Waste Heat Recovery

March 24, 2018 | Author: dedynovandi | Category: Chess, Chess Theory, Chess Openings, Game Theory
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Enthalpy of mass streams is measured from a reference of STP. In this analysis.Appendix A: Documentation for Waste Heat Estimates A.g. exhaust gases are at atmospheric pressure. wall losses. the furnace uses 10% excess air.1 Method for Calculating Flue Gas Waste Heat and Its Work Potential Background Figure 1 displays the energy balance for a typical industrial furnace. furnace inputs are at standard temperature and pressure (STP). Ep is the heat contained in heated products leaving the furnace (e. etc) Fuel Heated Product Out Figure A1. the exhaust gases are ideal gases (with the exception of H2O). dross. heated metal). For most fired systems analyzed in this study. the following assumptions were made: all material flows and energy transfers are at steady state. and Emisc is miscellaneous heat losses such as sidewall losses. Eex is the energy lost to exhaust gases. which is dependent on the chemical composition and temperature: E ex § x · ¨ m h (t ) ¸ © ¹ ex x m ex ¦ x h (t ) . Energy balance in an industrial furnace The energy balance for the furnace in Figure A1 is given by: Ein E ex  E p  E misc (A1) Where Ein is the energy input. Eex.g. and combustion is complete. which is a function of the exhaust gas mass flow rate and its enthalpy. Exhaust Gases Material In Oxidant Burner Furnace Miscellaneous losses (e. i i ex i (A2) x Where m is the exhaust gas mass flow rate. and hi(t) is the enthalpy of each species i in the exhaust. h(t) is the gas enthalpy. xi is the mass fraction of each species in the exhaust gas. The enthalpy hi(t) of each A-1 . Enthalpy is not an absolute term. The mass flow rate of exhaust gases and the mass fraction of each species can be determined from fuel consumption and mass balances. but must be measured against a reference state (for example.species is a function of the temperature (t). A reference of 300°F was also used. A reference of 77°F was used to provide a basis for estimating the maximum heat attainable if a gas is cooled to ambient temperatures. based on reaction equations for the combustion of fuel. Therefore. another way to express Equation A2 would be: § x ¨ m ex m fuel ¨ x ¨ m fuel © x E ex · ¸ ¸¸ ¦ x i hi (t) . the enthalpy of a substance at room temperature and atmospheric pressure). In this report. since the majority of industrial heat recovery systems do not cool below this temperature. The enthalpy hi(t) of each species can be calculated based on its specific heat capacity and from reference tables. the enthalpy of waste heat streams is calculated at two reference temperatures: 77°F (25°C) and 300°F (149°C). the fraction of waste heat loss relative to energy input can be expressed as: § x x ¨ m ex m fuel ¨ x ¨ m fuel © Eex Ein x § x ¨ m ex ¨¨ x © m fuel · ¸ ¸¸¦ xi hi (t) . Finally.ex i ¹ § x ¨ m ex is the fuel input ¨¨ x © m fuel x where m fuel (A3) · ¸ ¸¸ and is the exhaust gas mass flow rate relative to the fuel ¹ input (as determined from the combustion equations). ex i ¹ m fuel hc (A4) · ¸ ¸¸¦ xi hi (t) . Based on the equations above.ex i ¹ hc (A5) Where hc is the higher heating value of the fuel. the energy content of exhaust gases can be estimated by determining approximate values for the following parameters: x x x x Fuel consumption Exhaust gas chemical composition and mass flow rate relative to fuel input (calculated based on fuel consumed. and process-specific chemical reactions) Exhaust gas temperature Enthalpy hi(t) of each species (calculated) A-2 . assumed quantity of combustion air. Energy and Environmental Profile of the US Glass Industry. Table A1. the combustion of methane with 10% excess air is described by: CH 4  1. Energy intensity of processes was determined from a literature review.29% 1.00% Oxygen Nitrogen Water Ash 0.27% Hydrogen 4.79% Sulfur 1.01% Butane C4H10 Nitrogen Water Carbon Dioxide 0. p.22% Propane C3H8 0.Assumed Fuel Composition Natural Gas (% volume) Carbon 72.19% 0.00% Carbon 87.40% Hydrogen 12. In applications involving combustion (the majority of cases considered).469 tons of flat glass are produced in regenerative furnaces. Industrial Waste Heat Recovery and the Potential for Emissions Reduction The flue gas composition was determined from basic combustion equations.30% Methane (CH4) 93.79% Source: EPA.57% Oxygen Nitrogen Water Ash 3.1 below. 