A.WHAT IS VOLCANIC ERUPTION Definition of volcanic eruption -Volcanic eruption is the sudden occurrence of a violent discharge of steam and volcanic material. When the earth's plates shift and magma is forced up through the earth and basically out of a hill. Advantages and Disadvantages a. Advantages • • • • • • • Rocks produced from volcanic pressure, form most of the ocean floor and continents Volcanic ash and lava also form rich soil, while hot rocks heat underground water Volcanic ash also serves as a natural resource for construction and industry Lava and tuffs have enough strength for high buildings, stone walls, are lightweight, resistant to weathering, and good insulators Great tourist attraction Great source of geothermal energy Volcanic rocks are rich in nutrients needed by plants Pollution on air Destruction of life and properties Causes substantial changes in the climate Low global temperatures Large quantities of gases produced from the eruption react with atmospheric water thus producing acid rain which destroy crops and kill all living things Poisonous gases damage respiratory systems of people and lifestocks, and contaminate water sources and vegetation. b. Disadvantages • • • • • • B. What causes volcanic eruption Theories associated to volcanic eruption a. First theory: The buoyancy and the pressure of the gas within the earth’s crust cause the volcano to erupt. Magma is formed when the upper mantle of the earth melts. A volcano is erupted when the magma (the hot liquid) rises upwards by the pressure of gas that is dissolved in it. b. Second theory: Magma contains dissolved substances such as water, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The solubility of the gases is high as the pressure increases. The solubility of water decreases as the magma moves closer to the earth’s surface and eventually separates from the magma. c. Third theory: A volcano erupts when new magma is injected into a chamber that is already brimming with magma of similar or different compositions Causes of volcanic eruption The buoyancy and the pressure of the gas within the earth’s crust cause the volcano to erupt. Magma is formed when the upper mantle of the earth melts. A volcano is erupted when the magma (the hot liquid) rises upwards by the pressure of gas that is dissolved in it. This is one of the three predominant theories. According to the second theory, magma contains dissolved substances such as water, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The solubility of the gases is high as the pressure increases. The solubility of water decreases as the magma moves closer to the earth’s surface and eventually separates from the magma. When the ratio of the gases becomes more in magma it causes the magma to disintegrate into pyroclasts, a combination of partially molten and solid fragments, and the volcano erupts explosively. The third theory says that a volcano erupts when new magma is injected into a chamber that is already brimming with magma of similar or different compositions. The eruption occurs when the magma moves upwards due to the injection of new magma. or . Seismographs measure the movement of the planet's crust. As the tectonic plates scrape and slide against each other. All of this information can offer clues to as to whether an eruption is imminent or the volcano is dormant. Satellites use cameras to provide images and photos.Process of volcanic eruption Increasing pressure on the magma chamber deep below the Earth’s surface Pressure causes the magma from the chamber to be forced upward through a series of tubes or conduits It is thrusts through the vents on the volcano. sulfur dioxide and even tiny changes in the Earth surface's shape. Seismographs 2. resulting an eruption Factors: Volume of the Magma Amount of Gas How much silica is in the magma itself C. Volcanic eruptions are closely related to the seismic activities that also cause earthquakes and tremors. Instruments and methods of determining volcanic eruption Satellites 1. providing vital information and signs of possible eruption. They also provide information from special sensors that can detect heat. Orbiting satellites monitor volcanoes from space. so seismographs are also often used to monitor volcanoes. Hydrology Instruments 4. Hydrologists use pressure sensors. Similar to a spirit level. The two most abundant gasses are sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. Tiltmeters 3. Hydrology is the study of water flows and ground water. Magma movements beneath the ground can cause visible bulging and hollows to form. and if levels of these gases increase. As magma moves towards the surface of the earth. it shows that magma is rising to the surface and an eruption