mask+ distribution. + Fears+ move+ could+ be+ interpreted+ as+ preparation+ for+ war& pqatl=google [13] The Sunday Herald: HOW CLOSE WERE WE TO A THIRD WORLD WAR? What really happened when (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qn4156/ is_20071021/ ai_n21061036) [24] http:/ / www. aljazeera. com/ news/ middleeast/ 2012/ 12/ 201212221532021654. html Syria 'secures chemical weapons stockpile' 23 Dec 2012 [25] http:/ / blogs. aljazeera. com/ topic/ syria/ israel-vows-syria-strike-any-sign-chemical-arms-transfer Israel vows Syria strike at any sign of chemical arms transfer January 28, 2013 [26] http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ 8301-202_162-57575054/ syria-rebels-and-regime-blame-each-other-for-1st-alleged-chemical-weapons-attack/ Syria rebels and regime blame each other for the first alleged chemical weapons attack on 19 March 2013 [27] http:/ / www. npr. org/ blogs/ thetwo-way/ 2013/ 03/ 19/ 174717836/ dueling-claims-in-syria-after-unconfirmed-reports-about-chemical-weapons Dueling Claims In Syria After Unconfirmed Reports About Chemical Weapons March 19, 2013 [28] http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2013/ 03/ 19/ world/ meast/ syria-civil-war/ index. html?hpt=hp_t1 [30] Syria - Nuclear Weapons Programs (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ wmd/ world/ syria/ nuke. htm) at globalsecurity.org (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org), accessed October 24, 2007. [31] IAEA slams U.S. for withholding data on alleged Syrian nuclear reactor (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 978043. html) [32] AFP (04/27/2008): Syria president denies building nuclear reactor (http:/ / afp. google. com/ article/ ALeqM5hgqNioVGXjfzPSB-qnEf2bkWg_6A) [33] Daiji Sadamori, ƒAssad: Syria Not Seeking to be Nuclear State,„ Asahi Shimbun, 27 October 2006 Syria [34] METimes: IAEA seeks compromise over Syrian nuclear aid issue: diplomats (http:/ / www. metimes. com/ Politics/ 2008/ 11/ 25/ iaea_seeks_compromise_over_syrian_nuclear_aid_issue_diplomats/ afp/ ) [35] Nuclear Threat Initiative: ElBaradei Lashes Critics of Syrian Nuclear Aid Request (http:/ / www. globalsecuritynewswire. org/ gsn/ nw_20081125_8832. php) [36] 6 September 2007 Air strike (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ world/ war/ 070906-airstrike. htm) at globalsecurity.org (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org), accessed October 24, 2007. [37] IAEA: Statement by IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei regarding Syria (http:/ / www. iaea. org/ NewsCenter/ PressRelease/ 2008/ prn200806. html) [38] N. Korea, Syria May Be at Work on Nuclear Facility (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 09/ 12/ AR2007091202430. html), Glenn Kessler, Washington Post, Thursday, September 13, 2007; Page A12 [39] SUSPECT REACTOR CONSTRUCTION SITE IN EASTERN SYRIA: THE SITE OF THE SEPTEMBER 6 ISRAELI RAID? (http:/ / www. isis-online. org/ publications/ SuspectSite_24October2007. pdf), David Albright and Paul Brannan, October 23, 2007 [40] Photos Show Cleansing of Suspect Syrian Site (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 10/ 26/ world/ middleeast/ 26syria. html?hp), William J. Broad and Mark Mazzetti, New York Times, accessed October 25, 2007. [41] Statement by the Press Secretary (http:/ / georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov/ news/ releases/ 2008/ 04/ 20080424-14. html) [42] Cryptome: Syrian Alleged and North Korean Reactor Photos (http:/ / cryptome. org/ syrian/ syrian-site. htm) [43] IAEA: Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Syrian Arab Republic (November 19, 2008) (http:/ / www. isis-online. org/ publications/ syria/ IAEA_Report_Syria_19Nov2008. pdf) [44] Xinhua: IAEA finds insufficient evidence for Syria's nuclear weapons development (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2008-11/ 20/ content_10383764. htm) [45] BBC: Syria nuclear clues 'not damning' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 7733839. stm) [46] Xinhua News: "IAEA chief: Report on Syrian nuclear plans needs more time" (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2008-09/ 26/ content_10116966. htm) [47] Star Tribune: UN nuclear agency chief urges caution against Syria by recalling false claims against Iraq (http:/ / www. startribune. com/ world/ 35055019. html?elr=KArks:DCiUBcy7hUiD3aPc:_Yyc:aUU) [48] The Guardian: US claims North Korea helped build Syria reactor plant (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2008/ apr/ 25/ usa. nuclear?gusrc=rss& feed=networkfront) [49] Syria rejects U.S. allegations on existence of nuclear activities (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2008-04/ 25/ content_8050478. htm) [50] Diplomats: Syria to Block IAEA From Probing Suspected Nuclear Sites (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,362782,00. html) [51] BBC: Syria rebuffs nuclear inspectors (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 7652104. stm) [52] XV Ministerial Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement (July 2008): Statement on the Islamic Republic of Iran's Nuclear Issue (http:/ / www. iaea. org/ Publications/ Documents/ Infcircs/ 2008/ infcirc733. pdf) [53] The Closing Statement Of the Twenty-Seventh Session of the Supreme Council of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (December 2006) (http:/ / library. gcc-sg. org/ English/ Books/ sessions/ cs027. html) [54] International Herald Tribune: IAEA calls for non-nuclear Mideast in heated vote (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ reuters/ 2008/ 10/ 04/ africa/ OUKWD-UK-NUCLEAR-IAEA-ISRAEL. php) [55] GOV/2011/30 (http:/ / isis-online. org/ uploads/ isis-reports/ documents/ Syria_24May2011. pdf), Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Syrian Arab Republic, Report by the Director General, May 24, 2011. [56] GOV/2011/41 (http:/ / www. iaea. org/ Publications/ Documents/ Board/ 2011/ gov2011-41. pdf), Implementation of the NPT safeguards agreement in the Syrian Arab Republic, Resolution adopted by the Board of Governors on 9 June 2011. [57] IAEA Refers Syria To Security Council (http:/ / www. voanews. com/ policy/ editorials/ IAEA-Refers-Syria-To-Security-Council-124079309. html), Voice of America Editorial, June 17, 2011. 323 External links € Syria Special Weapons Guide (http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/syria/index. html) at globalsecurity.org (http://www.globalsecurity.org) € Syria Profile (http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Syria/index_2066.html) at Nuclear Threat Initiative (http://www.nti.org) Taiwan 324 Taiwan Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . Under pressure from the U.Taiwan € 325 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category The Republic of China (Taiwan) denies having any weapons of mass destruction. Past nuclear research by the ROC makes it a "threshold" nuclear state. During the 1995€1996 Taiwan Strait crisis. Taipei agreed in September 1976 under U. Nuclear weapons Research program The development of nuclear weapons by the Republic of China has been a contentious issue. and Yugoslavia. has continually opposed arming the Republic of China with nuclear weapons. deputy director of nuclear research at INER. then Republic of China President Lee Teng-hui proposed to reactivate the program..[citation needed] The U. However.S. pressure to dismantle its nuclear weapons program. in December 1987 and produced a cache of incriminating documents.