Violin1 Violin Violin A standard modern violin shown from the front and the side String instrument Other names Fiddle, de: Violine or Geige, tr: Keman, fr: Violon, it: Violino ar: ﻛﻤﺎﻥor ﻛﻤﻨﺠﺔ Hornbostel–Sachs classification 321.322-71 (Composite chordophone sounded by a bow) Developed Early 16th century Playing range Related instruments • • Violin family (viola, cello) Viol family (includes double bass) Musicians • List of violinists Builders • Luthiers More articles Violin 2 This article is part of the Fiddle and Violin series. • • • • • • • • • • Basic physics of the violin Fiddlers History of the violin Luthiers Musical styles Making and maintenance Violin technique Violin construction Violin family of instruments Violinists The violin is a string instrument, usually with four strings tuned in perfect fifths. It is the smallest, highest-pitched member of the violin family of string instruments, which also includes the viola, cello and doublebass. Someone who plays the violin is called a violinist or a fiddler. The violinist produces sound by drawing a bow across one or more strings (which may be stopped by the fingers of the other hand to produce a full range of pitches), by plucking the strings (with either hand), or by a variety of other techniques. The violin is played by musicians in a wide variety of musical genres, including Baroque music, classical, jazz, folk music, rock and roll, and Soft rock. The violin has come to be played in many non-Western music cultures all over the world. A young violinist The violin is sometimes informally called a fiddle, regardless of the type of music played on it. The word violin comes from the Medieval Latin word vitula, meaning stringed instrument; this word is also believed to be the source of the Germanic "fiddle". The violin, while it has ancient origins, acquired most of its modern characteristics in 16th-century Italy, with some further modifications occurring in the 18th and 19th centuries. Violinists and collectors particularly prize the instruments made by the Gasparo da Salò, Giovanni Paolo Maggini, Stradivari, Guarneri and Amati families from the 16th to the 18th century in Brescia and Cremona and by Jacob Stainer in Austria. Great numbers of instruments have come from the hands of "lesser" makers, as well as still greater numbers of mass-produced commercial "trade violins" coming from cottage industries in places such as Saxony, Bohemia, and Mirecourt. Many of these trade instruments were formerly sold by Sears, Roebuck and Co. and other mass merchandisers. A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier. The parts of a violin are usually made from different types of wood (although electric violins may not be made of wood at all, since their sound may not be dependent on specific acoustic characteristics of the instrument's construction), and it is usually strung with gut, nylon 6 or other synthetic, or steel strings. It is now located in the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford. an example being the Tanbur originated in modern-day Uzbekistan or Kobyz (Kazakh: қобыз) (kyl-kobyz) . The modern European violin evolved from various bowed stringed instruments from the Middle East and the Byzantine Empire. It is believed that these instruments eventually spread to China. played with horsehair bows." probably derived from the name of the Byzantine upright bowed instrument. where the port towns of Venice and Genoa maintained extensive ties to central Asia through the trade routes of the silk road.an ancient Turkic. by Giovanni where they developed into instruments such as the erhu in Bellini. the rebab in the Middle East. The most famous violin makers (luthiers) between the 16th century and the 18th century include: . including its tuning. the Greek lyre). One of the earliest explicit descriptions of the instrument. and the lira da braccio (derived from the Byzantine lira). Their two-stringed upright fiddles were strung with horsehair strings. The violin in its present form emerged in early 16th-Century Northern Italy.Violin 3 History The earliest stringed instruments were mostly plucked (e. both among street musicians and the nobility. illustrated by the fact that the French king Charles IX ordered Amati to construct 24 violins for him in 1560. and cellos we play today. The finest Renaissance carved and decorated violin in the world is the Gasparo da Salò (1574 c. Venice gave an important contribution to the birth of the violin that was known locally as the "lira. The violins. the violin had already begun to spread throughout Europe. is the oldest surviving violin. the lyra in the Byzantine Empire and the esraj in India. and whose bows are still strung with horsehair. similar to those of a Guarneri. It is now in the Vestlandske Kustindustrimuseum in Bergen (Norway). published in Lyon in 1556. This was most likely derived from the name of the ancient Greek instrument. but the date is unknown (Other violins. is supposed to have been constructed in 1555 by Andrea Amati. are a legacy of the nomads. by the Norwegian virtuoso Ole Bull. Venice. India. By this time. China. 1505. the Byzantine Empire and the Middle East. Kazakh string instrument or Mongolian instrument Morin huur: Turkic and Mongolian horsemen from Inner Asia were probably the world’s earliest fiddlers. documented significantly earlier. was in the Epitome musical by Jambe de Fer. Bowed instruments may have originated in the equestrian cultures of Central Asia. like the modern violin. now called the Charles IX. Archduke of Austria and later. although that was plucked rather than bowed.g. One of these instruments. who used it for forty years and thousands of concerts. the Renaissance fiddle. Detail of the San Zaccaria Altarpiece. from 1841. The violin immediately became very popular.[1] It is most likely that the first makers of violins borrowed from three types of current instruments: the rebec. only had three strings and were called violetta). "The Messiah" or "Le Messie" (also known as the "Salabue") made by Antonio Stradivari in 1716 remains pristine. and often feature a carved horse’s head at the end of the neck.) owned by Ferdinand II. The oldest documented violin to have four strings. in use since the 10th century (itself derived from the Byzantine lyra and the Arabic rebab). for his very powerful and beautiful tone. violas. In the 1510s (some fifty years before the flourishing activity of Andrea Amati) in Venice seven "lireri" or makers of bowed instruments including proto-violins were present. when the instrument known as the Lady Blunt was sold by Tarisio Auctions in an online auction on June 20.Violin 4 • The school of Brescia.1640 in Venice • Matteo Goffriller 1659 . and violin makers all over the world try to come as close to this ideal as possible. as well as a heavier bass bar.8 million (US$15. To this day. active 1644–1737 in Cremona • The school of Venice with the presence of several makers of bow instruments from the early 16th century (in the period 1490-1630 are registered more than 140 makers of string instruments). beginning in the late 14th with liras. active 1600–1630 in Brescia • The school of Cremona. The majority of old instruments have undergone these modifications. • The Linarolo family. especially those made by Stradivari. . instruments from the so-called Golden Age of violin making. violas and active in the field of the violin in the first half of 16th century • The Dalla Corna family.1762 • Domenico Montagnana 1686 . active 1550–1740 in Cremona.1776 Significant changes occurred in the construction of the violin in the 18th century. active 1510–1560 in Brescia and Venezia. active 1626–1744 in Cremona • The Stradivari family. active 1505 . Italy • The Micheli family. Italy 1658 Baroque violin by Jacob Stainer • The Guarneri family. doubtless with differences in sound and response. active 1530–1615 in Brescia • The Inverardi family active 1550–1580 in Brescia • The Bertolotti Gasparo da Salò family. active 1530–1615 in Salò and Brescia • Giovanni Paolo Maggini.1750 • Santo Serafin (Sanctus Seraphinus) 1699 .1742 • Pietro Guarneri 1695 .9 million). But these instruments in their present condition set the standard for perfection in violin craftsmanship and sound. beginning in the half of the 16th century with violas and violone and in the field of violin in the second half of the 16th century • The Amati family. violettas. particularly in the length and angle of the neck. Guarneri del Gesù and Montagnana are the most sought-after instruments by both collectors and performers. The current record amount paid for a Stradivari violin is £9. and hence are in a significantly different state than when they left the hands of their makers. 