Viking Age Dyes

Viking Age Dyes: A Brief OverviewKristina Gundersen So… who were the Vikings? When speaking about “Vikings” often a barrage of modern stereotypes come to mind. For the purpose of this article, however, we will be discussing the dyes used by Scandinavian peoples who lived from approximately 800 to 1100. Geographically, they lived throughout Northern Europe in what we now call Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, and Northern Germany. Viking settlements were also to be found along the coasts and river-ways of Ireland, the British Isles, Scotland, Iceland, and the Baltic. The settlements in northern and eastern England (including the city of Jórvík, or modernly York) comprised what is known as the Danelaw. In general, settlers to the Danelaw originated in Denmark and Norway. In Ireland, they founded the city of Dublin. The Danes along with the Swedes also ventured east, trading and settling along the Baltic. It is generally accepted that the Rus have Swedish origins. (Downham 5) We know Scandinavian traders during the Viking Age also had contact with Byzantium and the Mediterranean. Migration and trade throughout the Viking world was a complicated mixing of cultures that often resulted in hybrid ethnic identities. In the context of dyes and textiles, contact with such diverse populations spread over such a large geography meant they had access to a wider variety of ideas, materials, and techniques. (Heckett 106) One of the challenges of researching period dyes, especially from this era, is that there is scant source material to work with. Contemporary depictions, such as the valkyries, are stylized and generally not in color. Records were kept through oral tradition, so the only written descriptions are sagas recorded centuries later. These sources are problematic at best. Color is often used allegorically and symbolically in literature. Even if that were not the case, the authors of the sagas never actually saw which colors were worn during the Viking Age. Using the sagas as evidence of those colors would be similar to using a preRaphaelite painting to determine the construction of a bliaut. Two contemporary depictions of Viking Age Scandinavians do exist in the form of Ahmad ibn-Fadlan’s description of the Swedish Rus and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles; however neither source mentions textile colors, and even if they did, cultural bias would have to be taken into account because their authors are not Scandinavian. What we do have is some archeological evidence in the form of both preserved dyestuffs and textiles. iron. and there is evidence of purposeful dyeing dating back to some of the earliest textile finds.Colorants. This involves dyeing with one dye and then taking that fiber and dyeing it again with another color. Grey or tan fibers will give you a different result than white or off-white. cream of tartar. These more permanent dyes can be sub-divided into two main groups. known to dyers as fugitive. 1: Dog Whelk red woolen cloth from the early 4th millennium— that’s thousands of years before even the Vikings! Newer analysis has even established that the majority of Scandinavian Early Iron Age textiles that have been recovered from peat bogs were in fact dyed. Remember those mordants and modifiers? Soil can contain not . the fiber itself can affect the color outcome. The range of colors produced can be expanded through the use of over-dyeing as well. They wore color? But everything looks brown! When looking at the archeological evidence. Substantive dyes become chemically fixed to the fiber on their own. Not all fiber is white in its natural state. it is important to remember that this evidence is by no means comprehensive. helping to fix the dye to the fiber. and modifiers oh my! The Viking Age was not new to dyes. using an iron dyepot could not only act as a mordant. Adjective dyes are not able to fully fix to the fiber without the assistance of another substance such as. These dyes are temporary. much the way dirt or grass can stain your hem. all in the name of fashion. and many of those textiles are stained and discolored by the soil in which they were found. Other modifiers can be used to brighten or deepen color. substantive dyes and adjective dyes. it is important to understand a little bit about how dyes work. For example. These color differences were also used to create patterns in their un-dyed state. Wools. (Vanden Berghe 1920) By the time we reach the Viking Age. (Barber 224) Israel’s arid climate has led to the preservation of textiles such as a scrap of Fig. These substances are called modifiers. is notoriously difficult to dye—most likely a reason there are so few extant examples of dyed linen. These additional substances are usually metal based and are called mordants. Finally. The final color result can be tweaked depending on the mordants used or by changing the chemical reaction slightly using substances like calcium carbonate. these are more permanent. Only a small sampling of textiles and dyestuff survived. dyers had mastered some pretty sophisticated organic chemistry. and ammonia to adjust factors such as the dye bath pH. and mordants.” or