[2] U. the program was halted. Accordingly.. who was secretly working for the CIA. defected to the U. the Republic of China adheres to the principles of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and has stated that it does not intend to produce nuclear weapons. the Republic of China had an active program to produce plutonium using heavy water reactors. The Republic of China was able to acquire nuclear technology from abroad (including a research reactor from Canada and low-grade plutonium from the United States) allegedly for a civilian energy system. In 1967. after the International Atomic Energy Agency found evidence of the Republic of China's efforts to produce weapons-grade plutonium. There is no evidence of Republic of China possessing any chemical or nuclear weapons though it has in the past pursued nuclear weapons. hoping to avoid escalating tensions in the Taiwan Strait.S.S.[3] A secret program was revealed when Colonel Chang Hsien-yi. but was forced to back down a few days later after drawing intense criticism. a nuclear weapons program began under the auspices of the Institute of Nuclear Energy Research (INER) at the Chungshan Institute of Science and Technology. as it has been cited by the PRC as a reason to attack Taiwan. The other states were Israel. General Hau Pei-tsun claimed that scientists in Taiwan had already produced a controlled nuclear reaction. South Korea. South Africa. intelligence believed that the Republic of China also had designed devices suitable for nuclear testing. A study by the Mitre Corporation in 1977 included Taiwan in a list of "insecure" nuclear threshold states…states with the technical capability to develop nuclear weapons and the security motivations to seriously contemplate such an option.S.S.[1] During the 1970s. . but in actuality to develop fuel for nuclear weapons. Chemical weapons The Republic of China may be in possession of small quantities of sarin. Nuclear Power Issues and Choices (Cambridge. However. MA: Ballinger Publishing Co. The Republic of China's nuclear power plants use imported enriched uranium and are subject to International Atomic Energy Agency inspection. htm) External links € Deployments by country. although it does have the general technological ability to develop the ability to enrich uranium or process plutonium. and as such does not recognize any right that the ROC has to join international multilateral treaties. Following UN General Assembly Resolution 2758 (1971) the United Nations does not recognize the Republic of China as a legitimate political entity. References [2] Report of the Nuclear Energy Policy Study Group. 284. gwu. it has stated that it will continue to abide by the NPT..metapress. globalsecurity. notwithstanding controversy over its political status. 1977)." (http:/ / www. the Republic of China government has stated that any such materials are only for defensive research purposes and that it does not have any intention of producing offensive chemical weapons. Attempts by ROC officials to form a dialogue with the PRC on the subject of weapons of mass destructions have been rebuffed.org). the MND said that he "should be more conscious of national security". 1929 and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1970.com/content/d661v3675t623824/ ?p=fd7c304a0d2d48d5aa1a3d183bb72716&pi=1) The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http://thebulletin.edu/~nsarchiv/news/19991020/) . [4] "MND declines to confirm whether Taiwan has medium-range missile. In addition. 1951-1977 (http://thebulletin. The People's Republic of China has announced that any Republic of China possession of nuclear weapons is grounds for an immediate attack. but it has stated that it will abide by both treaties nevertheless. p. the ROC has not been allowed to join either the Biological Weapons Convention nor the Chemical Weapons Convention.[4] Ratification of international treaties The Republic of China ratified the Geneva Protocol on August 7. Because of its controversial political status. Missile Technology In response to former Defense Minister Tsai Ming-hsien's announcement that the RoC has developed medium range missiles.Taiwan 326 Current status There is no evidence that the ROC possesses any nuclear weapons or any programs to produce them. org/ wmd/ library/ news/ taiwan/ 2013/ taiwan-130316-cna01. Nov/Dec 1999 € United States Secretly Deployed Nuclear Bombs In 27 Countries and Territories During Cold War (http://www. Ukraine 327 Ukraine Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom . including strategic offensive weapons.19). 1994 of the Trilateral Statement by the Presidents of Ukraine.[1] The first shipment of nuclear weapons from Ukraine to Russia (by train) was in March 1994. and China combined. 1996 Ukraine became a non-nuclear nation when it sent last of its 1. 1991 and the Lisbon Protocol to the Treaty of May 23.[3][4] France and China provided unilateral security assurances in the form of diplomatic notes.900 strategic nuclear warheads to Russia for dismantling. the Ukrainian parliament adopted a resolution On the Ratification of the Treaty Between the USSR and USA On the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Weapons of June 7. Washington and Moscow reached an agreement in January that allowed for the dismantling of Ukraine's 176 Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBMs) ahead of Kiev's formal ratification of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). including 130 RS-18 (SS. Russia. The missiles…130 SS-19s and 46 SS-24s…carried about 1. . Ukraine.800 nuclear warheads altogether. 1992. On June 1. The next stage was the signing on January 14.[2] History Ukraine had 220 strategic weapon carriers on its territory. and 44 strategic bombers carrying 1. It was larger than those of Britain. the newly independent Ukraine had on its territory what was the third largest strategic nuclear weapons arsenal in the world.068 long-range cruise missiles.Ukraine € 328 United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category Ukraine This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Ukraine € € Other countries Atlas Politics portal When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. France. In November 1993. 46 sophisticated RS-22 missiles. and the United States under which Ukraine was to destroy all nuclear weapons on its territory. page 92 [6] United States-Ukraine Charter on Strategic Partnership (http:/ / merln. as well as security assurances to Ukraine from both the United States and Russia. ndu. nl/ books?id=bAwAAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA61& dq=March+ 1994+ + from+ Ukraine+ to+ Russia+ for& client=firefox-a#v=onepage& q=March 1994 from Ukraine to Russia for& f=false). and Ukraine: Bill Clinton. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (September/October 1994 . V. In all. and to bring any incident of aggression by a nuclear power before the UN Security Council. nl/ books?id=LNvTSDQXFXgC& pg=PA91& dq=Budapest+ Memorandum+ on+ Security+ Assurances& lr=& client=firefox-a#v=onepage& q=Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances& f=false) by Roman Solchanyk. The Trilateral Statement: Signed in Moscow.000 nuclear munitions were moved to Russia in almost 100 trains. U. about 2. kyivpost. 