2011. and the nut to the fingerboard.Violin 5 Construction and mechanics A violin generally consists of a spruce top (the soundboard. The construction of a violin The very great majority of glued joints in the instrument use animal hide glue for a number of reasons: it is capable of making a thinner joint than most other glues. The voice of a violin depends on its shape. and since fresh hide glue sticks to old hide glue.) Weaker. four strings. Painted-on faux purfling on the top is . The varnish and especially the wood continue to improve with age. The purfling running around the edge of the spruce top provides some protection against cracks originating at the edge. providing clearance for the bow. also known as the top plate. and the varnish that coats its outside surface. it is reversible (brittle enough to crack with carefully applied force. the tailpiece. which may attach directly over. The hourglass shape comprises two upper bouts. maple ribs and back. making the fixed supply of old violins much sought-after. (More modern glues must be cleaned off entirely for the new joint to be sound. a soundpost. a neck. and various fittings. the graduation (the thickness profile) of both the top and back. two endblocks. more original wood can be preserved when repairing a joint. diluted glue is usually used to fasten the top to the ribs. since common repairs involve removing these parts. or to the left of. It also allows the top to flex more independently of the rib structure. optionally including a chinrest. Violin and bow. two lower bouts. a bridge. and removable with warm water) when disassembly is needed. table. and two concave C-bouts at the waist. the wood it is made from. or belly). which generally involves scraping off some wood along with the old glue. A distinctive feature of a violin body is its hourglass-like shape and the arching of its top and back. Most E strings are unwound. especially when meant for gut or synthetic strings. or tiger stripe. or soul post. dried. especially on a student instrument. The tapered pegs allow friction to be increased or decreased by the player applying appropriate pressure along the axis of the peg while turning it.Violin usually a sign of an inferior instrument. fiddleback. for identification and to provide friction against the pegs. but many performers use them to achieve a specific sound especially in historically informed performance. Fine tuners may also be applied to the other strings. and sometimes plated with silver. The sound post. String longevity depends on string quality and playing intensity. allowing each to be sounded separately by the bow. which loops around an ebony button called the tailpin (sometimes confusingly called the endpin. Ebony is the preferred material because of its hardness. which was stretched. below the treble foot of the bridge. Strings usually have a colored silk wrapping at both ends. and lengthened by about a centimeter. Sound post seen through f-hole Strings have a limited lifetime. It also transmits vibrations between the top and the back of the instrument. Currently. silk. Some old violins (and some made to appear old) have a grafted scroll. such as the winding of a string coming undone from wear. either plain or gold-plated steel. Very often the E string will have a fine tuning lever worked by a small screw turned by the fingers. evidenced by a glue joint between the pegbox and neck. Apart from obvious things. like the cello's spike). which fits into a tapered hole in the bottom block. slightly more pronounced on the lower strings. The neck graft allows the original scroll to be kept with a Baroque violin when bringing its neck into conformance with modern standards. violin strings are not made with gut as much. The bridge is a precisely cut piece of maple that forms the lower anchor point of the vibrating length of the strings and transmits the vibration of the strings to the body of the instrument. and superior resistance to wear. and twisted. typically made of ebony. players generally change a string when it no longer plays true. Fingerboards are dressed to a particular transverse curve. Many authentic old instruments have had their necks reset to a slightly increased angle. or steel. 6 Closeup of a violin tailpiece. the strings wind around the tuning pegs in the pegbox. and are sometimes built into the tailpiece. In the early years of the 20th century. or simply gut. fits precisely inside the instrument between the back and top. The neck is usually maple with a flamed figure compatible with that of the ribs and back. Its top curve holds the strings at the proper height from the fingerboard in an arc. but often some other wood stained or painted black. It carries the fingerboard." or concavity. or various synthetic materials. wound with various metals. The back and ribs are typically made of maple. which it helps support. beauty. The tailpiece anchors the strings to the lower bout of the violin by means of the tailgut. referred to as flame. solid steel. losing the desired tone. with a fleur-de-lis Front and back views of violin bridge Strings Strings were first made of sheep gut (commonly known as catgut). and have a small lengthwise "scoop. . Modern strings may be gut. strings were made of either gut. most often with a matching striped figure. stranded steel. At the scroll end. aluminum. It is important to remember that the chin rest was a relatively recent invention. called Chladni patterns. makers in Saxony produced many of these fractional violins. or G below middle C. either natural or artificial. 3D spectrum diagram of the overtones of a violin G string (foreground).[2] but it is often possible to play higher. Note that the pitch we hear is the peak around 200 Hz. are occasionally used by luthiers to verify their work before assembling the instrument. Additionally.) The highest note is less well defined: E7. These violins could be used either by children. tuned normally. Patterns of the node made by sand or glitter sprinkled on the plates with the plate vibrated at certain frequencies. if confirmed by an expert. is G3. Acoustics The arched shape. into the Baroque period that were a fourth higher in pitch than standard violins. the E two octaves above the open string (which is tuned to E5) may be considered a practical limit for orchestral violin parts. These early fractional violins are easily confused with children-sized violins. depending on the length of the fingerboard and the skill of the violinist. During the later part of the 19th century and early part of the 20th century. Without the chin rest. the lowest string may be tuned down by as much as a fourth. shifting into upper positions or back down from higher positions often resulted in the musician losing control of the violin. (On rare occasions. or by musicians who had parts that were then outside of the range of standard violins.Violin 7 Pitch range The lowest note of a violin. Sizes The history of small violins is not well documented. and its physical qualities govern the sound of a violin. but. Small violins were made at least during the late Renaissance Period and quite probably The Helmholtz corner traveling back and forth along the string. are highly sought by collectors and museums. . Yet higher notes (up to C8) can be sounded using harmonics. some people have speculated that these fractional violins could have been used instead of Dancing master's violins (also called "kits" or "pochettes"). to D3. the thickness of the wood. 1/16. Sometimes called a lady's violin. Extremely small sizes were developed. 