2002) Therefore. it is estimated that about 4. exhaust gas is calculated based on the assumed composition of the fuel.01% 0.60% Sulfur 0.1* 2 O2  3.40% 8. 56. total fuel consumption for regenerative furnaces in the glass industry is about 38 trillion Btu/year. Assumed compositions of various fuels are listed in Table A1. For example.00% 0.60% 1.Approach 1) Estimate fuel consumption Fuel consumption was estimated based on the approximate energy intensity for different processes (Btu/lb of product).1 .00% 0.00% 9. and estimated production values.76N 2 .60% Ethane (C2H6) 3. These have an average natural gas consumption of about 9 Million Btu/ton (Energetics.500. For example. 2) Estimate exhaust gas chemical composition and mass flow rate Exhaust gas chemical composition The mass fraction xi of each species in the exhaust varies for different processes.04% 0. 1984. o CO2  2H 2 O  0.2 below.272N 2 (A6) Similar expressions were written for each species in the fuel (e.g. etc) to calculate the combustion products. hydrogen. carbon. the approximate flue gas composition for main fuel types is listed in Table A1. A-3 . Assuming complete combustion and 10% excess air.2O2  8. consequently the flue gas temperature varies for different processes.g. and Cp.0% N2 77. Typical temperatures are reported in Table 4 (Section 2) of this report.0% 76. 4) Estimate enthalpy.I is the specific heat capacity of the species as a function of temperature. A-4 . Additionally.7% SO2 0.1 Calculated assuming complete combustion and 10% excess air) Exhaust gas mass flow rate The exhaust gas mass flow rate relative to fuel input is given by: x x m fuel m fuel x (A7) x x m fuel  m air mex Where the mass of air is calculated from combustion reaction equations (e. since this report estimates unrecovered waste heat.0% 11.2 .9% 9. hi(t).Assumed Exhaust Gas Compositions Flue Gas Species Volume % Natural Coal Oil Gas CO2 15. efforts were also made to estimate temperatures of heat streams exiting heat recovery devices (For example.1% 71. equation A6). Estimates of typical temperatures were determined from a literature review and interviews with industry experts.1% 0. and can be determined from t hi (t) ³C p.0% 0. of each species at the given temperature For ideal gases. exhaust temperatures from recuperators in glass furnaces are around 1800°F). Equations for the specific heat of different substances can be found in various tables.Table A1.3.1% 18. the enthalpy hi(t) of each species is a function of the temperature (t).6% (Based on fuel composition shown in Table A1. such as that shown in Table A1. r is the reference temperature (either 77°F and 300°F in this analysis).9% 12.i (t)dt (A8) r Where hi(t) is the enthalpy of the given species at the specified temperature t. 3) Estimate exhaust gas temperature Various processes are carried out at different temperatures.7% H2O 7. 60E-09 273-1500 0. The steam tables contain estimates of enthalpy at various temperatures and pressures. A-5 .78 5.53 0. 0.67 0.24 -3.87E-09 1.16E-06 d -2. the enthalpy was determined from steam tables. The partial pressure of water vapor was used. K) Formula Range (K) % Error 273-1800 273-1800 Max 0.9 25.28 7.98E-02 -3.G.Table A1.48 b -1.22 1.81E-05 8. 1984.47E-09 273-1800 0.24 N2 O2 a 28.26 5.31E-09 CO2 22.61E-09 273-1800 0. Kyle.50E-05 H2O 32.80E-02 Source: B. Chemical and Process Thermodynamics In the case of water vapor.52E-02 c 8.24 1. which was determined from the estimated molar fraction of water vapor in the flue gas and by assuming the flue gas is at atmospheric pressure.34 0.19 Avg.45 0. Cp in kJ/kmol. which does not follow ideal gas behavior at lower temperatures.06E-05 -3.Ideal-gas Specific Heats of Various Gases as a Function of Temperature Substance Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Vapor Sulfur Dioxide Cp=a+bt+Ct2+dT3 (T in K.59 1.92E-03 SO2 25.3 .57E-03 1.08E-06 -7. 