Visisthadvaita Philosphy for Beginners

1Viçi߆ådvaita Philosphy for Beginners V Introduction içiߢådvaita is often translated as Qualified—non-dualism and is the theology/philosophy which has been handed down through a succession of spiritual masters and found its culmination and perfection in the great Teacher Råmånuja-åcårya who lived in the 12th century. His teachings were later expatiated upon by the three great Spiritual Masters Pi¬¬ai Lokåcårya, Ma±avå¬a-mahåmu±i and Vedånta Deçika. Viçiߢådvaita is one of the three classical systems of Vedånta philosophy. The other two being Advaita Vedånta (Monism) and Dvaita Vedånta (Dualism). The term Vedånta means 'the end of the Vedas'; it refers specifically to the Upanißads which are texts which are appended to the end of each of the four Vedas. These texts deal with metaphysical matters such as the nature of the Ultimate Reality, the individual Self and the universe around us. Vedånta as a methodology is an enquiry into the nature of this Ultimate Reality. A systematic investigation into the nature of Truth is called in Sanskrit a darçana. The term darçana which means an ‘exposition’ expresses the fundamental truths found in the çruti (Vedas), and which can be tested with discrimination and logic, as well as the realization of that knowledge by personal experience. The philosophical systems which are based on these revelatory texts are known as the schools of Vedånta. Viçiߢådvaita is a philosophy and a systematic theology which attempts to reconcile Revelation (the Vedas) with reason and intuition. It is a universal system, and accepts in other systems and sources whatever is coherent with its own perceived cardinal truths. Philosophy means the Love of Knowledge. It's contents fall into three groups of enquiry;— 1. What is the Ultimate Reality? (tattva) 2. What is the Supreme Goal of life? (purußårtha) 3. What is the means to attain that goal? (hita) All philosophical systems that attempt to answer these queries must have a sound methodology. Philosophy rests upon the twin pillars of logic and Epistemology. Epistemology is the study of the source, nature and limitations 2 of knowledge. In order to begin the study of philosophy one should first of all have a thorough understanding of what knowledge is, what the valid means of knowing are as well as the objects and limitations of that knowledge. Every school of philosophy under the umbrella of Vedanta has to show that the doctrines being taught have the solid support of such methodology. All the schools of Vedanta accept Revelation (Vedas and Upanißads) as the only legitimate source of knowledge concerning the Ultimate Reality. But even Revelation in order to be credible must fulfil five conditions;— 1. It must be interpreted according to the rational canons of exegesis (interpretation of scripture) which is contained in the Mimåmsa. 2. It must be demonstrated that the scriptural statement does not contradict information obtained from other sources of knowledge. 3. It must be internally consistent. 4. It must teach us something which we cannot learn from other sources 5. It must be able to be applied to the practical interests of life. Srî Råmånuja's Teachings R åmånuja was the greatest of the Srîvaiß±nava preceptors and was the first to codify the doctrines and systematise the philosophy of Viçiߢha-advaita. He himself does not use this term anywhere in his works; simply referring to his system as “Vedånta”. Råmånuja's was the first åcårya to comprehensively criticise Saºkaråcårya's nontheistic interpretation of Vedånta. The other åcåryas of the Bhakti (theological) schools like Nimbarka, Madhva and Vallabhacårya all came after Råmånuja and liberaly used his polemics and teachings to establish their own schools with minor restatements to suit their own theological positions. All the schools of theological Vedånta share the common purpose of establishing the supremacy of the Personal God, known by the names of Nåråya±a, Våsudeva, K®ß±a etc., and to prove that He is one and the same as “'Brahman” — the Abstract Absolute referred to in the Upanishads. They all hold the position that the Supreme Godhead is a Personal Being with attributes (sagu±a) and reject the concept of an attributeless Absolute (nirgu±a) as taught by Saºkaråcarya. Salvation/liberation involves the cultivation of devotion to the Supreme Lord. According to these Bhakti schools of Vedanta, Mokßa 3 (Liberation) does not mean the unification of the individual self (jîva) with Brahman, but the attainment of eternal servitude to God. Råmånuja's intellectual genius rivals that of Çaºkara. Not only was he a great mystic but was also a master of Vedic learning a great logician and exegete. Råmånuja's works can be divided into two categories; the earlier works of which the greatest is the Srî Bhåßya which is a commentary on the Vedånta Sûtras of Bådaråyana, in which he establishes himself as a formidable Vedic scholar and the later works in which he proves himself to be a deeply enlightened mystic; relying on the devotional Tamil writings of the å¬vår saints. Brahman — the Absolute The Upanißads do not provide us with a systematic philosophical or theological exposition but contain many variant doctrines and views. Generally the Absolute Brahman is declared to be a ‘Unity of Being’ which contains within itself all the diversities of worldly experience and yet remains unaffected and unlimited by them. Çaºkara upholds this Unity of Being by reducing all diversity of worldly experience into a mere appearance — an illusion or Måyå. He uses the allegory of a snake superimposed on a rope in semi-darkness — seeing the coiled rope one imagines it to be a snake and is takes fright but upon closer investigation in the light it is seen as it actually is — a harmless rope. According to Çaºkara, the cause of the illusory appearance of variety in the world is nescience or ignorance (ajñåna). Brahman as the undifferentiated Pure Consciousness is unchanged and unaffected by the passing phenomena of the variegated universe. With the dawning of pure wisdom (jñåna) in the mind, the illusory presentation disappears without leaving any residue — the Non-dual Consciousness alone remains in its pristine state unchanged. This position leaves many philosophical/theological problems unsolved and raises many more. Because the Absolute is so transcendent and is fundamentally unknowable and cannot be expressed in language, a philosophical position cannot be absolute in order to be tenable; it must simply solve more problems than it creates. Çaºkara suggests that the material world is real only from a practical point of view (vyavahårika satta) but has no ultimate reality. Çaºkara accepts no Ultimate Reality other than an unchanging and attributeless Absolute Consciousness. Thus Çaºkara teaches a single Reality with two aspects — the apparently real and the absolutely real. Råmånuja totally rejects this Advaitic interpretation of the Both Çaºkara and Råmånuja considered themselves only as 'Vedåntins' and for both of them. but Råmånuja's understanding and teaching is embellished by the devotional songs and mystical experiences of the Ŭvår saints who lived in the Tamil country from the 2nd to the 8th century. A more compact translation is Pan-organistic non-dualism. Råmånuja teaches that there are three Ultimate Realities called Tattvas. Von Buitenin has defined it as — “unity of the universe's spiritual and non-spiritual substances with. This Personal God is distinguished from the Absolute (Nirgu±a-Brahman). the enlightened being realises that both the world and the Personal God have no real existence hence his system of Vedånta is ultimately non-theistic. and is as unreal as the pluralistic world that is said to be His creation. a God whom they modify as His body”. While he is a strict Vedåntin in his methodology and scriptural exegesis. He declares that Unity is not justified by the erasing of all diversity but demonstrating diversity in unity. and in. Devotional Vaiß±avism is introduced in his early major writing the Srî Bhåßya. Scholars disagree about how this term should be translated. but becomes clearer in his later writings.4 Unity of Brahman. When ignorance is overcome by proper wisdom. The term Viçiߢhådvaita which was coined by later scholars to differentiate it from the other systems of Vedånta. accepting the Sanskrit Vedic revelations of the Rishis as well as the Tamil revelations of the Ŭvårs as equally authoritative Çaºkara links the provisional Material Reality with the Personal God (Sagu±a Brahman or îçvara) who is its cause. he identifies the Upanißadic Brahman with Viß±u-Nåråya±a. their system was Vedånta. The Godhead Råmånuja successfully fused the philosophical investigation of Upanißadic seers into the nature of the being (ontology) and the changing world around us with the Ŭvår's ecstatic experience of God — hence Viçiߢådvaita is also called the Ubhaya Vedånta — the Dual Vedånta. This triad is established and defended with the relentless logic of Vedantic methodology. the universe. the jîva and the Godhead — a realistic theism in which the Godhead of theology and the Absolute of philosophy are one and the same.. and this is the turning point from philosophy to theology. . • ånanda — Immeasurable and unobstructed Bliss . Bhagavån. space etc. attributeless. and • The division of Reality into Paramårtha (the ultimately real) and Vyavahårika (the relatively real). One of the major flaws he points out in Advaita Vedanta is the problem of the locus of ignorance. If it is admitted to be an entirely different category then dualism results. . • anantam — Infinity or excellences unlimited by categories of time. which means only that the latter is illusory. The latter being a concession to ignorance and only a means to attain the former. Içvara.. In what does ignorance inhere? What is it's location? If it is Brahman.5 Råmånuja launches a scathing attack against the Advaita theory of Ignorance (avidya) and the division of Reality into Paramårtha (ultimate) and Vyavahårika (relative or practical). The essential nature of God Råmånuja refers to the Supreme Being by such names as Brahman. The Supreme Person can take any form and indeed in His essential nature or svarûpa. Purußottama. To try to solve the problem by saying that Ignorance is a category that is neither existent nor non-existent nor a combination of both is contrary to logical thinking. Furthermore. Viß±u etc. He pervades every thing as indweller and its substratum. God for Råmånuja is not a formless. Brahman becomes tainted with negativity and is thus unworthy of being a spiritual goal. as the Jîva in its essential state is supposed to be one with Brahman. If it is the jîva (individual self). • jñåna — omniscience which is permanently un-contracted knowledge. but the Supreme Person with an archetypal form which is free from all limitations. indefinite and vague abstract presence unsuited for meditation and adoration. being the Supreme Subject that cognises everything else. The svarûpa or essential nature of the Supreme Person consists of the following five characteristics:— • satyam — Truth unconditioned and changeless. Råmånuja directs a polemic against the three doctrines of:— • Two Brahmans: — nirgu±a — devoid of attributes and sagu±a — with attributes. the condition of being a jîva is caused by the Upådhis (limiting adjuncts) superimposed on Brahman and these Upådhis are the products of Ignorance. the same problem persists. • The theory of avidya — Ignorance which is without a definite locus and which cannot be described as existent or non-existent or a combination of both. Nåråya±a. Thus Ignorance must precede the existence of the Jîva and therefore the jîva cannot be locus of it. social circumstances etc. incorruptible purity (amalatva) and Infinity (ånantatva) are also integral to Him. All these constitute His essence as also His inherent attributes. perfectly immaculate — free from the taints of Karma. ånanda is only another way of describing the conscious nature of Brahman. and conform to a specific type of limited variation. Jñåna (omniscience) is not merely an attribute but the essential nature of Brahman. tejas — splendour The auspicious qualities are. while svarûpa is His inherent nature as it is in itself. So Råmånuja often describes Brahman as jñåna-ånandaika-svarûpa or one whose essential nature is solely Consciousness and Bliss. çakti — creative potency 5.6 • amalatva — incorruptibility. . These five attributes are not to be considered merely as five qualities. Some of the other most important ones are gambhîrya (inestimable profundity). bala — omnipotence 3. unrelated to either the world or the jîvas. Råmånuja is always careful to enumerate one or more of these inherent and auspicious qualities in order to underscore his rejection of the Advaitic concept of a Brahman devoid of all qualities. jñåna — omniscience 2. våtsalya (parental affection). The framework of the unlimited attributes forming the svabhåva are the six qualities (Bhagas) described in the Viß±u-Purå±a as powers characterising the Bhagavån (God). audårya (generosity) and kåru±ya (compassion). aiçvarya — sovereignty 4. upbringing. the above-mentioned being the most important. Human personalities are conditioned by parentage. vîrya — immutability 6. When we talk of God being a 'Personality' it is these countless auspicious qualities known as kalyå±a-gu±as which are referred to and not to some humanoid entity. Whenever he alludes to Brahman. Svabhåva (Personality) consists of the qualities He demonstrates in relation to the world and the jîvas. sauçîlya (amiability) and saulabhya (accessibility). countless. They are:— 1. whereas the Personality of the Godhead is unconditioned and unlimited. There are other attributes that form the svabhåva — the Personality of God. And herein lies the impossibility of understanding Brahman with our finite minds — it is difficult to comprehend how a thing can have an attribute and be an attribute. however. The qualities of Existence (satya). the Jîvas and the Universe In Råmånuja's system. God has another kind of attribute apart from the inherent and essential attributes. are incapable of separate existence. çarîra-çarîri. — the jîvas (individual selves) and Jagat (changeful and manifold Nature).7 God. and (3) God is the master and owner and the jîva-jagat are subservient to Him and are His disposable property.relation etc. A doctrine of a perfect and aesthetic God may suffice for simple devotees but as a Vedantic theologian one is expected to formulate a theory showing exactly how the unity of all existence is possible in the face of a constantly changing multiplicity. In other words the variety that is experienced in the world and the experiencer are ultimately unreal. also called Måyå. For example having Sakti (creative power) would indicate the creation of something — a world. The field of metaphysics deals with their interconnectedness. According to the rules of Debate (Tarka) one first paraphrases the opponent's argument and then refutes it and afterwards establishes one's own position. and being filled with Kåru±ya (compassion) indicates possibility of His doing something about the suffering which is inherent in the world. The implications of this definition can be analysed as follows: — (1) The supported entities — the jîva-jagat. He argues that the multiplicity is 'super-imposed' upon the non-dual Brahman due to Ignorance (avidyå). So first we will deal with Çaºkara's thesis. Råmånuja as a Vedantic metaphysician addresses himself to this task. Råmånuja defines a çarîra (body) as:— "Any substance (Dravya) that an intelligent being (Cetana) is able completely to control (Niyantum) and support (Dhårayitum) for its own purposes and the essential nature of which is entirely subservient (çeßa) to that intelligent being. is its ‘body’. and also how a morally perfect and blissful Being can be accepted as the creator of a world that is full of moral imperfection and suffering. Çaºkara establishes the unity of Brahman by the theory of super-imposition or adhyåsa. For the Godhead to display a Personality (svabhåva) necessitates a theory of His relationship with those jîvas who are the recipeints of this display and the world in which they live. from God the supporter (p®thak-siddhi-anårha) (2) God is the controller and jîva-jagat is that which is controlled. . Ap®thak-siddhi. Thus the meaning connoted by both these pairs of expressions only underlines the impossibility of a separate existence for the jîvas and Nature. however. In dissolution the jîvas and Prak®ti exist undifferentiated from Brahman but they do not lose their identity in so far as they have the potentiality to re-manifest again at the time of S®ß¢i or Projection of the universe. The mode constituted by the jîvas and Prak®ti undergo changes and transformation. the life-energy of the body. The body consists of millions of individual cells. Prakåra means a mode and Prakåri — the substance to which the mode is related. The cells of the heart. To elaborate on this doctrine of the çarîra-çarîri relationship between Brahman and the Cosmos. In the ordinary material sense a mode may be dissolved into its substantial base. of the lungs. and every individual cell of these categories has its own individuality and function. But in the case of Brahman and the universe this cannot happen. This coporeality is subject to changes of condition. Apart from the whole they have . is not reciprocal — the coporeality is totally dependent on îçvara. The dependence. Body-cell analogy An analogy from the biology of a human body can also be used to further illustrate this relation. are distinct in function. Råmånuja uses other expressions like prakåra and prakåri and ådhåra and ådheya. In the case of îçvara. A mode has no existence independent of the substance.8 The body (corporeality) of God is the totality of jîvas and Material Nature. The dependence is eternal. An entity that is a mode and a thing supported. and a dependent object dropped down from that which supports it. In the case of the jîva. bones. and not He on it. as their dependence on Him is eternal and innate. but this is only contraction and expansion. but can never be destroyed or separated from Him. inherent and irrevocable. and they exist and function solely to serve the interest of the whole. ådhåra means support which is the Brahman and ådheya that which is supported — the jîvas and Prak®ti. when the jîva is separated from the body. They thus augment the understanding of the body-self (çarîra-çarîri) relationship. but they all form one unified body — they are bound together as a unified whole by the will. the body returns to the elements and it can no longer be called a body. as Brahman is their eternal. irrevocable and natural substratum and support. which is called Pralaya (dissolution) and S®ß¢i (projection). brain etc. depends entirely on the substance of which it is an expression. the Cosmic Corporeality of jîvas and Nature can never be separated from Him. In our own experience the body and Self are always organically related. the muscles. Theologically many other meanings are derived from this — some of them being servant (çeßa) and master (çeßi). His favourite proof text is from the Antaryåmi Bråhma±a of the B®hadara±yaka Upanißad (3. He is the Inner Controller of our Self and immortal..7)— He who dwells in all beings. The çarîra-çarîri relationship is further elucidated by the concepts of çeßa and çeßi. The spiritual and ethical significance of this relation is eternal service of God and being the instrument of His Lila. is the inner controller. there is no other hearer than He. and thus any system of Vedanta requires the investigation of the concept of an Absolute which resolves the manifold cosmos into a single unity. is the theme of the unity of all existence. though this metaphysical truth may not be understood or actually realised by the Jîva in the state of ignorance. capable of being adored and responsive to prayer and worship. and service of. All else but He is perishable.. The Scriptural Basis for Sarîra-Sarîri Doctrine The doctrine of ap®thak-siddhi is established by Råmånuja not through logical reasoning. but on Scriptural testimony only. This kind of irrevocable and non-reciprocal dependence of an object on its supporting object is what is called Ap®thak-siddhi. In all forms of Theism. as the Adhyåsa (super-imposition theory) of Çaºkara does.. While God is one with the many. your own Self. He is never heard. but is the Hearer.. There is no other Seer than He. but also lays the ontological basis for the devotional and ethical doctrines of subservience to. . there is no other knower than He. This is the theological problem which Råmånuja set out to solve. in which unity of existence is established without forfeiting the ultimate reality of the many. who is within them. Literally çeßa means 'what remains' and çeßi. and if separated they will perish and cease to be cells. But an Impersonal Absolute negates the concept of a Personal God. He is never seen but is the Seer. He should not also be contaminated by the many. Råmånuja not only secures the logical bond of inseparable union between them. In the bodyself relationship of the jîvas and Prak®ti with God the relationship is indissoluble.9 no existence. and this he does by positing the body-Self doctrine. whom none of the beings knows. God is the supremely adorable and infinitely good Personal Being who is distinct from the world and the multiplicity of jîvas. whose body is all beings and who controls all beings from within. To achieve a balanced theology of the unity of all existence one must posit the thesis that the Personal God and the Absolute are in fact one. 'that which is the whole'." By establishing the çarîra-çarîri relationship between Brahman and the Universe... there is no other thinker than He. Srîman Nåråya±a as the raison de etre of the jîva's destiny. and immortal. accessory (çeßa) and principal (çeßi). At the centre of Vedåntic ideology. They form one organic whole held together by the relation of inseparable dependence as a unity with Brahman (Ap®thak-siddhi). As a Vedantic theologian with the unity of all existence as his main thesis. In the case of jîvas it is the hold of oppressive Karma that generates the spiritual blindness of ignorance and impurity. Içvara as the Creator Besides describing the Svarûpa and Svabhåva of Içvara. God is untouched by Karma and is therefore absolutely immaculate. but not as independent entities. His Amalatva or freedom from impurities remains intact. caused by the will of Brahman they gain patency and diversity through a process of metaphysical evolution. in the Pralaya' state the jîvas and Prak®ti would be reduced to their primordial condition and would remain latent in Brahman. For Råmånuja they exist. without any distinction. In the light of such a relationship. the Self's unaffectedness by body and its transformation is taken for granted. . In the phase of projection or S®ß¢i. For the Vedantin there is no independent plural existences like the Prak®ti and the Purußas of the Sankhyans. How much more so must this be applicable to God who is the source of all enlightenment and is of the nature of consciousness absolute (jñånasvarûpa).10 The objection may be raised that if the jîvas and the Nature are Brahman's body. The corruptions of the world cannot corrupt Brahman. as jîvas and changeful Nature (Jagat) always exist as a part of Brahman as His body or mode. the sufferings and corruption of the cosmic body of God must surely affect Him and make existence unbearable. it is also maintained that even an enlightenment person is able to achieve a state of complete detachment even while embodied. There is no absolute origination. as a substance with attributes. then just as in the case of sentient beings. So while metaphysically Brahman is one with his Cosmic body constituted of jîvas and Jagat. They exist in the two states of latency (Pralaya) and patency (manifestation or S®ß¢i). This evolutionary process of Prak®ti taught by Råmånuja is more or less the same as in the Sankhya cosmogony. He is unaffected by its corruptions. Brahman's causality does not mean that He created a nonexisting world out of nothing. Besides. For. the motivating power behind the periodic movement being the will of Içvara expressed in the Veda as — 'I am one. may I become many'. Råmånuja mentions Brahman's being the cause of everything (sarva-kåra±atva) in a separate category perhaps to stress the unique importance of this characteristic. Pralaya and S®ß¢i are eternally alternating states of matter like night and day. The answer given is that in all schools of Indian philosophy except that of the Cårvåka (materialist hedonists). Råmånuja is also bound to demonstrate that Brahman is both the material and efficient cause of the universe. and this raises the very