1/8. in other words. which are more elastic than steel or synthetic-core strings and do not respond adequately to the very small movements of fine tuners. and some players use them with synthetic strings as well. Such small instruments are typically intended for beginners needing a rugged violin. Violins are made in so-called fractional sizes for young students: Apart from full-size (4/4) violins. Mezzo violin The instrument which corresponds to the violin in the violin octet is the mezzo violin. A full-size viola averages 16 inches (40 cm). All violins have pegs. smaller in some 17th-century models. 3/4. Play Wikipedia:Media helpFile:Violin open strings. along with the Suzuki program.) The other strings are then tuned against each other in intervals of perfect fifths by bowing them in pairs. 1/2. A 3/4 violin's body length is 335 mm (about 13 inches). and a 1/2 size is 310 mm (about 12 inches). Fine tuners are not used with gut strings. 1/10. a fine tuner is typically fitted for that string. or 4/4. an adult with a small frame may use a so-called 7/8 size violin instead of a full-size instrument. although these smaller sizes are highly unusual and usually custom-made. for violin students as young as 3. To tune a violin. Fine tuners on all four of the strings are a practical necessity for playing steel-core strings.Violin 8 Children typically use smaller string instruments than adults. Finely made fractional sized violins. With the violin's closest family member. the strings of the mezzo violin are however of the same length as those of the standard violin. or by adjusting the fine tuner screws at the tailpiece. (When accompanying a fixed-pitch instrument such as a piano or accordion. these instruments are slightly shorter than a full size violin. Tuning Violins are tuned by turning the pegs in the pegbox under the scroll. Since modern E strings are steel. By turning one clockwise. 1/4. 1/32 and even 1/64-sized instruments exist. Occasionally. the pitch becomes flatter. the violin tunes to it. The body length (not including the neck) of a full-size. They permit very small pitch adjustments much more easily than the pegs. especially smaller than 1/2 size. A minutely higher tuning is sometimes The pitches of open strings on a violin. violin is 356 mm (about 14 inches). Fractional (1/16) and full size (4/4) violins These fractional sizes have nothing to do with the actual dimensions of an instrument. the A string is first tuned to a standard pitch (usually 440 Hz). are extremely rare or non-existent. fine tuners (also called fine adjusters) are optional. a 3/4-sized instrument is not three-quarters the length of a full size instrument. the pitch becomes sharper and turning one counterclockwise. but tend to be high-quality instruments capable of producing a sound that is comparable to that of fine full size violins. Most fine tuners consist of a metal screw that moves a lever attached to the string end. tuned the same as a violin but slightly longer. correctly strung .mid Scroll and pegbox. the viola. size is specified as body length in inches or centimeters rather than fractional sizes. and whose rudimentary technique does not justify the expense of a more carefully made one. or whalebone (now imitated by alternating strips of tan and black plastic. in some folk styles. and B flat. causing them to vibrate. Both types come from the same tree species. but modern day bows are now traditionally made of brazilwood. While most violins have four strings. and weigh about 60 g (2. where the solo violin's E string is tuned down to E flat to impart an eerie dissonance to the composition. pike-head of a 17th-century model The hair of the bow traditionally comes from the tail of a grey male horse (which has predominantly white hair). conversely. is equal to that of an ordinary full-scale violin.e. Occasional rubbing with rosin makes the hair grip the strings intermittently. Originally the stick was made out of snakewood. or string length from nut to bridge. the violin is likely to be tuned to D♯-A♯-D♯-A♯ in the South Indian style.) Some student bows (particularly the ones made of solid fiberglass) substitute a plastic sleeve for grip and winding. At the frog end. by Béla Bartók. The extra strings on such violins typically are lower in pitch than the G-string. In the North Indian Hindustani style. any convenient tuning maintaining these relative pitch intervals between the strings can be used.20 in) shorter and 10 g (0. the tuning is usually Pa-Sa-Pa-Sa instead of Sa-Pa-Sa-Pa. As there is no concept of absolute pitch in Indian classical music. or heel) at opposite ends. the violin is likely to be tuned (E-A-E-A) in Dastgah-h Esfahan or in Dastgāh-e Šur is (E-A-D-E) and (E-A-E-E).. the A and E strings are lowered by a whole step i. although a stick made from a more select quality (and more expensive) brazilwood is called pernambuco. Tourte).e. a bit less than 13 inches (330 mm). F. can be tuned up to A. at all . The winding may be wire (often silver or plated silver). for instance. especially those containing quarter tones. these strings are usually tuned to C.35 oz) heavier. In Arabic classical music. Viola bows may be about 5 mm (0. In Iranian classical music and Iranian light music. One famous example of scordatura in classical music is Saint-Saëns' Danse Macabre. If the instrument's playing length. This could correspond to F-B♭-F-B♭. the instrument's bridge may be examined to ensure that it is standing straight and centered between the inner nicks of the f-holes. Another example is in the third movement of Contrasts. Violins with five strings or more are typically used in jazz or folk music. swan-bill head of a long 18th-century model. silk. the G string. then it may be properly termed a violin. This is to ease playing Arabic maqams.1 oz). Just forward of the frog.the violin ls different tunings in any Dastgah. After tuning. or the set of pieces called the Mystery Sonatas by Biber. where the E string is tuned down to E flat and the G tuned to a G sharp. Other tunings are occasionally employed. In Indian classical music and Indian light music. a crooked bridge may significantly affect the sound of an otherwise well-made violin. Some recent bow design innovations use carbon fiber for the stick. Another prevalent tuning with these intervals is B♭-F-B♭-F. for example. Heads of three violin bows: (upper) transitional (F. in Dastgāh-e Māhur is (E-A-D-A). which corresponds to Sa-Pa-Sa-Pa in the Indian carnatic classical music style. Baroque music is sometimes played using lower tunings to make the violin's sound more gentle. The tuning G-D-A-E is used for most violin music. Some such instruments are somewhat longer and should be regarded as violas. i. 9 Bows A violin is usually played using a bow consisting of a stick with a ribbon of horsehair strung between the tip and frog (or nut. a screw adjuster tightens or loosens the hair. A typical violin bow may be 75 cm (29 inches) overall. a leather thumb cushion and winding protect the stick and provide a strong grip for the player's hand. Some student bows are made of fiberglass or various inexpensive woods. it is called cross tuning. G-D-G-D. The use of nonstandard tunings in classical music is known as scordatura. though some cheaper bows use synthetic fiber.Violin employed for solo playing to give the instrument a brighter sound. there are violins with as many as seven strings. and increase the risk of injury. would limit freedom of motion. This. While all authorities insist on the vital importance of good posture both for the sake of the quality of the playing and to reduce the chance of repetitive strain injury. like any other unwarranted tension.Violin levels of craftsmanship. The standard way of holding the violin is with the left side of the jaw resting on the chinrest of the violin. The jaw and the shoulder must hold the violin firmly enough to allow it to remain stable when the left hand goes from a high position to a low one. However all insist on the importance of a natural relaxed position without tension or rigidity. (In the Indian posture the stability of the violin is guaranteed by its scroll resting on the side of the foot). often assisted by a shoulder rest (or a sponge and an elastic band for younger players who struggle with shoulder rests). Solo players (whether playing alone. with a piano or with an orchestra) play mostly standing up (unless prevented by a physical handicap such as in the case of Itzhak Perlman). . while in the orchestra and in chamber music it is played seated. advice as to what good posture is and how to achieve it differs in details. and supported by the left shoulder. Things which are almost universally recommended is keeping the left wrist straight (or very nearly so) to allow the fingers of the left hand to move freely and to reduce the chance of injury and keeping either shoulder in a natural relaxed position and avoiding raising either of them in an exaggerated manner. 