Vedic Culture

Vedic CultureContents 1 2 Tamas (philosophy) 1 1.1 The nature of Tamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Occurrence of Tamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.3 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Samkhya 3 2.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.2 Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.2.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.2.2 Emergence as a distinct philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.2.3 Vedic influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.2.4 Upanishadic influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.2.5 Buddhist and Jainist influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.3 Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.4 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.4.1 Epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.4.2 Dualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.4.3 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.4.4 Liberation or mokṣa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.4.5 Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Atheism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.5.1 Arguments against Ishvara’s existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.5.2 Textual references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.5 2.6 Influence on other schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.9 References 10 2.6.1 On Yoga 2.6.2 On Tantra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i ii 3 CONTENTS 2.10 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Sanskrit 15 3.1 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2 Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2.1 Vedic Sanskrit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2.2 Classical Sanskrit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3 3.4 3.5 Contemporary usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3.1 As a spoken language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3.2 In official use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3.3 Contemporary literature and patronage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3.4 In music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3.5 In mass media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.3.6 As a liturgical language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.3.7 Symbolic usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Historical usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.4.1 Origin and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.4.2 Standardisation by Panini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.4.3 Coexistence with vernacular languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3.4.4 Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Public education and popularisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Adult and continuing education 3.5.2 School curricula 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.5.3 In the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.5.4 Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.5.5 European scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.6 Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.7 Writing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Romanisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.8 Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.9 Influence on other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.9.1 Indic languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.9.2 Interaction with other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.9.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.10 Computational linguistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.12 References 22 3.7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTENTS 4 5 6 7 iii 3.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Guṇa 26 4.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 4.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 4.2.1 Samkhya school of Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 4.2.2 Nyaya school of Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 4.2.3 Vaisheshika school of Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 4.2.4 Bhagavad Gita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.3 Guna in theory of ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.4 Guna in other contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.4.1 Sanskrit grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.4.2 Ayurveda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.4.3 Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Rajas 32 5.1 Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 5.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Sattva 33 6.1 Sattvic objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6.2 Sattvic creatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Hinduism 35 7.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 7.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 7.2.1 Colonial influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 7.2.2 Indigenous understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 7.2.3 Western understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Diversity and inclusivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 7.3.1 Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 7.3.2 Inclusivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 7.3.3 Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11. . . . . . . . . .6 Classical Hinduism (c. . . . .7. . . . . .6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Monasticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Person and society . . . . 41 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Vedic period (c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 7. .10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 7. . . . . . 47 7. . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 . . . . . . . . . . 44 7. . . .2 Karma and samsara . . . . . . . . . .1 Conversion debate . . . . . . . . .9. . . . . . . . . 500-200 BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200-1700 CE) . . . . . . . . . . 52 7. . . . . . . . . 57 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 7. . . . . 40 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9. . . . . . 45 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . .10. . . . . 40 7. . . .11 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 7. 48 7. . .8 Denominations . . . . . 1750 BCE) . . . . .1 Varnas . . . . . .6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 7. . . .5 Scriptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 7. . . . . . . .iv CONTENTS 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 7.1 Purusharthas (objectives of human life) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6. . . . . . . . . . .3 Symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 7.10. . . . . . . . . 45 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Practices . . . . . .1 Rituals . . . . . . . . .2 Origins . . . . . . .15. . . .13 Notes . . . .10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 BCE-1100 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9. . . . . . . . . . . 39 7. .1 Published sources . . . .4. . . 48 7. . . .7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Ahimsa. . . . . . . . . . . 49 7. . . . . . . . . . . . 43 7. . . . . . . .6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . .10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 7. . . . . . . . . . . .1 Periodisation . . 53 7. . . . . . . . . . . .10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vegetarianism and other food customs . . . . . 43 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . .2 Yoga . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Ashrama . . . . . . . . . . . 45 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7. . . .3 Moksha . . . . . . . . .3 Bhakti (worship) . . . 40 7. . . . . . . . . . . 46 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1800) . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Concept of God . . . . . . . . . . . 50 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Prevedic religions (until c. . . . . . .14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750-500 BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Islam and sects of Hinduism (c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 7. . . . . . . . . .10. . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Life-cycle rites of passage . . . 47 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Pilgrimage . .4 Festivals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 “Second Urbanisation” (c. . .8 Modern Hinduism (from c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 7. . .10 History . . . . . . . . 76 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Mahayana traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 8. . . . . . . . 78 8. . . .1 Philosophical roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7. . . . . . . . . .4 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Further reading . . . 79 8. 99 8. . . . .8. . . . . . . .1 8. . . . . 98 8. . . . . . . . . . 85 8. . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Schools and traditions . . 72 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 8. . . .11 Notes . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Late 20th century Buddhist movements . . . . . . . .2 Mahayana sutras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . 90 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Indian Buddhism . . . . . . . .2 Buddhist concepts . . . . . . . . . . . 95 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Web-sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Life of the Buddha . . . . . . . . . .7 8. . . 88 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Monastic life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 8. . . . . . . . .6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 See also . 99 Buddhist texts . . . . . . . . 97 8. . . . . . . . . . 96 8. . . . . . . . . . . .2 Suffering’s causes and solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Buddhism 74 8. . . .2 Theravada school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Buddhist ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Nature of existence . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . .4 Development of Buddhism . . . . . . 93 8. . . . . . . . . . . .13 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Earliest teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6. . . 96 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 8. . . 85 8. . . . . . . .2. 103 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Criticism . . .1 Life and the world .6. . . . . .CONTENTS 8 v 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Comparative studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 8. .15. . . . . . 95 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7. . . .4 Vajrayana traditions . . . . . . 76 8. . . . . .3.4 Liberation . . . . . . . . .1 Pāli Tipitaka . . . . . . . . . .1 Devotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 8. . . . . . . . .9 Is Buddhism a religion? . . . . . .1 Timeline .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Meditation . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . .2. . . . . . . . . . .5 Buddhism today . . . .17 External links . . . 97 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Legends . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Prohibitions in Sikhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 115 Philosophy and Teachings . . . .1 Sikhism and the caste system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Liberation . . . . . . . 131 10 Bhairava 132 10. .2 9. . . 122 9. . . . . .9 The ten gurus and religious authority . . . . . . .12 External links . . 132 . . . . . .4 The timeless truth . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . .2 Guru Granth Sahib (The Eternal Sikh Holy Scripture) . . .13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Janamsakhis (Biographies of the Gurus) . . . . .2 Worship . . . . . . . 117 9. . .6 Remembrance . . . . 119 9. . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 9. 117 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Adi Granth (The Sacred Scripture) . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 9. .2 Political advancement .1 Sikh festivals and events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Ceremonies and customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . 125 Sikh People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. .3 Dasam Granth (The Book of Gurus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 9. . . . . . . . . . 122 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vi CONTENTS 8. . . .8 See also . . . . . . 117 9. . . .10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Justice and equality . . . . . .4 9. 127 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. . . . .7 Service and action . . .1 Online sources . . . . . . . .2. . . 114 8. . 115 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 9. . . . . 117 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The concept of “god” in sikhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Sikh Diaspora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . 127 9. .1 Growth of Sikhism . . .5 Singing and music . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Baptism and the Khalsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 9. . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 9. . 114 9 Sikhism 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 9. . . . . . 121 9. . .3 Worldly illusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Scriptures . . . . . .11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . .1 9. . . . . . .1 The all pervading spirit . . . . . . . . . 116 9. . . . . . . . . . . . 124 9. . . . . . 119 9. . . . . . . .14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Observances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . .1 Assimilation of traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 10. . . . . . . . .3 Observances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 11. . . . . . . . . . . . 147 11. . . . . . .5. . .2. . . . . . . . . . .2 Lingam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Ascetic and Householder . . . . . . . . . . 145 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.CONTENTS vii 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Indus Valley origins . . . . . . . . . .4 Iconography and properties . . .5 Ardhanarishvara . . . . . . . . . 143 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Dakshinamurthy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Forms and roles . . . . . 137 11. . . . . . . .6 Tripurantaka . . .4 Later Vedic literature . . 145 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Iconography . 134 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Historical development and literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Sikhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 11. . . .1 Destroyer and Benefactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7. .3 Trimurti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . 134 11 Shiva 135 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 11. . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7. 139 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 11. . 147 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 The five mantras . . . . . . .6 Images of Bhairava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . identifications . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 11. 139 11. . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Shakti . . . . . . . . .1 Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . 144 11. . . . 133 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . avatars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 11.7 Beyond Hinduism . 136 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. . . .5 Temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Panchayatana puja . . . .8 References . . . . . .1 Etymology and other names . .1 Attributes . .5. . . .6 Tantric literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Nataraaja .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 11. . 138 11. 139 11. . . 146 11. . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Shaivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Other forms. . . . 141 11. . . .5. . . . . . .5 Puranic literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 See also . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . .3 Indo-European origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Position within Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 11. . . . . .6 Festivals . . . . . . . .3 Saraswati . . . . . . . .7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Srikula: family of Sri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Manifestations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Historical and philosophical development .8 References . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . 155 12 Devi 156 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Principal deities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Parvati . . . . . . . . 166 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Matrikas . . 160 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Tantric deities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Other aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 12. . . . . . . . . 160 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 12. . . . . 162 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 13. . . . . . . . .viii CONTENTS 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 12. .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Shakti Peethas .7 Mahavidya . . . 161 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . .2 Vedic period . . .10External links . . . . . . . . .2 Association with Tantra . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Worship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Soundarya Lahari . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Durga . 161 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.8 Navadurga .1 Mahadevi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . 156 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 12. . 165 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 12.2 Sita . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Shri-Lakshmi . 163 13. . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Radha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Kalikula: family of Kali . . . . . .6 Kali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Indus Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Festivals . 153 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Overview .2. . . . . . 161 13 Shaktism 162 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 12. . . . . . . . . . . 157 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Shakti and Shiva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 . . . . .9 Sources . . 161 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Shruti literature . . . . . . . .2 Parisista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14. . . . . .1 Vedanga . . 185 14. . . . .5 “Fifth” and other Vedas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 13. . . . . . .1 Etymology and usage . . .9 Western Indology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 See also . . 187 15. . . . . . . . . .5. . . 187 . . . . . . . 187 15. . . . . . . . . . . 180 14. . . . . . . . .5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 13. . . . . 177 14. . . .4 Vedic schools or recensions . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 14. . . . . . 179 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. . . . . . . 180 14. . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Rigveda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Notes . . . . . 178 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8. . . . . . . . . . . 177 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14. . . . . . . . . . .12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Further reading . .8. . . .5 Four Vedas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 14. . . . . . . . . . .1 Hindu philosophy . . . . . . . . . 179 14. . . . . . . . . . . .6 Expansion beyond South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Common themes . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Atharvaveda . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Vedanta . . . . . . . . . . . . .8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Chronology . . . . . . . . .3 Yajurveda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 14. . . . 171 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 In post-Vedic literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Shaktism as a distinct tradition within Hinduism . .8. . .5. . 181 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Samaveda . . . . . . .CONTENTS ix 13. . .1 Vedic Sanskrit corpus . . . . . . . . . .6 Brahmanas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 14 Vedas 175 14. . . . .14External links . . . . . . . .3 Categories of Vedic texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Puranas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 14. . . . 172 13. . . . .4 Upaveda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 14. . . . . 176 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 14. . . 186 15 Indian philosophy 187 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 15. . .1. . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 15. . . . . . . . .1 Authorship . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Political philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . 205 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Date of composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Classical commentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . .1 Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 16. . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Buddhist philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . .6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 15. . . . . . . . . . . .10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . .2 Adaptations . . 195 16.5 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 16. .2. . . . . . . . . . . 204 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Content . . . . . . .2. .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. . . . .3 Hindu revivalism . .5 Scholarly translations . . . . . .1 Appraisal . .7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Themes . . . 191 16 Bhagavad Gita 193 16. . . . . . . . . . . . 202 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 16. . 190 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Commentaries and translations . . . . . . . . .4 Other modern commentaries . .2 Jain philosophy . . 195 16. . . . . 207 . . . . . . . . 202 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Independence movement . .9 Further reading .3 Modern philosophy . . . . . 188 15. . . . . . . . . . . . 195 16. . . . . . . . . . .7 Notes . . . . . . .3 Yoga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 16. 200 16. 204 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Sources . .1 Dharma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Overview of chapters . . . . . . . . 197 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Cārvāka philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Status . . . . . . . . 194 16. . . . . . .1 Composition and significance . . . . 203 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Contemporary popularity . . . . . . 203 16.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 16. . . . . .4.9 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .x CONTENTS 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Hindu synthesis and smriti . . . . . . . . .2 Moksha: Liberation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 See also . . . . . . . . . . 193 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 16. . . 212 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9. . 212 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 See also . . . . . .7. . . . . . . . . . 214 17. . 213 17. . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Text . . . . .3 Sattvic foods . . .6 External links . . . . . . . . . . .9. .3 Content license . . and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 17 Sattvic diet 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .CONTENTS xi 16. . . . . . . . 236 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Etymology 212 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 17. .1 Printed sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Ancient literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 17. . . . . . . . . .7. . . . . . . . . . . .2 Online sources . . . . . . .7 Text and image sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Images . . contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . skrit: Āsakti – selfishness).3 Quotes Shiva drinks the poison of his devotees to get rid of their sin. where haviour is under control of a power in this nature tamas is the lowest of the three. tamas as the cause worship. Then. It might be easier to counteract it by means of rajas (action). slowest. He then thinks. feels that it is not easy to live in this world by the means of sattva. ual behaviour. nescience. similarly. hence absorbing the Tamo-Guna of devotees. raajas-red passion. Tamas is the template for inertia or resistance to action. O Arjuna. • “O Arjuna. and satva"(SGGS ) Tamas cannot be counteracted by tamas. abide 1 . As per rajas. and resistance. tamas (Sanskrit: 1. dissolution. the man starts habitual working thinking only of what he wants. Rajas and Tamas is seen in various facets (including vide harm to others and attain my goal. It has also been translated from SanOnce a man. and most dull (for example. and taamas-black darkness. Tamas is a force which procalled mohamaya and brings about asakti (Sanmotes darkness. one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. vedic philosophy dictates Sattva as the preferred guna. Buddhism and Sikhism. a stone or a lump of earth). destruction. and the three qualities of raajas. and it might be more difficult to jump directly from tamas to sattva. neglectfulness and also illusion. there are many goddesses which incarnate within of delusion enslaving all embodied beings born of the Shakta sect of Hindusim where goddess are offered annescience. as an example Bhairava Incarnation of Lord Shiva is a Tamasic Avatar. heaviest. dying in tamas. overcomes time. he will start being Rajasic. having sattva as his main habitskrit as “indifference”. This bedietary habits) of Hinduism. goodness). Since Tamas can't be controlled by mortal energy. sattva (purity. It is devoid of the energy of the rajas and the brightness of sattva. death. Tamas is lowest.Chapter 1 Tamas (philosophy) In the Samkhya school of philosophy. he feels good in giving harm or any of bad feeling to other peoples. one takes birth from the womb of an animal” (BG 14:15) The gunas are defined and detailed in Samkhya. how can I proSattva. the other two being rajas (passion and activity) and The Bhagavad Gita says.2 Occurrence of Tamas तमस् tamas “darkness”) is one of the three gunas (or qualities). when these arise tamas predominates.” (BG 14:13) • “Succumbing to death in rajas one takes birth among those beings attached to fruitive activities. their energy is purely tamas.1 The nature of Tamas tions as good (satkarmi) or bad (akarmi). Tamas is also a Guna or Quality that is much needed to counter Evil. where 1. Each of the three gunas has its own distinctive characteristics and it is believed that everything is made up of these three. taamas. • “The Fourteenth Day: One who enters into the fourth state. sloth. • “Those who embody the energies of sattva-white light. It becomes hard for him to think about his Karmic ac1. inertness. cence. and Lord Shiva Himself out of the Trinity represents Tamas. by negligence. ignorance.” (BG 14:8) In the holistic-universal creation Tamas is where the demons and asuras dwell. listlessness and somnolesimal sacrifice. in Devi • “You should know. he alone obtains the supreme state” (SGGS ) • “Raajas. the quality of energy and activity. Taamas. the quality of lethargic darkness shall pass away. That man who realizes the fourth state . All that is seen shall pass away. 1. and Satvas. are all called the creations of Maya. the quality of purity and light. taamas and satva” (SGGS ) • “Raajas. the quality of energetic activity shall pass away. along with the many created forms.” (SGGS ) • “Your Power is diffused through the three gunas: raajas. Saatvas.4 See also • Tamasic foods . the quality of peaceful light shall pass away as well. Your illusion. TAMAS (PHILOSOPHY) in the Fear of God. the quality of darkness and inertia.2 CHAPTER 1. Taamas. see Sankhya (journal). quality of darkness. yet essentially inactive. deliberate. nor considered relevant by the Samkhya philosophers. word/testimony of reliable sources). and its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva.[4][5][6] opment of various theories of Hindu ethics. Anumāṇa (inference) and Sabda Samkhya’s philosophical treatises also influenced the devel(Āptavacana. particularly of the mind. count. It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism. means “to reckon. chaotic. The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements.”[21] In the context of ancient Indian philosophies. lethargic. rational. and constructive.[18][19] The Samkhya theory of epistemology accepted three of six Pramanas as the gunas was widely discussed.[14][15] is that Yoga school of Hinduism accepts a “personal.[12] While Samkhya school of Hinduism considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge. reason.2 The existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted.”[23] 3 . character of someone or something.e. statistics journal. the Puruṣa or soul.[10] This fusion. ignorance.[24] in technical usage it refers to the Samkhya school of thought that evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early centuries CE. i. Sāṃkhya denies the final cause of Ishvara (God). positive. is a Sanskrit word that. These included ous schools of Indian philosophies including Buddhism. developed and refined by varionly reliable means of gaining knowledge. potentially good or bad. enumerate. of nature and deterSāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose mines the progress of life.1 Etymology Samkhya (सांख्य). illuminating. activity and mind. The end of this imbalance.[20] Pratyakṣa (perception). led to the emergence of buddhi (“spiritual awareness”) and ahankara (individualized ego consciousness.[25] The Samkhya system is called so because “it 'enumerates’ twenty five Tattvas or true principles. it is an atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen and other scholars. innate tendencies). all life forms and human beings. but in differand its rationalism was influential on other schools of Inent proportions. depending on the context.[16] Historical development The word samkhya means empirical or relating to numbers. bondage is called liberation. Rajas guna is one of activity. are of three types: Sattva being good. have these three gunas.[11] 2. or moksha by Samkhya school of Hinduism. For the Samkhya is known for its theory of gunas (qualities. Puruṣa (consciousness) and prakriti (matter). deity” or “personal god”. compassionate. state Samkhya scholars. senses.[23] Although the term had been used in the general sense of metaphysical knowledge before. Samkhya refers to the philosophical school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration and rational examination. reasoning by numeric enumeration. passion. also referred to as Sankhya. state the Samkhya scholars. it states. feelings. and Tamas being the is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy. IAST: sāṃkhya) [1] impulsive. Everything.[3] Samkhya is strongly dualist. destructive.[13][14] A key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools. Jiva (a living being) is that state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form.[22] 2. “I-maker”). creating a form of bondage. one of more constituents overwhelm the others. state scholars. calculate. negIt is described as the rationalist school of Indian philoso[2] phy. ative.[7][8][9] Sāmkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities.[10] During the state of imbalance. The interplay of these gunas defines the [3] dian philosophies. Samkhya or Sankhya (Sanskrit: सांख्य.Chapter 2 Samkhya This article is about a school of philosophy. relating to number. or Sāṅkhya. Sāṃkhya.[17] Guna. He first said.[39] is in the Indra–Vritra myth. believes that this myth contains twofold dualism. about 2. a text that was compiled in second millennium BCE.[28] Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school. He writes On one hand there is dualism of order and chaos. but context suggests that the word means “reddish brown color”. in the form that was then translated into Chinese by Paramartha in 6th century CE. Classical Sāṅkhya is remarkably independent of orthodox Brahmanic traditions.[28] influencing all strands of the Hindu tradition and Hindu texts. for example. the material principle that produces not only the external world and the body but also the changing and externally determined aspects of the human mind (such as the intellect. slays Vritra. there is dualism of Indra’s power over against both the chaos and the order.[32] Katha Upanishad conceives the purusha as an individual soul which Ātman (Self) inhabits.1 describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to Kapila. suggesting Kapila’s and Samkhya philosophy’s origins may predate it. Shvetashvatara Upanishad and Bhagavad Gita have clear references to Samkhyan terminology and concepts.1[37] The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text. SAMKHYA 2. and a much later scholar named Pancasikha as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas.2 Emergence as a distinct philosophy Between 5th and 2nd century BCE. though they are not used in the same sense as in classical Samkhya.[26][note 1] Samkhya has non-Vedic origins. Numerous other ancient Indian texts mention Kapila. ego. many centuries later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE). 'I am' (aham asmi). All our early sources for the history of Sāṅkhya belong to the Vedic tradition. including the Vedas.2.[31][38] Earliest mention of dualism in the Rig Veda. called Kapila Sannyasa Vidha. Both Kapila as a “seer” and the term Samkhya appear in hymns of section 5. Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita. a serpent demon.[36] According to Ruzsa. the unchanging immaterial conscious essence.2 in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (~300 BCE).[30] Kapila appears in Rigveda. leader of the gods. and it is thus reasonable to suppose that we do not see in them the full development of the Sāṅkhya system.[31] Philosophical texts from this era such as the Katha Upanishad. are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as Vedas.[30] A 6th century CE Chinese translation and other texts consistently state Kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school.1 Origins According to Zimmer. but rather occasional glimpses of its development as it gained gradual acceptance in the Brahmanic fold. internal and external perceptual organs).[29] However. Looking around he saw nothing else than the self. mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching.[35] The Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the devotion (bhakti) of theistic schools and the impersonal Brahman of Vedanta. it is unclear in which century of 1st millennium BCE Kapila lived.[33] Samkhya and Yoga are mentioned together for first time in the Shvetashvatra Upanishad. In this myth.000 years ago “Sāṅkhya became the representative philosophy of Hindu thought in Hindu circles”. Samkhyakarika. Indra. —Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.[40] The emphasis of duality between existence (sat) and nonexistence (asat) in the Nasadiya sukta of the Rig Veda is similar to the vyakta–avyakta (manifest–unmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. A combination of these views may have resulted in the concept of the Puruṣa.3 Vedic influences In the beginning this (world) was only the self. in the shape of a person.[30] 2.2. Ruzsa[28] suggests glimpses of Samkhya system’s origin are seen in Vedic era. a scholar of religions and philosophies of India. Gerald James Larson. contrasted with Prakṛti. On the other hand. It contains the earliest concep- .2. The hymn of Purusha sukta may also have influenced Samkhya. Other verses of the Upanishad consider purusha to be smaller than the thumb. Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter IV.4.16.[28] 2. to unleash the creative forces held captive by him.[34] The three gunas are also mentioned in the Gita.[31] Samkhya thought from various sources started coalescing into a distinct philosophy. but its remarkable independence from Vedas may have affected its mention in early ancient literature: Sāṅkhya likely grew out of speculations rooted in cosmic dualism and introspective meditational practice.4 CHAPTER 2. The ascetic and meditative yoga practice aimed at overcoming the limitations of the natural body and achieving perfect stillness of the mind. Isvarakrsna is identified in these texts as the one who summarized and simplified Samkhya theories of Pancasikha.[32] Bhagavad Gita identifies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge. 10th century CE). c. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya af2. The enumeration of tattvas in Samkhya is also found in Taittiriya Upanishad. now.2. which Samkhya considered Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense persuggests a likely Buddhism influence. a cosmic being from whom the manifestation arises. Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidīpīka (c.1 Epistemology ries.13[44] The oldest of the major Upanishads (c. than other Indian philosophies. given the differences between the two philosophies.[52] Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (Sāṁkhyasūtravṛtti. Aitareya Upanishad and Yajnavalkya–Maitri dialogue in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Partha. 900–600 BCE) also contain speculations along the lines of classical Samkhya philosophy.2. Richard King. also contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school. an Indologist.[36] The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarikia was the Gauḍapāda Bhāṣya attributed to Gauḍapāda. one is freed from all fetters.[36] There were probably other texts in early centuries CE. of the integrated wisdom with which. Elaide. Hear. However Hermann Jacobi.[42] The Samkhya notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to the notion of hiranyagarbha which appears in both the Rig Veda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad. the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. The text also refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called Ṣaṣṭitantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost.2.2. It is more likely.[51] The Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra (c. The purusha of Samkhya could have evolved from this idea. who grants desires. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha to himself.[48] However. Professor of Religious Studies. can be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of sat (being) and describe creation from it. Mahādeva (vṛttisāra.[48] Likewise. 17th cenyou will cast off the bonds of karma.which God.4. A prominent similarity between Buddhism and Samkhya is the greater emphasis on suffering (dukkha) as the foundation for their respective soteriological theo.[46] 5 developed their soteriological theories over time. an ancient Indian medical treatise.3 Texts The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical Samkhya philosophy is the Samkhya Karika (c. the one among many. the Jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls (jiva) could have influenced the concept of multiple purushas in Samkhya.[41] Purusha also finds numerous mentions in the hymns of the Atharvaveda.[43] 2.[48] 2.4 Philosophy each other. thinks that there is little reason to assume that Samkhya notion of Purushas was solely dependent on the notion of jiva in Jainism. and Śabda or Āptavacana presents the alternate theory that Samkhya and Buddhism (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only .[54] Buddhism and Jainism had developed in Northeastern India by the 5th century BCE. tury CE). That cause which is to be apprehended by discrimination and discipline (samkhayogadhigamyam) . The idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both Chandogya and Svetashvatara Upanishads. —Svetashvatara Upanishad VI. It is probable that these schools of thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya influenced 2. benefitting from their mutual influence.[50] Iśvarakṛṣṇa in his Kārikā describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila. TEXTS tion of Purusha. the theory of causation in Samkhya. Charaka Samhita.[31] The concept of ahamkara in Samkhya can be traced back to the notion of ahamkara in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chhandogya Upanishad.4 Upanishadic influences He is the eternal amongst the eternals. that Samkhya was moulded by many ancient theories of soul in various Vedic and nonVedic schools. suffering appears central to Samkhya in its later literature. however none of them are available today. 15th cenThis declared to you is the Yoga of the wisdom of Samkhya. 200 CE[49] or 350–450 CE[36] ) of Iśvarakṛṣṇa. 16th century CE). Anumāna (inference). 6th century CE) and Vācaspati’s Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī (c.39 ophy. c. Vijñānabhikṣu (Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya.3. the intelligent among the intelligences.5 Buddhist and Jainist influences ter the karika.[45] Upanishadic sages Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni developed the idea that pure consciousness was the innermost essence of a human being. ception). scholar of Indian philos—Bhagavad Gita 2. Satkaryavada. tury CE) and Nāgeśa (Laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti). c.[53] Ac[47] cording Surendranath Dasgupta. thinks it is unlikely that Gauḍapāda could have authored both texts. however. and drshtanta (examples). correct perception excludes judgments of doubt. and legitimate knowledge can only come from the Sabda of reliable sources. deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception.[55] In all except one Hindu philosophies. such as Carvaka. correct perception does not change. For example. whatever is being studied). state that this is never possible. or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe. Samkhya did not consider the following three Pramanas as epistemically proper: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy). he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly. Some schools. state the ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). or not observing what one does not want to observe).[59] • Anumāṇa (अनुमान) means inference. according to ancient Indian scholars. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts. some schools of Hinduism considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from Pratyakṣa-pranama.2 Dualism While Western philosophical traditions. suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka (definite. where one’s sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else’s perception). It is of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal.[66] He must cooperate with others to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other’s lives. nor is it the result of deception because one’s sensory organ or means of observation is drifting.[5][65] Hiriyanna explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world of objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its bosom.[4] Unlike few other schools of Hinduism. the Samkhya admits a plurality of the Puruṣas in this world. The Puruṣa is considered as the conscious principle. Arthāpatti (postulation.[66] The reliability of the source is important. For rigor.[5][66] The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has been on how to establish reliability. While the Prakriti is a single entity. Samkhya provides an alternate viewpoint.[5] • Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्षाय) means perception. in both sapaksha and vipaksha. but through Sabda (words). equate mind with the conscious self and theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body dualism. testimony of past or present reliable experts. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects. This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written. a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. defective. Avyabhicara (does not wander. negative/cognitive proof) . while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis). Samkhya believes that the Puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source . a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya).[62] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts.6 CHAPTER 2. intimately related to substance dualism.4. and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent.[57] Some ancient scholars proposed “unusual perception” as pramana and called it internal perception.the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in “all” cases. and with the limited time and energy available. uncaused.[55][56] The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:[57] Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one’s sensory organ(s) with the object. Other schools debate means to establish reliability. either because of one’s failure to observe all the details.[64] • Śabda (शब्द) means relying on word. conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment). correct perception is not through hearsay. The internal perception concepts included pratibha (intuition). unmanifest. by drawing a metaphysical line between consciousness and matter — where matter includes both body and mind. so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment. the mind. Avyapadesya (non-verbal. as exemplified by Descartes. they demand Vyapti . hetu (a reason). samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal). and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).[58] Further. SAMKHYA valid means of knowledge or Pramana.[67] 2. and therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana.[60] Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana. The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present.[62][63] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion). Unintelligent.[68][69] The Samkhya system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two “irreducible. ever-active. innate and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti.[61] this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason. the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. atheistic realism and uncompromising dualism. as it is the unconscious and unintelligent principle.4. and pain. because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world.[75] . Each sentient being or Jiva is a fusion of Puruṣa and Prakriti. It remains pure. imperceptible. appropriates all mental experiare all seen as forms of unconscious matter. Puruṣa is neither produced nor does it produce. intellect.of mind and intellect by assuming possession of them. These are: • Sattva – poise. above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. Prakriti. fineness. ego structures that appear to be conscious.mahat). heaviness. “nonattributive consciousness”. both mind and matter-cum-energy or force. creates thought 23 components including intellect (buddhi. PHILOSOPHY 7 of inanimate world. the (ahamkara) and mind (manas). after receiving cognitive structures form the mind The unconscious primordial materiality. It is a pluralistic spiritualism.[70] Puruṣa Puruṣa is the transcendental self or pure consciousness. it is also called the jaDa. con. In Samkhya. and sloth. • Tamas – inertia. lightness.[76] tent they receive illumination from Purusha. It is absolute. • Rajas – dynamism. obstruction. personalizes the objective activities processes and mental events are conscious only to the ex.[75] Ahamkara. which is actually an attribute of Prakriti. contains and illumination from pure consciousness. So Puruṣa and unconscious Prakriti is realized by the Puruṣa.2. free. The spirit is liberated when the discriminate knowledge of the difference between conscious material configurations or 'shapes’ assumed by the mind. Prakriti accounts for whatever is physical. excitation. mind and ego ego or the phenomenal self. Samsāra or bondage arises when the Puruṣa does not have the discriminate knowledge and so is misled as to its own identity. illumination. whose soul/Puruṣa is limitless and unrestricted by its physical body. It is composed of three essential characteristics (trigunas). it is called the Pradhāna.[74] Thought ences to itself and thus.[71] Prakriti Prakriti is the first cause of the manifest material universe — of everything except the Puruṣa. and joy. or primal nature (from which all physical bodies are derived). independent. unknowable through other agencies.[70][72][73] All physical events are considered to be manifestations of the evolution of Prakriti. Samkhya believes in plurality of the Puruṣas. the intellect. But consciousness is itself independent of the thought strucconsciousness is compared to light which illuminates the tures it illuminates.Elements in Samkhya philosophy fusing itself with the Ego/ahamkāra. coarseness. Since it is the first principle (tattva) of the universe. activity. It is held that unlike Advaita Vedanta and like Purva-Mimamsa. but. other evo. Evolution from self-consciousness from nothing. It causes the evolution of ego-sense one. in the realisa. Samkhya avoids tion of the Self as Self pure and simple.. all the [81] evolute. There is only an apparent or illuThe intellect is the first evolute of prakriti and is called ma.3[85] violation of physical conservation laws.eration. where Sattva guna predominates. While.4. The two mains as the undifferentiated. fire. of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primor[82] Rajas is cause of action in the evolutes.(kaivalya) arises. This primary purposes of evolution of Prakriti are the enjoyment is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow each and the liberation of Purusha. ifested as long as the three gunas are in equilibrium. touch.[11] lutes like the five elements do not cause further evolution. teraction of Prakriti and Purusha. According to Satkāryavāda. Samkhya offers a way out of this suffering by means of discriminative knowledge (viveka). More specifically. The dis. Purusha is pure dial matter.[87] sattva causes the evolution of the five organs of perception.[79] Other forms of Samkhya teach that Mokṣa is attained by Some evolutes of Prakriti can cause further evolution and one’s own development of the higher faculties of discrimare labelled evolvents. when it becomes effect. Samkhya system follows the Prakritifive organs of action and the mind. So dominance of seen as Prakriti. In evolution. due to ignorance. ego and intelliThe Supreme Good is mokṣa which consists in the perma. Such knowledge. intellect while itself ination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices. effects cannot come or self-consciousness. water and earth. The cause under consideration sight. transformation of the cause.gence are regarded as forms of Unconsciousness. However. The Samkhya system is therefore an exponent of the five gross elements space.[83] The 23 evolutes of prakriti other. Because mind is an evolute of matter. that 2. they cannot be The Samkhya system is based on Sat-kārya-vāda or the thecalled evolvents because living beings are not separate from ory of causation.[86] imity of a magnet is used to describe this process. once the realizaequilibrium of the gunas triggers an evolution that leads tion arises that Puruṣa is distinct from Prakriti. which now reEvolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. Evolution is followed It is neither a product of evolution. eternal and subject to no change. the eternal pure consciousness.5 Causality another principle. taste.[77] root cause of this suffering and bondage (Samsara). one of the most serious pitfalls of Cartesian dualism. mental events are granted causal efficacy Samkhya considers ignorance (avidyā) is regarded as the and are therefore able to initiate bodily motions. primordial substance. Prakriti remains unman. the Self is to the manifestation of the world from an unmanifested no longer subject to transmigration and absolute freedom Prakriti. Parināma denotes that the effect is a real triggers the evolution of five subtle elements– sound. smell from self-consciousness. the original cause or ground of everything is is affected by the dominance of gunas.. This results in endless into proximity with consciousness or Purusha. pre-existent in the cause. in definition. Prakriti is transformed and differconsciousness absolute.[80] It is important to note that an evolvent is defined as a principle which behaves as the material cause for the evolution of 2.tween Prakriti (avyakta-vyakta) and Puruṣa (jña).transmigration and suffering. the —Samkhyakarika I. the effect is [81] the five elements in essence. giving individual bodies and minds to each and after liberation these elements of Prakriti merges into 2. For example. nor the cause of any by dissolution. worldly objects mingle back into Prakriti.Puruṣa.tinct from pure consciousness. involves the discrimination be[4] The idea of evolution in Samkhya revolves around the in. while the five elements are the material cause of all living beings. Another uniqueness of Sāmkhya is that not only physical entities but even mind. SAMKHYA By including mind in the realm of matter. air. These five subhere is Prakriti or more precisely Moola-Prakriti (Primortle elements are themselves evolvents and cause the creation dial Matter). . So.3 Evolution leads to mokṣa (liberation). quite disnent impossibility of the incidence of pain. Since. But this theory is very different from the modern theare categorized as follows:[84] ories of science in the sense that Prakriti evolves for each Jeeva separately.8 CHAPTER 2. In dissolution the physical existence.4.sory change in the makeup of the cause and not a material hat or the great one.4 Liberation or mokṣa the Moola Prakriti.4. Dominance of tamas Parināma Vāda. created out of Prakriti causes the evolution of ego-sense or Moksha is described by Samkhya scholars as a state of libahamkara and is therefore an evolvent.[78] The metaphor of movement of iron in the prox. This identifies itself with products of Prakriti such as intelequilibrium of the gunas is disturbed when Prakriti comes lect (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara). entiated into multiplicity of objects. Such a dis. and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness – all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another.5.5. there exists no general proposition that can prove him by inference and the testimony of the Vedas speak of prakriti as the origin of the world. A guna is an entity that can change. the Pasupata and sumed to be within the law of karma. be admitted to exist. as agency or authority cannot be established in the absence of desire. 2. Moreover. Because the motives of an enforcer God would be either egoistic or altruistic.scholars are of view that the concept of Ishvara was incorposary. ontological and teleological arguments could not prove Samkhya accepts the notion of higher selves or perfected God. Samkhya cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe. if God is still assumed to contain unfulfilled desires.92 directly states that existence of “Ishvara (God) is unproved”. ATHEISM Samkhya theorizes that Prakriti is the source of the perceived world of becoming. In a state of equilibrium of three gunas.[88] The Sutras of Samkhya have no explicit gues that a perfect God can have no need to create a world role for a separate God distinct from the Puruṣa.after it became associated with the Yoga. pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any modification. The evolution itself is possible because Prakriti is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands or gunas – Sattva. when the three together are one. the relationship between Purusha and Prakriti is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system. beings but rejects the notion of God.5. “unmanifest” Prakriti which is unknowable. not God. creator God:[89] These commentaries of Samkhya postulate that a benevolent deity ought to create only happy creatures. Therefore. Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological. For. 1.2 Textual references be the source of an ever changing world and that God was only a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by The Sankhya-tattva-kaumudi commenting on Karika 57 arcircumstances. the proposition world like the real world. The strands of Samkhya thought can be traced back to the Vedic speculation of creation. This theistic Samkhya would be the giver of consequences and there would be philosophy is described in the Mahabharata. commentaries speak plainly on this subject. Rajas and Tamas. Classical Samkhya argues against the existence of God on metaphysical grounds. Now. according to Samkhya.5 Atheism 9 • Even if karma is denied. tinct God is inconceivable and self-contradictory and some Samkhya questions whether it is reasonable to call into existence beings who while non-existent had no suffering. also confirms this notion.[89] self-caused. A majority of modern academic of God as a moral governor of the universe is unneces. Hence 2. The cause and effect theory of Samkhya is called Satkāryavāda (theory of existent causes). God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences. he is as. then God must be thought to have desire. either increase or decrease. He is not the object of perception. the following arguments were given by the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot the Samkhya philosophers against the idea of an eternal. If his motives are assumed to be egoistic. It is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles. assuming that God has desire would contradict God’s eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions. It is also frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata and Yogavasishta.1 Arguments against Ishvara’s existence there is no philosophical place for a creationist God in this system. The testimony of the Vedas. according to Samkhya. not a mixed • If the existence of karma is assumed. • Despite arguments to the contrary. If however. However. It is also argued by commentators of this text that According to Sinha.2. desire.(for Himself) and if God’s motive is kindness (for others). this would cause him to suffer pain and other similar human experiences. The Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra in verse no. The evolution obeys causality relationships. • Furthermore. with primal Nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation. . there is no proof of the existence of God. therefore. God’s motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because an altruistic God would not create a world so full of suffering. is an attribute of prakriti and cannot be thought to grow in God. if God enforces the consequences of actions rated into the nirishvara (atheistic) Samkhya viewpoint only then he can do so without karma. then karma itself the Bhagavata schools of philosophy. Samkhya theorists argue that an unchanging God cannot 2. the Puranas and the Bhagavad Gita[90] no need of a God. Such a worldly God would be no better than Samkhya’s notion of higher self. ISBN 978-0815336112. scholarly opinion on the actual relationship between Yoga and Samkhya is divided.[93] 2. ISBN 978-8120832329. Shaiva Siddhanta was identical to Samkhya in its philosophical approach.[97] and its philosophy was one of the main influences both on the rise of the Tantras as a body of literature.10 CHAPTER 2. Theory and Practice of Yoga. However.1 On Yoga passive witness. Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al).6 Influence on other schools 2. Classical Samkhya and Yoga . While Tantra sought to unite the male and female ontological realities. in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett). Bronkhorst further adds that the first mention of Yoga as a separate school of thought is no earlier than Śankara's (c.”[27] 2.8 Notes [1] Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources.[94] Knut A.An Indian Metaphysics of Experience. Motilal Banarsidass. the Samkhya Karika (in karika 70) identifies Sāmkhya as a Tantra.[98] 2. pages 43-46 [3] Roy Perrett. .[96] According to Bagchi. Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges. 9 [5] • Eliott Deutsche (2000). ISBN 9780415648875.6. Routledge.7 See also • Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara • Darshanas • Dualism • Hinduism • Linga sarira • Ratha Kalpana Yoga is closely related to Samkhya in its philosophical foundations. Samkhya and Tantra differed in their view on liberation. SAMKHYA 2. pages 100-101 [2] Mike Burley (2012). According to him. Jakob Wilhelm Hauer and Georg Feuerstein believe that Yoga was tradition common to many Indian schools and its association with Samkhya was artificially foisted upon by commentators such as Vyasa. Samkhya held a withdrawal of consciousness from matter as the ultimate goal. Routledge. The Yoga school derives its ontology and epistemology from Samkhya and adds to it the concept of Isvara. p. While.2 On Tantra The dualistic metaphysics of various Tantric traditions illustrates the strong influence of Samkhya on Tantra. the other non-Vedic Indian systems. pages 149-158 [4] Larson 1998. 788–820 CE)[92] Brahmasūtrabhaśya.being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga. notes the influence of Samkhya on Srivaishnavism.9 References [1] Knut Jacobsen. but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India . pages 245-248. Ashgate.6.[91] However. and Buddhism. as well as Tantra sadhana. ISBN 978-0754633013. Sankhya. Johannes Bronkhorst and Eric Frauwallner think that Yoga never had a philosophical system separate from Samkhya. Professor of Religious Studies. barring the addition of a transcendent theistic reality. Jacobsen. this Tantric system borrows the abstract dualism of Samkhya and modifies it into a personified male– female dualism of Vishnu and Sri Lakshmi.[95] Dasgupta speculates that the Tantric image of a wild Kali standing on a slumbering Shiva was inspired from the Samkhyan conception of Prakriti as a dynamic agent and Purusha as a • Khyativada 2. Behanan (2002).An Indian Metaphysics of Experience. p. 213–7 [55] MM Kamal (1998). 85 [43] Larson 1998. Germany [22] Mike Burley (2012). 185 [15] Mike Burley (2012).1962. pages 56-58 [17] Gerald James Larson (2011). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. Buddhist Dependent Origination and the Samkhya gunas. page 265 [47] Fowler 2012. 253–56 [54] Dasgupta 1922. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0486417929. 217. 82 [44] P. p. 101 Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning By G.Hinduism Encyclopedia Britannica (2014) [33] Larson 1998. ISBN 9780415648875. 217. p. in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. 41 [16] Kovoor T. pp.9980914 [21] saMkhya Monier-Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary. page 39 [37] Radhakrishnan 1953.9. Dover. ISBN 978-8120832329. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. p. 419–20 [25] Larson 1998. ISBN 9780415648875. Routledge. doi:10. p. p. p. Guna. 38. p. 370 [53] Radhakrishnan 1923. Volume 27. Motilal Banarsidass. page 238 11 [26] Zimmer 1951. pp. Routledge. p. REFERENCES • John A. pp. p. Classical Samkhya and Yoga . State University of New York Press. Classical Samkhya and Yoga . Volume 4. [27] Zimmer 1951. 37 [38] Larson 1998. Routledge. ISBN 9780791430675. [29] Sharma 1997.An Indian Metaphysics of Experience. 64 [52] Eliade. pages 74–76 [49] Bagchi 1989.An Indian Metaphysics of Experience. pages 107-109 [8] Sen Gupta 1986. 4 [51] King 1999. Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies. Princeton University Press. p.1080/00141844. pp. 34 [12] Dasgupta 1922. 79–81 [42] Larson 1998. 91–93 [50] Larson 1999. p. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-8120805033. J. p. Rosen Publishing. p. ISBN 978-0691604411. ISBN 9780415648875. p. Grimes. ISBN 9780823931798. Vol. pages 36-47 [34] Fowler 2012. p. in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen). 4. A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. 15–16 [9] Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957. pp. Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. pages 154-206 [35] Fowler 2012. Motilal Banarsidass. [41] Larson 1998. [28] Ruzsa 2006. ISBN 978-8120805033. pp. ISBN 978-0791430675. pp. 6 [31] Burley 2006. Motilal Banarsidass. p. p. 96 [11] Gerald James Larson (2011). ISBN 978-81-208-1373-1. Issue 1-4. pages 38-39 [39] Singh 2008. 258 [36] King 1999. Classical Samkhya and Yoga . Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. 63 [13] Mike Burley (2012). Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra. Trask & White 2009. [20] Alex Wayman (1962). Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge. page 39. 314. pp. 39 [19] T Bernard (1999). 1664 [24] Bhattacharyya 1975. p. 264 [30] Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya. Motilal Banarsidass. The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy. 79. pages 14-22. 149 [7] Michaels 2004. pp. p. page 238 [6] John A. ISBN 9780198239765 . Hindu Philosophy.2. 82–84 [46] Larson 1998. 1. Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon. p. p. 46(2): 1316 [56] B Matilal (1992). 75 [40] Larson 1998. Lochtefeld. 89 [32] Burley 2006. Larson [45] Larson 1998. 17 [10] Samkhya . 288 [48] Larson 1998. Grimes. Yoga: Its Scientific Basis. 88–90 [18] James G. Ethnos. pages 47-48 [23] Apte 1957-59. 163 [14] Lloyd Pflueger. p. ISBN 97894-010-7810-8. 30–32 [94] Flood 2006.10 Sources • Apte. pp. Springer. 12 [59] Karl Potter (1977). Classical Samkhya And Yoga: The Metaphysics Of Experience. pp. ISBN 81-2080309-4. 6 [66] M.. Taylor & Francis. 13 [87] Larson 1998. p. Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass. Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass. 10 2. (1986). pages 170-172 [60] W Halbfass (1991). Indian Philosophy: A popular Introduction. 90–1 [62] James Lochtefeld. Volume 2. Luzac & Co. p. p. Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass. VI. The cultural heritage of India: Vol III: The philosophies. Rosen Publishing. pp. E. 69 [64] Monier Williams (1893). 33 [63] Karl Potter (2002). p. Meaning and Truth. D. ISBN 978-0-415-24517-3 . ISBN 81-7007-023-6 • Cowell. page 26-27 [81] Cowell & Gough 1882. pages 168-169 [83] Larson 1998. 