is more likely. Monitoring water changes can provide clues about the activity of a volcano. These changes can offer vital clues. A sudden change could predict a volcanic eruption. This can help emergency services decide where and when to evacuate if an eruption occurs. The tiltmeters are connected to computers that monitor the ongoing changes in the landscape. . A small container of liquid shows how much the ground moves. Changes in the landscape and deformations at ground level are often a predictor of volcanic activity. the reducing pressure releases gas.move apart. One of the key instruments used to monitor volcanic activity is a tiltmeter. Hydrology also examines the paths that water takes as it flows down a volcano's side. A violent seismic reading is often a precursor to an eruption. Measuring gas emissions around volcanoes can also provide useful information about a volcano. they cause vibrations and tension. maps and the naked eye to gather data. tiltmeters are positioned around a volcano. The instruments used to do this are typically trapping bottles wherein gas is pumped into containers and then analyzed in a lab. Gas Trapping Bottles 5. Understanding how water flows can help us understand how lava might flow. water detectors. Measuring the hydrology on volcanoes has two purposes. • • Migration of animals from higher areas of the volcano to lower areas Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of vegetation around the volcano's upper slopes • • Ground swells (or inflation). Bulusan and Canlaon) and crater lake (e. however. which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols. The most significant impacts from these injections come from the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid(H2SO4). thereby warming the stratosphere. Manifestations of volcanic eruption 1. wells (e. Taal) near the volcano • • Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones. 2.g. explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O). rock falls and landslides from the summit area not attributable to heavy rains • Increase in the temperature of hot springs.D.and thus cool the Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere. they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth. Scientific manifestations of volcanic eruption Large. sulfur dioxide (SO2). hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash (pulverized rock and pumice) into the stratosphere to heights of 16–32 kilometres (10– 20 mi) above the Earth's surface. ground tilt and ground fissuring due to magma intrusion Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater . carbon dioxide (CO2). Non-scientific manifestations of volcanic eruption Non-Scientific Precursors for a volcanic eruption • Localized landslides.appearance of solfataras.g. The aerosols increase the Earth's albedo—its reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space . hydrogen chloride (HCl). Jolo Group in Sulu . Babuyan Claro in Cagayan 2. Active volcanoes in the Philippines 1. Binubulauan in Kalinga 5. Biliran in Biliran 4. Hibok-Hibok in Camiguin 12. Camiguin de Babuyanes in Cagayan 9. Didicas in Cagayan 11.• Increased steaming activity. Banahaw in Quezon 3. Bulusan in Sorsogon 7. Iraya in Batanes 13. Cagua in Cagayan 8. Bud Dajo in Sulu 6. Iriga in Camarines Sur 14. change in color of steam emission from white to gray due to entrained ash • Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds. occurrence of volcanic tremors • • • Dark cloud formation from the top of the volcano Bird migration due to land tremors Sense of impending eruption with the presence of crows and other animals that are related to myths and folktales • • Creation of unusual animal and land noises Surfacing of aquatic lifeforms due to increased temperature of the crust E. Dequey in Batanes 10. Matumtum in South Cotabato 19. The lava is spewed as high as 50 km in the air. Musuan in Bukidnon 21. which is heaped on one . Strombolian Eruptions -Though these eruptions are not dangerous. Types of volcanic eruptions 27. Parker in Cotabato 22. The lava thrown out is low in gas content and it flows down slowly. Plinian eruptions throw out large quantity of tephra. This eruption lasts for days. Taal in Batangas F. Pinatubo in Zambales. and Pampanga 23. San Pablo Volcanic Field in Laguna 25. There are regular eruptions where the small amounts of lava are exuded into the air followed by booming sounds. Plinian Eruptions -This was the eruption that not only destroyed but also buried Pompeii and Herculaneum. Leonard Kniaseff in Davao del Norte 17. Sometimes the volcanoes throw up a fire fountain where bright lava is sprayed into the air for several hours or few minutes. Tarlac.15. Hawaiian Eruptions -Hawaiian eruptions are neither explosive nor destructive. they are more impressive than Hawaiian eruptions. Makaturing in Lanao del Sur 18. 