10 Playing Posture Western The violin is played either seated or standing up. 11 Left hand and pitch production The left hand regulates the sounding length of the string by stopping it against the fingerboard with the fingertips. Through practice and ear training. Not shown on this chart is the way the spacing between note positions becomes closer as the fingers move up (in pitch) from the nut. Especially in instructional editions of violin music. This practice. numbers over the notes may indicate which finger to use. and each subsequent note is stopped at a pitch the player perceives as the most harmonious. with 0 indicating an open string. skilled violinists adjust their tuning to avoid discordant notes. Especially in the early stages of First Position Fingerings learning to play. The chart to the right shows the arrangement of notes reachable in first position. the player must know exactly where to place the fingers on the strings to play with good intonation. There are nine such notes in first position. unfortunately. producing different pitches. which wear off in a few weeks of regular practice. but usually abandon the tapes quickly as they advance. Another commonly used marking technique uses dots of white-out on the fingerboard. The bars at the sides of the chart represent the usual possibilities for beginners' tape placements. "when unaccompanied. causing it to resonate sympathetically. Since violins are tuned in perfect fifths. . guiding the placement of fingers by eye and not by ear.Violin Indian Indian (Carnatic and Hindustani) violinists play seated on the floor and rest the scroll of the instrument on the side of their foot. and 4th fingers. but tends on the whole to conform with the Pythagorean scale. at 1st. As the violin has no frets to stop the strings. [a violinist] does not play consistently in either the tempered or the natural [just] scale. the violinist's left hand finds the notes intuitively by muscle memory. Beginners sometimes rely on tapes placed on the fingerboard for proper left hand finger placement. 3rd."[3] When playing with an instrument tuned to equal temperament. where a stopped note sounds a unison or octave with another (open) string. The fingers are conventionally numbered 1 (index) through 4 (little finger). in order to insure its stability when the left hand goes from a high position to a low one. the so-called ringing tones are useful. is used sometimes in lieu of adequate ear-training. such as a piano. high 2nd. This position is less frequently used. Playing an open string simultaneously with an identical stopped note can also be called for when more volume is required. This is indicated in the music by the marking. since the string vibrates more freely at the nut than under a finger. where the first finger is a half-step away from the nut. they will use the last finger they used in first position as the guide finger. where they usually cannot be distinguished. Sometimes the two notes are identical (for instance. so the first finger takes the place of the second finger. The lowest position on a violin is half-position. references to particular positions become less common. but with the last finger used in first position guiding the hand. decided upon by the musician for artistic reasons (common in earlier works such as Bach). The highest position. Open strings Bowing or plucking an open string (that is. giving a ringing sort of "fiddling" sound. This is because they have a somewhat harsher sound (especially open E) and it is not possible to directly use vibrato on an open string.Violin Positions The placement of the left hand on the fingerboard is characterized by "positions". often used by composers in imitation of folk music. This guide finger moves to its respective spot in fourth position. Then. Other than the low G (which can be played in no other way). where most beginners start (although some methods start in third position). The upper limit of the violin's range is largely determined by the skill of the player. The lowest note available in this position in standard tuning is an open G. although when a violinist has progressed to the point of being able to use the entire range of the instrument. for this reason. First position. depending on which string is used to play it. but does not press down on the string. practically speaking. brings the player into second position. sul G. Otherwise. it is uncommon to hear references to anything higher than seventh position. or played in a fast passage. it should only glide down the string. the highest note in first position is played with the fourth finger on the E-string. this can be partially compensated by applying vibrato on a note that is an octave higher than the open string. moving into different positions is usually done for ease of playing. The guide finger should not press on the string during the shift. who may easily play more than two octaves on a single string. Then. However. For example. a string played without any finger stopping it) gives a different sound from a stopped string. open strings are generally avoided in some styles of classical playing. the finger that plays the note after the shift should be pressed onto the string and the bow is moved to sound the note. is 15th position. is the most commonly used position in string music. Letting the first finger take the first-position place of the third finger brings the player to third position. sounding a B. and four octaves on the instrument as a whole. The player moves from position to position by typically using a guide finger. Moving between positions is called shifting. The same note may sound different. In some cases playing an open string is called for by the composer (and explicitly marked in the music) for special effect. For example. meaning to play on the G string. or reaching up a half step (also known as the "extended fourth finger") to the C two octaves above middle C. Moving the hand up the neck. when a player shifts from first to fourth position. playing very high up on the lower strings gives a distinctive quality to the sound. and so on. Playing an open string simultaneously with a stopped note on an adjacent string produces a bagpipe-like drone. for example. the player moves their entire hand to fourth position. playing a fingered A on the D string against the open A string). Sometimes a composer or arranger specifies the string to use for a particular tone quality. especially in orchestral playing. Position names are mostly used for the lower positions and in method books. 12 . Different types of vibrato will bring different moods to the piece. In acoustic Cultivation of the Violin Vibrato Tone. according to the style of music. and the varying degrees and styles of vibrato are often characteristics that stand out in well-known violinists. or timbre) and the directional pattern of sound projection change with changes in pitch. favoring the higher notes. etc. vibrato is assumed or even mandatoryWikipedia:Please clarify. while another method.Violin Double stops and drones Double stopping is when two separate strings are stopped by the fingers. The "when" and "what for" of violin vibrato are artistic matters of style and taste. in a large part. While sometimes also called a double stop. 13 Kyoko Yonemoto playing Paganini's Caprice No. One method. third. 