relevant question whether God is good or evil. Indriyas (sense centres in the mind). which is the balanced state of the three Gunas of Sattva. that brings about the good and evil. and the enjoyments and sufferings which are experienced in the world. These Karmic seeds remain as latent propensities during the state of Pralaya. Brahman has to enter into these categories and cause them to intermingle in such a way as to form the various spheres (realms) and the bodies of living beings. But Råmånuja's theory of creation is not devalued by this serious objection. But unlike in the Sankhya system. All sentient beings are the creators of their own destinies. the moral result of the actions of jîvas in their series of embodiments. Thus at every stage as the efficient cause Brahman participates in the creative process the jîvas which gain their separate identity and various bodies suited for their spiritual evolution according to their previous Karma. God only wills the S®ß¢i or projection of Prak®ti into the categories and their combinations. in the world to Içvara. Theory of Creation and Theodicy This theory of creation has a great implication in Råmånuja's uncompromising insistence on the amalatva (immaculate-ness) of Içvara. If God is taken to be 'the Supreme Cause' of the universe. Such. manas (Cosmic mind). It is to be especially noted that both in the latent (Pralaya) and patent (S®ß¢i) states.11 Prak®ti. God is free from the responsibility of starting the process and causing the evils accruing from it. Karma is the sum total effect of all the actions of the jîvas in previous embodiments. But this advantage is gained only through the attribution of all the evils. Rajas and Tamas evolves by phases into Mahat (cosmic intellect). the jîva ad Prak®ti form the body (çarîra) or mode (prakåra) of Brahman. it would be better to maintain that He created the souls and the world out of 'nothing' (ex nihilo) as Semitic religions do. the subtle aspects of the five elements. The alternation of states does not in any way affect or alter this eternal integrated relationship of Ap®thak-siddhi (non-existence in separation). Nature and jîvas exist as His eternal and inseparable modes. Ahamkara (Cosmic egosense). One of the major problems of the Semitic religions is the problem of the origination of evil (theodicy). It is Karma. sufferings etc. God does not create these potentialities as He does not create Nature. a doctrine would have the advantage of establishing God’s absolute omnipotence more effectively. and by the Divine will the jîvas obtain bodies suited for the reaping of their Karmic rewards in the shape of suffering and/or pleasure. the authors of their own sorrows and joys. and finally into their gross aspect. Creation and dissolution are the twin phases of an eternally recurring cyclic process of Samsara. . the automatic diversification of categories is not in itself sufficient to complete the creative process. Thus creation has a purpose in regard to the salvation of the jîvas. which involves immense suffering to the jîvas involved in it.12 The shape that these elements take depends on the Karmic potentialities of the jîvas involved in the cyclic process of time. For the jîva owing to the accrual of Karma has almost become one with matter. It is through the impact of the creative process in various forms that the jîva gradually experiences an expanding of consciousness. which is related to Brahman as His own çarîra (body). He is not responsible for the evil and sufferings involved in the creative process. is a spontaneous process expressing the rapture of self-enjoyment without any ulterior purpose. By this interpretation of creation and the law of Karma. It therefore demonstrates His beneficence and lack of any negativity. As God is self-fulfilled (pûr±a-kåma). He can have no personal objective to gain through creation. is as good as that of matter as far as awareness is concerned. To the state of unification with God in the experience of beatitude and absolute consciousness. though in essence the jîva. as well as fulfilling the Vedantic requirement of His being both the material and efficient cause of the universe. The process of Creation is the mechanism that facilitates this. is that in bondage it is one with matter without its individuality being lost and in liberation it is one with God without its individuality being lost. This state. . with its conscious nature completely obscured. though not for God personally. Råmånuja justifies the doctrine of Brahman's Amalatva or freedom from all impurity as also from partiality and cruelty. Samsara. The answer given is that the creative activity is an expression of His beneficence towards jîvas and not of callous cruelty towards them. But the question will be asked what justification is there for this purposeless play. If there was nothing to stimulate the jîva to strive for enlightenment it would remain in its matter-dominated state for eternity. even in Liberation always remains distinct from the Godhead in the çarîra-çarîri (body-Self) relation. Creation is therefore described as His Lîla or sportive manifestation. Enjoyment and suffering are the phases of this evolutionary process. The essential consciousness (Dharma-bhûta-jñåna) of the jîva is contracted. however. although its inward awareness (Dharmi-jñåna or Pratyaktva) remains intact. there arises also the question of the purpose of creation. Creation involving suffering and enjoyment gradually enables the jîva to strive for enlightenment and the return to Godhead. S®ß¢i (Projection) and Samhåra (withdrawal) of the universe. In discussing the aspect of Brahman as the Creator. God only provides the manifesting power. The difference in the condition of the jîva in the two states of bondage and liberation. and all things as connected with oneself in that all embodied beings are jîvas. Manu says that all dependence on others (Paråçraya) causes sorrow. independence of this kind is not the natural state of things. merchants to their customers etc. is certainly their master (çeßi). it is under the influence of ignorance which Karma has generated. and service of. (çeßas). Parents to their children. If the jîva thinks that it is an independent and self-existent entity free to dispose of itself as it likes. the jîva derives the highest bliss of security and satisfaction. Here it may be objected that if the ultimate consummation of life for the jîva is dependence and subservience. But the sense of spiritual dependence born of the realisation of being a part of the Whole. another who is unworthy of it. All human beings stand in the position of a servitor to another being.13 The ethical and Spiritual implications of the Sarîra-Sarîri doctrine It has been already pointed out that according to Råmånuja the essential nature of the çarîra (jîva) is to be under the absolute control and support of the çarîri (the Lord) and to subserve the purpose of the çarîri. The answer given to this valid objection to çeßa-çeßi-bhåva is that this criticism is true only of dependence on. This self-realisation and devotion issues forth as a recognition of the inter-dependence of all things as the çarîra of God. The sense of craving for independence and individuality which a person in ignorance feels. It is the self-realisation of being a jîva. all-perfect and all-blissful Being. In Viçiߢådvaita. children to their parents. God. is due to attachment. and not the wretchedness of worldly subservience which is characterised by exploitation. as they are objects existing solely for His service or use. the Supreme çeßi (Master). and the jîva and Jagat become the liege or servant (çeßa). When this is removed by enlightenment and the jîva realises itself to be the eternal and natural attendant of an all-powerful. and also of service undertaken for personal advantages by the ignorant jîva who identifies with the body. but because it is in the nature of things. The forgetfulness that one is a natural çeßa (servitor) of God is due to ignorance born of Karma. all self-dependence is happiness. In terms of personal relationship the çarîri (îçvara) becomes the Master or Lord (çeßi). who has absolute control over the jîva and Jagat (His body) and who can utilise them as He likes. then it is equal to being consigned to hell. All beings like to be free and not to be subservient to another. îçvara. can only cause the highest bliss and sense of fulfilment to the jîvas. This leads to the desire for the . or in order to manipulate the jîva for a selfish end. or an entity distinct from body-mind complex and the consequent sense of çeßatva (natural dependent status) in relation to îçvara that generates true devotion (Bhakti) which consists in continuous mindfulness and the absorbing desire to serve Him. Service to God is therefore pre-eminently fitting. Real Knowledge for the jîva consists in its recognition of its being an absolutely dependent entity whose only purpose and true joy is to serve the Lord. is alone worthy of service. The çeßi (God) rules over the çeßa (jîva) not by virtue of the imposition of power. He is unattached and untouched by the transformations that Nature undergoes. is untouched. K®ß±a says in the Gita. It is evident that there is a paradox between transcendence and accessibility in one and the same being. He is their container as well. The attributes of His essential nature (svarûpa) are — satyam (truth). ånandam (Bliss) and Amalatva (immaculate purity) — these form what has been described earlier as His Svarûpa and Svabhåva. But as already pointed out. In the sense of His unaffectedness too. and even in being the Indweller. It is Karma that creates suffering and enjoyment for jîvas. It is true that as the Cosmic Indweller (Antaryåmin). Such are the ethical and spiritual implications of the doctrine of çarîra-çarîribhåva and its allied doctrine of çeßa-çeßi relationship of the jîva with îçvara. Transcendence and accessibility of God One of the great spiritual implications of çarîra-çarîri and çeßa-çeßi doctrines is a reconciliation between God's transcendence (Paratva) and His accessibility (Saulabhya). He is not in the least affected by its imperfections.14 welfare of all beings (loka-saºgraha) and the working towards such an altruistic aim. So He is the çarîrin (indweller) of the Cosmos as a whole and of every part of it including the jîvas. In His intrinsic form (Svarûpåµsa). His will to create is only an act of mercy for effecting the evolution of the jîvas under the domination of Karma. • b) By pervading the universe. anantam (Infinity). This cannot apply here. has a corpus of çuddha-sattva (pure transcendental matter. only a 'fraction' of Him is involved in this aspect. He transcends the universe. but God. It is what is described in Scripture as avåºg-månasa-gocaram — beyond the ken of speech and thought. Transcendence in this context can have three meanings: • a) The Deistic conception of God in which God remains absolutely absent and unrelated to the world after the act of creation. because God not only projects the categories of creation from within Himself. • c) Above all God transcends Prak®ti and the jîvas in bondage by means of His supra-mundane (Apråk®ta) corpus in which He abides eternally in His Divine realm of Vaiku±¢ha. Only the jîvas liberated from Samsåra can commune with Him. God has a corpus constituted of Nature (Prak®ti) and all jîvas from the creator Brahma down to the lowest blade of grass. being free of the bondage of Karma. He is infinitely beyond their dimension too. jñånam (Knowledge). . the supreme Lord Nåråya±a. as He is its Self. but also enters into them to activate their combination. 'I remain. In its totality and in its particularity the whole cosmos and every part of it are the corporeality (çarîra) of Brahman. But He is not confined in them as water in a bottle. permeating this whole universe by a tiny portion of Myself'. The imperfections and sufferings of this world are not due to God but due to the Karma of jîvas. Råmånuja focuses chiefly on the two well-known Incarnations as Råma and K®ß±a. In that sense also. Nåråya±a appears as a human being and lives among humans. Brahman is transcendent (Para) and accessible (Sulabha) at the same time. pervades the whole Cosmos in its totality and in its multiplicity of jîvas and Nature. 