dulls the final color. Some are really just staining the fiber. In order to understand the range of colors available historically. and what we do have has in many cases been altered over time by environmental factors. for example. Linen. silks. or tannin. Others form a chemical bond with the fiber. but also as a modifier because iron typically “saddens. alum. without the need for additional chemicals. There are several different types of natural dyes. Temperature can also be a factor in the final color—many dyes need to stay within a certain temperature range for the colorant to be released. and linen also absorb dyes differently. archeologists have also discovered plant material in contexts such as workshops that suggest their use as dyestuffs. as well as. (Vanden Berghe 191415) Currently this research is focused on textiles dating just prior to the Viking Age. (Taylor Identification 154-55. will turn fiber shades of brown. Their position and density in the soil around the finds would need to be analyzed to positively identify common modifiers such as iron. What this means is chemists are able to look at the patterns created by the wavelengths absorbed and compare them to the patterns created by known substances. This light energy travels in wavelengths. flowers and stems from a variety of dye plants . Seeds. developing non-destructive methods.only metals such as iron and aluminum. Chemists used various types of chromatography to Fig. the individual atoms that make up the various dyes absorb light energy differently. but hopefully this will result in there being even more data available in the future! In addition to the dyes identified on extant textiles. Additionally. (Taylor Fig. 3: Weld Identification 154) A great deal of research has been done recently trying to both develop new methods of dye identification that will allow those more elusive dyes— such as the yellows— to be identified. (Koren 276) Mordants are a bit trickier to identify because they can be confused with minerals from soil deposits. roots. 2: Woad isolate the residual dye chemicals and then compared them to known dye sample spectrums. are almost impossible to identify using current techniques or were fugitive and have long since disappeared from the textile. which are found in plants such as oak trees. and only certain wavelengths are absorbed by each material. some dyes—especially the yellow ones. but other mordants such as tannins. Walton-Rogers Summary 14-15) Basically. Tannins. Walton-Rogers Wools 154) They almost certainly used wayside plants to create dyes we are unable to identify. These will change the color of textiles over time. (Taylor Identification 158. So with all of these challenges how do we know what we do about which dyes were used? For Science! The dye identification process is actually some pretty cool science. in particular. All of the others are reflected. They are even able to draw conclusions about the shades based on the level of dye chemical found! (Walton-Rogers Wools 153-54) The chemistry surrounding the identification of these dyes is also detailed enough that subtle differences between the dye resulting from kermes and cochineal can often be pinpointed. (Tomlinson 270) Woad plant remnants were actually found in a manner that suggests they had been fermented—evidence that lends extra credence to the remains being found in a dye context. madder. There is also some positive chemical evidence of mordants being used. and is in fact. Clubmoss actually absorbs aluminum making the plant a great mordant in the absence of alum. observed under a dissecting microscope. oranges. weld. and browns could be achieved using dyestuffs that have been identified either as plant material found in a dye context or on an extant Viking Age textiles using chromatography. such as Polish cochineal and kermes were only found on textiles whose context suggest that they were imported. 4: Clubmoss analysis and even distinctive dermal patterns. pinks. Having evidence that aluminum-based mordants were used further supports the use of adjective dyes such as weld and madder during this period. and broom have been discovered at a variety of Viking Age sites. native to parts of Scandinavia. heather. (Pritchard 98) The unidentified dye referred to as Yellow-X. (Hall Evidence 25.thus giving the effect of blue diamonds on an off white field. there is evidence that reds. 5: Polish Cochineal area. (Heckett 105-108) This widespread geographical distribution of Viking Age Scandinavians also meant that the variety of native . (Walton-Rogers Wools 156) Some dyes. and the chromatography process has positively identified several examples of overdyeing. The Vikings got creative with their color use too. and this greatly widens the available color palette. (Tomlinson 278) Also of interest is the discovery of a non-native variety of clubmoss at Jórvík. (Walton-Rogers Wools 153-4) Because Viking settlements and trade routes covered such a wide geographic Fig. walnut. they had access to dyes that are not native to Scandinavia— both in the form of pre-dyed imported textiles and imported dyestuffs. (Walton-Rogers Textile Production 1767-69) The plants were identified