400 - 8 402.751.A.622 869.124.2 Calculation of Waste Heat Losses in Different Applications Glass Industry Table A2. 56 b.079.427 Total 20.800 Recuperative Melter Oxy-Fuel 1.203 118 a.000.427 Container Glass Pressed and Blown Glass Insulation Fiber Electric Melter Recuperative Melter Oxy-Fuel Textile Fiber 1. p.300 479. Engineering Scoping Study of Thermoelectric Generator Packages for Industrial Waste Heat Recovery.436.316 1. Energy and Environmental Profile of the US Glass Industry.400 2.800 982 44.887 844. Does not include electricity-related losses.975 5. p. 2004. Exhaust temperatures from regenerative. c. Exhaust temperatures from oxyfuel furnaces based on temperatures reported by BCS 2006.600 1. p.500.427 1. Energetics 2002. Glass Melting Technology: A Technical and Economic Assessment.900 1.182 645.808 10 11 1. Energetics 2002.800 2. and direct melters based on temperatures reported by Ross.464 124.111.600 427 427 1.325 8 5 4 - 0 1 1 3 11 27 8 800 800 2.200 1.209 6 12 4 - ND ND ND 10 4 10 3 800 2.500 1.915.917. p.052 9 6 0 1 38 3 800 800 427 427 Regenerative Electric Boost Oxy-Fuel Electric Melter 9.469 500. 56.586.992 6 0 2. recuperative. Based on conversion factor of 3412 Btu/kWh.437.427 Regenerative Direct Melter Oxy-Fuel Electric Melter 2.484. 185.1 .192 76.521 4. 28 A-6 .600 982 1.608 7 6 - 3 0 1.600 427 1.Assumptions Used for Calculating Glass Melting Energy Consumption and Exhaust Gas Waste Heat Losses Production (tons/year)a Natural Gas (10^6 Btu/ton)a Net Electricit y (10^6 Btu/ton)b Fossil Fuel Consumption (TBtu) Assumed Average Exhaust Temperaturec °F Glass Flat Glass °C Regenerative Electric Boost 5. 35 57% 0.29 29% 74% 36% 12% 57% 23% 1.78 29% 36% 12% 23% 7.58 0.78 3.73 57% 81% 82% 0.79 57% 82% 4.20 0.02 7.09 42.46 2.74 57% 6. Based on calculations described in section A.93 Electric Melter Recuperative Melter Oxy-Fuel 56% 36% 40% 23% 1.99 4.Estimated Exhaust Gas Waste Heat Losses from Glass Melting Furnaces % Fuel input lost as waste heata % Fuel input lost as waste heata Waste Heat Loss (TBtu/Year)b Waste Heat Loss (TBtu/Year)b 77°F Reference 300°F Reference 77°F Reference 300°F Reference 29% 12% 11.13 Recuperative Melter Oxy-Fuel 56% 36% 40% 23% 6.62 0. Based on fuel consumption reported in Table A 1. c.10 1.12 0. Percentage is reported as a percent of natural gas input.82 0.00 4.06 24.48 1.11 76% 82% 4.47 29% 12% 3.34 57% 1. Maximum work obtainable from a heat engine operating between the combustion exhaust temperature and ambient temperature (77°F) A-7 . not total energy input.13 0.77 2.2 .16 1.82 0.05 0.59 6.44 5.94 Carnot Efficiency Maximum Work Potential (TBtu/Year)c 77°F Reference Glass Flat Glass Regenerative Electric Boost Container Glass Regenerative Electric Boost Oxy-Fuel Electric Melter Pressed and Blown Glass Regenerative Direct Melter Oxy-Fuel Electric Melter Insulation Fiber Textile Fiber Total a. b.28 0.35 1.08 28.08 0.1.Table A2.10 76% 82% 1.31 29% 12% 0. 362.0 291. 10.. Cement US Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2005.310 640 338 b.2 3.320.540. BCS.A4.. 2005 data from Van Oss.746 3.5 640 338 4. 2002.589 0. 2003. d.758 5. 12-26 96. c.Assumptions Used for Calculating Cement Kiln Energy Consumption and Exhaust Gas Waste Heat Loss % US Productiona Clinker Production (tons/year)b Fossil Fuel Consumption (10^6 Btu/ton)a Fossil Fuel Consumption (TBtu/year) CO2 Emissions from Chemical Reaction (tons CO2/ton Clinker)c Assumed Average Exhaust Temperatured °F °C Cement Wet Kiln Dry Kiln 20% 80% No Preheater 18% Preheater 19% Precalciner Total 43% 100% 77.US and Canadian Labor-Energy Input Survey.8 98.6 80. p.515.7 67.Cement Kilns Table A2. 2000 Survey. CO2 gases from clinker reactions were included in estimates of exhaust gas composition and flow rate in order to calculate waste heat loss.2 840 449 3. 