3. both of which become a direct means for one to attain salvation. the Lord is not born to reap the fruits of Karma like jîvas. just as the kneeling-elephant retains all the elephantine characteristics even while kneeling. but He has got all the divine glory and powers of Nåråya±a. It is through His appearance as the Incarnation and through images that stand that Nåråya±a demonstrates His accessibility. the Vibhava or special manifestation as Avatåra (Divine descent or Incarnation). 2. the Antaryåmin or indweller in the universe as a whole and in all its parts. Though human in appearance. In an Incarnation. The elephant is so high that the lame man cannot climb onto the neck of the elephant by any effort that he may make. Although twenty four or more Divine Incarnations are mentioned in the Purå±as. and is not the slave but the master of material Nature. the Arca or consecrated images in temples. the Srîvaiß±ava literature uses a very expressive analogy of an elephant and a lame man. and 4. His inability to endure the sufferings which the jîvas undergo in Samsara. The contemplation of the forms of the Incarnate and His glorious . and then the lame man can easily climb up. Saulabhya or accessibility in a special sense In order to reconcile the paradox between Paratva (transcendence) and Saulabhya (accessibility). But the tall elephant can kneel down. the Supreme Being has four aspects. They constitute His corpus and He is their indwelling Self. that prompts Him to 'descend' as the Avatåra. the Para or Nåråya±a in His transcendent Status of Vaiku±¢ha. The purpose of His descent is often described as the destruction of evil forces and establishment of Dharma. Besides redeeming jîvas during His earthly manifestation. An Incarnation's body is composed of Suddha-sattva or pure transcendental stuff unalloyed by material nature. it is His Compassion. According to Srîvaiß±ava theology. He leaves behind him the highly evocative episodes of His pastimes (Srîmad Bhågavatam) and spiritual teachings (Bhagavad Gita). More than that.15 But it is the same Nåråya±a who. These are:— 1. by virtue of His Omnipotence and Omnipotence. he does not make much reference to the Divine Consort. Viß±u Himself is the only Creator and Srî is co-eval with Him. unlike Incarnations. But in his more devotional writings like the commentary on the Gita. Nåråya±a. The elephant's kneeling position is not as yet low enough for the humblest of the humble devotees to get upon. who is the sole active power in creation. Incarnations appear only once in an age. The Incarnation is non-different from Nåråya±a. The general idea Råmånuja conveys is that Srî is co-eternal with Viß±u. It is sometimes pointed out that Råmånuja does not emphasise the idea of Arcåvatåra in his major work. the function of Mother Lakßmî has great importance. This must be only because the idea of worship of holy images is not prominent in Vedic religious tradition. consider Her as the first of the Jivas and therefore the first among çeßas (servitors). that this system has come to be known as Srî-Vaiß±avism and God popularly known as Srîman-Nåråya±a. The function of Srî as a factor in the accessibility of God In Srîvaiß±ava theology. contemplation of the Incarnation is equal to contemplation on Nåråya±a. Even when He incarnates. the Srî Bhåßya. But She does not play any particular part in the creative function of the Universe. Siva being only the inactive Pure Consciousness. Lakßmî is quite unlike Sakti. It is on account of Her role as the Divine Consort. In his own life we find him doing service to the Holy Image at Kåñcipûram and accepting the management of the great Vaiß±ava temple at Srîraºgam. In Srîvaiß±avism. Nitya-grantha etc. (Nåråya±a eternally accompanied by Lakßmî). . the Srî Bhåßya. and after they leave the human body. Lakßmî is more in evidence.16 pastimes offer an effective means of salvation. ever united with Him. the female counter-part of Siva. probably because he was writing a work of pure Vedantic philosophy. She always accompanies Him. The Teºgalais. Gådyatraya. what is left for one to contemplate on is only the accounts of their lives and teachings. In Råmånuja's major philosophical writing. is always present as the Arca for devotees to commune with through the senses of vision and touch and through devoted adoration. however. and he was not prepared to water down any of their devotional ideas to placate the intellectuals. that She is anapåyini. It is however a part and parcel of the religious tradition that Råmånuja inherited from the Ŭvårs. By dint of His omnipotence and boundless compassion the Lord takes up residence in the icon with a fraction of His total energy in order to receive the worship of the devotees and to bless them with divine grace. and that is the Arca or the consecrated Divine image in great temples like those of Srîraºgam Tirupati etc. So it kneels still more. In spite of their shortcomings even they can practice absolute self-surrender (Prapatti) and attain to Nåråya±a's Divine Realm. This idea is superimposed on the Godhead through the concept of Srî the mother of the universe — not in the sense of the active creative energy as in Shaktism but as an important element in the redemption of Selfs. . is not very explicit on this. Furthermore the concept of Srî extends and illustrates the scope of God's saulabhya (accessibility). Nåråya±a is described as the father who is personified Justice and Srî is the Mother whose compassion extends to even the most undeserving of Selfs. To the question how such a division in the Divine Nature can be justified. But there are other humble folk who have no Vedic training or any philosophic understanding but who are endowed with strong faith. She is the Mediatrix and Intercessor with Nåråya±a on behalf of all spiritual seekers. being but one and coeval with Him.17 What exactly is the function that Srî fulfils? Råmånuja. is attained only through Divine condescension. the later åcåryas of the Srî-Vaiß±ava tradition accorded to Srî the position of the Mother of the universe who extends the Divine accessibility to unworthy Selfs. which no price can procure. But this doctrine of Saulabhya should not be taken as making the attainment of God a cheap and easy affair. we see the bending elephant lying almost flat on the ground. Bhakti is synonymous with Upåsana or continuous mindfulness of the Divine with the knowledge that one is a spiritual monad forming a çeßa (servant) of His. Thus the concept of Srî is an essential part of God's Saulabhya (easy accessibility). and in the Srî-Vaiß±ava rituals and forms of adoration. ending in its final stage in Prapatti or complete self-surrender. That potent self-surrender which accomplishes it. In Her. That is why She is described in relation to Nåråya±a as 'Anapåyini' one who never keeps away from Him. prayer to Srî or Her grace must take the first precedence. the only answer is that Srî is non-different. according to many authorities. The Srî-Vaiß±ava scheme of devotional practices has two aspects — Bhakti and Prapatti. It is the nature of the mother in actual life to have a greater concern for her weaker offspring than for the strong and the talented. (2) Jiva (individual self). God is pure consciousness-substance (Jñåna-svarûpa) and His Dharma-bhûta-jñåna comprehends all of existence. which is the cause of the obstruction of knowledge. the jiva also is A-Ja¥a (non-insentient). The flame burning at the tip of the wick is a light in itself — revealing itself and it also illumines things around the lamp. (5) kåla (Time) and (6) prakrti (Primordial Matter). Like God. The negative 'A-ja¥a'. Thus self-awareness and other-awareness are complete in Him. Substance-consciousness is called Dharmi-jñåna and the attributeconsciousness is called Dharma-bhûta-jñåna. is used for a particular reason which will be stated at the appropriate place. His Dharma-bhûta-jñåna has nothing that can obstruct it. because He is unaffected by Karma. (3) dharma-bhûta-jñåna (attributive consciousness). the aja¥a or the 'sentient' and ja¥a or the 'insentient'. The former is self-consciousness making one aware of oneself while the latter reveals things outside without being aware of itself as consciousness. (4) çuddha-sattva (pure non-material stuff). the Jiva. It is of the form of consciousness (Jñåna-svarûpa). The Dravyas are divided into two groups. The former is inward consciousness (Pratyaktva) of self and the latter outward consciousness (Paraktva) of the universe. The six Dravyas are:— (1) îçvara (Supreme Lord). Brahman is of the substance of consciousness and consciousness is also one of His attributes. A substance or Dravya being defined as a substratum of attributes. The difference between these two form of consciousness can be illustrated partially by the analogy of the lamp. In the Aja¥a category are included Brahman.18 Råmånuja's Metaphysics Dravyas or substance Metaphysics is defined as that branch of philosophy which is concerned with being (ontology) and knowing (epistemology). but while being only an individualised form of . Suddha-sattva and Dharma-bhûta-jñåna. There are six Metaphysical Substances (Dravyas) which are accepted by Ramanuja. non-insentient. Without these two poles there is no continuum. In the state of bondage in Samsara. The individual knows it knows. which according to Råmånuja's philosophy is the load of previously accumulated Karma. a self-conscious and self-luminous subject. until it expands to that of God Himself. paråtmatva (existing for the sake of another) and paratantratva (subordination). when the Jiva is referred to as Atma. It is like a small oil lamp placed in the blazing light of the sun. Such an idea is considered to be a metaphysical fiction. it means that it is a Spiritual Ego or 'I sense' in a body. The light of the lamp continues to have its individuality. always related to an object and always conscious of itself also while being conscious of external objects. one becomes aware of oneself and one's inner world. and the purpose of God's creative activity is to help the Jiva gradually evolve this aspect of consciousness. åtmatva (selfnature) and kart®tva (agency). A—B. ånanda-svarûpatva (blissful nature). it continues to maintain its individuality. The Jiva in Samsara identifies itself with the physical . vidheyatva (dependence). cetanatva (ability to think). the attributive consciousness of the Jiva is contracted or very limited in the scope of its functioning to itself and its personal needs. but-its radiance becomes merged and indistinguishable from the blazing luminosity of the sun. The special characteristics differentiating the jiva from God and matter are anutva (atomicism) meaning the smallest possible division of a substance. In Viçi߆ådvaita metaphysics. Further. Characteristics of the Jiva The Jiva shares with God the characteristics of Pratyaktva (self-awareness). so there can be no free floating consciousness without any content. its Dharma-bhûta-jñåna is contracted because of the force of ignorance (Avidya). When the externalised consciousness is withdrawn such as in sleep. çeßatva (being an accessory to Brahman) adheyatva (supportedness). Subject and object are just two ends of a continuum. described as neither existent nor non-existent has no place in this system. Pratyaktva (self-awareness) means that the jiva is a monad. is as good as insentient (Ja¥a) matter. The Avidya category of Çaºkaras philosophy. the jiva in the extreme. but its Dharma-bhûta-jñåna expands and becomes merged in that of God. there is no "pure" state of consciousness devoid of a subject-object awareness. With the Dharma-bhûta-jñåna suppressed. When the Jiva is liberated. Gradually as one becomes more enlightened this consciousness expands to include others and eventually comprehends the whole of creation.19 Dharmi-jñåna (substance-consciousness). but the potentiality of developing that external awareness (Dharma-bhûta-jñåna) is natural to it. Basically the Jiva is the body of God and exists as His çeßa '(servant). which causes them not only enjoyments and sufferings but also desires and tendencies to act in particular ways. The special characteristics of the Jiva Among the characteristics that distinguish the Jivatma from Paramatma atomism (Anutva) comes first. The merit or demerit devolves entirely on the persons concerned and not on the light. The word Anu does not mean a tiny particle of matter as in chemistry. The real task of the spiritual ego — Atma. Liberating the true spiritual ego denoted by åtmatva from identification with the pseudo-ego (Ahaºkåra) is the main purpose of spiritual