28. which has high gas content and has high viscosity. Ragang in Lanao del Sur 24. 29. the most common form is the lava lake where the lava forms craters or depressions. Kanla-on in Negros Area 16. The Strombolian eruptions produce small quantities of ashy tephra. These eruptions are caused by magma. Mayon in Albay 20. However. Smith in Cagyan 26. moving in a circular path. . Convection current Felsic A term applied to light-colored igneous rocks. Fissure - The motion of a fluid that rises as it is heated and sinks as it cools. although some hot spots do occur there. caused by a disturbance at the boundary between the solid mantle and the liquid outer core. steep-sided volcano made of alternating sequences of lava and pyroclastic debris. steep-sided volcano made of pyroclastic material.side. falling to the ground in a heap. Composite volcano A large. and cools into cinders in the air. such as rhyolite. A cinder cone is an accumulation of loose volcanic material that erupts as a liquid. Definition of terms: Ash fall A layer of volcanic ash that falls from an erupted ash cloud. Cinder cone A small. this depends on the direction of the wind. that are rich in silica. This upwelling is not related to the convection currents associated with oceanic ridges. Felsic rocks are rich in the minerals feldspar and quartz. Sometimes called a stratovolcano. Hot spot Lava Mafic Molten rock erupted onto Earth's surface. A crack through which lava erupts onto Earth's surface An upwelling of magma from beneath the earth's crust. Here the lava flows quickly and will destroy everything that it comes across. Subduction zone - Viscosity The internal friction within a fluid that makes it resist flow. It moves as a fluid.- A term applied to dark-colored igneous rocks. such as basalt. Pyroclastic flow A fast moving body of pyroclastic material from an erupting volcano. causing ocean basins to grow wider. that arepoor in silica and contain large amounts of the iron and magnesium. A boundary between tectonic plates in which a dense oceanic plate is forced beneath a less dense continental plate. Any of the mineral forms of silicon dioxide. Volatile G. Shield volcano Silica - Oceanic ridge system A broad. A long (40. low profile volcano consisting of layers of basaltic rock. 64. Readily able to form a vapor at a relatively low temperature.000 km) crack in the earth's crust where new ocean crust is continuously forming. ash. in some cases covering thousands of square kilometers. Magma Molten rock beneath Earth's surface. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) is a service institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) that is principally mandated . AGENCIES THAT DETERMINE OCCURRENCE OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS 1. Pyroclastic material Volcanic debris formed by solidification of erupted lava in air. cinders. includes dust. and blocks of rock. typically formed in the middle of oceanic plates or on continental rifts.000 mi. 1952 – The Commission on Volcanology or COMVOL was created through Republic Act No. FUNCTIONS Provisions in the Executive Order No. 1984 – seismology. 784 was issued whose provision called for the reorganization of the National Science Development Board (NSDB) and its agencies into the National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA). indentifying a number of areas for potential geothermal energy harvesting which led to the development of such sites as the Tiwi geothermal area where an energy plant and a salt-making plant were established. HISTORY 1951 – The violent eruption of Mt. The COMVOLs first order of business was to create five monitoring stations near the country's five most active volcanoes. and PHIVOLCS was put under the Service Institutions of the department. With the added duties. 1987 – Executive Order No. mandates PHIVOLCS the following specific functions: . September 17. which included the reorganization of the Commission on Volcanology into the Philippine Institute of Volcanology or PHIVOLC. 128. 128 was enacted. 1982 – Executive Order No. tsunami and other related geotectonic phenomena. March 17.to mitigate disasters that may arise from volcanic eruptions. the PHIVOLC was renamed to the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology or PHIVOLCS. Hibok-hibok created the need for an institution dedicated to the studying and monitoring of active volcanoes in the Philippines. earthquakes. calling for the reorganization of the NSTA into the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). 