2008) [7] Western Information Agency: USA. 2009) . Paul. co. about 5. Kazakhstan and Belarus given on the heels of these countries' consent in 1994 to give up their nuclear weapons. was ambiguous as to whether Ukraine was acceding as a nuclear or non-nuclear state. Ukraine demanded from Russia. google. Russia confirm guarantees of security to Ukraine (http:/ / www. Details the procedures to transfer Ukrainian nuclear warheads to Russia and associated compensation and security assurances. In a joint statement on December 4.000 nuclear munitions of strategic weapon systems were removed from Ukraine to Russia for disassembly. edu/ archivepdf/ EUR/ State/ 113366. page 117 [2] Estimated Russian (CIS) nuclear stockpile. Ukraine was scheduled to submit its instruments of accession to the NPT as a non-nuclear state and formally enter into START at the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe summit in Budapest in December 1994.S. Instead security assurances to Ukraine (Ukraine published the documents as guarantees given to Ukraine[5]) were given on 5 December 1994 at a formal ceremony in Budapest (known as the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances[6]). to support Ukraine where an attempt is made to place pressure on it by economic coercion. confirmed the assurances of security to Ukraine. to abstain from the use or threat of force against Ukraine. uk/ dp/ 0773520872) by T. once START I enters into force and Ukraine becomes a non-nuclear weapon state party to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT). Russia. ISBN 978-0-7735-2087-5.Ukraine Before voting on accession.page 61) [5] Ukraine and Russia: The Post-Soviet Transition (http:/ / books. Kyiv Post (December 4. Rowman & Littlefield. Barack Obama and Dmitry Medvedev. the USA. Sets out simultaneous actions to transfer SS-19 and SS-24 warheads from Ukraine to Russia for dismantling and to provide compensation to Ukraine in the form of fuel assemblies for nuclear power stations. however. the UK and the USA undertake to respect Ukraine's borders in accordance with the principles of the 1975 CSCE Final Act. September 1994 (http:/ / books. google. pdf). The compromise reached after intense negotiations was to attach a diplomatic note from the President of Ukraine to the Rada resolution stipulating that Ukraine was acceding as a non-nuclear state. considering tactical weapons. 2009 the presidents of the United States and Russia.[7] 329 References [1] Power versus Prudence: Why Nations Forgo Nuclear Weapons (http:/ / www. Boris Yeltsin. It also provides economic support and technical aid from the United States to assist with dismantling the strategic nuclear arms. Department of State (December 19. amazon. The Rada resolution on accession to the NPT. McGill-Queen's University Press. 14 January 1994 by the presidents of the United States. 2000. 2000. ISBN 978-0-7425-1018-0. may be summarized as follows: Russia. Between March 1994 and June 1996. and Leonid Kravchuk. which was unacceptable to the Russians. com/ news/ nation/ detail/ 54421/ ). France and the United Kingdom a written statement that these powers undertook to extend the security guarantees to Ukraine. 5 December 1994 € wikisource:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons € Ukraine's Nuclear Ambitions: Reminiscences of the Past (http://eng.virsky.com/p/articles/mi_m2889/ is_n49_v30/ai_16351681/) € The Trilateral Process: Washington.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1416&fuseaction=topics.wilsoncenter.html) 13-04-2004 € Remarks at a nuclear agreements signing ceremony in Budapest (http://findarticles.200/docu/facts/kacta. europarl.htm) € Key Arms Control Treaties and Agreements (1963-1995) (http://152. Moscow and the Removal of Soviet Nuclear Weapons from Ukraine (http://www.152.eu/workingpapers/poli/w23/start_en. Kyiv.Ukraine 330 External links € wikisource:Memorandum on Security Assurances Budapest.europa.ru/numbers/7/533.event_summary& event_id=505958) March 9.95.com/nukes.htm) .globalaffairs.htm) € Ukraine's last missile silo destroyed (http://www. 2009 € TREATIES ON THE REDUCTION OF STRATEGIC WEAPONS (START I & START II) (http://www. 000–km (7.United Kingdom 331 United Kingdom United Kingdom Nuclear program start date First nuclear weapon test First fusion weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile Maximum missile range NPT signatory 10 April 1940 3 October 1952 15 May 1957 26 November 1991 3–Mt (13–PJ) (28 April 1958) 45 detonations 520–warheads (1970s) 225 warheads [1] 13. one of five recognised powers) Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € Albania .000–nmi or 8.100–mi) Yes (1968. United Kingdom € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 332 Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category . The UK has been estimated to have a stockpile of approximately 160 active nuclear warheads and 225 nuclear warheads in total. a variety of weapons of mass destruction. The United Kingdom is one of the five official nuclear weapon states under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and has an independent nuclear deterrent. biological. or has possessed. including nuclear.United Kingdom 333 Nuclear weapons Background € € € € € € € € € € € € History Warfare Arms race Design Testing Effects Delivery Espionage Proliferation Arsenals Terrorism Opposition Nuclear-armed states € € € € € € € € € € United States Russia United Kingdom France China Israel India Pakistan North Korea South Africa (former) The United Kingdom possesses.[2] The United Kingdom renounced the use of chemical and biological weapons in 1956 and subsequently destroyed its general stocks. and chemical weapons. . one of four Vanguard class ballistic missile submarines of the Royal Navy. The United Kingdom has purchased the rights to 58 missiles under the Polaris Sales Agreement (modified for Trident) from the United States Navy's "pool". in retaliation to the use of chlorine by Germany against British troops from April 1915 onwards. They also used relatively small amounts of the irritant gases chloromethyl chloroformate. the first having arrived in 1954. or the entire "physics package".400 tons of toxic chemicals. but omitted deployment from cylinders probably because it had not been considered. which serve as the UK's nuclear delivery system. However one or two missiles per submarine are probably armed with fewer warheads for "sub-strategic" use causing others to be armed with more.United Kingdom 334 Nuclear weapons The United Kingdom has four Vanguard class submarines armed with nuclear-tipped Trident missiles. during the First World War. the UK Parliament voted to renew the country's Trident nuclear submarine system at a cost of Â20bn. which is an average of three per missile. originally chlorine and later phosgene. The UK permits the U. the boosted primary. As of 2005 it is believed that about 110 tactical B61 nuclear bombs are stored at RAF Lakenheath for deployment by USAF F-15E aircraft. 5-10 kt and 100 kt. poison gas use had become widespread on both sides and by 1918 a quarter of artillery shells were filled with gas and Britain had produced around 25. The Guardian claimed that the decision had already been made to replace and upgrade Britain's nuclear warhead stockpile at a cost of Â3bn. which can each carry up to twelve warheads. which the UK ratified in 1968. however the United States does not have any veto on the use of British nuclear weapons.[5] In July 2008. for a maximum of 192 warheads per sub.S. the yields obtained using either the unboosted primary. The British-designed warheads are thought to be selectable between 0.[] A Trident missile launched from a submerged ballistic missile submarine. HMS Vanguard. the British government announced in 1998 that each submarine would carry only 48 warheads (halving the limit specified by the previous government). British forces deployed chlorine themselves for the first time during the Battle of Loos on 25 September 1915. One submarine is normally undergoing maintenance and the remaining two are in port or on training exercises. diphosgene and mustard gas. The principle of operation is based on maintaining deterrent effect by always having at least one submarine at sea. to deploy nuclear weapons from its territory. However. However. extending the life of the warheads until 2055.