practice. The 'bodyfocused ego — Ahamkara. All evil tendencies must already have been erased for the Jiva to obtain this state of enlightenment and therefore only virtuous actions in harmony with the Divine dispensation will be performed. When through spiritual discipline the Jiva has realised that it is only the Sharira (Body) of God and is therefore His çeßa (servant) it no longer identifies with the false ego. but the will of the jiva is subordinate to that of God This doctrine presents an important ethical problem for schools of Hindu theism—the question of the freedom of will which is necessary for moral responsibility versus the omnipotence of God as the Supreme Controller and possessor of the Jiva. The enlightened Jiva has only awareness of being an instrument of the Divine. One person may use the light for forging money and another for reading Scriptures. Jiva and moral responsibility Kart®tva (agency) implies that the Jiva acts with the body-mind complex and accumulates its own karma. Under these circumstances the moral responsibility accrues only to the Jiva as it acts according to the tendencies and deserts it has acquired by its Karma.20 body-mind complex (dehåtma-abhimåna). Thus atomism indicates only an . but a monad or a point of consciousness and bliss whose rays of attributive consciousness spread everywhere. But these 'tendencies can find expression as actions only if they are energised by the will of God who is the Sanctioner (Anumanta) and the over-seer (Upadraßå ). is to liberate itself from this false identification with the body-mind complex and with the concept that it is unique and independent (Ahamkara). God in this context may be compared to the light which two people may use. God wills not the actions but only their fructification. The Jiva in ignorance thus acts entirely under the perverted ego-sense which arises from identification with the body-mind. and then all its karmas are burnt in the fire of knowledge. is only a pseudo-ego. All Jivas in Samsara are burdened with their load of Karma. Having renounced the sense of agency the Jiva no longer has any craving for the rewards of its actions. The essential implication of this characteristic of the Jivas is that consciousness (caitanya) is not a an impersonal and baseless thing as in Advaita but always associated with a subject having consciousness as its substratum and also as its attribute.21 indestructible individuality and not a restriction of size which is applicable only to material substances. By the grace of God they are liberated from Samsara and raised to the Divine status in Vaiku±†ha. In the same way a dependent or accessory (çeßa) is always subordinate in status (Paratantra) and is subject to a master (Parådhîna). but the Jivas retain their Atomism (Anutva) which distinguishes them from Infinity (Anantam) that is God. A mode (Prakåra) has its existence in its supporting substance (Prakåri). for Sriman Narayana alone is the Great Cause of the universe. The liberated ones (Muktas) are those who. being His principal çeßas. evolving through all forms of bodies. Thus quantitative pluralism does not contradict qualitative homogeneity. His principal weapon. In the transcendent Vaiku±†ha they become His servitors or instruments of service. These Nityasuris form inseparable parts of Divine nature. Råmånuja's system. 2. The name of Adi-çeßa for the serpent-bed indicates this. accepts the doctrine of Taråtamya or gradation in capacity of Jivas only to a very limited extent. The departure of the jiva from one body to another at death cannot be explained without accepting its monadic nature (Anutva). Adi-çeßa Garuda. Jivas are countless but all are of the same nature of consciousness and bliss. They become one with God in knowledge and bliss. but not in power. Being liberated from the restrictions of Karma. some of the most important of whom are. the discus of unlimited potency. The first and the most unique are the Nityasuris or the Eternally Free Ones. Garuda is His mount. All the other special characteristics of the Jiva arise from its being a dependent accessory (çeßa) and a mode (Prakåra) of the Supreme Being. . where they obtain the new spiritual body of Suddha-sattva (Pure Transcendental substance). or remain absorbed in the bliss of Brahman. They accompany Him also when He incarnates. Sudarçana etc. the Dharma-bhûta-jñåna achieves its maximum expansion and becomes one with that of Sriman Narayana. unlike most of the other systems of Vaishnavism. They have never been in the bondage of Karma and Samsara. at last come to the stage of human birth. Vishvaksena is His commander in chief officer. Vishvaksena. According to Viçi߆ådvaita. Adi-çeßa is the serpent-bed on which Sriman Narayana rests in the transcendental realm of Vaiku±†ha. They are included His Nitya-Vibhuti or changeless manifestation. and Sudarçana. and eventually attain salvation through spiritual disciplines and ultimately surrender to the Divine. and have always been in attendance on Him. Jivas are of three grades:— 1. until they eventually gain salvation at the maturity of evolution. Unlike in some other Vaishnava systems. These regions or Lokas are Våyu-loka. For. Ignorance (avidya) is the cause of bondage. the cause of embodiment is Karma. irrespective of whether the body is alive or not. Spiritual destiny of the Jiva In Råmånuja's interpretation of the Vedanta there is no Jivanmukti or liberation for the Jiva while the body exists unlike in the system of Advaita. The body will fall only when the Praråbdha or the quantum of Karma that has brought the current body into existence is exhausted. Varuna-loka. The Jivas that are not liberated evolve gradually in the cycle of Samsara. Aditya-loka. footstool. With its state of expanded consciousness and full enlightenment it becomes a Satya-saºkalpa or one whose wish always becomes true and a Sarvajña or an all-knowing one. experiencing births and deaths. The liberated Jiva is also free to remain in a disembodied state. According to Sankara. according to their Karma. It can get engrossed in the service of the Lord or become His object of use (Upakara±a) like bed. one of steady wisdom. Indra-loka. and Råmånuja as a Vedantic theologian is required to explain how this Mahåvåkya fits into his systematic theology. and it never naturally obtains the creative power which is a unique characteristic of îçvara — but if îçvara so will He can bestow this power upon the Jiva . and liberation (mukti) is attained when Ignorance is removed. the Jiva passes. The knowledge generated by Vedantic study and spiritual pursuit can raise one to the state of a Sthita-prajñå. vehicle. It shares the untrammelled bliss of Brahman. there are no Nitya-samsåris or eternally bound Jivas. But ontologically the Jiva is eternally different from îçvara both in bondage and freedom. Prajapati-loka and Brahma-loka. How can the little embodied being . described in the second chapter of the Bhagavad Gita.22 3. But Råmånuja does not accept that an embodied being can be liberated. Bound ones (Baddhas). but one is not yet liberated. through the subtler regions of the cosmos to Vaiku±†ha. Salvation is ultimately the birth-right of all Jivas. according to him. When the body of such a devotee dies. But the removal of Ignorance and consequent attainment of liberation have no necessary connection with the fall of the physical body. Then the Jiva reaches Vaiku±†ha where it gets a body of Suddha-sattva. 'Tat tvam asi' or 'Thou art that' doctrine In all systems of Vedanta the four aphoristic declarations of the unity of Brahman and the Jiva called Mahåvåkyas have an important place. and Karma is exhausted only when the body perishes. umbrella etc. as stated in the Kauçitaki Upanishad. The declaration "Tat-tvam-asi" 'Thou art That' is one of the well-known Mahåvåkyas. One may also have Bhakti and Jñana of the highest order. Both the terms 'Thou' and 'That' refer to different identities but there is something in common between them bringing them together into a unity. Here the two terms 'this' and 'that' Devadatta refer to the same person under different conditions and are in apposition (Samånådhikara±ya). • When a literal meaning of an expression is coherent. Take the statement: 'This is that Devadatta' with regard to a person. and what is required is not to interpret it in a way as to deny this difference. humanity is common to both. there is a commonness of reference in Brahman without any attributes. . In the word 'Thou'. So the word 'That' indicates the pure Spirit. which is adventitious. If both these adjuncts are eliminated. if the body-mind. which refers to the individual.needless repetition. when the Upådhi of the Universe is eliminated. the pure Spirit underlying both the terms. This is the Advaita-interpretation. as body-mind is to the Jiva. The word 'That' refers to îçvara who is understood as the great creator in the direct sense. king has the kingdom as His. The same person is seen sometime after at Bombay in good health and in a flourishing condition. which is doing violence to the Text. Removing all the attributes of difference from both the terms and establishing a bare identity is not true apposition (Samånådhikara±ya). The ability to Create is only an Upådhi. but to find out wherein their unity lies. as it is done in the Advaita interpretation of the Mahåvåkya. Here 'that' refers to. a soldier has his uniform and sword as his Upådhi or adjunct. an adjunct. it is an error to seek an indirect implied meaning (Lakßa±a). It is only a tautology . To illustrate it by an example. is eliminated. what is left is only 'man'. In the Mahåvåkya —'Thou art That'. first we have to determine the Lakßa±a or indirect meaning of the terms 'Thou' and 'That'.23 called the Jiva be identical with the Supreme Creator? In the pure Advaita system of Sri Sankara the difficulty is overcome by recourse to what is technically called Lakßa±a or indirect meanings. and one says of him 'This is that Devadatta'. Råmånuja objects to this way of interpreting the meaning of this Mahåvåkya on two grounds. • The statement of the Mahåvåkya is prima facia clear that 'Thou' and 'That' are different. and the correct interpretation of the Mahåvåkya should discover that unifying principle. We then get Brahman. a person seen in Madras in an unhealthy condition in a small room. These two meanings are then interpreted as having a common reference ie. what is left is pure Spirit. and thus the unity of the indirect-meanings of both the terms is established. to Him. When in this way the indirect meaning of 'Thou' and 'That' are obtained. they are shown to be in apposition or co-ordinate relation called Samånådhikara±ya. d) Avyakta — the state just before the emergence of the twenty four Saºkhyan categories. Every jîva individually is the body of îçvara. who is the Indweller in the Cosmic Body. Both these concepts are linked because Prak®ti. Råmånuja claims that the doctrine of body-Self (çarîra-çarîri) relationship between îçvara and the cosmos as a whole and with every jîva in it can alone properly accommodate this doctrine of identity in difference. just as the Cosmos as a whole is too. in Råmånuja's system. that against the AvidyaMåyå theory is only second to that against attributeless (Nirviçeßa) Brahman. Ignorance (Avidya) is only Karma or Prak®ti. Although this identification with Prak®ti. The Almighty Nåråya±a and the little jîva can never be equated with each other. These stages are: a) Avibhaktatva — when Prak®ti is latent in the Supreme as salt in water. is also the lndweller in every jîva.24 The expression Samånådhikara±ya implies two or more attributes having an identity of reference. Among the vehement criticisms of Råmånuja against Sankara's Advaita system. alienates the jîva from îçvara. activated by the Divine will. are held together in indissoluble 'adjectival' relationship (ap®thak-siddhi) within the one îçvara. and the condition of Samånådhikara±ya is fulfilled. As has already been pointed out. . Samånådhikara±ya indicates such a subsistence of many attributes in a common substratum and not mere apposition as conceived in the Advaitic interpretation. absolutely homogeneous and without any distinctions or differentiation. It is an interpretation in which only direct meanings of expressions are accepted. the 'Tat' refers to îçvara as the Indweller of the Cosmic Body and 'Tvam' refers to the same îçvara who dwells within the jîva and has the jîva as His 'body'. Thus all the bodies. there is no separate category called Avidya or Måyå. Here 'blueness' and 'lotus nature' inhere in a common substratum without losing their individuality. 