1960s – The commission conducted geothermal energy exploration to help with the country's energy needs. the science of earthquakes. was transferred from PAGASA to PHIVOLC. 766 to primarily protect life and property from volcanic eruptions and to provide relief and aid for the victims of such eruption. There may also be people isolated in areas which are not exposed to any danger but to which the access routes are blocked by pyroclastic flows. The public transport will continue to make return trips as long as roads remain open or until all evacuees and as much property as possible have been removed. transport will become increasingly difficult to control (due to attempts of people to scramble on to the nearest available truck or bus). and traffic movement along the escape routes out of urban areas may become impossible because of the large number of people leaving on foot. In this case. warning system. 5. the plan will have to be abandoned in favor of a "crash" plan allowing any vehicles returning to the hazard zone to collect fleeing pedestrians at ad hoc pick up and turning points (preferably under police or civil defense control) along the escape route. . 3. the socio-economic development efforts of the government. • During or after an evacuation.1. Formulate appropriate disaster-preparedness and mitigation plans. H. 4. forecast and phenomena. when there is sufficient time between the official evacuation order and the onset of destructive eruption. All other evacuees will be collected by public transport from prearrange pick-up points. Predict the occurrence of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes and their geotectonic Determine how eruptions and earthquakes shall occur and also areas likely to be Exploit the positive aspects of volcanoes and volcanic terrain in the promotion of Generate sufficient data for forecasting volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. and Mitigate hazards of volcanic activities through appropriate detection. 6. one may assume that each family possessing its own vehicle or boat will look after itself and any neighbors for whom it has space and has made a specific commitment. All private and public vehicle drivers will be briefed on which escape roads to use and when to leave. some people known to be living or working in a hazard zone may fail to appear at any of the safe transit points or in a refuge zone and it may be necessary to organize searches for them. affected. 2. RESCUE / EVACUATION • In a phased evacuation. In the event of an unexpectedly rapid escalation of destructive activity. etc. There may be need for aerial and/or marine reconnaissance missions as soon as conditions are favorable. It will be necessary to plan what equipment will be available and how such missions will be carried out. Review your emergency plan and gather your emergency supplies. maps. • How to prepare Be prepared either to shelter or to evacuate. sleeping bags. flares. make arrangements with friends or family for transportation. • Preparing to evacuate Tune in the radio or television for volcano updates. Review the plans and make sure that everyone understands them. Though it may seem safe to stay at home and wait out an eruption. If you haven’t already done so. booster cables. Sturdy shoes. lava. Manual (nonelectric) can opener. ash. First aid kit and manual. Develop an evacuation plan and a sheltering plan for yourself. Prepare an emergency kit for your vehicle with food. your family. Eye protection (goggles). Be sure to pack at least a 1-week supply of prescription medications. and others in your household. If no vehicle is available. for food supply or rescue. a fire extinguisher. batteries. Battery-powered radio • If you are told to evacuate Follow authorities’ instructions if they tell you to leave the area. Listen for disaster sirens and warning signals. Emergency food and water. doing so could be very dangerous. a first aid kit. Essential medicines. a flashlight. Respiratory (breathing) protection.mudflows. Fill your vehicle’s gas tank. . and rock that are powerfully destructive. or lava flows. Volcanoes spew hot. dangerous gases. Supplies should include the following: Flashlight and extra batteries. put together an emergency supply kit. or follow authorities’ instructions on where to obtain transportation. tools. but be aware that many emergency shelters cannot accept animals. Put livestock in an enclosed area. electricity. turn off the gas. Follow designated evacuation routes—others may be blocked—and expect heavy traffic and delays. including at least a 1-week supply of prescription medications. Fill sinks and bathtubs with water as an extra supply for washing. Close the fireplace damper. food will stay cooler longer. Fill your clean water containers. and water. if