[6] Chemical weapons The UK was a signatory of the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907) which outlawed the use of poison gas shells.[3] The United Kingdom is one of the five "Nuclear Weapons States" (NWS) under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. and was designed during the Cold War period. These missiles are fitted with United Kingdom-built warheads and are exchanged when requiring maintenance. Under the agreement the United States was given certain assurances by the UK regarding the use of the missiles.3 kilotons.[4] During the 1980s nuclear armed USAF Ground Launched Cruise Missiles were deployed at RAF Greenham Common and RAF Molesworth. By the end of the war. Each submarine carries up to sixteen Trident II D-5 missiles. In March 2007. bromacetone and ethyl . Britain used a range of poison gases. chloropicrin. and Winston Churchill. the UK carried out extensive testing of chemical weapons from the early 1930s onwards. until an intensive four-year programme to eradicate the spores was completed in 1990.United Kingdom iodoacetate. chemical weapons suffered from diminishing effectiveness as the war progressed because of the protective equipment and training which the use engendered on both sides. € Operation Harness off Antigua in 1948-1949. Historians are divided as to whether or not gas was in fact used. which covered the use of volunteers in testing a variety of chemical weapons and countermeasures from 1939 until 1989. The trawler Carella accidentally sailed through a cloud of pneumonic plague bacilli (yersinia pestis) during this trial. It ratified the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention in March 1975. the chlorine helping to spread the denser but more toxic phosgene. brucellosis. Preparations were not complete until early 1944.[10] € Operation Hesperus off Stornoway in 1953.[8] Many ex-servicemen have complained about suffering long term illnesses after taking part in tests on nerve agents. in breach of the Nuremberg Code of 1947. including a test using anthrax on the Scottish island of Gruinard which left it contaminated and fenced off for nearly fifty years. After the war. In the Rawalpindi experiments. Gases were frequently mixed. Many of the subjects suffered severe burns from their exposure to the gas. € Operation Ozone off Nassau in 1954. hundreds of Indian soldiers were exposed to Mustard gas in an attempt to determine the appropriate dosage to use on battlefields. Despite the technical developments. after a jury found that the cause of Maddison's death was "application of a nerve agent in a non-therapeutic experiment". Alleged abuses at Porton Down became the subject of a lengthy police investigation called Operation Antler. the Royal Air Force dropped mustard gas on Bolshevik troops in 1919. British scientists studied the use of biological weapons. in a project known as Operation Vegetarian. suggested that the RAF use it in Iraq in 1920 during a major revolt there. The programme was cancelled in 1956 when the British government renounced the use of biological and chemical weapons. € Operation Negation off Nassau in 1954-5. An inquest was opened on 5 May 2004 into the death on 6 May 1953 of a serviceman. It was intended that the disease would destroy the German beef and dairy herds and possibly spread to the human population.[9] Offensive weapons development continued after the war into the 1950s with tests of plague. The 2004 hearing closed on 15 November. Operation Vegetarian was only to be used in the event of a German anthrax attack on the United Kingdom. for example white star was the name given to a mixture of equal volumes of chlorine and phosgene. Ronald Maddison. Despite the signing of the Geneva Protocol. It was alleged that before volunteering they were not provided with adequate information about the experiments and the risk. His death had earlier been found by a private MoD inquest to have been as a result of "misadventure" but this was quashed by the High Court in 2002. The UK signed the Chemical Weapons Convention on 13 January 1993 and ratified it on 13 May 1996. It was kept under covert observation until the incubation period had elapsed but none of the crew fell ill. See Use of poison gas in World War I. tularemia and later equine encephalomyelitis and vaccinia viruses (the latter as a relatively safe simulant for smallpox). They also manufactured five million linseed-oil cattle cakes with a hole bored into them for addition of anthrax spores between 1942 and mid-1943. secretary of state for war and air. In particular five sets of trials took place at sea using aerosol clouds and animals. during an experiment using sarin. . These were to be dropped on Germany using specially designed containers each holding 400 cakes. 335 Biological weapons During the Second World War.[7] The UK ratified the Geneva Protocol on 9 April 1930. € Operation Cauldron off Stornoway in 1952. org/ programs/ ssp/ nukes/ nuclearweapons/ nukestatus. guardian. co. fas. htm) Current information on nuclear stockpiles in the United Kingdom . htm) [9] Changing Direction: British Military Planning for Post-war Strategic Defence.harvard.nuclearfiles. bbc.net/ local_news_detail. com) € FAS bulletin (http://www. about.edu/~hsp/bulletin/cbwcb48.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/nuclear-stockpiles.com/modules. Australia on September 14.fas. com/ b/ 2007/ 09/ 04/ mustard-gas-tested-on-indian-soldiers.org (http://www. shtml) BBC.United Kingdom 336 Radiological weapons The United Kingdom tested a 1 kiloton bomb incorporating a small amount of cobalt as an experimental radiochemical tracer at their Tadje testing site in Maralinga range. weaponstechnology). Guardian. 1942-47 by Julian Lewis [11] Radiological weapon External links € Video archive of the UK's Nuclear Testing (http://sonicbomb. uk/ world/ 2008/ jul/ 25/ nuclear.sonicbomb.[11] References [2] Status of World Nuclear Forces (http:/ / www. February 10 2003 [8] Mustard Gas Tested on Indian Soldiers (http:/ / history1900s.com (http://www. 25 July 2008 [7] British Relations with Iraq (http:/ / www.nti. uk/ history/ recent/ iraq/ britain_iraq_07. co. html) Federation of American Scientists [6] Britain plans to spend Â3bn on new nuclear warheads (http:/ / www.org/e_research/ profiles/UK/index.php?id=9) € Nuclear Files.pdf) € The Nuclear Threat Initiative on the United Kingdom (http://www. php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=111) at sonicbomb.A Debate by Julian Lewis and Professor RV Jones (http://www. 1957.julianlewis.html) € Churchill's Anthrax Bombs . 000‚km (8.500 total 13.500‚mi) (sub) Yes (1968.000‚km (7.255 warheads (1966) 10.United States 337 United States United States of America Nuclear program start date First nuclear weapon test First fusion weapon test Last nuclear test Largest yield test Total tests Peak stockpile Current stockpile Maximum missile range 21 October 1939 16 July 1945 1 November 1952 23 September 1992 15 Mt (1 March 1954) 1. one of five recognized powers) NPT signatory Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria .054 detonations 31.100‚mi) (land) 12. The U. It had secretly developed the earliest form of the atomic weapon during the 1940s under the title "Manhattan Project".