'Tat tvam asi' refers to that oneness of îçvara. it is a necessary phase in their evolution. For example there is the expression Blue Lotus. Avidya — Nescience In Råmånuja's system. In the great sentence 'Tat Tvam asi'. The jîvas get material embodiments according to the Karma that they have engendered and they then identify with these material bodies. the Cosmic and individual. and in this sense may be called 'evolution'. in the Gross Matter is the last to evolve. which cannot be described as existent or non-existent. acts to bring about the fruition of the Karma of jîvas. b) Vibhaktatva — when differentiation become possible c) Akßaråvastha — when the different categories (Tattvas) begin to emerge. The transmogrification of Prak®ti from the state of latency (Pralaya) into patency (S®ß†i) occurs in stages. Prak®ti and Karma are both called Avidya (Nescience) and Måyå (Illusion). But that mighty îçvara. As for dreams. each combined particle contains a very small portion of all the other elements. Now outside the bounds of Prak®ti there is a thing called Sattva-çûnya (That which is devoid of the three Gunas). by the will of God. is called Acit. some wrongly call it illusory in the sense of a non-existent entity. This thing is what is called Time or Kåla. That part seen as snake. The water in the desert cannot be drunk. Only in such small quantities that they are of no practical use. Being outside of Prak®ti. as the whole of Prak®ti is. fire (agni). except for the sentient Cit (ie. In the combination of the final categories of elements of earth (p®thivi). Kåla or Time Kåla or Time occupies a special position in Viçi߆hådvaita. is the substratum of the three Gunas of Sattva. just as the universe is for all. Brahman and jîva). all categories are supposed to be classified under Prak®ti which. Rajas and Tamas.25 The categories are again. what is seen under particular conditions is the water element contained in the earth. water (åpa¿). In the perception of the snake in the rope. Such perceptions have no practical efficiency. nor can the snake in the rope be caught. combined with each other into various dimensions and world systems suitable for the evolving bodies of jîvas to inhabit and reap the fruits of their Karma. Though called insentient. What is called illusory perception is not due to the absence of the object. It may be called fleeting. being insentient. but due to the very partial selective perception of it under certain conditions. It resides in Him. wind (våyu) and ether (åkåça). As the Sattva in Prak®ti is mixed with Rajas and Tamas. the snake exists elsewhere and the minute portions of it exists in the rope too. Generally speaking. Psychologically the object is present in the same way as it is experienced as a real stimuli is received from the objects. as already described. perception of a non-existent entity. When an experience of a thing lasts for a short time only and is not of practical use. but for this reason such experiences cannot be described as illusory ie. and it is through Time that the Supreme Being activates Prak®ti submerged in Him to evolve into the various categories. For example in the illusory perception of mirage or water in desert. as the whole creative and dissolution process of Prak®ti is regulated by this category. The failures to see the prominent character of the object is due to certain inhibitions of the perceiving mind helped by external situation. it is a special Vibhûti (unique glory) of God. Time does not dissolve in the Supreme Being like everything included in Prak®ti. it is also described as Açuddha-sattva (impure Sattva). Råmånuja holds the theory that it is also a creation of God for the individual. Prak®ti. . There is therefore no 'illusion' in this system. and so the stuff of which they are constituted is also not within Prak®ti. Its classification as Aja¥a (not material) also is justified.26 Suddha-Sattva Among the three elements of Sattva. The special feature of Suddha-sattva is that it is comprised of consciousness which reveals other things by itself but does not however know itself. Viçi߆hådvaita recognises another category beyond Prak®ti. This rather paradoxical concept of Suddha-sattva is not much in evidence in Råmånuja's major work of Srî Bhåßya. of which is constituted the body of Nåråya±a. Rajas and Tamas which constitute Prak®ti. the realm of Vaiku±†ha and all its denizens who are either jîvas eternally free. Rajas and Tamas) forms the stuff of which all the world systems and the bodies of their residents are formed. Because it is a conscious substance. The light of Suddha-sattva however enables it to realise its spiritual identity. or have attained liberation from the bondage of Samsara. Prak®ti or Açuddha-sattva (ie. it has a very important place in the theology of Råmånuja. which has not even the slightest taint of Rajas and Tamas. Until Suddha-sattva dawns in its mind. In the later developments of Viçi߆hådaita theology under his successors it attains greater importance. though it comes under Acit (insentient). designated as Suddha-sattva or Pure Sattva. the combination of Sattva. Nåråya±a and His abode of Vaiku±†ha are outside the limits of Prak®ti. It may be called the non-material Spiritual Substance. but in the Vedårthasaºgraha it is clearly mentioned that the abode of Viß±u is made of Suddha-sattva. it is classified as Aja¥a (not Material). Though the conception of Suddha-sattva is somewhat obscure. It is the only means that helps the jîva to know its nature and relationship completely. unlike the Atman described as Svayam-prakåça — a term which means that it reveals others and reveals itself. Suddha-sattva seems to be a stuff of consciousness without Self-consciousness. Sattva is considered Açuddha or impure as there is an admixture of Rajas and Tamas in it. In these latter religions the Supreme Being is clothed with attributes that are generally found in noble . The Divine Name Råmånuja's theism is far more personal than the so-called monotheistic systems of Semitic origin like Judaism. For this reason it is not included in Prak®ti. To put it in another way. the jîva totally identifies itself with its material bodies owing to the oppressive load of Karma. Islam and Christianity. Its revealing power consists in its being the only medium through which true knowledge emerges in the jîva and enables it to attain liberation from this sorrow-ridden world. It is because of this important function of Suddha-sattva that it is classified as Aja¥a (immaterial). These are: Aisvarya or sovereignty. the specific name of the Supreme Being. and Tejas or splendour which expresses His Self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by His spiritual effulgence. 'Bhagavan' indicates that He is the most worshipful. Thus we have the Viß±u -Sahasranåma-stotra (Hymn of praise of Viß±u through a thousand names). is the most generalised name. the reference is only to this 'fragment' referred to above. The Supreme-Being is indicated by countless names. meaning 'Being'. which is supra-human in origin. which is the power to know bout all beings of all times simultaneously. Bhagavan and Nåråya±a. His transcendent aspect is supernal and none of the common human means of knowledge like perception and reasoning can comprehend Him. Sat.27 personages and with intelligence and purposiveness. which is the capacity to make the impossible possible. Virya or valour which indicates the power to retain this immateriality as the Supreme Spirit in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations. I remain unchanged and transcendent. each name revealing some of His attributes or extolling His pastimes in His incarnations. His greatness is that He is the cause and the Lord of all." In the description of the Supreme Being given earlier in His body-Self (çarîraçarîri) relationship with the jîvas and Prak®ti. Bala or strength which is the capacity to support everything by His will and without any fatigue. these according to their particularisation and personalization are: Sat. though He might be denoted by one name. Råmånuja's Personalism is far more radical. form and abode. As if to rebut the extreme Advaitic position that the Supreme Being is attributeless and beyond all name and form. In the Gita it is said by the Lord:— ''Supporting this mighty universe with but one single fragment of My Self. indicating that He is the Infinite out of whom a variety of finite forms emanate. Råmånuja endows Him with all these in a superlative degree. The scriptural statement that He is beyond thought and speech means only that these can only give a very partial and segmented understanding of Him and that He transcends the capacity of comprehension of the impure mind. But God has no form in these religions. that we get some idea of His name. Purushottama. which consists in unchallenged rule over all. Sakti or creative potential. It is the most general synonym applicable to Nåråya±a. and in whom they periodically dissolve. It is only through Scripture. Bhagavan also indicates that He possesses six Bhagas or glorious powers described in Viß±u -Purana (6. jñåna or knowledge.72-75). Brahman is that which has B®hatva or quality of expansiveness and is of matchless excellences. . Brahman. in whom they subsist. But there are four or five names by which Råmånuja most often refers to Viß±u.5. but an ultimate fact. beauty. Bliss. . All beings from Brahma down to inanimate objects are subject to Karma and bound to material bodies and are incapable of giving liberation to aspirants. Siva etc. celestial. this form of Nåråya±a is comprised of Suddha-sattva. eternal. That Form is described as follows in Gîtå Bhåßya: "His one permanent celestial form is a treasure store of infinite qualities such as radiance." According to Vaiß±ava theology. mentioned as one of the Trinity along with Brahma and Siva. Viß±u. says: "Indeed then there was only Nåråya±a. though its description may convey that idea.. tenderness. Maha-nåråya±opanißad. is only a descent of Nåråya±a into the created world by His own choice. these terms ultimately refer to Nåråya±a only.28 Above all the most intimate and personalised name for the Supreme Being is Nåråya±a synonymous with Viß±u. Viß±u and Siva to create. as He alone is not bound by Karma but is its controller. the source. fragrance. He also has a special Divine Form which is not a phenomenal manifestation of a Formless Consciousness or a temporarily assumed one to favour a worshipper. which has been described as a entirely spiritual substance devoid of Material Nature (Prak®ti). wondrous. words like Siva mean. he appears to take the form on the same level as inherent attributes (Svarûpa) described earlier — Truth. the excellences of the Divine Form are given in infinite multiples of anything human. They can be adjectivally applied to Nåråya±a. The name Nåråya±a as denoting the Supreme Being is established on the basis of the Vedas and universally accepted texts like Viß±u Purana and the Mahabharata. charm and youthfulness which are inconceivable. To counteract this misapprehension. supremely excellent and appropriate to Him. There is nothing anthropomorphic about it." There are however in Viß±u Purana and other texts such passages as 'Janårdana assumes three names — Brahma. 