223 [82] Cowell & Gough 1882. Tradition and Reflection. The SarvaDarsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy: Trubner’s Oriental Series. (1989). (2001). • Burley. 1: A-M. pp. pages 160-168 [80] Cowell & Gough 1882.1 [86] Larson 1998. pp. The Essentials of Indian Philosophy. 109–110 [74] Haney 2002. A. Evolution of the Tantras. 95 [89] Sinha 2012. Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella). Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus. xiii-iv [61] Carvaka school is the exception [90] Karmarkar 1962. p. 342 [76] Leaman 2000. Springer. p. Haridas (ed) (1975). 11 [79] Cowell & Gough 1882. p. Kolkata: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. London. ISBN 0-7914-0362-9. 155–7 [72] Hiriyanna 1993. Śabdapramāṇa: Word and Knowledge. pages 1-30 [68] Haney 2002. New Delhi: People’s Publishing House. page 172 [97] Bagchi 1989. Meaning and Truth. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-8120813304. 10 [88] Rajadhyaksha 1959. ISBN 978-1-44198109-7. pp. Princeton University Press. p. Studies of Classical India Volume 10. Poona: Prasad Prakashan. page 61 [95] Jacobsen 2008. Vaman Shivaram (1957–59). 68 [77] Leaman 2000. 129–130 [65] DPS Bhawuk (2011). p. ISBN 81-2080309-4. pp. 84 [93] Larson 2008. “Anumana” in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. State University of New York Press. E. p. ISBN 978-0-415-39448-2 • Chattopadhyaya. Presuppositions of India’s Philosophies. pp. ISBN 81-2080309-4. 339 [70] Sharma 1997. pp. Volume 2. App. p. Gough. Meaning and Truth. Hiriyanna (2000). Billimoria (1988). pp. Indian Wisdom . Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. page 46-47 [91] Larson 2008. p. 42 [75] Isaac & Dangwal 1997. 270–2 [73] Chattopadhyaya 1986. in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. p. p. 148–149 [98] Bagchi 1989.Religious. 248 [78] Larson 1998. p. p. Taylor & Francis. SAMKHYA [57] Karl Potter (1977).C. page 43 [67] P. Princeton University Press. Volume 2. pp. The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary. 229 [96] Kripal 1998. p. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1. p. ISBN 81-208-0779-0 [92] Isayeva 1993. Studies on the Tantras. 222 [84] Larson 1998. 17 [69] Isaac & Dangwal 1997. Princeton University Press. ISBN 81-85843-36-8 • Bhattacharyya. • Bagchi. 8 [85] Sinha 2012. B. Motilal Banarsidass. Mikel (2006). p. 149–68 [71] Sharma 1997.12 CHAPTER 2. 221 [58] Karl Potter (1977). P. Vol. in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. p. New York: Prometheus Books. Mircea (1969). Amhert. The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion. New Jersey: Bucknell University Press. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. ISBN 81-7023-746-7 • Isayeva. Nandlal (2012). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Gerald James (2008). William S. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Mircea. (1998). Jeffrey J. Dangwal. Shankara and Indian Philosophy. N. Gerald James (1998). Vol. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. Willard Ropes. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. ISBN 978-3447018999. C. ISBN 0-691-01958-4 • Radhakrishnan. (1993).. D. Volume 1. • Larson. Surendranath (1922). Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. Upinder (2008). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-81-3171120-0 • Sinha. ISBN 0-691-08953-1 • Flood.). ISBN 0-19-563820-4 • Rajadhyaksha. Eastbourne: Sussex Academy Press. Sāṃkhya Literature.II. Datta. OCLC 11323515 • Ruzsa. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Princeton. Axel (2004). Motilal Banarsidass. Kali’s Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna. Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson. Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Richard (1999). N. ISBN 978-0-691-142036 • Michaels. A history of Indian philosophy. Gavin (2006). Indian Philosophy. Hinduism: Past and Present. (2002). A. Bombay (Mumbai). Oliver (2000).).B. ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7 • Jacobsen. FURTHER READING 13 • Dasgupta. Bollingen Series LVI (second ed. ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9 • Karmarkar. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. (1962). Calcutta: University of Calcutta. Sarvepalli (1923). Sarvepalli.Tauris. A. Edinburgh University Press. Dhirendramohan (1984). ISBN 81-85843-03-1 • King. II. Trask. Satischandra. Proceedings. The Samkhya Philosophy. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India’s philosophy of meditation. White. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint Edition ed. ISBN 978-1-57392-548-8 • Radhakrishnan. ISBN 1407698915 • Zimmer. Sāṅkhya (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy) • Sen Gupta. Inc. Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought. Radhakrishnan ed. Michel (1978). The principal Upaniṣads. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd. J. Anima (1986). ISBN 0-691-01764-6 . International conference on cognitive systems. London: Motilal Banarasidass. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-215-0019-2 • Sharma. Princeton University Press. David Gordon (2009). The Evolution of the Samkhya School of Thought. Sarvepalli (1953). Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-22645377-4 • Radhakrishnan. New Delhi: Hard Press.11. New Delhi: South Asia Books. New Delhi: Routledge. (1993). Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained. ISBN 1611481724 • Hiriyanna. I. SUNY Press. (1959). Knut A. Pearson Education India. C. Heinrich (1951). R. Vol.11 Further reading • Hulin. V. ISBN 81-2081099-6 • Isaac. ISBN 978-81-208-3349-4 • Eliade. ISBN 0-415-173574 • Eliade. (2008). Moore. The Cultural Heritage of India. ISBN 978-1-84519-520-5 • Haney. ISBN 81-208-0503-8 • Chatterjee. ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3 • Kripal. (1957). ISBN 81-208-0365-5 • Singh. New York: Bollingen Foundation. ISBN 978-184511-011-6 • Fowler. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. C. ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8 • Leaman. Jeaneane D (2012). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.2. Ritu (1997). The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students. The six systems of Indian philosophy. Religion and Philosophy of Epics in S. Motilal Banarsidass. Ferenc (2006). ISBN 81-291-1195-0 • Larson.P. Philosophies of India (reprint 1989). (1997). Princeton University Press 2. Bollingen Series XXVI. ISBN 81-703-0361-3 • Kambhampati. ISBN 81-900-3323-9 2.. Visakhapatnam: Dhanishta. ISBN 0-69101758-1 • Weerasinghe. Calcutta. New Delhi: South Asia Books. Subhash (2003) Greek and Indian Cosmology: Review of Early History • PDF file of Ishwarkrishna’s sankhyakarikaa – 200BC (in Sanskrit) available for research purposes only • Complete Lectures on Sankya Shastra of Kapila maharishi at ShastraNethralaya CHAPTER 2. SAMKHYA . Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.G (1993). Samkhya and Yoga. Joseph. Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.A. The Asiatic Society. Curator of Manuscripts. Naya and Vaiseshika. A Critical Evaluation of Its Origins and Development. The Sankhya Philosophy. Sankya – The Sacred Doctrine (First Edition ed. ed. ISBN 0-7661-4296-5 • Zimmer.). S. • Sankhya philosophy (archive) • Kak. Heinrich (1951). Cambell.14 • Müeller. New York: Princeton University Press.. Parvathi Kumar (1993).12 External links • Samkhya entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy • Origin and Development of the Samkhya System of Thought by Pulinbihari Chakravarti M. Philosophies of India. [9] Sanskrit.1 Name The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta. Spoken Sanskrit has been revived in some villages with traditional institutions. too. ordinary”. both in language and content.[10][11] This qualifies Rigvedic Sanskrit as one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Iranian language. a large collection of hymns. and there are attempts at enhance its 3.[7] 3. philosophical and religious texts. in contrast to the language spoken by the people. prepare”[8] (cf. particularly in India.2 Variants The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest.1 popularisation.[15] 15 . or संस्कृत saṃskṛta. originally संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk. adorned.“natural. composed by many authors over several centuries of oral tradition. however.2. evolved out of the earlier Vedic form. The language referred to as saṃskṛta “the cultured language” has by definition always been a “sacred” and “sophisticated” language. in the Manusmriti and in the Mahabharata. used for religious and learned discourse in ancient India. which form the concluding part of the traditional Vedic corpus. The present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE (for Rig-vedic).[4] Today it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India[5] and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand. highly elaborated”. Bangladesh. originating as Vedic Sanskrit and tracing its linguistic ancestry back to Proto-Indo-Iranian and Proto-Indo-European. as defined by Pāṇini.[14] The corpus of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific. It is derived from the root word saṃ-skar. the early Sutras are Vedic.[12] Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini. dating back to as early as the early second millennium BCE. constructed.[13] Its position in the cultures of Greater India is akin to that of Latin and Greek in Europe and it has significantly influenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent. grammar and syntax. Though they are quite similar. Pakistan. which includes English and most European languages. The end of the Vedic period is marked by the composition of the Upanishads. well or completely formed. artless. and Jainism. As a term for “refined or elaborated speech” the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit. they differ in a number of essential points of phonology. It is a standardised dialect of the Old Indo-Aryan language. incantations (Samhitas) and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas and Upanishads. normal. Norwegian 'sammen skjær'.[10] Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or “Pāṇinian” Sanskrit as separate dialects. संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam [səmskr̩tə̪ m]. compose. arrange. with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved. and a literary language that was in use as a lingua franca in the Indian cultural zone.Chapter 3 Sanskrit Sanskrit (/ˈsænskrɪt/. Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns and chants. Vedic Sanskrit Main article: Vedic Sanskrit 3. a philosophical language in Hinduism. and one of the earliest members of the Indo-European languages. refined. Sri Lanka and Nepal. “refined speech”) is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas.[6] Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. Afrikaans 'saamskaar').may be translated as “put together. around the fourth century BCE. technical. Buddhism. vocabulary. prākṛta.“to put together. 3. meaning 'of the ṛṣis'. based on early Buddhist Prakrit texts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying degrees. also called Northern or Western). India’s highest literary award.3. The deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits. In 2009.135 people reported Sanskrit as their native language.3 Contemporary usage In music Sanskrit is used extensively in the Carnatic and Hindustani branches of classical music. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit is a literary language heavily influenced by Middle Indic. are learning Sanskrit and are even using it to some extent in everyday communication: 1. Rajasthan[22] Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari. or innovations. movements to spread spoken Sanskrit have been increasing. a cultural order existed that exerted influence across South Asia. Karnataka[20] 2. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its second official language. Shyamsundarpur.16 CHAPTER 3. SANSKRIT 3.[1] Since the 1990s.[19] 3. Kirtanas.[24][25][26] 3. as a result of recent revival attempts. and not because they are pre-Paninian.2.3. early 19th century 4. madhyadeśī (lit. Ganoda. Organisations like Samskrita Bharati conduct Speak Sanskrit workshops to popularise the language.ative work in Sanskrit every year since 1967. Jhiri.[16] A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of the Hindu Epics—the Ramayana and Mahabharata. where. there are also more “prakritisms” (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper. Banswara district.. Odisha[23] 3. decessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Satyavrat Shastri became the first Sanskrit author to win Brāhmaṇas. including children. pūrvi (Eastern) and The Sahitya Akademi has given an award for the best credakṣiṇī (Southern. Shimoga district. bhajans. Mattur. .4 3.[30] purest (Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa.3.000 years. Indian newspapers have published reports about several villages. In some contexts. in comparison to both classiliterature and modern literature in other Indian There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit: cal Sanskrit[28][29] languages. Southeast Asia. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a writ petition in the Punjab and Haryana High Court for declaring Sanskrit as a 'minority' language. and shlokas of Sanskrit are popular throughout India. of which the first one was regarded as the the Jnanpith Award. Madhya Pradesh[21] 3. Inner Asia.6). Kendujhar district. middle country).[17] Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa (आर्ष).3 Contemporary literature and patronage See also: List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Sanskrit More than 3000 Sanskrit works have been composed since India’s independence in 1947. 14.1 As a spoken language In the 2001 census of India.2 In official use Classical Sanskrit For nearly 2. and to a certain extent East Asia.2 3. the traditional title for the ancient authors. Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. stotras. paścimottarī (Northwestern.[18] In India. The pre.[27] Much of this work has been judged of high quality. arose in the Classical period). 7. large parts of the population. Rajgarh district. musicians such as Sa Dingding have written pop songs in Sanskrit. However.[41] The earliest attested Sanskrit texts are Brahmanical texts of the Rigveda. its use for sacred purposes. since the year 1970. Akash. No written records from such an early period survive. Sudharma. a daily newspaper in Sanskrit.5 • Nepal: Janani Janmabhoomischa Swargadapi Gariyasi meaning: Mother and motherland are superior to heaven.[39][40] In order to explain the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages. Sanskrit phrases are widely used as mottoes for various national. During this time. it is used in all monasteries. It is used during worship in Hindu temples throughout the world. India. In mass media Over 90 weeklies. scholars are confident that the oral the West. 3. Yajurveda. India and Indonesia.3.[37][38] Many of India’s and Nepal’s scientific and administrative terms are named in Sanskrit. while Sanskrit Vartman Patram and Vishwasya Vrittantam started in Gujarat during the last five years. in an early Bhujimol script.3.4. there has been a short daily news broadcast on state-run All India Radio. including the Tattvartha sutra. HISTORICAL USAGE 17 The samaveda uses musical notations in several of its organisations: recessions. The Indian guided missile program that was commenced in 1983 by DRDO has named the five missiles (ballistic and others) that it developed Prithvi. Evidence for such a theory includes the close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the Baltic and Slavic languages. Brahmanas.[34][35] Sanskrit news is broadcast on TV and on the internet through the DD National channel at 6:55 AM IST. Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra and Agamas.[43] However. Its closest ancient relatives are the Iranian languages Avestan and Old Persian.[31] In Mainland China. Atharvaveda. five-level linguistic development of . 3. Buddhist.1 Historical usage Origin and development Sanskrit is a member of the Indo-Iranian subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. In Newar Buddhism. Nag and Trishul. many scholars have proposed migration hypotheses asserting that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in what is now India and Pakistan from the north-west some time during the early second millennium BCE. are written in Sanskrit.3.7 Symbolic usage See also: List of educational institutions which have Sanskrit phrases as their mottoes and List of institutions which have Sanskrit phrases as their mottoes In Nepal. and Upanishads.4 3. from the mid-to-late second millennium BCE. has been published out of Mysore. if they It is also popular amongst the many practitioners of yoga in ever existed. and Jainist traditions.[42] Devimahatmya manuscript on palm-leaf. who find the language helpful for understanding transmission of the texts is reliable: they were ceremonial literature whose correct pronunciation was considered crutexts such as the Yoga Sutras. educational and social From the Rigveda until the time of Pāṇini (fourth century BCE) the development of the early Vedic language can be observed in other Vedic texts: the Samaveda.[33] Since 1974. while Mahayana and Tibetan Buddhist religious texts and sutras are in Sanskrit as well as vernacular languages.3. Bihar or Nepal. 11th century 3. there is a clear. cial to its religious efficacy. vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic languages. India’s first modern fighter aircraft is named HAL Tejas. Agni.6 As a liturgical language Sanskrit is the liturgical language of various Hindu.[33] These broadcasts are also made available on the internet on AIR’s website. and the importance attached to its correct enunciation all served as powerful conservative forces resisting the normal processes of linguistic change.[36] 3. and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna.4.[32] • Republic of India: Satyameva Jayate meaning: Truth alone triumphs. fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit. the prestige of the language. Jain texts. but covered a wide geography.736 fluent speakers of Sanskrit. This was a thin layer of Indian society. linguistic change led to an eventual loss of mutual intelligi.thors like Hanneder and Hatcher.Schedule to the Constitution). who exhorted proper Sanskrit at all times. Sanskrit is dead". in India in the nineteenth century. written and read will probably convince most 3. particularly by learned Brahmins for scholarly communication.tary on the Mahābhārata.works continue to be produced in Sanskrit.[49] count for some Vedic forms that had become rare in Pāṇini’s time. However. and remains in use as a learned Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading.2 Standardisation by Panini erences of Nīlakaṇṭha Caturdhara's 17th-century commen[48] The oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar is Pāṇini’s Aṣṭād.5 Public education and populariVaranasi. although it contains descriptive parts. Knowlopinion when he says that “most observers would edge of Sanskrit was a marker of social class and educaagree that.e. either ignored or their “modernity” contested.4 Adult and continuing education Decline Attempts at reviving the Sanskrit language have been undertaken in the Republic of India since its foundation in 1947 There are a number of sociolinguistic studies of spoken (it was included in the 14 original languages of the Eighth Sanskrit which strongly suggest that oral use of modern San. Classical Sanskrit became fixed with the grammar of On a more public level the statement that Pāṇini (roughly 500 BCE). Sanskrit speakers were almost of analytical and comparative scholarship mirroring that of [52] always multilingual.18 CHAPTER 3. in some crucial way. having ceased development sometime in the Samskrita Bharati is an organisation working for Sanskrit past.[16]:393 Pollock has further argued that. The Mattur village in central Karnataka . in some crucial way. thus existed alongside the vernac. but rather as a parthis unclear realm between academia and public ticularly refined or perfected manner of speaking.4. The “All-India Sanskrit Festival” (since 2002) Sheldon Pollock argues that “most observers would agree that. and any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses.[15] ied and conceptualised in the modern age. It is essentially a Pollock’s characterisation has been contested by other auprescriptive grammar.When the British imposed a Western-style education system bility.[16]:416 Instead. In the medieval era.” taught mainly to members of the higher castes through —Hanneder[50] the close analysis of Sanskrit grammarians such as Pāṇini and Patanjali. Sanskrit learning programmes also feature on the lists of most AIR broadcasting centres. Pune. i. while Sanskrit continued to be used in literary cultures in India. spoken by multilingual speakers with Sanskrit changed from a more traditional style into a form a more extensive education. Sanskrit continued Europe. especially during ritual.[16]:398 A notable exception are the military ref3.4. Centres like 3. Sanskrit is tional attainment in ancient India. skrit is limited. Paithan. knowledge of Sanskrit Many Sanskrit dramas also indicate that the language co.1 3.Hanneder has also argued that modern works in Sanskrit are [51] ular Prakrits.5. an authority that defines San.3 Coexistence with vernacular languages people that it cannot be a dead language in the most common usage of the term.[46] Sanskrit. and the language was dead. it was reduced to “reinscription and restatements” of ideas already explored. who point out that modern skrit. SANSKRIT Vedic from the Rigveda to the language of the Upanishads the changing forms of subjectivity and sociality as embodand the earliest Sutras (such as Baudhayana). and high [46] classical Sanskrit was maintained until British times. also called Middle Indic dialects. and Kanchipuram had a strong sation presence of teaching and debating institutions.4. it was never adapted to express holds composition contests.[47] revival.. to be spoken and written. for [44][45] language through the present day. hyāyī (“Eight-Chapter Grammar”).and ancient literature continued to flourish as the study of existed with Prakrits. mostly to ac. as the learned language of Ancient India. 3. Sanskrit is quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken. Pollock’s The term “Sanskrit” was not thought of as a specific lannotion of the “death of Sanskrit” remains in guage set apart from other languages. The 1991 Indian census reported 49. [54] 3. while people in his kingdom spoke Kannada and Telugu. For example.5. According to Thomas Trautmann.19th century Britain. PUBLIC EDUCATION AND POPULARISATION 19 claims to have native speakers of Sanskrit among its pop. Even the local See also: Sanskrit in the West Muslims converse in Sanskrit. begun by Heinrich Roth given by king Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire to Vedic scholars and their families.[55] In the United States.for Sanskrit.5. Delhi university has to Indian culture in general began to assert itself in early about 400 Sanskrit students.4 A poem by the ancient Indian poet Vallana (ca. whatever be its antiquity.2 School curricula The CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education) of India. This research played an important role in the development of Western philology.[57] 3. without believing them to have sprung from some common source. manifested by a neglect of Sanskrit graduate programmes. both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar.5. yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity. Shri Vedabharathi is one such organisation based out of Hyderabad that has been digitising the Vedas by recording recitations of Vedic Pandits. This was the beginning of a general . more copious than the Latin.[59] Universities British attitudes A list of Sanskrit universities is given below in chronological order: Orientalist scholars of the 18th century like Sir William Many universities throughout the world train and employ Jones marked a wave of enthusiasm for Indian culture and Sanskrit scholars. This is true of most schools affiliated with the ICSE board.3 In the West St James Junior School in London. either within a separate Sanskrit depart. 900 – 1100 CE) on the side wall of a building at the Haagweg 14 in Leiden. after this ment or as part of a broader focus area. or historical linguistics. that no philologer could examine them all three. is of a wonderful structure. indeed.5. including for the Higher School Certificate. is considered responsible for the discovery of an IndoEuropean language family by Sir William Jones (1746– 1794).3. perhaps. about half of which are in post.3. He told The Asiatic Society in Calcutta on 2 February 1786: The Sanskrit language. such as South Asian period of “Indomania”. the Sydney private boys’ high school Sydney Grammar School offers Sanskrit from years 7 through to 12.[33] in British academia. more perfect than the Greek. as part of the “SAFL: Samskritam as a Foreign Language” program coordinated by Samskrita Bharati.[53] 3. Netherlands (1620–1668) and Johann Ernst Hanxleden (1681–1731).5. England.[56] In Australia. learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8 (Classes V to VIII). than could have been produced by accident. Another effort concentrates on preserving and passing along the oral tradition of the Vedas. Sanskrit is also taught in traditional gurukulas throughout India. high school students have been able to receive credits as Independent Study or toward Foreign Language requirements by studying Sanskrit. the village was European scholarship in Sanskrit.[58] Sir William Jones was one of the most influential philologists of his time. which. Historically. and more exquisitely refined than either. offers Sanskrit as part of the curriculum. so strong. since September 2009. especially in those states where the official language is Hindi. has made Sanskrit an alternative option to the state’s own official language as a second or third language choice in the schools it governs. In such schools. a certain hostility to Sanskrit and studies or Linguistics. along with several other state education boards.5 European scholarship ulation. no longer exists. Inhabitants of all castes learn Sanskrit starting in childhood and converse in the language. Sanskrit include Kannada. scripts used for specifically Devanāgari. the Gupta script.20 CHAPTER 3. derived from Brahmi. nasals.[61] In northern India. written in early Tamil. the Bengali script This article is about how Sanskrit came to be written using and. or sounds. Around the eighth century the Sharada script evolved out of the Gupta script. e ai o au ṃḥ k kh g gh ṅ. inferior and unimprovable race”. and were set down in writing “reluctantly” (according to one commentator). diphthongs (Hal). it was first used for texts of an administrative. 17th cen.[60] Sanskrit originated in an oral society. later. the other was race science. which he calls essentially a developmentalist. Roughly contemporary with the Brahmi.[2] As such. religiously and linguistically assimilated to Britain as far as possible. literary or scientific nature. When Sanskrit was written down. c ch j jh ñ. Therefore. became prevalent. In Eastern India. Tamil. Kashmiri Shaivaite manuscript in the Sharada script (c. The sacred texts were preserved orally.7 Writing system The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit date to the first century BCE.[41][62] Brahmi evolved into a multiplicity of scripts of the Brahmic family. Telugu.[63][64] . the oldest appearing on the famous Prakrit pillar inscriptions of king Ashoka. many of which were used to write Sanskrit. It has been described as a paradox that the first evidence of written Sanskrit occurs centuries later than that of the Prakrit languages which are its linguistic descendants. and at a comparatively late date. see Devanagari. They are in the Brāhmī script. which was originally used for Prakrit. the Kharosthi script was used in the north-west of the subcontinent. t th d dh n. SANSKRIT push in favor of the idea that India should be culturally. Trautmann considers two separate and logically opposite sources for the growing hostility: one was “British Indophobia". ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ. Sometime between the fourth and eighth centuries CE. ś ṣ s h 3. the Oriya script.6 Phonology Further information: Śikṣā See also: Sanskrit grammar § Phonology Classical Sanskrit distinguishes about 36 phonemes. Malayalam and Grantha. In the south. belong to the same period. virtually all the major writing systems of South Asia have been used for the production of Sanskrit manuscripts. the presence of allophony leads the writing systems to generally distinguish 48 phones. liberal. various systems. not Sanskrit. 3. Illustration of Devanagari as used for writing Sanskrit anusvara and visarga. written in IAST as follows: a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ ḷ ḹ . For details of Sanskrit as written using where Dravidian languages predominate. and finally the liquids and fricatives. The sounds are traditionally listed in the order vowels (Ac). there are Brāhmī inscriptions dating from the third century BCE onwards. a theory of the English “common-sense view” that Indians constituted a “separate. Sanskrit has no native script of its own.The latter was displaced in its turn by Devanagari in the 11th or 12th century. were used.[61] Writing was not introduced to India until after Sanskrit had evolved into the Prakrits. and non-racial-essentialist critique of Hindu civilisation as an aid for the improvement of India along European lines. and the oral tradition was maintained through the development of early classical Sanskrit literature. The earliest South Indian inscriptions in Tamil Brahmi. p ph b bh m y r l v. plosives (Sparśa). the choice of writing system was influenced by the regional scripts of the scribes. when it was written. progressivist. with intermediary stages such as tury) the Siddham script. [67] . Patañjali. ASCII-based transliteration schemes have also evolved due to difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. number. Word order is free.1 Influence on other languages Indic languages Sanskrit has greatly influenced the languages of India that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base. which can be conjugated to form the present. aorist. perfect. imperative.[14] Literary texts in Telugu are lexically Sanskrit or Sanskritised to an enormous extent. for instance. Nominal compounds are common. To understand the meaning of sutras. perhaps seventy percent or more. However.3. especially in Usenet and in email. Sanskrit has been transliterated using the Latin alphabet. This abbreviation is called Pratyāhara. those who take delight in the language of the gods. have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (tatsama words). From the 20th century onwards. European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of whole texts and lengthy excerpts. future. older forms also included a subjunctive mood. and can include over 10 word stems. The system most commonly used today is the IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration). (Kalidasa) Before Classical Sanskrit. as well as the literary forms of Malayalam and Kannada. Pāṇinian grammar is based on 14 Shiva sutras (aphorisms). textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in Romanised transliteration. With the wide availability of Unicode-aware web browsers.9. Because of these three ancient Sanskrit grammarians this grammar is called Trimuni Vyākarana. Sanskrit in modern Indian and other Brahmi scripts: May Śiva bless optative. as well as Munda and Dravidian languages. 3.8. Each conjugational ending conveys person. GRAMMAR 21 tion costs.[65] 3. references to individual words and names in texts composed in European Languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. including three grammatical genders. All modern Indo-Aryan languages. though there is a strong tendency toward subject–object–verb. a transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet. These include Harvard-Kyoto and ITRANS. where the whole Mātrika (alphabet) is abbreviated. which consists of 3990 sutras (ca. and conditional tenses. IAST has become common online.9 3.1 Romanisation Main article: Devanagari transliteration Since the late 18th century. or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (tadbhava words). 3. one of the six Vedanga disciplines) began in late Vedic India and culminated in the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini. and eight cases. for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. the fifth century BCE).[66] Sanskrit verbs are categorized into ten classes.7. who lived three centuries after Pāṇini. imperfect. the original system of Vedic prose. which has been the academic standard since 1888. It is also possible to type using an alphanumeric keyboard and transliterate to Devanagari using software like Mac OS X’s international support. About a century after Pāṇini (around 400 BCE) Kātyāyana composed Vārtikas on Pāṇinian sũtras. the “Great Commentary” on the Aṣṭādhyāyī and Vārtikas. due to produc- Nouns are highly inflected. three numbers. Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated at roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages. and voice. Hindi is a “Sanskritised register” of the Khariboli dialect. Jayaditya and Vāmana wrote the commentary named Kāsikā in 600 CE.8 Grammar Main article: Sanskrit grammar Sanskrit grammatical tradition (vyākaraṇa. wrote the Mahābhāṣya. For example. ISBN 978-81-8921100-4. [3] Nordhoff. [8] Williams. v & ch. [4] Burrow. The song “Cyber-raga” from Madonna’s album Music includes Sanskrit chants.archive. New Delhi: Bharatiya Granth Niketan. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. legends. myths. 1 [5] “Indian Constitution Art. The Sanskrit Language. eds. 672. taken from the Rigveda. Franklin (2005).344(1) & Art.[70] 3.[74] The lyrics include the mantra Om shanti.9. India. 19 January 2010. characters.com. The study of Indo-European vocalism in the 19th century : from the beginnings to Whitney and Scherer : a critical-historical account. p.22 3. is called 'Thosakanth'. ISBN 978-81-2080063-2. Many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. although more are derived from Spanish. such as Javanese. Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in Austronesian languages. 1120. 2001. A companion to Sanskrit literature : spanning a period of over three thousand years. with a larger proportion derived from Arabic. Wilbur (1974). Haspelmath. or spoken language. Sures (1989).[80] 3. mostly through translations of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. technical terms. ISBN 978-90-272-0894-1. Martin.2 CHAPTER 3. Retrieved 2012-04-05. [9] Southworth. the emperor of Sri Lanka. 1981. as do Khmer. p. Chinese words like chànà (Devanagari: क्षण kṣaṇa 'instantaneous period') were borrowed from Sanskrit. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2007. Hammarström. containing brief accounts of authors.3 In popular culture Satyagraha. Philippine languages such as Tagalog have some Sanskrit loanwords. such as traditional Malay and modern Indonesian. Census of India. Forkel. through Sinified hybrid Sanskrit. a derivation of his Sanskrit name 'Dashakanth' (“of ten necks”).[71][72] The closing credits of The Matrix Revolutions has a prayer from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. 25–27. languages such as Thai and Lao contain many loan words from Sanskrit. [2] Banerji. Harald. [7] Benware. The Hindustan Times. Retrieved 31 December 2009. 87. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Linguistic archaeology of South Asia (PDF). p. Glottolog. in Thai. Office of the Registrar and Census Commissioner. also derive much of their vocabulary from Sanskrit. London: RoutledgeCurzon. T.[73] and Shanti/Ashtangi from her 1998 album Ray of Light.12 References [1] “Comparative speaker’s strength of scheduled languages − 1971.[69] Other Austronesian languages. Similarly. uses texts from the Bhagavad Gita. 4 October 2007. Buddhism was spread to China by Mahayana missionaries sent by Emperor Ashoka. (2001). A Sanskrit-English dictionary : etymologically and philologically arranged with special reference to cognate Indo-European languages.[79] . [6] “Sanskrit is second official language in Uttarakhand”.[78] The lyrics of “The Child In Us” by Enigma also contains Sanskrit verses. Retrieved 2012-04-05. which is used to refer to the names of many languages. particularly the older form in which nearly half the vocabulary is borrowed. an opera by Philip Glass. Hindustantimes. sung in Sanskrit.11 See also • Devanagari • Sanskrit numerals 3. (2013). the Rāvana.9.345” (PDF). SANSKRIT Interaction with other languages Further information: Sanskritisation Sanskrit has also influenced Sino-Tibetan languages through the spread of Buddhist texts in translation. Sebastian.[75] Composer John Williams featured choirs singing in Sanskrit for Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. albeit to a lesser extent.[76][77] The theme song of Battlestar Galactica 2004 is the Gayatri Mantra. and even Vietnamese to a lesser extent.[68] In Southeast Asia. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.10 Computational linguistics Analysis of Sanskrit is similar to Semantic network theory and it may be suitable for Knowledge representation as well as an artificial language for computers. ISBN 978-0-203-41291-6.org. and several appendices. is the Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga chant. . which won a Grammy. Web. 1991 and 2001”. “Sanskrit”. 3. Many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan collections of commentaries to the Buddhist teachings Tanjur. A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word bhāṣā. Faber: Chicago p. works. Monier (2004). pp. geographical names. Robert. [16] Pollock.3. and they can also be judged in contrast to the contemporary literature in other languages. Retrieved 2012-12-06. [28] Ranganath. The Financial World. Jan (1996). Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit grammar and dictionary. p. ISBN 3-11-014448-4. [22] “Mark of Sanskrit”.2307/2050186. Inside the texts. The India Post. Cambridge. 8 November 2012. 2015. 7. [14] Staal. doi:10. 15 October 2012. The Times of India. (2007). Psychology Press. The Hindu. p. New Delhi: Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan. p. “Sanskrit and Sanskritization”. [34] “News on Air”. Retrieved 2012-12-06. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 15 August 2012. Brill. 431. ISBN 81-208-1767-2. Amsterdam Philadelphia: J. [21] “Sanskrit boulevard”. S (2009). Retrieved 2012-04-05. Post-independence Sanskrit literature : a critical survey (1 ed. Kessinger Publishing. Many of the modern Sanskrit writings are qualitatively of such high order that they can easily be treated at par with the best of classical Sanskrit works. Reciprocal constructions. [42] Michael Meier-Brügger (2003). [24] “Writ Petition on Sanskrit”. Berlin New York: Walter de Gruyter. p.12. Sheldon (2001). xxvii – xxix. Patton. [40] Edwin Francis Bryant. p. Co. [25] “PIL seeks minority status for Sanskrit”. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. The Indian Express. [37] “Is Sanskrit (In)dispensable for Hindu Liturgy?". A History Of Sanskrit Literature (in Norwegian). ISBN 81215-1110-0. 36–38. The Hindu.: The latter half of the nineteenth century marks the beginning of a new era in Sanskrit literature. [32] BBC. 20 September 2008. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. [12] Burrow. Retrieved 28 October 2014. Leiden New York: E. Thomas (2003). Ideology and status of Sanskrit : contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language. ISBN 9788186111215. Colin (1991). GoI Monitor. Retrieved 2012-04-05. “Sanskrit deserves more than slogans”. [35] “News archive search”. Modern Sanskrit writing is qualitatively of such high order that it can easily be treated on par with the best of Classical Sanskrit literature. P.). Retrieved 2012-11-10. MA: Harvard University Press. [26] “Mother language 'Sanskrit' needs urgent protection”. The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History. [29] “Adhunika Sanskrit Sahitya Pustakalaya”. [18] Edgerton. Volume 2. [13] Houben. there is an astonishing quality of creative upsurge of writing in Sanskrit today. A grammar of epic Sanskrit. beyond the texts: New approaches to the study of the Vedas (PDF). [30] “Sanskrit’s first Jnanpith winner is a 'poet by instinct'". Bholanath (1955). 710. Retrieved May 5. (Bhasha Vijnan) [20] “This village speaks gods language – India – The Times of India”. F. Retrieved 28 October 2014. Hindustan Times. Arthur (2004). Retrieved 2012-11-10. (1963). Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan. 11. Webcast.1017/s001041750100353x. [38] Vaishna Roy.J. p. News On Air. Retrieved 2012-12-06. Livemint. [19] Tiwari. Walter de Gruyter. The Huffington Post. [17] Oberlies. 15 October 2012. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Manibhai (2005). T (2001). Retrieved 2012-11-10. Retrieved 2012-04-05. [33] Mayank Austen Soofi (23 November 2012). Laurie L. 15 August 2012. REFERENCES 23 [10] Nedia︡︠ lkov. “BBC – Awards for World Music 2008”. ISBN 90-04-10613-8. Retrieved 2014-10-29. The Sanskrit language (in Norwegian). Franklin (2004). p. [15] Witzel. J. [41] Masica. 9 April 2010. 20. “Delhi’s Belly | Sanskrit-vanskrit”. “The Death of Sanskrit”. The Journal of Asian Studies (Cambridge University Press (CUP)) 22 (3): 261. New Delhi: Standard publishers India. [27] Prajapati. Comparative Studies in Society and History (Cambridge University Press (CUP)) 43 (2): 392–426. [31] “Samveda”. ISBN 978-1-41790619-2. [23] “Orissa’s Sasana village – home to Sanskrit pundits! !". 13 August 2005. Modern Sanskrit Writings in Karnataka (PDF) (1st ed. .gov. 14 Jan 2009. The Indo-Aryan languages (PDF). [11] MacDonell. Benjamins Pub. 208. Semitic and Indo-European. Retrieved 2012-12-06. Newsonair. Retrieved 28 October 2014. ISBN 978-90-272-2983-0. M (1997). JD Supra. ISBN 0-521-23420-4. [39] Levin. Indo-European Linguistics.in. Saul. V. doi:10. It can also easily compete with the writings in other Indian languages.: Contrary to popular belief. pp.). [36] “Doordarshan News Live webcast”. ISBN 978-3-11-017433-5. Retrieved 2014-10-29. 24 [43] A. Berriedale Keith (1993). A history of Sanskrit literature. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. p. 4. ISBN 978-81-2081100-3. [44] ANUPAMA RAJU. “A man of languages”. The Hindu. [45] “Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 2, page 263 -- Imperial Gazetteer of India -- Digital South Asia Library”. uchicago.edu. [46] Deshpande, Madhav (2011), “Efforts to Vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of Success and Failure”, in Joshua Fishman, Ofelia Garcia, Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts 2, Oxford University Press, p. 218, ISBN 978-0-19-983799-1 [47] Hock, Hans Henrich (1983). Kachru, Braj B, ed. “Language-death phenomena in Sanskrit: grammatical evidence for attrition in contemporary spoken Sanskrit”. Studies in the linguistic Sciences (Illinois Working Papers) 13:2. [48] Minkowski, C. (2004). “Nilakantha”. Indian Economic (SAGE) 41 (4): 365–385. doi:10.1177/001946460404100402. Retrieved 201410-29. [49] Hatcher, B. A. (2007). “Sanskrit and the morning after: The metaphorics and theory of intellectual change”. Indian Economic (SAGE) 44 (3): 333–361. doi:10.1177/001946460704400303. Retrieved 2014-1029. [50] Hanneder, J. (2002). “On “The Death of Sanskrit"". IndoIranian Journal (Brill Academic Publishers) 45 (4): 293– 310. doi:10.1023/a:1021366131934. Retrieved 2014-1029. [51] Hanneder, J. (2009), “Modernes Sanskrit: eine vergessene Literatur”, in Straube, Martin; Steiner, Roland; Soni, Jayandra; Hahn, Michael; Demoto, Mitsuyo, Pāsādikadānaṃ : Festschrift für Bhikkhu Pāsādika, Indica et Tibetica Verlag, pp. 205–228 [52] Seth, Sanjay (2007). Subject lessons : the Western education of colonial India. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4105-5. [53] Pragna, Volume 8. Pragna Bharati. [54] “In 2013, UPA to CBSE: Make Sanskrit a must”. The Indian Express. 4 December 2014. [55] “Sanskrit thriving in UK schools”. NDTV.com. [56] Varija Yelagalawadi. “Why SAFL?". [57] Sydney Grammar School. “Headmaster’s Introduction”. [58] Friedrich Max Müller (1859). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature So Far as it Illustrates the Primitive Religion of the Brahmans. Williams and Norgate. p. 1. CHAPTER 3. SANSKRIT [59] Vasunia, Phiroze (2013). The Classics and Colonial India. Oxford University Press. p. 17. [60] Thomas R. Trautmann (2004). Aryans and British India. Yoda Press. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-81-902272-1-6. Retrieved 4 March 2012. [61] Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy a Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other IndoAryan Languages. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 7,86. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. [62] Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003). Early Tamil epigraphy from the earliest times to the sixth century A.D. Chennai, India Cambridge, MA Cambridge, Mass. London, England: CreA Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University Distributed by Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67401227-1. [63] “Tamil Brahmi script in Egypt”. The Hindu. [64] “Harappan people used an older form of Brahmi script: Expert”. The Times of India. [65] “Modern Transcription of Sanskrit”. autodidactus.org. [66] Abhyankar, Kashinath (1986). A Dictionary of Sanskrit Grammar (PDF). Baroda: Maharaja Sayajirao University. [67] Rao, Velcheru (2002). Classical Telugu poetry an anthology. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-520-22598-5. [68] Gulik, R. H. (2001). Siddham : an essay on the history of Sanskrit studies in China and Japan. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan. pp. 5–133. ISBN 978-81-7742-038-8. [69] Zoetmulder, P. J. (1982). Old Javanese-English Dictionary. [70] Joshi, Manoj. Passport India 3rd Ed., eBook. World Trade Press. p. 15. [71] Vibhuti Patel. “Gandhi as operatic hero”. The Hindu. [72] “The opera novice: Satyagraha by Philip Glass”. Telegraph.co.uk. 4 December 2013. [73] Morgan, Les (2011). Croaking frogs : a guide to Sanskrit metrics and figures of speech. Los Angeles: Mahodara Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4637-2562-4. [74] “The Week – Classic conversations”. [75] “Yoga and Music”. Yoga Journal. [76] “Star Wars Faq: Episode I FAQ”. [77] “Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (John Williams)". Filmtracks. 11 November 2008. Retrieved 2012-04-05. [78] “Battlestar Galactica (TV Series 2004–2009)". IMDb. [79] “The Child In Us Lyrics – Enigma”. Lyricsfreak.com. Retrieved 2013-01-27. [80] Briggs, Rick (1985). “Knowledge Representation in Sanskrit and Artificial Intelligence”. AI Magazine (California) 6 (1). 3.14. EXTERNAL LINKS 3.13 Further reading • Maurer, Walter (2001). The Sanskrit language : an introductory grammar and reader. Surrey, England: Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-1382-4. 3.14 External links • Samskrita Bharati, organisation supporting the usage of Sanskrit • Sanskrit Documents—Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc. • Sanskrit texts at Sacred Text Archive • Sanskrit Manuscripts in Cambridge Digital Library 25 Chapter 4 Guṇa This article is about the Indian philosophical concept “Guna”. For other uses, see Guna (disambiguation). • quality, peculiarity, tendency, attribute, property, species (sastras, sutras, the Epics, food and analytical literature)[16] Guṇa (Sanskrit: गुण) depending on the context means 'string, thread or strand', or 'virtue, merit, excellence', or The root and origins 'quality, peculiarity, attribute, property'.[1][2] Guṇa is both a root and a word in Sanskrit language. Its The concept originated in Samkhya philosophy, but now different context-driven meanings are derived from either a key concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy.[3] the root or the word. In verse VI.36 of Nirukta by Yāska, There are three guṇas, according to this worldview, that a 1st millennium BC text on Sanskrit grammar and lanhave always been and continue to be present in all things guage that preceded Panini, Guṇa is declared to be derived and beings in the world.[3] These three gunas are called: from the another root Gaṇa,[17] which means “to count, sattva (goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas (pasenumerate”.[18] This meaning has led to its use in speciasion, active, confused), and tamas (darkness, destructive, tion, subdivision, classification of anything by peculiarity, chaotic).[4] All of these three gunas are present in everyone attribute or property. This meaning has also led to its use and everything, it is the proportion that is different, accordwith prefixes such as Dviguna (twofold), Triguna (threeing to Hindu worldview. The interplay of these gunas defold) and so on. fines the character of someone or something, of nature and In another context, such as phonology, grammar and arts, determines the progress of life.[3][5] “Guṇa-" takes the meaning of amantrana (आमन्त्रणा, In some contexts, it may mean 'a subdivision, species, addressing, invitation) or abhyasa (अभ्यास, habit, kind, quality', or an operational principle or tendency of practice).[18] In the Mahabharata Book 6 Chapter 2, the something or someone.[5] In human behavior studies, Guna meaning of guna similarly comes in the sense of addressing means personality, innate nature and psychological ateach part (the root implying amantrana), and thereby it tributes of an individual.[6][7][8] means avayava (अवयव, member, subdivision, portion). There is no single word English language translation for the In Sanskrit treatises on food and cooking, guna means concept guna.[4] The usual, but approximate translation is quality, tendency and nature of ingredient. Ancient South “quality”.[9] Indian commentators, such as Lingayasurin, explain that the meaning of guna as “thread, string” comes from the root guna- in the sense of repetition (abhyasa), while the Telugu commentator Mallinatha explains the root guna- is 4.1 Etymology to be understood in Sisupalavadha as amredana (आम्रेडन, reiteration, repetition).[18] Larson and Bhattacharya suggest Guna appears in many ancient and medieval era Indian that the “thread” metaphor relates to that which connects texts. Depending on the context, it means:[10][11][12] and runs between what we objectively observe to the tattva (तत्त्व, elementary property, principle, invisible essence) [12][19] • string or thread, rope, sinew, chord (music, vowel of someone or something. phonology and arts literature)[13][14] In the context of philosophy, morality and understanding nature, “Guna-" with more dental na takes the meaning of • virtue, merit, excellence (dharma and soteriological addressing quality, substance, tendency and property.[18][12] literature)[15][12] In abstract discussion, it includes all hues of qualities - desir26 4.2. DISCUSSION able, neutral or undesirable; but if unspecified, it is assumed with good faith to be good and divine in Indian philosophy. Thus, Guṇi from the root “Guṇa-" means someone or something with “divine qualities”, as in Svetasvatara Upanishad hymn VI.2.[18] 4.2 Discussion 27 The balance of Gunas of everything and everyone can change and does. However, change in one quality faces inertia from other two qualities in Indian worldview. Change needs internal or external influence or reinforcement, as knowledge and force to transform. The force to change comes from Rajas guna, while Sattva guna empower towards harmonious and constructive change, while Tamas guna checks or retards the process. In Indian mythology, Vishnu is envisioned with more Innate qualities and tendencies are key ancient concepts in Sattva, Brahma with more Rajas, and Shiva seen with all [21] Indian literature. Maitrayaniya Upanishad is one of the ear- three Gunas. liest texts making an explicit reference to Hindu trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva and linking them to their Guna - as creator/activity, preserver/purity, destroyer/recycler 4.2.2 Nyaya school of Hinduism respectively.[20] The idea of three types of guna, innate nature and forces that together transform and keep changing In Nyaya (logic) school of Hinduism, there is extensive dethe world is, however, found in numerous earlier and later bate on what Guna means, and whether quality is innate, subjective or describable. Early scholars of this school Indian texts.[21] identified 17 qualities, which later scholars expanded to 24 guṇas. Different scholars of this school list the 24 differently; for example, Bhasarvajna disallows 6 of the 24 4.2.1 Samkhya school of Hinduism commonly accepted by the ancient scholars.[9] The most In Samkhya philosophy, a guṇa is one of three “tenden- commonly accepted list is: color, taste, smell, touch, numcies, qualities": sattva, rajas and tamas. This category of ber, contact, disjunction, farness, nearness, dimension, sepqualities have been widely adopted by various schools of arateness, knowledge, pleasure, frustration, desire, hatred, Hinduism for categorizing behavior and natural phenom- effort, weight, fluidity, viscosity, dispositional tendency, merit, demerit, and sound.[25] ena. The three qualities are: Nyaya school considers quality as non-repeatable, a con• Sattva is the quality of balance, harmony, goodness, ceptual theme that is not found in Western philosophy on purity, universalizing, holistic, constructive, creative, “quality” where it is presumed to be repeatable. It is also not found in some parallel schools of Hinduism. Repeatability building, positive, peaceful, virtuous.[22] means, that the white in one object is same as white in other • Rajas is the quality of passion, activity, neither good object, and white means the same thing. Nyaya scholars nor bad and sometimes either, self centeredness, ego- hold that “whiteness” is a guna of “white”, but that is differistic, individualizing, driven, moving, dynamic.[4][23] ent from “whiteness” of an object or living being. To them, white has many hues and the “whiteness” is subjective.[25] • Tamas is the quality of imbalance, disorder, chaos, anxiety, impure, destructive, delusion, negative, dull In Laksanavali, an ancient Indian text by Udayana, Guna is or inactive, apathy, inertia or lethargy, violent, vicious, discussed with more nuance. For example, he writes, “quality of earth” is specific only if it meets three conditions: it ignorant.[23][24] occurs in earth, does not occur in anything that is not earthy, and be a distinctive quality that cannot be described as comIn Indian philosophy, these qualities are not considered as bination of other qualities.[26] present in either-or fashion. Rather, everyone and everything has all three, only in different proportions and in different contexts.[3] The living being or substance is viewed as 4.2.3 Vaisheshika school of Hinduism the net result of the joint effect of these three qualities.[3][4] According to Samkya school, no one and nothing is either purely Sattvik or purely Rajasik or purely Tamasik.[4] One’s nature and behavior is a complex interplay of all of these, with each guna in varying degrees. In some, the conduct is Rajasik with significant influence of Sattvik guna, in some it is Rajasik with significant influence of Tamasik guna, and so on.[4] In Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, which is most related to Nyaya school, Guna is considered as one of the padartha (category) of relations. It states that our relational awareness, understanding and judgments of a person and anything in the world is relational. All relations, holds this school of Hinduism, is dyadic between anuyogin (referend) and pratiyogin (referent).[27] Inherence (samavaya) is one [4][34] Bommer et al suggest that ethical/non-ethical behavior is an out4. Rajasic guna ual along with the relative proportion of each guna. guṇa is an ancient language innovation that strengthens vowelstems. personal environment.4.4 4.[29][31] as well as the happiness and serenity experienced by the In Chapters 17 and 18. tion and understanding of sva-dharma. Action that is undertaken because of delusion. knowledge that is attached to object of action. in Advaita school of Hinduism for example. Action that is driven purely by craving for pleasure.1 Guna in other contexts Sanskrit grammar In the Sanskrit grammatical tradition (Vyakarana). is Tamasic knowledge.as innate nature (psychology or personality [30][31] personal and social environment. Guna theory. states Crawford.3 Guna in theory of ethics tive. a unity in diversity. Tamasic guna is one resents a hierarchical theory of values. destructive. 7.[29] In Chapter 18. such as the Bhagavad Gita. Similarly. Guna. three and set. Nyaya considers inherence as subset of guna (quality). ostentatious. that seeks the and similarities in the divided ferent theory. substance (dravya) and motion/action (karman).[40] क्रियते बहुलायासं तद्राजसमुदाहृतम् ॥२४॥ अनुबन्धं क्षयं हिंसामनपेक्ष्य च पौरुषम् । मोहादारभ्यते कर्म यत्तत्तामसमुच्यते ॥२५॥ Action that is virtuous. compassionate.whole. terplay of three gunas affect an individual’s values. contemptuous.sattvic. making it more visually palpable when written and more musically resonant when heard. introspecSattvic. free from attachment. and what makes charity as it to be dynamic and changeable with knowledge. Gangesha. doing the right tutional framework. is emphasized in Indian ethical theories. negative and vicious. individualistic and meaningless is Rajasic. Sattvic guna is one driven by what is [34] pure. Verse 17. and in Hindu worldview. state types of charity are discussed. aimed to hurt order of hierarchy is suggested to vary within each individanother. 17 and 18 of Bhagavad Gita discuss environment and institutional rules and laws. the use of guna in Sanskrit adds depth and sophistication in its phonetic delivery as well as Similarly. Hindu literature. For example. The inis one that is ego-driven. selfishness and much effort is Rajasic. disregarding consequences. the observer’s state of mind and attitude affects relational awareness. dark. true awareness and false awareness.4. these values affect individual’s actions. active. being (bhava). In other words. 14. repbecause it is right.2 refers to the three Guna . and without craving for results is considered Sattvic. for example:[32] The highest state of existence and bliss. 13. is jivanmukti (Self realization) and नियतं सङ्गरहितमरागद्वेषतः कृतम् । moksha. is called Tamasic. Guna the[29] ory is the ancient Indian philosophy on individual attributes. Rajasic or Tamasic. positive and good. True awareness is produced when we seek to observe some excellence (guna) in its cause. species (vishesha).[38][39] अफलप्रेप्सुना कर्म यत्तत्सात्त्विकमुच्यते Guna theory’s perspective on values constituting human ॥२३॥ personality has uniqueness yet is congruent with other ethयत्तु कामेप्सुना कर्म साहंकारेण वा पुनः । ical theories. as well as part of its instiof an individual). truth. bringing out into relief the idea expressed. seeking the approval of others.[28] Guna is one of the four important elements in the framework of ethical theories in Indian philosophy.[14] Dwight states that the use of guna makes the Sanskrit language more dynam[32] ical. social [35] Chapters 3. Chapter 18.[27] without concern for understanding the cause. [33] components is Sattvic. food. verses 23–25 4.[3][36][37] The gunas are not considered as static items and actions by their three Guna.4 Bhagavad Gita come of individual attributes. out of personal passion. Bhagavad Gita illustrates various individual. relationships. Realizing one’s svaknowledge and actions are detailed in terms of the three dharma and Self.[14] These innovations are not unique . rajawhile the theories of Dharma and Ashramas address the sic and tamasic . as is quality (guna). Guna. that considers everything unconnected. given its complexity. in other words. where the relative driven by what is impure. while false awareness results from observing fault (dosha) in its cause. without considering loss or injury to others or self. thought through. Unlike Vaisheshika. in Gangesha’s perspec. knowledge that is segregated.knowledge that sees one being in all beings. genus (samanya).2. without craving. stating that our awareness is of two types .28 CHAPTER 4. a Nyaya school scholar. intellectual structure. without concern for purpose or significance. GUṆA of its seven categories of relations. —Bhagavad Gita. suggests a somewhat dif. REFERENCES to Sanskrit. Another orthography and phonology concept related to Guna is Briddhi. Vol.[42] Guna refers to a set of normal-length vowels that are less reduced than the basic set (in modern terms. viz. Germany . As an example. at Google Books. pages 234-237 [5] Theos Bernard (1999). 4. Princeton University Press. Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon.6. Saguna Brahman [16] K Klostermaier (1984). viscous/liquid. A Consideration to Pratyaya-Sarga. ture) which are called: sattva guṇa. Understanding personality from Ayurvedic perspective for psychological assessment: A case. 34(2): 205-210 • Jain (Satvika) [17] gaNana Sanskrit-English Dictionary.6 References [1] guna Monier Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies the character and nature. ISBN 978-8120803091. ai.5 See also • Maya [14] Benjamin Woodbridge Dwight. Ger- There are three guṇas that were present from the origin of many primal matter (universe. that serve as the fundamental opSamkhya. International Journal of Yoga. Koeln University. Motilal Banarsidass. 2. 32(1): 12-19. e. Hindu Philosophy.[41] Guna and other rules of language for Sanskrit are described by Pāṇini in his Ashtadhyayi. au. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M.2 Ayurveda In the terminology of Ayurveda (traditional medicine). ISBN 978-0691604411. as a system to assess conditions and diets. preservation (rajas). PMC 3017961 [8] S Shilpa & C Murthy (2011). For this reason Triguna and tridosha are considered to be related in the traditions of Ayurveda. page 112 [10] guna Monier Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary.) Guna is corresponds to what is now termed the full grade in IndoEuropean ablaut. arranged in ten pairs of antonyms. Koeln University.[44] Guna is also a concept in Ayurvedic medicine. ISBN 9780823931798. Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology. and [13] W Raffé (1952). Time in Patañjali’s” Yogasūtra”. and it is their interplay that defines [12] Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya (2014). the zero grade). Personality. the lengthened grade). Sanskrit e and o were ai and au. but more reduced than the vṛddhi vowels (in modern terms. unctuous/dry. 48. 1.4. soft/hard. Rosen Publishing. Philosophy East and West. Motilal Banarsidass. Comparative English etymology. Modern Philology: Comparative phonology. International Journal of Ethics.[43] 4.[5][45] 4. stable/mobile. Italian and to some extent Russian. No. dull/sharp. Guna. Vol. pages 48-50 [15] E Yamaguchi (1967). 16-22 • Nirguna Brahman. pages 74–76 [6] S Elankumaran (2004). (This is more understandable once it is realized that. A randomized control trial of the effect of yoga on Gunas (personality) and Self esteem in normal healthy volunteers. 2(1): 13-21. Journal of Human Values. Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies. u are basic (zero-grade) vowels. The three primary gunas are generally accepted to be associated with creation (sattva). but also found in Greek. smooth/coarse. heavy/light. Germany [11] guNa Sanskrit-English Dictionary. page 265 [4] Alban Widgery (1930). p. are present in all things and beings in the world. organizational climate and job involvement: An empirical study.3 Mythology 29 4. cold/hot. Germany [3] James G. i. at an earlier stage of development. and tamas pages 65-66 guṇa. rajas guṇa. ṛ. 15. The principles of Hindu Ethics. minute/gross. ISBN 978-81-208-1373-1. 10(2): 117-130 [7] S Deshpande et al (2009). PMC 3215408 [9] Karl H. A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy. Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon.4. Prakrti). Latin. with corresponding guṇa (full-grade) vowels ar. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Volerating principles or 'tendencies’ of prakṛti (universal naume 4. The entire creation and thetics. Rāgas and Rāginīs: A key to Hindu aesdestruction/transformation (tamas). and Sanskrit ai and au were āi and āu. Ayu. 11(2): its process of evolution is carried out by these three major 105-117 gunas. Potter (2011). guṇa can refer to one of twenty fundamental properties which any substance can exhibit. Germany [2] guNa Sanskrit-English Dictionary.4. Lochtefeld. o and vṛddhi (lengthened-grade) vowels ār. 40. non-slimy/slimy. Ramanuja’s views. "Āyurveda”. Springer. Vol.36. Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology. ISBN 978-1438428420. Chapter: Hindu Ethics. Shankara’s views. Cromwell Crawford (2003). Motilal Banarsidass. Princeton University Press. pages 15-24 [28] Karl H. 330-332. MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Shambhala Publications. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. The Relevance of the Guna Theory in the Congruence of Eastern Values and Western Management Practice. 76. pages 1130 [20] G. Helaine.7 External links • Sattva. A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language at Google Books. ISBN 978-1438428420. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Germany [34] S. Rajas & Tamas From The Mahabharata • Guna debate 1]. One of many in The Vedanta-Sutras. ISBN 1-4020-1166-0. London [44] • Chopra. 2. pages 635 [31] Gideon Arulmani et al (2014). Georg The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga. ISBN 9780691073842. ISBN 9788180693410. Vol. 2nd English Translation: Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 18 verses 23-25. State University of New York Press. 35(1): 61-71 [25] Karl H. 216-221 [23] Feuerstein. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Hinduism. Potter (2011).1 at Google Books. Potter (2011). Ananda S. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils. Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharya (1994). pages 333-336 [41] HA Woodham. ISBN 978-0791457801. Motilal Banarsidass. Volume 4. Princeton University Press. citing Sushrutasamhita 25. Norwell. ISBN 978-8120803091. p 55 [36] N Pani (2009). Volume 6: Indian Philosophical Analysis. Numen. pages 21-30 [24] Whicher. 26. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120815476. ISBN 978-1845429362. Value Management In Professions. pages 97-117 [29] Christopher Key Chapple. 9. page 112-132 [39] Karl Potter (2008). Proceedings of the Philological Society. George Thibaut (Translator) . Anthropos. 110 [38] Klaus Klostermaier (1985). M. 1969. A Sanskrit Grammar for Students p. Journal of Human Values. George Thibaut (Translator) • Guna debate 2]. p. pp. pages 215-219 [35] Michael Bommer et al (1987). 634-661 [30] Christopher Key Chapple. pages 144-148 [33] Christopher Key Chapple. The Bhagavad Gita: Twentyfifth–Anniversary Edition. State University of New York Press. pages 185-194. No. Joseph S. Chapter 1-6. Oxford: Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-815466-6 [43] MW Woollaston. 1998 SUNY Press. The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition. Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharya (1994). 63. Fasc. Motilal Banarsidass. pages 152-163 [21] Jan Gonda (1968). pages 210-215 [26] Karl H. Edward Elgar. Trifunctional Elements in the Mythology of the Hindu Trimūrti. pages 139-143 [32] 1st English translation: Christopher Key Chapple.30 CHAPTER 4. ISBN 9781461494591.23-25. With 11 interpretations/commentaries (Sanskrit): Bhagavad Gita Chapter 18. The Bhagavad Gita: Twentyfifth–Anniversary Edition. Handbook of Career Development: International Perspectives. The Bhagavad Gita: Twentyfifth–Anniversary Edition. in Hindu Bioethics for the Twenty-first Century. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1438428420. Ian The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana. Medicine Across Cultures: History and Practice of Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. pages 681-683 [19] tattva Sanskrit-English Dictionary.. Volume 6: Indian Philosophical Analysis.13 4. 3. p 128 (v 45) and p 269 v. Vol. Koeln University. Philosophy East and West. “The Hindu Trinity”. Yoga in modern India. Arthur Anthony (1927[1886]). Mokṣa and Critical Theory. In Selin. 75–83. State University of New York Press. 2004 Princeton University Press. 11. Kalātattvakośa: Manifestation of nature : Sr̥ṣṭi vistāra. Edward Hall. Volume 2: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology. Bailey (1979). Journal of Business Ethics. a New Translation and Commentary. State University of New York Press. A behavioral model of ethical and unethical decision making. pages 684-686. 6(4): 265-280 [22] Alter. GUṆA [18] Kapila Vatsyayan. One of many in The Vedanta-Sutras. page 113-114 [40] M Innes-Brown and S Chatterjee (1999). ISBN 9780691073842. pages 98-101 [42] Macdonald. ISBN 978-8120803091. 5(2): 93-102 [27] Karl H. 1997 [37] NK Shastree. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. ISBN 978-1438428420. (2003). Penguin Books. [45] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita. in Handbook of Economics and Ethics (Editors: Jan Peil and Irene Staveren). EXTERNAL LINKS • Chapter 2: Each is Great in His Own Place Sattva. Vivekananda • Sattva. Rajas & Tamas From a Shamanic perspective 31 .7. Rajas & Tamas .4.gunas and Karma Yoga. 2 In the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. perhaps. 4. except. rajas is responsible for motion. which is the quality of purity. 1990 p. 32 References [1] Autobiography Of A Yogi. 3. 1973. 5. If a person or thing tends to be extremely active. excitable. known as sattva and tamas. mutation. 5. change. generation. which actually helps one in realizing the absolute truth.[1][2] and thereby upholds and maintains the activity of the other two gunas. but the mode of sattva is a still higher stage of material quality. and less positive than sattva.Chapter 5 Rajas For the plural of the unrelated word raja. 1990 pp. darkness. 236 [3] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad Gita Translation and Commentary . passion. 221–223 . Of these. that person or thing could be said to have a preponderance of rajas. action. Rajas is viewed as being more positive than tamas.1 Nature Rajas is the force which promotes or upholds the activity of the other aspects of nature (prakriti) such as one or more of the following: 1. It is contrasted with the quality of tamas. energy and preservation. rajas (Sanskrit: रजस्) or rajoguna is one of the three gunas. birth. p. see Raja (disambiguation). which is the quality of inactivity. excitement. 2.[3] The rajas stage of life gives a slight clue to the realization of the absolute truth in the forms of fine sentiments in philosophy. art and culture with moral and ethical principles. and with sattva. creation. Arkana. calmness and creativity. for one who has “transcended the gunas” and achieved equanimity in all fields of relative life. or passionate. Self Realization Fellowship. and laziness. clarity. Paramahansa Yogananda. 22 [2] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad Gita Translation and Commentary. Such an individual is confident and experiences abundance. Other’s disagree. A sattvic individual speaks compliments and avoids vulgar or insulting language. calm and peaceful. and tāmasika “indifferent”. Sattvic individuals always work for the welfare of the world. be they of gold. Hindu philosophy does not encourage Some of the people considered by Hindus to be sattvic are: 33 . and food that are allowed as offerings to God • Neem tree • The milk of a cow which has grown in good surroundings. pure. Iran. karmana are the three Sanskrit words used to describe such a state. in an extreme state. Thus working without attachment requires rising above all three gunas. On the contrary its presence must purify the surroundings. • Nature has always had a connotation with being sattvic. Some objects that are considered sattvic are: • Flowers. rājasika “excitable”. and is unaffected by greed and selfishness. It also excludes stale and pungent-smelling food. A sattvic individual can be recognized if their mind. generous. Citing the Bhagavad Gita. sattva (Sanskrit sattva / सत्त्व “purity”. it becomes sinful or evil to drink such milk (Note that the cow is sacred in Hinduism) 6. A sattvic man or woman works with no attachment to the result. using precise language and speaking truths palatably. Because of this. It is not in the nature of a sattvic individual to cheat or mislead others. Sattvic qualities include leading a chaste life. They are hardworking. The food should be healthy. nutritious and clean. They live life moderately. In Vedic philosophy. alert. Thus when an individual consumes such a food. may even perform penance or uninterrupted meditation. no value judgement is entailed as all guna are indivisible and mutually qualifying. In cases when the cow has been ill treated. the eating of animals. anglicised sattvic) is the most rarefied of the three gunas in Samkhya. A sattvic person will show what is and describe destinations. fruits. The name “sattvik” implies one who is divine. tamas) are chains.Chapter 6 Sattva “Satva” redirects here. silver or steel. eating moderately. This idea disallows aphrodisiac or other drugs and intoxicants that can affect the mind in such a way.2 Sattvic creatures A person or creature can be called sattvic if the creature has predominantly sattvic tendencies. or the destruction of nature and its habitats. including the sattvic guna. literally “existence. sāttvika “pure”. all three gunas (satvas. and have good memory and concentration. he must feel that he is eating pure food. A sattvic person does not allow evil tendencies to enter his or her mind but supports an inner paradise that broadcasts out to the world. speech and actions synchronize: manasa. adjectival sāttvika “pure”. Importantly. vacha. 6. reality". It also disallows food or objects obtained after killing or causing pain to a creature. is never jealous. see Satva. but then allow others to choose for themselves. and spiritual. Sattva is a state of mind in which the mind is steady. he or she will have keen interest in improving spiritual knowledge and will spend time worshiping divinity or meditating and. is healthy and has been obtained after the calf of the cow has been fed well.1 Sattvic objects For an object or food to be sattvic. For the village in Iran. it must be uncontaminated and should not spread evil or disease in the world. It should also not weaken the power or equilibrium of mind. This is because the object would then have source in an evil act. rajas. Tukaram • Ancient rishis like Vashishta.3 See also • Ritual purity • Sat (Sanskrit) • Sattvic diet • Satya • Sentient beings (Buddhism) 6. Dnyaneshwar. article by Spiritual Science Research Foundation CHAPTER 6. Kashyapa • Modern day sages like Ramana Maharshi.34 • Holy men and bhaktas like Tulsidas. Aurobindo.4 References 6. Vivekananda • Divine beings in the heavens • Some flora and fauna like lotus (symbolizes purity). Raja and Tama. SATTVA .5 External links • Sattva. Tyagaraja. cow (symbolizes the earth mother) 6. [19][note 9] others.[2] Hinduism. and the various Yogas (paths or practices to attain Hindus with Yavanas or Mlecchas.[17][note 7] According to Gavin Flood. Vedic yajna and agamic rituals and temple 7. Artha. and societal norms. The term Hinduism was introduced rites of passage. It includes Shaivism. which refers to all Indians. By patience. and occasional pilgrimages. rather than a rigid.into the English language in the 19th century to denote the sions. These texts discuss theology. such as across the River Indus. and Aga. the proper goals or Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir aims of human life. Vaishnavism and Shaktism[1] among numerous other traditions. after Christianity and Islam.and Chaitanya Bhagavata. namely Dharma (ethics/duties).[web 2][9] Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not The term Hinduism was later used occasionally in some restricted to). Some leave their social world and material posses. (Hinduka. c. mythology. with about one billion followers[web 1] is the world’s third largest religion. then engage in lifelong Sannyasa (ascetic practices) religious.[note 1] in South Asia. meaning the “land of Hindus".[note 8] human origins.[15] Major scriptures include the Vedas. Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of India. Hinduism is a categorisation of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view. annual festivals. 7. and cultural traditions native to India. common set of beliefs. or way of life.[21] Since the 1990s. and the Ramayana.[note 2] and some practitioners refer to it as Sanātana Sindhu)". dharma. Upanishads (both Śruti).[17] The term 'Hindu' then was a geographical term Dharma. self-restraint. “the eternal law" or the “eternal way”[3] beyond and did not refer to a religion. the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan and Northern India). “The actual term 'hindu' first occurs as a Persian geographical term Hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: world. [12] the end of the 18th century that European merchants and moksha). Hindu practices include daily rituals such as colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions puja (worship) and recitations.definition of “Hinduism”. those influences and its outcomes have been the 35 . and a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of “daily morality” based on karma.[10][11] karma (action. Manusmṛti. The study of India and its cultures and religions. forbearance. 1450) and some 16th. It was usually used to contrast [20] It was only towards quences). meditation. among the 13th century. Bhagavad Gita.[15] of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. to achieve moksha. among other topics. refraining from injuring living beings (ahimsa). has been shaped by the interests mas (all smriti).[6][note 5] with diverse roots[7][note 6] and no Arabic term al-Hind. compassion. philosophical. from the Persian term Hindū. the repeated Gaudiya Vaishnava texts including Chaitanya Charitamrita cycle of rebirth). Mahabharata. the four Puruṣārthas.[4] Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[note 3] or synthesis[5][note 4] of various Indian cultures The word Hindu was taken by European languages from the and traditions. intent and conse. family-oriented collectively as Hindus. This Arabic term was itself taken honesty.Chapter 7 Hinduism Hinduism is the dominant religion. Puranas.[8] It prescribes the eternal duties.1 Etymology Main article: Hindustan The word Hindu is derived (through Persian) from the Indo-Aryan[16] /Sanskrit[17] word Sindhu. which referred to the people who live [18] single founder.to 18th-century Bengali Kama and Moksha (liberation from samsara.[13][14] Hindu texts are classified into Shruti (“heard”) and Smriti (“remembered”). most notably India. philosophy.2 Definitions building. [28] a longer period. as a religion.[46] . mercy..[44][note 17] See also: Sanātanī which started well before 1800. such as honesty. and nationalists to a religion. and the schools known trine' with the various Brahmanical schools of the Vedanta retrospectively as the “six systems” (saddarsana) of main(in particular Advaita Vedanta). this also . In India the term dharma is preferred.[web 2] According to Knott. HINDUISM topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism. patience. or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.2 Indigenous understanding speaks of “the identificatory habit”.] [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders. generosity.[23][note 11] the ages to the present day in the most ancient of the world’s scriptures.”[29][note 12] stream Hindu philosophy. one’s “own duty”.[41] Hacker called this “inclusivism”[42] and Michaels 7. and “a way of life. fulfillment of See also: Orientalism desires (kama). reformers.is difficult. the Veda.[24] Hinduism has been variously defined as by Hindu leaders. and its truths have been divinely revealed (shruti) and passed down through As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts..2. All aspects of a Hindu life. caste.[15] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction beSanātana Dharma tween Muslims and Hindus.[22][note 10] and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India. This is contrasted with svadharma.[45] Michaels notes: 7.[37] It refers to the “eternal” duties all Hindus have to follow. and attaining liberation (moksha) are part of dharma which encapsulates the “right way of living” and [38][39] The notion of common denominators for several religions eternal harmonious principles in their fulfillment. especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas). self-restraint.[27] The notion of “Hinduism” as a “sinGrowing Hindu identity gle world religious tradition”[28] was popularised by 19thcentury European Indologists who depended on the “brahThis sense of unity and ancientness has been developed over mana castes”[28] for their information of Indian religions.[web 2] ancient dharma). namely acquiring wealth (Artha).[26] The Sanskrit word dharma has a much more deeper meaning than religion and is not its equivalent. p.”[25][note 1] From a Western lexical standSanatana dharma has thus become a synonym for point. 5) Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term. articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. a set of religious beliefs.. Hindu tradiof history and unchanging but also as indivisible tionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma (the eternal or and ultimately nonsectarian.1 Colonial influences To its adherents. already between This led to a “tendency to emphasise Vedic and Brahmanthe 12th and the 16th centuries “certain thinkers began to ical texts and beliefs as the “essence” of Hindu religiosity treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings in general.[43] and a process of “mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other”. refraining from injuring living beings.2. and traditions of India was already noted from the 12th century CE on. refer to Hinduism as a unified world religion. and asceticism. which the latter conceived of as not only transcendent is broader than the western term “religion”. two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism [.”[40] The tendency of “a blurring of philosophical distinctions” has also been noted by Burley. a religious tradition.[36] Many practitioners refer to Hinduism as Sanātana Dharma. epics. According to Nicholson. the duties to be followed by members of a specific caste and stage of life. arriving at a comprehensive definition According to the Encyclopædia Britannica. “the eternal law" or the “eternal way”. Puranas.. such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609-1649) and Ramdas (1608-1681). purity. regardless of class.[17] The religion “defies our desire to define and The term has also more recently been used categorize it”. Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred the “eternal” truth and teachings of Hinduism. goodwill. refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history. or sect. forbearance.36 CHAPTER 7. Hinduism is a traditional way of life. (Knott 1998. and in the modern association of 'Hindu docof the Upanishads. [49] Western stereotypes were reversed. Renaissance. peace and “the spiritual transformation of humanity. Islam and Buddhism”. Vivekananda’s vision of Hinduism “is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today. still remain within the category. was “a figure of great importance in the development of a mod.[52] He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902).[57] It emphasizes universal spiritual values such as social justice. Vivekananda. “becoming a world religion alongside Christianity. an effort continued by other teachers. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others.[49] Major representatives of “Hindu modernism”[50] are Raja Rammohan Roy. raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.[51] 7. that all human beings can achieve union with this “innate divinity”. there is an essential unity to Hinduism.[58] or the Pizza effect.[42] Hindu modernism 37 view of Hinduism. Indian modernists reasserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation.[48] and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism. emphasizing the universal aspects.3 Diversity and inclusivism ern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West’s . “presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience.”[53] Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings.[49] This approach had a great appeal.”[57] It has developed partly due to “reenculturation”.7. according to Flood.7. “bringing to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies. not only in India.[58] This globalization of Hindu culture was initiated by Swami Vivekanandaand and his founding of the Ramakrishna Mission.[50] According to Vivekananda.”[59] Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and USA.[58] in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West.”[56] This “Global Hinduism”[57] has a worldwide appeal. according to Flood. which underlies the diversity of its many forms.2.”[54] Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was “one of India’s most erudite scholars to engage with western and Indian philosophy”.3. and introducing modern approaches of social problems.[57] both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions. and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India. their place of origin. and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India. but also in the west. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi. who.[60] Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with “fuzzy edges” rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity.[50] and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony. while not as central. See also: Hindu reform movements Beginning in the 19th century.[50] According to Flood. transcending national boundaries[57] and.[55] He sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism.3 Western understanding Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[note 3] or synthesis[note 4][5] of various Indian cultures and traditions. Based on this idea Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of [61] Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of the Hindu Hinduism. DIVERSITY AND INCLUSIVISM This inclusivism[47] was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by Hindu reform movements and NeoVedanta. gaining popularity there.[6][note 5] Hinduism’s tolerance to variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions. it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed.”[62] Hinduism does not have a “unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or a creed". according to whom this reverence is a mere “tipping of the hat”.”[70] Halbfass does not agree with this characterization[70] and states that.[77] bhakti-marga. reincarnation of one’s ātman. yet some Hindus are atheists. and of the destruction of the universe. • “Dharmic” Hinduism or “daily morality”. especially the sect based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Shaktism and Smartism.[68] Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature. it does not believe in any one philosophic concept. the Vedas. Shaivism and Sikhism.3. organic.” which is “rooted in militaristic traditions.[68] McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic “types” of Hinduism. • Bhakti or devotionalist practices Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity. although Shaivism and Vaishaism may be regarded as “self-contained religious constellations”.38 CHAPTER 7.” such as Ramaism and parts of political Hinduism. Unlike other religions in the World.[web 3] Hinduism also recognises numerous divine beings subordinate to the Supreme Being or regards them as lower manifestations of it.”. they view Hinduism more as philosophy than religion.[65] It is a synthesis of various traditions. • Shrauta or “Vedic” Hinduism as practised by traditionalist brahmins (Shrautins). 7. or at least prior to written Vedas.[72] Other notable characteristics include a belief in existence of ātman (soul.[64] Part of the problem with a single definition of the term “Hinduism” is the fact that Hinduism does not have a single historical founder.” such as Vaishnavism.[68] there is a degree of interaction and reference between the “theoreticians and literary representatives”[68] of each tradition which indicates the presence of “a wider sense of identity. the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet.[71] The main divisions of Hinduism today are Vaishnavism. in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:[73] • Folk Hinduism. the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions.[42] although there are exceptions. it does not worship any one God.[66] the “Brahmanical orthopraxy.[74] The three Hindu religions are “Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism. • Vedantic Hinduism. It is a way of life and nothing more”. Vedanta and Yoga.1 Diversity 7. HINDUISM 7. a traditional gesture of saluting an “idol” without any further commitment.”[67] Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation.[77] and “heroism. in fact.[75] but also new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and Transcendental Meditation.3 Typology See also: Hindu denominations Main article: Hindu denominations Hinduism has been described as a tradition having a “complex.[69] Halbfass cites Renou. it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances. of sustenance.[77] . based on Karma and upon societal norms such as Vivāha (Hindu marriage customs).” and “founded religions.2 Inclusivism Despite the differences.[17] but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India. based on local traditions and cults of local deities and extending back to prehistoric times.[76] jnana-marga. • Yogic Hinduism. and karma as well as a belief in personal duty. “folk religions and tribal religions. a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon”.[76] This is also called viryamarga. based on the philosophical approach of the Upanishads. two prominent schools.3. or dharma. Shaivism.3.[75] The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical “karma-marga”. Of the historical division into six darsanas.[63] According to the Supreme Court of India. including Advaita Vedanta (Smartism). self). there is also a sense of unity. multileveled and sometimes internally inconsistent nature. Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. death and rebirth). laws. and the various Yogas (paths or practices).110.[80] Dharma. Samsāra (the continu. 'Sanātana Dharma' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end. freedom from samsara) dharma includes the religious duties. Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs.4. Kama is considered Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued Hinduism. Artha and Moksha. virtues and ‘‘right way of living’’.[80] Hindu Mokṣa (liberation. or love. representing the Trimurti: Brahma. when a man speaks the Truth. and if he speaks Dharma.[86][87] Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life: Dharma. the order that makes life and universe possible. (Mbh 12. thus.[81] is that which all existing be. Therefore. as well as behaviors that enable social or. The word Sanātana means 'eternal'. pleasure of the senses. Karma (action. intent and consequences). Pali. wealth. Artha. wealth) ing cycle of birth. Artha.Main article: Moksha der. 'perennial'.Artha (livelihood. rights. right conduct. diplomacy and material well-being.4. In one .Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुिक्त) ings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order is the ultimate. conduct. ethics) Kāma (Sanskrit. wish. with or without sexual connotations. 1.[84] Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to).[85] The proper purMain article: Purusharthas suit of artha is considered an important aim of human life See also: Initiation.1 Purusharthas (objectives of human of political life. most important goal in Hinduism. they say. passion. It is.11). Dharma. affection.[78] The concept Dharma includes behaviors that without sacrificing Dharma.[81] The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states it as: Nothing is higher than Dharma. It is inclusive 7. BELIEFS 39 in the world. moral rights and duties of each individual. The Artha concept includes all “means of life”.[79] and includes duties. as over a king. These Kāma (sensual pleasure) are known as the Puruṣārthas:[10][11] Main article: Kama Dharma (righteousness. activities and life) resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (Satya). Kāma and Mokṣa in Hinduism. “He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.xiv [82][83] Temple wall panel relief sculpture at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu.4 Beliefs In the Mahabharata. 7. Dharma (ethics/duties). thus playing one’s role in cosmic concert.[12] Artha is objective and virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood. the aesthetic Main articles: Ethics of Hinduism and Dharma enjoyment of life. Devanagari: काम) means desire. life. according to Van Buitenen.7.[90] are considered to be in accord with rta. —Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. they say. states Van Buitenen. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma.4. “He speaks the Dharma". longing. Moksha (liberation from samsara Main article: Artha or liberation in this life). and those that are virtuous. career and financial security. Kama and Moksha. the pursuit and execution of one’s nature and true calling. Shiva and Vishnu. obligations and economic prosperity.[88][89] In Hinduism. or 'forever'. [93][94] ter attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven).[93][107] Moksha in these schools of Hinduism. suggests Klaus Klostermaier. and (3) rebirth. permitting a person to be 7. in modern era scholarship. moksha is transcendental consciousness to the latter. work. of self-realization.[102] ing the existence of others).7. realization of the unity of all existence.[120] The goal in all respects. moksha is possible in current life and is a psychological concept. monism.e. This to the cosmic self. as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature. involving devotion to a single god while acceptcircumstances. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic derived from free will and past human actions that set the (i.2 Karma and samsara more truly a person in the full sense. a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life.[100][101] Hindu scriptures teach depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosthat the future is both a function of current human effort ophy followed.[98] Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present cir. the consequences may Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beresult in current life. and af.[118] The ultimate goal of life. in after life. furthermore. has been interpreted as monotheism. or a person’s future lives. in moksha state. To theistic schools of Hinduism. (2) ethicization. the supreme spirit. For example. is called The meaning of moksha differs among the various Hindu the ātman.[115][116] The Raigveda praises various deities. panentheism. in a henotheistic manner. Such realization liberates one from samsara. HINDUISM sense.[106] soul – the spirit or true “self” of every person.[107][108] The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) of life. of freedom and of “realizing the whole universe as the Self”. such as monistic. sorrow and suffering.4.[96][97] The theory is a combination of (1) causality tion after death). while for other schools such as the monistic school. that the supreme soul as distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close. cycle of birth. self” one’s soul is identical to supreme soul. all life is intercon- .4.4 Concept of God cumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in past. pandeism.[95] and fering (samsara). According to Deutsche. moksha is a goal achievable in current life. and as detachment from worldly desires. monism. The “One Truth” of Vedic literature. particularly in theistic schools of Hinduism is called moksha. possibly actions in their past lives. and atheism among bration from samsara through moksha is believed to ensure others. thereby ending the cycle of rebirth. that is good or bad actions have consequences. compassion and Main article: Karma understanding which had been blocked and shut out.is present in everything and everyone. or. Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow. according to the Advaita school. is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one’s union with God. of comprehending the nature of one’s soul. identify individual “soul. Vedantic school separates this into two: also refers to a Vedic theory of “moral law of cause and jivanmukti (liberation in this life) and videhamukti (libera[109][110] effect”. referred to as moksha. the concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity. perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self. polytheism. or deed. none superior nor inferior.[119] Accordschools of thought. These actions may be those in a person’s Main articles: Ishvara and God in Hinduism current life. death and rebirth is called samsara.[98][99] This liefs spanning monotheism.[108] implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties. is to realise that schools.4. A release from this eschatological cycle. in some schools of Hinduism.[103][104] Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul. but any such term is an overgeneralization. as a state of bliss through self-realization. that may be ethical or non-ethical. Advaita Vedanta holds ing to the monistic/pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of that after attaining moksha a person knows their “soul. Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school).. moksha is liberation from samsara. and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being. the concept of god(s) and The One. The soul is believed to be eternal.[113] 7.pantheism. as the realization of one’s eternal relationship with God. life.[105] death is deemed insignificant with respect Hindus believe that all living creatures have a soul. of freedom and of “realizing the whole universe as the Self”.[111][112][web 4] and its concept of God is complex and lasting happiness and peace. Li.3 Moksha The Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda is one of the earliest texts[114] which “demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation” about what created the universe. suffering and saṃsāra (birth-rebirth cycle). as the attainment of perfect mental peace. Moksha is more than liberation from life-rebirth cycle of sufKarma translates literally as action.40 CHAPTER 7. this Atman is self” and identifies it as one with Brahman and everyone indistinct from Brahman. the perfect state of being. nirvana or samadhi.[117] The hymns repeatedly refer to One Truth and Reality.[91][92] In other schools of Hinduism. 7.[121][122][123] Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being separate from individual souls. almost similar to main principles of jainism). in various traditions.[131] but later Nyaya school scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic. however. for epistemological and metaphysical reasons. and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.4. sutra 63 : Ahimsa.[124] They worship the Supreme Being variously as Vishnu. kshatriya. abstract Self and Oneness in everything. Shiva.[136][web 5][137] Its Vaisheshika school started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal. The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form. “spiritual.[130] and of regional and family traditions. arguing that “God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption”. with many Hindus worshipping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations as their iṣṭa devatā. with no room for gods or deity. particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas.[143] the epic Mahabharata[144] and ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. Vegetarianism and religion.[124] 7. for example. God is called Ishvara.[142] The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads. They are.[140] Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic. Cattle in Religion. or chosen ideal. Parameshwara.[147][web 8] Some avoid meat only on specific holy days. Supreme Being. was non-theist/atheist. Such Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings. the Puranas and the Epics relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma to society. Sattvic diet and Mitahara Krishna is worshipped as the avatar of the god Vishnu or Bhagavan. a perspective that Mohanty calls. satya. Brahma.[125][126][127] 41 an incarnation is called an avatar. Bhagavan. vegetarianism and other food customs Main articles: Ahimsa. Deva or Devi.[128][129] The choice is a matter of individual preference. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal . a personal god. architecture and through icons. but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God. The early Nyaya school of Hinduism.[web 6][web 7] In accordance with ahiṃsā.[130] The multitude of devas are considered as manifestations of Brahman.[145] and the first principle for all member of Varnashrama Dharma (brahmin. Both theistic and atheistic ideas. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. vaishya and shudra) in Law of Manu (book 10.[146] The food habits vary with the community and region: for example. devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi). are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. shaucam and indrayanigraha. and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures. were non-theist/atheist. often distinguished from Ishvara. many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life.[note 21] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art.[138][139][138] The Yoga school of Hinduism accepted the concept of a “personal god” and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god. including plants and non-human animals. asteya. depending upon the sect.[141] Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being. not religious”. Samkhya. or Shakti.[note 22] While ancient Vedic literature including Upanishads make no mention of reincarnation of God. Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.[132][133] Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars. some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.4.5 Ahimsa.[134] Mimamsa[135] and Carvaka schools of Hinduism. BELIEFS nected and there is oneness in all life. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and include Rama (the protagonist of the Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata). which may be translated into English as “gods” or “heavenly beings”. for many centuries before they were written down. which consist of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. ceremonies and animal sacrifice. This Rigveda manuscript is in Devanagari.[web 9] philosophy and spiritual knowledge).generally Shakta. then placed in the Shruti category. to be expressed in new ways. Hindu scriptures were composed. HINDUISM A goshala or cow shelter at Guntur figure.[180] There are 108 Muktikā Upanishads in Hinduism.[162][163] Over many centuries. discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).[148] and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. memorized and transmitted verbally.[156] Samhitas (mantras and benedictions). most Hindus.[157] and on rituals.[177][178] Of the shrutis (Vedic corpus).[150] Food affects body.[167][168] Hindus believe that because and Svātmārāma[154][155] recommend Mitahara (eating in the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal.[149] The Rigveda is the first and most important Veda[161] and is one of There are many Hindu groups that have continued to the oldest religious texts.[184] Puranas.. majority of Vaishnava and Shaivite Hindus abhor it.[183] It is sometimes called Gitopanishad. including the sacrifices). Hindus in regions such as Bali and Nepal[158][159] practise the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the sumes in verses 17.5 Scriptures Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion. and the central ideas of the Upanishads are at the spiritual core of Hindus.[170][171][172] The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion).Rigveda. mind and spirit in Hindu itual world. ceremonies.[169] There are four Vedas The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one con. sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices). eggs.8 through 17. as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.[173][web 10][174][175][176] Main articles: Shruti. being Upanishadic in content. Samaveda. they continue moderation) as one of the Yamas (virtuous self restraints). across generations. abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times.[160] In contrast. ical thought and have profoundly influenced its diverse traditions. The Bhagavad Gita is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism.[181][182] Shruti (lit. Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.[177][179] Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance. that which is heard)[164] primarily refers to the Vedas. sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat.10.[165][166] others do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a god or person. which would still exist even if they were not beliefs.[151][152] Hindu texts such as Śāṇḍilya Upanishad[153] revealed to the sages. of which between 10 to 13 are variously counted by scholars as Principal Upanishads. while the last two form the 7. While many Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (rishis). They are thought of as the laws of the spir- The most notable of the smritis (“memory”) are the epics. which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation. Smriti and List of Hindu scriptures The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophThe ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. the Aranyakas (text Some Hindus from certain sects .42 CHAPTER 7. These texts are classified into two: Shruti and Smriti. and seafood. they alone are widely known. which . and individuals.[192] while Gryhasutra and Hindu iconography.[197] The epic Mahabharata extols Japa (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the Kali Yuga (current age.6. Devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usu. sound. PRACTICES 43 illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives come under 7.3 Bhakti (worship) Offerings to Agni during Vivah-homa in a Hindu wedding Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas.6. such as a Hindu wedding.6. ThereMost Hindus observe religious rituals at home. Major life stage milestones are celebrated as sanskara (saṃskāra. the Tantras.[191] Gautama Main articles: Puja (Hinduism). and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities). recita. community and regionally. help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life.2 Life-cycle rites of passage smritis. Annaprashana (baby’s first feeding of solid food). Vivaha (wedding). their meaning. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. Japa and Mantra other texts composed centuries later list between 12 to 16 See also: Initiation sanskaras. Samavartana (graduation ceremony).[186] tee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devo[185] Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions. Vidyarambha (baby’s start with knowledge). menarche for girls). Mandir. rites of passage) in Hinduism. Jatakarman (rite celebrating the new born baby). Pumsavana (rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb).[192] The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include[191] Garbhadhana (pregnancy).[194][195] Keshanta and Ritusuddhi (first shave for boys. and chanting style help a devomeditation. villages.Mantras are invocations.[189][193] The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby’s birth and a baby’s name giving ceremony. Upanayana (entry into a school rite). The nature and place of rituals is an individual’s choice. tonsure). Karnavedha (ear piercing). Yajna. singing devotional hymns.6 Practices rites of passage are not mandatory. Tirumantiram. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjaya mantras. such as rituals after death. Chudakarana (baby’s first haircut. spiritual studies) and Antyeshti (cremation for an adult. Nishkramana (baby’s first outing from home into the world). burial for a child). the Yoga Sutras.1 Rituals ner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude. in some cases. additional regional rites of passage such as Śrāddha (ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practiced. Shiva Sutras and the Hindu Main article: Saṃskāra Agamas. The ritfore. Other texts include Devi Mahatmya.Mantra ally at a family shrine.[187][188] Other major life-stage events.6. baby shower). Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to uals vary greatly among regions. yoga. Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman’s hair. chanting mantras and others. Dharmasutras composed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras.7. Vratas (fasting. Murti.[web 11] tion to God/the deities. Namakarana (naming the child). include the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras.[189][190] The 7. and vary in details by gender.[196] In contemporary times. as well as in7. there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of these sanskaras are observed. praise and prayers that through tion from religious scripts.[191][web 12] 7. 3102 BCE- . Some widely observed Hindu festivals include: Priest attending a murthi • Makar Sankranti present).Diwali. The name. The Hindu calendar usually prescribe their dates. literally: “to lift higher”) are considered as symbolic rituals that beautifully weave individual and social life to dharma. festivals throughout the year. • Thaipusam • Ram Navami • Krishna Janmastami • Ganesh Chaturthi • Shigmo • Dussera • Durga Puja 7.[199] It is normally lyrical. expressing love for the Divine. meaning religious devotion.6. HINDUISM The festival of lights. The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology.[198] • Maha Shivaratri • Pongal Devotional songs (Bhajans) Main article: Bhajan • Holi • Navaratri • Vasant Panchami A Bhajan is any type of devotional song.4 Festivals Main article: Hindu festivals Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava. often coinciding with seasonal changes. is celebrated by Hindus all over the world. a cognate of bhakti. the teachings of saints and descriptions of gods have all been the subject of bhajans. suggests its importance to the bhakti movement that spread from the south of India throughout the entire subcontinent in the Moghul era. It has no fixed form: it may be as simple as a mantra or kirtan or as sophisticated as the dhrupad or kriti with music based on classical ragas and talas. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent.[200] Hinduism has many • Diwali • Gudi Padwa • Ugadi • Bihu .[198] Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice.44 CHAPTER 7. Anecdotes and episodes from scriptures. [205] Scholars debate whether the so-called caste system is part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom. which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration. Gangotri. the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya. the man who • Char Dham (Famous Four Pilgrimage sites): The four is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and holy sites Puri.[203][204] although some other scholars disagree. Rameswaram. • Shakti Peethas: Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas. Pilgrimage 7. where the Mother Goddess is worshipped. and businessmen. The following pilgrimage sites are most famous amongst Hindu devotees: Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system. and Yamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit.7. • Kumbh Mela: The Kumbh Mela (the “pitcher festival”) is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that Main article: Yoga is held every 12 years.7. home to Sai Baba of Shirdi. Scholars like Adi Sankara affirm that not only is Brahman beyond all varnas. Allahabad formerly known as Prayag. Nashik. The Bhagavad Gītā links the varna to an individual’s duty (svadharma). The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Haridwar-Rishikesh. there are .7.7. Mathura-Vrindavan. 7.7 See also: Hindu Pilgrimage sites. Kedarnath. nobles. the location is rotated among Allahabad.[208] (or alternatively the Himalayan towns of Badrinath. Tirumala .5 45 • Major Temple cities: Puri. and Sabarimala. as has been pointed out by several sociologists.6. and Ayodhya. and Badrinath limitations of caste.[201] While there are different yet similar pilgrimage routes in different parts of India. Dwarka. In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life.[207] A renunciant man of knowledge is usually called Varnatita or “beyond all varnas” in Vedantic works.[202] The Manusmṛiti categorises the different castes. Katra. though many 7. inborn nature (svabhāva).[web 13] Pilgrimage to Kedarnath adherents undertake them. PERSON AND SOCIETY • Bonalu • Rath Yatra • Guru Purnima • Raksha Bandhan • Onam • Gowri Habba • Chhath • Vishu 7. merchants.Tirupati. according to the universality of Hinduism. the Kshatriyas: warriors. They are the Brahmins: Vedic teachers and priests. and Ujjain.1 Person and society Varnas Main article: Varna (Hinduism) Hindu society has been categorised into four classes. and natural tendencies (guṇa). Haridwar. where Swami Ayyappan is worshipped.2 Yoga • Old Holy cities as per Puranic Texts: Varanasi formerly known as Kashi. all are respected equally well. and the Shudras: servants and labourers. Yatra and Tirtha and Kshetra Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism. Three comparatively recent temples of fame and huge pilgrimage are Shirdi. the Vaishyas: farmers. home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple. and kings. called varnas.[206][web 14][note 23] And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime. home to the Vaishno Devi temple. Yoga is a Hindu discipline which trains the body.7. Hinduism associates many symbols. monastic and devoted to meditative practice and ecstatic chanting. several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. literature and worship. Shaktism and Smartism.[211] However four major denominations are recognised: Vaishnavism. They are deeply devotional. Karma Yoga (the path of right action).46 CHAPTER 7. It is a devotional sect. All these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them. Yoga is means. A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana (“five deities”. chakra and veena. Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation). temples and scriptures. mythology. or cultural traditions. Vaishnavism is the sect that worships Vishnu and his avatars.[209] Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Yoga Sutras. HINDUISM 7. as their philosophical and historical basis. including the avatars Rama and Krishna. the Bhagavad Gita and. from the Smarta school): Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left). the Upanishads. with particular deities.[212][213][214] They .[212][213][214] Vaishnavas are mainly dualistic. while other markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Their religion is rich in saints. Devi (top right). Shaivas are more attracted to asceticism than adherents of other Hindu sects. mind and consciousness for health.[215] Shaivism venerates Shiva as the Supreme Being. tranquility and spiritual insight. which include the lotus (padma). These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic. Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right).[web 16] The denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that deity. The syllable om (which represents the Para Brahman) and the swastika sign (which symbolises auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself. Shaivism. and followers worship many deities. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. and may be found wandering India with ashen faces performing self-purification rituals. Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom)[210] An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others.8 Denominations Main article: Hindu denominations Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation. practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.3 Symbolism Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art. and the four major marga (paths) discussed in Hinduism are: Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion). 7. according to his or her inclination and understanding. This is done through a system of postures and exercises to practise control of the body and mind. architecture. Surya (the sun god) or Skanda (the war god) as the Supreme God. Other denominations like Ganapatya (dedicated to Ganesha) and Saura (Surya’s worship) are not as widespread.[215] Hindus can engage in puja (worship or veneration). At home. yoga and rituals to call forth cosmic forces. The Padma Purana states that the murti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity. meditative path. Shaktism is closely related with Tantric Hinduism. Vishnu. Shakta. which teaches rituals and practices for purification of the mind and body.[217] of India. The Tantric sects may be classified as Vaishnava. most notably those of Arya Samaj. Hindus perform their worship through icons (murtis). and focussed on Moksha.[215] Smartism. emphasizing man’s oneness with God through understanding. since God is immanent.[221] 7. Shaivism. There are substantial differences in architecture. a relatively modern Hindu tradition (compared to the three older traditions) accepts all the major Hindu deities. which deal with individcalled Shaktism. and gradually withdrew from the world.[221] Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding.7. rituals and traditions in temples in different parts as the power that underlies the male principle. holy diagrams.[218] and many visit temples only during religious festivals. however prefers to worship Shiva. Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God.[220] While there are Hindus who. raising a family. picted as in gentler forms like Parvati.9 Institutions dent). construction of temple and mode of worship is govof Hinduism that worships the goddess. INSTITUTIONS 47 worship in the temple and practice yoga. Usually with Shiva within.[212][213][214] They follow a philosophical. according the Guinness World Records is the World’s Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple[web 17] Main article: Hindu temple Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. The branch lowers. took an advisory role. unrelated meanings include monastery).9. 7.[223][224] The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life.[219] The image is often considered a manifestation of God.[127] either at home or at a temple. and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life. is erned by several agama scriptures.1 Temple The Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi. Saura etc. Ganesha (the elephant-headed god). where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation.[216] Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āshramas (phases or life stages. known as Devi. and has been considered as the most important of all stages in sociological context. Grihastha (householder). as well as the offsprings that continued mankind. they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life. Shakti. The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshiper and God. Ganapatya.[227] Combined with four proper goals . Grihastha refers to the individual’s married life.9. peace and simple spiritual life. Devi is de. generally without any meaningful property or home (Ascetic).9.customs.[215] regarded as Devasthana (God’s place) or Mandir by the folCults of goddess worship are ancient in India. with the duties of maintaining a household.[212][213][214] Shaktas use chants. which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple Main article: Ashrama deities. the consort of Vishnu or as fierce warrior goddesses like Kali and Durga.[225][226] The Ashramas system has been one facet of the Dharma concept in Hinduism.[222] Vanaprastha is the retirement stage.[192] The four asramas are: Brahmacharya (stu7. educating one’s children. Visiting temples is not obligatory. striving to be one The worship place is commonly known as Temple. do not believe in worshipping God through icons. exist. Vanaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciation). as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life. the consort of Shiva and Lakshmi. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. It is thus considered liberal or nonsectarian and is based on the recognition that Brahman is the highest principle in the universe and pervades all of existence. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti ual deities.2 Ashrama Other movements like Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj. magic. [232][233] This periodisation has been criticised. For Smart.[231] It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. reincarnation and “personal enlightenment and transformation”. 1750-500 BCE). 7. some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism.10.[235] An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:[15] • Prevedic religions (pre-history and Indus Valley Civilisation)(until c. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity. and coincides with the flowering of “classical Hinduism” and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.[232] distinguished three phases in the history of India.[230] A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī. trusting in God alone to provide for their needs. for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation.[234] Another periodisation is the division into “ancient. developed in this time. which he calls the “Classical Period”.1800).[237] whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of “classical Hinduism”. and elderly people are free to live with their families. 500-200 BCE). namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE. • Islam and Sects of Hinduism (c.[222] While these stages are typically sequential. 320-650 CE).10 History Main article: History of Hinduism Origins Among the roots of Hinduism are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India. According to Muesse. any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage. 650-1100 CE).[229] 7. whether a person may be poor or rich.48 CHAPTER 7. • “Second Urbanisation” (c. • “Golden Age” (Gupta Empire) (c. • Vedic period (c. blame. detachment from worldly pursuits. pursuit of liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. A female renunciate is called a sanyāsini.9. 1750 BCE). celibacy. mediaeval and modern periods”.1 Periodisation James Mill (1773–1836).[230] • Muesse discerns a longer period of change.[238] A sadhu in Madurai. 200 BCE-1100 CE). Some monastics live in monasteries.2 7.[240] itself already the product of “a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations”. namely Hindu. while others wander from place to place. and the contemplation of God. the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of “Ascetic reformism”. in his The History of British India (1817). which did not exist in the Vedic religion. • Late-Classical Hinduism .[228] Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism. the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation. good or wicked. India. since there is “a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions”.[236] • For Michaels. the “classical period” lasts from 100 to 1000 CE. pleasure. and pain. and to be indifferent to praise.[241][note 26] but also the Sramana[243] .[note 24] Jainism and Buddhism. 1200-1700 CE). or swāmi. sādhu. Muslim and British civilisations. • Classical Hinduism (c. classical. HINDUISM of human life (Purusartha).[239] </ref> • Pre-classical Hinduism (c. • Modern Hinduism (from c. 200 BCE-300 CE).10. namely karma.Puranic Hinduism (c.3 Monasticism Main article: Sannyasa Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in 7. [241] David Gordon According to anthropologist Possehl.[264][278][web 19] and Several tribal religions still exist. which is compared to a proto-Shiva.10.[255][263] It was a tribal union.10.[260] After 1100 BCE the Vedic tribes moved into the western Ganges Plain. 1750 to 500 See also: Peopling of India BCE.[255][261][262] Rudimentary state-forms appeared. 1750 BCE) The Vedic period. The Indo-Aryans brought with them their language[266] and religion.[web 18] and Harappan cultures and civilizations”.[255] It decisively changed the Vedic heritage of the early Vedic period. and the Indo-Iranian relithe sites such as the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shel[271][note 33] gion. links of deities and practices of the Indus religion to laterday Hinduism are subject to both political contention and This is the period when the Vedas and early Upanishads were composed. Their point for some aspects of the later Hindu tradition”.[252][256][257][note 32] During the early Vedic period (c.[note 29] Some of the religious prac. and developing new rituals which gained their position in Indian civilization as the orthodox srauta rituals.[243] and 7. though their practices may was itself the product of “a composite of the indo-Aryan not resemble those of prehistoric religions. The oldest of these Vedic scholarly dispute. However these [264] tive cultures of northern India.000 BCE. Mother Goddess. local religions.White cites three other mainstream scholars who “have emis partially deilization “provides a logical.The Vedic religion of the later Vedic period co-existed with tices can be considered to have originated in 4. 1100 BCE and became setthe god. if somewhat arbitrary.[265] Vedic religion Main article: Historical Vedic religion The so-called Shiva Pashupati seal. of which the Kuru-tribe and realm was the most influential. collecting the Vedic hymns into collections.[250] .[253][note 31] The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists[255] The earliest prehistoric religion in India that may have left who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization.[255] which contributed to the so-called “classical synthesis”[264] or “Hindu synthesis”.000 BCE or older. the Indus Valley Civ. as well as neolithic times.[267][268] The Vedic beliefs and practices of the prerelated to the hypothesised Protoits traces in Hinduism comes from mesolithic as observed in classical era were closely[269][270] Indo-European religion.10. 1750-500 BCE) mesolithic[244] and neolithic[245] cultures of India.1100 BCE[255] ) Vedic tribes were pastoralists. that may prefigure Shakti.[247] and the local traditions[67] and tribal religions. and probably a [255][280][281] further syncretising with the natled farmers.4 Vedic period (c. [note 28] ters dating to a period of 30. Indus Valley civilization. adapting an agrarical lifestyle. such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation.[251][note 30] lasted from c. starting phatically demonstrated” that Vedic religion [279] [note 26] rived from the Indus Valley Civilizations.7. such as the Yaksha cults. HISTORY 49 or renouncer traditions[67] of northeast India. wandering around in north-west India. which developed into the first recorded state-level society in South Asia around 1000 BCE.[248][note 27] Origins Main articles: Indo-Aryans and Indo-Aryan migration 7.3 Prevedic religions (until c.[246] Dravidian Main article: Vedic period traditions.[249] The religion was further developed when they migrated into religion of this period included worship of a Great male Ganges Plain after c. 1500 . named after the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryans. [note 34] In early centuries CE several schools of Hindu philosoThese ascetic concepts were adopted by schools of Hinphy were formally written down. 300 CE.[298][296] This synthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism. 500-200 BCE) Main article: Sramana Increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of ascetic circles and of new ideas which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. 563-483).most brilliant epocha in the development of Indian philos1915) and Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) believed that the ophy”.[287]:184 The “Hindu synthesis” or “Brahmanical synthesis”[265][296] incorporated Sramanic and Buddhist influences[296][297] and the emerging bhakti tradition into the “Brahmanical fold” via the smriti literature.[306] Acscholars contest which religion affected the other as well cording to P. the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta was reformulated by Adi Shankara who systematised the works of Pre-classical Hinduism (c. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis. the Pratt notes that Oldenberg (1854-1920). Vaisheshika. Neumann (1865.[293][294] form really. duism as well as other major Indian religions.5 “Second Urbanisation” (c. ing this period.[301] The major Sanskrit epics. and acceptance of the Vedas became a central criterium for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies.[289] These ideas led to Sramana movements. Vaisnavism. several other religious traditions had existed side by side with the Vedic religion.[307] la Vallee Poussin thinks the influence was nihil. Yoga. 650-1100 CE) directly antithetical to the Upanishads”. their interactions with The ascetic tradition of Vedic period in part created the humans and their battles against rakshasa. and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. power became de- 7. and ing the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written. from the strictly intellectual standpoint. Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta. between 500[265] −200[296] BCE Hinduism. including Samkhya. 200 BCE-300 CE) preceding philosophers. 1100 CE) 200 BCE.centralised in India. as well as with [265] and c. as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished side Buddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads. The Bhagavad concept of samsara and suffering. and “Eliot and several others insist that on some points the Buddha was Late-Classical Hinduism . that competed with each other. HINDUISM texts is the Rigveda. composed between c.[288] 7.[311] . Bhakti and After the Vedic period.[295][note 35] After the end of the Gupta Empire.[303] ferences between their premises defined their further development. The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity.[304][note 37] DurThe chronology of these religious concepts is unclear. [308] Tantra. founder of Buddhism. which belong to the smriti. with Buddhism and Jainism. Sharma.[290][291][292] to the gods of the Hindu deities. the first Hindu temples dedicated soul or self. for example.1500-1200 BCE.[300] The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE-100 CE proclaimed the authority of the Vedas.50 CHAPTER 7. emerged. “the Gupta and Harsha periods as the chronological sequence of the ancient texts. which rejected the Vedas and relied on their own Sutras (texts).[287]:183 Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and constitute the Vedanta (conclusion of the Veda) literature. Hinduism.Puranic Hinduism (c.[308][309][310] Dur[note 36] to southern India and parts of Southeast Asia. Ramayana and Mahabharata.S. which became characteristic for Hinduism. while by side.10.[299] According to Embree. while Buddhism developed with the premise that there is no During the Gupta period.[web 20] They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India. were the most prominent icons.10. proponent of Jainism.[282][283][284] though a wider approximation of c. were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE.[308] Rural and devotional movements arose within along with Shaivism. but key difNyaya. along [302] ideas.[285][286] The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads. and Buddha (c.6 Classical Hinduism (c. the Vedic-Brahmanic culture spread numerous sects of Buddhism and Jainism. 549–477 BCE). These indigenous religions “eventually found a place under the broad mantle of the Vedic religion”. and religious rivalry. developed its ideas with “Golden Age” (Gupta Empire) (c. self).17001100 BCE has also been given. of which Mahavira (c. and the concept of libGita was composed in this period and consolidated diverse eration. 320-650 CE) the premise that every human being has a soul (atman. very few texts. In the late 20th century forms of Hinduism have grown indigenous roots in parts of Russia. significantly in Altay where Hinduism is now the religion of 2% of the population. Though Islam came to Indian subcontinent in the early tory Jizya (head taxes) against Hindus. already between the 12th and the 16th century.1800) Babur visits a Hindu temple.[312][313] Will Durant calls the Muslim conquest of India “probably the bloodiest story in history”. Hinduism underwent profound changes. and Chaitanya. destroyed Hindu temples[web 21][322][web 22][note 38] and persecuted non-Muslims. Puranas. especially Krishna and Rama.[323] According to Nicholson.[314][315] There was a widespread practice of raids. articulating ideas which glorified Hinduism and the past. before and after Akbar. HISTORY 7.8 Modern Hinduism (from c.7.were occasional exceptions to religious violence against Hinduism. suggesting its insignificance and perhaps rarity of such conversions. mention any “voluntary conversions of Hindus to Islam”. “certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads. many Muslim rulers of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. 7th century with the advent of Arab traders. and abolished discriminaMain article: Islam in India [316][321] However.10.[314] During this period. Akbar. protected Hindu temples. Madhva.10. 1200.[320] There Russian Krishnaites celebrating Ratha Yatra. from the numerous written by Muslim court historians. for a period of some 500 years. with emotional.7 51 Islam and sects of Hinduism (c. the colonization of India by the British.[324] Indology as an . which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.[316][317] Some texts suggest a number of Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam.”