[2] . is the only country to have used nuclear weapons in combat.United States € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € 338 Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category The United States is known to have possessed three types of weapons of mass destruction: nuclear weapons. chemical weapons and biological weapons. also used chemical weapons in World War I. It was the world's first and only nuclear power for four years before being joined in the "nuclear club" by the Soviet Union. The United States has the largest number of deployed nuclear weapons in the world. The U.[1] The United States pioneered the development of both the nuclear fission and hydrogen bombs (the latter involving nuclear fusion).S. with 300 more deployed nuclear weapons than Russia.S. [5] € For 2007. the U. Air Force's heavy bomber group The United States is one of the five "Nuclear Weapons States" under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.S. 1. the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists listed the U.[3] The budget passed by the United States Congress in 2004 eliminated funding for some of this research including the "bunker-busting or earth-penetrating" weapons. the US rejected Russian proposals to further reduce both nation's nuclear stockpiles to 1. The administration of George W. nuclear submarine-launched ballistic missiles. Other warheads are in some step of the disassembly process.[6] € The exact number as of Sept.[4] € In its Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) declaration for 2003. the U. the U.S. with about 5.S.200 warheads each.575 strategic and 500 nonstrategic warheads. Different treaties and organizations have different criteria for reporting nuclear weapons.S. The exact number of nuclear weapons possessed by the United States is difficult to determine. tested a nuclear weapon since 1992. 30. the United States and Russia agreed in the SORT treaty to reduce their deployed stockpiles to not more than 2. and about 1. or SLBMs. maintaining and dismantling its now-aging arsenal. and € Air-based nuclear weapons of the U.400 total nuclear warheads: around 3.S. conducted an extensive nuclear testing program. and those being dismantled or rebuilt: € As of 1999.S. Currently. 1999. On October 13. having previously ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963. These were to . though it has tested many non-nuclear components and has developed powerful supercomputers in an attempt to duplicate the knowledge gained from testing without the actual tests themselves. In the early 1990s. has signed but not ratified the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. or ICBMs. stopped developing new nuclear weapons and now devotes most of its nuclear efforts into stockpile stewardship.113 warheads. Senate rejected ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. fact sheet released May 3. The last nuclear test by the United States was on September 23. In 2003. the U.S. the U. 2010. The U. The exact number of nuclear devices detonated is unclear because some tests involved multiple devices while a few failed to explode or US nuclear warhead stockpiles. especially "earth penetrators" . The U.S. however. has not. listed 5968 deployed warheads as defined by START rules. the United States built some new warheads.000 nuclear weapons of all types stockpiled. 1992.S.[8] In 2007. especially those held in reserve. 1945-2002. € Sea-based. was 5. Bush decided in 2003 to engage in research towards a new generation of small nuclear weapons. the two bombings killed an estimated 200.S. the United States nuclear arsenal is deployed in three areas: € Land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles. 2009.500 each. was said to have 12.260 additional warheads held in the inactive stockpile.000 Japanese citizens and injured another 130. for the first time in 15 years. which the US ratified in 1968.United States 339 Nuclear weapons Nuclear weapons have been deployed twice in wartime: two nuclear weapons were used by the United States against Japan in World War II in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Altogether. were designed not to create a nuclear explosion.054 tests were conducted between 1945 and 1992. according to a U.[7] In 2002.000. the US armed forces can also deploy smaller "tactical" nuclear weapons either through cruise missiles or with conventional fighter-bombers.[9] 2007 also saw the first Minuteman III missiles removed from service as part of the drawdown. The bomber force consists of 94 B-52 Stratofortresses. These are all of the Minuteman III ICBM variants. these bombs are deployed at seven airbases in six European NATO countries.S.600 warheads deployed on over 500 missiles in 2003 to 500 warheads on 450 A Minuteman III ICBM test launch.[10] 340 Land-based ICBMs The US Air Force currently operates 450 ICBMs. In 2010. All USAF Minuteman II missiles have been destroyed in accordance with the START treaty and their launch silos imploded and buried then sold to the public. missiles in 2012. All 64 B-1s were retrofitted to operate in a solely conventional mode by 2007 and are no longer counted as nuclear platforms.[11] . The figure does not include the estimated 4. at the same time.[9] of these.[9] Some 350 of B-2 Spirit stealth strategic bomber.S. The first Minuteman III were removed under this plan in 2007 while. have been eliminated and replaced with single warhead missiles. the warheads deployed on Minuteman IIIs began to be upgraded from smaller W62s to larger W87s from decommissioned Peacekeeper missiles. Overall. the U.113 warheads operationally deployed. 180 tactical B61 nuclear bombs fall under a nuclear sharing arrangement. stockpiles and deployment systems continue to decline in number under the terms of the New START treaty.S. since the abandonment of the START II treaty.600 warheads that have been retired and scheduled for dismantlement. is said to be considering retaining 500 warheads on 450 missiles. Peacekeeper missiles were phased out of the Air Force inventory in 2005. In addition to this. To comply with the START II most US multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles. goal under the SORT treaty is to reduce from 1.[9] Heavy bomber group The US Air Force also operates a strategic nuclear bomber fleet. The U.968. The number of operationally deployed strategic warheads stands at 1.[9] The U. and F-35. The Pentagon disclosed that the current size of its nuclear arsenal is a total of 5. located primarily in the northern Rocky Mountain states and the Dakotas. F-16. maintains about 400 nuclear gravity bombs capable of use by F-15. or MIRVs. kept in active reserve and held in inactive storage. and 19 B-2 Spirits. However.United States replace some older warheads as part of the Minuteman III upgrade program. Indiana but testing with a benign agent demonstrated contamination of the facility so no production occurred during World War II. Maryland later became a production facility as well as a research site.[14] Several deployment systems were developed including aerial spray tanks.C. this research is performed in full accordance with the BWC.[13] A more advanced production facility was constructed in Pine Bluff.S.S. See 2001 anthrax attacks for more information.S.S. The U.S. A production facility was built at Terre Haute.S. 1975. In September 2001. which began producing biological agents in 1954. Secretary of War in October 1941. negotiations ended when the Bush administration rejected an effort by other signatories to create a protocol for verification. The U. which would lead to a treaty in 1972. grenades.S. attack submarines are equipped to launch. The U. The anthrax used in the attacks was the Ames strain. introduced proposals to the UN to ban biological weapons. Each submarine is equipped with a complement of 24 Trident II missiles. arguing that it could be abused to interfere with legitimate biological research. government. of which 14 are ballistic missile submarines. located in Fort Detrick. rocket warheads and cluster bombs.