24 on a violin . left to the discretion of the violinist. misapplied vibrato is a poor substitute for good intonation. and. Vibrato Vibrato is a technique of the left hand and arm in which the pitch of a note varies in a pulsating rhythmWikipedia:Please clarify. if anything. and bowed simultaneously. harmony. vibrato adds a "shimmer" or "liveliness" to the sound of a well-made violin. as the drone note may be sustained for a passage of different notes played on the adjacent string. or lower in pitch from the actual note when using vibrato. it is more properly called a drone. in other words. Sometimes moving to a higher position is necessary for the left hand to be able to reach both notes at once. Some violinists oscillate backwards. to disguise an out-of-tune note. wrist and arm motions. Vibrato can be produced by a proper combination of finger. the interest that vibrato adds to the sound has to do with the way that the overtone mix (or tone color. the end result is a movement of the fingertip bringing about a slight change in vibrating string length. While various parts of the hand or arm may be involved in the motion. such as baroque music played in period style and many traditional fiddling styles. producing a sixth. involves rocking the hand back at the wrist to achieve oscillation. Vibrato is. Sounding an open string alongside a fingered note is another way to get a partial chord. modulates the pitch by rocking at the elbow. arm vibrato. A combination of these techniques allows a player to produce a large variety of tonal effects. called hand vibrato. respectively). Music students are often taught that unless otherwise marked in music. This can be an obstacle to a classically trained violinist wishing to play in a style that uses little or no vibrato at all. the notes might all be played simultaneously or might be played as two successive double stops. since it is believed that perception favors the highest pitch in a varying sound. For example if you overdo the variation of the note's tone it Petrowitsch Bissing was an instructor of vibrato method on the violin and published a book titled may become very distracting and overwhelm the piece. Scales and other exercises meant to work on intonation are typically played without vibrato to make the work easier and more effective. Three or four notes can also be played at one time (triple and quadruple stops. terms.[4] Vibrato does little. fifth. By "pointing" the sound at different parts of the room in a rhythmic way. in passages with different notes played as false harmonics. and so on.). Finger placement and pressure. The second harmonic is the first overtone. In the case of the fifth.Violin Vibrato trill Vibrato can also be used for a fast trill. and sounding point are all essential in getting the desired harmonic to sound. In the general repertoire fractions smaller than a sixth are not used. 6th. They occur at whole-number multiples of the fundamental. This has a softer quality and many think it is nicer-sounding than a hammered trill. and the fourth harmonic breaks the string into quarters sounding two octaves above the first. E. Harmonics Violin sounds and techniques Open strings (arco and pizzicato) A major scale (arco and pizzicato) Beginning of an A major scale with vibrato A major scale played col legno Natural harmonics of an A.566 KB. However. pressure. divisions up to an eighth are sometimes used and. which is called the first harmonic. Harmonics are also called overtones. There are two types of harmonics: natural harmonics and artificial harmonics (also known as false harmonics). because it is a common node with all the succeeding even-numbered harmonics (4th. A trill initiated from just hammering the finger up and down on the fingerboard will create a harsher quality than with a vibrato trill. it is far more difficult to vibrato trill for an interval of a tone or more. The sound of the second harmonic is the clearest of them all. divisions as small as a twelfth are possible. Note . The third and succeeding odd-numbered harmonics are harder to play because they break the string into an odd number of vibrating parts and do not share as many nodes with other harmonics. etc. since the spacing between notes changes along the length of the string. Instead of the normal tone. two octaves above the stopped note. Problems playing this file? See media help. The third harmonic breaks the string into thirds and sounds an octave and a fifth above the fundamental. or by diamond-shaped note heads. and an A Artificial (false) harmonic of A7 Harmonic glissando on the A string. for example half-way or one-third along the length of the string. The harmonic finger can also touch at a major third above the pressed note (the fifth harmonic). the distance between stopping finger and harmonic finger must constantly change. Harmonics are marked in music either with a little circle above the note that determines the pitch of the harmonic. . Using the octave frame (the normal distance between the first and fourth fingers in any given position) with the fourth finger just touching the string a fourth higher than the stopped note produces the fourth harmonic. Each node is at an integer division of the string. as they involve both stopping the string and playing a harmonic on the stopped note. These harmonics are less commonly used. And to add to the challenge. For example. if trilling on the first finger. the second finger is placed very slightly off the string and vibrato is implemented. the third harmonic is the second overtone. a higher pitched note sounds. both the stopped note and touched note must be played slightly sharp otherwise the harmonic does not speak as readily. in the case of the major third. as well as bow speed. A responsive instrument will sound numerous possible harmonic nodes along the length of the string. or a fifth higher (a third harmonic). The second harmonic is in the middle of the string and sounds an octave higher than the string's pitch. The pitch of the open string is called the fundamental frequency. The second finger will lightly touch the string above the first finger causing the pitch to change. the stretch is greater than is comfortable for many violinists. 14 Lightly touching the string with a fingertip at a harmonic node creates harmonics. given a good instrument and a skilled player.this trill technique only works well for semi-tonal trills. Artificial harmonics are more difficult to produce than natural harmonics. Natural harmonics are played on an open string. Bowing techniques The most essential part of bowing technique is the bow grip. one (usually the index or middle finger) is put on the correct note. and most (but not all) changes in timbre. 1 (Paganini) consists of double-stop (!) thirds in harmonics. Suzuki referred to the sounding point as the Kreisler highway. The pinky finger is curled with the tip of the finger placed on the wood next to the screw. The right arm. pressing down on the string tends to produce a harsher. and the other (usually the ring finger or little finger) is put above the note. The sounding point where the bow intersects the string also influences timbre. 