[40][note 39] Michaels notes that a historicization emerged which preceded later nationalism. which Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before. epics. who were then sold in Sultanate cities or exported to Central Asia.[319] Typically enslaved Hindus converted to Islam to gain their freedom. recognized Hinduism. and the schools known retrospectively as the “six systems” (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy. for example. Hindu revivalism With the onset of the British Raj. there also started a Hindu renaissance in the 19th century. seizure and enslavement of families of Hindus. it started impacting Indian religions after the 10th century. and particularly after the 12th century with the establishment and then expansion of Islamic rule. aided in part by teachers such as Ramanuja. Buddhism declined rapidly while Hinduism faced military-led and Sultanates-sponsored religious violence. passionate devotion towards the more accessible avatars.[312] Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman. from 12th century to 18th century.10.[318][319] Starting with 13th century. 1700 CE) banned enslavement of the families of Hindu war captives.[46] 7. Aurobindo and Radhakrishnan. Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus from Yoga centers in the West—which generally Hinduism by country (as of 2008): advocate vegetarianism—attract young.5%[343] It is estimated that around 30 million Americans and 5 4. Nepal 81. led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. palmistry.3%[web 26] there they are introduced to the Hindu philosophical system taught by most yoga teachers.5% as Vedanta.K. welleducated Westerners who are drawn by yoga’s benefits for the physical and emotional health. the idea that all religions share a common mystic ground. Iyengar. Paramahansa Yogananda. Suriname 20%[web 30] 9. Bhutan 25%[web 29] Hindutva In the 20th century. the establishment of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925.21 billion (2012 estimate) (960 million adherents).[336][note 40][note 41] 7.[325] and meanwhile creating the notion of “Hinduism” as a unified body of religious praxis[326] and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.52 academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century.9 million). Swami Rama and oth55-70 15-30 ers who translated. Bangladesh (15 million) and the Indonesian island Hindus: of Bali (3.”[333] 3.5% of the country’s population of [web 25] through Neotantra and the Kama Sutra have spread beyond 1. Hindu communities and have been accepted by several non. raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West and attracting followers and attention in India and abroad.11 Demographics Main article: Hinduism by country Hinduism is a major religion in India.Percentage by country Hindu practices such as Yoga.[329][330][331][332][49] CHAPTER 7. and later success. the number of practitioners is about 5.Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million). numerology). Western orientalist searched for the “essence” of the Indian religions. HINDUISM With origins traced back to the establishment of the Hindu Mahasabha in the 1910s. Tantric sexuality followed by around 80. Trinidad and Tobago 22.000. Fiji 27.[334] In Australia. discerning this in the Vedas.6%[web 31] . reformulated and presented Hinduism’s 5-15 1-5 foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations. with proponents like Vivekananda. Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India.[326][324] This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by Hindu reform movements as the Brahmo Samaj. became central in the popular understanding of Hinduism. 1. Hinduism .[web 24] 6. India 80.[328] This “Hindu modernism”. 7. Ayurvedic health.S. Prabhupada 70-85 (founder of ISKCON). and the entry. which was supported for a while by the Unitarian Church. Mauritius 48. of RSS offshoots Jana Sangha and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in electoral politics in post-independence India. Hinduism was Popularity in the west Influential 20th-century Hindus were Ramana Maharshi. Sri Lanka 12.5% 8.[web 23] In New Zealand the number is also around 300. Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. divination (astrology.9%[web 28] 300. % of population Hindu B. They brought Vedic. Sri Chinmoy. the movement grew with the formulation and development of the Hindutva ideology in the following decades. Guyana 28%[web 27] million Europeans regularly practice some form of Hatha Yoga.[327] together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism. known 2.[341] The majority of the Vietnamese Cham people also follow Hinduism.[335] Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement.[342] “Hinduism is attracting Western adherents through the affiliated practice of yoga.000. Kuwait 6% 16. SEE ALSO 53 with an increase in inter-religious mixed marriages.[350][351][note 42] • Hindu • Hindu calendar • Hindu deities • Hindu denominations • Hindu mythology • Hindu reform movements • Hinduism by country • Jagran • Ethics of Hinduism • Rulership in Hinduism • List of Hindu temples • List of notable Hindus • List of converts to Hinduism • List of related articles Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such Related systems and religions as the Arya Samaj launched Shuddhi movement to proselytize and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to • Buddhism Hinduism.[358][359][360] and in Indonesia. this “there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism” view • Indian religions must be re-examined.6%[web 32] 11. carried their religious ideas.[348][349] The debate on proselytization and religious conversion between Christianity. is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism. Some state the concept of missionary conversion. and vice versa. and started in the 19th century. Singapore 5.[354][355] while those such as the Brahmo Samaj [344] suggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion. Merchants and traders of India. Réunion 6. has been and remains an actively debated topic in India.2% 12. Seychelles 2. either way.25% 15. • Jainism . which led to religious conversions to Hinduism in southeast Asia. mainstream Hinduism schools have attempted to systematize ways to accept religious converts.3% 20.[361] 10.12 Conversion debate In the modern era.1%[web 34] • Hinduism in Southeast Asia 17. Bahrain 6. Oman 3% • Atheism in Hinduism 19. after Christianity and Islam.[345][346][347] Within India. Islam and Hinduism is more recent. while other leaders of Hinduism’s diverse schools have stated that given the intensive prosely• Hindu philosophy tization activities from missionary Islam and Christianity. Hinduism is the world’s third largest religion. Malaysia 6.1 7.7. Belize 2.7% 13.[344][354][356] • Islam and Hinduism In recent decades.11. Bangladesh 9. 7. • Christianity and Hinduism All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new mem• Eastern philosophy bers to their group. archeological and textual evidence such as the 2nd century BCE Heliodorus pillar suggest that Greeks and other foreigners converted to Hinduism. religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial subject.12. United Arab Emirates 5% • Balinese Hinduism 18.[344] Religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside India. particularly from the Indian peninsula.1% See also Hinduism • Criticism of Hinduism [web 35] Demographically. Qatar 7.3%[web 33] 14.[357] The appropriateness of conversion from major religions to Hinduism. “a way of life” (Sharma 2003.54 CHAPTER 7. 191) • The "oldest living religion" (Sarma 1987. 218–219 [9] In ancient literature the name Bharata or Bharata VRasa was being used. Heinrich (1951). p. Princeton University Press. pp. Gavin D. 43[note 19] • Sjoberg. pp. pp. In: Sjoberg 1990. Goodyear Publishing Company. in Ghurye. 16. p. 6) • Zimmer. Volume I: to 1500. • J. p. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency” (c. 48–53). the people of northwest India. karel (2005). Woodward. was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan'.. Mark R. An Introduction to Hinduism. p. 16 • Nath. (1996). though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century”.” Lockard 2007. Cengage Learning. 1) • Gellman & Hartman: “Hinduism. a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis. 52. the world’s oldest religion” (Gellman & Hartman 2011) • Stevens: “Hinduism. Pearson Education.” takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. Jain or Christian. p. “ocean”. Geoffrey (2010). p. p. pp. 1) • Laderman: “world’s oldest living civilisation and religion” (Laderman 2003. Vijay (2001). Hutton (1931).[16] It is frequently being used in the Rigveda. 8–9 • Lockard. 79[note 20] • Samuel. 1–17 [2] See: • “Oldest religion": • Fowler: “probably the oldest religion in the world” (Fowler 1997. p. “From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition”. xviii) the Sramana or renouncer traditions of northeast India (Flood 1996. sometimes identified as one of “Hindu synthesis. p. p. Societies. 751. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred. pp. 3–4[note 18] [8] Gavin Flood adds: “In Arabic texts. pp. p. and Transitions. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions. p. Craig A. HINDUISM • Hinduism and Judaism • Proto-Indo-European religion • Proto-Indo-Iranian religion • Sikhism • Zoroastrianism 7.” Brahmanic synthesis. Cambridge University Press [6] Among its roots are the Vedic religion of the late Vedic period (Flood 1996. Jones & Ryan 2006. The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. p. Networks. 50[note 3] • Hiltebeitel. 119) • Turner: “It is also recognized as the oldest major religion in the world” (Turner 1996-B. Govind Sadashiv (1980). p. p. 3) [4] Hiltebeitel 2007. Klostermaier 2007.” or “orthodox synthesis. Religions of the World. p. The Scheduled Tribes of India. Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu'. (2008). Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century. Alf (2007). p. “set of religious beliefs and practices”. reconfiguring Indian society. “The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion. 19-50 • Werner. Sikh. Lewis M.(Flood 1996.” [5] See also: .(Garg 1992. p. “The Dravidian Contribution To The Development Of Indian Civilization: A Call For A Reassesment”. 11. and Culture”. 359) [3] Lockard 2007. Gomez 2013. For a discussion on the topic. 16). 42) and “popular or local traditions" (Flood 1996. India: An Anthropological Perspective. Lockard 2007. p.H. 23:40-74 • Flood. Comparative Civilizations Review. 12: “A period of consolidation. Social Scientist 2001. 50: “The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures. Hiltebeitel 2007. (2007). 320-467 CE). 16) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans (Samuel 2010. p. Cambridge University Press. [7] The Indo-Aryan word Sindhu means “river”. “the land of the Aryans”. p.13 Notes [1] Hinduism is variously defined as a “religion”. or 'Hindoo'. and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism. Transaction Publishers. Andree F.” • Tyler (1973). In: Joseph Kitagawa. “religious tradition”. A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Routledge. see: “Establishing the boundaries” in Flood 2008. the oldest religion in the world” (Stevens 2001. Philosophies of India. 3) • The “oldest living major religion” in the world (Merriam-Webster 2000. History. Hinduism. but also the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation (Narayanan 2009. (1990). p. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim. pp. thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The Sindhu-area is part of Āryāvarta. 52: “Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries. 3. p. p. Routledge[note 4] • Hopfe. 12–13) etc. surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism”. page 68.. Anti-colonial Hindus[35] “looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a precolonial. the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast.[32] This made it possible for the colonial rulers to portray India as a society characterised by spiritual harmony in contrast to the former Indian states which they criticised as “despotic and epiphenomenal”. 43) . as quoted by Sjoberg.” akin to the Protestant culture. the hope was that “the supposed quietist and conservative nature of Vedantic thought would prevent the development of revolutionary sentiment"..[34] iii. [12] Sweetman identifies several areas in which “there is substantial. Hindustān. and . “The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism”. p.7.[34][note 15] Several forces played a role in this construction: i.[32][note 14] with the colonial powers providing the necessary “benevolent. India and Europe • IXth European Conference on Modern Asian Studies in Heidelberg (1989). “The predominance of Idealism in nineteenth century European philosophy". Orientalism and religion [11] See Rajiv Malhotra and Being Different for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia. confessional. and Hindu studies. “The Tribal religions present. Numen Vol. pp. The Heathen in his Blindness. more specifically Advaita Vedanta. On the whole. The authority of those texts was expanded by being the focus of study by Europeans.[30] Brahmins and Europeans scholars shared a perception of “a general decline from an originally pure religion”. p. 49. calls Hinduism a “synthesis” in which the Dravidian elements prevail: “The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient.. University of Michigan Press. The European scholarship which studied India. 4) [19] Tyler.[30] (c) "[T]he identification of Vedanta. 1 (2002). allembracing religious entity”.[32] (d) The European conception of caste which dismissed former political configurations and insisted upon an “essentially religious character” of India. Castes ofMind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. as 'the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion'"[30][note 13] and the “central philosophy of the Hindus”.[30] Several factors led to the favouring of Advaita Vedanta:[31] i. syncretistic compendia.[34][note 16] [13] Sweetman cites Richard King (1999) p.128. p.”[30] (b) The influence of Brahmins on European conceptions of Hinduism.7 [16] Sweetman cites Viswanathan (2003).(Sjoberg 1990.[34] ii. Hinduism Reconsidered • Ronald Inden.[33] During 55 the colonial period. Colonialism and the Construction of Hinduism. national identity”. Fasc. Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament • Vasudha Dalmia and Heinrich von Stietencron.26 [17] See also Arvind Sharma (2002).. The Hollow Crown. if not universal. the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant.[31] ii. Balagangadhara. Hinduism and Hindutva.13. and provided access to them.[30] According to Sweetman. 1-36. the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself. agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism":[30] (a) The wish of European Orientalists “to establish a textual basis for Hinduism. p. Fear of French influence. aboriginal Indus civilization.[32] iii. On Hindu. caste was defined as a religious system and was divorced from political powers. p.[32] (e) "[T]he construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity”[34] as “a systematic. as it were. Representing Hinduism • S.(King 1999) [14] Sweetman cites Dirks (1993). colonialism has been “a significant factor in the reinforcement of their position and the acceleration of the 'brahmanization' of Hindu society.”[30] The Brahmana castes preserved the texts which were studied by Europeans.. barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests.C. NOTES [10] Sweetman mentions: • Wilhelm Halbfass (1988). Princeton University Press.xxvii [15] Sweetman cites Dirks (2001). The “acts of policy of the colonial state”. in India: An Anthropological Perspective(1973). In this process the rude. Aryans and British India • Richard King (1989). especially the impact of the French Revolution. paternalistic rule by a more 'advanced' nation”. Invading the Sacred.[30] which was also driven by a preference among the colonial powers for “written authority” rather than “oral authority.(Ghurye 1980. Imagining India • Carol Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B. [18] Ghurye: He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. • Thomas Trautmann.N. perhaps most . Thus.. • John McCannon (1 January 2006).”[241] • Richard Gombrich: “It is important to bear in mind that the Indo-Aryans did not enter an unhabitated land.” from the Vedic arya. many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being.”[252] [31] There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. a part of Hinduism today. see: Monier-Williams 2001. • Orlando O.[248] See also Peopling of India for the variety of Indian people. Hinduism recognises literally hundreds of gods and goddesses.[242] [27] Tiwari mentions the Austric and Mongoloid people.”[258] . 4.” [30] Michaels: “They called themselves arya (“Aryans. linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE. Certain devas. while Hindus believe in many devas. its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. somewhat like angels in the West.. 495. the hospitable”) but even in the Rgveda. Three gods. p. divinity”. Hinduism is a polytheistic religion.[254] Flood mentions 1500 BCE. p. For translation of devatā as “godhead. however. In fact we cannot even be sure whether some of the aerchaeological finds belong to Indo-Aryans.[235] [32] The Aryan migration theory has been challenged by some researchers. we know as little about them as we would about the Indo-Aryans if they had left no texts. p. or incarnations of the Brahman.”[web 15] [24] Different periods are designated as “classical Hinduism": • Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE “pre-classical”. and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism. Because this is Hinduism. Vishnu. Brahma. 83-86. We can also assume that many . Achieving Cultural Competency.. xvii: “Some practices of Hinduism must have originated in Neolithic times (c. [26] See: • David Gordo White: "[T]he religion of the Vedas was already a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations. Espín.000 BCE).. 52. [22] • Lisa Hark. In addition to the Brahman. Nickoloff (2007). Lisa Hark. who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. p. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality. see: MonierWilliams 2001. The worship of goddesses. too. HINDUISM [20] Hopfe & Woodward 2008. Horace DeLisser. could very likely have very great antiquity. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE. a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas. It is to be assumed .though this is not fashionable in Indian historiography . Liturgical Press. autochthonous populations. • Toropov & Buckles 2011: The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman. “The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants.D. 66: “Much of what we now call Hinduism may have had roots in cultures that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence. who have left no traces of their culture beyond some archaeological remains.” [21] For translation of deva in singular noun form as “a deity. moving east and south from their original seat in the Punjab. 79: “The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people. and in plural form as “the gods” or “the heavenly or shining ones”. god”. James B. [28] Doniger 2010. may be a feature that originated in the Neolithic.000 BCE in Bhimbetka. PH.” [29] Jones & Ryan 2006.56 CHAPTER 7. in the Vindhya Mountains in the province of Madhya Pradesh. “homey. and Shiva.that the clash of cultures between Indo-Aryans and autochtones was responsible for many of the changes in Indo-Aryan society.D. The worship of certain plants and animals as sacred. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages. World History Examination. Barron’s Educational Series. near present-day Bhopal. John Wiley & Sons. The devas are powerful spiritual beings.[252][258] due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity. p. MD (7 September 2011). Hindus consider all deities to be avatars. [23] Venkataraman and Deshpande: “Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.[252] with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion.[256] Nevertheless. 492. Remarkable cave paintings have been preserved from Mesolithic sites dating from c.[252] hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation[252] or transformation. or a mixture. numerous [[Hindu denominations|other tSmart 2003. It’s the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism[note 25] [25] Smart distinguishes “Brahmanism” from the Vedic religion. An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. p. However. arya denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one. for instance.[259] According to Singh. such as Ganesha. R. Castebased discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of Hindu sacred texts that divinity is inherent in all beings.. For nearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India. are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful.” literally “the hospitable. connecting “Brahmanism” with the Upanishads. Note that.of the indigenous population came to be assimilated into IndoAryan culture. 30. meaning “cosmic order and truth”. Harvey 2001. modernization and nation-building. at a global level. 12.[304] George Michell notes that earlier temples were build of timber. it is apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[271] At least 383 nonIndo-European words were borrowed from this culture. was also employed in the mitanni kingdom. Yet. more links at the bottom of that page.[272] It was “a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements”. Issue 3. [2] Georgis 2010. for example. 339–353.the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth). while the first stone temples appeared during the period of Gupta rule. from 1193 to 1729 AD. Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan to the agenda of [. Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States. appears on three basic levels. Finally. the location of the Mitanni kingdom.. specifically pp.T. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history [. were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.[45] Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term “Hinduism” in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers. who conjuncted Zen to Japanese nationalism and militarism.[350][354] 7. but in northern Syria. REFERENCES [33] According to Anthony.[274] The Old Indic term r'ta. criticized Christianity and Islam. so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology. neo-Vedanta colonises the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a nondualistic position as the philosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences. [3] Bowker 2000. Suzuki.. p.[351][352][353] Muslim leaders responded by publishing in Muslim-owned newspapers of Bengal. Journal of Islamic Studies.[305] [38] See also “Aurangzeb.] Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. First. p. . pp.[41] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus. [5] Samuel 2010. merely attempting to reform it from within. p. 5. p. by criticizing Qur'an and Hindu scriptures. as he was according to Mughal Records”. are found not in northwestern India and Pakistan. moksa/nirvana . Hindu politics and communalism. See.[274] And Old Indic gods. p. 193. p. 76– 79 and p. 273–274: “The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions.. Knott 1998. see Richard Eaton (2000). and used Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving. the central concept of the Rig Veda. The complexities of Asian nationalism are to be seen and understood in the context of colonialism. neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. 11.[43] and a process of “mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other”. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition. in defense against both western hegemony and the pressure on Japanese Zen during the Meiji Restoration to conform to Shinbutsu Bunri.[44] which started well before 1800. Flood 1996. [6] Hiltebeitel 2007. for Muslim 57 historian’s record on major Hindu temple destruction campaigns.] militant Hindus.[274] The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names. p. xiii. including Indra. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism. Anagarika Dharmapala. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara . Rinehart emphasises that it is “clear that there isn't a neat line of causation that leads from the philosophies of Rammohan Roy. 62. 193–228. polemics against Christians and Hindus. p.the goal of human existence. pages 283-319 [39] The tendency of “a blurring of philosophical distinctions” has also been noted by Burley. and by launching “purification and reform movements” within Islam.14.[337] and D.” [35] Richard King notes that Radhakrishnan was a representative of Neo-Vedanta. p.14 References [1] Nath 2001.[40] [40] This conjunction of nationalism and religion is not unique to India.[350][351] Hindu leaders joined the proselytization debate. 16. and through rural campaign. pp. where missionaries such as Karl Gottlieb Pfander tried to convert Muslims and Hindus. brick and plaster. the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. and asserted Hinduism to be a universal. secular religion.”[340] [42] The controversy started as an intense polemic battle between Christian missionaries and Muslim organizations in the first half of the 19th century. 199 [37] Axel Michaels mentions the Durga temple in Aihole and the Visnu Temple in Deogarh.[275][276][277] [34] Flood 2008. 31. in an Indian context.[49] which had a specific understanding of Indian religions: “The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions. for the role of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lankese struggle for independence. Vol..”[49] [36] Samuel 2010.[272] which borrowed “distinctive religious beliefs and practices”[271] from the Bactria–Margiana Culture. the language of the Rig Veda.[273] The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic. p. Lockard 2007. 5 [4] Knott 1998. 11. Second.7.[338][339] [41] Neo-Vedanta also contributed to Hindutva ideology. 50 [7] Narayanan 2009. p. 24-33. 1–22 [56] Flood 1996. [61] Ferro-Luzzi. p.. 9. pages 232-245 [34] Sweetman 2004. p. p. Journal of Indian Philosophy. Hokkaido University. No. [28] King 1999. Kim (2000). In The Bhagavadgītā for Our Times (Editor: Julius J. [24] Knott. p. 117. p. 5. Journal of the American Oriental Society 93 (3). Marshall Cavendish. pages 4-5. 14. pp.58 CHAPTER 7. 249. p. 2. [47] Hackel in Nicholson 2010 [48] King 2001. . 2. p. p. 1968). 15. [55] Flood 1996. Kulke (ed. [50] Flood 1996. 275. [60] Turner 1996-A. 267. The Principles of Hindu Ethics. Kim (1998). [14] Andrew Fort and Patricia Mumme (1996). [19] Thompson Platts 1884. [17] Flood 1996. Samanya Dharma. [39] Paul Hacker. p. pp. p. p. No. [62] Doniger 1999. Routledge. 187-95 [31] Sweetman 2004. Alban Widgery. see also John Koller. p.D. p. 2. p. [15] Michaels 2004. King 1999 [52] Young. 12-13. Applied Ethics. A Very Short Introduction. Serinity. Lorenzen 2006. 77. Dharma in Hinduism. Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction. No. p. Halbfass 1991. 13-14.). p. [63] Smith 1962. 340–344. 2. Living Liberation in Hindu Thought. 257. Vol. xiii [38] Knott. pp. Joseph T. Timothy (2001). [21] Sweetman 2004. Vol. HINDUISM [8] Osborne 2005. pp. 65. ISBN 9784990404611. 87. 4 (Oct. [51] Flood 1996. 15. [49] King 1999. 315-319 [11] Gavin Flood (1997). 256-261. [27] Nicholson 2010. p. p. 248. 259. p. [9] PV Kane. Vol. Retrieved 19 February 2015. 1–36 [59] Flood 1996. p. ISBN 978-0-19285387-5. Puruṣārtha as Human Aims. p. p. Delhi: Manohar. pages 63-64 [42] Nicholson 2010. 14-15. 265.2307/599467. “The Meaning and Context of the Puruṣārthas”. pages 11–27. [18] Thapar 1993. [20] O'Conell. ISBN 978-0195650396 [35] Sweetman 2004. p. 6. Sontheimer and H. Harvey 2001. doi:10. [43] Lorenzen 2006. 26-27. p. p. Center for Applied Ethics and Philosophy. [16] Flood 2008. Oxford: Oxford University press. [23] Nussbaum 2009. “The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts”. 34. p. 103. p. Oxford University Press (OUP). 111. p. [57] Flood 1996. [25] Sharma 2003. 1. [54] Flood 1996. Vol. [26] Vivekjivandas 2010. p. (eds. Part 1. 171. Hinduism. 18. (1973). 13. [10] Bilimoria et al. p. Lipner). [46] Michaels 2004. pp. [12] Brodd 2003. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-7914-2706-4 [44] Lorenzen 2006. Hinduism. 169. [13] A Bhattacharya (2009). 3. 44. International Journal of Ethics. 258. [41] Burley 2007. p. p. [29] King 1999. pages 479–496 [40] Nicholson 2010. [53] Flood 1996. [30] Sweetman 2004.) Hinduism Reconsidered. p. 267-268. [58] Flood 1996. 27. 434. [22] Sweetman 2004. [36] Insoll. (1991)The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism in G. Archaeology and world religion. ISBN 978-0-415-22155-9 [37] Bowker 2000. Philosophy East and West. Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (2007). p. History of Dharmasastra. p. 16. [45] Lorenzen 2006. p. [33] Sweetman 2004. 34. Oxford University Press. [32] Sweetman 2004. C. pp. Editor: Oliver Learman. 14. Bhaktivedanta (1986). 1 (Apr. Sharma (1982). Philosophy East and West. Numen (BRILL) 22 (2): 145–60. Philosophy East and West. Mokṣa and Critical Theory. ISBN 978-0810833272. The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom. Columbia University Press. and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order. pp. 23. 1968). . [73] J. [76] Michaels 2004. See review by Frank Whaling in Numen. ISBN 0-82392287-1. pp 16-21 [79] The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. p. [68] Halbfass 1991. p. [74] Michaels 2004. referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible. Routledge.14. The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism. 223-256. From Creation Myth to World Law: The early history of Dharma. p. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. 35. ISBN 81-208-0300-0 [85] John Koller. 52-53 ISBN 0-19-517021-0 • A. 1 [65] Flood 1996. The self in Advaita Vedanta. ISBN 978-0520039230.C. Vol. 1. 50.). No. 35. Hiltebeitel 2007. pp 9-12. JSTOR 3269765. 16.. Kshetra. • A. Dharma and Moksa.. [89] Monier Williams. ISBN 0-415-17281-0. काम. (2013). The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions: “In Hinduism. REFERENCES [64] Klostermaier 1994. No. dharma is a fundamental concept. Mishra. Dharma and Moksha. Vol. p. Vol. Psychology & Developing Societies.The Fruits of Our Desiring. 2 (Summer. [70] Halbfass 1991. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. Joanna (1975). Vol. Philosophy East and West. 1 (Jul. 22. pp 29-30 [88] Macy. 7. Gale. Volume 3. 1/2 (Apr. 544 pages. Historical Dictionary of Hinduism.Jul. No. 7. pp 271. Article on Purushartha. 1957). The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion. [77] Michaels 2004. 1984). (2004) [95] [84] Swami Prabhupādā. Dharma. 15.Jul. Osborne 2005. B. p. Indian philosophy: metaphysics. Sharma (1999).. 64 • Apte. 1957). 25. p. pp. 1964).. The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana. 39-49 [86] James Lochtefeld (2002). 8. A. 1958). pp.Jul. The Columbia Encyclopedia. pp. Philosophy East and West. Taylor and Francis. The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. 49-63 [81] J. ISBN 9780892132683 [96] Smith 1991. [71] Matthew Clarke (2011). 14. • Chris Bartley (2001). pp 443 [75] Michaels 2004. Edward Elgar Publishing. Vol 32. A. see 3rd column [69] Flood 1996. 315-319 [97] Karl Potter (1964). pp. p. Puruṣārtha as Human Aims. page 481. for discussion: pages 478-505 • Klaus Klostermaier. pp 23. Philosophy East and West. O'Flaherty (1980). p. 1985). The Naturalistic Principle of Karma. p.Jul.. 59 [87] Bruce Sullivan (1997). ISBN 9789993624318. 1/2 (Apr. p. B. 16. Van Buitenen. 27. Rosen Publishing. Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. [72] Flood 1996. “The Dialectics of Desire”. p. ISBN 978-0787650155 • Karl Potter. ISBN 978-1896209302. pp. Development and Religion: Theology and Practice. Vaman S (1997). The Student’s English-Sanskrit Dictionary (New ed. p. pp 55-56 [98] Wendy D. p. 18. 6th Ed. . Van Buitenen. Philosophy East and West. 21. Vol. University of Toronto Archives. 1/2 (Apr. Issue 1. No. Vol. 8. 140-142. Vol. No. p. pp. 33-40 [93] E. 7.. pp.7. 24. No. in Julius Lipner (Editor) . Michigan State University. pages 423–448. [90] See: • The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925). McDaniel Hinduism. Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. ISBN 978-1495946530. Vol. [78] Gavin Flood (1996). in John Corrigan. The meaning and context of the Purusarthas. 28. The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology. Dharma and Moksa. p. 41-48. 6. p. [82] Charles Johnston. Ingalls. 1 (Jan.. Vol. Philosophy East and West. The Journal of Religious Ethics. p. Journal of Indian Philosophy. (2007) Oxford University Press. 1999). Dharma and Mokṣa from a Conversational Point of View. ISBN 08153-3608-X. 9 [66] Lockard 2007. in Roy Perrett (Editor). Moksha and the Hindu Worldview. Vol. pp 33-40 • Daniel H. A. . No. No. New York. 4 (Oct. pp xi-xxv (Introduction) and 3-37 . . kāma Monier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary. Bhagavadgītā as it is. Deutsch. 61-71 [83] Paul Horsch (Translated by Jarrod Whitaker). 27 [92] J. 12 [67] Flood 1996.” [91] R. 1/2 (Apr. H.. 31. University of California Press. pp 343-360 [94] see: [80] Dharma. 1957). pp. p.[120] dian Theological Studies. 7. pp. The half-yearly journal of the Mysore University: Section A [107] see: Arts. p. ISBN 978-0520039230. Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. pp.[113] See Michaels 2004. Retrieved 5 July 2007. A Historical-developmental Study of Claspolytheistic or monotheistic. pages 45-47. Paulist Press.Regional surveys of the world. 17–18. p. N. even sical Indian Philosophy of Morals. Philosophy East and West. Lectures on the Origins and Growth of Religions: As Illustrated by the Religions of India. University of California Press. Paul Copan). 1985). No. Mokṣa and Critical Theory. dian Traditions (O'Flaherty. pp.. 23. pages 345-347 Hindu. in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought [111] Julius J. 1999. H. 559–565. p. 1/2 (Apr. 8. Mumme). Vol. ety. pages 14-24. p. Sitansu (1991). 1957). 2003 . Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic. ISBN 978-81-208-0899-7 73-76 . One may be [124] R Prasad (2009). pages 260-271. nia Press. 1/2 (Apr. Editor).S. “Henotheism”. Vol. 254 [115] Flood 1996. ISBN 978-0520039230. 1985). Mokṣa and Critical Theory. of Hindu-Christian Studies. Publishing. xiv and Gill. look. p. pp. Monism in the Vedas. ISBN 0-88706-251-2. Calcutta Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana. pp. No. gods and powers in the Vedic outtional Point of View.. Fort. and still be considered a ISBN 978-8180695957. 19–21 • Translation 3: David Christian (2011). Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita. ISBN 978-88-7652-818-7 [118] HN Raghavendrachar (1944).129 Wikisource. Quote: "(. Jnana Yoga. Issue 01. in Karma and Rebirth in Classical In. Volume 114.[116] • Translation 1: Max Muller (1859). p. ISBN 978-0691142036. London Missionary Soci[106] Hindu spirituality . No. World 64 Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions.. [105] Europa Publications Staff (2003). Issue 2. The Far East and Australasia. ISBN 978-0-52095067-2. 21. Volume 4. Swami (2005). a way of life. 49-63 & Ireland. Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister. 1958). Kramer 1986. Vol. p. Volume 8. von Brück (1986). ISBN 978-0791427064. pages 99-107 [110] Andrew Fort (1998)..) one need not be religious in the min38-39. Longmans Green & Co. pages 7. • Karl Potter. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. University of California Press. William Joseph Wilkins. Karma and creativity. pages 137-152. A History of Aning 1993) cient Sanskrit Literature. 61-71 ences in the Hindu tradition”. No. State UniPractices. pp 60• Translation 2: Kenneth Kramer (1986). Men. ISBN 978-1-85743-133-9 [109] see: [119] Monier-Williams 1974. pp 241-267 [114] Flood 1996. an agnostic. Issue 1. pp. State don. H Coward (1995). ISBN 978-0-415-45677versity of New York Press.60 CHAPTER 7. University of CaliforAbout. [103] Rinehart 2004. 35. or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. University of New York Press. Dharma and Mokṣa from a ConversaK Werner (1982). 39. ISBN 0-8091-2781-4. Routledge. Jivanmukti in Transformation. 226. pp 95-105 [121] • Klaus Klostermaier. Williams and Norgate. HINDUISM [99] Karl Potter (1980). 1 (Jan. 41-48 Quote: “There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category [108] Klaus Klostermaier. Philosoture: Vivekananda’s Reinterpretation of the Vedas”. p. Chapter 2 [117] Max Muller (1878). Imitation or Identification?. ISBN 978-0415782944. Book Review:" The Limits of Scrip• Daniel H. . 20–21 [101] See Vivekananda.Jul. 1 (Jan. [112] Chakravarti. humanist or atheist. pp. In. Concept Publishing. pp.. 226. Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and (Editors: Andrew O. [122] pp. 20–37 • M. Motilal Princeton University Press. 1.Jul. ISBN 1-4254-8288-0 pages 301-302 (8th Print. in Wendy D. O'Flaherty. 2nd Edition. Lon[102] Christopher Chapple (1986). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain 8. Vol. Hinduism. State University of New York Press. 71. Kessinger • Original Sanskrit: Rigveda 10. 59 (footnote 105) imal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus. Journal phy East and West. Bruce Long (1980). . Lipner (2010). Dharma and Moksha. 35. Issue 2. at Google Books. [104] J. Routledge. Philosophy is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiEast and West.” [125] Mircea Eliade (2009). page 8.. ISBN 0-7914-3904-6 [123] Lance Nelson (1996). Vol. Ingalls. Philosophy East and West. monistic or pantheistic.. Routledge. The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata. Inc.Volume 25 of Documenta missionalia. Patricia Y. 61-71 & Bhaskarananda 1994 Vivekananda 1987 John Koller (2012). [100] Radhakrishnan 1996. pages Banarsidass Publ. Vachaspati interprets [146] Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: “Diary and this as rank atheism. I. causa. 186–190. pages 38-39. (April 1989). 104–106 [141] Knut Jacobsen (2008). Religious Thought and Life in India (New Delhi. Indian Philosophy. [134] Rajadhyaksha (1959). (Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press) 39 (2): 135–149 [145]. 159 0-7914-4778-9. see: Taimni. ISBN 1-56639-705-7 mamsa. The perfectibility of hueat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming man nature in eastern and western thought. Philosophy East and West skrit Epics”.[142] Monier-Williams.[144] For ahiṃsā as one of the “emerging ethical and religious issues” in the Mahābhārata see: Brockington. Motilal Banarsidass. Muirhead library of philosophy (2nd ed. Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion. pages 56-58 [129] Renou 1964. The Science of Yoga. Sterling. ISBN 9782001. and divine intervention”. 401-403. Behanan (2002). London: George Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-0521126274. Reprinted 1989). 95. K. pages Allen and Unwin Ltd. ISBN 978-8120832329. in Flood (2003). Cambridge Uni. John. ISBN 81-208-0365-5. p. pages 77-78 [131] John Clayton (2010). “The Hindu Tradition”. 114. p. [145] For text of Y.[153] KN Aiyar (1914). Temple University Press. Classical Samkhya and Yoga . Religious truth.58-63. Routledge. The six systems of Indian philosAdyar. pages 149-151. For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality economical. University Press. ISBN 978-0674001879. Bruce R.29 and translation of yama as “vow of selfrestraint”. (1997). 2. Segal.2307/1399374. p. In A Concise God was insufficient. p. [152] Rosen. 51. Mimamsa theorists (theistic and atheistic) decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of [151] Narayanan. Kovoor T. doi:10. ISBN 978Press. 4980415648875. New York: Oxford University Press. Moti[127] Monier-Williams 2001 lal Banarsidass. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god. [137] Neville. They also thought there was no need Introduction to World Religions. is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them. 206. Harold (February 2008). [149] Richman 1988:272 [136] Sen Gupta 1986. C. just as there was no need Alan F. is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. ISBN 978. ISBN 978-0865902787. The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas. p. Thirty Minor Upanishads. pages 37-39. Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra. [128] Werner 1994. 148 209-10 [133] Reichenbach. ISBN 978-8120832329. India: The Theosophical Publishing House. ophy. ISBN non-vegetarian foods regularly. 1st. page 39-41. Religions. p. [155] Lorenzen. gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. A [140] Mike Burley (2012). ISBN 978-0691019581. pages 337-338 lishing. pp. 80 Dover. Page 188 [138] Klaus Klostermaier (2007). “Indian consumer patterns” and “Agri reform in India”.. Oxtoby and to postulate a maker for the world. page 150 [132] Sharma. Robert (2001). According to the Mi. Results indicate that Indians who [135] Coward. Kessinger Pub0791470824. pages 19-21 modern science. p. ISBN 978-0486417929. Yoga: Its Scientific Basis. “Karma. Willard G. 2006. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God. Steven. then. p. ed. “The Santion. 503 Lloyd Pflueger. who might have composed the Veda. 125. S (1929). Raymond. pp. 1st. An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. retrieved 29 December 2009.14. Indian philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and [154] Hatha Yoga Pradipika verse 1. [143] Radhakrishnan. David (1972). Third Edition. Deep Vegetarianism.An Source Book in Indian Philosophy. (1961). Princeton University Indian Metaphysics of Experience.7. Chapter 22. page 836 . The power of the [148] Walker 1968:257 gods. 2007 for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals.). pages 173-176 [139] A Goel (1984). p.S. viii [150] Williams. Westport: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 9780520018426. Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson. Michael Allen (1999). although the reasons may be 978-0-7914-7336-8. State University of New York. The sociology of philosophies. Vasudha. ISBN 978-1164026419. Essential Hinduism. 1974 edition) versity Press. REFERENCES 61 [126] Radhakrishnan and Moore (1967. Harvard University of California Press. Under the circumstances God becomes ISBN 81-7059-212-7 an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen). A Survey of Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[147] Fox. 55 [130] Harman 2004. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1. R Collins (2000). poultry sector growth in India”. (26 July 2004). 216. pages 17-19. see Michael Witzel quote on pages 68-69 cepted as revealed truth [shruti]. page [160] Fuller C. 83. also named [188] Shiva Bajpai (2011). Handbook of of Religion. Gavin. ISBN 978-0595384556. 52. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism”. ISBN 978-1438428420. ISBN 9780195332612. George M. Williams (2003). p. 118–120 [166] Flood 2008. p. the second part is the jnana kanda. also (called) purvaJournal Of Ecumenical Studies. p. Read Books. etc. 435-459 Hindu Mythology. of the Word in Hindu Life. p. Country Studies.[183] Sarvopaniṣado gāvo. Introduction chapter duism. September 1995.From Ancient to Modern Times. ISBN 0-19-282292-6. Shankara’s Introduction at Congress. [162] Flood. 3 ishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call [164] Rinehart 2004. Upaniṣhads. the first is [187] A Sharma (1985). University of Chicago Press. The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction. 68.” nature. ISBN 978-0199540259. World Reli[161] Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas. (Gītā Māhātmya 6). Marriage in the Hindu religious tradition. Scripture” in India: Towards a Typology to Scriptures and Theology. in reality it is the Upan[163] Sargeant & Chapple 1984. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 1951. ISBN 978-1592578467. 166 Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition. Hindu. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0791410806. Oxford University Press. and treats on ceremonies. but is one of gions. Vol I. make a difference. ISBN 978-3447016032 [186] “Domestic Worship”.[182] Thirteen Principal Upanishads. The History of India . Hindu Dharma: Introduction [184] Thomas B. ISBN 0ishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman. Quote: “The Upanishads suppanded ed.). [171] A Bhattacharya (2006). Equinox Publishing (Asia) Pte Ltd. (2011). “4 Sacrifice”. 374 Vol II [180] S Radhakrishnan. page 3. Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 15.[176] Olivelle. 83. pp. The Library of [173] Edward Roer (Translator). Vol III. p. J. retrieved 12 [178] Wiman Dissanayake (1993). pp. educated Hindus. ISBN 978-1-934145-38-8.“The Vedas are divided in two parts. The Early Upanisads. 25–41 York Press. 4. Robert Hume (Translator) bridge University Press. Vol.. Quote: “The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback] philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upan(Revised ed.” . An Introduction to Hinduism. Penguin. Outline of Hin.62 CHAPTER 7. Upaniṣads. “12”. Bumi Kita Yayasan (30 September 2005). p. Mark W.".. No. State UniAugust 2010 versity of New York Press. Smith (1 January 2007). the karma-kanda. Fortress Press. or the inner 691-12048-X self and the cosmic self. and their central ideas have also become a “The Hiden Life of Bali”. p. Patrick (1998). Retrieved 19 April 2007. Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. ISBN popular Hinduism and society in India (Revised and Ex978-0226618470. The Blackwell Companion to [179] Patrick Olivelle (2014). p. pages 69-80 kanda. ISBN [172] Jan Gonda (1975). Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāh9780800697907. 1984). ISBN 1-4067-8944-5 [158] Fuller Christopher John (2004). 6–7 [168] Harshananda 1989 [169] Vivekananda 1987. see Introduction [170] Gavin Flood (1996). The natural guide to Bali: enjoy part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus. HINDUISM [156] Christopher Key Chapple (2009). 51. the ceremonial part. Himalayan Academy Publications (Hawaii. cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is. page 285 [185] Muesse. ISBN 1-4051-3251“Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is ac5. see pages 4. pages 208-210 the earliest Indo-European texts. (2003). ISBN 978ply the basis of later Hindu philosophy. maṇas). The camphor flame: [177] Wendy Doniger (1990). pages 35. The Camphor 39. [165] Vivekananda 1987. Gītā Dhyā39 nam. meet the people. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. Princeton University Press. 73-74 Brahma or the universal soul. and unfolds the knowledge of USA). 3 (September.. [167] Vivekananda 1987. ISBN 979-3780-00-2.). p. Coburn. Quote . Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism. the part which contains knowledge. Kasulis et al). 22(1). The Bhagavad Gita: [174] Werner 1994. 1st Edition. Journal of the American Academy pages 8-14. ed. Princeton University Press. pp. pages 641-643 [157] Harold F. The Principal Upanishads George Allen & Co. they alone of the 0-691-12048-5 Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well[159] Gouyon Anne. “4”. Quote: Hinduism. pp. Reprinted as ISBN 9788172231248 [181] Patrick Olivelle (1998). pages 2-3. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195352429. State University of New [175] Monier-Williams 1974. ISBN 978-0521438780. Oxford University Press. Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009). Cam. uttara-kanda or posterior part. 40(2): 237-239 [205] Smith. New York City. The Many Colors of Hinduism: A [213] “Hindus inSA”. ISBN 978-0304707393. Oxford University Press. p. p195. JSTOR 4201209. International Hacker. pages 93-94 p.14. In13800-8 ternational Journal of Ethics. pages 13-21 David Courtney: http://www. 157 Bloomsbury Academic. narakī saḥ. crafts and other professions. ISBN The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in In978-0195383430. History of Dharmasastras. Retrieved 7 February 2014. 188–197 0–415–21527–7. University of Calcutta. 264. Institutions and Change. Dharmasutras . ISBN 978-0-615[222] Alban Widgery (1930). Calcutta. [214] Dubois. ISBN 9781-4419-8109-7.Page 178. [220] arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr.com/articles/ indian_music/bhajan. doi:10. Thought. Issue 4. Brojendra Nath velopment through a Hindu Perspective. Routledge. Siqueira. Vol 5. 33(1): 1-22 Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedānta. Part I. page 280-286 dia [Paperback]. Springer. SUNY Press. ISBN 81-208-0434-1 (3): 235–249. 51 Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India. Philology and Journal of Ethics. ISBN 0-06-067440-7. [203] Silverberg 1969. The Paths of Bondage and Liberation. ISBN 978-0813540689. 1. p. And Beauty: conduct prayer meetings for Hindus. doi:10. page 231 . Radhakrishnan (1922). 1946. Hindu Manners. Hindu spirituality: a help to [223] Albertina Nugteren (2005). [191] PV Kane. pages 93-110 [227] Alban Widgery (1930). Suresh Chandra . The Vedic Sacraments. pages 190-417 [210] Bhaskarananda 1994 [192] Patrick Olivelle (2009). . Hinduism and the religious arts. 26 May 2009 tural and Developmental Approaches to Psychology (Editor: Lene Arnett Jensen). Fasc. Reconceptualizing Lifespan DeHindu culture. ISBN 978-0824049461. The Illustrated World’s Religions. p. USA: [228] Barbara Holdrege (2004). Agam. Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study [207] de Zwart. ISBN 978-0-7914-2581-7 [226] DP Bhawuk (2011). [194] For Vedic school. Numen. and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India.1998 Vol II. [190] David Knipe (2015). Rutgers University Press. Samskara. Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition. [215] “Himalayanacademy”. Rout. Paul. REFERENCES 63 [189] R Pandey (1969). The Hindu Temple. 1978. Chapter VI. ISBN 978-9004146013. pp. pages 90-91 [193] Carl Olson (2007). p. 73 of Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsition: Caste. pages 65-89 [216] Banerji 1992. p.The Law Codes [211] Werner 1994. Fuller 2004 [225] S. (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby).7. Indian Society. Retrieved 7 February 2014. page 52 [209] Encyclopaedia of Hindu Gods and Goddesses . page 459. ledge. and ceremony. Oxford University Press. pages 598-609.). see: Heather Elgood (2000). 137 [196] Thomas N. Brill Academic. ISBN [208] P. page 28 [197] Albertson. p. see: Alison Arnold et al (1999). “The Logic of Affirmative Acof the Hindu Sacraments (2nd Ed. Huston (1994).5840/thought1935945 [221] RK Sharma (1999). 111. in The Hindu World HarperCollins. The Principles of Hindu Ethics. 40(2): 232-245 Narendranand (Swami) (2008). . For sculpture. The gods of business: the intersec- [198] [199] [200] [201] [202] tion of faith and the marketplace. 0199555376. pp. Knowledge. Wilhelm (1995).[217] Stella Kramrisch. Customs and Ceremonies. ISBN 978[212] “Iskcon”. 442–443 [204] Smelser & Lipset 2005 in Spirituality and Indian Psychology. Acta Sociologica 43 dass.chandrakantha. p.1177/000169930004300304. Thematic-historical Introduction. [218] Bhaskarananda 1994. Belief. 33. Class and Quotas in India”. March 1935. Dharma.html [224] Saraswathi et al (2010). pages 32-134 [219] Bhaskarananda 1994. Frank (July 2000). Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. “Hinduism: The Stations of Life”. Jyoti Ashram. ISBN [206] Michaels 2004. see: Brian Smith (1986). Volume 9. Halbfass. Bounty. 71. Cosimo. The Hindu Dharma. Ritual. The Principles of Hindu Ethics. 2 [195] For music school. Vol. Oxford University Press. 143 Aspects of Hindu Morality By Saral Jhingran 978-0199397693. International Journal of Ethics. Retrieved 7 February 2014. in Bridging CulBanerjee. custom. The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: South Asia. ISBN 978-8171566655. Todd (2009). [259] Flood 1996. 50. Many Possibilities. ISBN 978-0195344783 [230] Bhaskarananda 1994. p. p. p. 37. pp. 179. p. 42. p. pp. Westminster John Knox Press. University of Illinois Press. 1412. 14. p. Religions of the World. ISBN 978-160860-691-7. [252] Michaels 2004. Oxford Univer[262] Stein 2010. 1324. p. Kiss of the Yogini. p. p. 33. [233] Misra 2004. [247] Tiwari 2002. p. p. 30. Religion: One Planet. p. S. [285] Oberlies 1998 p. pp. [249] Possehl 2002. p. ISBN 978-0-66423320-4 [288] Melton. 8-10. [235] Flood 1996. [256] Flood 1996. ISBN 0-226-89483-5. Ahloowalia (2009). [267] Flood 1996. [250] Possehl 2002. [281] Hiltebeitel 2007. p. 3-4. p. 61-93. xvii. 454. p. p.64 CHAPTER 7. 33. 5. [231] Michaels 2004. [248] Tiwari 2002. 5-7. xviii [278] Basham 1989. 41-48. 38. [283] Witzel 1995. J. p. p. [276] Flood 2008. p. 61-93. p. [269] B. sity Press. 11. p. 242–. [239] Muesse 2003. p. p. [240] Samuel 2010. v. Strategic Book Publishing. p. World Religions in America: An Introduction. p. 32. Hiltebeitel [277] Melton & Baumann 2010. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4. Chicago: 218–219. p. 52. 28. 30-35. p. [242] Gombrich 1996. Lockard 2007. [282] Flood 1996. 32. Woodard (18 August 2006). p. 41–42. 68. p. xvii. Baumann. [234] Kulke & Rothermund 2004. p. p. p. [257] Hiltebeitel 2007. p. Lockard 2007. 16 [271] Beckwith 2009. p. [275] Anthony 2007. Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices. p. p. [260] Samuel 2010. [268] Hiltebeitel 2007. [279] White. 53-56. p. Jones & Ryan 2006. David Gordon (2003). 4. [273] Anthony 2007. and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution. 454-455. p. The Ashrama System: The History [261] Samuel 2010. Jacob (2009). p. 81 University of Chicago Press. 35-36. Invasion of the Genes Genetic Heritage of India. p. 194. p. 52. [258] Singh 2008. [232] Khanna 2007. p. Martin (2010). [270] Roger D. ABC-CLIO. [236] Smart 2003. 316 [264] Samuel 2010. 141–156. p. p. 185. 112 [263] Samuel 2010. 36. [238] Michaels 2004. 7. 74-75. p. p. 3. 66. Routledge. [280] Samuel 2010. 41-93. 48-51. Flood 1996. 462. v. Science and [255] Witzel 1995. 2007. [244] Doniger 2010. Zimmer 1951. Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. HINDUISM [229] Patrick Olivelle (1993). [251] Singh 2008. Johnston. [243] Gomez 2013. 12. p. p. 186. Gordon. p. [237] Michaels 2004.158 [254] Witzel 1995. [246] Narayanan 2009. 21. p. [272] Anthony 2007. p. 28. 154. Larson 1995. 49. p. [287] Neusner. Whitney Bauman (2014). 48-49. p. [274] Anthony 2007. p. p. p. [253] Michaels 2004. [245] Jones & Ryan 2006. [241] White 2006. ISBN 978-159884-204-3 . [266] Samuel 2010. [265] Hiltebeitel 2007. 52. [286] Lucas F. p. [284] Anthony 2007. Columbia University Press. Gavin D. dents inherited from Delhi Sultanate”. page ligence all else is void. 680. this is the [Bud. p. 3rd Edition. p. Steven Collins (1994). Quote .15 “The replacement of the Buddha as the “cosmic person” within the mythic ideology of Indian kingship. Shankara’s Introduction. Quote: “Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā. Anthology of Kumārilabhaṭṭa’s Works. Plott et al (2000). page 63. 14. p. Michell 1977. [292] For the impact of “soul exists” concept in later Hinduism. pages 7–14 [295] Pratt. p. p. 18. ISBN [315] Marc Gaborieau (1985). The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage. It is a discouraging tions. Asian Educational Services. 19.[307] dhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul. page 64. There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. no self. Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine [309] Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?. for its evident moral is that civilization is a precarious except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exthing.” [311] Nakamura 2004. Peri Sarveswara (1980). of war captives. SUNY Press. from Bengal as tribute in lieu of cash. Edward Roer (Translator). The early history of India. 40. Nath 2001. p. Religion and Practical Reason (Edi. p. 82. p. Sautranticas. Hiltebeitel 2007. “From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: Idiom.[304] tors: Frank Reynolds.[301] bridge University Press. 277. deporting [Hindu] rebels and subjects [299] Nath 2001. Eaton). REFERENCES 65 [289] Flood. p. Cam. ISBN 978-0-7914organize their forces for the protection of their frontiers and 2513-8. 20. The Buddhist Visnu. 3-4. ISBN 978-8120806191. p.14.. .12. ISBN 978-0671548001. the Mughals actively participated in slave trade with Central Asia.". Columbia University Press. Volume 1. Anthropology Today. [316] Richard M. p. pages 2-4 Katie Javanaud (2013). Quote: “The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. (1996). Richard M. 90. Yogacharas. occurred at about the same time the Buddha was incorporated and subordinated within the Brahmanical cult of Visnu. and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy. Inden 1998. These measures notwith[298] Hiltebeitel 2007. Chapter 1 South Asia”. James Bissett (1996). 2004. as we shall see shortly. Ritual and Ideology of the Hindu-Muslim Confrontation in 978-0231144858. Karma. [306] Sanskrit: anātman. Philosophy Now [291] John C. ISBN 9788120801585.” [294] Stephen Phillips (2009). following prece[300] Embree 1988. Yoga. Shankara’s Introduction. Motilal Banarsidass. p. who assert except sensation and intelHeritage. Madhyamicas who maintain all is [314] Will Durant (1976). 13. xviii–xxi Michaels 2004. 2. State Univ of New York [305] Press. Put very briefly. 67.) Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert Oxford University Press. Michaels 2004. Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge. Delhi. see Edward Roer (Translator). Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 [302] [290] KN Jayatilleke (2010). 2. The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental void. they had adopted religions like Buddhism and Jainism. 5. Slavery and South Asian History (Editors: Indrani Chatterjee. p. pages 51-58 their capitals. who affirm actual 458-472. p. Indiana ISBN 978-81-206-1196-2 University Press. whose delicate complex of order and liberty. who agree with later (Sautranticas) tale. 3. 1(3). Hiltebeitel 2007. ISBN 978-0791422175. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967. culture terior objects through images or forms represented to the and peace may at any time be overthrown by barbarians inintellect. 21. As we have already observed. Eaton (2006). ISBN 0-253348102. p. who had defaulted on revenue payments. 42.. p.” vading from without or multiplying within.7.Early Adwar. page 11. [312] Basham 1999 3. this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism”. pages 246-249. the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). standing. [310] Holt. 4. they had failed to the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā. Quote: “In 1562 Akbar abolished the practice of enslaving the families [296] Larson 2009. p. Motilal Banarsidass. Gauḍapāda . at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages [313] Vincent A. Vaibhashikas. no unchanging essence. John. from note [303] 385 onwards. vaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of which unnerved them for the tasks of life. An Introduction to Hinduism. David Tracy). Sharma. p. The Hindus had allowed their strength to be wasted in internal division and [293] Richard King (1995). which had been the custom since the 14th century. Ācārya. Smith. Quote: “The Mohammedan Conquest of India is existence of external objects no less than of internal sensaprobably the bloodiest story in history. at [308] Google Books."(. pages 381-384 that the soul does not exist. Simon & Schuster. his son Jahangir banned sending of slaves [297] Cousins 2010. Volume 1.). ISBN [326] King 1999-B.66 CHAPTER 7. HINDUISM [317] Andre Wink (1991). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series). Religions at Google Books. Archaeology: Indonesian [321] FHM Grapperhaus (2009). p. Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo. pp. p. Brill Academic. 18. pages 14-16. State University of New York Press. 196-197. p. Java’s Hinduism Revivial. ISBN 978-0887065729. Blackwell Publishing. Statistics Sultan. Wengell Century.id. 1986. 112 Mauritius. ISBN 978-0199995448.go. In Flood.bps. ISBN 979-2624996. ISBN 0-631jab.271. Harvard University Press. pages 31-53 ety of Great Britain & Ireland. 21535-2.[341] “Peringatan”. p. 9004095090. 172-174. Volume 108. pages 117-146 [332] Jouhki 2006. larism and the Politics of Religious Freedom. p. ISBN 978-0791408278. Rishi publications.F. Contested gods and prophets: duism”. [355] Harold Coward (1987). 10-11. Section 3 Southeast Asia. in Handbook of Oriental Studies. Hinduism Today. “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism” in & [348] A Sharma (2012). Volume 38. pages 4-15. 115-168 [338] Sharf 1993. ISBN 978-0415580618. 19-27 [334] P. p. William Carey Press. 119-120. p. Maulānā Raḥmat Allāh Kairānawī The a to Z Healing Arts Guide and Professional Resource Diand Muslim-Christian Controversy in India in the Mid-19th rectory By Douglas A. Hinduism as a Missionary Relitions of conversion to Islam in South Asia: A preliminary gion. Retrieved 1 November 2012. Thomas (September 2004). Volume 109. [347] Reuter.[344] Arvind Sharma (2011). State. pages Routledge. ISBN 978survey of the literature. p. Taxes through the Ages. The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali.ISBN 965-264-014-X [323] J. Retrieved 2014-05-27. pp. [319] P Hardy (1977). pages 66-70. [331] Doniger 2010. The real Tipu: a brief history of Tipu [343] “Resident population by religion and sex” (PDF). [350] Rafiuddin Ahmed (1992).T. p.gov. State University of New York Press. State University of New York Press. p. Quote: 1-47 “Many Hindu slaves converted to Islam and gained their liberty”. Issue 1. [333] Changing the Game: Why the Battle for Animal Liberation Is So Hard and How We Can Win It By Norm Phelps [352] Martin Parsons (2006). Hinduism as a Missionary Religion. Muslim-Christian Polemics. Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia. [340] Rinehart 2004. pages 1-35. etc [318] Sharma. 114. 406-419 [322] Studies in Islamic History and Civilisation. of New York Press. 2002-10-22. Islamic Civilization in South Asia. Religious Formation. Modern European and Muslim explana. David Ayalon. 526–550. 118. The Blackwell Companion to Hindiscourse among minorities in late nineteenth‐century Punduism. 978-9004255289. sp2010. ISBN 978-1438432120. C (2003). Issue 02. pages [335] Ram-Prasad. ISBN 978-9087220549. pages 93-120 [330] Muesse 2011. page 70 with footnotes 13 and 14 [327] Jones & Ryan 2006. Religious Controversy in British India: Dialogues in South Asian Languages (Editor: Kenneth Jones). Gavin. Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism. p. [349] Peter Wick and Volker Rabens (2013). Yayasan Obor Indonesia. Islamic World. Retrieved 2014-06-17. Renaissance and Modern Studies. 68. ISBN 978[342] “Vietnam”. State University [329] King 2002. [346] Richadiana Kartakusama (2006). [351] Ayesha Jalal (2010). ISBN 978-0674047365. Issue 01. The Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secu[337] McMahan 2008. pages 49-60 . Jordens. page 118 Perspective (Editors: Truman Simanjuntak et al. pages 177-206 [345] Jan Gonda. 198. 250 Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine: [353] Avril Powell (1976). [354] CS Adcock (2014). 123. [320] Burjor Avari (2013). Unveiling God: Contextualising Christology for Islamic Culture. Hari (1991). Avril Powell (1995). BRILL. page Basham 1999 84 [324] King 2002. “Contemporary political Hin42-63. in [328] King 2002. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Soci1438432113. pages 38-59 [336] Rinehart 2004. 3-4. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0878084548. Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange Between East and West. [339] Sharf 1995. Religions and Trade: [325] King 2002. p. Brill Academic. C. Gunter. Piazza. Buddhism. WA: Viveka Press. 2nd Edition. The Bhagavad Gita. Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of World Religions. A Cultural History of India. Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam • Clarke. Bhagavad-Gita As It Is. Debating 'Conversion' in Hinduism and Christianity.). Oxford University Press • Basham.L (1999).7. Modernity. Saha. Michael (2000). Mark (2004). Erdosy. In: “The Penguin Handbook of the World’s Living Religions”. Wendy (1999). Hinduism in Modern Indonesia (Editor: Martin Ramstedt).1093/molbev/msh151. Penguin • Crangle. ISBN 8185425-63-9 • Basham. ISBN 0945497822. pages 153-176 • Bhaktivedanta. Sureśvara. C. ISBN 978-0195979114. Princeton University Press. p.15. Edward Fitzpatrick (1994). Jefferey (2003). ISBN 0-89213-285-X. Chapters 2 and 8 • Bowker. Delhi: Manohar publications. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag • Doniger. Gauḍapādakārikā. ISBN 1-57731-121-3 • Brodd. 3rd ed). George (1995). David W. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-19-563921-9 • Beckwith. Outside the Fold: Conversion. Routledge. ISBN 0691135894 • Beversluis. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass • Cordaux. Sourcebook of the World’s Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality (Sourcebook of the World’s Religions. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. ISBN 81-7304-025-7 [360] Ankur Barua (2015). Arthur Llewellyn (1989). Menozzi. MN: Saint Mary’s Press. Paolo. ISBN 978-1138847019. Frank Raymond. Princeton University Press • Chidbhavananda. Winona. Nilmani. Routledge. Richard. Princeton University Press. Vidhushekhara (1943). How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World. Princeton University Press • Banerji. Oxford University Press [361] Robert Hefner (2003). Śaṅkara. History of the Tantric Religion (Second Revised ed. Harvard University Press. Molecular Biology and Evolution (Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution). Weiss. (2010). pages 93-108 7. Taylor & Francis • Cavalli-Sforza. A. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. pages 193-203 • Bhattacharyya. Tantra in Bengal (Second Revised and Enlarged ed.15 Sources 7. Merriam-Webster . Stoneking. Empires of the Silk Road. Alberto (1994). S. Routledge Curzon. PMID 15128876. and Padmapāda. ISBN 1-88485202-5 [358] Sebastian Kim (2005). Swami (1997). pages 115-118 • Bhaskarananda. In Search of Identity: Debates on Religious Conversion in India. Himalayan Academy. (1992). The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism. ISBN 9780700715336. New Religions in Global Perspective. Luigi Luca. Christopher I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-7007-1185-6 • Comans. (1997). retrieved 25 November 2008 • Cousins. and Belief. Delhi: Manohar. John (2000). pages 1-29 • Bhattacharya. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass [359] Muhammad Khalid Masud (2005). doi:10. Mikel (2007). The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices. 209. The History and Geography of Human Genes. (2007). Swami (1994). How to become a Hindu. Peter Bernard (2006).S. Joel (2000). A. SOURCES 67 [356] Gauri Viswanathan (1998). The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world’s oldest religion.1 Published sources • Allchin. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5 • Burley. ISBN 978-0195677126. L.). N. The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda. Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftis and Their Fatwas. ISBN 978-0691058993. (2009).N (1999). Classical Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. The Horse The Wheel And Language. retrieved 14 July 2007 [357] SS Subramuniyaswami (2000). Novato. “The Northeast Indian Passageway: A Barrier or Corridor for Human Migrations?".15. Calif: New World Library. retrieved 25 November 2008 • Anthony. World Religions. Seattle. Oxford University Press. ISBN 1576079058 • Harshananda.). Katherine (2005). Govind Sadashiv (1980).. Gavin (2008). “The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion. No. History. Second Edition. E. Shambhala. ISBN 1-4349-0951-4 • Gomez.20. Ronald (1998). C. (2013). History of Religions 3 (1): 34–49. 