[12] Research occurred at several sites. According to the U. aerosol spray canisters. there was series of mysterious anthrax attacks aimed at US media offices and the US Senate which killed five people. (See also US Biological Weapon Testing) In mid-1969. The U. which occurred between May 1971 and February 1973. Arkansas. an Ohio-class ballistic missile submarine . The U. developed anti-personnel and anti-crop biological weapons.S.[Kissinger 1969] Negotiations for a legally binding verification protocol to the BWC proceeded for years. Maryland. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases. Some Trident missiles are equipped with the W88 warhead. which was first studied at Fort Detrick and then distributed to other labs around the world. but do not currently carry nuclear Tomahawk missiles. produces small quantities of biological agents. the UK and the Warsaw Pact. Approximately 12 U. ratified the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) which came into effect in March 1975. Sea-launch weapons make up the majority of weapons declared under START II rules. Fort Detrick. separately.United States 341 Sea-based ICBMs The US Navy currently has 18 Ohio-class submarines deployed. USS–Kentucky–(SSBN-737). Biological weapons The United States offensive biological weapons program was instigated by President Franklin Roosevelt and the U. cancelled its offensive biological weapons program by executive order in November 1969 (microorganisms) and February 1970 (toxins) and ordered the destruction of all offensive biological weapons. shortly after the September 11 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington D. In 2001. ratified the Geneva Protocol on January 22. for use in biological weapons defense research. "Sixty-nine deaths were attributed in whole or in part to the mustard gas. 1969.S. In 1968. was assigned the NATO code BZ and was weaponized at the beginning of the 1960s for possible battlefield use. which was carrying mustard gas. had entered into the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 which banned aerial bombing and chemical warfare among other things but which were disregarded in actual combat. produced 5. The U. the U. maintains that this agent never saw operational use. 1943. sinking several American ships . Chemical weapons were not used by the U.S.770 metric tons of these weapons. most of them American merchant seamen" out of 628 mustard gas military casualties. however. prompting further research into nerve agents by all of the former Allies. and authorities ashore had no knowledge of it .S. disposed of chemical weapons by sinking ships laden with the weapons in the deep Atlantic. In World War I.[16] The North Koreans and Chinese have alleged that chemical and biological weapons were used by the United States in the Korean War. quantities of such weapons were deployed to Europe for use in case Germany initiated chemical warfare.[Navy 2006][Niderost] Civilian casualties were not recorded. since physicians. during World War II. was party to the Washington Arms Conference Treaty of 1922 which would have banned chemical weapons but failed because it was rejected by France. destroying several thousand tons of mustard gas by incineration at .400 metric tons of phosgene and 175 metric tons of mustard gas. The U.S. One of the anticholinergic compounds.S. At least one accident occurred: On the night of December 2.[18] On November 25.[17] but. and Soman). continued to stockpile chemical weapons. mustard gas. 1960) could be used for effective mind control) and marijuana derivatives. The U. This agent was allegedly employed by American troops as a counterinsurgency weapon in the Vietnam War but the U. certain tranquilizers like ketamine or fentanyl. also investigated a wide range of possible nonlethal.which increased the number of fatalities. produced its own munitions as well as deploying weapons produced by the French. or the other Allies. the Allies recovered German artillery shells containing three new nerve agents developed by the Germans (Tabun. showing indoles such as lysergic acid diethylamide (experimented to see if it M134 Sarin bomblets (photo c. From 1967 to 1970 in Operation CHASE. German Junkers Ju 88 bombers attacked the port of Bari in Southern Italy. Thousands of American soldiers were exposed to warfare agents during Cold War testing programs as well as in accidents. After the war.[15] The U. military account.) After the war. President Richard Nixon unilaterally renounced the first use of chemical weapons and renounced all methods of biological warfare.[19] He issued a unilateral decree halting production and transport of chemical weapons which remains in effect.S. Sarin. the United States denial is supported by Russian archival documents. the U. including 1.S.S.000 tons of material. 3-quinuclidinyl benzilate. troops suffered less than 6% of gas casualties. one such accident killed approximately 6.S.among them John Harvey.United States 342 Chemical weapons History The U. This was about 4% of the total chemical weapons produced for that war and only just over 1% of the era's most effective weapon. The whole affair was kept secret at the time and for many years after the war. The presence of the gas was highly classified.S. psychobehavioral chemical incapacitating agents including psychedelic Honest John missile warhead cutaway. who had no idea that they were dealing with the effects of mustard gas. eventually exceeding 30.S. prescribed treatment not consistent with those suffering from exposure and immersion. as well as several glycolate anticholinergics. the U. According to the U.400 sheep when an agent drifted out of Dugway Proving Ground during a test. (U. began to research safer disposal methods for chemical weapons in the 1970s.S. President George H. the Hague Conventions of 1899 and the Washington Arms Conference Treaty of 1922 although these treaties were unsuccessful.S.775 long tons) of prohibited weapons had been destroyed by June 2007 to meet the Phase III quota and deadline. and the Soviet Union entered an agreement to end their chemical weapons programs.[22] 343 Treaties The United States was a party to some of the earliest modern chemical weapons ban treaties. Chemical. chemical weapons production facilities by April 2012.[24] 13. Army Chemical Materials Agency by January. It also banned chemical weapons development. only 500 tons were mustard gas and the majority were other agents such as VX and sarin (GB) (86% of the latter was destroyed by April 2006). or Nuclear) as a nuclear attack and will respond to any WMD attack with a nuclear strike. the United States had destroyed 89. the United States signed the Chemical Weapons Convention.S.S.[21] In May 1991. However. The U.75% of the original stockpile of nearly 31.200 tons of nerve agent by chemical neutralization at Tooele Army Depot and Rocky Mountain Arsenal. destroying 45% of its stockpile of chemical weapons by 2007.100 metric tons (30.United States Rocky Mountain Arsenal and nearly 4. As part of Operation Steel Box. The U. In 1986 President Ronald Reagan made an agreement with Chancellor Helmut Kohl to remove the U. This extension procedure spelled out in the treaty has been utilized by other countries.