2007.804. e.552 18.4 389. Exhaust temperatures for dry kiln with preheater and no preheater based on Peray. The Rotary Cement Kiln. 1986. Exhaust temperature for wet kiln and precalciner kiln were assumed to be the same as a preheater kiln.589 17.8 640 338 0.947 18.4 143.5 41. Energy and Emission Reduction Opportunities for the Cement Industry.860 a. A-8 . Portland Cement Association.611.3 . Determined by multiplying % US Production in 2000 by total production in 2005. p. p. 8 7. and therefore the ratio of fuel-related emissions to reaction-related emissions varies.08 . Since cement production also produces CO2 via chemical reactions (about 0. c. This is because each process has a different average energy consumption. The calculated percent waste heat lost by wet kilns.4 .0 29.7 15.1 59% 51% 51% 44. and precalciner kilns varies slightly though these processes were assumed to have the same exhaust temperature.Table A2.9 Precalciner 21% 11% 9.11 15.Estimated Exhaust Gas Waste Heat Losses From Cement Kilns % Fuel input lost as waste heata 77°F Reference % Fuel input lost as waste heata Waste Heat Enthalpy (TBtu/Year)b Waste Heat Enthalpy (TBtu/Year)b 300°F Reference 77°F Reference 300°F Reference Carnot Efficiency Maximum Work Potential (TBtu/Year)c Cement Wet Kiln 19% 10% 18. Based on calculations described in Section A.1 83.6 Preheater 20% 10% 13.6 Btu/ton). Varying exhaust gas chemical composition lead to varying estimates of gas enthalpy.23 44. b. Based on energy consumption in Table A 3.4 51% 9.09 7.3 a.65 Dry Kiln Total 12. preheat kilns. these additional emissions were included in calculations of exhaust gas enthalpy. Maximum work obtainable from a heat engine operating between the combustion exhaust temperature and ambient temperature (77 F) A-9 12.1.8 No Preheater 26% 16% 20. Freuhan.092 11.31d 642 Blast Furnace Gas 56. basic oxygen furnace gas. 3.092 392 Blast Furnace 56. Energetics. Energy and Environmental Profile of the US Iron and Steel Industry.708 No Scrap Preheat 38.473. For coke oven waste gas and hot blast stove exhaust gas. Converted to tons of steel assuming 1000 kg steel produced for every 940 kg pig iron. p.366 1. c. Energetics. Scrap preheat saves from 5-10% of power input.366 Electric Arc Furnace 48.092 200 Blast Stove 56. e. Energetics.800 Waste Gas 56. and electric arc furnace gas.473. Table A2. p.473.50g 58 2.800 Integrated Steel Mills 56. 2000.10 980 200 430 250 130 1. calculations of waste heat losses were performed using methods described in Appendix A.092 Coke Ovens 56. 45.092 1. Energetics.485.82f 50 3. p. 64. For coke oven gas.5 .39h 13 400 a.092 1.236. A . Best Available Techniques Reference Document on the Production of Iron and Steel. blast furnace gas.16c 66 Coke Oven Gas 56.473. Therefore.Iron and Steel Manufacturing Assumptions and calculations for waste heat losses in iron and steel manufacturing are included below. 176.24e 70 Blast Stove Exhaust -No Recovery 28.5 2007.579. Values include credit for recovered fuel.546 266 Basic Oxygen Furnace 56. 6. p. It was assumed that integrated steel mills are responsible for 54% of steel production. Total steel production from USGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Iron and Steel.485. based on Energetics. f.092 0.106.546 482 Blast Stove Exhaust .With Recovery 28. i. estimates of exhaust gas composition. 12. 10-12% of blast furnace energy consumption is in the hot blast stove.473. p.200 With Scrap Preheat 9. 62. p. flow rate.473.621.700 1. g. Values do not include electricity-related losses. p.100 Mini Mills 38. 38.1. Value initially reported per ton of pig iron.342 1.092 1. b. See temperatures listed in Table A 8. and waste heat losses were based on data reported in published literature.473. p. Also assumed 50% of blast stoves include heat recovery. 2001. 