99–122. and Culture”. ISBN 8120831101 • Embree. 5-35 (PDF) • Inden. Mathura . “Beyond Orientalism: the work of Wilhelm Halbfass and its impact on Indian and cross-cultural studies” (1st Indian ed. Gavin D. Hinduism. Concept Publishing Company • Gellman. ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0 . ISBN 81-215-1093-7 • Halbfass. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. William (2004). (1996). Swami (1989). Issues of comparative philosophy (pp. London and New York: Routledge • Hiltebeitel. Wilhelm (2007). In: JF Richards. (Winter.). 1. The Yoga Tradition. Popular Prakashan. Mylapore: Sri Ramakrishna Math. (2009). Dorrance Publishing. Research and reflection: Responses to my respondents / iii. Hinduism. Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual. The Hindus: An Alternative History. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5 • Harman. Theravada Buddhism. Religion For Dummies. Imagining India. Pearson Education • Garg. Transaction Publishers • Georgis. Publishers • Johnson.A District Memoir (Reprint ed. Volume 1. In: Joseph Kitagawa. Marc. SUNY Press • Duchesne-Guillemin. Buddhism in India. (2008). Frederic Salmon (1996). Columbia University Press • Feuerstein. History. in Rinehart.. The Scheduled Tribes of India. Routledge • Growse. volume One. Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch I (Reprint ed. doi:10. An Introduction to Hinduism. 1994). In: Karin Eli Franco (ed. “The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion. Death and religion in a changing world. Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. and Culture”. “Heraclitus and Iran”. in “Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World” (2nd ed. C. New Delhi: Oxford University Press • Inden. “The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. “Kingship and Authority in South Asia”. Lewis M. HINDUISM • Doniger. ISBN 0-85229-760-2 • Garces-Foley. Religions of the World. and Practice. Wilhelm (1991). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. Princeton. Richard F. Ainslie T. Munshiram Manoharlal. Teaching and Learning in the Zen Rinzai Monastery. Digital printing 2007. SUNY Press • Eliot. Sharpe • Hopfe. ABC-CLIO. A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Thomas (2011). Students’ Britannica India. John Wiley & Sons • Ghurye. pp. Authority. History. Jacques (1963). Vol.). Andrew (2001).). Victor Sogen (1994). Sources of Indian Tradition. Georg (2002). ISBN 81-7120-121-0 • Harvey. Sir Charles (2003). Cambridge University Press • Flood. Faris (2010). Luis O. And Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship. ISBN 3-935001-06-1 • Flood. Asian Educational Services • Hoiberg. ISBN 1-57062-449-6 • Hiltebeitel. Hurst & Co. and Culture”. M. Sussex Academic Press • Fuller. Alf (2002). In: Joseph Kitagawa. 297-314). (2000). Alf (2007). Wendy (2010). In: Joseph Kitagawa. Motilal Banarsidass. Teachings of the Hindu Mystics. NJ: Princeton University Press.68 CHAPTER 7. Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedānta. Dale (2001). Gaṅgā Rām (1992). Woodward. Robin. Hartman. Wilhelm (1995). ed.J. From the beginning to 1800. The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Ritual.). W. A Bird’s Eye View of the Vedas. Routledge • Hori.1086/462470 • Halbfass. (1997). “Hindu Devotion”. Alone in Unity: Torments of an Iraqi God-Seeker in North America. In: Journal of Japanese Studies. Mark R. A Dictionary of Hinduism. Culture. Oxford University Press • Halbfass. (1996). Ronald B. (2004). ed. Jeaneane D. John Wiley & Sons • Fowler. Tradition and Reflection. Routledge • Gombrich. (1988). Oxford University Press. J. Springer. Jukka (2006). and Popular Expressions. Rothermund. ISBN 1-4020-1215-2. Princeton. (2006). ISBN 9780520237988 • Melton.7. ISBN 9780195183276 • McRae. Societies. Routledge 69 • Laderman. and Transitions. (2008). Richard (1999). Cengage Learning • Lorenzen. Kenneth W. Volume I: to 1500. Networks. (2007). 46. In: “World Religions in America: An Introduction”. Martin (2010). George (1977). L. Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History. Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions. (1994). The Religion of the Hindus. ISBN 1-57607238-X • Larson. Amalendu (2004). Dietmar (2004). ISBN 0-415-15482-0. ABC-CLIO. Westminster John Knox Press • Lockard. by J.. John (2003). Transformation. Orientalism and Religion: PostColonial Theory. Craig A. A History of India. “The Sacred Thread: Hinduism in Its Continuity and Diversity. Hermann. Brockington (Book Review)". Rawat publications. M. Routledge • King. A Survey of Hinduism: Second Edition. Vol. Gerald (1995). Richard (2001). Infobase Publishing • Jouhki. Elibron Classics. J. Hermann. JSTOR 1398925 • Kramer. Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or. ISBN 81-206-1509-3. A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition. SAGE • Monier-Williams. Merriam-Webster • Michaels. The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. New Jersey: Princeton University Press • Michell. SUNY Press • Larson. The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent. Ryan. SOURCES • Jones. Richard (1999). James D. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Cultural History Of Medieval India. Gordon J. “Orientalism and India” (PDF). (1984). High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India. Past and present. David L. Dhavendra (2004). NUMEN.15. Berghahn Books • King. Identity and Religion: Foundations of Anti-Islamism in India. Kenneth (1986). The University Press Group Ltd. Jose (2006). Seeing Through Zen. World scriptures: an introduction to comparative religions. Meenakshi (2007). (1953). SUNY Press • Knott. Axel (2004). Monier (2001) [first published 1872]. Ronald Press . “Orientalism and the Modern Myth of “Hinduism"". Religious Thought and Life in India. Richard (2002). ISBN 978-0-80912781-8 • Kulke. Orientalism and Religion: PostColonial Theory. and Genealogy in Chinese Chan Buddhism. Monier (1974). Diversity. India and “The Mystic East”. Constance. Hinduism. Oxford University Press • Koller. Gerald James (2009). Baumann. University of Chicago Press • Misra. Hinduism. India and “The Mystic East”. ISBN 1-4212-6531-1. David N. Orientalism and Religion: PostColonial Theory. pp. 179-198. Encounter. India and “The Mystic East”. Routledge. India’s Agony Over Religion. retrieved 8 July 2007 • Kumar. Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices (6 volumes). Klaus K. ISBN 81-7033-995-2 • Morgan. pp 146-185 (BRILL) • King. Rothermund. Philosophy East and West 34 (2): 234–236. ABC-CLIO • Merriam-Webster (2000). retrieved 24 July 2007 • Kuruvachira. Hindu nationalists of modern India. Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction. Gary (2003). as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus. (2007). retrieved 25 November 2008 • Monier-Williams. Kim (1998). Dietmar (1998). Adamant Media Corporation. English Sanskrit dictionary. (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. retrieved 25 November 2008 • Kulke. J@RGONIA 8/2006 • Khanna. Yoda Press • McMahan. Oxford University Press. Routledge • Klostermaier. Taylor & Francis e-Library • King. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Encyclopedia. Klaus K. SUNY Press • Klostermaier. Chapple. Namita. Vijay (2001). pp. Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip • Nikhilananda. and religious rhetoric in a Tamil Buddhist text. New York: Routledge • Nath. Part Two. • Oberlies. “From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition”. Winthrop. Buffalo. (1987) [first published 1953]. Great World Religions: Hinduism • Muesse. Bhagvada Gita. Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India. S (1996). (2009). De directe bevrijdingsweg. Founders & Leaders. HINDUISM • Radhakrishnan. Sumathi (1997). 19-50 • Rawat. ISBN 0-911206-15-9 • Richman. ISBN 3900271-32-1 • Osborne. Mark William (2003). The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Princeton University Press. Martha C. JBE Online Books • Samuel. ISBN 8120803876 • Sargeant. Moore. (December 2001). Social Scientist 2001. Iśa. The Religion of the Hindus. ISBN 0-691-01958-4 • Radhakrishnan. The Clash Within: Democracy. Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual. “The nature and history of Hinduism”.70 • Muesse. Anima (1986). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited • Ramaswamy. (1992). and Global Interests. New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Centre. ISBN 81-215-0019-2 . Robin (2004). D. NY: Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs. pp. “High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India” (PDF). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited CHAPTER 7. Fortress Press • Mukherjee. Kena. and Mundaka I (5th ed. Nebel. Louis (1964). pp. Walker • Rodrigues. Hillary (2006). A sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Culture. Syracuse University. 141–156. Christopher (1984). P.E. Swami (1990). Kenneth W. Mark W. Women. ISBN 978-0-674-03059-6. The Evolution of the Sāṃkhya School of Thought. StudentMan and Forests: The Khatta and Gujjar Settlements of Sub-Himalayan Tarai. A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher’s Book Mainstream. “Indus religion”. Hinduism in Modern Indonesia: A Minority Religion Between Local. Oppenheim. Andrew J. The Upanishads: Katha. Indian Philosophy 1. (2010). S. (11 November 2002). Partha P. New York: RamakrishnaVivekananda Centre. S (Trans. Martin (2004). Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century. Journal of Genetics (Springer India) 80 (3). National. Religious Violence. ABC-CLIO • Nussbaum. CA (1967). S. Paula (1988). Non-Dualisme. Hinduism. Oxford University Press.. South Asia Books. The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction. Accessing R. Hajime (2004). New York: State University of New York Press. retrieved 25 November 2008 • Nakamura. and India’s Future. The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Ajay S. in Morgan. (2011). Retrieved 25 May 2013.T. (1993). ISBN 1-85538-457-4 • Radhakrishnan. Philip (2010). 3– 47. E (2005). ISBN 0-87395-831-4 • Sen Gupta. Almut. Majumder.). ISBN 0-911206-01-9 • Rinehart. Swami (trans. Vasudha (2009). T (1998). ISBN 0-19-563820-4 • Raju. Gregory L. Columbia University Press • Renard. and Practice. Rowman Altamira. Vienna: Institut für Indologie der Universität Wien. ISBN 9780-7591-1642-9 • Renou. Die Religion des Rgveda. Hinduism: the Ebook.) (1995). Folens Limited • Possehl. Geoffrey (2010). The Rosen Publishing Group • Ramstedt. The Bhagavad Gita. The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna (8th ed.). Cambridge University Press • Sarma. University of California Press • Narayanan.) (1992). The Philosophical Traditions of India. The Nature of Hinduism. Buddhism. branch stories. Harvard University Press. Harper Collins. Ronald Press. ISBN 0-915984-90-3 • Nikhilananda. 1891-1970. Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History. Indus Publishing • Nicholson. Ariella. “Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium”. ISBN 0-06-250799-0 • Stein.Part 1. Romula (2003). Ninian (2003). ISBN 81-85301-75-1 • Smelser. The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. retrieved 25 November 2008 • Thapar. Orient Blackswan • Thapar. New York: Kessinger Publishing. (1995). (1962). Tribal Roots Of Hinduism. No. Heinrich (1951). ISBN 978-81-3171120-0 • Sjoberg. Penguin • Turner.1 • Vasu. Delhi: Oxford University Press • Thapar. Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations (PDF). The World’s Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions. David Gordon (2006).7. Introduction. Oxford University • Tiwari. Comparative Civilizations Review. “Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state” (PDF). Kiss of the Yogini: “Tantric Sex” in its South Asian Contexts. The Meaning and End of Religion. Penguin Books India • Thompson Platts. SOURCES • Silverberg. Burton (2010). W. Romila (1978). In: Journal of Consciousness Studies. Sarup & Sons • Toropov. Buckles. Luke (2011). Robert H. John (1884). New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 6. In: David Gordon White (ed. Godsdiensten van de wereld (The World’s religions). (1963). Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited (PDF) • Sharf. Interpreting Early India. Vol. The Study of Hinduism. and English.C. Academy of Tamil Culture. Allen & Co. Second Edition (PDF).15. A History of India. Aldine Transaction. 1993). Tamil Culture 10. University of Chicago Press • Witzel. Hinduism: An Introduction . 7. Neil J. Robert H. LLC • Smart. San Francisco: Harper and Row • Smith.1086/224812 • Sharf. David Gordon (2000). pp. • Sharf. Pearson Education India. Encyclopedia of relationships across the lifespan. The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion. Benjamin (1968). Wiley-Blackwell • Stevens. Greenwood Press • Smart.). Shiv Kumar (2002). classical Hindī. (1993). R. Anthony (2001). ISBN 978-81-7526-433-5 • Walker. 2000.. Huston (1991). The Catechism Of Hindu Dharma. 1. University of South Carolina Press • Singh. (1996b). (1990). Srisa Chandra (1919). (1993). Swami (1987). Upinder (2008). Princeton University Press • Sweetman. DISKUS Vol 1 No. W. (2000). Seymour Martin. 33. 2 (December. The Hindu world: an encyclopedic survey of Hinduism • White. James (1969). “The Zen of Japanese Nationalism”. Brandon. 267-87 (PDF) • Sharma. 11-12. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to World Religions.H. Will (2004). Bryan S. “Tantra in Practice”. The American Journal of Sociology 75 (3): 442–443. A dictionary of Urdu.1 (1993) p. History of Religions. “The prehistory of Orientalism: Colonialism and the Textual Basis for Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg’s Account of Hinduism” (PDF). Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Andree F. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. Kampen: Uitgeverij Kok • Vivekananda.. Princeton University Press . Princeton University Press • White. doi:10. 2004): 12-38 • Vivekjivandas (2010). pp. Philosophies of India. Arvind (2003). No. Ninian (1993).. (Aug. ISBN 0-202-30799-9 • Smith. Michael (1995). San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. Lipset. Jeffrey S. For Weber: Essays on the Sociology of Fate • Turner. 1-43. Robert H. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. (1996a). 23:40-74 71 • Thani Nayagam. Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (Praeger) 1 (4) • Zimmer. Social Structure and Mobility in Economic Development. eds. “THE FORMATION RATHER THAN THE ORIGIN OF A TRADITION”. Ariadne’s Clue: A Guide to the Symbols of Humankind. Ahmedabad: Swaminarayan Aksharpith. Xavier S. “The Dravidian Contribution To The Development Of Indian Civilization: A Call For A Reassesment”. (2005). Constance. [12] “Life-Cycle Rituals”. retrieved 12 July 2007 . [11] “Hindu Marriage Act. Country Studies: India. [22] “Halebidu . Division of Religion and Philosophy. “Guinness comes to east Delhi: Akshardham world’s largest Hindu temple”. Retrieved 25 June 2007. Retrieved 2 January 2008. Kumar. Language and Religion” (PDF). [34] Singapore Department of Statistics (12 January 2011). Jayaram. Julius (1998). Retrieved 26 June 2011. • Flood. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. September 1995. [21] “Aurangzeb: Religious Policies”. [2] “The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica”.Hinduism”. Deshpande. TempleNet. [23] “Yoga Therapy in Australia” by Leigh Blashki. [7] The Laws of Manu X [33] CIA . Retrieved 28 November 2012. Y. (2007).The World Factbook 7. Retrieved 16 January 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2007. ISBN 0-631-215352 • Jones. Wendy (1999).The World Factbook [29] Bhutan [30] Suriname [5] Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra I. [4] Ninian Smart (2007). Klaus (1994). Blackwell companion to Hinduism. ReligionFacts.2 CHAPTER 7. “The food habits of a nation”.). “Hinduism: Not Cast In Caste”.H. Retrieved 30 July 2010. Cambridge University Press [16] iskcon. State University of New York Press. The World Almanac & Book of Facts 1998 being especially relevant.16 Further reading Scholarly [13] Manu Smriti Laws of Manu 1. • Flood. which itself references many sources.Temples of Karnataka”. Encyclopædia Britannica. The Hindu American foundation. Blackwell Publishing.com. A Survey of Hinduism (3rd (2007) ed.87-1. HINDUISM Web-sources [1] “The Global Religious Landscape . ahimsâ satyamstenam shaucmindrayanigrahah.92.. Swaminathan. Retrieved 5 July 2007. The pew foundation.com. Retrieved 17 November 2006. University of Cumbria. yaksha [20] “Itihasas”. 1955”. sanatana dharma. (1996). The Hindu.The World Factbook [28] CIA . James D. Hinduwebsite. Pawan. Gavin (Ed) (2003). Manas Group.72 7. Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Retrieved 17 August 2006. • Doniger. Encyclopedia Britannica [3] Adherents. Retrieved 25 June 2007. Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. S (14 August 2006). etam sâmâsikam dharmam câturvanaryabravîn manu [31] Department of Census and Statistics. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. UCLA. Tribal Religions of India [19] Encyclopedia Britannica. An Introduction to Hinduism. Hindu American Foundation. Retrieved 2 September 2012. Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of World Religions. [24] “The Growing Global Interest In Yoga” Monday 16 April 2012 [25] CIA-The world factbook [26] 2011 Nepal Census Report [27] CIA . 2009. [18] PHILTAR. Gavin D. ExpressIndia. ISBN 0-8160-5458-4 • Klostermaier.The World Factbook [8] Yadav. [9] “Religious or Secular: Animal Slaughter a Shame”. ISBN 0-415-05181-9. [35] CIA . M. Merriam-Webster [15] Venkataraman. ISBN 0-7914-7082-2 • Lipner.com.15. Ryan.91 [14] V. “Polytheism”. “The Hindu Caste System”. [10] “Swami Shivananda’s mission”. [6] अहिंसा सत्यमस्तेयं शौचमिन्द्रियनिग्रहः। एतं सामासिकं धर्मं चातुर्वर्ण्येऽब्रवीन् मनु. “Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics. Retrieved 28 November 2012.The Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka-2011 [32] “SVRS 2010” (PDF).org. Retrieved 1 October 2011. Retrieved 31 March 2013.Sc. Preeti (26 December 2007). New York City: Infobase Publishing. A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010. The Heart of Hinduism: The Four Main Denominations [17] Jha. Routledge. Education. The Library of Congress. • Rinehart. The Religion of the Hindus (New ed. Robin (Ed.7. Culture.). in Hinnells. x. ISBN 0-69108953-1 • Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda . Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century. A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Geoffrey (2010). EXTERNAL LINKS 73 • Michaels. Karel (1994).17 External links • Hinduism at DMOZ • Resources for Scholars and Students • Encyclopædia Britannica.Publisher : Mandala Publishing. Axel (2004). ISBN 0-7007-0173-7 Native • The Encyclopedia of Hinduism(International Edition) ( 11 Volumes) . Hinduism: Past and Present (5th ed. “Hinduism”.) (2004). Language : English 7. Surrey: Curzon Press. (1987).Notes on Hinduism • Religious Tolerance page on Hinduism Audio . Glyn. Cambridge University Press Texts • Richards..Presented at World Parliament of Religion in 1893 (Text + Audio Version) • Morgan. Kenneth W. Hinduism • All About Hinduism by Swami Sivananda (pdf) • Heart of Hinduism: An overview of Hindu traditions • Information on Hinduism or Santana dharma • Ethical Democracy Journal . and Practice. ABC-Clio. Richmond. Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual. John (Ed. ISBN 81-208-0387-6 • Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies Lectures and seminars in MP3 audio format by the OCHS as reference material for scholars and students. (1985). A Sourcebook of Modern Hinduism. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2 Origins • Samuel. ed.). The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. ed. ISBN 1-57607-905-8 • Werner. Princeton University Press. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.).17. London: Curzon Press. 212 p. the Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent sometime between the Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia (China. Shingon.[5][6] One consistent belief held by all Buddhist schools is the lack of a Creator deity. renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic. the Dharma (the teachings). Myanmar etc. Buddhism /ˈbudɪzəm/[1][2] is a nontheistic religion[note 1][3] or (Sanskrit: dharma. Zen. devotional practices. Tibetan Buddhism. The foundations of Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha. In some classifications. According to Buddhist tradition. ceremonies. cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment. and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch.[4] Two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized: Theravada (“The School of the Elders”) and Mahayana (“The Great Vehicle”). that encompasses a variety of traditions. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is the attainment of the sublime state of Nirvana. Singapore. while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. Standing Buddha statue at the Tokyo National Museum. Pali : dhamma). Nichiren Buddhism.[7] Other practices may include following ethical precepts. by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path (also known as the Middle Way). commonly known as the Buddha (“the awakened one”). and Tiantai (Tendai). and the Sangha (the community).Chapter 8 Buddhism 6th and 4th centuries BCE. Korea. beliefs and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama. Laos. study of scriptures. Thailand. 1st–2nd century CE. Taiwan etc. Taking "refuge in the triple gem” has traditionally been a declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path. support of the monastic community. Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia. Vietnam. and in general distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist. invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas.[note 1] He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering through the elimination of ignorance and craving. and in the Mahayana tradition.) and includes the traditions of Pure Land. the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures. the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation. Buddhists believe that this is accomplished through direct understanding and the perception of dependent origination and the Four Noble Truths. with a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas. and especially their respective practices. Japan.). 74 . One of the earliest known representations of the Buddha. Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Cambodia. (Musée Guimet) Main article: Gautama Buddha This narrative draws on the Nidānakathā biography of the Theravāda sect in Sri Lanka. and the Mahāyāna/ Sarvāstivāda Lalitavistara Sūtra. depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls. India.[9][10] The Vajrashila. taught and founded a monastic order.[8] Earlier biographies such as the Buddhacarita. but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies. who later comprised the first Sangha. Bodh Gaya.8. But .1 Life of the Buddha 75 we have very little information that can be considered historically sound. 2011 Ascetic Gautama with his five companions. death. teaching. while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account. search.[13] It was either a small republic. of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. [but] we can be reasonably confident Siddhatta Gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could. to write a biog. give different accounts. both geographically and culturally. an astrologer named Asita visited the young prince’s father—King Śuddhodana—and prophesied that Siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man. c. or an oligarchy. Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha’s life.1. in which case his father was an oligarch. (Painting in Laotian temple) According to this narrative.1– 2nd century. renunciation. Karen Armstrong noted.[13] Relic depicting Gautama leaving home. therefore. the Lokottaravādin Mahāvastu. awakening and liberation.”[12] The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery. The Great Departure. Most accept that he lived. According to author Michael Carrithers. because so he prevented him from leaving the palace grounds.. in which case his father was an elected chieftain. “It is obviously difficult. where Gautama sat under a tree and became enlightened.. raphy of the Buddha that meets modern criteria. which is ascribed to Buddhaghoṣa in the 5th century CE. shortly after the birth of young prince Gautama. “the outline of the life must be true: birth.Śuddhodana was determined to see his son become a king. maturity. LIFE OF THE BUDDHA 8.”[11] In writing her biography of the Buddha. a corpse and. So in a pivotal moment he accepted milk and rice from a village girl and changed his approach. He realized that he had taken this kind of practice to its limit. traveling throughout the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent. he spent the rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he had discovered. Uttar Pradesh. These experiences prompted Gautama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest. encountering an old man. But he found that they did not provide a permanent end to suffering. and had not put an end to suffering. he finally destroyed the fetters of his mind. CHAPTER 8. The south branch of the original fig tree available only in Anuradhapura Sri Lanka is known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi. thereby liberating himself from the cycle of suffering and rebirth. Soon thereafter. India. as the Buddha. despite his father’s efforts. through which he discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way (Skt. a religious culture distinct from the Vedic one. BUDDHISM quest. finally. samyaksaṃbuddha). and mastered the meditative attainments they taught. He devoted himself to anapanasati meditation. madhyamā-pratipad):[14] a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and selfmortification. India) Gautama was now determined to complete his spiritual Traditional Tibetan Buddhist Thangka depicting the Wheel of Life with its six realms . and exposure to pain. 8.2 Buddhist concepts Main article: Buddhist terms and concepts Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath. (Mahaparinirvana Temple. He next attempted an extreme asceticism. In a series of encounters— known in Buddhist literature as the four sights—he learned of the suffering of ordinary people.[web 1][web 2] Buddha statue depicting Parinirvana. Now. Gautama ventured beyond the palace several times. India. Gautama underwent prolonged fasting. and arose as a fully enlightened being (Skt.[15][16] and died at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in Kushinagar. so he continued his quest. a sick man. an ascetic holy man.76 at age 29. which was a religious pursuit common among the Shramanas. Uttar Pradesh. built by King Ashoka. apparently content and at peace with the world. breath-holding. At the age of 35. where the Buddha gave his first sermon 8.1 Life and the world Gautama first went to study with famous religious teachers of the day. he famously sat in meditation under a sacred fig tree — known as the Bodhi tree — in the town of Bodh Gaya.2. and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment. After many days. India. Kushinagar. he attracted a band of followers and instituted a monastic order. He almost starved himself to death in the process. 8.[22][23] of body. Specifically. Buddhism rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an Karma unchanging. spirits. Asuras: variously translated as lowly deities. but invisible to most people. demons. ever-changing bad. The avoidance of unwholesome actions than that of one being. Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms according In Buddhism. Animals: sharing space with humans. dissatisfaction). Buddhists also refer to themselves In Buddhism. samsara is defined as the continual repetitive cycle of birth and death that arises from ordinary beings’ grasping and fixating on a self and experiences. Vajrayana) regard the recitation of mantras as a means for cutting off of previous negative karma. According to Buddhism there ultimately is no Main article: Karma in Buddhism such thing as a self independent from the rest of the universe (the doctrine of anatta). BUDDHIST CONCEPTS 77 Saṃsāra Main article: Saṃsāra (Buddhism) Within Buddhism. but considered the Nirvana Sutra) claim that the recitation or merely the another type of life. antigods. samsara refers to the process of cycling through one rebirth after another within the six realms of existence. Some forms of Buddhism (for example. the texts of certain Mahayana suthe hungry ghost. (Hells).[note 3] 6. titans.[web 3] Rebirths in some of the higher heavens. sonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe. can .[24] tras (such as the Lotus Sutra. Rebirth in subsequent existences must be unfor each being. India iety. an important variety is In Mahayana Buddhism. In Theravada Buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one’s karma. angels. unskillful (Pāli: “akusala”) actions produce “seeds” in process of “dependent arising” ("pratītyasamutpāda") dethe mind that come to fruition either in this life or in a subtermined by the laws of cause and effect (karma) rather [17] sequent rebirth. since it is a purely imper2. Devas including Brahmas: variously translated as gods. Naraka beings: those who live in one of many Narakas (phala) or result (vipāka).[note 2] where each realm can be understood as physical realm or a psychological state characterized by a particular type of suffering.[19] The Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin taught that Amida Buddha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra. work”) is the as the believers of the anatta doctrine—Nairatmyavadin or force that drives saṃsāra—the cycle of suffering and rebirth Anattavadin. hearing of their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma. Good. or six according to other schools. succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life. transmigrating or incarnating from and the cultivation of positive actions is called śīla (from one existence to the next. or left untranslated. Karma (from Sanskrit: “action. skillful deeds (Pāli: “kusala”) and derstood as the continuation of a dynamic. each running from conception[21] to death.[3][20] Rebirth Main article: Rebirth (Buddhism) 4. In the Buddhist view. as it is called in Hinduism and Christianity. Samsara arises out of avidya (ignorance) and is characterized by dukkha (suffering. karma specifically refers to those actions to Theravadins. Human beings: one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible. The above are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence. 5. liberation from samsara is possible by following the Buddhist path.[18] and bring about a consequence or fruit. the Angulimaliya Sutra and 3.2. speech or mind that spring from mental intent ("cetana"). Sanskrit: “ethical conduct”). anx. deities.Gautama’s cremation site. Preta: sometimes sharing some space with humans. eternal soul. 1. Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a known as the Śuddhāvāsa Worlds or Pure Abodes. Ramabhar Stupa in Uttar Pradesh. not recognized by Theravāda (Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm. The truth of the cessation of dukkha 4. The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukkha The Dharmachakra represents the Noble Eightfold Path The first truth explains the nature of dukkha. and are said to provide a conceptual framework for Buddhist thought. the highest object of meditation. anxiety.78 CHAPTER 8. and it is said to have the following three aspects: Noble Truths—consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions. Dukkha is commonly translated as “suffering”. 2. Bihar. The second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known. lead to the cessation of dukkha. however there are passages in the Samyutta Nikaya of the Pali Canon (the collection of texts on which the Theravada tradition is based). Right Intention (or Right . The truth of dukkha unsatisfactoriness[note 5] ) (suffering..2. and the fourth The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are regarded as noble truth identifies a path to this cessation. impermanent and without any inner core or substance. growing old. etc. The truth of the origin of dukkha 3. The third noble truth is that Main article: Four Noble Truths the complete cessation of dukkha is possible. that seem to lend support to the idea that the Buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next. India. The four truths are:[note 4] 1. • The obvious suffering of physical and mental illness. a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards. anxiety. Within the context of the four noble truths.[note 6] • The anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto things that are constantly changing. The orthodox Theravada position rejects this. unsatisfactoriness).[26][27] • A subtle dissatisfaction pervading all forms of life due to the fact that all forms of life are changing. that when developed together.[28] These eight factors are: Right View (or Right Understanding). On this level. and how it can be overcome. “unsatisfactoriness”.[note 7] Noble Eightfold Path Main articles: Noble Eightfold Path and Buddhist Paths to liberation The Noble Eightfold Path—the fourth of the Buddha’s The Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths. These four truths explain the nature of dukkha (suffering. there is an intermediate state (Tibetan “Bardo”) between one life and the next. Sanskrit manuscript. “unease”. central to the teachings of Buddhism. On a deeper level. and dying.2 Suffering’s causes and solution ditioned by ignorance (Pali: avijja). BUDDHISM be attained only by skilled Buddhist practitioners known as anāgāmis (non-returners). the term indicates a lack of satisfaction. According to East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Nālandā. the The Four Noble Truths root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance (Pali: avijja) of the true nature of things. Rebirths in the arupa-dhatu (formless realms) can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arūpajhānas. “anxiety”. its causes. the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving (Pali: tanha) con8. sion for the objects of clinging. BUDDHIST CONCEPTS Thought). The practice of non-extremism: a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and selfmortification. in which each stage is completed before moving on to the next. Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism). a fundamental misunderstanding or misperception of the nature of reality. Phitsanulok. and Right Concentration. taken together. The middle ground between certain metaphysical views (for example. The concept of liberation (nirvāṇa)—the goal of the Buddhist path—is closely related to overcoming ignorance (avidyā). or way of living. . Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study.”[web 6][web 7] 4.[web 4] Pema Chödrön calls them the “four limitless ones”.8. one without egotism. they define a complete path.2.[web 5] The Four Immeasurables are taught as a form of meditation that cultivates “wholesome attitudes towards all sentient beings. 8. May all sentient beings be free of suffering and its To this end. Ajahn Sucitto describes the path as “a mandala of intercon4.[30] Gautama thus invented a new kind of human. a state wherein it becomes clear that all dualities apparent in the world are delusory. May all sentient beings have happiness and its causes. The Four Immeasurables The Middle Way has several definitions: 1. 2. compassion. that things ultimately either do or do not exist).[30] What Thich Nhat Hanh calls the “Four Immeasurable Minds” of love. 2. a lack of inherent existence. philosophies and world view concepts (see. Abhidharma. Thailand Main article: Brahmavihara While he searched for enlightenment. Right Action. the Buddha recommended viewing things as causes.[32] Of the four. free of bias. the ultimate nature of all phenomena (in the Mahayana branch). 79 3. Gautama combined the yoga practice of his teacher Kalama with what later became known as “the immeasurables”. and some regard it as essential practice. In awakening to the true The practitioner prays: nature of the self and all phenomena one develops dispas1. and Middle Way bodily—that operate in dependence on one another.”[28] attachment and anger.[29] Main article: Middle Way The eight factors of the path are commonly presented within three divisions (or higher trainings) as shown below: An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way (or Middle Path). Right Mindfulness. Rather. nected factors that support and moderate each other. for example. they are understood as eight significant dimensions of one’s behaviour—mental. joy. Another term for emptiness. and equanimity[31] are also known as brahmaviharas. or simply as four immeasurables. An explanation of Nirvana (perfect enlightenment). which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness. spoken.3 Nature of existence Buddhist scholars have produced a number of intellectual theories.[33] 3.2. Right Speech.[web 8] The eight factors of the path are not to be understood as stages. characterized by the three marks of existence. which is said to have been discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment. May all sentient beings never be separated from bliss without suffering. divine abodes. mettā or lovingkindness meditation is perhaps the best known. and is liberated from suffering (dukkha) and the cycle of incessant rebirths (saṃsāra). Right Livelihood. Right Effort. Statue of Buddha in Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat. May all sentient beings be in equanimity. Suffering (Pāli: दुक्ख dukkha. Impermanence (Pāli: anicca) expresses the Buddhist notion that all compounded or conditioned phenomena (all things and experiences) are inconstant. discomfort. and its existence is dependent on external conditions.80 CHAPTER 8. and not-self. so as to encompass its full range of meaning. dissatisfaction. Tibet Three Marks of Existence Main article: Three marks of existence The Three Marks of Existence are impermanence. but as an approach for gaining release from suffering. anxiety. In the Nikayas anatta is not meant as a metaphysical assertion. and frustration. but Buddhism seeks to be neither pessimistic nor optimistic. Upon careful examination. these concepts are in fact constructed by the mind. and in any experience of loss. misery. Sanskrit दुःख duḥkha) is also a central concept in Buddhism. there is no inherent or fixed nature to any object or experience. The doctrine asserts that because things are impermanent. “dukkha” is often left untranslated. The word roughly corresponds to a number of terms in English including suffering. Since nothing lasts. the practitioner comes to the conclusion that neither the respective parts nor the . As such. attachment to them is futile and leads to suffering (dukkha). and so conditions and the thing itself are constantly changing.[note 9] When asked if the self was identical with the body.[note 8][34][35] Monks debating at Sera Monastery. suffering. pain. Sanskrit: anātman) is the third mark of existence. but realistic. affliction. the Buddha refused to answer. Things are constantly coming into being. sorrow. its philosophical meaning is more analogous to “disquietude” as in the condition of being disturbed. stress. Angkor Thom in Cambodia Not-self (Pāli: anatta. one finds that no phenomenon is really “I” or “mine". and impermanent. and ceasing to be. the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra). BUDDHISM Although the term is often translated as “suffering”. unsatisfactoriness. According to the doctrine of impermanence. Everything we can experience through our senses is made up of parts. In Englishlanguage Buddhist literature translated from Pāli. life embodies this flux in the aging process. By analyzing the constantly changing physical and mental constituents (skandhas) of a person or object. In fact. the Buddha rejected both of the metaphysical assertions “I have a Self" and “I have no Self” as ontological views that bind one to suffering. unsteady. anguish. “suffering” is too narrow a translation with “negative emotional connotations”[web 9] that can give the impression that the Buddhist view is pessimistic. Everything is in constant flux. tongue. nose. which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth. but in Buddhism nearly always Vasubandhu and Asanga and were adapted into the Yogacara (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. domanassa and upāyāsā (sorrow. “interdependent arising”. in the Canon. 12. arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahayana The Twelve Nidānas describe a causal connection between tradition.'byung. whether something is pleasant. referring to mind the basis of the doctrines of early Buddhism. Nagarjuna’s primary contribution to Buddhist the subsequent characteristics or conditions of cyclic exis.[38] school of thought is known as the Mādhyamaka. which explain the continuation of the cycle of Main article: Śūnyatā suffering and rebirth (saṃsāra) in detail. Upādāna: clinging or grasping.[36] the metaphysics of Sarvastivada and Sautrantika (extinct 2.ba. pain. to refute the nature of reality.'brel.[39] Main article: Pratītyasamutpāda 11. Nagarjuna’s and body. explained as referring non-Mahayana schools). thus the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at the time were refuted on 4. It is variously rendered into English as “dependent origination”.[note 10] Mahayana Buddhism received significant theoretical Main article: Twelve Nidānas grounding from Nagarjuna (perhaps c. Then the absence of the first Nidāna— ignorance—leads to the absence of the others. Avidyā: ignorance. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve 6. widely attested in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras that emerged in his era. The best-known application of the concept of pratītyasamutpāda is the scheme of Twelve Nidānas Emptiness (from Pāli “nidāna” meaning “cause.philosophy was the systematic exposition of the contence. lamentation. some exponents of Yogacara asserted that the mind . and thus without any underlying essence.8. stim. Chinese: ) is an important part of Buddhist metaphysics. Tṛṣṇā: literally thirst. specifically spiritual ignorance of of emptiness brings together other key Buddhist doctrines. ear. the word also means non-existence of any ultimately real thing was inapproprifuel. dukkha. Ṣaḍāyatana: the six sense bases: eye. While the used to mean craving. but the very founder of the 7.[41] tone”.[37] they are “empty” of being independent. ate. “dependent co-arising”. all phenomena to karma. Saṃskāras: literally formations. For Nagarjuna. Dependent arising 81 10. Some of the writings attributed to Nagarjuna made explicit 5. Jāti: literally birth. Tibetan: rten. which produces a new existence. each one giving rise to the next: cept of śūnyatā.e. Sparśa: variously translated contact. source or origin”).2. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner. specifically or “self-nature”). BUDDHIST CONCEPTS person as a whole comprise a self. references to Mahayana texts. The concept 1. and the existence itself.cing. Nāgārjuna—were reformulated by scholars such as 8. Mādhyamaka school held that asserting the existence or 9. Vedanā: usually translated feeling: this is the “hedonic Mādhyamaka system. it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of ātman. unpleasant Sarvastivada teachings—which were criticized by or neutral. particularly anatta and dependent origination. discriminative. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma. but life is understood as starting at conception. or “emptiness”. affliction and despair). It states that phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. Pali: paticcasamuppāda.a consistent exegesis of the Buddha’s doctrine as recorded ulation (by a sense object). but his philosophy was body and mind-organ.[web 10] Sentient beings always suffer throughout saṃsāra until they free themselves from this suffering (dukkha) by attaining Nirvana. Vijñāna: consciousness. Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (dharmas) are without any svabhava (literally “own-nature” 3. i. argued within the parameters set out by the agamas. Nāmarūpa: literally name and form. parideva. (Sanskrit.bar. impression.[40] The doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda. “conditioned genesis”. foundation. Jarāmaraṇa: (old age and death) and also soka.). 150–250 CE). or “contingency”. [42] East Asian Buddhism Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya. and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich. they merely use different metaphors for the experience. This interpretation ignores the third fire. which implies the extinction of raga (greed. it is the potential for sentient beings to awaken since they are empty (i. There are conflicting interpretations of the tathāgatagarbha in Mahāyāna thought. it refers to the innate qualities of the mind that expresses themselves as omniscience etc. in opposition or synthesis. according to Mahayana Buddhism. is arahant. Besides emptiness. Bodhi (Pāli and Sanskrit. Even though this collection was generally ignored in India. the arahant has attained only nirvana. Enlightenment). How Buddhism Began[43] Therefore. using only some different metaphors to describe the experience. including the Buddha. Enlightenment.e. implying that delusion was still present in one who attained nirvana. “calmed". and ultimately to statements of the Buddha in the Nikāyas. according to the Sakya school. form the basis of subsequent Mahayana metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition. craving). “quieted”. dependently originated). delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis. India. while the bodhisattva not only achieves nirvana but full liberation from delusion as well. bodhi carried a meaning synonymous to nirvana.4 Liberation Nirvana Main article: Nirvana (Buddhism) Nirvana (Sanskrit. —Richard F. In Tibetan Buddhism. coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate.[web 14] In the later school of Mahayana Buddhism. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (passion and hatred). The "Tathāgatagarbha Sutras" are a collection of Mahayana sutras that present a unique model of Buddha-nature.82 CHAPTER 8. Gombrich. and that one needed to attain bodhi to eradicate delusion: An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth.[web 11] These two schools of thought. The term for anybody who has achieved nirvana. Vasubandhu and Asanga in particular did not. it is also known as “Awakening” or “Enlightenment” in the West. In Nyingma.[web 12] dosa (hate. in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of arahants. where Gautama Buddha provides some significance to these texts. aversion)[web 13] and moha (delusion). The idea may be traced to Abhidharma. According to the Jonang school. Mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight (prajñāpāramitā) and Buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha). Not all Yogacarins asserted that mind was truly existent. Pali: “Nibbana”) means “cessation”. when adventitious obscurations are removed. Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing. 1992d). BUDDHISM and only the mind is ultimately real (a doctrine known as cittamatra). the status of nirvana was downgraded in some scriptures. In Early Buddhism. tathāgatagarbha also generally refers to inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one’s mind. but it is more commonly translated into English as “enlightenment”. “extinguished”. attained Nirvana under the Bodhi Tree (left) 8.2. Bodhi literally means “awakening”. According to the Gelug school. with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. thus still being subject to delusion. tathāgatagarbha is the inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one’s mind. He thus attains bodhi . “extinction” (of craving and ignorance and therefore suffering and the cycle of involuntary rebirths (saṃsāra)). in certain Mahayana sutras. ghost. omnipresent being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of thought. origin (see Amitabha or Vairocana as examples. A common Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist belief is that the next Buddha will be one named Maitreya (Pali: Metteyya). who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others The term parinirvana is also encountered in Buddhism. Main article: Buddhahood the arahant has overcome these obstacles. usually just called the Buddha. no longer reincarnating as human. a person may awaken from the “sleep of ignorance” by directly realizing the true nature of reality. Shwezigon Paya near Bagan. and this generally refers to the complete nirvana attained by the arahant at the moment of death.2. • Sammasambuddha. or other being. Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself. three poisons of desire. when the physical body expires. that of being freed from craving. In attaining bodhi. but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless. the extinction of only hatred and greed (in the According to Buddhist traditions a Buddha is a fully awak. who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others • Savakabuddha. bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning as in the early texts. animal.sensory context) with some residue of delusion. In Theravada Buddhism. such people are called arahants and occasionally buddhas. while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial. the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human. and delusion. As a further distinction. A Buddha is no longer bound by Samsara and has ended the suffering which unawakened people experience in life. Buddhists do not consider Siddhartha Gautama to have been the only Buddha. they have reached the end of the cycle of rebirth. rather than historical. aversion and ignorance. Japan According to Theravada In Theravada doctrine. the Buddha. that of being freed from greed. hate and delusion. is called ened being who has completely purified his mind of the anagami. who receive the truth directly or indirectly from a Sammasambuddha Buddhas Bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning. for lists of many thousands Buddha names see Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō numbers 439–448). The Pali Canon refers to many previous ones (see List of the 28 Buddhas). • Paccekabuddha. The commentaries to the Pali Canon classify these awakened beings into three types: According to Mahayana In the Mahayana. BUDDHIST CONCEPTS 83 and becomes a buddha. .8. Moreover. Myanmar The Great Statue of Buddha Amitabha in Kamakura. hate. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving. thus still being subject to delusion. Pure Land ( ) of Amitabha Buddha. a bodhisattva is anyone who.[44] CHAPTER 8. Traditionally.[web 15][web 16] The Gautama Buddha. which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence. Pure Land. and not at all in others. Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence. implying that delusion was still present in one who Bodhisattva means “enlightenment being”. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious. contains a simple and brief definition . evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. is the Buddha of this era.84 The Buddha’s death is seen as an illusion.Bodhisattvas enment of all beings. Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and Main article: Bodhisattva hate. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana. motivated by great compassion. between the various tant Mahāyāna text. Mahayana also differs from Theravada in its concept of śūnyatā (that ultimately nothing has existence). which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific “other-power” of Amitabha Buddha.[46] A Theravada According to Jan Nattier. Mahayana Buddhists believe there are innu.[47] The understand. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few are capable of following the path. BUDDHISM schools of Buddhism. or as essentially Nirvana itself. such as “world realm”. who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas). Buddha eras Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism.[48] Theravada Buddhism primarily uses the term in relation to Gautama Buddha’s previous existences.path as well. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicates delusion entirely. but who still aid in the enlight. but has traditionally acknowledged and respected the bodhisattva [web 17] In addition. so it may be best to rely on the power of the Amitabha Buddha. or the “Bodhisattva Vehicle. he is living on in other planes of existence.Bodhisattvayāna.”[49] The ings of this matter reflect widely differing interpretations Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra. the Arahant attains Nirvana but not Bodhi. then. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge. the term Mahāyāna (“Great commentary says that Buddhas arise one at a time in this Vehicle”) was originally even an honorary synonym for world element. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and the chanting of homage to his name liberates one at death into the Blissful ( ). if only one has faith in the power of that vow or chants his name. Indonesia refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood. an early and imporof basic terms. while the Buddha attains Bodhi. has generated bodhicitta. The method of self-exertion or “self-power”—without reliance on an external force or being—stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism. and in its belief in bodhisattvas (enlightened people who vow to continue being reborn until all beings can be enlightened). A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known Buddha. The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism. and generally attained Nirvana.[45] Thus. Java. and monks are therefore permitted to offer “new truths” based on his input. A statue of Prajñāpāramitā personified. merable other Buddhas in other universes. śīla). In Pure Land Buddhism.[60] Religious knowledge or “vision” was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the Buddhist fold. for according to the Buddha. summarizes the Bodhisattva’s intention (Bodhicitta) as follows: “For as long as space endures. Haw Phra Kaew. Yoga Buddhism traditionally incorporates states of meditative absorption (Pali: jhāna.[62] Two Upanishads written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation. even the highest meditative state is not liberating. but rejected their theories of liberation.”[50][51][52] Mahāyāna Buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva vows. this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of “meditation” coupled with the perfection of “discipline” (Pali sīla. A famous saying by the 8th-century Indian Buddhist scholar-saint Shantideva.[web 18] The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques.8.[55] The most ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the Buddha. Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition. In Nichiren Buddhism. devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice. pāramitā).1 Devotion Main article: Buddhist devotion Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists. which the Dalai Lama often cites as his favourite verse.” 8. until then may I too abide to dispel the misery of the world. According to the Samaññaphala Sutta. effort. a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called.[56] One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition. With these vows. pilgrimage. meditation.3.3. devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist . mindfulness and clear awareness are to be developed at all times.[61] They describe meditative practices and states that existed before the Buddha as well as those first developed within Buddhism. A yogi in the Brahmanical tradition is not to practice while defecating. PRACTICE 85 for the term bodhisattva: “Because he has enlightenment as his aim. Skt. discipline.[59] In Buddhism. and transcendent wisdom. and for as long as living beings remain. while a Buddhist monastic should do so.[53] According to the Mahāyāna teachings. offerings. prajñā) was original. Skt. Vientiane. Laos practices there is no such injunction. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought.[63] While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in preBuddhist early Brahminic texts. but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of “transcendent wisdom” (Pali paññā. for example. The Buddha built upon the yogis’ concern with introspection and developed their meditative techniques. and chanting. based on the practice of mindful awareness.[54] Devotional practices include bowing. one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all beings by practicing six perfections (Skt. Some of the Buddha’s meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day.3 Practice 8. Skt: dhyāna). some sort of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition.[57] The difference between the Buddha’s teaching and the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking. Meditative states alone are not an end.[58] Meditation was an aspect of the practice of the yogis in the centuries preceding the Buddha. these perfections are: giving. forbearance. in pre-Buddhist yogic Statue of the Buddha in meditation position. These Three Jewels bring a fruition that is changeless. he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition.[65] Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition. in the lama. which began during the lifetime of the Buddha. because they have an eternal and immutable essence. In Mahayana Buddhism. See also the Tathāgata and Gautama Buddha. it is a Dharmagate whereby one awakens spontaneously. 1st century CE. Infant baptism). In Mahayana. so are the Three Jewels (Refuges). BUDDHISM adds a fourth refuge.[69] Relic depicting footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and triratna.[67] The Three Jewels are: • The Buddha. Hiroshi Kanno writes of this view of the Lotus Sutra: “it is a Dharma-gate of sudden enlightenment proper to the Great Vehicle. from some Mahayana perspectives. the Buddha can be viewed as the supreme Refuge: “Buddha is the Unique Absolute Refuge. The Sangha is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha’s teachings is attainable. the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: triratna. too. The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. without resorting to a teacher”. This is especially said to be the case with the Lotus Sutra. Gandhāra. The Buddha could also be represented as a concept instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees reality in its true form. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned[66] in the Majjhima Nikaya. This is a title for those who have attained Nirvana. the person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow or pledge.[64] He mentions less likely possibilities as well. Buddha is the Imperishable. Those who have attained any of the Four stages of enlightenment. Eternal. Tibetan Buddhism sometimes • The Sangha. whether praised or reviled. .[64] Refuge in the Three Jewels CHAPTER 8. recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf. Pāli: ti-ratana)[web 19] as the foundation of one’s religious practice. even as early as the late Rig Vedic period. considered the ultimate expression of compassion. According to the scriptures. for once one has reached Buddhahood. The monks’ order. The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model. especially in Mahayana. is among the oldest organizations on Earth. or simply the congregation of monastic practitioners. connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality that is inseparable from the Buddha. Further. there is no possibility of falling back to suffering. Just as real jewels never change their faculty and goodness.”[68] • The Dharma. Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels Traditionally. It can also.86 texts. the Dharma embodied in the form of a great sutra (Buddhic scripture) can replace the need for a personal teacher and can be a direct and spontaneous gateway into Truth (Dharma). In Mahayana. Indestructible and Absolute Refuge. the Three Jewels are perceived as possessed of an eternal and unchanging essence and as having an irreversible effect: “The Three Jewels have the quality of excellence. 7. wearing jewelry and cosmetics. they can choose to undertake the eight precepts. 4. (Musée Guimet) glish as “virtuous behavior”. “novice monkhood” (ten precepts) and “monkhood” (Vinaya or Patimokkha). 5.3. and deed. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (specifically. and involves an intentional effort. There are several levels of sila. To refrain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct. Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. 2. but as training rules that laypeople undertake voluntarily to facilitate practice. It refers to moral purity of thought. PRACTICE 8. 8. which are common to all Buddhist schools. without worries. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence. samadhi. To refrain from dancing and playing music. but also peace in the community. 1st century CE. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (eat only from sunrise to noon).8. keeping the precepts laypeople for short periods. There is nothing improper or un-Buddhist about limiting one’s aims to this level of attainment. drugs and alcohol). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts. To refrain from lying (speaking truth always). calmness. the cultivation of dana and ethical conduct themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower heavens is likely. which is internal. Gandhara. The precepts are not formulated as imperatives. present-day Pakistan.2 Buddhist ethics Main article: Śīla Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually translated into En- 87 peaceful and happy effects. the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict. or ahimsā.The complete list of ten precepts may be observed by nal. “ethics” or “precept”. which is exter. It is an action committed through the body. “basic morality with asceticism” (eight precepts). The four conditions of śīla are chastity.[70] In Buddhist thought. It is one of the three practices (sila. and a tenth added: .3. If they wish. speech. even if there is no further Buddhist practice. 3. and panya) and the second pāramitā. The three additional precepts are: 6. and becomes a precept of celibacy. attending shows and other performances. the sevare meritorious and it acts as causes that would bring about enth precept is partitioned into two. word. To refrain from taking life (non-violence towards sentient life forms).[71] Statue of Gautama Buddha. In the eight precepts. and extinguishment. which add basic asceticism. The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy. and can meditate well: 1. which correspond to “basic morality” (five precepts). “morality”. For the complete list. or mind. According to the Law of Karma. quiet. tivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator. To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft). To refrain from using high or luxurious seats Śīla is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative culand bedding. the rules themselves are designed to assure a satisfying life. the eating of meat In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path. living life as the vinaya prescribes it is.[note 11] Regarding the monastic rules. this has almost cultivating samādhi is meditation. In Chinese Buddhism. 8. many male and female lay practitioners did practice meditation.[74] According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation. serious meditation by lay people has been unusual. where. The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differs slightly according to different schools. To refrain from accepting gold and silver. for example. 8. throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times. In Japan. whenever Buddhism has been healthy.[75] According to Peter Harvey. a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. and from things that tend to beautify and adorn (the person).3. perfumes. Upon development of . It includes the Patimokkha. some even to the point of proficiency in all eight jhānas (see the next section regarding these). samyakis frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged samādhi is “right concentration”. samatha meditation (Sanskrit: śamatha) and vipassanā meditation (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā). these exist (translated chih kuan). and provide a perfect springboard for the higher attainments. On the other hand. To refrain from dancing.”[73] Samādhi (meditative cultivation): samatha meditation In Eastern Buddhism. In this sense.[77] The evidence of the early texts suggests that at the time of the Buddha.3. Novice-monks use the ten precepts. but also more committed lay people have practiced meditation. 7. in contrast. 10. the Buddha constantly reminds his hearers that it is the spirit that counts. The primary means of (see vegetarianism in Buddhism). To refrain from the use of garlands.4 Meditation 9. and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya.Main articles: Samādhi (Buddhism) and Dhyāna in Budtra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) dhism for Bodhisattvas. that is after the mid-day meal. China Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other phenomena. completely displaced the monastic vinaya. Monastics are instructed by the Buddha to live as “islands unto themselves”. ointments. as one scholar puts it: “more than merely a means to an end: it is very nearly the end in itself. and allows clergy to marry. there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Su. To refrain from (using) high and luxurious seats (and beds). singing and unseemly shows. nuns.[72] 8. music. not only monks.[76] According to Routledge’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism. To refrain from taking food at an unseasonable time.3 Monastic life Buddhist monks praying in Thailand Main article: Buddhist meditation Buddhist monks performing a ceremony in Hangzhou. BUDDHISM 6. but Chán (Zen) meditation is more popular.88 CHAPTER 8. and married lamas. which are the basic precepts for monastics. and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in dis- . Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna. only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with. These nence) and anatta (not-self). prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means these defilements must be permanently uprooted through of listening to sermons (dharma talks). tion can calm the mind. which is expanded to one’s body. and luminous. which is what leads to insight knowledge (jñāna. through its revelation of the true nature of various defilements. calm. it is said that while samatha meditaTheravadins. These various defilements are tradi. the cause of human existence and about bodhi. eventually obtaining release from all suffering. To be free from suffering and stress. reading. Only understanding (prajñā or vipassana) eradicates the defilements completely. experiencing.8. It then leads the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths. Sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna). one’s mind becomes purified of defilement. a technique of the Noble Eightfold Path. It is spoken of as the principal means of atsuffering is identified as craving. hatred and delusion. Initially. A young monk in Sri Lanka standing of the true nature of those defilements by using jhāna. and under. The Four Noble Truths and the three marks of existence. tranquil. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one’s breath (anapanasati). Jhanas Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is are also states that Arahants abide in order to rest. mind and entire surroundings. based on a realization of dependent origination. Enlightenment and Nibbana. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration.all things as dukkha (unsatisfactoriness). anicca (impermationally summed up as greed. Pāli ñāṇa) and under. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of In Buddhist practice. Prajñā is also listed as the are believed deeply rooted afflictions of the mind that create sixth of the six pāramitās of the Mahayana. Sri Lanka samādhi. his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality. because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana'. When one is in jhana. all defilements are Main articles: Prajñā and Vipassana suppressed temporarily. Samatha meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea. suffering and stress. leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation. which is needed to achieve insight.Prajñā (Wisdom): vipassana meditation standing (prajñā Pāli paññā).3. and thus can lead to nirvāṇa (Pāli nibbāna). studying. which carries with it the taining nirvāṇa. internal investigation. analyzing. PRACTICE 89 Samadhi Buddha statue in Anuradhapura. from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring In Theravāda Main article: Jhāna in Theravada In Theravāda Buddhism. one could in theory attain Nirvana at any point of practice. In the Tibetan tradition. we discover the Self that is living universal non-dual life (before the separation into two) that pervades all living creatures and all existence. physical exercises.[note 14] According to Zen master Kosho Uchiyama. meaning “meditation”) is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China. a meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through. or esoteric Buddhism). Once the conceptual understanding is attained.[note 12] Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth. but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Main article: Zen Zen Buddhism ( ). Tantrayāna. it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime. dhism is one of the schools that practice Vajrayana or “Diamond Vehicle” (also referred to as Mantrayāna. and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on shikantaza or “just sitting”. Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai ( ) and Sōtō ( ).[note 15] It was challenged by numerous new ascetic religious and philosophical groups and teachings that broke with the Brah- . though only for some very advanced practitioners. in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self. Vajrayana and Tantra whether deep in meditation. an Awakening to a universal. conductThough based upon Mahayana. listening to a sermon. India Historically. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices.[86] That was a period of social and religious turmoil. It accepts all Zen the basic concepts of Mahāyāna. visualization.4. Japan 8.[note 13] Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox.[83] is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha’s teaching at a practical level. or any other activity. these practices can include sexual yoga. or even as little as three years. as there was significant discontent with the sacrifices and rituals of Vedic Brahmanism.4 History Main article: History of Buddhism Ginkaku-ji.1 Philosophical roots Korean or zen in Japanese (derived from the Sanskrit term dhyāna. Tantric Buddhism. Korea and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation. the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of ancient India during the second half of the first millennium BCE.[84] One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy through ritual. the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the koan ( . it not be allowed to confine and bind one. which is equated with the Buddha himself. Tibeto-Mongolian Buding the business of one’s daily life.90 CHAPTER 8. a Zen temple in Kyoto. seon in Buddhist practice. when thoughts and fixation on the little “I” are transcended.”[82] Thinking and thought must therefore The Buddhist “Carpenter’s Cave” at Ellora in Maharashtra. BUDDHISM course. nondual Self occurs: “When we let go of thoughts and wake up to the reality of life that is working beyond them. Notably.[85] 8. and meditation as a means of developing the mind. Using these techniques. pronounced Chán in Chinese. those priests who had memorized the Vedas rethis time were not Brahmanised.(“spiritual practice”). was recognised as sacrifice. karma (in the sense of the influence of morality on rebirth). These movements inher. transforming it into what is rec- .[96] Other Vedic texts reveal a dislike of the peo.[note 26] He also mocked the Vedic "hymn or 3rd centuries BCE that the eastward spread of Brahman. and in some respects continued. the most important ones in the 5th century BCE were the Ajivikas. including Buddhism. to Rajagrha in the south east. philosophical thought within the Vedic tradition as reflected e.[101] north-west.the Vedas were like the blind leading the blind. and declared that the original Magadha.[note 28] or the idea of the self uniting with the Self. nirvana (“extinguishing”).[102] Accordple of Magadha.[11][109][110] However. Moreover. The Buddha says that it lier culture[98] was on this alteration of the true Veda that he refused to At the same time.[note 17][note 18] Scholars have reasons to believe that ideas such as samsara.[note 25] The shramanas rejected the ing “hill” in Telugu) in Ramatheertham village in Vizianagaram. were a continuation of a non-Vedic strand of Indian thought distinct from IndoAryan Brahmanism. who stressed that the soul must be freed from matter. whose members were known as shramanas.[web 20] The Buddha declared that priests reciting non-Vedic. these movements were influenced by. and moksha originated in the shramanas. who claimed they district of Andhra Pradesh. HISTORY 91 manic tradition and rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmans. to the A particular criticism of the Buddha was Vedic animal east of aryavarta.[note 19][note 20][note 21][note 22][note 23][note 24] Rock-cut Lord Buddha statue at Bojjanakonda near Anakapalle in the Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. he did not denounce the union with Brahman. they declared that the entire BrahThis view is supported by a study of the region where these manical system was fraudulent: a conspiracy of the brahnotions originated. proposed his new idea of liberation in life.4.[107] He declared that the primary goal of Upanishadic thought. a Veda. the land of the Aryas.[99] These movements included. the Buddha was not antiism into Greater Magadha became significant. mans to enrich themselves by charging exorbitant fees to which stretched from Sravasti.[105] bution that appear in a number of movements in Greater He names the Vedic rishis. and were later adopted by Brahmin orthodoxy.Veda of the rishis[106][note 27] was altered by a few Brahmins ited notions of rebirth and karmic retribution from an ear.[112] At the same time. Buddhism arose in Greater Magadha. karma (“action”).penances had acquired the power to see by divine eyes. atomists (such as Pakudha Kaccayana). materialists (such as Ajita Kesakambali). samsara (“eternal recurrence”) and yoga A ruined Buddhist temple on Gurubhakthula Konda (konda mean. buddha (“awakened one”). besides Buddhism. and the authority of the brahmans. the traditional Brahminical religion itself gradually underwent profound changes. the Atman.g. India possessed revealed truths not knowable by any ordinary human means. Ideas that Vedic. This land.8. These include rebirth and karmic retri. and declared that the Veda in its true form was developed in Greater Magadha prior to this were not subject declared by “Kashyapa” to certain rishis. was in fact non-existent.who introduced animal sacrifices.of the cosmic man". who by severe to Vedic influence.[104] However. in all probability because the Magadhas at ing to him.[108] and. India (materialists). having explained that Brahminical attempts to achieve liberation at death were futile. dhamma (“rule” or “law”). the capital of Kosala in the perform bogus rites and give useless advice. antinomians (such as Purana Kassapa). the Lokayata pay respect to the Vedas of his time. the Ajnanas (agnostics) and the Jains. in the Upanishads.[note 16][87] These groups.[100] Many of these new movements shared the same conceptual vocabulary—atman (“Self”). who emphasized the rule of fate. various skeptics (such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta).[97] It was not until the 2nd ally knew nothing. not physical and mental activities as such were seen as responsible for rebirth.[134] According to Tilmann Vetter.[116] whereas Norman notes that “the Buddha’s way to release [.[note 42] from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi.”[133] According to Bronkhorst. the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term “the middle way”.4. BUDDHISM ognized as early Hinduism.[119][116] The mentioning of the four truths as constituting “liberating insight” introduces a logical problem.[136][137] According to the Mahāsaccakasutta.”[142] The three marks of existence may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. in the suttas[140][141] in those texts where “liberating insight” was preceded by the four jhanas."[note 32] and Richard Gombrich."[note 35] </ref> terms can be found throughout the Nikayas.[117] According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson.[117] In time..[116][117][118][43] According to Vetter. but intentions and desire. which are not [139][note 44] 3. “Cautious optimism in this respect.”[132] Bronkhorst disagrees. the brahmans thus developed “philosophical systems of their own. which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas. Norman supposes that the these terms were already in use at the Buddha’s time. According to Vetter. “Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving term for the desired goal of this practice.[119] According to Vetter.[128] Schmithausen is a notable scholar manic traditions.2 Earliest teachings Tracing the oldest teachings Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by analysis of the oldest texts. “the Buddha at first sought “the deathless” (amata/amrta). Bronkhorst[note 39] and Donald Lopez. Yet.[117] Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist invention.[138][note 43] Although “Nibbāna” (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common 2. “adjusted to the need of each person. and concludes that the Buddha “introduced a concept of karma that differed considerably from the commonly held views of his time.R. and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings.[note 30] The reliability of these sources. resulting in the description of the eightfold path. or “liberating insight”. only after this realization did he become acquanted with the doctirne of rebirth. the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna. and were Bruce Matthews notes that there is no cohesive presenta.familiair to his hearers. is a matter of dispute.”[135] Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development. is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[129][130][note 41] Core teachings .. it is not clear what he was awakened to.[117][116][43] Schmithausen. which is concerned with the here and now. inconsistencies remain.”[note 37] Johannes specified. and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.[135][116] “Liberating insight” is a later addition to this text. the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating.[145] but is usage may have been common to the shraBuddhist soteriology. this short description was elaborated.[128] which may mean that The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanical the doctrine was incidental to the main perspective of early term.[142] According to Bronkhorst. three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:[122] 1.[143] Gotama’s teachings may have been personal.[113] 8. “Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts.[note 40] </ref> Dhyana and insight A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight. many other the doctrine of earliest Buddhism. K. and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism.92 CHAPTER 8.] was by means of meditative practices. the four truths became a substitution for prajna.[114][note 31] According to Schmithausen. the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism.[note 25][note 16][note 29] In particular.[124][note 34] </ref> According to Vetter. and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of “liberating insight”.[144] tion of karma in the Sutta Pitaka. in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting “liberating insight”. meeting the new ideas with adaptations of their doctrines”. since the four truths depict a linear path of practice.[116] who has questioned whether karma already played a role in the theory of rebirth of earliest Buddhism. according to some sources. The fortunate survival of accounts from The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions.4. Main article: History of Buddhism in India The root schism was between the Sthaviras and the Mahāsāṅghikas.[154] Due to the veneration of buddhas and bodhisattvas. schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too. Originally.Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the sectarian Buddhism). the Four Noble Truths. the same. Buddhist councils and Theravada According to the scriptures.[note 45] According to most scholars. Therefore the seven Abhidharma works are generally claimed not to represent the words of the Buddha himself. The five periods:[146] Early Buddhism (occasionally called Pre. these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya. This contradicts the Mahasanghikas’ own vinaya. karma and rebirth. recited the monastic rules (vinaya). but summaries or numerical lists. 100 to 200 years after the death of the Buddha. and Es. Later Mahayana Buddhism. appealed to tradition.[note 47] Every school had its own version of the Abhidharma.4. the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN. nearly 100 BCE. transmission of teaching was done orally. As with any ancient Indian tradition. the Noble Eightfold Path. the first Buddhist council was held. but those of disciples and great scholars. and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries. and.[147] Some scholars disagree. but eventually. Early losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in Mahayana Buddhism.schism. which divided Christians into Catholic and Protestant. with supposed origins in stūpa veneration. Mahāyāna was often interpreted as a more devotional. Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts. a detailed scholastic reworking of doctrinal material appearing in the Suttas. The split was on the order of the European Protestant Reformation. Its main scriptures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikayas or Agamas. dependent origination. they started immediately after the Second Council. each Saṅgha started to accumulate an Abhidharma. the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools. In the first council.[note 46] The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred. HISTORY 8. The Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the vinaya and may Pre-sectarian Buddhism also have challenged what they perceived were excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for arhatship.[156] . with different theories and different texts. a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant. another disciple.[155] The earliest views of Mahāyāna Buddhism in the West assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called "Hīnayāna" schools.8. Ānanda. and have proposed many other theories. therefore. was called upon to recite the discourses (sūtras. the abhidhamma. lay-inspired form of Buddhism. winning side. one of which was the Theravāda school. recognized by nearly all scholars. Scholars generally date these texts to around the 3rd century BCE. Both parMain article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism ties. by about 100 CE if not earlier. the Five Aggregates. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the dhism: The period of the Early Buddhist schools. Scholars disagree on whether the Mahasanghika school had an Abhidhamma Pitaka or not. According to the Dipavamsa of the Pāli tradition.3 Indian Buddhism 93 of Ashoka and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later. according to schematic classifications. so most scholars conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to the Three marks of existence.[154] are still not completely understood.protest and formed the Mahasanghika. which formed between 100 BCE and 100 AD. Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarian Bud.[148][149][150] Early Buddhist schools Main articles: Early Buddhist schools. and nirvana. at some period after the Second Council the Sangha began to break into separate factions.[152] Following (or leading up to) the schisms. Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.[151] Pre-sectarian Buddhism is the earliest phase of Buddhism. Pāli suttas) of the Buddha. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. soon after the parinirvāṇa (from Sanskrit: “highest extinguishment”) of Gautama Buddha.[note 47][153] Early Mahayana Buddhism Main article: Mahāyāna The origins of Mahāyāna. The different Abhidharmas of the various schools did not agree with each other. Upāli. which shows them as on oteric Buddhism (also called Vajrayana Buddhism). These Abhidharma texts do not contain systematic philosophical treatises. now appears to be wrong on all counts. and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offences.[158] Initially it was known as Bodhisattvayāna (the “Vehicle of the Bodhisattvas”).[167] There were no great Indian teachers associated with tathagatagarbha thought.[note 48] Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the Prajñāpāramitā series.[160] The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th century CE. These Mahāyāna teachings were first Main article: Vajrayana Scholarly research concerning Esoteric Buddhism is still in its early stages and has a number of problems that make research difficult:[169] 1.[168] Vajrayana (Esoteric Buddhism) Both adopt one and the same Vinaya.94 CHAPTER 8. and later doctrines.[165] In India.. cold. the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. and therefore research must include exploring Hinduism as well. and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals.[166] According to Dan Lusthaus. and the Mūlasarvāstivāda ordination lineage in Tibetan Buddhism.[159] From Chinese monks visiting India. Tathagatagarbha.”[157] There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism. and the commonality stems from early Buddhism. for bodhisattvas. the two main philosophical schools of the Mahayana were the Madhyamaka and the later Yogacara. 2nd—3rd century. and a Buddhist monk. and scholastic character of monastic Buddhism. This continues today with the Dharmaguptaka ordination lineage in East Asia. distinguishes Mahāyāna from Hīnayāna as follows:[161] Buddhas of Bamiyan: Vairocana before and after destruction by the Taliban in 2001 propagated into China by Lokakṣema. the future buddha Maitreya. we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side. Madhyamaka and Yogacara have a great deal in common. . or even lay-inspired and dominated. while those who do not perform these are called the Hīnayānists. four major types of thought developed: Madhyamaka. is that it was a lay-influenced. Yogacara. the first translator of Mahāyāna sūtras into Chinese during the 2nd century CE. along with texts concerning Akṣobhya Buddha. and Buddhist Logic as the last and most recent. left to right. Vajrayana Buddhism was influenced by Hinduism. Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts. and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to an early school. BUDDHISM A Buddhist triad depicting. which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India. movement that arose in response to the increasingly closed. however. a Kushan. This.[154] Paul Williams has also noted that the Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism. Those who venerate the bodhisattvas and read the Mahāyāna sūtras are called the Mahāyānists.[163][note 49] Late Mahayana Buddhism During the period of Late Mahayana Buddhism.. Musée Guimet “One of the most frequent assertions about the Mahayana . Therefore Mahāyāna was never a separate rival sect of the early schools. Gautama Buddha. The scriptures of Vajrayana have not yet been put in neighboring lands—particularly to the Iranian-speaking reany kind of order. gions of Afghanistan and Central Asia.4.4 Development of Buddhism Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia. in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China.5 Buddhism today supporter of the religion. according to Budthe 8th century onwards). The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas (Buddhist Main article: Timeline of Buddhism:Common Era religious memorials) and to efforts to spread Buddhism By the late Middle Ages. and to the island of Sri Lanka south 3. Mahayana Sutras spread to China. to Sri Lanka and Thailand and Burma and later also Indonesia. beyond the Mauryas’ northwest border. of India.[170] Buddhist proselytism at the time of emperor Ashoka (260–218 BCE). The Dharmagupta school spread (also in 3rd century BCE) north to Kashmir.[171][note 50] The first documented translation efforts by foreign Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE. (British Museum) time of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Menander. from Persian and Greek civilization. would ultimately lead. A Greek king. converted to the BudTibet and Mongolia. HISTORY 95 2. Buddhism spread from India to dhist tradition records in the Milinda Panha. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries. Ritual must be examined as well. During the Indian period of Esoteric Buddhism (from Coin depicting Indo-Greek king Menander. in opposite directions. The gradual spread of Buddhism into adjacent areas meant that it came into contact with new ethnical groups. and although it continued to exist in sur- . not just doctrine. Gandhara and Bactria (Afghanistan). to the emergence of 8. to changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions—themselves influenced by Buddhism. has even been immortalized in the Buddhist canon. particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire. though the literary sources are all open to question.4. and then to Korea and Japan. Main article: Timeline of Buddhism Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. emissaries were sent to various countries west of India to spread Buddhism (Dharma). These two missions. and were translated into Chinese. The Theravada school spread south from India in the 3rd century BCE.4. dhist faith and became an arhat in the 2nd century BCE . probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin.8. and even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. who was a public 8. Striking examples of this syncretistic development can be seen in the emergence of Greekspeaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE. and in the development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. According to the edicts of Aśoka. Buddhism had become virtually throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into extinct in India. and in the second case. who.[173] In the 2nd century CE. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences. Bhutan. and Tuva).96 CHAPTER 8. Thailand. Modern influences increasingly lead to new forms of Buddhism that significantly depart from traditional beliefs and practices. it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. China (particularly ment linking more than 12 million people around the world. and Russia (mainly Kalmykia. Laos. Taiwan. The 8. and the as such communities within Indochina. and the Sangha (the Buddhist community).[web 21] Map showing regions where Buddhism is a major religion Most Buddhist groups in the West are nominally affiliated with at least one of these three traditions: Overall there is an overwhelming diversity of recent forms of Buddhism. and Burma.[note 51] • Theravada Buddhism. Vietnam and Singapore are major con.[web 24] They are mostly followers of Chinese . A number of modern movements or tendencies in Bud• East Asian forms of Mahayana Buddhism that use dhism emerged during the second half of the 20th Century.6 Late 20th century Buddhist moveDalit Buddhist movement in India (inspired by B. BUDDHISM In a number of countries. Southeast Asia further development of various Western Buddhist tradiand the West. Soka Gakkai International (SGI) is a lay Buddhist moveArunachal Pradesh and Sikkim).[web 22] Formal membership varies between communities. its influence was no longer expanding. but basic lay adherence is often defined in terms of a traditional formula in which the practitioner takes refuge in The Three Jewels: the Buddha. China is the country with the largest population of Buddhists. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded.[web 23] 495 million. ments Ambedkar) also practices Theravada. Singapore and Vietnam as well times called 'neo-Buddhism'). Sri Lanka. the Dharma (the teachings of the Buddha).tions. Ladakh. the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world. Nepal.2% of its total population.[174][175] China and India are now starting to fund Buddhist shrines in various Asian countries as they compete for influence in the region. using Pāli as its scriptural language. is the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia. Buryat Buddhist monk in Siberia rounding countries. and is currently described as “the most diverse”[178] and “the Buryatia. approximately 244 million or 18. Korea. At the present time. While in the West Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive. Engaged Buddhism.5 Demographics Main article: Buddhism by country Buddhism is practiced by an estimated 488 million. It is now again gaining strength worldwide. in Nichiren Buddhism: Soka Gakkai (Value Creation SociMongolia. in Inner Mongolia). In the second half of the 20th Century a modern movement • Tibetan Buddhism is found in Tibet. significant population in Himachal Pradesh. centrations of Mahayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia. 8.[179] or 535 million[180] people as of the 2010s. including the Dalit Buddhist movement[176][177] (also someJapan. largest lay Buddhist movement in the world”. and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages.4. areas of India (it’s the majority religion in ety) emerged in Japan and spread further to other countries. representing 7% to 8% of the world’s total population. Chinese scriptures are dominant in most of China. in the East it is regarded as familiar and traditional. R. 18. but as this term is rooted in the Mahayana viewpoint and can be considered derogatory.2 million adherents. to 495 million in 2010. and Vajrayana has • Both accept the Buddha as their teacher. early Buddhist schools. Seven million additional Buddhists are found outside of Asia. Each tradi.[181] This classification is also used by some scholars[182] and is the one ordinarily used in the English language.1 Timeline This is a rough timeline of the development of the different schools/traditions: 8. • Both accept the Middle way. 8. Buddhism has the Four Noble Truths. also practiced in broader East comparisons can be drawn between them. 8. East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. • Both consider buddhahood the highest attainment. and generally closest to early Buddhism.[184] This school is derived from the Vibhajjavāda grouping that emerged amongst the older Sthavira group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c.[web 26] An alternative scheme used by some scholars[note 52] divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada. Young monks in Cambodia schools of Mahayana. Mahayana. and some orally transmitted for a few centuries. is followed by over half of world Buddhists. conservative Buddhism. including Śrāvakayāna. or treat the same concepts as central.8.6 Schools and traditions Main articles: Schools of Buddhism and Buddhahood Buddhists generally classify themselves as either Theravada or Mahayana. as of 2010. This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent. sectarian Buddhism. or “Ancient Doctrine”) is the oldest surviving Buddhist school.sively on the Pāli Canon and its commentaries.6. Hinayana (literally “lesser vehicle”) is used by Mahayana followers to name the family of early philosophical schools and traditions from which contemporary Theravada emerged.[179] sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi).2 Theravada school Main article: Theravada [note 53] Some scholars use other schemes. Asia. Theravada has 150 million adherents. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes. of • Both accept that members of the laity and of the which 487 million are in Asia. After being tion. dependent origination.6. its scriptures. does have its own core concepts. Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine excluoutlook.[web 25] according to one Buddhist ecumenical organization. According to Johnson and Grim (2013). 250 BCE). SCHOOLS AND TRADITIONS 97 % of population Buddhist 90-100 80-90 70-80 50-70 30-50 15-30 5-15 1-5 Percentage of Buddhists by country. Nikaya Buddhism. Theravada (“Doctrine of the Elders”. It is relatively conservative. a variety of other terms are increasingly used instead. the Pali . however.[web 27] According to a demographic analysis reported by Peter several concepts common to both major Buddhist branches: Harvey (2013):[180] Mahayana has 360 million adherents. For example. making this the largest body of Buddhist traditions. of the Three marks of existence. but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.6. which 137 million were in Asia. according to the Pew Research Center. mainstream Buddhism and non-Mahayana Buddhism. the Noble Eightfold Path and grown from a total of 138 million adherents in 1910. Chinese and Central Asian monks. Laypersons can perform good actions. were finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE. during the dynasty of the Guptas. peculiar to Japan. they form separate denominations with the five major ones China. cially Son (Zen). Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka. Singapore. The Sutta collections and Vinaya texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka). the most traditions. Tōyō Bunko) a form of Vajrayana.6. (National Institute of Informatics and the being: Nichiren. the Lotus Sutra and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra) to lay the foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself. and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras (e. In Japan in particular. which is officentury CE onwards. Laos. Japan.[186] In most of this area however. Thailand. but is discussed below under the heading of Vajrayana (also commonly referred to as “Northern Buddhism”). Vietnam. Eastern Tarim Basin. and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin. and Zen. Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the Mahayana Sutras.”. producing merit. Malaysia and Bangladesh. Tendai. and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. the Himalayan regions. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism. nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school. Theravadin Buddhists think that personal effort is required to realize rebirth. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet. at what the Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing. Shingon. parts of Russia and most of Vietnam (also commonly referred to as “Eastern Buddhism”). Korea. Pure Land. Monks follow the vinaya: meditating. are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature. but with substantial elements from other Mahāyāna centres of learning were established. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself. teaching and serving their lay communities. important one being the Nālandā University in northeastern India. Bezeklik.g.[185] 8. In Korea.[187] . of which “the Pure Land school of Mahayana is the most widely practised today. they are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. BUDDHISM Canon. Burma. Cambodia as well as small portions of China. in Sri Lanka.98 CHAPTER 8.3 Mahayana traditions Main article: Mahayana Mahayana Buddhism flourished in India from the 5th Japanese Mahayana Buddhist monk with alms bowl Native Mahayana Buddhism is practiced today in China. 9th–10th century. It has a growing presence in the west. [188] Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements. but as these are esoteric teachings. Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras.6. 8. Buddhist scriptures are mainly In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises written in Pāli. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves. Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur. In Tibet. With the fall of the Gupta dynasty. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century.[189] In addition to the Mahāyāna scriptures. Tibet. Fairfield University professor Ronald M. they were passed on orally first and only written down long after the Buddha’s other teachings.4 99 Vajrayana traditions on the subject. These practices. Vajrayana Buddhism became extinct in China but survived in elements of Japan’s Shingon and Tendai sects. and Chinese. In the Tibetan tradition. Tibetan.7. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reMain article: Vajrayana action to the changing political climate in India at the time. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice. BUDDHIST TEXTS 8. scriptures and theories were transmitted to China. institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage. some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature. Some . while a vast amount of what is considered Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition. Main article: Buddhist texts Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. The Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism spread to China. Nepal Mongolia. while others take a more scholastic approach. it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment. Vajrayana has always been a main component of Tibetan Buddhism. it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra. and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon. Kathmandu. and the folk movement led by siddhas became more prominent. Indochina and Southeast Asia. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the various texts. Mongolian. in an increasingly fractious political environment. while in China it formed a separate sect. There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its tantric practice started. However.8. a number of which had already existed for centuries. After perhaps two hundred years. and Tibet.7 Buddhist texts Boudhanath. various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of various other subjects. a monk named have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer Mahākāśyapa (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. teaching. non-sectarian body of could be studied by novice monks. then. as well as explanations of why and how these rules were instituted. this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting. was called upon to recite the dhamma. while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own vinaya.featuring much of the same material.100 CHAPTER 8. However. the major principles of Buddhism. and Mahīśāsaka schools.. Both the sūtras and the vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma. Other such efforts have persisted to present day. such as the Tao Te Ching. Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures. more advanced doctrines. the teachings. the Sutta Pitaka. In the Theravada tra. along with other. The goal of Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider the council was to record the Buddha’s teachings. and doctrinal clarification. dant. BUDDHISM texts still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. which means “three baskets”. Dharmaguptaka. According to Peter Harvey.1 Pāli Tipitaka hayana accept both the early teachings (including in this the Sarvastivada Abhidharma. Accordthey recognize them) and they play no part in the reli. cosmological and cosmogonical texts. The Mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of Buddhist scriptures that the Mahayana Buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of the Buddha. combined document of Buddhist principles in “The Buddha and His 8. The Abhidhamma The Mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the Buddha’s deeper. and the Abhidhamma persons and different levels of spiritual understanding. Ānanda. and Over the years. commentaries on other teachings. However. Kāśyapīya. supporting material. Upāli understanding of Buddhist philosophy. Some adherents of Ma8. the first Buddhist council was held. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single.7. which was criticized by NagarMain article: Pāli Canon juna and is in fact opposed to early Buddhist thought)[195] and the Mahayana sutras as authentic teachings of Gautama The Pāli Tipitaka. that is universally referred to by all traditions. soon after the death of the Budcore. even translated most of the āgamas (though theoretically most of which survive in Chinese translation only. recited the vinaya. but a number first four Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka as the common core of early schools had their own recensions of the Tipitaka of all Buddhist traditions. along with other classics of some time. refers to Buddha. The Tibetan Buddhists have not mitya.” Eastern philosophy. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit. it contains material at odds with later Theravadin orthodoxy.[191] five or seven pitakas. the Buddha’s personal attenThe followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative.Main article: Mahayana sutras dhist traditions. reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path. the Great . and claim they were designed for different types of the Vinaya Pitaka. are known to the other schools as the āgamas. and was committed to text in the last century BCE. Theravadins. The Pāli Tipitaka is the only early Tipitaka (Sanskrit: Tripsome scholars have referred to the Vinaya Pitaka and the iṭaka) to survive intact in its original language. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. as Mahāyāna considers these merely a preliminary.Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically “Therdition. the Tipitakas of the Sārvāstivāda. That path is explained as being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. but is instead the collection of teachings that this popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that school preserved from the early. some early schools of Buddhism had gious life of either clergy or laity in China and Japan.2 Mahayana sutras Dhamma”. into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the 1920s. Buddhism has no single central text positions of the Gautama Buddha’s teachings. but currently there is no single text that represents all Bud.[190] This could be considered mis. He states: “The Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.[193] Other scholars say there is no universally accepted common According to the scriptures. The Vinaya Pitaka contains disciplinary rules for the Buddhist monks and nuns. may have added texts to the Canon for with with the emphasis on Zen. The Pāli sutras. Later in Sri Lanka. Dr. Samand not a core. Mahāsaṅghika.[192] The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons dha. condensed 'study texts’ were created that combined avadin”. closely related scriptures. but they do not appear to have tampered [194] what they already had from an earlier period. Pitaka. More recently. We have portions of leading. stories of the Gautama Buddha’s previous lives. Pitaka contains material often described as systematic exUnlike many religions.7. The Sutta Pitaka contains discourses ascribed to Gautama Buddha.ing to some sources. came from other Buddhas or Buddhism as the Hinayāna. at exactly the same period. had not been sufficiently addhism’s emphasis on the Middle way not only provides a vanced to understand them. It was not sources commonly refer to Buddhism as a religion. For ex- . Many scriptures composed in the 1st century BCE. the Mahayana sutras . East Asian Buddhism recognizes some sutras regarded been compared to modern scientific thought. Vehicle). and did not refer to any definite grouping are those held genuine by the later school. at least in India..[197] Some of our sources maintain the authenticJonathan Silk has argued that the term “Hinayana” was ity of certain other texts not found in the canons used to refer to whomever one wanted to criticize on any of these schools (the early schools). were historically included in the hinayana designation. [The Buddha’s] followers on earth. These texts given occasion. and is generally avoided. the Inferior Way. As the modern Theravada school is descended from a branch of Buddhism that diverged and The Tripiṭaka Koreana in South Korea.8. Western metaphysics. or were preserved in non-human worlds bederance of this name in the secondary literature is far out cause human beings at the time could not understand of proportion to occurrences in the Indian texts.8 Comparative studies tedly unknown to the early schools of Buddhists. scholars conclude that the Mahayana scriptures were composed from the 1st century CE onwards: “Large numbers of Mahayana sutras were being composed in the 8. this label is seen as derogatory. Only the Theravada school does not include the Mahayana scriptures in its canon.[157] five centuries after the historical There are differences of opinion on the question of whether Gautama Buddha. debate exists as to whether the Theravada blocks. its moral and spiritual parallels with other systems of thought—for example. customs various supernatural beings and then preserved in and institutions in countries where it has resided throughsuch places as the Dragon World. and old and established Hinnayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported. In adin Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations. not one of Buddhists.1 Is Buddhism a religion? period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century”. the pejorative label Hinayana was applied by Mahayana supporters to those who rejected the Mahayana sutras.8. very different—in fact seemingly older— ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior. but they were taught to to peacefully coexist with various differing beliefs. which arrogated to itself the title of Mahayana.” She notes them:[196] } that the term Śrāvakayāna was “the more politically correct and much more usual” term used by Mahāyānists. an edition of the Chinese established itself in Sri Lanka prior to the emergence of the Buddhist canon carved and preserved in over 81. COMPARATIVE STUDIES 101 until after the 5th century CE that the Mahayana sutras started to influence the behavior of mainstream Buddhists in India: “But outside of texts.” “the preponBodhisattvas.. For example. In addidition. Scholar Isabelle Onians asserts that although “the Mahāyāna According to Mahayana tradition. with various tenets Approximately six hundred Mahayana sutras have survived of Christianity—have been subjects of close study. However. 'Great Vehicle'. the study with a diverse range of subjects.8. Budsravakas ('pupils’). and hence were not unique guideline for ethics but has also allowed Buddhism given them to remember. they had all been promulgated by the Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative Buddha.”[157] These texts were apparently not universally accepted among Indian Buddhists when they appeared. out its history. According to the Mahayana historians these texts were admit8. Generally. Also. Some of these had their roots in other or not Buddhism should be considered a religion. very occasionally referred contemptuously to earlier were transmitted in secret. in the modern era. as well as by scholars as of Chinese rather than Indian origin. the Buddhist concept of dependent origination has tion.000 wood printing Mahayana texts.[198] of the eighteen. with this conviction I try to have closer ties with scientists.. Therefore.”[201] • B. psychology.. What is certain. 'Buddhas’. BUDDHISM philosophical elements. and among the various schools of Buddhism itself. are essential in religion. although we intuitively think that some such beings.. [. Buddhism views activities that would be generally understood as religious—such as devotional practices and rituals—as a legitimate. Buddhism can be a bridge between these two sides. useful. But Buddhism has never been simply a religion as we define it in the West. for example. it took over 2.. superhuman agents. On the other hand. as Edward Conze has pointed out. Another possibility is that our original definition is simply too narrow. From the very beginning it has also had • Damien Keown states: “Problems [. or 'buddhahood'. and even essential part of the practice and training that leads to the cessation of suffering. For example: • Surya Das states: “For Buddhism is less a theology or religion than a promise that certain meditative practices and mind trainings can effectively show us how to awaken our Buddha-nature and liberate us from suffering and confusion..”[199] • Joseph Goldstein states: “Although there are many difference among the various religions of the world. Kōtoku-in in Japan ample: • Peter Harvey states: “The English term 'Buddhism' correctly indicates that the religion is characterized by devotion to 'the Buddha'. nor does it seek to define itself by reference to a creed. As is well-known.”[205] • Ilkka Pyysiäinen states: “There are thus great difficulties involved in conceptualizing religion as belief in god(s).000 years and a couple of Western converts to Buddhism to provide it with a creed. [. calling it simply a 'religion. Is it a religion? A philosophy? A way of life? A code of ethics? It is not easy to classify Buddhism as any of these things. do we mean by 'religion'? Most people would say that religion has something to do with belief in God.] If belief in God in this sense is the essence of religion. then Buddhism cannot be a religion. from another viewpoint Buddhism is a science of mind and not a religion.”[200] Other sources note that the answer to this question depends upon how religion is defined. neurobiology and physics. nevertheless. and it challenges us to rethink some of these categories.[204] • The Dalai Lama states: “From one viewpoint.'"[202] • Rupert Gethin states: “I am not concerned here to pronounce on a question that is sometimes asked of Buddhism: is it a religion? Obviously it depends on how one defines 'a religion'. What. Buddhism is a religion.” and “Buddhism does not have to be the problematic touchstone for a global concept of religion. and to a certain extent we can work together. as well as empirical and rational elements that may invite the term 'science...”[206] • Martin Southwold states: “It is argued that Buddhism.”[203] The Great Buddha of Kamakura.] confront us as soon as we try to define what Buddhism is. mainly in the fields of cosmology. Buddhism is the favorite example of scholars who have argued that we should find some other way of defining religion than the one based on the idea of belief in gods or superhuman beings. . however. is that Buddhism does not involve belief in a creator God who has control over human destiny.] Some have suggested that a new category – that of the 'non-theistic' religion – is needed to encompass Buddhism..'.102 CHAPTER 8... Alan Wallace states: “When we in the West first engage with Buddhism.. there is also a great deal in common. In these fields there are insights to share. it is almost inevitable that we bring out one of our familiar stereotypes and apply it to Buddhism. etc. not religious. (2009). CRITICISM 103 system for training your mind. from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition [2] Earlier Buddhist texts refer to five realms rather than six realms. resembles other religions in depending on mystical notions. The name one gives it is inessential. then you should realize that the path the Buddha taught is primarily a study of your own mind and a • Easily confused Buddhist representations • Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand • Index of Buddhism-related articles • Indian religions • List of books related to Buddhism • List of Buddhist temples • Nonviolence 8. Sectarian labels are a hindrance to the independent understanding of Truth. In the same way Truth needs no label: it is neither Buddhist. when described as five realms. .[web 29] Some Marxist groups have criticized Buddhism for causing Tibet to have an undeveloped. not heaven. Christian.”[208] • Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche states: “If you are interested in 'meeting the Buddha' and following his example. Retrieved November 26. agrarian economy.10 See also • Outline of Buddhism • Buddhism by country • Buddhism and science • Buddhist Bráhmans Czech Buddhists • Chinese folk religion • Dharma Drum Retreat Center though non-theistic. and they produce harmful prejudices in men’s minds. it is shown how this contributes to understanding the social functions of religions.” [web 28] 8. And it is deeply personal. Buddhism remains what it is whatever label you may put on it. not salvation.”[207] • Walpola Rahula states: “The question has often been asked: Is Buddhism a religion or a philosophy? It does not matter what you call it. It is not the monopoly of anybody. Its goal is self-knowledge.9 Criticism Main article: Criticism of Buddhism Friedrich Nietzsche criticized Buddhism for promoting what he saw as nihilism.11 Notes [1] “Buddhism”. This path is spiritual. freedom. 2009. Hindu nor Moslem. In Encyclopædia Britannica.9. Even the label 'Buddhism' which we give to the teaching of the Buddha is of little importance.8.[web 30] 8. the god realm and demi-god realm constitute a single realm. What’s in a name? That which we call a rose. The label is immaterial. By any other name would smell as sweet. [5] For clarification of translations. Chapter 2 [9] Thanissaro Bhikkhu.. Other “applications” of what might be termed “mundane dependent origination” include the nine-nidana scheme of Digha Nikaya 15 (e. see Bodhi. 223: “There are only five destinies . [13] Prebish comments (op. In . accusations.. The cultural context. same foods.” The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions. but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts. then begins a numbered list of doctrines over the following pages. Thanissaro. same lifespan as the petas.2nd century BCE).g.. same foods. Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes: ".23 (e.g. they marry.. In Encyclopædia Britannica.”[81] [15] Buddhism: The foundations of Buddhism. zazen) is an expression of Buddha nature. The Not-Self Strategy. In particular.” [22] Padmanabh S. Retrieved 19-07-2009. So-called “transcendental dependent origination” (also involving twelve nidanas) is described in Samyutta Nikaya 12.. [10] This twelve nidana scheme can be found. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times. As for the Vepacittiparisa. It is just our direct awakening to Self . Challenges to Brahmanism (6th . divisive speech. like that of the transmigration of soul.. from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition [16] Encyclopædia Britannica Online.” [18] Crawford states:[89] “Alongside Brahmanism was the nonAryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times. Jaini states:[93] “Yajnavalkya’s reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was. 212 says: “Here are the theses of the Theravadins of the Mahavihara". same lifespan as the gods. Thanissaro. [8] Rahula: What the Buddha Taught. Speaking of Zen in general. including on p. of non-brahmanical origin."(Translated from the French)[25] [4] See the article Four Noble Truths for further details and citations. same nourishment. cit. the section "The four truths" within that article provides a footnote showing variety of translations of these four statements.e.. with whom they marry. [17] According to Masih:[88] “There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices.. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. Retrieved 19-07-2009.65 (e. and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration.2. and disputes.. but that in this context the terms is more generic than simply (male) “monks” and refers to all practitioners.. The Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of re-birth after coming in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India.[78] [12] According to Charles S.' He traces them particularly in the older Upanishads. In addition.104 [3] André Bareau: the top of p. Prebish:[79] “Although a variety of Zen 'schools’ developed in Japan. Jainism and Buddhism. conflicts. Digha Nikaya 15 describes an eleven-nidana scheme (starting with “feeling”) that leads to interpersonal suffering (“the taking up of sticks and knives. vedic deities or caste.”[80] [14] Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder. 244): “It presumes that sitting in meditation itself (i.” [19] Masih:[90] “This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-vedics like Ajivikism.. 1997c). Thanissaro. Hinduism: History of Hinduism: The Vedic period (2nd millennium . Linji.” [21] Flood:[92] “The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating amongst sramanas. they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts. Wayman also found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension in ancient India and calls them the traditions of 'truth and silence. According to this view. and lies”) [11] Shaw also notes that discourses on meditation are addressed to “bhikkhave”. See Point 3 – The Canon quote Thanissaro Bhikkhu draws attention to is the Sabbasava Sutta. the kalakanjika asuras have the same colour. [7] See the article Four Noble Truths for further details and citations. and that this is confirmed by Buddhaghosa.”. practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment. 1995).g. Early Hinduism (2nd century BCE . that provides the potential for direct realization... It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. with whom . they have the same colour. p. is our natural state..] accepted the doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith.. Certainly Jainism and non-vedics [. for instance.4th century CE). CHAPTER 8. see Dukkha#Translating the term dukkha. in multiple discourses in chapter 12 of the Samyutta Nikaya— Nidana Vagga (e. Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time.” [20] Karel Werner:[91] “Rahurkar speaks of them as belonging to two distinct 'cultural strands’ . 1997a). that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being . quarrels. [6] See the article Dukkha for further details and citations. in early Buddhism.. 1997b) and the ten-nidana scheme of Samyutta Nikaya 12. but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations.. BUDDHISM the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature. and in some later literature. see SN 12..g. same nourishment. Hisamatsu states: “Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'.7th century BCE). Dharmaguptaka and other schools.8.. Vâmadevo.[114][115] and the Chinese Agamas and other surviving portions of other early canons. p. and the matters that I have come to know fully as I was going along it. Retrieved 19-07-2009. Mulasarvastivada. as already pointed out.K. well made manifest for gods and men. and Bhagu" in P. Gombrich: “The brahmin by caste alone. Mahisasaka. seen an ancient way. [34] Richard Gombrich: “I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius.”[95] [25] Encyclopædia Britannica Online.”[43] [35] A proponent of Davidson. monks. [39] Bronkhorst: “This position is to be preferred to (ii) for purely methodological reasons: only those who seek nay find.. By “the main edifice” I mean the collections of the main body of sermons. is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator' (ajhāyaka).” [24] Kashi Nath Upadhyaya: “The sudden appearance of this theory [of karma] in a full-fledged form is likely due. Warder. 25.Along that have I done.[125][note 38] [38] J. and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers. transmitted and developed by his disciples and.32.”[131] [42] Majjhima Nikaya 36 [43] Vetter: [T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths. I have told to the monks. Volume 1 edited by Hermann Oldenberg [28] Hāṇḍā: “Even so have I. Samsara and Moksa into the vedic thought implying a disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the mendicancy as an ideal. the four Nikāyas. Brahmins who have memorized the three Vedas (tevijja) really know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment — what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of that night—which constitutes the true 'three knowledges. if not impossible..166.15. finally. “the karma doctrine may have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology. De Jong: “It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism [. this Brahma-faring brahmacharya that is prosperous and flourishing. NOTES view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures. [26] R.35) kimkusalagavesi anuttaram santivarapadam .”[127] [41] According to Schmithausen. [31] Exemplary studies are the study on descriptions of “liberating insight” by Lambert Schmithausen. p.[119] the overview of early Buddhism by Tilmann Vetter. [30] The surviving portions of the scriptures of Sarvastivada. his publisher: “This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period before th great schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. to recover or reconstruct. Buddhism: The foundations of Buddhism. [37] Well-known proponent of the third position are J.] the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha].[117] the philological work on the four truths by K. Vâmako..K.W. in his 1970 publication “Indian Buddhism”.163.”[111] [29] Encyclopædia Britannica Online.. the teacher of the Veda. 245 The Vinaya piṭakaṃ: one of the principle Buddhist holy scriptures . nuns. Vessâmitto. even monks. Vâsettho. de Jong.[note 36] the second position is Ronald [36] Ronald Davidson: “While most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed)(sic) that a relatively early community (disputed)(sic) maintained and transmitted. even if no success is guaranteed."|name=buddhismintro|"Buddhism”.q. but by practicing the fourth noble truth. It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself.[120] the textual studies by Richard Gombrich. Norman. and of the main body of monastic rules. to an impact of the wandering muni-andshramana-cult. c. 165.. Angiraso.11. of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historic Buddha. Kassapo. coming down from the pre-Vedic non-Aryan time. we have little confidence that much. if any.” [23] Govind Chandra Pande:[94] “Early Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate these ideals of Karma. 147. although this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha..W.[138] [44] Vetter: “I am especially thinking here of MN 26 (I p.F.[121] [32] Well-known proponents of the first position are A.[123] According to Warder. Yamataggi. Retrieved 19-072009. which culminates in right samadhi. the cultural context. Vedic religion. it is highly probable that it was derived from them.. from the oldest extant texts a common kernel can be drawn out. men and women lay-followers."]]s largely based on [[Original Teachings Warder.'"[103] [27] “Atthako.Jong 1993.”[126] [40] Lopez: “The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult. Warder[note 33] 105 [33] According to A. & 1999 inside flap. codified in fixed formulas. Bhâradvâjo. an ancient road followed by the wholly awakened ones of olden time. widespread and widely known become popular in short.R."}}{{sfn|Wells|2008|p=}}{{sfn|Roach|2Davidson 2003. the eighfold path.[43] and the research on early meditation methods by Johannes Bronkhorst. sv Councils. anuttaramyagakkhemam nibbiinam pariyesati (he seeks the unsurpassable safe place. p. p. Furthermore. 82. 32: “…[T]he best we can say is that [the Buddha] was probably Enlightened between 550 and 450. [49] “The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras” Warder[164] [50] See Hill (2009). p. Prebish & Keown. also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism". 275f. pp. p..” Embree et al. BUDDHISM pariyesamano (searching for that which is beneficial. p. pp. the multi-dimensional classification in Encyclopedia of Religion[183] [54] Cousins.S. p. p. and. p. pp. pp. 1. [21] Keown 1996. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.. Buddhist (1988/2002). 139-40. p. SN 2. 2006 [53] See e. and p. [8] Swearer 2004. 100-1. p. (2) “The East Asian tradition of China.(Gombrich. [12] Armstrong 2004. Penguin handbook of Living Religions. 212–223. 74. [3] Lopez 2001. Keown & Prebish (2004). “East Asian Buddhism” and “Buddhism Comes West. Buswell (2003). 33. The oldest term was perhaps amata (immortal. best place of peace) and again MN 26 (passim). [11] Carrithers 1986. p. [4] Gethin 1998. also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism. 177. p. p. seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian. [14] Kohn 1991. p. China. 31 for a translation of it. (3) “The Tibetan tradition. 49. pp. p. 711. 1000-1200: Buddhism disappears as [an] organized religious force in India. [10] Lopez 1995. pp. [18] Harvey 1990. p.” Encyclopædia Britannica.] but one could say here that it is a negative term. 267. also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism". 73–74. [22] Harvey 1990. 10.g. Ultimate Reference Suite. and Vietnam. the nirvana). Part Two is entitled “The Development of Buddhism Outside of India” with chapters on “The Buddhism of Southeast Asia”. [15] Keown 2003. I.106 CHAPTER 8. for the Chinese text from the Hou Hanshu. p. p. p. and Southeast Asia. 248. 107. 107. [20] Lopez 1995. (1958/1988). xii. [16] Skilton 1997. Introducing Buddhism. Gethin (1998). [24] Harvey 1990. volume XVI. seeking the unsurpassable. 30. [23] Buswell 2004. “Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area”. Japan. pp. and.”[139] [45] Encyclopedia of Religion. p. 2005. but came from China. 239. more likely later rather than earlier. whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema. [17] Kasulis 2006. 143. Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled “The Buddhism of South Asia” (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India). in contrast to other places. 8.g. Anuppattasadattho (one who has reached the right goal) is also a vague positive expression in the Arhatformula in MN 35 (I p. [19] Payne 2006. page 270 [52] (Harvey 1990). 16.” See also. [5] Williams 1998. although by that time it had spread to Tibet. ebook. [6] Robinson 1998. Macmillan. p. 27–28. 40. 1984. Japan.1984). [2] Roach 2011.12 or 2.". 105 [47] “Abhidhamma Pitaka. p. as used in Sn 439 and 956. 2008 [48] “The most important evidence — in fact the only evidence — for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all. Robinson & Johnson (1970/1982). Vol.[172] [51] See Philosophy East and West. and. identifies “three broad traditions” as: (1) “The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. satthi (welfare) is important in e. page 279. Journal of Buddhist Ethics. p. . (1996). 34. printed ed. 1-12. p. [25] Bareau 1955. footnote 3. Korea.”[162] [1] Wells 2008. xxix: “c.” p. [7] Padmasambhava 2004. Harvey (1990/2007). See also. Gombrich [9] Buswell 2004. L. 235). see chapter 2.17 or Sn 269. p. 25. “Chronology. 352. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE. and. Harper. 1–2. [13] Gombrich 1988. New York. volume 54. 108 Fig.” [55] Williams (2000.12 References [46] See Journal of the Pāli Text Society. immortality) [. 6-7) writes: “As a matter of fact Buddhism in mainland India itself had all but ceased to exist by the thirteenth century CE. and sukha and rati (happiness). 111. there was a small. xx. 57. [69] Kanno 2004. [72] Morgan 2007. p. 36. [68] Sebastian 2005. 184. [94] Pande 1994. 22. p. [28] Ajahn Sucitto 2010. pp. p. [84] Williams 1989. [32] Chodron 2002. 4-12. [61] Gombrich 1988. 135. [81] Hisamatsu 2002. . 396. p. [33] Kohn 1991. p. [57] Wynne 2007. p. 53-54. [39] Harvey 1990. [30] Armstrong 2004. [67] Sebastian 2005. [55] Dumoulin 1988. p.143. [36] Harvey 1990. 73. p. 30. p. p. p. [50] Mall 2005. 56. [82] Uchiyama 1993. [65] Wynne 2007. [51] Hirakawa 1993. pp. 502. [59] Carrithers 1986. p. 170. [76] Harvey 1990. p. p. [71] McFarlane 2001. [29] Gethin 1998. 187. pp. p. [46] Mizuno 1996. [42] Williams 2000. [52] Conze 2001. [88] Masih 2000. [79] Prebish 1993. 51. p. [60] Wynne 2007. [83] Harvey 1990. 708f. [37] Harvey 1990. 86. [58] Wynne 2007. p. p. 56. p. p. p. p. [64] Wynne 2007. pp. 37. [74] Wallace 2007.12. 8. pp.8. p. 114–116. p. p. xv. [34] Prebish 1993. 34. 76. [92] Flood 1996. [54] Harvey 1990. [35] Keown 2003. [93] Jaini 2001. 82. [41] Lindtner 1997. [86] Gethin 2008. 287. 72. 81. p. 67. p. p. 174. p. p. [80] Hodge 2002. [66] Nanamoli 1995. 87-88. 195-196. p. [95] Upadhyaya 1998. 83. 40. 1-17. p. p. pp. 161. 46. [40] Harvey 1990. [89] Crawford 1972. [45] Gombrich 1997. 12–13. p. [31] Nhat Hahn. p. p. [75] Welch 1967. REFERENCES 107 [26] Buswell 2004. [27] Bodhi 2000. [56] Miller 1996. 147. p. pp. p. [91] Werner 1989. p. 2001. 781. 37. [38] Harvey 1990. p. p. [90] Masih 2000. [49] Nattier 2003. p. [44] Gombrich 1999. p. [85] Keown 2004. 165f. 18. 59. 13. 82. 32. 58. [48] Gyatso 1995. p. [53] Gyatso 1995. [77] Keown 2007. 57. p. [47] Buddhaghosa 1991. 89. p. 199. 98. p. p. pp. 324. p. 131. p. p. 46. 297. p. [70] McFarlane 2001. p. p. 144. 377. [43] Gombrich 1997. pp. 51. 44. 77. 62–63. p. [63] Collins 2000. [78] Shaw 2006. [87] Warder 2000. p. 105. 185. 1. [62] Bronkhorst 1993. 60. [73] Gombrich 1988. pp. [107] Hardy 1866. p. 26. [113] Warder 2000. 35. viii. [103] Gombrich 2006. [117] Vetter 1988. 74. [110] Wynne 2007. 206-207. p. 25. [112] Rāhula 1974. p. p. [137] Gombrich 1997. [127] Lopez 1995. p. p. 237–272. 253. p. [126] Bronkhorst 1997. p. [138] Vetter 1988. [148] Skorupski 1990. 260. [164] Warder 2000. 263. 11. p. [133] Bronkhorst 1998. [140] Bronkhorst 1993. 59. p. pp. 61. pp. 38-39. p. p. . pp. 8. 44. 4. p. 4-5. [119] Schmithausen 1981. [102] Rahula 1974. [158] Nattier 2003. 