[25] The original commitment in Phase III required all countries to have 45 percent of the chemical stockpiles destroyed by April 2004. removing some outdated munitions and destroying its entire stock of BZ beginning in 1988. prohibition on the transport of chemical weapons has meant that destruction facilities had to be constructed at each of the U.'s nine storage facilities.S.S. official expectations for the date of complete elimination of all chemical weapons was after the treaty deadline of 2012. ratified the Geneva Protocol which banned the use of chemical and biological weapons on January 22. including Russia and the unnamed "state party". precursor chemicals. disposed of the more dangerous modern chemical weapons before starting the destruction of its older mustard gas stockpile which presented additional difficulties due to the poor condition of some of the shells.[20] The U.S. the Bush administration in September 2003 requested a new deadline of December 2007 for Phase III and announced a probable need for an extension until April 2012 for Phase IV.[23] The U. Of the weapons destroyed up to 2006. a 46-day nonstop journey. began stockpile reductions in the 1980s. which required the destruction of all chemical weapon agents. including "binary weapons. In 1993. and requires the destruction of existing stockpiles. Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System began destruction of chemical agents stored on Johnston Atoll in the Pacific. Although April 2012 is the latest date allowed by .S. 1975. In 1989 and 1990. Since the United States only maintains nuclear Weapons of Mass Destruction. at the time. it is the stated policy that the United States will regard all WMD attacks (Biological. an attack upon the United States or its Allies would trigger a force-equivalent counter-attack. Chemical weapons disposal According to the U.S.W. total destruction (requests for deadline extensions cannot formally be made until 12 months before the original deadline).609 long tons) of nerve and mustard agents declared in 1997. in July 1990. Under the United States policy of Proportional Response. seven years before the Chemical Weapons Convention came into effect. dispersal systems.000 shells containing GB and VX taken from US Army weapons storage depots such as Miesau and then-classified ammunition FSTS (Forward Storage/Transportation Sites) and transported from Bremerhaven Germany to Johnston Atoll in the Pacific." The United States ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention which came into force in April 1997. production facilities and weapon delivery systems. two ships were loaded with over 100. The U. In June 1990. Bush unilaterally committed the United States to destroying all chemical weapons and renounced the right to chemical weapon retaliation.996 metric tons (13. some of which were possessed by the U. This banned the possession of most types of chemical weapons. the U.S.S. Anticipating the failure to meet this deadline. stockpile of chemicals weapons from Germany. met the first three of the treaty's four deadlines. 2011. com/ nation/ article/ us-nuclear-arsenal-revealed-5000-plus-warheads/ 19463888)"News article 3. et al. were destroyed in 2006 at Pine Bluff. airpower. co. gov/ t/ ac/ rls/ fs/ 2004/ 30816pf. fas. decision to destroy leaking individual chemical shells before bulk storage chemical weapons. org/ nuke/ guide/ usa/ cbw/ bw.[23] 344 References [1] The world's nuclear stockpile (http:/ / english. James M. The destruction facility for Pueblo is expected to be completed in 2012 with disposal occurring between 2015 and 2017.[26][27] The primary remaining chemical weapon storage facilities in the U.850 tons of weapons on November 12. Other non-stockpile agents (usually test kits) or old buried munitions are occasionally found and are sometimes destroyed in place.. metapress. (ISBN 1559632356). Operations were completed at Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System where all 640 metric tons of chemical agents were destroyed by 2000 and at Edgewood Chemical Activity in Maryland.25% of the U. org/ Products/ OperationalMedicine/ DATA/ operationalmed/ Manuals/ RedHandbook/ 007IncapacitatingAgents. brooksidepress. 1994. aspx?DocID=003683880). Blue Grass is expected to complete operation by 2021. Pine Bluff completed destruction of 3. armscontrol. 1941-1948 (http:/ / www7. cma. maxwell.472 metric tons of agents destroyed by February 2006. html) .75% stockpile reduction). The Oceans and Environmental Security: Shared U. http:/ / www. gov/ t/ ac/ trt/ 4718. org/ sgp/ crs/ nuke/ IB98030. org/ act/ 2005_06/ Belgium_Germany_Tactical. html). 2011.S. com/ content/ pr53n270241156n6/ fulltext. com/ books?id=X6t8cDhn0_MC& pg=PA103& dq=#+ Johnston+ Atoll+ Chemical+ Agent+ Disposal+ System& client=firefox-a)). Germany Question U. asp. ( Google Books (http:/ / books. Federation of American Scientists. USCMA. 2008 (http:/ / thebulletin.'s nine chemical depots (89. also uses mobile treatment systems to treat chemical test samples and individual shells without requiring transport from the artillery ranges and abandoned munitions depots where they are occasionally found.152 tonnes of agents.-Russian Agenda (http:/ / www.S. htm. Island Press. are Pueblo Chemical Depot in Colorado and Blue Grass Army Depot in Kentucky.S. 2008.United States the treaty.S. mil/ fndocumentviewer. state. gov/ is/ Archive/ 2006/ Apr/ 21-578128. aolnews. 1997 declared stockpile. 103. army. disposing of 1. Hawthorne Army Depot in Nevada destroyed all M687 chemical artillery shells and 458 metric tons of binary precursor chemicals by July 1999.S. fas. aljazeera. 1998 [14] United States (http:/ / www. October 19. nuclear forces. Anniston Chemical Activity in Alabama completed disposal on September 22. a non-lethal hallucinating agent at Pine Bluff Chemical Activity in Arkansas. state. pdf) The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists [7] (http:/ / www. org/ nuke/ guide/ summary. state. 2005 and completed operations on August 8. p. stm) [4] Nuclear Forces Guide (http:/ / www. army. 2012. fas. with 1. 2012 [24] United States Seeks Extension for Chemical Weapons Destruction .S. mil/ airchronicles/ apj/ apj03/ spr03/ conley. Newport Chemical Depot in Indiana began destruction operations in May. nationalacademies. June 2005 [12] Committees on Biological Warfare. cma. htm) [5] http:/ / www. aspx?docid=003676901 [21] Broadus. Disposal of chemical munitions has concluded at seven of the U. http:/ / www. org/ archives/ cbw.S. 2008. org/ nuke/ guide/ usa/ cbw/ bw. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 3126141. May 2010" [8] Nuclear Arms Control: The U. htm [6] U. net/ news/ americas/ 2010/ 04/ 20104735153263423. [22] http:/ / www. 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Nuclear Forces.html) € Nuclear Threat Initiative on United States (note: wrongfully writes that the original commitment to destroy all chemical weapons was for 2004 although this deadline was only for 45% of the stockpiles) (http://www. html) [27] http:/ / www.metapress.S.com (http://www.S.gwu.fas. opcw. 2006 (http://thebulletin. nti. fas.United States [25] U. by Joseph Cirincione. United States Department of the Navy. € ^ Niderost.org/e_research/e1_iraq_BWagents. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.com/content/j315pu1670282723/ ?p=405bbf40fda94354acd3a0ec9e416f32&pi=1). NSC Files. Retrieved 2006-09-18. org/ docs/ csp8_nat_statements/ USA.nti. Archived from the original (http://www. Army Chemical Weapons Agency website (http://www. Norris and Hans M. Iraq Profile. 1943" (http://www. 