by archeobotanists using a variety of methods including chemical Fig. purples. (Walton Cordage 401) Fibers that were naturally brown or grey would also give a greater variety of achievable colors. Tomlinson 275) This implies that it was imported specifically to be used in a dye context. for example. Ok. yellows. was only detected because the indigotin came off of the textile differently in some instances. greens. or textiles dyed with more than one dye. Duff 29) The variety of clubmoss found is not native to the British Isles. so what colors did they use? As laid out in Table 1. blues. (Walton-Rogers Wools 154.including woad. such as the stoma plants use for respiration. (Taylor Reds 40. There are examples of woad blue stripes being dyed over madder and diamond twill being woven with a heavily saturated woad blue warp and an off white weft-. Summary 17) This happened because the indigotin was on a textile that also had a mordanted dye applied— the textile had been overdyed. Fig. The availability of the three primary colors as well as the use of over-dyeing and the textiles natural color variations would have given Viking Age dyers a large palette to choose from. .dyestuffs to which they had access differed depending on where they lived. Items dyed with lichens. and proportionally a larger number of items dyed with madder were found there. For example the AngloScandinavians lived in a climate where madder could be grown rather than just imported. There appear to have been regional preferences in the choice of dyestuffs. Thus. 7: Bedstraw In conclusion. 6: Madder and oranges. but it may also be an incomplete picture. and the imports of exotically dyed silks would have added to those colors. weld. and that is not the case for the Anglo-Scandinavian and Hiberno-Norse textiles. the finds from Scandinavia tend to be from wealthier burials. and Irish examples tend towards purples from lichens (Walton-Rogers Summary 18-19) The regional differences may stem from incomplete data—especially since the textiles as a whole are not from consistent contexts. and madder have been found throughout the Scandinavian settlements. AngloScandinavian finds tend towards reds Fig. (Walton-Rogers Textile Production 1769) Norwegian and Danish examples tend towards blues from woad. woad. There is also evidence to suggest regional differences in color usage. The evidence points to the fashion choices of Scandinavians throughout Viking settlements during the Viking Age being as colorful as their history. there is archaeological evidence that establishes a strong tradition for dyed textiles throughout Scandinavian settlements during the Viking Age. Overall. . Margarita Gleba." Dyes in History and Archaeology 7 (1989): 14-20. Tomlinson. Walton-Rogers. E.. madder and indigoid dyes. " Aspects of the wool textiles from Viking Age Dublin pp. 37-46 12. Vanden Berghe.com . Taylor. "Towards the identification of dyestuffs In Early Iron Age Scandinavian peat bog textiles. A. Print. London: Published for the York Trust by the Council for British Archaeology. 8. Heckett." Dyes in History and Archaeologgy 2 (1983): 25. Print. Print. N. Penelope. Textile Symposium in Edinburgh. "Dyes and Wools in Iron Age Textiles from Norway and Denmark. 11. 2005. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy.. 1994. Allan R. ©Kristina Gundersen 2013 meavedouglass@gmail. and Ulla Mannering. Penelope. "Dyes of the Viking Age: A Summary of Recent Work. J. edited by Penelope Walton and John-Peter Wild (London. Viking Age Headcoverings from Dublin. p." Journal of Danish Archaeology 7 (1988): 144-158. 6. Print. 3. York: Published for the York Archaeological Trust by Council for British Archaeology. 6-9 May 1987. Pritchard. Philippa. "Evidence of Dye Plants from Viking Age York and Medieval Beverly. 15. Duff.R. I. HPLC analysis of the natural scale insect. Print.. Frances." Journal of Archaeological Science 12 (1985): 269-283. 'Reds and Purples: from the Classical World to Pre-Conquest Britain'.S. Elizabeth. and Philippa Tomlinson. Print. 1997. 16. "Use of Vegetative Remains in the Identification of Dyeplants from Waterlogged 9th-10th Century AD Deposits at York. "Detection and Identification of Dyes on Anglo-Scandinavian Textiles.Viking Age Dyes: Selected Biblography (Complete bibliography available upon request. W.W. G. 17. 4. Penelope.. 29-35. Downham. 1991. Print." Northern Archaeological Textiles: NESAT VII. Prehistoric Textiles: the Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean.1 (2012): 1-12. 2003. Cordage and Raw Fibre from 16-22 Coppergate." Dyes in History and Archaeology 8 (1989): 19-21. Penelope. George W.J. Hedeager Krag." Journal of Archaeological Science 36.: Princeton University Press. 7. Print. Print. 10." History Compass 10. Princeton.93-104. Print." Dyes in History and Archaeology 7 (1989): 25-31. Hall. 5th-7th May 1999. Barber. Textiles. Print. pp. Textile Production at 16-22 Coppergate. Print. Textiles in Northern Archaeology: NESAT III: Textile Symposium in York. "The Use of Aluminum in Clubmoss as a Dye Mordant. "Dress and Fashion in Denmark's Viking Age. Walton-Rogers. and R.. 9. 13. Clare. 