16 d. Based on data reported by PCC. Energetics.236.473. p.Assumptions for Calculating Energy Consumption and Waste Heat Losses in Iron and Steel Manufacturing Production (tons steel/year)a Net Energy Consumption (10^6 Btu/ton)b Net Energy Consumption (TBtu/year) Assumed Average Exhaust Temperaturei °F °C Steel 104.200 204 . h. the chemical composition of exhaust gases could not be calculated by simply assuming complete combustion of fuel sources. Based on calculations described in Section A.0 76% 37% 12. Based on estimates shown in Table A2.0 10.4 0.1 5.11 .11 e.0 5.1 57 A .0 43% 26% 85% 4.1 5.12 Carnot Efficiency Maximum Work Potential (10^12 Btu/Year)c 15.3 0.2 13.6 0.Table A2.6 0.1 80% 38% 4. Based on estimates shown in Table A2.6 .2 27.8 11.9 10. b.2 0.8 0. Based on estimates shown in Table A2.Estimated Exhaust Gas Waste Heat Losses from Selected Processes in Iron and Steel Manufacturing Waste Heat (10^12 Btu/Year) Waste Heat (TBtu/yr) Integrated Steel Mills Coke Ovens Coke Oven Gasa Waste Gasb Blast Furnace Blast Furnace Gasc Blast Stove Exhausta No Recovery With Recovery Basic Oxygen Furnaced Electric Arc Furnacee No Recovery With Recovery Mini Mills Electric Arc Furnace No Scrap Preheat With Scrap Preheat Total a.3 - 19% 1.1 c.2 85 5.6 3. Based on estimates shown in Table A2.8 23.1 4.10 d.1 1.1 4.9 0.9 26.9.1 62 80% 38% 4. 233 e. Calculated. d. IPCC. based on complete combustion of blast furnace gas enriched with coke oven gas. IPCC. based on complete combustion of coke oven gas. 2003. c. Calculated. CO2.7 . CO and H2 concentrations 3% based on Allendorf et. p. p. b. Assumed remaining exhaust gas composition consists of N2 A-12 . 116.Table A2.. Final Report: Optical Sensors for Post Combustion Control in Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking. Based on COG composition reported in IPCC. Best Available Techniques Reference Document on the Production of Iron and Steel. 2001. al. 176. p.Assumed Composition of Exhaust Gases in Iron and Steel Manufacturing Carbon Carbon Monoxide Dioxide Hydrogen Nitrogen Methane (H2) (CO) (CO2) (N2) (CH4) Coke Oven Coke Oven Gasa Coke Oven Waste Gasb Blast Furnace Offgasc Blast Furnace Gasc Hot Blast Stove Offgasd Basic Oxygen Furnace Gase Electric Arc Furnace OffGasf 52% 4% 3% 26% 11% Ethane (C2H6) H2O 70% 37% 5% 22% 50% 68% 8% - - 73% 2% 8% 8% 21% 26% 16% - - 5% - 18% 14% 57% - - - a. d. Table A2.8 - Assumed Average Exhaust Temperature of Exhaust Gases in Iron And Steel Manufacturing Assumed Average Exhaust Temperature °F °C Source Coke Oven Coke Oven Gasa 1,800 980 b Coke Oven Waste Gas 392 200 Blast Furnace Blast Furnace Gasc 200 430 Hot Blast Stove Off-gas No Heat Recoveryd 482 250 e With Heat Recovery 266 130 f Basic Oxygen Furnace 3,100 1,700 Electric Arc Furnace With Scrap Preheatg 2,200 1,200 h No Scrap Preheat 400 204 a. Rorick, F. 2007. personal communication. b. Bisio, G and Rubatto, G. 1998, “Energy Saving and some Environment Improvements in Coke-Oven Plants,” Energy Volume 25. p. 249. c. Obenchain, W, 2007, personal communication. d. Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET) Present and Future Use of Energy in the Canadian Steel Industry. p. 65. 1997 e. Lin, P. and Wang, P. Efficiency Improvement of the Hot Blast Generating System by Waste Heat Recovery. p. 116 f. Energetics, 2000, Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry. p. 55. g. CANMET, p. 134. h. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 1997, Center for Materials Production, "Electric Arc Furnace Scrap Preheating." p. 1. A - 13 Table A2.9 - Estimate of Coke Oven Gas Waste Heat Coke Oven Gas Waste Heat Calculations a Coke Oven Gas Enthalpy (77°F Reference) 1,501 Btu/lb COG (300°F Reference) 1,319 Btu/lb COG Production rates: Coke Oven Gas Production (per ton coke)b 0.24 ton COG/ton coke c Pig Iron Production 2.43 ton pig iron/ton coke Steel Productiond 1.06 ton steel/ton pig iron Coke Oven Gas Production (per ton steel) 0.09 ton COG/ton steel Waste Heat Loss (77°F Reference) 0.28 10^6 Btu/ton steel (300°F Reference) 0.25 10^6 Btu/ton steel a. Based on assumed chemical composition and temperature listed in Tables A 7 and A 8. b. IPCC Best Available Techniques Reference Document on the Production of Iron and Steel, p. 114. 