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"The New York Times".org/ e_research/profiles/USA/index.org/nuke/guide/usa/index. html?res=F20614FF3D550C758DDDAA0894DB404482) by Philip Shenon. Kissinger (ca. Nixon Presidential Materials. . article lacks date or volume reference. Center for Nonproliferation Studies. php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=109) at sonicbomb.pdf) (PDF).history.html) € Nuclear testing history (http://nuclearweaponarchive. retrieved October 8.org/e_research/e1_iraq_BWagents. The National Security Archive. cma.com/magazines/world_war_2/3027436.sonicbomb. Army Chemical Materials Agency. ^ External links € Video archive of the US's Nuclear Testing (http://sonicbomb. Gorbachev (http://www.internationalterrorist.historynet. € ^ Henry A.–18. mil/ . 1946): 166-169. Note‰€ Original URL (http://www.htm).archive. html). "History of the Armed Guard Afloat.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB58/ RNCBW9. August 8.historynet.com/gst/abstract.navy. November 1969). "German Raid on Bari" (http://www. org/ nuke/ guide/ usa/ cbw/ cw. Official Says (http:/ / www. November/December 2005. Wikipedia:Link rot € ^ Center for Nonproliferation Studies (2003). org/ gsn/ article/ pueblo-chemical-disposal-plant-85-finished/ ).html). January/February 2006. Eric.nti. "Obtain Microbial Seed Stock for Standard or Novel Agent" (http://cns.S. accessed September 28.com/artwork/terrormap_24x36. pdf) € Nuclear Notebook: U. army.army.com/content/j8v4421j728q2v76/ ?p=24edc9d2b50845cb9e7b9442befb4c31&pi=0) by Robert S.mil/ faqs/faq104-4. Retrieved 2006-09-18.S. htm) [29] Pueblo Chemical Weapons Disposal Plant 85% Complete.org/Usa/Tests/) € U. January 17.htm).miis. Naval Historical Center.cma. 2006. World War II. ifri.nuclearfiles.S.iht.html) € Bush administration picks Lawrence Livermore warhead design (http://www.uk/2/hi/americas/6414197.org/timeline.cooperativeresearch. us. government settles on design for new nuclear warheads (http://www.org/downloads/prolif_11_Potter.mpl/nation/ 4598305. 2005 346 .php) € US announces plans to build new nuclear warheads (http://fr.co.com/servlet/ Satellite?cid=1171894558959&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull) € U.United States € Nuclear Files. jsp?timeline=us_military&us_military_weapons_of_mass_destruction=us_military_chemicalWeapons) Posted at Center for Cooperative Research € Timeline: United States and Biological Weapons (http://www.html) (February 2007) € New nuclear warhead design for US (http://news.htm) € Trends in U.nukestrat.S.cnn.bbc. picks design for new generation of nuclear warheads (http://www.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/nuclear-stockpiles.org (http://www.com/us/ afn/nato.stm) € U. Nuclear Policy (http://www.com/articles/ap/2007/03/03/ america/NA-GEN-US-New-Warheads. Nuclear Weapons in Europe: New report provides unprecedented details (http://www. pushing others into nuclear ambitions (http://www. jsp?timeline=us_military&us_military_weapons_of_mass_destruction=us_military_biologicalWeapons) Posted at Center for Cooperative Research € Putin: U.com/mld/ aberdeennews/business/16820390.org/timeline. IFRI Proliferation Papers n”11.com/disp/story.S. Potter.com/2007/WORLD/europe/02/10/putin.S.htm) Nukestrat.aberdeennews. htm) Current information on nuclear stockpiles in the United States € U.jpost.pdf) .chron.ap/index.analysis by William C.S.cooperativeresearch. February 2005 € Timeline: United States and Chemical Weapons (http://www. 347 Treaties List of weapons of mass destruction treaties Weapons of mass destruction By type € € € € Biological Chemical Nuclear Radiological By country € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € € Albania Algeria Argentina Australia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada PRC France Germany India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Libya Mexico Netherlands North Korea Pakistan Poland Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea . development and possession of various types of weapons of mass destruction. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty). ban specific types of weapons (Chemical Weapons Convention. limit weapons research (Partial Test Ban Treaty. Treaties may regulate weapons use under the customs of war (Hague Conventions. SORT) or regulate civilian use of weapon pre-cursors (Chemical Weapons Convention. Biological Weapons Convention). Geneva Protocol). Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty).List of weapons of mass destruction treaties € € € € € € 348 Sweden Syria ROC (Taiwan) Ukraine United Kingdom United States Proliferation € € € Chemical Nuclear Missiles Treaties € € € List of treaties Book Category A variety of treaties and agreements have been enacted to regulate the use. Biological Weapons Convention). limit allowable weapons stockpiles and delivery systems (START I. General € Environmental Modification Convention € Protocol I and Protocol II of the Geneva Conventions Delivery systems € International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (not a treaty) Biological weapons € Biological Weapons Convention € Geneva Protocol . The history of weapons control has also included treaties to limit effective defense against weapons of mass destruction in order to preserve the determent doctrine of mutually assured destruction (Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) as well as treaties to limit the spread of nuclear technologies geographically (African Nuclear Weapons Free Zone Treaty. List of weapons of mass destruction treaties 349 Chemical weapons € Brussels Convention on the Law and Customs of War (not adopted but relevant language incorporated into Hague Convention) € Chemical Weapons Convention € Geneva Protocol € Hague Convention € Strasbourg Agreement € Treaty of Versailles € Washington Naval Treaty Nuclear weapons Anti-proliferation € Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material € Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty € Seabed Arms Control Treaty € Outer Space Treaty € Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency By region € € € € € € € € € African Nuclear Weapons Free Zone Treaty Antarctic Treaty Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty United States-India Nuclear Cooperation Approval and Non-proliferation Enhancement Act Weapons limitation € € € € € € € € € € € € € Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (not completed) Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty McCloy-Zorin Accords Partial Test Ban Treaty SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) SALT II SORT (Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty) START I (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) START II START III (not completed) START treaty (2010) ("New START treaty") . List of weapons of mass destruction treaties 350 Cooperation € € € € 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement Nassau agreement Polaris Sales Agreement Quebec Agreement (with Canada) . Ccacsmss. MapleTree. Doc9871. Reaper Eternal. Psy wombats. Santa naz. Charles-Thomas. CWenger. Mugunth Kumar. Runningonbrains. Jimp. Chris Mason. Dante Alighieri. Sparcsoul. HenryV1598. Moriori. Hmains. Redwoodseed. MacGyverMagic.delanoy. Pgk. Jbutler18. John Broughton. WeniWidiWiki. Bartimaues. James086. CircleAdrian. Dep. Darth Panda. Cirt. MarsRover. Spahbod. AndreniW.uk. Willsmith. Bindiji. Meegs. Fantasy. Tennehoun. Tonym88. Nuggetboy. Dpotter. Retired user 0001. Phlorm. Bhadani. Lexor. Online-gva. Gabbe. Palfo. RoyBoy. Zocky. Cantus. Q Chris. Badgernet. Brz7. Awinkle. Teratornis.xxx. Wiki alf. Minesweeper. Lorenzarius. Junglecat. Neutrality. Feinoha. Kzzl. Kusanagi-14. Johnmarkh. CyberSkull. JDP90. The Anome. Foobarnix. Etip. Fusionmix. Master Jay. AVG1998. ACSE. BillC. CanisRufus. Philip Cross. 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