15 Right hand and tone color The strings may be sounded by drawing the hair of the bow held by the right hand across them (arco) or by plucking them (pizzicato) most often with the right hand. Two comprehensive works are Henryk Heller's seven-volume Theory of Harmonics. emphasizing the fundamental frequency. published by Simrock in 1928. rhythm. hand. one may think of different sounding points as lanes in the highway. thus producing the correct pitch. The eerie quality of a violin section playing col legno is exploited in some symphonic pieces. because they produce different timbres. The other fingers are spread somewhat evenly across the top part of the bow. rather than by drawing the hair of the bow across the strings. and staccato. A section of the third movement of Violin Concerto No. In left-hand pizzicato. collé. left-hand pizzicato will be indicated by a + (plus sign) below or above the note. Elaborate passages in artificial harmonics can be found in virtuoso violin literature. The higher finger then plucks the string while the lower one stays on. and playing with the bow over the end of the fingerboard (sul tasto) makes for a delicate. Dr. articulation. (The index finger is most commonly used here. sautillé. Various methods of attack with the bow produce different articulations. Playing close to the bridge (sul ponticello) gives a more intense sound than usual. and results in a muted percussive sound. players. The violin produces louder notes with greater bow speed or more weight on the string. One can also achieve a louder sound by placing the bow closer to the bridge. and bow are responsible for tone quality. and orchestras spend a lot of time developing techniques and creating a unified technique within the group. and Michelangelo Abbado's five-volume Tecnica dei suoni armonici published by Ricordi in 1934. martelé. These techniques include legato-style bowing. dynamics. ricochet. This bowing technique is somewhat rarely used. Saint-Saëns's symphonic poem "Danse Macabre" includes the string section using the col legno technique to imitate . spiccato. It is usually with the thumb bent in the small area between the frog and the winding of the bow. one can increase the volume of the note that the string is producing. Two notable examples of this are an entire section of Vittorio Monti's Csárdás and a passage towards the middle of the third movement of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Violin Concerto. especially of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The two methods are not equivalent. emphasizing the higher harmonics. (abbreviation for pizzicato) in the written music is to be played by plucking the string with a finger of the right hand rather than by bowing.Violin There are a few books dedicated solely to the study of violin harmonics. notably the "Witches' Dance" of the last movement of Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique. Pizzicato A note marked pizz. two fingers are put on the string. By increasing the force of the pluck. There are many bowing techniques that allow for every range of playing style and many teachers.) Sometimes in virtuoso solo music where the bow hand is occupied (or for show-off effect). ethereal sound. Col legno A marking of col legno (Italian for "with the wood") in the written music calls for striking the string(s) with the stick of the bow. more intense sound. and are usually divided into two sections. or con sordina. Dmitri Shostakovich uses it in his Fourteenth Symphony in the movement 'At the Sante Jail'. is known for his work with guitarist Eddie Lang during the 1920s. rubber. as well as a viola part. the violin is extremely agile. the sound of an entire orchestral string section playing with mutes has a hushed quality. Composers often assign the melody to the first violins. usually played at the tip of the bow. The tone of the violin stands out above other instruments. Some violinists. typically a more difficult part using higher positions. Larger metal. known as practice mutes or hotel mutes. rubber. a violin without a sound box. or sordino. at the end of Luciano Berio's Sequenza VIII for solo violin. to the bridge of the violin gives a softer. one of the first jazz violinists. 16 Musical styles Classical music Since the Baroque era. Such mutes are generally not used in performance. the violin has been one of the most important of all instruments in classical music. It is sometimes indicated in written music by an arrowhead. or via sord. and senza sord. a strongly accented effect produced by releasing each bowstroke forcefully and suddenly. Jazz The earliest references to jazz performance using the violin as a solo instrument are documented during the first decades of the 20th century. object to this style of playing as it can damage the finish and impair the value of a fine bow.Violin the sound of dancing skeletons. Tremolo is marked with three short. rarely. meaning 'mute off'.) Some composers have used practice mutes for special effect.. Benjamin Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra demands its use in the "Percussion" Variation. meaning 'without mute'. While not primarily jazz violinists. (For practicing purposes there is also the mute violin. Violins also appear in ensembles supplying orchestral backgrounds to many jazz recordings. . but are used to deaden the sound of the violin in practice areas such as hotel rooms. Martelé Literally hammered. but most of such will compromise by using a cheap bow for at least the duration of the passage in question. or wooden device called a mute. making it appropriate for playing a melody line. Martelé can be played in any part of the bow. slanted lines across the stem of the note. Joe Venuti. known as the first and second violins. for several reasons. Violins make up a large part of an orchestra. or wooden mutes are widely available. meaning 'with mute'. Since that time there have been many improvising violinists including Stéphane Grappelli. Darol Anger and Mark O'Connor have spent significant parts of their careers playing jazz. Mute or sordino Attaching a small metal.. the double bass. with fewer audible overtones. John Blake. accompaniment patterns or the melody an octave lower than the first violins. Johnny Frigo. but occasionally of multiple notes). Tremolo Very rapid repetition (typically of a single note. "Mars" from Gustav Holst's "The Planets" uses col legno to play a repeated rhythm in 5/4 time signature. In the hands of a good player. and can execute rapid and difficult sequences of notes. while second violins play harmony.. such as the cello or. more mellow tone. A string quartet similarly has parts for first and second violins. Stuff Smith. Eddie South. however. and a bass instrument. Adam Taubitz and Jean-Luc Ponty. Regina Carter. for example. leather. The conventional Italian markings for mute usage are con sord. 2009 Stirling performing at TEDxBerkeley. it has some history in progressive rock (e. They were extensively used in popular music throughout the 1920s and early 1930s. Love Unlimited Orchestra. most types of popular music used bowed strings. The rise of electronically created music in the 1980s saw a decline in their use. MFSB. as exemplified by the likes of Fairport Convention and Steeleye Span. There was a drastic decline in their use with the rise of swing music from 1935 to 1945 as the string sound was deemed inappropriate to the improvised style of swing music. Pop-Punk band Yellowcard has made a mainstay of violin in its music. strings were common in traditional pop music of the late 1940s to mid-1950s. The rise of disco music in the 1970s continued this trend with the heavy use of string instruments in popular disco orchestras (e. The instrument has a stronger place in modern fusion bands. The Flock featured violinist Jerry Goodman who later joined the jazz-rock fusion band. as synthesized string sections took their place. The violinist (Carlos Prieto aka "Mohamed") has been one of the group's most popular members with fans since 1992. Los Salvadores also combine punk and ska influences with a violin. the British group No-Man made extensive use of electric and acoustic solo violin as played by band member Ben Coleman (who played violin exclusively). The instrument is also used often in Symphonic Metal. Vanessa Mae uses classical music with her electric violin. who is also a guitarist. Kansas. King Crimson.g. with both electric and acoustic violins being used by popular bands. although it can also be found in Gothic Metal bands such as Tristania and Theater of Tragedy. James' Saul Davies. Within Temptation. notably The Corrs. in their 1998 hit "Molinos de viento". particularly by bands such as Therion. Haggard and Epica. Dave Matthews Band features violinist Boyd Tinsley. Gentle Giant). Following the swing era. 2012 . while