at all possible. Adjust the thermostat on refrigerators and freezers to the coolest possible temperature. If you have time. Disconnect appliances to reduce the likelihood of electrical shock when power is restored. • As you evacuate Take only essential items with you. Turn off all heating and air conditioning systems and fans. . If the power goes out. Local authorities may evacuate specific areas at greatest risk in your community. If you are told to take shelter where you are Keep listening to your radio or television until you are told all is safe or you are told to evacuate. Place vehicles under cover. Make sure your automobile’s emergency kit is ready. Plan ahead to take pets with you. Close and lock all windows and outside doors. • Have disaster supplies on hand: -Flashlight and extra batteries . and be sure to bring additional food and water supplies for them. • Ask an out-of-state relative or friend to serve as the "family contact. I. Organize your emergency supplies and make sure household members know where the supplies are. Bring your pets with you. plan a route out and have a backup route in mind. have a plan for getting back together." because after a disaster. address. it's often easier to call long distance. Make sure everyone knows the name. Be prepared for the hazards that can accompany volcanoes: -Mudflows and flash floods -Landslides and rockfalls -Earthquakes -Ashfall and acid rain -Tsunamis • Make evacuation plans. and phone number of the contact person. If you live in a known volcanic hazard area. Go to an interior room without windows that is above ground level. Make sure the radio is working. • Develop an emergency communication plan. Before Volcanic Activity • • Learn about your community warning systems and emergency plans. In case family members are separated from one another during a volcanic eruption (a real possibility during the day when adults are at work and children are at school). SURVIVING VOLCANIC ACTIVITY / SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 1. -First aid kit and manual -Emergency food and water -Non-electric can opener -Essential medicines -Dust mask -Sturdy shoes • Get a pair of goggles and a throw-away breathing mask for each member of the household in case of ashfall. If caught indoors: -Close all windows. -Bring animals and livestock into closed shelters. be aware of mudflows. especially if you hear the roar of a mudflow. Move upslope. • If trapped outdoors: -Seek shelter indoors. It is also the most destructive material the volcano will produce during an eruption. . -Close all windows and doors to keep ash out. wait for volcanologists' advice on when you can safely get back to your homes.flash floods. It is composed of very hot mud that may instantly burn down any material. and hat. doors. • • After the eruption. Avoid contact with the lava. -Put all machinery inside a garage or barn. long-sleeved shirt. Lava is the centerpiece of the eruption. -Put on long pants. -If caught in a rockfall. and dampers. Seal up drafts. mud. 2. and poisonous gasses will accumulate in lowlying areas. roll into a ball to protect your head. -If caught near a stream. -Seek higher ground . During Volcanic Activity • • • Follow the evacuation order issued by authorities. Avoid areas downwind and river valleys downstream of the volcano. Do what you can to keep ash out. -Keep car or truck engines off. Remember to help our neighbors who may require special assistance -. quickly move to high ground. wildland fires. Listen to a battery-operated radio or television for the latest emergency information. -Use a dust mask or hold a damp cloth over your face to help breathing. • Stay out of the area defined as a restricted zone by government officials. and people with disabilities. stay away from the bridge. If a mudflow is approaching or passes a bridge. Stay indoors until local health officials advise it is safe to go outside. Effects of a volcanic eruption can be experienced many miles from a volcano. When outside: -Cover your mouth and nose. avoid contact with any amount of ash. stay away from volcanic ashfall areas. Trying to watch an erupting volcano up close is a deadly idea. -Use goggles to protect your eyes. Volcanic ash can irritate your respiratory system. -Keep skin covered to avoid irritation from contact with ash. After Volcanic Activity • • If possible. and even deadly hot ashflow can reach you even if you cannot see the volcano during an eruption.