2001. c. Energetics, 2000, Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Iron and Steel Industry, p. 41 d. IPCC, p.122 Table A2.10 - Estimate of Blast Furnace Gas Waste Heat Blast Furnace Gas Waste Heat Calculations a Flue Gas Enthalpy (77°F Reference) (300°F Reference) Production rates: Blast Furnace Gas Production (per ton pig iron)b Liquid Steel Productionc Blast Furnace Gas Production (per ton steel) Waste Heat Loss (77°F Reference) (300°F Reference) 23 - Btu/lb gas Btu/lb gas 4,369 1.06 4,107 lb gas/ton pig iron ton steel /ton pig iron lb gas/ ton steel 0.09 - 10^6 Btu/ton steel 10^6 Btu/ton l steel a. Based on assumed chemical composition and temperature listed in Tables A 7 an d A 8. b. IPCC, Best Available Techniques Reference Document on the Production of Iron and Steel, p. 176. 2001 .Based on gas production rate 1600 Nm^3/metric ton of pig iron, and on chemical composition in Table A 5. c. IPCC, p.122 A - 14 Table A2.11 - Estimate of Basic Oxygen Furnace Off-gas Waste Heat Basic Oxygen Furnace Off-gas Waste Heat Estimate Flue Gas Enthalpya (77°F Reference) 2409 Btu/lb gas (300°F Reference) 93 Btu/lb gas Production Rate BOF Gas Productionb 199.15 lb gas/ ton liquid steel Waste Heat Loss (77°F Reference) 0.48 10^6 Btu/ton liquid steel (300°F Reference) 0.46 10^6 Btu/ton liquid steel a. Based on assumed chemical composition and temperature listed in Tables A 7 and A 8. b. IPCC Best Available Techniques Reference Document on the Production of Iron and Steel, p. 1233. 2001. Table A2.12 - Estimate of Electric Arc Furnace Off-gas Waste Heat Electric Arc Furnace Off-gas Waste Heat Estimatea Without Scrap Preheat Average Power Input to Furnaceb 1.5 10^6 Btu/ton steel c 20% Percent of Power Input Lost in Off-gas 50% Percent of Offgas Losses Consisting of Sensible Heatc Average Waste Heat Loss 0.15 10^6 Btu/ton steel 77°F Referencee f 300°F Reference 0.14 10^6 Btu/ton steel With Scrap Preheat 1.388 10^6 Btu/ton steel Average Energy Input to Furnaceg Average Waste Heat Loss 77°F Reference f 0.02 10^6 Btu/ton steel 300°F Reference f 0.01 10^6 Btu/ton steel a. Due to the high variation electric arc furnace off-gas composition, temperature, and off-gas flow rate, waste heat estimates were not calculated using the same methods listed previously. Instead, estimates are simply based on common industry estimates that 20% of furnace inputs are lost as waste heat. The fraction of sensible heat loss, and the ratio of losses for different exhaust temperatures and different reference states were estimated based on an assumed average chemical composition shown in table letter. b. Based on energy input reported by Energetics, 2000, Energy and Environmental Profile of the US Iron and Steel Industry, p. 63. Value includes electricity consumption, but not the primary fuels used for generating electricity.. c. Freuhan 1998, The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel, AISE Steel Foundation, p. 605 e. Based on average energy input and typical percent energy losses. f. The assumed off-gas chemical composition was used to estimate the ratio between calculated gas enthalpy at different temperatures. Estimated heat loss at 2,200°F with a 77°F reference was used to calculate heat loss at other exhaust temperatures. g. Energetics, p. 64. Scrap preheating reduces energy consumption about 10%. A - 15 2 1000 538 With Recovery 6.7 146." Aluminum Industry Energy Conservation Workshop XI Papers. Theoretical Limit sand New Opportunities. d.294. and Gitman. 273. indicating 1/3 of furnaces with capacities over 40. (10^6 (TBtu/Year) Temperatured (10^6 Btu/ton)b Btu/ton)c °F °C 2.980 Furnaces 2. 2007.734.042 54. 2006.7 2. Yield for primary ingot casting is about 98%. 1770.13 .6 2. p. Value does not include electricity-related losses.3 2100 1150 No Heat Recovery 823. Tables F-1 and F-2. assumed only 25% of all secondary furnaces use waste heat recovery.029. p. p. 1990.062 48.Assumptions Used for Calculating Aluminum Melting Energy Consumption and Exhaust Gas Waste Heat Loss Energy Consumption Energy Assumed Average Energy Production adjusted for Consumption Exhaust Consumption a (tons/year) yield. G. (Note. "Use of the Pyretron Variable Ratio Air/Oxygen Fuel/Burner System for Aluminum Melting.." Energy 31.235 3. Total primary and secondary aluminum production from Patricia A Plunkert. Secondary aluminum specific energy for systems with and without heat recovery from Li. Table F2. The Aluminum Association.745 2. Percent of secondary furnaces using waste heat recovery based on personal communication with Rooy.2 49. Year 2006 estimate. US Requirements for Aluminum Production: Historical Perspective. but accounted for in metal casting calculations (Table A 16). USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2007.8 9. BCS 2003. yield for shape casting is significantly lower. Secondary aluminum temperature from Wechsler. 