'pure' and Sambhu 'auspicious'. not Brahma or îsåna (Siva). Since Nåråya±a is the Indweller in Brahma. sustain and destroy' which seems to contradict this theory. Nåråya±a only is the worthy object (Subhåçraya) of meditation and worship for those who want to be liberated from the bondage of Karma. support and dissolution of all Naras or Tattvas including inert matter too in other words it means "The Ground of all Being". Besides. Råmånuja's answer to this is that such passages mean only that He (Viß±u -Nåråya±a) is the inner Self of the whole phenomenal world consisting of these deities and other beings. though He may have several other subsidiary ones too. Knowledge. This Divine Form (divya-maºgalasvarûpa) is part of His unique and inherent nature (Svarûpa). flawless. There is however a view that in Råmånuja's own writings. The Divine Form Just as God has a special name. Purity and Infinity — which means that His form is of their stuff and not of Suddhasattva. Nåråya±a means He who is the Ayana (dwelling place) ie. agreeable sports and merciful deeds is a match for Thee and Thee alone. girdle. garland of pearls. which are tainted by impure matter. "When shall I see with my eyes the lotus feet of Thine. but to the pure mind of an intensely devoted aspirant. who is handsome with a shinning diadem. my dearest treasure. and by the lustrous beauty of whose face the brilliant splendour of the spotless moon and the blooming lotus are put to shame. who art seated with Srî. discus. whose conch-like neck is adorned with curls of hair and ear-rings hanging over the high and broad shoulders. in whose side-glance the entire universe has taken refuge and for whose sake the ocean was churned and bridged. hook and thunderbolt weapon adorn my head? O great Lord. cannot experience or comprehend this abode of Paramapada. O Trivikrama. it can be realised. pleasant smile. whose pure splendour is equal to that of blooming flax flower. gracious creeper-like brows. bracelets. sword. and discus. the excellent bow Såraºga. when will Thy lotus-feet bearing the marks of conch. has no sway over it. the wish fulfilling-tree. anklets etc. and who creates unprecedented delight for Thee as one separate from Thee. necklace. the ear ornament and the loose curls of the braid of Thy Beloved.29 The Transcendental Abode Srîman Nåråya±a dwells in Vaiku±†ha or Parama-pada which also transcends Prak®ti. conch. The realm of Vaiku±†ha of divine splendour. slender waist. prominent nose and curls hanging upon the forehead. high stature and shining Srîvatsa nark on the broad chest. soft cheeks.. to which all entities entrapped in Prak®ti are subject. The natural senses and intelligence of a human being. splendid lips. mace. who shines with four auspicious arms which reach up to the knees and have the rough scars of the bow-string. and the bodies of all its denizens consisting of Nåråya±a's constant attendants (Nitya-suris) and liberated jîvas are made of Suddha-sattva. This abode of Nåråya±a and His form are described as follows in the famous text called Stotra-ratna by Råmånuja's preceptor Yamunåcårya in Verses 30 to 46 of that Text. and a chaplet of beautiful fragrant Tulasi who has made His breast the abode of Srî whose birth place is Thy beloved abode. and which speak of their contact with the crest-lily. who art seated on the great serpent . though She is eternally comprehended in Thy cosmic forms. and which are waiting eagerly for the moment for destroying the afflictions of those who submit themselves unto Thee. banner. which sportively spanned the world high and low in one stride. who is endowed with a deep navel. who by Her beauty. Time. who has eyes charming like the petals of a fresh and full blown lotus. the Kausthubha gem. lotus. who art beautifully clad in shining yellow raiment. having Thee as the Lord of my if life!" Philosophers often criticise. who has at hand for service Garutman who is the servant. the support of Lakßmî or Srî.. For Råmånuja rapturous devotion to a personal Deity is far more important than the hair-splitting of philosophy. egoism etc. unthinkably divine and wondrous. . he seeks to enhance the excellences of Nåråya±a a thousandfold of what is human. canopy and fan and whose form is made up of the Three Vedas and who is beautiful with the scars due to contact with Thy feet. conch. an eternal servant of Thine and Thine alone. in spite of being the great intellectual that he shows himself to be in his Srî Bhåßya. Viçvaksena. and shelter from the sun and rain. whose sole delight consists in being spontaneously devoted to Thy service and who constantly wait upon Thee with the respective means of service. who approves with noble glances whatever communication is brought to Thee by Thy beloved chief of hosts. mount. who of long arms. His philosopher critics forget this and assume that he should have abandoned his Vaiß±avism when he took up the role of a philosopher. who art the nectar-ocean consisting of beauty and of the nature of eternal youth. friend. suited to Thee on account of their possessing the attributes of omniscience etc. This should not be understood that the Nåråya±a concept is an exaltation of human form and qualities. and the wish-fulfilling tree to the suppliants. the friend rescuing from distress. seat. Råmånuja on the ground that. attendants and the like. seal. Such critics look at Råmånuja from the point of view of their arm-chair philosophy. the sole subsistence of the devotees. ministers. pillow. sandals. Råmånuja's main interest in philosophy was to link the Vaiß±ava devotionalism of the Ŭvårs with the Vedånta which seeks to find out the unity behind diversity. — the Eternal Ones who are free from all the impurities of afflictions such as nescience. who art served by the Eternal ones. raiment. To subvert the criticism of anthropomorphism.30 Ananta (Adiçeßa) who is the sole seat of excellent knowledge and strength. he should be so childish as to dwell so much on what appears to them to be an anthropomorphic form of God and a heaven where He dwells with His consort. possessor of power. within the Divine Abode of Vaiku±†ha. exhilarates Thy queen Srî with lovely and skilful sports consisting of diverse new sentiments and emotions and which makes time divided into aeons and so forth a fraction of a moment.. even ridicule. delight Thee. banner. Constantly waiting on Thee alone with all the other desires actualised — when shall 1. who partakes of the remnants of Thy food and on whom has been bestowed the charge of Thy sovereignty. the inside of which is illumined by the circle of rays emanating from the clustered gems on the hoods of the serpent who is aptly designated by devotees as çeßa on account of the different forms he has assumed for serving Thee such as residence. On the contrary the human excellences are only a distorted presentation of Nåråya±a's supernal excellences. which is only a conglomeration of a most amazing variety of names and forms (nåma-rûpa). If the Supreme Being is the source of this whole universe. Being the çarîri (indweller) of the Cosmos as a whole and in parts. and if He can be endowed with qualities and excellences that are human-like. How is this to be reconciled? The çarîra-çarîri doctrine is the core of Råmånuja's metaphysics. then what is the problem in claiming that He has a specific name and an archetypal Form? Which is not in fact a single form but a multiform. This is the farthest limit of liberalism that he is prepared to accept. So there are Indian theologians who consider it proper to adore the Divine in any form that a particular sect chooses. It is also claimed that He has a Divine Body which is in Vaiku±†ha beyond the range of Prak®ti. His immanent aspect is only an insignificant part of Him. Does this theology of Nåråya±a in Vaiku±†ha not contradict the Vedåntic understanding. The Tripåda-vibhuti Mahå- . Nåråya±a with the Archetypal Form described before is Brahman. Among such thinkers that preceded Råmånuja is Bhåskara the propounder of the Bheda-bheda doctrine and Çaºkara the pure Advaitin who accepted the worship of a Personal God at the level of Vyavahara or the practical level. I remain transcending it". and not spiritual experience. provided that there is the basic understanding that the Deity is an expression of the Universal Being. the Sat-cit-ånanda of the Upanißads. and religion becomes highly politicised. "Permeating the whole universe by a particle of nine. and other Deities can only be His partial manifestations. but the practice of it is impossible except for very highly advanced aspirants. Now a relevant question in connection with the form of Nåråya±a is whether the God of Råmånuja's system has two bodies. Though immanent. nor does He become identified with Nature as in a pantheistic doctrine. Devotion becomes petitions addressed to some vague entity. become their aim. In the Semitic religions which uphold the idea of a formless God with human attributes.31 Besides being fully enlightened. says the Gîtå. religion becomes the acceptance of certain dogmas and social practices. Råmånuja too will not object to worship of various Deities provided it is accepted that Nåråya±a indwells every Deity and the worship offered to the Deity is really to Nåråya±a. His being is not exhausted thereby. Råmånuja knew that ordinary people require a very concrete conception of God if they are to focus their attention on the Divinity and gradually attain enlightenment. He has a çarîra (body) constituted of all the jîvas and Material Nature. Concentration on a formless abstract Consciousness endowed with attributes that are seen only in a concrete human personality may be advocated for persons who consider themselves highly civilised. He is not an Impersonal Absolute. Gradually social cohesion. There is nothing above Him. The answer is that the transcendence of God is as an important a Vedantic doctrine as is His immanence. For Nåråya±a and Nåråya±a alone is that Archetypal Form. The latter is His NityaVibhûti (eternal and intrinsic nature) and the former His Lîla-Vibhuti (sportive and changeful-nature). free from the contamination of ignorance. Apart from this Vaiß±ava Upanishad. Saºkarßana. Viß±u and Maheçvara for creation. and there are various Lîla-Avatårs known generally as incarnations proper. Ånanda Pada (Bliss Aspect) and Turiya-pada (Transcendent aspect). there is in the unity of the other three. Thus Råmånuja's idea of Nåråya±a in Vaiku±†ha with a particular Archetypal form does not contradict the çarîra-çarîri doctrine according to which Prak®ti and jîvas form the body (çarîra) and the Supreme Being is the çarîri (the Indweller). they all have bodies of Suddha-sattva. So to establish the metaphysical relationship of the manifested world with the Supreme Being as His body does not militate against His having a transcendent Body of Suddha-sattva. Next there are three Gu±a-Avatårs Brahma. Vidya-pada. sustentation and dissolution. He manifests Himself as Avatars of various kind. His having that archetypal Form of Nåråya±a does not make Him a mere individual like those endowed with material bodies.32 Nåråya±a Upanißad speaks definitely of four Pada's (parts or aspects) of Reality — Avidya-pada (Ignorance Aspect). while the other three are treated together as a unity of the subtle (Sûkßma). of which only one is manifest and the rest are transcendent. His teachings on Bhakti are therefore addressed to both intellectuals who want such a support as also to simple Selfs who have spontaneous and unalloyed faith in God and submission to His will. In that Radiance is manifest the eternal Vaiku±†ha. Avidya-pada alone is completely distinguished as gross manifestation modified by ignorance (Avidya). in Hindu theology. They are not different Deities springing from a causal Deity but hypostatic emanations of the same Deity formed to control and direct the cosmic processes. but conviction based on the knowledge of our ultimate relationship with Him that . The doctrine of Bhakti (devotion) It has been stated in the early sections of this thesis that Råmånuja entered the field of philosophy and theology only to provide the required theoretical support to the heritage of passionate love of God that the Ŭvårs had given mankind. or as some will put it. Bhakti is defined as knowledge of the Supreme Person and the consequent excessive adoration and attachment to Him. of one of His attributes called Svarûpa (inherent nature) discussed earlier. These are the four Vyûhas consisting of Våsudeva. with which Mahå-Viß±u is identified. the potential (bija). It is not a mere feeling. (Knowledge Aspect). and the Transcendent (Turiya) aspects of Reality. Unlike in the case of Avidya-pada. the Pure Radiance of Consciousness and unalloyed Beatitude. it is a well-known fact that the Vedas and the Upanißads often speak of the four Padas (aspects) of the Supreme Being. Pradyumna and Aniruddha. While it applies to all things that are taken in through the senses. One . Japa. and Parama-bhakti (supreme devotion) The first requisite for an aspirant at the stage of Sådhana Bhakti is a (a) strong faith in God as the highest goal to be achieved and (b) a sense of the utter impermanence of worldly achievements. By pure contemplation a highly qualified aspirant can try to overcome the identification of the Atman with the body. Abhyåsa: is the practice of all disciplines like worship. 