the violin has very little usage in rock music.Violin 17 Popular music Up to the 1970s. The popularity of crossover music beginning in the last years of the 20th century has brought the violin back into the popular music arena. for example. Biddu Orchestra. Blue October are well known for their violin-based Music with Master violinist Ryan Delahoussaye. The Mahavishnu Orchestra. However. Violinist Sean Mackin has been a member of the band since 1997.. Doom metal band My Dying Bride have used violin as a part of their line-up throughout many of their albums. For their first three albums and related singles. The fiddle has also always been a part of British folk-rock music.). etc. Andrew Bird with violin. Salsoul Orchestra. Yellowcard featured the instrument with a role equal to the guitar in many of their songs.g. was enlisted by the band as a violinist. The late 1960s saw a significant revival of the use of strings with the rise of soul music. The 1973 album Contaminazione by Italy's RDM plays violins off against synthesizers at its finale ("La grande fuga"). Monster Orchestra. Electric Light Orchestra. Popular Motown recordings of the late 1960s and 1970s relied heavily on strings as part of their trademark texture. The violin appears prominently in the music of Spanish folk metal group Mägo de Oz. Nightwish. Zion. The Shondes and Andrew Bird have also spurred increased interest in the instrument. perfect fifth tuning. Turkish and Arabic pop music is filled with the sound of violins. Nagai Muralidharan. 18 Indian classical music The violin is used in South Indian classical music (Carnatic music). the violin will be tuned as F-C-F-C or D-A-D-A etc. Mysore Nagaraj. Current noted violinists include "Sangeetha Kalanidhis" T. Popular film composers such as Ilaiyaraaja have also used the violin extensively in film music scoring. Indian classical music uses a very different grip from the traditional European classical genre. . and M. The Scroll is placed below the ankle of the right foot. It has been used in the post-rock genre by bands such as A Genuine Freakshow.N.e. both soloists and ensembles. Chandrasekaran.R. Also. In its Indian Classical form. Rajam. Indian.[citation needed] Independent artists such as Owen Pallett. and do not use chairs. It is used in orchestral accompaniments and has become a popular solo instrument. violinists sit cross legged on the stage. Generally. A. The violin from the perspective of Indian melody is being experimented in many ways and contemporary violinists like Jyotsna Srikanth have mixed the classical forms through their new orchestral music. Carnatic Music Concerts (Katcheris) are performed by smaller groups of artists than Western Classical Concerts due its complexity. The electric violin has even been used by bands like The Crüxshadows within the context of keyboard based music. Broken Social Scene. which is easier to achieve when seated cross-legged. with their higher octave equivalent in the 'A' and 'E' string. Krishnan. (i. This style is preferred for two reasons. The performers sit cross-legged on an elevated stage. violins in Carnatic Music are tuned to fifths on the 'G' and 'D' string. Also. 2010 America's Got Talent quarter-finalist and YouTube sensation Lindsey Stirling plays the violin in conjunction with dubstep/trance rifts.Violin The alternative rock band Hurt's vocalist plays violin for the band.J. extensive use of gamakas necessitate more freedom for the left hand on the fingerboard. M. the violin actually touches the floor. Sigur Rós. making them one of few rock bands to feature violin without hiring a session worker. the son of the legendary Lalgudi Jayaraman. with their right leg extended. Of late.. Zox. musicians play the instrument sitting squat on the floor and hence sometimes. the violin has also been adapted to the Hindustani style by artists such as N. the violin is also tuned differently.S. Instead of the conventional G-D-A-E. Kanyakumari. Gopalakrishnan. Indie bands have often embraced new and unusual arrangements. Mysore Manjunath and Lalgudi G. The violin is held perpendicular to the chest with the scroll pointing down. and A Silver Mt. Pakistani.). allowing them more freedom to feature the violin than their mainstream brethren. The successful Indie Rock and Baroque Pop band Arcade Fire also use extensive violin playing. Krishnan. bluegrass and old-time) fiddling: in these styles. There is technically no difference between a fiddle and a violin. A cable or transmitter sends the signal to an amplifier. Following a stage of intensive development in the late Renaissance. in what is known as the oral tradition. and the Americas. An electric violin with a resonating body that produces listening-level sound independently of the electric elements can be called an electro-acoustic violin. However. the bridge is sometimes shaved down so that it is less curved. This makes it easier to play double stops and triple stops. but a pickup can be added to a conventional acoustic violin. many fiddle players prefer to use a tailpiece with fine tuners on all four strings instead of only using one on the E string as many classical players do. often looking very much like.. In addition. but proved highly appealing to folk musicians as well. Asia. To be effective as an acoustic violin. allowing one to play chords with less effort. electro-acoustic violins retain much of the resonating body of the violin. The fiddler Hins Anders Ersson painted by Anders Zorn. an acoustic violin or fiddle. largely in Italy. the violin has been used in Arabic music. 1904 Fiddle When played as a folk instrument. Electric violins Electric violins have a magnetic or piezoelectric pickup that converts string vibration to an electric signal. tone. sometimes even identical to. the violin is ordinarily referred to in English as a fiddle (though the term fiddle may be used informally no matter what the genre of music). Arabic music As well as the Arabic rababah. ultimately spreading very widely. and agility). Electric violins are usually constructed as such. the violin had improved (in volume. the tunes are not written but are memorized by successive generations of musicians and passed on. One example may be seen in American (e. They may be finished in bright colors and Acoustic and electric violins . some folk fiddlers alter their instruments for various reasons. to the point that it not only became a very important instrument in art music. the violin descends from remote ancestors that were used for folk music. sometimes displacing earlier bowed instruments.Violin 19 Folk music and fiddling Like many other instruments used in classical music. Ethnomusicologists have observed its widespread use in Europe. In many traditions of folk music.g. Oak Publications. such as distortion and delay. by Stefano Pio (2004).. ISBN 0-8108-7793-7 • The Violin Explained . Mieczyslaw (Summer . Venice 1750 . Alfred Ebsworth Hill (1902/1963). These violins may need to be hooked up to an amplifier. his life and work. Walter (1955). by William Henry Hill. Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology. Hugo Benioff and Fredray Kislingbury. 1644-1737'. Notes [1] Margaret J. Kartomi: On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments. pp. 1959). ISBN 0-9628467-7-5 • The Canon of Violin Literature. by Karl Roy (2006). OCLC 172278. The procedure will be as follows: 1. This process is similar to that used to determine the provenance of art works. Venezia Ed.45. University of California Press. As significant value may be attached to violins made either by specific makers or at specific times and locations. ISBN 0-9520109-0-9 • Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching.. Oskar Vierling. by Marion Thede (1970). Shar Products Co. Arthur F Hill. ISBN ISBN 978-1-4243-0838-5 • The Fiddle Book. These violins can be played through many effects much like a guitar. No. Do this in triplets. Venice research. Venice research. dotted 8ths and 16ths.Autumn.Violin made from alternative materials to wood. Since electric violins do not rely on string tension and resonance to amplify their sound they can have more strings. p. by Stewart Pollens (1992). Scarecrow Press. [4] . by Sam Bardfeld. ISBN 0-8256-0145-2 • Latin Violin. The majority of the first electric violinists were musicians playing jazz and popular music. [3] Seashore. University of Chicago Press. . 