1990). Anne." Studies in Conservation 28 (1983): 23-26. Sinclair. " Archaeological Textiles in Northern Europe 4 (1992): 93-104. "Viking Ethnicities: A Historiographic Overview. 14. D. Print. 273–277. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists 110. Hall..G. Print. Taylor. 5. 1989. 2. Walton-Rogers.) 1. Koren Z. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Walton-Rogers.C.9 (2009): 1910-1921. Print. "Archaeological records of dye plants—an update with a note on fullers’ teasels. Reds Plant Remains. Silks Norway. Tannin. Tans. Silk Dublin Orchil Lichens Orecin Purples/Pinks Wool York. Galium verum. Silk Dyestuff Common Name Chemical Colorant Isatis tinctoria Woad Indigotin Reseda luteola Weld. Lycopodium complanatum) which is a likely source of alum. Lady’s Bedstraw Alizarin. Woadwaxen Dog Whelk Genistein Yellow Plant Material York Dibromoindigo Tyrian Purple Silks. Broom. Silks. Yellows Wool Norway. Dublin but 1 instance found was unspecified) with indigotin. Iron. Dublin Yellow Plant Material York Genista tinctoria Broom. Sweden. Linen Norway. Sweden ? Dyes eliminated include: Weld. Plant Material Norway. Rocella tinctoris Ochrolechia tartarea Calluna vulgaris Wall Lichen Orecin Yellows. Sweden.Table 1: Viking Age Dyes * Color/Colors Given Archeological Evidence Found Blues. Denmark. Wool. York Norway. Denmark. Purpurin Alizarin.Perhaps from Oak Galls Calcium Carbonate (Think shells or Coccolithophores. Linen. Greens Seeds.) *This table is a work in progress ©Kristina Gundersen 2013 meavedouglass@gmail.) Alum -We have archeological evidence for clubmoss (Diphasium complanatum. Dublin Galium boreale. Golds Seeds. Denmark Walnut Juglone. York.always found with indigotin Mordants & Modifiers most likely used Heather Geographic Location Green & Yellow (In all 7 Textiles (fiber composition Norway. Sweden Rubia tinctorum Madder Oranges.com . Wool Tunic Silks Norway. Tans Wool. asperuloside Reds. Dyer’s Rocket Luteolin Yellows. Northern Germany. Wool. Denmark.Most likely through the dyepot Copper .Most likely through bronze dyepots Tannin. Denmark Xanthoria parietina. Reds. Plumbagin Browns. Purples Wool. and Heather ? Nucella lapillus Kermes vermilio Porphyrophora polonica Yellow X. Dublin York. Dyer’s Greenwood. Galium aparine Juglans regia Bedstraw. York. Pseudopurpurin. Dye itself produced a yellow. Shells in Dye Workshop Ireland Kermes Polish Cochineal Kermesic Acid Carminic Acid Reds Reds Silks. (rubia tinctoria) and related plants of the Rubia family whose roots are a source of good red dyes containing alizarin and purpurin  Mordant. Pure water has a pH very close to 7. Different mordants will result in different colors from the same dye. used as a dye and a mordant.  Dog Whelk.are color-bearing organic compounds that can be dissolved in water or another liquid so that they will penetrate fibers  Fugitive Dye.com .a scale insect (Kermes vermilio) from which the crimson-colored dye Kermesic Acid is derived  Lichen. ©Kristina Gundersen 2013 meavedouglass@gmail. is a species of predatory sea snail that can be used to produce redpurple and violet dye  Dye.dyes that require use of a mordant to bind the color to the fiber  Alum.  Pigment.a chemical used to change the color result when dyeing  pH.a chemical.Glossary of Terms:  Archaeobontanist.insoluble color particles that may be attached to the surface of cloth using a binding agent.fungus and algae living in a symbiotic relationship that in many cases will produce brightly colored dyes  Madder.a tannin-rich growth on oak trees produced by an infection of the insect Cynips gallae tinctoriae. usually a mineral.an archaeologist who studies plant remains  Adjective Dye. used in combination with dye to "fix" the color in the textile fibers. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline.a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.  Chromatography.Nucella lapillus.specialized cells that form the outer layer of a vascular plant that can form unique patterns used to identify the plant.  Modifier.  Kermes. as opposed to colorfast  Gall.colors are prone to fading when exposed to sunlight (fugitive to light) or washing.(aluminum sulfate) is a naturally occurring basic mordant widely used in the ancient world.collective term for a set of laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures  Dermal Pattern. (Reseda luteola).(isatis tinctoria) a plant whose leaves are a source for the indigotin. Each color has a unique wavelength.dyes that produce color without the use of a mordant  Tannin. stomata) .com . Polish Cochineal.a naturally occurring yellow to brown acid compound found in many plants that is used as a mordant and a dye  Wayside Plant. rather than one being cultivated  Wavelength.the distance over which the wave's shape repeats as light energy travels. which can be used to create a blue dye ©Kristina Gundersen 2013 [email protected] scale insect (Porphyrophora polonica) from which the crimson-colored dye carmine is derived  Stoma (pl.a plant occurring naturally in the wild. produces an important yellow dye  Woad.  Weld.a plant also called mignonette or dyer's rocket.minute pores on plants found typically on the outer leaf skin layer that allow for respiration  Substantive Dye.