21. p. [161] Williams 2008. [122] Bronkhorst 1993. p. p. 29. [105] Hardy 1863. pp. p.5 [131] Schmithausen 1986. [151] Nattier 1977. [160] Williams 2000. 39. [163] Hirakawa 1993. 34. pp. 271. vii. [135] Norman 1997. xv. 13. [165] Hirakawa 1993.108 CHAPTER 8. [136] Vetter 1988. 7. 193-194. 99-100. p. p. 335. 494. pp. 58. vii. 33. 41-42. 124. [106] Rhys Davids 1921. [111] Hāṇḍā 1984. [99] Warder 2000. 9-10. [147] Mitchell 2002. [157] Buswell 2004. 107. 5. 485. [156] Hirakawa 1993. [155] Hirakawa 1993. p. p. [132] Bronkhorst 1998. p. p. p.9. 3. p. [115] Warder 1999. [159] Williams 2008. 14. [142] Bronkhorst 1993. [149] Bronkhorst 1998. [109] Carrithers 1983. pp. [128] Matthews 1986. pp. [120] Norman 1992. 131. [100] Warder 2000. p. 4.1. [162] Buswell 2004. [104] Gombrich 1988. [154] Keown 1996. [123] Warder & 1999 inside flap. [146] Hirakawa 1993. 102-111. pp. [129] Schmithausen 1986.8. 5. p. [141] Anderson 1999. xxxiv-xxxvii. p. [121] Bronkhorst 1997. p. p. [153] Keown 2004. p. [108] Gombrich 1997. p. 28. p. p. [97] Oldenberg 1991. 30-32. [125] Jong 1993. 97. [98] Bronkhorst 2007. p. 120. p. [150] Schopen 2002. pp. 16. 492. [118] Schmithausen 1990. ix. 5. [144] Norman 1997. 57. [152] Harvey 1990. [101] Warder 2000. [139] Vetter 1988. pp. p. [145] Norman 1997. 108. [114] Vetter 1988. p. 177. BUDDHISM [96] Satapatha Brahmana 13. p. 268. 494. pp. [134] Bronkhorst 1998. [116] Bronkhorst 1993. p. [124] Bronkhorst 1997. [143] Bronkhorst 1993. [130] Bronkhorst 1998. 85. pp. p. p. p. 9. The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. MacMillan Reference Books. 16. p. [167] Lusthaus 2002. Bhikkhu (2000). pp. [180] Harvey 2013. Greater Magadha. p. Studies the Culture of Early India. pp. p. pp. Pali Text Society 1991. pp. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. 94-105. [189] Prebish 2006. 27. p. “Did the Buddha Believe in Karma and Rebirth?". [188] Davidson 2003. p. [208] Keown 2000. 72. [181] Keown 1996. [187] Buswell 2004. The World of Buddhism. pp. [197] Onians 2001. p. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.) (2004). [174] Henderson 2002. Karen (2004). p. 1. p. Theravada Buddhism. ISBN 0500250898 • Bodhi. [202] Goleman 2008. [199] Harvey 1990. 23. p. [203] Gethin 1998. Michael (1983).13 Sources [176] Paranjpe 1998. 68. Richard. pp. 114. Johannes (1993). 30-31. . ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9 • Buswell. p. [177] Pavāra 2009. 2006. Kindle Locations 361-372. page 1 [185] Hawkins 1999. [184] Gethin. pp. [170] Gombrich. p.2. SOURCES 109 [166] Harvey 1990. [200] Goldstein 2011. pp. Robert E. 22-27. Gombrich. Brill Academic Publishers Inc. Walpola Rahula 2007. The Dispeller of delusion (Sammohavinodani). [168] Harvey 1990. [195] Kalupahana 1966. 435. Turning the Wheel of Truth: Commentary on the Buddha’s First Teaching. [179] Johnson 2013. 12. xiv. Heinz. [190] Warder 2000. [193] Skilling 1992. p. The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India. 8. p. Foundations. p. 89. pp. [182] Smith 2006. ISBN 978-0-02865718-9 • Carrithers. p. Penguin Press. vi. (1984). 65-66. 42. [196] Warder 2000. André (1955). 440ff. 5. 147–171. 4. ISBN 0861713311 • Bronkhorst. New York: Oxford University Press. 236-237. pp. [206] [172] Hill 2009. Buddha. xv–xviii. p. Series: Handbook of Oriental Studies. 95. 34–37. 113. 101. p. ISBN 978-90-04-11519-4 • Buddhaghosa (1991). [183] Eliade 1987. p. [191] Eliot 1935.13. Johannes (2007). (ed. Wisdom Publications.Thames & Hudson. p. ed. 430. [192] Gethin 2008. 16. 88. Saigon: École Française d'Extrême-Orient • Bechert. 2nd ed. Pyysiäinen 2003. [204] page 135 [205] [171] Zürcher 1972. • Ajahn Sucitto (2010). Pinburn 1990. [169] Hirakawa 1993. [201] Lama Surya Das 1997. [207] [173] Zürcher 1972. p. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. [198] Silk 2005. [186] Clarke 2009. 335-405. [194] Harvey 1995. [178] Métraux 2010. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 21 (1). Section 2 South Asia Series.8. 1-20 • Bronkhorst. p. p. • Bronkhorst. Johannes (1998). Oxford [England]. Kindle Locations 316-323. Southwold 1978. Routledge. Vol. 86. The Buddha. 351. Shambhala • Armstrong. ISBN 0-14-303436-7 • Bareau. Kindle Locations 1301-1305. p. pp. 9. p. 'Les Sectes bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule. [175] Tamney 1998. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. 362–379. ISBN 019283066X • Chodron. New York: Oxford University Press. Peter . Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement. Adams. (1996). (ed.C. Destructive Emotions: A Scientific Dialogue with the Dalai Lama.. doi:10. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Les rapports de l'Inde et de l'Occident des origines au règne d'Asoka. (2001).com • Gyatso. Founders of faith. “Review: Brahmanism. ISBN 0-19-289223-1 • Gethin. Rupert (2008). ISBN 0-521-43878-0 • Gethin. ISBN 1-84483-125-6 • Cousins. ISBN 0674001877 • Conze. Grey Fox Press • Coogan. Mindfulness in Plain English.110 • Carrithers. Edward. printed at the Wesleyan mission Press . Cambridge University Press. Bantam. S. (ed. (1997). Mircea. An Introduction to Hinduism. Julian Press.). Introduction to Buddhism: An Explanation of the Buddhist Way of Life. Hay (ed. “The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article”. The Places that Scare You: A Guide to Fearlessness in Difficult Times. Theodore de Bary (ed. ed.. p. Randall (2000). (1988). • Goldstein. What Makes You Not a Buddhist. Oxford [England]. 1. The Illustrated Guide to World ReligionsThe Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary. Michael (1986). Sources of Indian Tradition: From the Beginning to 1800. The World’s Religions: continuities and transformations.D. HarperCollins • Goleman.1017/S1356186300014760.) (2009). Michael D. Richard F. 8 volumes. Routledge.C.” insert “Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B. Geshe Kelsang (2008). Sayings of the Buddha.). How Buddhism Began. ISBN 0-23112619-0 • de Give. none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B. ISBN 818518299X • Hardy. a comprehensive review of Buddhist history. Bernard (2006). Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China). (ed. upto 8th century A.” • Crawford. The Illustrated Guide to World Religions. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies. Stephen N. Knitter. Oxford University Press. in Williams. New York: Macmillan • Eliot. London.) (1988). The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. BUDDHISM • Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse (2011). Buddhist art & antiquities of Himachal Pradesh.. London: Routledge. Buddhism. London: Collier Macmillan CHAPTER 8. Robert Spence (1863). Bhante Henepola (2002). • Gombrich. vol. Les Indes savants. Charles J. Harvard University Press. retrieved 200707-11. James W. Heisig. between ". ISBN 9780415397254 • Collins. Paul. Beyer. (1971). NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4.. NY: Columbia University Press. Munshiram Manoharlal • Gombrich. Shambhala. Japanese Buddhism. (1987). New York: Columbia University Press. Philosophy East and West 22 (1): 114–116 • Davidson. Shambhala. Series 3 (6.. The sacred books of the Buddhists compared with history and modern science. Kindle Edition.. Pema (2002). Paul F. (2003). Rupert (1998). Ainslie T. Omacanda (1984). Richard F. ISBN 978-0-9789067-7-1 • Hāṇḍā. Buddhism for the West: Theravāda.) (2003). Colombo. reprinted in Williams.org vipassana. ISBN 0-415-07585-8 • Gombrich. Kindle Edition • Eliade. ISBN 2-84654-036-5 • Donath. Tharpa Publications. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Wisdom Publications. London: Routledge • Gunaratana. Buddhism and Hinduism by Lal Mani Joshi”. (2006). Foundations of Buddhism. 1935 • Embree. Edward Arnold. Ronald M.com urbandharma. S. New Delhi: Indus Pub.. L. philosophy.C. ISBN 0-07-017533-0 • Dumoulin. and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day. Cromwell (1972). Co. Joseph (2002). ISBN 1-57062-921-8 • Clarke. (1988). 37. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-231-06651-1 • Flood. (1996). Wm.1): 57–63. Richard F. Peter B. The Encyclopedia of religion. Oxford University Press. volume I. Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna. Heinrich. Dorothy C. Gavin D. Daniel (2008). ISBN 0-86171321-4 Also available on this websites: saigon. “One Dharma: The Emerging Western Buddhism”.” and “to 350 B. ). ISBN 0-691-04442-2 • Hodge. 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. Prebish. Oxford University Press. Routledge • Mall. Donald S. Cambridge University Press.8. 94-105 • Kanno. Brian J. Étienne (trans. Stewart (2001). from French) (1976). ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1 • Hirakawa. South Carolina: BookSurge. Motilal Banarsidass. Teaching of Vimalakirti. Awakening the Buddha Within. Charles S. 1-12 • Harvey. NJ: WileyBlackwell. Alpha). Curzon Press • Hawkins. (2001). SOURCES 111 • Hardy. The Pocket Idiots Guide: Buddhism. “Karma and rebirth: Post-classical developments”. Post-Classical Developments In The Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in Theravada Buddhism. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. ISBN 1-903296-91-9 • Johnson. Paul (trans. 146166. (trans. Sara Boin. Charles S. John E. (1999). • Jong. Linnart (2005). de (1993).) (1991). David (1966).W. London: Routledge • Kohn. Kindle Edition • Lamotte. ed. Robert Spence (1866).. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. “The Beginnings of Buddhism”. Broadway Books. The Eastern Buddhist. (2013). Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate • Kasulis. Hoboken. The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. SUNY • McFarlane. University of Ceylon Review 24. UK: Cambridge University Press. A Comparative Study of Religions. compared with history and science. London. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty. Yakub (2000). Duncan Baird Publishers. Damien. Dictionary of Buddhism. Dharma Publishing • Lopez. Akira. Shambhala. Palgrave Macmillan. Bruce (1986). (1995). XCIII. (2009). 2 • Kalupahana. Studies in the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita and Other Essays. Journal of the institute of Oriental philosophy 14. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-0415-31414-5 • Keown.) (1993). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings. Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. History and Practices (2nd ed. ed. Prebish. 2010. (2006). 26. Peter (2013). Damien. Oxford University Press. Charleston. Retrieved February 5. Culture and Customs of India. T. J. Padmanabh S. A History of Indian Buddhism. Continuum . The World’s Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography (PDF). Buddhism. pp. Michael H. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass • Masih. in Peter Harvey. The Vision of the Buddha. Damien (2003). ISBN 81-2081776-1 • Lowenstein. Princeton University Press. “Sarvastivada and its theory of sarvam asti”. Cambridge. • Lusthaus.13. The Story of Buddhism. ISBN 8120809556. ISBN 0-19-860560-9 • Harvey. (2007). “Zen as a Social Ethics of Responsiveness” (PDF). History and Practices. Damien (2000) [1996]. Buddhist Phenomenology. Tom (1996). Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies. Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition. ISBN 0-521-31333-3 • Keown. Shin'ichi (2002). Todd M. The Selfless Mind. ISBN 0824823834 • Keown. Zen Masterclass. 34–37. Journal of Buddhist Ethics 13. ISBN 0-7100-8540-0 • Lindtner. Hiroshi (2004). P. Bradley K. • Hisamatsu. Godsfield Press • Lopez. Peter (1990). London: Routledge. Donald S. “Huisi’s Perspective on the Lotus Sutra as Seen Through the Meaning of the Course of Ease and Bliss in the Lotus Sutra” (PDF). Groner. (2004). Neufeldt (ed. • Keown. Laurence King (Penguin. trans. Grim. The legends and theories of the Buddhists. Kindle Edition • Harvey. Buddhism in Practice (PDF).. Master of Wisdom.).. Greenwood Publishing Group • Hill. ISBN 9780521676748. Dan (2002). Peter (1995). (2001). no. ISBN 0-87773-520-4 • Lama Surya Das (1997). London: Pali Text Society. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings. Christian (1997). vol. HarperCollins • Jaini. In: Ronald W. ISBN 002-864459-X • Henderson. Stephen (2002). Carol E. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. (2002). ISBN 81-2080815-0 • Matthews. hrsg. Light of Wisdom. Bodhi. University of California Press • A.1163/156852703321506141.” PhD dissertation. • Nattier. Columbia University Press. ISBN 81208-1104-6 • Miller.: Dickenson Publ.). doi:10. Jan (2003). (1982). Richard K. with Commentary. Rangjung Yeshe Publications. School ofOriental and African Studies (University of London) • Padmasambhava. On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism”. Self and identity in modern psychology and Indian thought. Keown. Routledge. Essentials of Buddhism : basic terminology and concepts of Buddhist philosophy and practice. Historical Dictionary of Buddhism. eds. A Philological Approach to Buddhism. von Klaus Bruhn und Albrecht Wezler. retrieved 10 March 2012 • Mitchell (2002). The Buddhist Religion. Walpola (1974). ISBN 0-7914-0490-0 • Roach. Grove Press. Damien (2006). ISBN 978-0-231-14900-6. ISBN 0861714873 • Pinburn. T. (2006). Tantric Buddhism in East Asia. “Jewels of the Doctrine”. Daniel A. History of Religions 16. ISBN 0195139518 • Mizuno. “Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism in History of Religions”. Charles S. • Schmithausen. Chipstead. (1977). Jan. (1997). Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali. Introducing Buddhism. retrieved 201008-25 • Oldenberg. Clive A. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Paranjpe (30 September 1998). retrieved 10 March 2012 • Payne. Belmont. Introduction. Charles S. A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha). Hermann (1991). Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century (Sri Satguru Publications). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass). The Scarecrow Press. 237–272 • Norman. Erik Pema Kunsang (2004). Peter (2011). The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction (3rd ed. Trinity Term • Urmilā Pavāra (2009). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.).). or Antinomianism as a Norm. • Pyysiäinen. The weave of my life: a Dalit woman’s memoirs. vi. BUDDHISM • Métraux. ISBN 0-534-01027-X • Rahula. London: Pali Text Society • Robinson. How Soka Gakkai Became a Global Buddhist Movement. (1977). p. (2010). Bhikkhu (1995). The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English dictionary. Kogen (1996). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Lawton. William (1921). Barbara Stoler (1996). and Glossary of Keywords. Peggy. California: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 978-07486-2330-3 • Morganll. Calif. ISBN 955-9219-19-7 • Rhys Davids. Prebish. Buddhism: introducing the Buddhist experience. Bhikkhu. Life and Thought of Sankaracarya. a Translation of the Text. Richard H. Wiesbaden 1981. The Dalai Lama: Policy of Kindness. Charles (1993). The Doctrine of the Upanishads and Early Buddhism. University of Hawai'i Press. C. Belmont.. Tokyo: Kosei. Isabelle (2001). Oxford University Press.R. ISBN 0-8108-2698-4 • Prebish.. “Buddhism. Stede. ISBN 978-0-306-45844-6. Religion. ISBN 9780521152532 • Robinson. Jamgon Kongtrul. Kenneth W. NY: The Edwin Mellen Press.W. 199-250 . The middle length discourses of the Buddha : a new translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. Lewiston. Ilkka (2003). Boston: Wisdom Publications. In: Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus (Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf). ISBN 978-962-7341-37-6. (ed) (1956). ISBN 4333016835 • Morgan. Richard H. The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists. “Tantric Buddhist Apologetics. Johnson. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass(reprint) • Onians. Lambert (1981). ISBN 9780773437586. K. Sidney (2001). • Pande. JSTOR 3270517 • Ranjini. and the Concept of “God"". Ethical Issues in Six Religious Traditions (2nd ed. Govind Chandra (1994). Springer.112 CHAPTER 8. ISBN 08248-2607-8 • Nattier. What the Buddha Taught. Oxford. Man 50 (2): 147– 171. The Bukkyo Dendo Kybkai Lectures 1994 (PDF). Willard L . Snow Lion • Prebish. (2007). Wisdom Pub. New York:Ronald Press • Ñāṇamoli. Contemplative Science. Motilal Banarasidas Publ. Wisdom Publications. Numen 49:4. London: Routledge. Wing (translator) (1998). Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations. (2000). The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra. C. ed. The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-904766-92-6 • Smith. Stones. Alan (1967). JSTOR 2801935. Princeton. 8 volumes. Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture. ed. B. Alexander (2007). Oxford University Press. (translator) (1976). in William H... Bones. ISBN 0-271-00601-3 113 • Uchiyama. ed. “Buddhism”. and Buddhist Monks. • Williams. vol I. Yeung H. In: Ronald W. Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita. ISBN 0-41502537-0 • Williams. • Vetter. ISBN 978-0-06-073067-3 • Smith (2006).13. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies. Lambert (1986). 335-405 • Sinha. Rowman Altamira • Thich Nhat Hanh (1974). Kindle Edition • Warder. ISBN 81-208-2144-0 • Skilton. Nirvana Publications • Yin Shun. trans. & Sangha (3rd ed. The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism. The Heart of the Buddha’s Teaching.8. Tribe. Peter (1992). BRILL • Wallace. Man 13 (3): 362–379. Huston. editor. “The Raksā Literature of the Śrāvakayāna” (PDF). Kosho. (1999). Curzon Press • White. Neufeldt (ed. SanFrancisco: Harper. Jonathan A. Cambridge: Harvard University Press • Wells.J. ISBN 9780415423878 • Yamamoto. Tilmann (1988). “What. Windhorse Publications. SOURCES • Schmithausen. Longman. ISBN 9781405881180 • Werner. Tadeusz. (1989). “Karma and rebirth: Postclassical developments”. Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pāli Canon. Swatos.2307/2801935. 1900-1950. ISBN 0691114358 • Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2001). ed. The practice of Chinese Buddhism. ISBN 0-7679-0369-2 • Thurman. if anything.). SUNY • Schopen. Broadway Books. Andrew (1997). Grove Press. ISBN 0728601621 • Southwold. John C. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Routledge. (1993). Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations. A. London: Routledge • Williams. Becoming the Buddha: the ritual of image consecration in Thailand. doi:10. Tony . Robert A. Phillip Novak (2003). Mark. Critical Response. A Concise History of Buddhism. H. New York: Penguin Books • Upadhyaya. ISBN 0-86171133-5 . Dhamma. Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology. Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha. Anthony (2000). (1990). Paul (2008). Kosho (1993). Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Page. Kenneth (2005). The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master. London: Routledge. The Edwin Mellen Press ISBN 07734-5985-5. Opening the Hand of Thought: Approach to Zen. Gregory (2002). ISBN 978-0-19-513798-9 • Swearer. (2005). Columbia University Press • Walpola Rahula (2007). • Tamney.: Princeton University Press. Buddhist Forum. Martin (1978). and Sammaya-kaijo. Joseph B.. B. London: Routledge • Wynne.D. (2008).P. Sarah (2006). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed. (1998). In Juergensmeyer. Indian Buddhism. (2002).). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers • Welch. Paul. Karel. Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy). Benkemmitsu-nikyoron. Journal of the Pali Text Society 16. 109-182 • Skorupski. Donald (2004). Buddhist Thought. Paul (1989). Routledge • Silk. Pennsylvania State University Press. Kashi Nath (1998). Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. is Mahayana Buddhism?". University of Hawai'i Press • Sebastian. The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. (2005). “Buddhism and The Definition of Religion”. Alan (2007).) • Skilling. Buddhism: A Concise Introduction. The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. The Longhaired Sage in The Yogi and the Mystic.K. rev. What the Buddha Taught. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications • Shaw. Paul. ISBN 0-415-20701-0 • Williams. N. F. Pali-English Dictionary”. Rudy Harderwijk (viewonbuddhism. Japan”. [21] Subir Bhaumik. “Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra”. “Global Religious Landscape: Buddhists”. 2013.14 External links [10] “Upādāparitassanā Sutta”. Accesstoinsight. [4] Roth. [25] Pew Research Center.uk. and Nirvana: Suffering. The Huffington Post. Keynote Address at the 40th Annual MeetingInstitute of Oriental PhiChina. “Dukkha.the-philosopher.114 CHAPTER 8. Western Buddhist Review. art and history”. “Global Religious Landscape: Buddhists”. An Introduction to the Buddha. Omar. 2011. Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.org. Access to Insight. The Pali Text Society. Buddha Dharma Education Association & Buddhanet. • “Buddhism — objects. • Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Thanissaro (2001). Berzin Archives. . Houghton Mifflin Company. The Pali Text Society. [8] “A View on Buddhism: The Four Immeasurables”. [26] “Tibetan Buddhism”. discusses Buddha Eras”. “China and India use Buddha for regional karma. • Religion and Spirituality: Buddhism at Open Directory Project [12] "raga. Retrieved 2010-08-25. 2011. 2010-06-08. 2010. Alexander (November 2001). Tricycle (Tricycle Foundation). Nick. Retrieved 2010-11-10. “What is and isn't Yogacara”. Omar.co. Brill losophy.net. Sri (2002). Retrieved 2010-11-10. “Family Dharma: A Bedtime Ritual”. London. American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Victoria and Albert Museum. • Frequently Asked Questions About Buddhism [11] Lusthaus. Retrieved 2010-10-18. [13] "dosa. [3] Mahathera. “The 31 Planes of Existence” (PDF).org). Asia. Retrieved 18 September 2013. University of Idaho. Buddha Dharma Education Association & Buddhanet. “Family Dharma: A Bedtime Ritual”. [27] Tan Swee Eng. 8. Pew Research Center. Pali-English Dictionary”. Beth. Accesstoinsight. [2] “Buddhism . August 6. J. The Pali Text Society.13. Retrieved 2007-12-06.1 Online sources [1] “The Middle Way of the Buddha”. from Patheos • Berzin. Soka University. [18] “Dharmacarini Manishini”.com. Wei Wu (1960).org. Leiden E. Jeffrey. [30] Moad. A Theravada Library. a Theravada Buddhist website.. 2011. 2011. [19] Bhikku. Retrieved January 10. Pew Research Center. “Global Religious Landscape: Buddhists”. Weariness. Buddha-Vacana. Retrieved January 11. Access to Insight. Western Buddhist Review. Inaction. [24] Pew Research Center. [7] “Unit Six: Loving-Kindness”.uk. 2004. and Death?". • Dhammananda. “Emptiness”. [9] Po. • Buddhist texts at Sacred Texts. The Buddhist Conquest of [22] Gier. 8. Sentient Publications.buddhanet. [5] Roth. Ven. Retrieved 2010-08-25. “A Comparative Study of the Schools”. “Dukkha. Dan. “Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan”. • Buddhism in various languages [16] “Gautama Buddha discusses the Maitreya Buddha in the Tipitaka”. Inaction. Retrieved 2011-10-24.com [15] "''Access to Insight''.info. • The Future of Buddhism series. & Sangha.net. www. “The Virtues of Asian Humanism. BUDDHISM • Zürcher. [29] Moad. Tricycle (Tricycle Foundation). Retrieved January 11. Pew Research Center.co. Suvanno. Retrieved 2011-10-24.the-philosopher. and Death?". “Is Buddhism a Pessimistic Way of Life?". Retrieved 2012-12-19. www. Buddhanet. Buddhamind. [14] "moha. [23] Pew Research Center.”. Retrieved April 24. Aljazeera. [6] “Unit Six: The Four Immeasurables”. Dhamma. Retrieved 2013-06-18. Beth. [17] “Bodhisattva Ideal in Buddhism”. “Refuge”. • Wei. K. “What Buddhists Believe” (PDF). Pali-English Dictionary”. www. 2010-06-05. Retrieved 2007-07-07. [20] “Dharmacarini Manishini”. Erik (1972). and Nirvana: Suffering.The Middle Path”. Shippensburg University. Weariness. [28] “Is Buddhism a Religion?". Retrieved 1 April 2015. Retrieved January 11. that I believe in and follow the teachings of Sri Guru Granth Sahib and the ten Gurus only.Definition of a Sikh and Sikh affirmation in the Delhi 115 . the sixth Sikh Guru. established the political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms to be mutually coexistent.[6] According to Sewa Singh Kalsi. 9..Chapter 9 Sikhism Sikhism (/ˈsɪkɨzəm/. “I solemnly affirm and declare that I am a Keshadhari Sikh.[11] Guru Nanak was the founder of the religion of Sikhism and the first of the eleven Sikh Gurus. “The central teaching in Sikhism is the belief in the concept of the oneness of God. be- Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples). ities of a “Sant-Sipāhī"—a saint-soldier. and that I have no other belief. the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti (power that resides in the temporal). or self-willed impulses. It is the fifthlargest organized religion in the world.[10] Guru Hargobind. and Bhakti (spiritual meditative qualities).[2] It continued to progress through the ten successive Sikh gurus (the eleventh and last guru being the holy scripture Guru Granth Sahib. Punjabi pronunciation: [ˈsɪkːʰiː]) is a panentheistic [1] religion founded during the 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent.”[7] Sikhism considers spiritual life and secular life to be intertwined.[13][14] Sikhs are expected to have control over the so-called "Five Thieves" or “Five Vices” and dispel these by means of the "Five Virtues".1 Philosophy and Teachings Main articles: Sikh religious philosophy and Sikh beliefs “Sikh” means a person who professes the Sikh religion. in order to demonstrate the need to share and have equality between all people. or communal kitchen. self-control and purity” as being higher than a purely contemplative life. The Guru Granth Sahib is a collection of the Sikh Gurus’ writings that was compiled by the 5th Sikh Guru). Tegh Bahadhur. with approximately 30 million adherents. fidelity. by Guru Nanak. According to Devinder Singh Chahal. “The word 'Sikhi' (commonly known as Gurmat) gave rise to the modern anglicized word 'Sikhism' for the modern world.[8] Guru Nanak. Gobind Singh in 1699 at Anandpur Sahib.[7] In addition to sharing with others Guru Nanak inspired people to earn an honest living without exploitation and also the need for remembrance of the divine name (God). and keeps unshorn hair. the first Sikh Guru established the system of the Langar. sikkhī. Punjabi: ਿਸੱਖੀ. According to the ninth Sikh Guru.”[5] Gurmat means literally 'wisdom of the Guru' in contrast to Manmat. and practical life” of “truthfulness.[3][4] Punjab. India is the only state in the world with a majority Sikh population. the eleventh being the living Guru..[9] Sikhs also believe that “all religious traditions are equally valid and capable of enlightening their followers”.[12] Sikhs are expected to embody the qual. . Guru Granth Sahib lieves and follows the teachings of Sri Guru Granth Sahib and the ten Gurus only. Guru Nanak described living an “active. creative. Finally the concept of the baptized Saint Soldier of the Khalsa was formed by the tenth Sikh Guru. and serve humanity. akaal.[20] The Mool Mantar. timeless. the case. Guru Nanak states “The body takes birth because of karma. Sikh principles encourage living life as a householder. keep the everlasting of “god” in sikhism truth in mind. the opening line of the Guru Granth Sahib and each subsequential Raga: Gurmukhi: ੴ ਸਤਿ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਨਿਰਭਉ ਨਿਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਤਿ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈਭੰ ਗੁਰ ਪ੍ਰਸਾਦਿ॥ Transliteration: ikk ōankār sat(i)-nām(u) karatā purakh(u) nirabha'u niravair(u) akāl(a) mūrat(i) ajūnī saibhan gur(a) prasād(i). meditate on Naam.1 The all pervading spirit . or the “heart”. To get closer to God: Sikhs avoid the evils of Maya. Nanak stressed that god must be seen from “the inward eye”. the entire cosmos was created. all that existed was “God” and “God’s” hukam (will or order).[19] In Sikhism. creed. as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between god and human beings.[22] CHAPTER 9. the concept of “God” is Vāhigurū— is shapeless. kirpa. mehar. and truth is its name! It exists in all creation. and is signified by the term Ik Onkar. Sikhs believe that being in the comMain article: Ik Onkar pany of the Satsang or Sadh Sangat is one of the key ways to achieve liberation from the cycles of reincarnation. of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment of heavenly life. interpreting the pertinent religious texts as evidence that Sikhs believe in reincarnation and karma The Harimandir Sahib. or the human perception of reality. “Akaal” is omnipresent (sarav viāpak) in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. In addi.[20] Sikhs believe that before creation. Sikhism is a Panentheistic [17][18] and a revealed religion.[28] There has been some confusion among scholars. and gender.[24] It is found in the Gurmukhi script[25] This “spirit” has no gender in Sikhism (though translations may Māyā—defined as a temporary illusion or “unreality”—is present it as masculine). It states that “God” is omnipresent and infinite with power over everything.vation: where worldly attractions which give only illusory . unable to be seen with the physical eye): niraṅkār.[16] Sikh teaching emphasizes the principle of equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the basis of caste. it does not fear. It is known as "Ik Onkar" or “one constant[23] " or the all pervading spirit (which is taken to 9.. practice Shabad Kirtan. and sightless (i.[26] Nanak further states that the understanding of “Akaal” is beyond human beings. God nurtured “enticement and attachment” to māyā. and alakh.3 Worldly illusion mean god). English: “There is but one all pervading spirit.[32] The concept of “god” is different in Sikhism than that of other religions. known popularly as the Golden Temple. Higher still is truthful living”. it does not hate. it is timeless and universal and self-existent.1. The beginning of the first composition of Sikh scripture is the figure "1"—signifying the universality of “God”.[20] but at the same time not wholly unknowable. it is also “Akaal Purkh” (beyond one of the core deviations from the pursuit of God and saltime and space) and “Nirankar” (without form). Nanak wrote that there are many worlds on which it has created life. The essence of Sikh teaching is summed up by Guru Nanak in these words: “Realization of Truth is higher than all else.1. is as the same as Hinduism and Buddhism when such is not a sacred shrine for Sikhs. You will come to know it through seeking knowledge and learning!" 9. therefore one needs to be able to make the most of this life. From these beginnings.[28][29][30] In Sikhism karma “is modified by the concept of God’s grace” (nadar.[27] Guru Gobind Singh makes it clear that human birth is obtained with great fortune.116 Gurdwara Act of 1971.[15] The origins of Sikhism lie in the teachings of Guru Nanak and his successors.2 Liberation Guru Nanak’s teachings are founded not on a final destination of heaven or hell but on a spiritual union with the Akal which results in salvation or Jivanmukta. [31] 9.e.[21] When God willed.The concept but salvation is attained through grace”. SIKHISM tion.1. Guru Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation.). karam etc. They are encouraged to have a chaṛdī kalā. PHILOSOPHY AND TEACHINGS temporary satisfaction and pain which distract the process of the devotion of God. 9.[45] Service in Sikhism takes three forms: “Tan” .[42] Baptized Sikhs rise early and meditate and then recite all the Five Banis of Nitnem before breakfast.[35] This contemplation is done through Nām Japna (repetition of the divine name) or Naam Simran (remembrance of the divine Name through recitation).[40] 9. also called the Golden Temple According to Nanak the supreme purpose of human life is to reconnect with Akal (The Timeless One).6 9. Guru Nanak’s ideal is the total exposure of one’s being to the divine Name and a total conforming to Dharma or the “Divine Order”.1. and lust—known as the Five Thieves—are believed to be particularly distracting and hurtful.4 The timeless truth Remembrance A key practice by Sikhs is remembrance[36] of the Divine Name (Naam – the Name of the Lord).[41] The three morning prayers for Sikhs consist of Japji Sahib.[37] A Sikh man at Harmandir Sahib.mental service (such as studying to help others). or optimistic . Nanak emphasised māyā as not a reference to the unreality of the world. Using the Guru’s teaching remembrance of nām (the divine word or the name of the Lord)[35][36] leads to the end of egotism.[36][43] The verbal repetition of the name of God or a sacred syllable is an established practice in religious traditions in India but Guru Nanak’s interpretation emphasized inward. the influences of ego.[33] The fate of people vulnerable to the Five Thieves ('Pānj Chor').[34] 117 The entire Guru Granth Sahib is written in a form of poetry and rhyme. however. and working for the good of the community and others (sēvā).[38] Once truth starts to shine in a person’s heart.[13][14][47][48] The word in Punjabi used to deGuru’s word). view of life. or sēvā. The human body is just a means to achieve the reunion with Truth.1. and should defend the rights of all human beings. and the situation may be remedied only after intensive and relentless devotion.resilience. anger. greed.9. Sikh teachings also stress the concept of sharing— vaṇḍ chakkō—through the distribution of free food at Sikh gurdwaras (laṅgar).1. and charity.7 Service and action Meditation is unfruitful without service and action.physical service.8 Justice and equality Sikhism regards “Justice”[47] and “Restorative Justice” and “divine justice”[47] as trumping any subjective codes of Sikhs refer to the hymns of the Gurus as Gurbani (The moral order. is separation from God. but of its values.[44] Sikhs are taught that selfless service.[46] Guru Nanak stressed now kirat karō: that a Sikh should balance work. egotism is the biggest barrier in doing this.[38] One connects with guru only with accumulation of selfless search of truth. Guru Nanak started the Shabad Kirtan tradition and taught that listening to kirtan is a powerful way to achieve tranquility while meditating. guru is indistinguishable from “Akal” and are one and the same. However. and “Dhan” . In Sikhism. 9.1. Jaap Sahib and Tav-Prasad Savaiye. Singing of the glories of the Supreme Timeless One (God) with devotion is the most effective way to come in communion with the Supreme Timeless One. giving charitable donations.1. “Man” . and charitable work enables the devotee to kill the ego.1. Guru Nanak designated the word 'guru' (meaning teacher) to mean the voice of “the spirit": the source of knowledge and the guide to salvation.[39] Ultimately the seeker realizes that it is the consciousness within the body which is seeker/follower and the Word is the true guru.[37] As Ik Onkar is universally immanent. attachment. pict this is “Niau”[47] which means justice.5 Singing and music 9. The last of these is sach khaṇḍ (The Realm of Truth)—the final union of the spirit with God. Sikhs believe the world is currently in a state of Kali Yuga (Age of Darkness) because the world is lead astray by the love of and attachment to Maya. the essence of current and past holy books of all religions is understood by the person. worship. Shabad Kirtan is the singing of Gurbani. personal observance. The word .material service. Nanak described the result of the disciplined application of nām simraṇ as a “growing towards and into God” through a gradual process of five stages. 1.[52] Guru Angad succeeded Guru Nanak. guru’s intention) is an order passed by the Sarbat Ḵẖālsā in the presence of the Gurū Granth Sāhib. The sixth guru. Amar Das also established the manji (comparable to a diocese) system of rights. In contrast.118 CHAPTER 9. and death. SIKHISM "dharam" (righteousness)[47] is also used to convey justice “in the sense of the moral order”. Guru Hargobind.[51] Das founded the city of Amritsar. Guru Gobind Singh “when all efforts to restore peace prove useless and no words avail. Guru Amar Das began building a cohesive community of followers with initiatives such as sanctioning distinctive Men and women are equal in Sikhism and share the same ceremonies for birth.[6] According to the Tenth Sikh Guru. Before his death.[47][49] “An attack on dharam is an attack on justice. A gurmatā may only be passed on a subject that affects the fundamental principles of Sikh religion. edict or royal order) is often used interchangeably with the term gurmatā. guide. A gurmatā (literally. a hukamnāmā formally refers to a hymn from the Gurū Granth Sāhib which is a given order to Sikhs. Guru Nanak was the first guru and appointed a disciple as successor. women have been clerical supervision. on righteousness. Each guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous. The traditions and philosophy of Sikhism were established by ten specific gurus from 1469 to 1708. Guru Amar Das. marriage. Guru Nanak’s teachings emphasised the pursuit of salvation. resulting in the creation of the Sikh religion. leading in prayers at Sikh temples since the founding of Guru Amar Das's successor and son-in-law Guru Ram Sikhism. Guru Arjan was captured by Mughal author9. . The interior of the Akal Takht A rare Tanjore-style painting from the late 19th century depicting the ten Sikh Gurus with Bhai Bala and Bhai Mardana. and on the moral order generally”. However. Guru Gobind Singh was the final guru in human form. or mentor. it is right to draw the sword”. while churches have been arguing in re[37] cent times on female priest ordination. an important phase in the development of Sikhism came with the third successor.[54] The term hukamnāmā (literally. was responsible for the creation of the concept of Akal Takht (throne of the timeless one).[53] His persecution and death inspired his successors to promote a military and political organizaMain article: Sikh gurus The term guru comes from the Sanskrit gurū. lawful is the flash of steel. meaning tion of Sikh communities to defend themselves against the attacks of Mughal forces. which is home of the Harimandir Sahib and regarded widely as the holiest city for all Sikhs. teacher. The Sarbat Ḵẖālsā (a representative portion of the Khalsa Panth) historically gathers at the Akal Takht on special festivals such as Vaisakhi or Hola Mohalla and when there is a need to discuss matters that affect the entire Sikh nation. Later.9 The ten gurus and religious authority ities who were suspicious and hostile to the religious order he was developing.[50] creed that the Gurū Granth Sāhib would be the final and perpetual guru of the Sikhs. which serves as the supreme decision-making centre of Sikhism and sits opposite the Harmandir Sahib. Guru Gobind Singh de- The Sikh gurus established a mechanism which allowed the Sikh religion to react as a community to changing circumstances. it is binding upon all Sikhs. He is responsible for the establishment of the city of Ramdaspur later to be named Amritsar. Nanak went missing and was presumed to have drowned after going for one of his morning baths to a local stream called the Kali Bein. Both of them then encouraged and supported Nanak to study and travel.[58] Approximate Life Spans and Guruship Spans of the 10 Sikh gurus 9. a Khatri of the Sodhi clan. since he was a man of pious habits in addition to being Nanak’s son.2. Guru Amar Das became the third Sikh guru in 1552 at the age of 73. the founder of Sikhism. until he was able to bridge the divide between his followers and the Udasis. In his early teens. who was moved by his amazing intellect and divine qualities. and Tibet. Lahiṇā was named Guru Angad and became the second guru of the Sikhs. It was from this Jēṭhā became Guru Ram Das and vigorously undertook his duties as the new guru. now called Nankana Sahib (in present-day Pakistan). Emperor Akbar sat with the ordinary and poor people of Punjab to have laṅgar. Amritsar was known as Guru Da Chakk. he returned to the banks of the Ravi River to end his days. the first tour being east towards Bengal and Assam. Guru Nanak chose his disciple Lahiṇā as a successor to the guruship rather than either of his sons.[60] In 1567. became the first persons to recognise the divine qualities in Nanak. was born in the village of Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī. the second south towards Andhra and Tamil Nadu. where his wife Khivi and children were living. Guru Amar Das also trained 146 apostles of which 52 were women. In 1581. and the fourth tour west towards Baghdad and Mecca. As a boy. He reappeared three days later. he was tortured and killed by the Mughal Emperor. the Udasis believed that the Guruship should have gone to him. Though Sri Chand was not an ambitious man. the third north towards Kashmir. where Nanak had finally settled down after his travels. His desire to explore the mysteries of life eventually led him to leave home and take missionary journeys.[57] In his last and final tour. Goindval became an important centre for Sikhism during the guruship of Guru Amar Das.1 Growth of Sikhism In 1539. as the fourth Sikh guru. He would not partake in religious rituals or customs and oddly meditated alone. In 1606. Guru Angad continued the work started by Guru Nanak and is widely credited for standardising the Gurmukhī script as used in the sacred scripture of the Sikhs.2 History 9.[59] Nanak conferred his choice at the town of Kartarpur on the banks of the river Ravi.[55] His parents were [[Khatri]s. Nanak was fascinated by God and religion. Guru Arjan—youngest son of the fourth guru—became the fifth guru of the Sikhs.[61] Before he died in 1574 aged 95. On Nanak’s advice. he prepared the Sikh sacred text known as the Ādi Granth (literally the first book) and included the writings of the first five gurus and other enlightened Hindu and Muslim saints.2. he is widely acknowledged to have made five major journeys. In addition to being responsible for building the Harimandir Sahib. The five major journeys of Guru Nanak Main article: History of Sikhism . HISTORY 119 moment that Nanak would begin to spread the teachings of what was then the beginning of Sikhism.9. spanning thousands of miles. he appointed his son-in-law Jēṭhā. Before Ramdaspur. At the age of thirty. Nanak caught the attention of the local landlord Rai Bular Bhatti. Rai Bular Bhatti was witness to many incidents in which Nanak enchanted him and as a result Rai Bular Bhatti and Nanak’s sister Bibi Nanki. to manage the rapid expansion of the religion. Guru Angad moved from Kartarpur to Khadur. Ladakh. He preached the principle of equality for women by prohibiting purdah and sati.[56] Although the exact account of his itinerary is disputed. Guru Amar Das also encouraged the practice of langar and made all those who visited him attend laṅgar before they could speak to him. Guru Nanak (1469–1539). Gob9.[68] The Sikh Khalsa’s rise to power began in the 17th century during a time of growing militancy against Mughal rule. Com. the wound recarried two swords—one for spiritual and the other for opened as the Guru tugged at a hard strong bow after a few temporal reasons (known as mīrī and pīrī in Sikhism). Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed by Aurangzeb for helping to protect one’s right to freedom of religion.[62] for refusing to make changes to the Granth and his army towards the main Muslim Mughal city of Sirhind for supporting an unsuccessful contender to the throne. Banda Singh advanced Lahore. In 1644. . following the instructions of the guru. atrocities against Pir Buddhu Shah. ganized the civilian rebellion and abolished or halted the Guru Har Krishan helped to heal many sick people.[65] He was succeeded by his son. opment of the Dal Khalsa achieved a series of sweeping military and diplomatic victories. to fight the Mughal rulers of India[69] and those who had committed Some bodyguard of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at the Sikh capital.2 Political advancement ind Singh killed the attacker with his sword. Punjab. He ropean surgeon stitched the Guru’s wound. and. Banda Singh Bahadur.[64] of Sikh warrior bands known as misls alongside the develGuru Tegh Bahadur became guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675. Baba Banda Singh Bahadur befend their independence. Gobind Rai further militarised his followers. after a delegation of Kashmiri Pandits came to him for help when the Emperor began to persecute those who refused to convert to Islam.[71] Banda Singh was infected and taken seriously ill and later died.[63] days. causing profuse bleeding that led to Gobind Singh’s Sikhs grew as an organized community and under the 10th death. Guru Har Rai became came the commander-in-chief of the Khalsa. SIKHISM Jahangir.[66] The Khalsa is a disciplined community that combines its spiritual purpose and goals with political and military duties. and was baptised by the Pañj Piārē when he inaugurated the Khalsa on 30 March 1699. he too was ers proprietorship of their own land. Though a EuGuru Hargobind became the sixth guru of the Sikhs. Guru Gobind Singh. punished all the culprits. Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1799. The confederacy Granth Sahib.Zamindari system in time he was active and gave the farming into contact with so many people every day.After the Guru’s death. Conflict with Mughal authorities escalated during the lifetime of Guru Teg Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh.[70] He orguru followed by Guru Har Krishan.[52][67] Shortly before his death. Sikh Confederacy and the rise of the Khalsa The tenth guru of Sikhism.120 CHAPTER 9. while resting in his chamber after the Rehras prayer Guru Gobind Singh was stabbed by a Pathan assassin hired by Mughals. The creation of a Sikh Empire began when Guru Gobind Singh sent a Sikh general. From the time of Nanak the Sikhs had significantly transformed. Even though the core Sikh spiritual philosophy was never affected. No hymns executed by the emperor Farrukh Siyar after refusing the composed by these three gurus are included in the Guru offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam. the followers now began to develop a political identity. eventually creating a Sikh Empire in the Punjab under the emperor. Guru the Sikhs developed a trained fighting force to de. the boy guru. Gobind Rai who was just nine years old at the time of his father’s death. From here on in he was known as Guru Gobind Singh.2. Soon after the invasion of Sirhind. Guru Gobind Singh proclaimed the Gurū Granth Sāhib (the Sikh Holy Scripture) to be the ultimate spiritual authority for the Sikhs. inaugurated the Khalsa (the collective body of all initiated Sikhs) as the Sikh temporal authority in the year 1699. in 1661. but their followers had tasted blood.[72] The order. with low estimates at 200. limbs and genitalia and the display of heads and corpses. After the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839. Sikhs formed the Shiromani emerged as a leader of the Damdami Taksal in 1977 and Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee and the Shiromani Akali promoted a more militant solution to the problem. the scale and level of brutality was unprecedented. Soon after. The Gurū Granth Sāhib may be reprevent its future reproduction.000 square miles (520. Pakistan and Northern India. howequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magni. Bhintorians Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh write: dranwale and his accompanying followers. as well as many innocent Sikhs visiting the temple. In June Dal to preserve Sikhs’ religious and political organization. . Although some scholars question the use of the term 'genocide' with respect to the 9. were killed during the There are numerous eyewitness accounts of army’s operations. traditions and discipline developed over centuries culminated at the time of Ranjit Singh to give rise to a common religious and social identity. The Akali Dal started a non-violence movement Partition for Sikh and Punjabi rights. The First Volume— The newly formed governments were completely un. Sikhs faced initial opposition from the Government in forming a linguistic state that other states in India were afforded. Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi ordered the InOf the violence that accompanied the Partition of India. Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale A quarter of a century later. ferred to as the Ādi Granth—literally. Both British and Sikh sides sustained heavy losses of both troops and materials in the hardfought First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars. Here.3 Scriptures Partition massacres. 1984. The emergency meeting of the joint defense council on 16 August agreed to strengthen the There are other sources of scriptures such as the Dasam Granth and so called Janamsakhis. These however. The catsinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards. Indira Gandhi was assasthe maiming and mutilation of victims. While previous communal riots had been deadly. and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both created by Guru Arjan in 1604. after the assassination of several successors. 1. Maharaja Duleep Singh.9. the British began to attack the Sikh Kingdom. each new massacre brought the thirst for revenge and desperate need to flee from the terror as the scale of disaster mounted. In October. eventually fell on the shoulders of his youngest son. appealing to stop the violence. The Sikh nation’s embrace of military and political organisation made it a considerable regional force in 19th century India and allowed it to retain control of the Sikh Empire in the face of numerous local uprisings. Estimates of the number of deaths the final version of the scripture created by Guru Gobind vary. Ambala.000. the cutting off of victims Star and the assassination. It was deThere is one primary source of scripture for the Sikhs: the signed to cleanse an existing generation as well as [74] Gurū Granth Sāhib. The Gurū Granth Sāhib is sides of the border. Jilandur and Amritsar together to see for themselves what was going on and to appeal for peace. SCRIPTURES The vast Sikh empire with its capital in Lahore and limits reaching the Khyber Pass and the borders of China comprised almost 200.dian army to launch Operation Blue Star to remove Bhindranwale and his followers from the Darbar Sahib.000 square kilometres) of what is now Afghanistan.[73] 121 Punjab boundary force as quickly as possible.[76] and Hindupregnant women.000.ever. his. Tara Singh and other Sikh leaders toured the province in military vehicles. bringing the Punjab under the British Raj. They tried to remind everyone that both India and Pakistan had pledged to protect the minorities after the partition and that there was no need for anyone to move home but they were shouting against the hurricane.000 and high estimates at Singh. and it was too late for Tara Singh to stop what he had begun. the Sikh Empire fell into disorder and. Each new outrage. have been the subject of controversial debate amongst the Sikh community. as a reaction to Operation Blue against brick walls. The assassination alogue of horrors includes the disembowelling of was followed by the 1984 anti-Sikh riots. much of the violence manifested as having genocidal tendencies. The Empire was [75] eventually annexed by the United Kingdom. the Ādi Granth refers to the version of the scripture tude.and the two terms are often used synonymously. Nehru and liquat visited Lahore.3. the slamming of babies’ heads Sikh conflicts in Punjab. and Sheikh Farid along with several others. the guru’s older brother and rival.[81] It also contains the traditions and teachings of Holy Scripture) sants (saints) such as Kabir. An authoritative scripture was created to protect the integrity of hymns and teachings of the Sikh gurus and fifteen bhagats. an iconic verse created by Nanak: Punjabi: ੴ ਸਿਤ ਨਾਮੁ ਕਰਤਾ ਪੁਰਖੁ ਿਨਰਭਉ ਿਨਰਵੈਰੁ ਅਕਾਲ ਮੂਰਿਤ ਅਜੂਨੀ ਸੈਭੰ ਗੁਰ ਪਸਾਿਦ ॥ Gurū Granth Sāhib folio with Mūl Mantra ISO 15919 transliteration: Ika ōaṅkāra sati nāmu karatā purakhu nirabha'u niravairu akāla mūrati ajūnī saibhaṅ gura prasādi. The text further comprises over 5000 śabads (hymns). Paramanand. It contains compositions by the first five Gurus. Arjan Sahib tried to prevent undue influence from the followers of Prithi Chand. thus making Gurmukhi language which then constitute two components – spoken Gurmukhi words (in form of Gurbani) which originated from different languages (like world’s different languages have similar roots) and Gurmukhi script. Jaidev. Ravidas. a language related to both Punjabi and Hindi and used extensively across medieval northern India by proponents of popular devotional religion. English: All Sikhs are commanded to take the Granth as Guru. There are 31 rāgs within the Gurū Granth Sāhib. Pipa. with each rāg subdivided according to length and author. Namdev. which are poetically constructed and set to classical form of music rendition. Trilocan.122 9. Bhikhan.[67] As per the name “Gurmukhi”. SIKHISM Adi Granth (The Sacred Scripture) Main article: Ādi Granth The Ādi Granth was a religious text compiled primarily by Bhai Gurdas under the supervision of Guru Arjan between the years 1603 and 1604. all words in Guru Granth Sahib constitute “Gurbani” words.1 CHAPTER 9. The Granth begins with the Mūl Mantra. Sur. Beni. and Kabir. Ravidas. The main language used in the scripture is known as Sant Bhāṣā. Dhanna. there are clear references to the folk music of Punjab. Ramanand. The Guru Granth Sahib is considered the Eleventh and final spiritual authority of the Sikhs.3. In addition to the rāgs. .[79] At the time. Farid. Sadhna. Sainu. The final version of the Gurū Granth Sāhib was compiled by Guru Gobind Singh in 1678. Guru Teg Bahadur and just one śalōk (couplet) from Guru Gobind Guru Granth Sahib (The Eternal Sikh Singh.[80] 9.3. Its name means “eternal guru”. It consists of the original Ādi Granth with the addition of Guru Tegh Bahadur's hymns. the second guru of the Sikhs.[77] It is written in the Gurmukhī script. it is not merely a script but it is the language which came out of Guru’s mouth – by using this definition. It is based on the writings and collections of the ten gurus. Punjabi: ਸੱਬ ਿਸੱਖਣ ਕੋ ਹੁਕਮ ਹੈ ਗੁਰੂ ਮਾਨਯੋ ਗੰਥ । Transliteration: Sabb sikkhaṇ kō hukam hai gurū mānyō granth. can be set to predetermined musical tāl (rhythmic beats). for use in the Sikh scriptures and is thought to have been influenced by the Śāradā and Devanāgarī scripts.2 Main article: Gurū Granth Sāhib The Guru Granth Sahib Ji is the most important Sikh scripture. which is a descendant of the Laṇḍā script used in the Punjab at that time. These fifteen bhagats are Namdev.[78] The Gurmukhī script was standardised by Guru Angad. and the scripture is treated as a living guru.[73] The bulk of the scripture is classified into rāgs. And Gurbani is the Guru “Baani Guru Guru hai Baani” (The word is the Guru and Guru is the word) and “Shabd Guru Surat Dhun Chaylaa” (The Shabad is the Guru.). creator being personified. the lineage from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh was of the teacher-leaders eventually wherein the temporal authority was passed on to the Khalsa and spiritual authority. contains texts attributed to the Tenth Guru. I am the disciple. without hatred. passed to Adi Granth(thence the Guru Granth Sahib). the ever existing. The Dasam Granth holds a significance of great amount for Sikhs. The authenticity of the Dasam Granth is amongst the most debated topics within Sikhism. the Guru in Sikhism is a combination of teacherleader. There are several—often contradictory and sometimes unreliable— Therefore. as Sikhism stand on the dual strands of Miri-Piri.9. by Guru’s Grace. 9.4 Janamsakhis (Biographies of the Gurus) Main article: Janamsākhīs The Janamsākhīs (literally birth stories). .3.3 Dasam Granth (The Book of Gurus) Main article: Dasam Granth The Dasam Granth is a minor holy scripture of Sikhs which A group of Sikh musicians at the Golden Temple complex A frontispiece to the Dasam Granth Simplified transliteration: Ik ōaṅgkār sat nām kartā purkh nirbha'u nirvair akāl mūrat ajūnī saibhaṅ gur prasād. Some compositions of the Dasam Granth like Jaap Sahib. without fear. however it does not have the same authority as Adi Granth. All text within the Granth is known as gurbānī. thoughts and guidelines for the future of Sikhism and the Khalsa.4. and Benti Chaupai are part of the daily prayers/lessons (Nitnem) of/for Sikhs.3. OBSERVANCES 123 9. of the Sikhs till eternity. image Of the timeless being. Although not scripture in the strictest sense. Guru Granth Sahib and its 11th body -the Khalsa Janamsākhīs and they are not held in the same regard as is the Guru. Therefore. beyond birth. as evident from the message of the Guru Nanak (first Guru) Shabad (or word) was always the Guru (the enlightener). Therefore. (Amrit Savaiye). which always was with. upon whom I lovingly focus my consciousness. English: The One of which everything is and continuous. however. are writings which profess to be biographies of Nanak. self-existent. teacher-leader. The scripture sets out the ideas. other sources of scriptural knowledge. they provide an interesting look at Nanak’s life and the early start of Sikhism. The SGPC. known as a gentle guru man who cared for animals and the environment. especially the Japu (or Japjī. Guru Har Rai was the seventh guru.[82] The Sikh faith also participates in the custom of “Langar” or the community meal. the events mostly centred around the lives of the Gurus and Sikh martyrs are commemorated. who are followed by the Guru Granth Sahib. rubbish clearances and celebrations of the natural world. sometimes transliterated as gurudwara). This is the main cost associated with gurdwaras and where monetary donations are primarily spent. Since 2011 the Gurpurb of Guru Har Rai Sahib (March 14) has been celebrated as Sikh Vatavaran Diswas (Sikh Environment Day). the 11th body of Guru Granth Sahib and leader of Sikhs till eternity.4 Observances Observant Sikhs adhere to long-standing practices and traditions to strengthen and express their faith. The recitation of the eighteenth century ardās is also customary for attending Sikhs. Nagar Kirtan crowd listening to Kirtan at Yuba City. • Gurpurbs are celebrations or commemorations based on the lives of the Sikh gurus. touch the ground before the holy scripture with their foreheads. SIKHISM waras of Punjab. there are no festivals in Sikhism. it is customary in the month of Visakhi (or Vaisakhi). This calendar is highly controversial among Sikhs and is not universally accepted. While practiced at any time. the holy Sikh scripture. organises celebrations based on the new Nanakshahi calendar. All gurdwaras are open to anyone of any faith for a free meal.4. All ten Gurus have Gurpurbs on the Nanakshahi calendar. The ardās recalls past sufferings and glories of the community. Sikh festivals include the following: The Darbar Sahib of a Gurdwara. invoking divine grace for all humanity. as well as in almost every nation where Sikhs reside. or race. 9. However. They tend to be either birthdays or celebrations of Sikh martyrdom. The martyrdoms are also known as a shaheedi Gurpurbs. which is placed on a float. There are many gurdwaras prominently constructed and maintained across India.[83] • Nagar Kirtan involves the processional singing of holy hymns throughout a community.124 CHAPTER 9. literally chant) hymns is recommended immediately after rising and bathing. Gurdwaras are open to all. but it is Guru Nanak Dev and Guru Gobind Singh who have a gurpurb that is widely celebrated in Gurdwaras and Sikh homes. People can enter and eat together and are served by faithful members of the community. Family customs include both reading passages from the scripture and attending the gurdwara (also gurduārā. inaugurated the Khalsa. The daily recitation from memory of specific passages from the Gurū Granth Sāhib. Gobind Singh. . the tenth Guru. background. caste. which mark the martyrdom anniversary of Guru Arjan Dev and Guru Tegh Bahadur. the Sikh organisation in charge of upkeep of the historical gurd- • Visakhi which includes Parades and Nagar Kirtan occurs on 13 April. The day is marked by worldwide events. Traditionally. meaning the doorway to God. Sikhs will commonly enter the gurdwara. Worship in a gurdwara consists chiefly of singing of passages from the scripture. Sikhs celebrate it because on this day which fell on 30 March 1699. 9. the procession is led by the saffron-robed Panj Piare (the five beloved of the Guru). including tree plantings.1 Sikh festivals and events Technically. regardless of religion. and the last name Kaur.”[86] and team warrior skills. meaning lion. hearing and reciting the sacred word is used as a way to comb all negative thoughts out of the mind. who in turn baptised Gobind Singh himself. The morning and evening prayers take around two hours a day. OBSERVANCES 125 • Bandi Chhor celebrates Guru Hargobind’s release from the Gwalior Fort.3 Baptism and the Khalsa Sikh wedding Guru Nanak taught that rituals. The first time that this ceremony took place was on Vaisakhi. The marriage ceremony is performed in the company of the Guru Granth Sahib. and all girls are given the last name Kaur (this was once a title which was conferred on an individual upon joining the Khalsa). who have been baptised or initiated by taking ammrit in a ceremony called ammrit sañcār.[88] 9. or idol worship are of little use and Sikhs are discouraged from fasting or going on pilgrimages.[87] Upon death. and kacchera (special undergarment). and the song of songs. starting in the very early morning hours. around which the couple circles four times. on 26 October 1619.4. Upon a child’s birth. which fell on 30 March 1699 at Anandpur Sahib in Punjab. and no religion but as the seed of seeds. kaṛā (circular steel or iron bracelet). The first morning prayer is Guru Nanak’s Jap Ji. This day usually commemorated on the same day of Hindu festival of Diwali.9. Like combing hair. Baptised Sikhs are bound to wear the Five Ks (in Punjabi known as pañj kakkē or pañj kakār) at all times. the Guru Granth Sahib is opened at a random point and the child is named using the first letter on the top left hand corner of the left page. kaṅghā (small wooden comb). religious ceremonies. Singh. After the ceremony is complete. any means of disposing the body may be employed. Jap. as the best way of approaching the divine. It was on that occasion that Gobind Singh baptised the Pañj Piārē—the five beloved ones. and of destruction as well as creation. Devout Sikhs are encouraged to begin the day with private meditations on the name of God.[84] Sikhs do not believe in converting people but converts to Sikhism by choice are welcomed.2 Ceremonies and customs in a civil court.4. and without regard for the future spouse’s caste or descent. The Guru addresses God as having no form. nothing outside of God’s control. sun of suns.[89] . The Jaap Sahib asserts that God is the cause of conflict as well as peace. Devotees learn that there is nothing outside of God’s presence. is given to baptized Sikh males. wedlock through the anand kāraj ceremony. The 5 items are: kēs (uncut hair). A Sikh couple that wishes to divorce may be able to do so 9.[85] Sikhs are joined in Guru Gobind Singh and the Panj Pyare Khalsa (meaning “Sovereign”) is the collective name given by Gobind Singh to all Sikhs. meaning “recitation”. kirpān (sword/dagger). If this is not possible. The kīrtan sōhilā and ardās prayers are performed during the funeral ceremony (known as antim sanskār). the body of a Sikh is usually cremated. The Five Ks have both practical and symbolic purposes. All boys are given the last name Singh. refers to the use of sound. with several innocent Hindu kings who were also imprisoned by Jahangir. meaning princess/lioness. including fighting and riding. no country. Sikhs are required to marry when they are of a sufficient age (child marriage is taboo). • Hola Mohalla occurs the day after Holi and is when the the husband and wife are considered “a single soul in two Khalsa gather at Anandpur and display their individual bodies. neither husband nor wife is permitted to divorce unless special circumstances arise. male or female. is given to baptized Sikh females. The last name. The second morning prayer is Guru Gobind Singh’s universal Jaap Sahib. According to Sikh religious rites.4. the two tenets of Sikh life. in the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee. Therefore. which makes up a reputation through history for being sturdy. in practice. However. and markets cater to these large.Main article: Sikh 2010). the typically wealthy mercantile Khatri and Arora castes wield considerable influence within the Sikh community. include the Ramgarhias (artisans). the Sikh religion does not permit discrimination against any caste or creed. the Ahluwalias (formerly Kalals [brewers] and the two Dalit castes. These communities developed as Sikhs migrated out of Punjab to fill in gaps in imperial labour markets. Approximately 75% of Sikhs live in the Punjab. British Columbia. the United Kingdom as well as United States and Australia. 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste Sikhs.[90] Beginning in 1968.[97] In the early twentieth century a significant community began to take shape on the west coast . multi-generational Indo-Canadian groups.[96] Sikhs firmly believe in sewa (service to community and God) and simran (remembrance of God). They have also become known for being a militant people. Southeast Asia.[90] Sikh migration to Canada began in the 19th century and led to the creation of significant Sikh communities. predominantly in South Vancouver. According to Sunrinder S. they are a people who have earned the reputation for being extremely brave and loyal soldiers.[91] Since 2010.39% of the world’s population. and Brampton. The list of prominent Sikhs in humanitarian ac. Ontario. Since then. radio stations. Large communities of Sikhs live in the neighboring states such as Indian State of Haryana which is home to the second largest Sikh population in India with 1. they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar (Communal meal). there are 25. the Sikh people have gained Further information: Sikhism by country Worldwide.5 Sikh People Main article: Sikh common in Sikhism. the first Sikh award ceremony in the world.[92] Sikhs celebrating Vaisakhi in Toronto.[93] Through a policy of affirmative action. SIKHISM 9. the Sikh Directory has organized The Sikh Awards. Latin America.8 million Sikhs. Sikhs also migrated to East Africa. the Far East and Australia. resulting in a number of non-Punjabi converts to Sikhism (known as white Sikhs) in the United States. however. In some rural villages. which is a powerful and land owning agrarian caste. Jodhka. Canada. Bhagat Puran Singh (1904-1992). Sikh festivals such as Diwali and Vaisakhi are celebrated in those Canadian cities by the largest groups of followers in the world outside of the Punjab. Sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the dalits. 0.1 million Sikhs as per 2001 census.9. Bhai Trilochan Singh Panesar (1937. Other Indian castes. the Middle East. Yogi Bhajan (later of the 3HO movement) began to teach classes kundalini yoga. West Africa. Sikhs only comprise about 2% of the Indian population. where they constitute about 60% of the state’s population. hardworking and adventurous. Surrey. Today temples.