2003.471. T.6 1292 700 Primary Aluminum Melting Secondary Al Refining 3. c. T. In order to account for less waste heat recovery in smaller furnaces. b. A-16 . Primary aluminum melting temperature from BCS 2003.Aluminum Melting Table A2.1 Total a. "Performance of secondary aluminum melting: Thermodynamic analysis and plant-site experiments.000 lbs use waste heat recovery. E. Energy consumption in primary aluminum refining from BCS. secondary casting is about 96%.4 55.2 134..6 3.27. 7 Carnot Efficiency 69% 79% 0.1 0.Table A2. see Table A2. For primary aluminum.8 0.5 7. c. Waste heat losses from secondary melting furnaces were calculated using methods described in A 1.Estimated Off-gas Waste Heat Loss from Primary and Secondary Aluminum Melting Primary Aluminum Melting Secondary Al Refining Furnaces No Heat Recovery With Recovery Total % Fuel input lost as waste heata % Fuel input lost as waste heata Waste Heat Enthalpy (TBtu/Year)b Waste Heat Enthalpy (TBtu/Year)b 77°F Reference 2% 300°F Reference 2% 77°F Reference 2. b.8 9.6 300°F Reference 2. Maximum work obtainable from a heat engine operating between the combustion exhaust temperature and ambient temperature (77°F) A-17 .1 a. Based on energy consumption in Table A 13.15.80 4..14 .4 6.2 66% 34% 45% 16% 6.2 0.5 4.6 Maximum Work Potential (TBtu/Year)c 77°F Reference 1. p.2 TBtu/year TBtu/year 134.734. Year 2006 estimate b. and CO2 enthalpy d. Table E-4 c. USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2007.. 1987. Theoretical Limits and New Opportunities. Calculated from aluminum production. CO2 emissions rate. Based on estimates in Table A 13 e. Burkin.15 . 2003.6 45% 61 69% 42 TBtu/year a.292ºF 77ºF Reference 300ºF Reference Off-gas waste heat lossc 77ºF Reference 300ºF Reference 1. BCS. Patricia A Plunkert.22 tons CO2/ton aluminum 312 Btu/lb CO2 264 Sidewall Waste Heat Estimate: Energy Consumptiond Percent Sidewall Lossese Sidewall Losses Carnot Work Potential 2. A.6 2. 63. Production of Alumina and Aluminum Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.Estimate of Primary Aluminum Cell Waste Heat Primary Aluminum Melting Off-gas and Sidewall Waste Heat Estimate 2. A-18 Btu/lb CO 2 TBtu/year TBtu/year .062 tons/year Primary Aluminum Productiona Offgas Waste Heat Estimate: CO2 emissions per unit aluminumb CO2 Enthalpy at 1.Table A2. 2007. US Requirements for Aluminum Production: Historical Perspective.R. 860. d. Approximately 20% of cupolas can be approximated as "high efficiency". p. G. 30-39. Assumes 45% yield for aluminum casting. p.613 Reverberatory Furnace 90% 2.215. Iron cupola exhaust temperatures from personal communication with Eppich. "Use of the Pyretron Variable Ratio Air/Oxygen Fuel/Burner System for Aluminum Melting. Theoretical Limits and New Opportunities.252 3.6 46.USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries: Aluminum. Secondary aluminum temperature without heat recovery from Wechsler. based on BCS 2003. and Gitman. based on Schifo. 30. Eppich Technologies. A-19 .633. T. Paper describes two types of cupolas: high efficiency and lowefficiency cupolas. US Requirements for Aluminum Production: Historical Perspective.8 400 204 a. p. Theoretical/Best Practice Energy Use in Metalcasting Operations.61 8. 2003.16 . pp.224 3. 2003.Assumptions for Calculating Energy Consumption and Off-gas Waste Heat Losses in Selected Metal Casting Furnaces Estimated Energy Percentage Energy Consumption Energy Assumed Average of Consumption adjusted for Production Production Production yield (10^6 Consumption Exhaust (10^6 (tons/year)b (%)c (tons/year) Btu/ton)b Btu/ton)d (TBtu/Year) Temperaturee F C Aluminum 2. 