1990 [2] Piston.210.Components Mechanism and Sound by James Beament (1992/1997). 20 Violin authentication Violin authentication is the process of determining the maker and manufacture date of a violin. by Stefano Pio (2012). Clarendon Press. London: Peter Biddulph. by Jo Nardolillo (2012). and a seven string electric violin (with three lower strings encompassing the cello's range) is available. Roll the finger tip from this upright position on the note. Carl (1938). ISBN 0-486-20425-1 .1760 . 210-214. by Patricia and Allen Strange (2001). Venezia Ed. Benjamin Miessner. Orchestration. Start from the original position and for the second 8th note the wrist is to move backward (toward the scroll). by Stefano Pio (2002). George Beauchamp. p. Venice research. "A New Equidistant 12-Tone Temperament". Psychology of Music. Vol. ISBN 0-9621416-3-1 • The Contemporary Violin: Extended Performance Techniques. quote in Kolinski. ISBN 0-19-816623-0 • Antonio Stradivari." References • Viol and Lute Makers of Venice 1490 -1630 . by Ivan Galamian (1999).1870 . The first specially built electric violins date back to 1928 and were made by Victor Pfeil. ISBN 978-88-907252-1-0 • The Violin Forms of Antonio Stradivari. 224. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-520-22409-4 • The Violin: Its History and Making. ISBN 978-88-907252-2-7 • Liuteri & Sonadori. Journal of the American Musicological Society. the vibrato may be started on the Violin. 2/3. A week or two later. "Now we will discipline the shaking of the left hand in the following manner: Shake the wrist slowly and evenly in 8th notes. to slightly below the pitch of this note. 1963. Some types come with a silent option that allows the player to use headphones that are hooked up to the violin. Venezia Ed. For example five stringed electric violins are available from several manufacturers. Forgery and other methods of fraudulent misrepresentation can be used to inflate the value of an instrument. 12. ISBN 978-88-907252-0-3 • Violin and Lute Makers of Venice 1640 . and 16th notes. George Eisenberg. New York : W. ISBN 88-85250-01-7 The Violin. by Alberto Bachmann (1965/1990). ISBN 0-340-05992-3 The Early Violin and Viola. by Yehudi Menuhin (1996). 1990. "Violin". by William Sandys and Simon Andrew (2006).. October 2002. (2009) a catalogue of an exhibition that give complete informations on the famous master life and work. David. Strings magazine. David. Charlton (1985). • Grillet. google. by Chris Coetzee (2003). A Useful International Critical Bibliography for the Maker and the Connoisseur of Stringed and Plucked Instruments by Roberto Regazzi.T. (2004) a complete survey of the brescian school defined by the last researches and documents.com/shop/en/info/violins. December 2012. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-306-80004-7 Violin . Cremonabooks. 2009. edited by Dominic Gill (1984). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.html). ISBN 0-521-23279-1 History of the Violin. by Franz Farga (1950). PhD Thesis. 2007. Violin Technique and Performance Practice in the Late 18th and Early 19th Centuries. ISBN 0-521-62555-6 The Complete Luthier's Library.corilon. Diana. ISBN 0-7063-1045-4 Violins & Violinists. by Robin Stowell (1985). Da Capo Press. External links • The violin: How to select a violin. by Jennifer A. The Violin: A Social History of the World's Most Versatile Instrument (http://books.mit. • Young. Ashmolean Museum. ISBN 0-486-45269-7 The Violin: A Research and Information Guide. New York. No. stringsmagazine. and is. Routledge.Violin • • • • • • • • • • • • • • An Encyclopedia of the Violin. Laurent (1901). Rockliff Publishing Corporation Ltd. ISBN 0-907849-44-X The Violin. Bologna: Florenus.) • "Violin". Comune di Salò.media. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-8153-3637-3 21 • Per gli occhi e 'l core. Paris. Fresh Prince: Joshua Bell on composition. Ward Lock Limited. Dover Publications. Strumenti musicali nell'arte by Flavio Dassenno.com/issues/strings105/coverstory. A Methodology for Investigation of Bowed String Performance Through Measurement of Violin Bowing Technique (http://www. Violins and Virginals. Robert Cocks & Co. 105.edu/~young/publications/Young_Dissertation_2007.1. ISBN 0-7148-2286-8 Violin-Making as it was. ISBN 9780393084405 • Templeton. by Theodore Rowland-Entwistle (1967/1974). Viols. by Robin Stowell (2001).pdf). hyperviolins. Les ancetres du violon v.And Easy Guide. Flammarion. . by Edward Heron-Allen (1885/1994). and the future (http://www. html) • Harrison. by Mark Katz (2006). ISBN 1-84330-332-9 The Violin. The New Student's Reference Work. Cambridge University Press. Norton & Company. Robert William Frederick (1911). 1914. New Holland Publishers. Phaidon.com/books?id=qBHwdR4oIvQC&printsec=frontcover).I.W. • Gasparo da Salò architetto del suono by Flavio Dassenno. M. its provenance and value (http://www. by George Dubourg (1854). Further reading • Schoenbaum. ISBN 2-08-013623-2 The Book of the Violin. Warren67.delanoy. Outoftuneviolin's sockpuppet. Danny.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Just plain Bill File:Addys Mercedes Kult 02. Pdcook. Mütze. Cloviz. The Thing That Should Not Be. Oxymoron83. JPINFV. Ragsfan. LikeLakers2.14.xxx. Poop145. Meaghan. Malafaya. Kazasik. Sam Hocevar. CalumH93. Tyrol5.0 Contributors: User:Schorle Image:San Zaccaria. Drmies. Niloivenutfotuo. ViolinGirl. Raquel Baranow. RexNL. Baa. Favonian. Justoys.. Silivrenion. Eitch. Gsmgm. Orcalover. Kuru. Mandel. Ronhjones. Ranielle86. Diabelli. Bryan Nguyen. Chas097. Corpx. Harryboyles. R'n'B. Airminger. Cobrafallout.. Evercat. Sublime5891. EagleFan. Jim1138. Groggy Dice. Supercoop. Uhai. Ashishlohorung. Alexliamw. Ulric1313. Alxeedo. Mr.. 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Michael Hardy. Tommy2010. BitterMan. MusicalAds. BillyBob44445. Gasolene. Nk. Johnhenry312. Dagorath. Bhargavv.jpg Source: http://en. Outoftuneviolin. Crazycomputers. BirdAndDizzy. Arunram. Res2216firestar. Gbguad. ESSch. Focus. Riley Huntley. Blainster. Avoided. Jmui. Whitefeather710. Quintote. Brabon ethan. Empirecontact. VIOLIN!!!!!!!!!!. Gngd. Anderson. R. The Anome. Galaxydog2000. Dfrg. Jrugordon.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Elgewen. Alansohn. MissPumpkin 3. Stevepeterson. Djinn112. Jeff G. Widr. Yeepsi. Piano non troppo. SarekOfVulcan. Bobo192.org/w/index.msc. Roccoconon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anne97432.. Gaia Octavia Agrippa. Steven Zhang. Violin523. Shpakovich. Oursana. Jj137. Jeff3000. Megawats. Reaper Eternal. MelbourneStar. A56tao. Sijtze Reurich. S. Altenmann. Tualha. Opus88888. 0ut0ftunevi0lin. Jkammann. Just James. Vejvančický. Glane23. Paganin. Seaphoto. Peruvianllama. Chinju. Mytwocents. Ted Wilkes. Denny2k10. Jiddisch. Florestanova. Wayward. Epy. ObjectivismLover. WhiteDragon. Ahmadjawadi. Outoftunepiccolo. Jeff ydop. R9tgokunks.au. fiend. MatthewVanitas.. Cullenwc. Smatsmo. Ferahgo the Assassin. Rich257. Profoss. Violinbuenosaires. Bambo123123. HamburgerRadio. Eyeball226. Joshuagross. Severa. Kateshortforbob. StradivariusTV. Maximaximax. Gaius Cornelius. Coffee. Bennylin. Inter. AppleJuggler. Danger. Etacar11. Fluteflute. Jeepday. LDHan. Dwayne. Kazooou. Musiclanka. Rossami. Suvabrata. Hrdinský. THEN WHO WAS PHONE?. S nichols1393. KnowledgeOfSelf. Jeremy Casey. Daniel Callejas Sevilla. Neko-chan. Oh. Godwillwin. Andy M. Brenont. PseudoSudo. Al E. Sampi. Vervin. Miles. Noommos. HowardLeeHarkness. Fdssdf. Guinzibobz. JPMcGrath. Sonicdrewdriver. Primasz. RiseAbove. Samw. Johny Bob 111.. AgentPeppermint. G. Tanranpei. Sodium. Mentifisto. Ndtronerud. Mifter. Publicassistant4. Dslasa. Modlin. Icairns. Wi-king. Fredrik. Trusilver. Shaunwhim2. Denisarona. Outoftuneviolin 9. Exor674. Invadinado. 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