4. Kriya: consists of the discharging of the five-fold debt of life. is the import of the whole teaching of the first six chapters of the Gita. They are mutually complementary. Råmånuja specially emphasises the need to be discriminate in taking food ie. Karma Yoga and Jñåna Yoga have to be practiced together. Råmånuja divides Bhakti into three stages of development — Sådhana Bhakti (practice of devotional means). Viveka: Practice of discrimination. (b) The debt to the Rsis. Work and cultivation of knowledge have therefore to be combined. and all holy literature for mankind to study and contemplate. visiting holy places etc. the great seers. jealousy 3. These are: are: (a) The debt to the Devas by performing fire-sacrifice like Agnihotra. according to Råmånuja. Vimoka: etc. fulfilling the duties of life without desire for the fruits of actions. How can this state of mind be obtained? For the benefit of such inquirers. Nature. Duties of life have to be done without attachment. This.33 generates love and attachment to Him. eat only things that are Sattvika or puritygenerating and are prepared and served only by persons and in conditions that are pure. lust. There is thus no opposition between Karma Yoga and Jñåna Yoga in Råmånuja's doctrine. Purå±as. as they are mutually related. Råmånuja therefore equates Bhakti with Dhyåna and Upåsana. He has therefore got to work. Parå-bhakti (higher devotion). The Rsis. For this. 2. The seven disciplines that are to be practiced for developing the Sådhana Bhakti into Prema Bhakti (loving devotion) are as follows: — 1. Dhyåna means concentration of mind on Him and Upåsana continuous mindfulness of Him. The aspirant then turns to the Scriptures and teachers who impart the doctrines regarding the Self. and for success in this. consists in resisting impulses of passions like anger. collective singing of the Lord's name. But this is very difficult. and God. have propounded the Vedas. which remind one of God as the Indwelling Principle (çeßa) in oneself and the whole universe. which are to be made an offering to God. almost impossible for the average aspirant. one must have an understanding of oneself as the Atman (Atmåvalokana). 6. even without any external stimulation. (e) The debt to the ancestors consists in the performance of Sråddha and daily ceremonial rites to keep up one's link with one's ancestry. straightforwardness (årjava). It is the feeling-pattern generated by the dawn of this higher wisdom that expresses itself as Paramabhakti. described earlier as a part of Karma Yoga.. and wisdom and devotion becomes identical. and by the practice of Dhyåna (concentration) and Upåsana (continuous contemplation of God). pessimism etc. It is the result of the higher knowledge as distinguished by the lower knowledge. . This is intensified when the devotee begins to feel the great attraction of the Lord. The devotee becomes mad with love and longing. benevolence (Dåna) and love of all beings (Ahimsa).. goes towards the Lord in preference to sense objects. the mind of the aspirant gets purified and develops the power to perceive the Divine as ones inner Self. 5. (d) Duty towards mankind: This consists in the discharge of all one's social and professional duties and contributing one's mite towards giving food. 7.. in regard to one's fellow beings who are in need of such services. relief of suffering etc. kindness (Dayå). By the long and continued practice of these seven disciplines. To know is to love. They are also God's creation. Then there arises in the mind the higher knowledge that one is merely a çeßa (a part or liege of the Lord) and that the Lord is the çeßi (the Whole or the Master). by the practice of detachment through discriminative knowledge combined with work. or elation and to preserve an even temperament in all situations.34 fails in ones duty to them if one does not devote some time to such studies. and preservation of a cheerful and positive attitude of mind. Anuddharßa: is the capacity not to yield to excitement. (e) Duty to the brute creations. is not a state of emotional excitement that rises and subsides. At this stage ones faith is strengthened by the glow of love and develops into Para-bhakti —. It is on the basis of this Self-realisation that Upåsana or continuous communion with the Divine becomes perfected.when the mind. and is always in communion with the Divine It should be specially noted that Bhakti of this kind. Their wanton destruction and over-exploitation should be avoided and an attitude of harmony with them should be cultivated. education. That lower knowledge is the understanding that one is the Atman — and not the body. Animals and plants play an important part in our lives. Kalyåna: consists in the practice of virtues like truth (Satya). and Bhakti is then said to develop into the stage of Parama-bhakti. Anavasåda: means freedom from despair. have got this naturally. and in this sense both Prapatti and Parama-bhakti are identical. 4. . 2. Resolve to eschew everything that is contrary to the Divine will. It is this consideration that gave Prapatti such an important place in Råmånuja's doctrine. If simple and unsophisticated people. Strong faith in God. 3. In fact the object of all self-effort is to generate this congenial mental attitude for Divine Grace to work upon the aspirant's mind. The Prapatti doctrine holds that a single moment of resignation with this attitude of mind is enough to invoke the Lord's grace on the jîva. Surrender is more efficacious for salvation than is self-effort. All these attitudes of mind are a natural part of Parama-bhakti. Prapatti is therefore considered an independent path for others. Prapatti was the means by which Råmånuja made the joy of bhakti available to men and women of lower castes who were excluded from Vedic study and therefore of the Upåsana inculcated in the Vedas. Firm faith that God is the saviour of all. Jñåna and Bhakti Yogas are very hard for the embodied jîvas to follow and because the disciplines for the practice of SådhanaBhakti were only available to men of the first three castes. provided they can cultivate the two insights mentioned earlier — summarised as unalloyed and unshakeable faith in God and in His saving grace. surrender to Him and non-attachment. The teachings on this topic are not reflected as much in his Srî Bhåßya as in his commentary on the Gita and his purely devotional writings like the Vaiku±†ha Gaudy. are the qualities that connect one with the Divine and elicit His grace. humble by birth and upbringing. Råmånuja out of compassion declared that the best way to attain Parama-Bhakti was to simply take refuge in the Lord as is recommended by Gita 18:66. Resigning oneself absolutely to His care and protection.35 The Doctrine of Prapatti Because the paths of Karma. The act of Prapatti consist of 6 subsidiary parts:— 1. A feeling of one's pitiable state owing to a realisation of the insufficiency of all self-effort made for one's salvation. Acceptance that God's protective grace is always with one. Resolve to act in harmony with the Divine Will. it is reasonable that the grace of God lifts them up from Samsåra. The intellectual equipment and the social environment required for it are available only for a few. 6. Prapatti is therefore considered even superior to Bhakti. But it will be noted that Paramabhakti is the end product of a long and difficult course of mental & emotional discipline described earlier in the section on Bhakti. 5. the inquirer. In the presence of such a love the accessibility (Saulabhya) of the Lord overshadows His Paratva (transcendence). then those who have it naturally have the special grace of the Divine. liege) of îçvara. commenting on Verse 18 of the 17th chapter. those who are in the state of total self-surrender. has become natural. That is in the case of the devotee whom the Bhagavad Gita calls the 'jñåni'.4. and who therefore lives to fulfil the Lord's will alone. Their generosity (Audårya) in the matter of surrendering their 'self' to the Lord is absolute and no remnant of the self is left. "I look upon the jñåni as my very Self. the Lord. A Vatsa also means a calf. But there is a situation in which God surrenders Himself to the devotee more than the devotee surrenders to Him. who is the only çeßi (Principal. So Råmånuja describes the Lord as 'åçrita-våtsalya-vivaça' — one who is overwhelmed by His våtsalya (tender protective love for the devotee who is absolutely dependent on Him. Karma and Bhakti Yogas is only to attain to this consummation. and therefore without him I cannot sustain myself. am like a slave without any freedom. But the wise-one (jñåni) is as good as His own self. So in the Bhagavata Purana (9. The Lord seems to be regardless of His own supremacy (paratva) in making this statement.36 Love of God for His special devotees The transcendent Supreme Being making Himself available even to the most frail is illustrated by the analogy of the elephant kneeling down. generous gift-makers ie. He says. A jñani is one to whom the awareness of being only a çeßa. are dear. without any thought of ones personal future.63) it is said by Viß±u: "I. Here God makes Himself available without giving up His supremacy (Gambhîrya). so that those who cannot ascend to its height may also climb upon it. to whom devotees. All of them. reciprocates that sentiment by the inseparable bond of love for the devotee. There are four types of devotees — the grief-stricken. says K®ß±a in the Gita. If the aim of all study of the Scriptures and the practice of jñåna. my heart is in the grip of such holy devotees. as it were. those who surrender. For." . It is an act of condescension. (instrument. Master) in the universe. It is with regard to such devotees that Råmånuja says in his Gita-Bhåßya." Just as the jñåni cannot sustain himself without the Lord. are God's special devotees. the boon-seeker and the wise-one (jñåni) — who seek and adore Him. and the Lord regards them as His own self. The two contradictory aspects of îçvara are reconciled in this highest region of Divine-love. are Udåra. Who is the jñåni? Not a learned person or jñåni in the lower sense of one who has cultivated detachment of mind to some extent. It is said that God loves such devotees more than Himself and humbles Himself before them abandoning His majesty (gambhirya). The use of the term Våtsalya gives a further depth of meaning to the expression. the jñåni. Irrespective of whether it is gained after long striving or in a moment by Divine grace. and Våtsalya therefore means the self-forgetting protective love that a cow shows towards its new-born calf. and who. who is the Creator. as countless auspicious attributes. Splendour. Råmånuja's system of thought was the store-house from which all the later Bhakti teachers drew liberally. Compassion etc. His theology presents God as transcendent in nature and majesty.. but at the same time easily accessible to those who want Him in truth. God in His doctrine is a being who has Truth. according to his çarîra-çarîridoctrine is the indweller of the cosmos as a whole and by every bit of it. generosity. This protest had already been made partially by an earlier thinker Bhåskara. and who. Lordship.37 Råmånuja: An estimate of His significance Among the teachers of the Bhakti Schools of Vedånta. 2. — in fact to obliterate the distinction between these two that Sankara's Advaitism had projected. 5. His was the first comprehensive and decisive criticism of the Advaita Philosophy of Çaºkara which taught an attributeless Brahman as the Supreme Reality and the doctrine of nescience (måyå) which has no positive location or existence. Purity and Infinity as His inherent nature.and attractiveness. who has a form that is archetypal and the quintessence of beauty . Knowledge. the propounder of the Bheda-bheda philosophy. 3. Bliss. Råmånuja holds a preeminent place for the following reasons: 1. 4. Omnipotence. who has a Transcendental Realm of Spiritual Stuff where He is present always with constant attendants and the liberated jîvas. He was the first to propound a philosophy of theism in which God is the Absolute and the Absolute is God. He gave to Indian thought a God who includes everything in Himself but yet transcends the world of becoming. who bears the supreme Name of Nåråya±a. who has Omniscience. being the indweller of all beings including Deities. constitutes the only One who is worshipped and who can grant liberation from the trammels of Samsara. Immutability. . making only some limited changes to suit their tradition of theology.