2007." Paper presented at the Aluminum Industry Energy Conservation Workshop XI. J.95 4. Table F2. 3. Schifo. 28. 1990. Stack melter exhaust temperature from Schifo.0 2100 1150 Stack Melter 10% 263. Jacksonville Florida November 1990. and 60% in iron casting.76 9.7 1650 900 High efficiency cupola 20% 1. Year 2006 estimate. c. Current aluminum production data from Plunkert. Iron cupola production data from Schifo.84 6. Schifo.370..361 1. p. It is assumed that all high efficiency cupolas include a recuperative air preheat system. P. B. 2004.1 325 160 Iron Cupolaa 6.03 19.. Tables A2. 40. b.076.895 5.Metal Casting Melting Furnaces Table A2. Secondary aluminum production based on ratio of shape casting to total production reported by BCS.119 Low efficiency cupola 80% 4.4 7.33 1. 30. 5 - 79% 24% 988% 4% 41% 11%45% 33% 2% 19.17 .2 8. Based on fuel consumption reported in Table A 16.8 15. Maximum work obtainable from a heat engine operating between the combustion exhaust temperature and ambient temperature (77 F) A-20 . Based on calculations described in Section A.2 75% 38% 14.3 0. c.Estimated Off-gas Waste Heat Losses in Selected Metal Casting Furnaces Aluminum Reverberatory Furnace Stack Melter Iron Cupolaa Low efficiency cupola High efficiency cupola Maximum Work Potential (TBtu/Year)c % Fuel input lost as waste heata % Fuel input lost as waste heata Waste Heat Loss (TBtu/Year)b Waste Heat Loss (TBtu/Year)b 77°F Reference 300°F Reference 77°F Reference 300°F Reference 66% 15% 0% 12.3 0.Table A2.4 0.1.3 Carnot Efficiency 77°F Reference a.5 0. b. g. 2006.B. 2005. boiler capacity is heavily dominated by large units greater than 50 MM Btu/hr. Barberton. Assumes 75% of boiler capacity includes economizers. Approximately 1/2 of boilers use byproduct fuels. p. 2-20 A . p. according to ORNL. while less common for smaller capacity units. Characterization of the U.585 100% Source: ORNL. 26-5.210 41% 1. Engineering Scoping Study of Thermoelectric Generator Packages for Industrial Waste Heat Recovery. Based on conversations with boiler manufacturers. J.305 7% 10-50 277. as shown in Table A 19. ed.625 4. Final temperature estimates for economizers with conventional and byproduct fuels based on BCS. economizers are more common for large capacity units (e..810 19% 50-100 243. p. Steam: its Generation and Use. 75% was chosen as a reasonable representation of waste heat recovery practice.Boiler Capacity Estimates Boiler Size Total Capacity Percent of Total (Million Btu/hr) (Million Btu/hr) Capacity <10 102.Table A2. and Kitto.18 .875 2. It was assumed that byproduct fuels will require higher final exhaust temperatures compared to conventional fuels.S. Industrial/Commercial Boiler Population p. 28 and Stultz. greater than 25 MM Btu/hr).500 1. (ORNL. 2-2. b. Industrial/Commercial Boiler Population p.19 . An ORNL study indicates that U.438 25% 75% 38% 38% Assumed Average Exhaust Temperature °F °C 500 260 300 350 150 177 a.135 17% >250 616.125 16% 100-250 249.S. Table A2. 1992.). 2-5. S. 2005. Ohio: The Babcock & Wilcox Company.21 . Therefore.Assumptions Used for Calculating Industrial Boiler Exhaust Gas Waste Heat Loss Assumed Fraction of Total Capacity Energy Consumption (TBtu/year) % Industrial Boilers No Heat Recoverya With Heat Recoverya Conventional Fuelsb Byproduct Fuels 6. Characterization of the U.488.S.438 2. Maximum work obtainable from a heat engine operating between the combustion exhaust temperature and ambient temperature (77°F) A-22 .7 73.0 44% 153.0 30% 34% 116.2 16% 18% 0% 1% 394. Based on calculations described in section A. b.Estimated Exhaust Gas Waste Heat Losses in Industrial Boilers Maximum Work Potential (TBtu/Year)c % Fuel input lost as waste heata Waste Heat Loss (TBtu/Year)b 77°F Reference 300°F Reference 77°F Reference 300°F Reference 21% 4% 347.5 144.3 427. Based on fuel consumption reported in Table A 18 c.8 27.4 % Fuel input lost as waste heata Waste Heat Loss (TBtu/Year)b Carnot Efficiency 77°F Reference Boilers No Heat Recovery With Heat Recovery Conventional Fuels Byproduct Fuels a.20 .Table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