-Wear a dust mask or wetted handkerchief to help filter ash. -Wear goggles to protect your eyes. Avoid river valleys and low lying areas. • • . • If you see the water level of a stream begin to rise. • Clear roofs of ashfall: Ashfall is very heavy and can cause buildings to collapse. Exercise great caution when working on a roof. If you have a respiratory ailment. Mudflows and flash flooding. • Protect yourself during ashfall: -Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants. • Avoid driving in heavy ashfall. Driving will stir up more ash that can clog engines and stall vehicles. • 3.infants. elderly people. including the type of eruptions that can occur and how much warning is possible for ash fall in your area once an explosive eruption occurs. • K. water. if any. vehicles. • Develop and test a contingency plan that can be used in a variety of emergencies. machinery. close off or seal equipment until ash is removed from the immediate environment. media outlets. Learn about evacuation procedures. hospital personnel. etc. food. Stay informed of volcanic activity in your area. Coordinate clean-up activities with neighbors and community-wide operations (learn the clean-up guidelines and instructions of your local community and leaders). law enforcement officials. NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES BEFORE AN IMPENDING VOLCANIC ERUPTION Goal of Care: (1) Establish connections with community experts and local emergency responders such as counseling agencies. dust masks and other personal protection equipment.J. but this may not be practical in all cases. and know what to expect. but not necessarily focused on volcanoes. downspouts. for example a handkerchief) and minimizing travel. GENERAL PRINCIPLES DURING AN ASH FALL • Keep ash out of buildings. For example. especially for critical facilities. The most effective method to prevent ash-induced damage to machinery is to shut down. • • • Prepare for an emergency by having critical provisions and supplies needed to support your family. Provide information frequently and directly to the public about volcanic ash. especially during a period of unrest. business. water supplies. or community for at least several days. fire departments. spare filters and parts for machinery and vehicles. and shelter. including instructions for participating in clean-up operations. medicine. . and wastewater systems (for example. in your area. • Minimize exposure to airborne ash by using dust or filter masks (or a wet cloth. and maintain corresponding contact information. storm drains) as much as possible. erve people but don’t forget about yourself T.(2) Inform and educate people on the attitude and management of such disaster.timulate Community Participation E. etc. Emergency responders — law enforcement officials.xercise leadership R.each the meaning of warning signals E. fire departments.xercise Competence Roles and Responsibilities of a Nurse during the disaster • • • • • • • • D.pdate physical and Psychological preaparedness R. etc.efer to appropriate agencies Equipment and supply list for establishing communication during the disaster • • • Cell phones and extra batteries Portable battery-powered radio with extra batteries Contact information — home and cell phone numbers. . Teaching and Supervision S.ursing Plans should be integrated and coordinated U.erve the best of the MOST A. o o Community experts — counseling agencies. hospital personnel.esponsible for Organizing. etc. Basic Principles in planning for a Disaster • • • • • N.ccepts directions and take orders from an organized authority S.isseminate information on the prevention and control of environmental hazards I. addresses.nterpret health laws and regulations that are protocol during the disaster S. pencils.o o Media outlets District-level crisis response team members Miscellaneous • • • First aid supplies Flashlights with extra batteries Pens. immunization. environmental sanitation) Treatment of cases Record and report known cases to proper authorities Accomplishment of terminal . notepads Planning to Meet the Disaster Health Needs and Problems • Provide immediate and appropriate treatment Proper handling and positioning Immediate evacuation to nearest medical facility Provide psychological support Problem: DEATH • • • • Objectives: Provide care of the dead Provide supportive care to the bereaved family Proper identification and disposal Notification of relatives Spiritual blessing to the dead Proper mark of the grave’s site must be done Problem: EPIDEMICs • Interventions: Initiate preventive measures (isolation. shtml http://www.buzzle. It is also the most destructive material the volcano will produce during an eruption.thinkquest.org/C003603/english/volcanoes/theadvantages.com/articles/volcanic-eruptions-what-causes-volcanoes-to-erupt.Disinfections L.html . It is composed of very hot mud that may instantly burn down any material. s Source: http://library. WHAT IS LAHAR? Lava is the centerpiece of the eruption.