[94][95] Over 60% of Sikhs traditionally belong to the Jat caste. while dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurudwaras. Canada. Further information: Sikh diaspora According to Sewa Singh Kalsi. known in Punjabi terminology as the Mazhabis (the Chuhras) and the Ramdasias (the Chamars). newspapers. wherever they could mobilise resources. thousands of non-Punjabis have taken up the Sikh belief and lifestyle primarily in the United States. the dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurudwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of religious autonomy.126 CHAPTER 9.1 Sikhism and the caste system Although the Sikh Gurus and Sikh principals discourage the use of the caste system. Despite being very small in numbers.5. British Columbia.6 Sikh Diaspora tivities include Bhai Kanhaiya (1648–1718). 9. also known as the “lower castes”. it is still prevalent in some aspects of Indian Sikh society. and large communities of Sikhs can be found across India. Intoxication: Consumption of alcohol. lasering. compulsory wearing of the veil for women. Alfred A Knopf Publishing. are not permitted. Akhand Kirtani Jatha eating any meat is believed to be forbidden. Priestly class: Sikhism does not have priests. Prohibitions include: 1. Material obsession: Obsession with material wealth is discouraged in Sikhism. United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. “backstabbing”. Mexico.10 Notes References [1] W. Non-family-oriented living: A Sikh is encouraged not to live as a recluse. Afghanistan. etc. Wallingford. Your service is useless and fruitless. 6.[104] or any meat where langar is served.Owen Cole. but this is not a universally held belief. ritual animal sacrifice to celebrate holy occasions. circumcision. etc. The Sikhs. Sikhs are to live as saint-soldiers. 117.[103] 9.8. Patwant. [2] Singh. China.[101] 3. Malaysia. Sikhism and Christianity: A Comparative Study (Themes in Comparative Religion). Sacrifice of creatures: The practice of sati (widows throwing themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands). 4. the United States and many other countries. Josh. ISBN 0333541073. (2000). etc. SEE ALSO of the United States. 7. Singapore.[105][106] In some small Sikh Sects. Observant or orthodox Sikhs. drugs. The Washington Post.”[102] 8. monastic (monk/nun) or celibate. ISBN 0-375-40728-6. 5.e. known as Kutha meat. Piara Singh Sambhi (1993). [3] “Sikhism: What do you know about it?". .[103] The only position he left was a Granthi to look after the Guru Granth Sahib.9. Nepal.[98][99][109][110][111] 9. when the animal is killed by exsanguination via throat-cutting). any Sikh is free to become Granthi or read from the Guru Granth Sahib. Iraq.7 Prohibitions in Sikhism Further information: Prohibitions in Sikhism and Diet in Sikhism There are a number of religious prohibitions in Sikhism based on commitment to the faith. Retrieved 13 December 2012. Pages 17. beggar. Pakistan. “Sikhs in America: What You Need To Know About The World’s Fifth-Largest Religion”. [4] Zepps. Intoxicants are strictly forbidden for a Sikh. Having extramarital relations. idols & grave worship. Blind spirituality: Superstitions and rituals should not be observed or followed. Retrieved 13 December 2012.[98][99][100] However the Nihangs of Punjab take an infusion of cannabis to assist meditation.9 9. yogi. lying. Huffington Post.[107] The meat eaten by Sikhs is known as Jhatka meat. Cutting hair: Cutting. 2. The Guru Granth Sahib tells the Sikh. Worthless talk: Bragging. Amritdhari or Khalsa Sikhs are strictly required to keep unshorn hair. 9. and all other intoxicants is not allowed. tobacco. Fiji. fasting and ritual purification. slander. “Your mouth has not stopped slandering and gossiping about others.[108] 10. or waxing one’s hair is strictly forbidden in Sikhism for those who have taken the Amrit initiation ceremony.8 sexual See also • Indian religions • Interfaith dialog • Khalsa • Outline of Sikhism • Sikh • Guru Gobind Singh • Ganga Sagar (urn) 9. are forbidden. they were abolished by Guru Gobind Singh (the 10th Guru of 127 Sikhism). Eating meat killed in a ritualistic manner (Kutha meat): Sikhs are strictly prohibited from eating halal meat from animals slaughtered in a religiously prescribed manner (such as dhabihah or shechita. including pilgrimages. Smaller populations of Sikhs are found within many countries in Western Europe. i. known as Amritdhari or Khalsa Sikhs are strictly required to observe the following prohibitions. Mauritius. p. Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities. ISBN 978-0-87196-129-7. Nutrition and Dietetics. (2000). ISBN 978-0-19-513798-9. Understanding Sikhism. p. Vishnu and Shiva. Sikhism. Sikhism: a very short introduction. Martin and Appleby R. [20] Parrinder. Gill Rose (2003). ISBN 978-1-58340-469-0. London: Bravo Ltd. 68. of so many worlds. Bibliotheca Sacra 148 (590). p. p. p. [9] Thaker. Kartar (2001). Geoff (2004). pp. Ashgate Publishing. Hemkunt Press. Maharaja Ranjit Singh: The Last to Lay Arms. Aruna (2012). 278. 15. [19] Nesbitt. H. 209. ISBN 0719010632. [22] Dev. Sonali Bhatt (2006). [13] Chanchreek. Encyclopaedia of Great Festivals. Sukhbir (2005). 204. Sikhism (Textual Sources for the Study of Religion). New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Sikhism:Religion in focus. p. 41. Understanding Sikhism – The Research Journal 13 (1-2): 52–59. 138. Pagan Every Day: Finding the Extraordinary in Our Ordinary Lives. Gurū Granth Sāhib. 33. 1035. p. (15 November 2005). United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. 438. H. George (15 Jun 2008). and Humanness” (PDF). p. [24] Mayled. ISBN 0226508846. Wayne (April 1991). 188. Kamal Elizabeth and Sandhu. The Socially Involved Renunciate . p. WH (19 July 1984). ISBN 9788170174103. ISBN 978-0-87196-129-7. p. Weisfer. [35] Pruthi. Jaswinder Singh (2007). p. The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. 143. p.Renunciation and Social Involvement in Siddhe Gost”. there was only the infinite Command of His Hukam. ISBN 9780754652021. He created the world. Without any supporting power. “Understanding Sikhism in the Science Age” (PDF). Retrieved 15 June 2006. University of Chicago Press. [36] McLean. ISBN 978-1-85733-436-4. [33] Singh. ISBN 978-0-19-280601-7. Guru Nanak Dev. and Militance. 80. Guru Granth Sāhib ji. p. p. Philip (2008). Opinderjit (2005). London: Bravo Ltd. Barbara (2006). World Religions:From Ancient History to the Present. Sewa (2007). 4. US: Oxford University Press. Black Rabbit Books. 205. World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. ISBN 8126908572. S. Ltd. [31] Singh. [23] Taoshobuddha (22 Aug 2012). Shree Publishers & Distributors. Searches In Sikhism. Heinemann. 13. He sustained the universe. Folens Limited. Devinder (July–December 2006). Sewa (2007). p. ISBN 9788170103677. Retrieved 19 July 2010. Surjit (1 Feb 2008). When He so willed. p. 24. Abhinav Publications. AuthorHouseUK. ISBN 1477214267. The Encyclopedia of Sikhism. “Resurrection. He fostered enticement and attachment to Maya. Geoffrey (1971). Nanak. Sikhism. Dorling Kindersley. 106. “Chapter Six . Guru Granth Sahib . Amarjit Singh (December 2011). Retrieved 15 June 2006. p. Sacred Texts photopack. Gurū Granth Sāhib Ji. 1565182480: Council for Research in Values &. Jain (2007). Multicultural Handbook of Food. [18] Ardinger. ISBN 978-1-85733-436-4. United States of America: State University of New York Press. Sikh Identity: An Exploration Of Groups Among Sikhs. Hemkunt Press. Sikhism. Retrieved 10 November 2013. ISBN 9788183291910. there was only utter darkness. p. For endless eons. The Research Journal (2): 3. There was no earth or sky. [17] Mark Juergensmeyer. pp. ISBN 978-1-57863-332-6. Geoffrey (1971). Religions. [32] Kapoor. [14] Dugga. [34] Parrinder. Nirmal (2008). You are the One True Lord and Master of all the other beings. p. Gurinder Singh Mann (2006). 136. Sikhism and Indian Civilization. [16] Teece. [8] Nayar. ISBN 818069268X. 16. Paths to The Divine: Ancient and Indian: 12. [10] Marwha. ISBN 9788170103011.128 [5] Chahal. Hemkunt Press. Retrieved 29 November 2013. Retrieved 29 November 2013. Oxford University Press. Eleanor M. ISBN 9781118350461. p. John (2002). [15] Singh Kalsi. 142. [30] House. ISBN 9788170103172. 99–100. pp. Colors of Truth. He created Brahma. p. SIKHISM [21] Dev. History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606 −1708. Scott (11 July 1996). ISBN 1-84303-443-3. [12] Singh Gandhi. Ek Onkar Satnam: The Heartbeat of Nanak. .Guru Nanaks Discourse to Nath Yogi’s. p. Nanak. Religion Self and Emotions. [27] Takhar. 253. Raj (2004). Discovery Publishing House. “Concept of Reincarnation in Guru Nanak’s Philosophy” (PDF). 12. p. [29] Wilkinson. [28] Chahal. USA: Hamlyn Publishing Group. 599. p. 214–215.An Advance Study Volume-I. Marty. Retrieved 15 June 2006. Manchester University Press. p. Reincarnation. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd. [11] E. ISBN 0-435-33627-4. John Wiley & Sons. p. 676–677. 252. Economies. [6] Mcleod. 1036. CHAPTER 9. [7] Singh Kalsi. [26] Dev. ISBN 9788171418794. p. [25] David Rose. 31. ISBN 978-0-7566-3348-6. [51] Rait. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. Cavan Wood (19 July 2005). The Illustrated History of the Sikhs. Sikh Twareekh. Janmeja (Meji) (August 2013). Shinto. p. Geoffrey (1971). [61] Brar. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-19-567747-8. p. Arvind-Pal Singh (2005). p. ISBN 9780862329655. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. p. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-87196-129-7. 15. Christopher. Understanding Sikhism – The Research Journal 1 (1): 33–36. ISBN 978-1-4010-2856-5. p. A Sea of Orange. English: Trentham Books Ltd. Heinemann. Satwant Kaur (2005). REFERENCES 129 [37] Parrinder. p. Arvind-Pal Singh (2005). Alison Phillips. 21. 67. p. [50] Marianne Fleming and David Worden (2 July 2004). Joginder (2004). Retrieved 29 November 2013. [43] Doel. [53] Parrinder. Himalayan Institute Press. “The Sikhism Homepage: Guru Amar Das”. [47] L. Zoroastrianism. [54] “Sikh Reht Maryada — Method of Adopting Gurmatta”. xv–xvi. Mandair. Jeffrey (2009). Khushwant (2006). Religious Studies for AQA: Thinking About God and Morality (GCSE Religious Studies for AQA). [40] Dhillon. p. ISBN 0435307266. Movement and Change. pp. Jack (1952). Christopher. “Chapter 22 . Sikh Publishing House. ISBN 9780884899976. illustrated edition. [49] Shiva. Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. The Violence of Green Revolution: Third World Agriculture. Confucianism. [44] Pamela Draycott. Sukhraj Singh (May 2004). Buddhism. p. Bikram Singh (January–June 1999). ISBN 978-0-19-513024-9. ISBN 0791448525. [63] Mahmood. Sikh Women in England: Religious. The Sikh Review. Swami (1986). Nelson Thornes. [48] Brodd. Cynthia (2002). ISBN 978-0415-26604-8. 133. Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. p. 188. xiii–xiv. ISBN 978-0-415-42190-4. 199. ISBN 978-0-87196-129-7. 16. Sarah (2008). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. 12–13. United States: Oxford University Press. p. Celestial Song/Gobind Geet: The Dramatic Dialogue Between Guru Gobind Singh and Banda Singh Bahadur. Geoffrey (1971). Islam. [41] Singh. ISBN 978-0-89389-103-9. [39] Dhillon. According to the Purātan Janamsākhī (the birth stories of Nanak) [56] Shackle. Faith & Philosophy of Sikhism. The Sikh Review. World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. Hemkunt Press. Christopher. ProQuest.10. [58] Finegan. Ecology and Politics. [45] Singh. xv.Jainism. The Archeology of World Religions. 46. 46. Celestial Gems. United Kingdom: Routledge. Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism. Surinder (1 Sep 2008). 34. 1 edition. ISBN 0956072801. Ruth Mantin. Text. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Retrieved 2006-05-26. 1 edition. [65] Rama. [60] Duggal. p. [52] Mann.Social and Cultural Beliefs. 254. . p. “Gurbani’s Guidance and the Sikh’s 'Destination'" (PDF). 123. and Sikhism. United States: Xlibris. [46] Wood. Mandair. [42] Singh Bakhshi. R. p. 51. ISBN 978-0415-26604-8. ISBN 978-0-87196-129-7. Gyan Publishing House. 255. World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery. Michael (8 Feb 2001). ISBN 9788170103455. Giorgio (2008). Belgium & India: The Sikh University Press. ISBN 9788178357218.Nitnem”. the Background of Primitivism. [38] Singh. ISBN 1858563534. p. ISBN 9780174370673.4 What Does Sikhism Teach About Poverty”. Mandair. 259. Saint Mary’s Press. Sandeep Singh (1998). [64] Shackle. 24. p. Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. Vandana (1991). “Universality of the Sikh Philosophy: An Analysis” (PDF). ISBN 0435307134. Sikh Music: History. Christopher. United Kingdom: Routledge. Geoffrey (1971). In Janet Dyson. The Making of Sikh Scripture. “3. Routledge. Himalayan Institute Press. The Spiritual Roots of Restorative Justice (S U N Y Series in Religious Studies). Retrieved 29 November 2013. p. Arvind-pal Singh (2005). [57] Dr Harjinder Singh Dilgeer (2008). 27. 120. ISBN 9780-415-26604-8.Pashaura Singh”. and Praxis. Sikhs in the Diaspora: A Modern Guide to the Practice of Sikh Faith. 46. p. World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. ISBN 978-089389-109-1. [59] Shackle. Sikh Nationalism and Identity in a Global Age. Harjeet (2009).9. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. India: Oxford University Press. “Sikhism and Restorative Justice:Theory and Practice . Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. Gurinder Singh (2001). First edition. Zed Books. Arvind-pal Singh (2005). Taoism. pp. Retrieved 9 June 2006. State University of New York Press.K. “Sikhism”. ISBN 978-0-41526604-8. United Kingdom: Routledge. [67] Parrinder. [55] Singh. ISBN 9780549833697. Hadley. p. Kartar Singh (1988). 8 61 (716): 27–35. Angela (1997). Retrieved 29 November 2013. United Kingdom: Routledge. Think RE: Pupil Book 2. [62] Shackle. [66] Shani. Mandair. “Who is a Sikh? Definitions of Sikhism” (PDF). pp. xvi. Sgpc.net. 1xxxi. [75] Pandey. [93] Jodhka. Dr. [103] “The Sikhism Home Page: Introduction to Sikhism”. 14. 69–74. pp. [90] Singh Kalsi. Sikhism. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. [87] Mansukhani. 482–485. (2003). JSTOR 4412102. Liberty at Stake. [69] Hansra. ISBN 978-0-87196-129-7. Songs of the Saints from the Adi Granth. p.net. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. [99] “Sikh Reht Maryada. Sewa (2007). Remembering Partition: Violence. The Linguistic Survey of India. Geoffrey (1971). p.[104] Sikhs and Sikhism. 81. [92] . Ecosikh. 2006. Introduction to Sikhism. 33. India”. p. The Sikhs and Their Scriptures (Second edition ed.com''. Retrieved [102] Srigranth. Sikh Religion Living. 12. The Sikh Business Awards [76] Horowitz. Gurinder Singh (2001). Economic and Political Weekly 37 (19): 1822. Gobind Singh (1977). ISBN 978-81-85395-27-2. 47–53. p. Between Colonialism and Diaspora: Sikh Cultural Formations in an Imperial World. ISBN 978-0-8223-3824-6. Gyanendra (2001). Cambridge University Press. Harkirat (2007). World Religions: From Ancient 2013-04-20.org – Guru Granth Sahib Page 1253 2013-04-20. [79] Shapiro. Peggy Morgan Section C. Duke University Press. fasts. ISBN 978-0-7546-5202-1.). 1959. [84] Sahib. Retrieved 30 May 2006. Alvin (1996). India”. India: Hemkunt Press. p. Manohar Publishers. 260. Ernest (2004) [1877]. nor are rituals. Retrieved 2013-04-20. Satnamnetwork. [96] Encylopedia. Hants. . p. 120–121. ISBN 978-1-85733-436-4. Pilgrimages. I. ISBN 978-0-8203-1765-6. Retrieved 11 June 2006.130 CHAPTER 9. [74] Talbot & Singh 2009. p. iUniverse. Opinderjit Kaur (2005). p. Journal Of The American Oriental Society. “The Sikhism Homepage: Sri Guru Granth Sahib — Authors & Contributors”. Retrieved 8 June 2006.Singh. pp.org. 2002). The Illustrated History of the Sikhs. [91] Takhar. The Definition of Sikh. Nanak.J. [94] [78] Grierson. Sandeep Singh (1998). The Definition of Sikh. 624. purification and self-discipline are of no use. Aldershot.ISBN 978-8173040580 ship. britannica.4. India: Oxford University Press.org. [72] Singh. Nationalism and History in India. 924. Sikh Conduct & Conventions. 256. [85] Loehlin. p. Sgpc. 2013-03-14. Believers All: A Book of Six World Religions. Guru Granth Sāhib. 42. The Making of Sikh Scripture. ISBN 978-0-87196-129-7. Retrieved [82] Parrinder. [89] Simmonds. pp. ISBN 978-0-19-567747-8. Tony (2006). Retrieved 25 November 2014. religious ceremonies or empty wor. Glimpses of Sikhism. Khushwant (2006). 67–68. pp. United States: Oxford University Press. Anthropological Contributions to Conflict Resolution. England: Ashgate Publishing. University of California Press. Retrieved 30 June Sikhs. University of Georgia Press. p. ISBN 978-0-595-87563-4. 159. ISBN 978-81-215-0244-3. Sikh Conduct & Conventions. p. David (1992). Retrieved October 19. 2012. ISBN 978-0-52023642-4. Surinder S (May 11–17. India: Motilal Banarsidass. Britannica. ISBN B001PC20N2 [83] “EcoSikh website with reports on Sikh Environment Day activity worldwide”. Geoffrey (1971). ISBN 978-0-521-00250-9. Sikh Religion Living. SIKHISM [68] Wolfe. World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. [71] Jawandha. p. Donald L. 75. ISBN 978-93-80213-25-5. Lucknow Publishing House. [88] “Sikh Reht Maryada — Funeral Ceremonies (Antam Sanskar)". the University of California.925. pp.com. Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups among Sikhs. [95] [97] Ballantyne. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-19-513024-9. Nahar (2010). The Ādi Granth or the Holy Scriptures of the Sikhs. [70] Indian Armed Forces Year Book. [81] Brar. Retrieved 2013-04-20. “Sikhism (religion)". Clinton Herbert (1964) [1958]. p. [98] “Sikh Reht Maryada. [101] Ethical issues in six religious traditions By Clive Lawton. [86] “Sikh Reht Maryada — Anand Sanskar: (Sikh Matrimonial Ceremony and Conventions)". 67. ISBN 978-0-17437057-4. [73] Parrinder. [80] Mann. New Delhi: Sanbun Publishers. London: Bravo Ltd. The Deadly Ethnic Riot. p. Retrieved 2013-04-20. “Caste and Untouchability in Rural Punjab”. George Abraham (1967) [1927]. Michael (2002). http://www. History to the Present.e. India: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. Retrieved 8 June 2006. [100] “Sikh Code Of Conduct”. [77] Trumpp. 419. Nelson Thornes. India. 9. Relocating Gender In Sikh History: Transformation. Dr Harjinder Singh (1997).org.9. doi:10. Toronto. ISBN 81-7010-245-6 [106] “What is Jhatka Meat and Why?". Five Paragons of Peace: Magic and Magnificence in the Guru’s Way. • Chopra. ISBN 0-7546-5202-5 [108] Jhatka. Sikh Twareekh.11 Further reading • Dilgeer. Monkey Minds Press. De Sousa A (January 2013). Burlington. Glory of Sikhism. Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs. VT.4103/0019-5545. Ashgate Publishing Company. New Delhi. Dictionary of Sikh Philosophy. Khushwant (2006). 51. publisher Sikh University Press & Singh Brothers Amritsar.com • Sikh History Web Portal • Sikhs. Himalayan Institute Press. Pimple P. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-81-89140-99-1. [107] “Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs” by Opinderjit Kaur Takhar.Kirtan • Duggal. Sikhs. (2014). NM. The Sikhs. The Sikh Encyclopedia [109] “Daya Singh Rahit-nama: p2 – Sexual morality”.org • Dilgeer. Jakobsh. ISBN 9780-19-567747-8 • Singh. A Complete Introduction” by Dr. Palsetia D. Sikhism: Religion in focus. 2005. Patwant (1999). ISBN 978-1-58340-469-0 • Dilgeer. gurufathasingh. Retrieved 2013-04-20. 2005 ISBN 0-7546-52025 • Teece. 1980-02-15. Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism. The Sikh Reference Book. Sikh Dharma. pg. Indian J Psychiatry 55 (Suppl 2): S256–62. Hemkunt Press. PMID 23858264. M.com. PMC 3705692. Dr Harjinder Singh (2012). The Illustrated History of the Sikhs. Surjit. 2003 ISBN 81-7436267-3 • Khalsa.105547. EXTERNAL LINKS [105] “Sikhism. The History of Sikh Dharma of the Western Hemisphere. Amongst the Sikhs: Reaching for the Stars. 2003. ISBN 978-089389-109-1 • Sikh-heritage. India. Geoff (2004). 1995 ISBN 0-9639847-4-8 • Singh. Singha & Satwant Kaur Hemkunt. Dr Harjinder Singh (2008). 2008. Roli Books. • Dilgeer. Opinderjit Kaur. ISBN 0-9682658-2-0. ISBN 978-0-385-50206-1 • Srigranth. 1994.com • Khalsa. • Sikh Devotional Music .12 External links • SikhMuseum. M. publisher Sanbun. Meaning and Identity. 2005. publisher Sikh University Press & Singh Brothers Amritsar. 9. H. New Delhi.co. New Delhi. pp. 2010–12. Kartar Singh (1988). R.org • Sikh Thematic Philately: Sikh Stamps Collection . Sikh History (in 10 volumes). Allaboutsikhs. Espanola. 1997. publisher Sikh University Press & Singh Brothers Amritsar. Retrieved 2013-04-20. “The Philosophical and Religious Thought of Sikhism”. Kolkata.uk • Kaur. 2010. Oxford University Press. Guru Fatha Singh.12. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Dave N. Random House. publisher Sikh University Press & Singh Brothers Amritsar. R. “Indian religious concepts on sexuality and marriage”. ISBN 978-3-473-47119-5 • Chopra.S. [110] Doris R. Shanti Kaur. 131 • Takhar. publisher Sparrow Publication. (2001). 39-40 [111] Mahajan PT. Dr Harjinder Singh (2005). Ltd. Black Rabbit Books. Then Mahadeva (Shiva) threw a small nail from His finger. Brahma had become a little egotistic. where at 132 . The skull of Brahma is held in the hands of Kala Bhairava. tiger’s teeth and flaming hair. Karnataka. In the form of the Kaala Bhairava. see Bhairav (raga). see Bhairav (film). to the world and deeply grateful to Shiva. He is worshipped in Nepal. “Who is the supreme creator of the Universe?" Arrogantly. Brahma started interfering in what Shiva was supposed to do. In his four hands he carries a noose. Kalabhairava. 10. 10. [4] He originated in Hindu mythology and is sacred to Hindus. is a Hindu deity. “I have five heads. He is often shown accompanied by a dog.[2][3] He is often depicted with frowning. Shiva is said to be guarding each of these Shaktipeeths. Not only had he became egotistic. One day Brahma thought. chola period. Brahma Kapala in the hands of Kala Bhairava and Brahma’s ego was destroyed and he became enlightened. trident. and casually went to cut the head of Brahma. he started to forge the work of Shiva. Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand. For the 2001 film. stark naked except for garlands of skulls and a coiled snake about his neck. Buddhists and Jains alike. in which Vishnu inquired of Brahma.1 Legends The origin of Bhairava can be traced to a conversation between Brahma and Vishnu recounted in the Shiv Mahapuran. which assumed the form of Kala Bhairava.2 Worship See also: Bhairava Ashtami His temples or shrines are present within or near most Jyotirlinga temples. including Kashi Vishwanath Temple. Each Shaktipeeth temple is accompanied by a temple dedicated to Bhairava. Varanasi and the Mahakaleshwar Temple at Ujjain. Rajasthan.Chapter 10 Bhairava For the raga in Hindustani classical music. a fierce manifestation of Shiva associated with annihilation. and skull. angry eyes and sharp. I can do everything that Shiva does and therefore I am Shiva”. drum. Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव (“Terrible” or “Frightful”))[1] sometimes known as Kala Bhairava. Shiva also has five heads.Tamil nadu. Brahma told Vishnu to worship him as Supreme Creator. Then onwards he became useful to himself.India. 10th-11th century. the sacred twelve shrines dedicated to Shiva across India. Bhairavi is a fierce and terrifying aspect of the Devi who is virtually indistinguishable from Kali. Bhairavi Bhairava is depicted ornamented with a range of twisted serpents. Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. tary deity Shani (Saturn). India the Kal Bhairav Temple. is celebrated on Krishna paksha Ashtami of the Margashirsha month of Hindu calendar with a day special prayers and rituals.[9] 10.[5][6] • Chanda Bhairava • Krodha Bhairava • Unmattha Bhairava • Kapaala Bhairava • Bheeshana Bhairava Kaal Bhairava temples can also be found around Shakti • Samhaara Bhairava Peethas. here one can also find the Patal Bhairav and Vikrant Bhairav shrines. As such it is said there are 52 forms of Bhairava.[8] 10. and sacred thread (yajnopavita).[10] Bhairava has a dog (Shvan) as his divine vahana (vehicle). Bhairava: Ashta • Asithaanga Bhairava • Ruru Bhairava Shri Swarna Kala Bhairava consecrated at Kaga Ashram. which serve as earrings. where he is referred to as “Bhaivara/Annadhani” Vairavar.e. OBSERVANCES 133 Traditionally Kal Bhairav is the Grama devata in the rural villages of Karnataka. Bhairava himself has eight manifestations i.4 Iconography Bhairava with his consort. or the minister of Mata Sharika worship Bhairava during Shivratri [7] The Hindu reformer Adi Sankara has written a hymn on Kala Bhairava of Kashi which is called as Kala Bhairav Ashtakam. Lord Bhairava is the supreme God for the community commonly referred as “Gowdas”. as it is said Shiva allocated the job of guarding each of 52 Shakti Peethas to one Bhairava. Thiruvannamalai. he is worshipped by the Kapalika and Aghori sects of Shaivism. Bhairava is known as Bhairavar . Also another set of people in Kashmir that have their origin from Gorat. He wears a tiger skin and a ritual apron composed of human bones.Kala Bhairava is conceptualized as the Guru of the planesidered as manifestation of Shiva himself. with the exception of her particular identification as the consort of Bhairava. In Karnataka. especially for the Gangadikara Gowda caste he is considered as the care taker and punisher.3 Observances Bhairava Ashtami commemorating the day Kal Bhairav appeared on earth. which are in fact con.3.10. anklets. bracelets. 192–3.6 Images of Bhairava 10. Banaras: City of Light. Publication Division. K. Bhairava is an important deity of the Newars. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. p.Chalisa • Kali and Bhairava in Union. dated 11th-century CE • Bhairav Worship Chant . Gautam. Indonesia. BHAIRAVA [6] Diana L. pp. 18th century. 471. ISBN 0710202369. p. 727.134 or Vairavar in Tamil where he is often presented as a Grama devata or village guardian who safeguards the devotee on all eight directions (ettu tikku). 1. p. Retrieved 14 April 2015.com. Government of India.philhine.Kikali .org. Nepal • Obtaining a Yidam (Bhairava or Dakini) as a guide and protector (from wisdom-tree. Eck (1982). Madan (1990).html.7 See also • Bhairab Naach • Muthappan • Sirkazhi 10. shaligramrudraktemples in the Kathmandu valley. Vol. Taylor & Francis. p. 2007. 76. Most of the temples of Bhairava in Nepal are maintained by Newar priests. [3] Gopal. • Shri Bhairavnath Mandir . p.blogspot. left column. the Nizam’s Dominions. ed. Lord Bhairava is the main deity worshipped by the Aghora sect. India through the ages. 10.[10] Bhairava statuette in copper from 15th-16th century Nepal.H. hindubhakti. ISBN 8128812394. 10. ISBN 8122309976. [9] Dr. Asian Educational Services.5 Temples Main article: List of Bhairava temples CHAPTER 10. All the tra.uk/writings/tt_wrathful. Hindu Pilgrimage: A Journey Through the Holy Places of Hindus All Over India.8 References [1] For भैरव as one of the eight forms of Shiva.E. he protects treasures. [7] Syed Siraj Ul Hassan (1920). Retrieved 13 May 2015. 482. 172. Known in Sinhalese as Bahirawa. and translation of the adjectival form as “terrible” or “frightful” see: Apte.S. Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd.[11] sha.com) • 14th century Bhairava.com. Missing or empty |title= (help) [5] Sunita Pant Bansal (2008). [4] http://www. [2] For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch. [8] “Hindu Bhakti”. There are several Bhairava [11] “Bhairav Temple – Lord Bhairo Baba”. ISBN 8120604881. Accessed August ditional settlements of Newars have at least a temple of 11. Pustak Mahal. 10. Bhojraj Dwivedi (2006).9 External links • Head of Bhairava. in collection of Smithsonian Institution. The Castes and Tribes of H. Religious Basis Of Hindu Beliefs. Bhairava. Retrieved 14 April 2015. one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism. see Shiva (disambiguation). see Neelkanth (film). in Tamil) and that [24][25] called Babhru (brown. Rudra. Shiva is usually worshiped in the Mahadev. Shiva (/ˈʃivə/.[14][15][16] Har. Shambhu. Shiva is regarded as limitless. noting that Shiva is linked to the Rudra is also written either as Shiva or Siva. śiva) comes practices. unchanging and formless.[4] as well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children. aniconic form of Lingam.[2] and “the Destroyer” or “the Transformer”[4] among the Trimurti. Sanskrit: Śiva. “the Red one”.[5][6][7][8][9] Shiva also has many benevolent and fearsome forms.[10] In benevolent aspects. the 11. Shiva is also regarded as the patron god of yoga and arts. is used Sun (śivan.1 Etymology and other names 135 . Mahesh.[11][12][13] The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the third eye on his forehead. the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. Trilochan. as depicted commonly in Hinduism adorning crescent moon. also known as Mahadeva (“Great God"). the trishula as his weapon and the damaru as his musical instrument. the Shiva absorbed in meditation. For other uses.5. transcendent. meaning “The Auspicious One”). he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash. 4. Devendra (meaning Chief of the gods) and Trilokinath (meaning Lord of the three realms).7) of Krishna Yajurveda. Ganesha and Kartikeya.[22] Main article: List of titles and names of Shiva It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and The Sanskrit word Shiva (Devanagari: ￱शव. the snake Vasuki around his neck. he is often depicted slaying demons. in his interpretation of the name Shiva. Shankar. including Rudra. and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. such as Shaivism. The adjective śiva. and in fierce aspects. Maheshwar.[19][20][21] The Sanskrit word śaiva means “relating to the god Shiva”.[2][3] He is one of the five primary forms of God in the Smarta tradition.Chapter 11 Shiva “Neelkanth” redirects here. In simple English transliteration it is vappu meaning “red”. the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair. or red) in the Rigveda. as an attributive epithet for several Vedic deities.[18] Other popular names associated with Shiva are Adi Sankara. For the 2012 Indian film. At the highest level.[23] from Shri Rudram Chamakam of Taittiriya Samhita (TS 4. The root word √śi[17] Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śimeans auspicious. is one of the main deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme god within Shaivism. [32] There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama. an epithet of latter were either taken to represent the multiple the later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra.2 Indus Valley origins time.Main article: Pashupati seal verged as a composite deity is not well documented. [. Nepal and Sri Lanka. doba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself.. John Keay writes that “He . either horned or wearing cording to Vijay Nath: a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic[46][47][48] figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position Visnu and Siva [.[30][31] and Parameśvara (“Supreme Lord”).[41][44] Khandoba’s varied associations also include an identifica11..[38] How the persona of Shiva con. where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity [41] The foremost center of The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition.g.[27] Shiva’s role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva (“Great god". with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure. mahā “Great” and deva “god”). is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.[35][36] A sculpture of Shiva depicting him with a moustache 11. SHIVA 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama.”[26] Swami Chinmayananda.[45] See also: Roots of Hinduism The figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over 11.2.[39] Ac.[33] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradition..”[40] While some academics like Gavin Flood[52][53] and John Keay have expressed doubts.[46][49][50][51] Sir John facets of the same god or else were supposed to Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a protodenote different forms and appellations by which type of Shiva and have described the figure as having three the god came to be known and worshipped.[34] Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10.[43] in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.136 CHAPTER 11. and Tamas)" or “the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name. or “the One who is not affected by three Gunas of Prakrti (Sattva.2 Historical development and literature An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra. Bhutesvara. e.. devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva. The of Mohenjo-daro Pashupati (lord of cattle).Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention shows a figure. Hatakesvara.[42] Khan[37][38] widely across all of India.. also known as the Śatarudriya. mahā “great” and īśvara “lord”).2. further elaborates on that verse: Shiva means “the One who is eternally pure” or “the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas”. practiced of farming and herding castes.] began to absorb countand surrounded by animals was named by early excavators less local cults and deities within their folds. Chandesvara. the thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: “The Pure One”.[28][29] Maheśvara (“Great Lord".] faces seated in a “yoga posture” with the knees out and feet Siva became identified with countless local cults joined.000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa.1 Assimilation of traditions tion with Surya[41] and Karttikeya. worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri. Rajas. The Shri Rudram Chamakam. by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity. in his translation of Vishnu sahasranama. Prajāpati. the god of the Writing in 2002. Concordance and Tables (1977).[61] Furthermore.2.33. he is described as the “Father of the Rudras".3 Indo-European origins RV 2. its element he represents as a fierce. could de[59] and both Shiva and Rudra are scribe Hindu deity Murugan.pati”. inand the Yajur Vedas and addressed to Rudra. and its posture as one of The Hindu text Rig Veda.[57] 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological evidence. is usually portrayed in accordance with the it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity. Vāyu. but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra. Since Shiva means pure. destructive deity. the epithet is possibly used to describe a quality of these gods rather than to identify any of Rudra them with the God Shiva.[54] Writing in 1997 Doris Srinivasan rejected Marshall’s package of proto-Siva features.[58] an epithet for the gods Indra. association with the water buffalo. which is dated to between ritual discipline. and as Shiva in several instances. possibly a divine buffalo-man. Gandhara. Rudra. Mitra and Agni many times. as Axel Michaels explains: .11. Indra. invokes him cluding Purusha. but the term Shiva is used as others. In 11. Main article: Rudra The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudhra is not Shiva as we know him today shares many features with universally accepted. including that of three heads. two names are used synonymously. Rudra. 2nd century AD Iravatham Mahadevan symbols 47 and 48 of his Indus script glossary The Indus Script: Texts. Gregory L. a group of storm gods. representing seated human-like figures. Agni.[55] According to Three-headed Shiva.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND LITERATURE 137 Seal discovered during excavation of the Indus Valley archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a “yogi” or “proto-Shiva” figure may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. The [56] Parvati’s son. the Rudram. She interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine. Possehl concluded that while roaring storm. viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. one of Shiva’s rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilithe most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig tated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities.[60] A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. popularly known as Shiva and the Vedic god Rudra. are said to have been revealed by Shiva himself and are foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta. some epithets of Rudra.[63] This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama. suggest a fusing of the two deities.[91] 11. an important early text on etymology.6 Tantric literature The Tantras. (2. valuing all its potentialities and phases. literally “Armed with arrows in his hands”)[66][67] also refer to archery. is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra.17.[74] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull Mahabhasya and in the Mahabharata.[77] Indra According to Wendy Doniger. “Agni is also called Rudra. and according to Stella Kramrisch: The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion. Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory.[75][76] In me. and his mount Nandi dieval sculpture. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.[64] The names Dhanvin (“Bowman”)[66] and Bāṇahasta (“Archer”. SHIVA Rudra is called “The Archer” (Sanskrit: Śarva). but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. and R. like Shiva. both Agni and the form of Shiva known as but no other Vedic gods.[88] At least 383 non-IndoEuropean words were borrowed from this culture. fearlessness.93. who is some.[78] Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis.[62] and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra.2. Shiva’s trident. which founded the tradition of RudraShiva worship.[83][84] In the Rig Veda.20. Verethraghna. the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (presentday) Iran. Rudra is the father of the Maruts.[89] It was “a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements”.45. fierceness.[90] According to Anthony.[93][94] Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.3. the Supreme Self. a quarter of the Rig Veda.3.2. male fertility. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma. Nandi. which means “to injure” or “to kill”.[72] Rudra’s transformation from an ambiguously characterized deity to a supreme being began in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400-200 BC).[86][87] and the Indo-Iranian religion. discuss the various forms of Shiva and the cosmology associated with him. who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages. a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion.[65] and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as “One who can kill the forces of darkness”.138 CHAPTER 11.[85] 11. The horns of Agni. composed between the 8th and 11th centuries. including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.cycle. Among these the Shaiva Agamas. Agni Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[96] .[82] ) Indra. rivers.[73] of Shiva.4 Later Vedic literature The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire.2.[89] which borrowed “distinctive religious beliefs and practices”[88] from the Bactria–Margiana Culture.[88] According to Anthony. from conflagration to illumination. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns.[79] 6. particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana. are mentioned. times characterized as a bull. transgression of established mores.[53][92] as his vehicle.[95] 11.depict Shiva dancing.[80][81] and 8.[68][69] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra’s gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva. which says.”[71] The interconnections between the two deities are complex. Both are associated with mountains. K.5 Puranic literature The Shiva Puranas. Here they are identified as the creators of the cosmos and liberators of souls from the birth-rebirth In the Śatarudrīya.Early historical paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters. the Aum sound.[70] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta. warfare. regard themselves as Sruti. were transferred to the adopted god Indra. with references to Shaiva ascetics in Patanjali's Agni is said to be a bull. the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.[64] The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv-. such as Sasi. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the pañjara (“Of golden red hue as of flame”) and Tivaṣīmati beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship (“Flaming bright”). can be understood as the symbolism of the unity of three worlds that a human faces . and the broader overall world. preserver.[104] In classical Sanskrit. Shaivism is widespread throughout India. Shaktism and Smartism. implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine.[103] called “Tryambakam” (Sanskrit: ).[102] often addressed as “Brahma-Vishnu-Maheshwara. ICONOGRAPHY AND PROPERTIES 11. a genre of Hindu religious texts. the word ambaka denotes “an eye”. Devi. The tantric Shaiva tradition consists of the Kapalikas. all three forks unite. Tiruvannamalai. destroyer.3 Position within Hinduism 139 philosopher. like Vaishnavism. the others being Vaishnavism.[106][107] These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called .[98] 11.1 Shaivism Main articles: Shaivism and History of Shaivism Shaivism (Sanskrit: शैव पंथ. Sadyojata) are visible while the 6th (Adhomukh) can only be seen by the enlightened. Tamil Nadu is dedicated to Shiva 11. or by five marks drawn on the floor. Vishnu.” Panchayatana puja Main article: Panchayatana puja Panchayatana puja is the system of worship ('puja') in the Smarta sampradaya of Hinduism. Worship is offered to all the deities.11. like almost all other forms in Hinduism. and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahmā the creator. and Indonesia. or by five kinds of stones. śaiva paṁtha) (Kannada: ) (Tamil: சைவ சமயம்) is the oldest of the four major sects of Hinduism. and in the Mahabharata. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all. Depending on the tradition followed by Smarta households. revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. one of these deities is kept in the center and the other four surround it. He wears five serpents and a garland of skulls as ornaments. It is often not shown but Shiva has 6 heads. practice and doctrine must be kept separate. revealer and concealer of all that is. and a crescent moon on his head.3 Trimurti Main article: Trimurti The Annamalaiyar Temple. • Third eye: (Trilochana) Shiva is often depicted with a third eye.4. so this name is sometimes translated as “having three eyes”.his inside world. At the base of the trident. Followers of Shaivism.3.1 Attributes • Shiva’s form: Shiva has a trident in the right lower arm.3. Indologist Axel Michaels suggests that Shaivism. Areas notable for the practice of Shaivism include parts of Southeast Asia. maintenance. which occurs in many scriptural sources. He is said to be fair like camphor or like an ice clad mountain. of which only five (Isana. The Shiva MahaPurana is one of the purāṇas. Surya and Ganesha. the word ambā or ambikā means “mother”.3. His trident. and also “Saivas” or “Saivites”. and Sri Lanka. called “Shaivas”. Aghora. It consists of the worship of five deities: Shiva. Furthermore.4 Iconography and properties 11. dedicated to Shiva. his immediate world. The five are represented by small murtis. mostly. the 8th century AD Hindu 11. Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Śhiva the destroyer or transformer.4.[105] However. in Vedic Sanskrit. with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes. Nepal. Shiva is usually depicted facing the south.[99][100] These three deities have been called “the Hindu triad”[101] or the “Great Trinity". and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation “three mothers”. Tatpurusha. Vamadeva. Shiva is depicted as three-eyed. Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta.[97] 11. It is said to have been introduced by Adi Shankara. Singapore. especially Malaysia. the creator.2 The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation. which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā.[123] His hair is said to be like molten gold in color or being yellowish-white. crown”)[111][112][113] refers to this feature.[131] . The ashes are said to represent the end of all material existence. as were Soma and the moon. Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to stop it in his neck itself and prevent it from spreading all over the universe.[110] The epithet Candraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर “Having the moon as his crest” .candra = “moon".Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). or. Shocked by his act. • Blue throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ. the Brahmarishis. supposed to be in Shiva’s stomach. Ganges river flows from the matted hair of Shiva. Shiva is depicted three-eyed.[118] One epithet for Shiva is “inhabitant of the cremation ground” (Sanskrit: śmaśānavāsin. and covered in ashes. and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored. one of the major rivers of the country.[124][125] Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. more generally.[117] These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.[116] Some forms of Shiva. referring to this connection.[114] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma. The waxing and waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end.[130] The flow of the Ganges also represents the nectar of immortality.[122] A kaparda is a cowrie shell. wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland.[128][129] The Gaṅgā (Ganges).[119] Shiva with Parvati. and in later literature. • Ashes: (The epithet “Bhasmaanga Raaga”) . “the one with matted hair”.[116] an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics. the Ganges flowing through his matted hair. • Crescent moon: (The epithets “Chandrasekhara/Chandramouli”)Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.[108] Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra.) • Sacred Ganges: (The epithet “Gangadhara”) Bearer of Ganga.[120] and Kapardin. • Tiger skin: (The epithet “Krittivasana”) He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin. nīla = “blue”.[126][127] (See Maha Shivaratri.[115] The crescent moon is shown on the side of the Lord’s head as an ornament. also spelled Shmashanavasin).Shiva’s distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin. and seated on a tiger skin. or a braid of hair in the form of a shell. hair that is shaggy or curly. such as Bhairava. is said to have made her abode in Shiva’s hair. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue. his third eye opens which can reduce most things to ashes.[109] It has been mentioned that when Shiva loses his temper. SHIVA other. śekhara = “crest. the Ambikās. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.140 CHAPTER 11. “endowed with matted hair”[121] or “wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion”. kaṇtha = “throat”). are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy. Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one an- • Matted hair: (The epithet “Jataajoota Dhari/Kapardina”) . The Damaru in His left hand represents the Sabda Brahman. similar to the mind moving from one thought to another. translated by Sharma as “lord of cattle”[140] and by Kramrisch as “lord of animals”. who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.[133][134] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing Main article: Lingam representation[135] known as Nataraja. It represents OM from which all languages are formed. • Arms: Shiva has 4 arms which resembles 4 vedas • Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode. representing the center of the universe.4. whose name means “Rama with the axe” and also taught him its mastery. Lord Siva rides on the bull.[144] • Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is 11. Bull is his vehicle. Generally benign.11. as Kashi.4.[141] Rishabha or the bull represents Dharma Devata. or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति). hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati. • Trident: (Trishula): Shiva’s particular weapon is the trident. • Nandī: (The epithet “Nandi Vaahana”) Nandī. circa 1740 • Serpents: (The epithet “Nagendra Haara” or 'Vasuki”). is an embodiment of Dharma or righteousness.[138][139] Shiva’s association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati. He rules the world through these three Gunas. Shiva bearing the descent of the Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha and the bull Nandi look. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva. folio from a Hindi manuscript by the Narayan. and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India.[132] • Deer: His holding deer on one hand indicates that He has removed the Chanchalata of the mind (i. sixth Avatar of Vishnu. “lord of the gaṇas”. they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee.[116] His Trisul that is held in His right hand represents the three Gunas— Sattva. except when their lord is transgressed against. That is the emblem of sovereignty. This denotes that Lord Siva is the protector of Dharma. on account of their nature. A deer jumps from one place to another swiftly. A specific hand .2 Lingam known as a damaru (ḍamaru). It is He who formed the Sanskrit language out of the Damaru sound. ICONOGRAPHY AND PROPERTIES 141 gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand”) is used to hold the drum. in religious contexts. or ghostly hosts. attained maturity and firmness in thought process). Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake. also known as Nandin. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas. Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga.[116] In Hindu mythology.[143] • Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva.[136] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.[142] • 5 heads: Shiva is known as panchavactra means 5 heads which indicates 5 elements. Rajas and Tamas.. It is referred to.e. is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva’s mount (Sanskrit: vāhana). • Gaṇa: The Gaṇas (Devanagari: गण) are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash.[137] • Axe: (Parashu):The parashu is the weapon of Lord Shiva who gave it to Parashurama. its smoke. Kali[158] . a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha.[148] Some scholars. Tamil Nadu Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva. SHIVA Lingodbhava murti Lingam at Jambukesvara temple in Thiruvanaikaval.[148] Linga also means the same thing—a place where created objects get dissolved during the disintegration of the created universe. the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam. Hence. the embodiment of energy. Sati and Parvati are the main consorts of Shiva. meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva. dynamism. the Soma plant. Shakti manifests in several female deities. such as Monier Monier-Williams and Wendy Doniger.4. In that hymn. there are also arguments that Shiva linga means 'mark' or a 'sign'. or linga. Balagangadhara.N. the sacrificial post. Shiva means auspiciousness. apart from relating Shiva linga as a phallus symbol. the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories.[155][156] In the text Linga Purana. his blue throat. and flames. according to Hinduism. ashes.[151] Vivekananda. The worship of the Shiva-Linga originated from the famous She is also referred to as Uma. also view linga as a phallic symbol. and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman.[145][146][147] These are depicted in various forms.142 CHAPTER 11. the Shivalinga is regarded as a “symbol of the great God of the universe who is all-auspiciousness”. the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga. Durga (Parvata).[153] and S. is also important. sustains and withdraws the universe. including Christopher Isherwood. Shiva is her transcendent masculine aspect. and the riding on the bull of the Shiva.[152] Swami Sivananda. Since. the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself. Jyoti means Radiance. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column. and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva’s body.3 Shakti Main article: Shakti Shiva forms a Tantric couple with Shakti. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire.[157] 11.[156] The sacred of all Shiva linga is worshipped as Jyotir linga. The Jyotirlingas are mentioned in Shiva Purana. his tawny matted hair. it is the same god that creates. and the motivating force beJyotirlinga hind all action and existence in the material universe.[149][150] although this interpretation is disputed by others. Jyotirlinga means “The Radiant sign of The Almighty”.[148] Shiva also means “one in whom the whole creation sleeps after dissolution”.[154] hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha. providing the divine Main article: Jyotirlinga ground of all being. and linga means a sign or a symbol. 11.5. FORMS AND ROLES 143 Tandava - the violent and dangerous dance, associated with the destruction of weary worldviews – weary perspectives and lifestyles). 11.4.4 The five mantras Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[160] One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).[161] Shiva’s body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans.[162] As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:[163] • Sadyojāta • Vāmadeva • Aghora • Tatpuruṣha • Īsāna Kali and Bhairava (the terrible form of Shiva) in Union, 18th century, Nepal and Chandika.[159] Kali is the manifestation of Shakti in her dreadful aspect. The name Kali comes from kāla, which means black, time, death, lord of death, Shiva. Since Shiva is called Kāla, the eternal time, Kālī, his consort, also means “Time” or “Death” (as in “time has come”). Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well as Shākta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatārini (literally “redeemer of the universe”). Kālī is represented as the consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing or dancing. Shiva is the masculine force, the power of peace, while Shakti translates to power, and is considered as the feminine force. In the Vaishnava tradition, these realities are portrayed as Vishnu and Laxmi, or Radha and Krishna. These are differences in formulation rather than a fundamental difference in the principles. Both Shiva and Shakti have various forms. Shiva has forms like Yogi Raj (the common image of Himself meditating in the Himalayas), Rudra (a wrathful form) and Natarajar (Shiva’s dance are the Lasya - the gentle form of dance, associated with the creation of the world, and the These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[164][165] Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.[166] The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch: Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.[167] According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad: One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)[168] 11.5 Forms and roles According to Gavin Flood, “Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox,” whose attributes include opposing themes.[169] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him. 144 11.5.1 CHAPTER 11. SHIVA Destroyer and Benefactor nign aspect.[184][185] In the Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or 11.5.2 auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that “all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here”.[170] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as “the standard of invincibility, might, and terror”, as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.[171] The duality of Shiva’s fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. Ascetic and Householder Uma and Maheswar The name Rudra (Sanskrit: ) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which means “to cry, howl”.[172] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means “wild, of rudra nature”, and translates the name Rudra as “the wild one” or “the fierce god”.[173] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as “terrible”.[174] Hara (Sanskrit: ) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as “one who captivates”, “one who consolidates”, and “one who destroys”.[175] Kramrisch translates it as “the ravisher”.[127] Another of Shiva’s fearsome forms is as Kāla (Sanskrit: काल), “time”, and as Mahākāla (Sanskrit: महाकाल), “great time”, which ultimately destroys all things.[176][177][178] Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव), “terrible” or “frightful”,[179] is a fierce form associated with annihilation.[180] He is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder, roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[186] When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.[187] His epithet Mahāyogi (“the great Yogi: Mahā = “great”, Yogi = “one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.[188] While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.[189] Shiva is also depicted as a corpse below Goddess Kali, it represents that Shiva is a corpse without Shakti. He remains inert. While Shiva is the static form, Mahakali or Shakti is the dynamic aspect without whom Shiva is powerless. In contrast, the name Śaṇkara (Sanskrit: ), “beneficent”[64] or “conferring happiness”[181] reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Śaṇkara (c. 788 - 820 AD), who is also known as Shankaracharya.[182][183] The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु), “causing happiness”, also reflects this be- As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet Umāpati (“The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama.[190] Umā in epic literature is known by many An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha and Skanda (Kartikeya) 11.5. FORMS AND ROLES names, including the benign Pārvatī.[191][192] She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kamakshi and Meenakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.[193] His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in Southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.[194] Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva’s children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu’s female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta identified with regional deities Ayyappa and Ayyanar is born.[195][196][197][198] Shiva is also mentioned in some scriptures to have had daughters like the serpent-goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari. The demons Andhaka and Jalandhara and the god Mangala are considered children of Shiva. 145 Main article: Nataraja The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: naṭarāja, “Lord of Dance”) is popular.[199][200] The names Nartaka (“dancer”) and Nityanarta (“eternal dancer”) appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[201] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.[202] In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many welldefined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.[203] The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya.[204][205] and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.[206][207] Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava.[207] The TandavaLasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.[208][209][210] 11.5.4 11.5.3 Nataraaja Dakshinamurthy Main article: Dakshinamurthy Dakshinamurthy, or Dakṣiṇāmūrti (Tamil:தட்சிணாமூர்த்தி, Telugu: , Sanskrit: द￸क्षणामू￷त),[211] literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.[212] This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.[213] Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.[214] 11.5.5 Ardhanarishvara Main article: Ardhanarishvara An iconographic representation of Shiva called (Ardhanārīśvara) shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form (Ardhanārīśvara) is best translated as “the lord who is half woman”, not as “half-man, half-woman”.[215] According to legend, Lord Shiva is pleased by the difficult austerites performed by the goddess Parvati, grants her the left half of his body. This form of Shiva is quite similar to the Yin-Yang philosoChola dynasty statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja (Los An- phy of Eastern Asia, though Ardhanārīśvara appears to be geles County Museum of Art) more ancient. 146 CHAPTER 11. SHIVA The five-headed Tripurantaka is seen pointing an arrow towards the Tripura (rightmost top corner) with the bow made of mount Meru, the serpent Vasuki is seen as its string. In the lower pair of the arms, he holds a bow and an arrow respectively. After destroying Tripura, Tripurantaka Shiva smeared his forehead with three strokes of Ashes. This has become a prominent symbol of Shiva and is practiced even today by Shaivites. 11.5.7 Chola bronze from the 11th century. Ardhanarisvara. 11.5.6 Tripurantaka Shiva in the form of Other forms, avatars, identifications Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars. Although Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to “ansh” avatars of Shiva, the idea is not universally accepted in Saivism.[218] The Linga Purana speaks of twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars.[219] According to the Svetasvatara Upanishad, he has four avatars.[220] In the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva and this belief is universal. HanuMain article: Tripurantaka man is popularly known as “Rudraavtaar” “Rudra” beSee also: Tripura (mythology) [221] Rama– the Vishnu avatar is Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of de- ing a name of “Shiva”. considered by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra stroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras.[216] [222][223] (Shiva). Shiva’s name Tripurantaka (Sanskrit: ित्रपुरान्तक, Tripurāntaka), “ender of Tripura”, refers to this important story.[217] Other traditions regard the sage Durvasa,[224][225][226][227] In this aspect, Shiva is depicted with four arms wielding a the sage Agastya, the philosopher Adi Shankara and bow and arrow, but different from the Pinakapani murti. Ashwatthama as avatars of Shiva. Other forms of Shiva inHe holds an axe and a deer on the upper pair of his arms. clude Virabhadra and Sharabha. [234] and Kushan Empire.2 Sikhism The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says. This ritual.[235] In Eastern Turkestan in the Taklamakan Desert. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. the Siddhas speak.7. He is also said to give Kirants visions in form of a male deer. Shiva’s other form in Indonesian Hinduism is “Maharaja Dewa” (Mahadeva). “The Guru is Shiva. before receiving his authority of power.” In Dasam Granth.1 Buddhism Shiva is mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. practiced throughout the night.7. Bel (aegle marmelos) leaves are often offered up to the Hindu god. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdiana and Eastern Turkestan as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan. It is also said that the physical form of Shiva as a yogi is derived from Kirants as it is mentioned in Mundhum that Shiva took human form as a child of Kirant.[235] In this depiction. notably the Abhishek.[235][236] It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva. When he was young.7. all kingdoms were located on top of mountains. a Mongol tribe from Nepal.[236] Kirant people. yogurt. BEYOND HINDUISM 11. the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi. identifying him as the lord of animals. The offering of the leaves are considered so important that it is believed that someone who offers them without any intentions will be rewarded greatly.”[232] In the same chapter. his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya.[235] There is a depiction of his four-legged seated cross-legged n a cushioned seat supported by two bulls. Guru Gobind Singh have mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar. Mahashivaratri marks the night when Lord Shiva performed the 'Tandava' and it is the day that Lord Shiva was married to Parvati. In the ancient times. Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru. and honey. “Shiva speaks.[229] 11.7.[233] 11.[235] Another panel form Dandan-Uilip shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with His Shakti kneeling on her right thigh. as it is considered necessary for a successful life. Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna.[228] The holiday is often celebrated with special prayers and rituals offered up to Shiva. wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon. In Indonesia. He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja.7 Beyond Hinduism Others The worship of Lord Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite (White Hun) Dynasty.[235] He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sodgian dress. milk. Shiva is depicted as passive.11. Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread (“Yajnopavita”). worship a form of Shiva as one of their major deity. This festival is of utmost importance to the devotees of Lord Shiva.[237] . is often performed every three hours with water.[231] 11. it also says.3 Kalyanasundara: Celestial Marriage of Shiva and Parvati in presence of all depicted at Elephanta Caves Main article: Maha Shivaratri Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the 13th night or the 14th day of the new moon in the Shukla Paksha of the month of Maagha or Phalguna in the Hindu calendar.6 Festivals 147 11.[230] In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra. with Shakti being his active counterpart. the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma. [8] See Davis. sanskritdictionary. p. [3] Tattwananda. 162. pgs. 176. Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. see: Chakravarti. 28. 147. 927 [23] For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of Śiva (śivaśāna) and which focus on the deity Śiva.148 11. [10] Sharma. 29. see: Sharma 1996. p. [18] For use of the term śiva as an epithet for other Vedic deities. Puratattva 19: 19-26. “Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva. [12] See Varenne. 205.xxvii. [16] See Fuller. page 95. page 82. 1989 . 40. [19] See translation by Manmatha Nath Dutt. 476. Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra. 45.47 and pg. [27] Swami Chinmayananda’s translation of Vishnu sahasranama. 479.. and p. [43] 'Khandoba: Ursprung. by Jeanne Fowler. p. “Siva Sahasranama Stotram”. CHAPTER 11. p. [33] Sharma 1996. [22] Apte. 213. In traditional Indian society. [39] For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented. [31] For appearance of the name महेश्वर in the Shiva Sahasranama see:Sharma 1996. p. [20] See translation by Kisari Mohan Ganguli. Ramakrishna Math edition. p. Volume 3.A. [15] Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. p. Chapter 17 of Volume 13. [35] For an overview of the Śatarudriya see: Kramrisch. 31. Tantra: Cult of the Feminine. 477. page 186.5. see: Keay. 42– 43.g. pp. translation by Mallinson. ISBN 9780877288459. [40] Nath 2001. [4] Zimmer (1972) p. 299 [32] For Parameśhvara as “Supreme Lord” see: Kramrisch. [45] For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra. Central Chinmaya Mission Trust. [37] Flood 1996. p. 17. Weiser Books. and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976). translations. 122. [28] Kramrisch.D. p. p. p. [13] See Marchand for Jnana Yoga. see: Mate. p.P. pg. “With his abode on Mount Kailāsa”. S. who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. SHIVA [26] Sri Vishnu Sahasranama. 17. [6] See Kramrisch. [5] See Parmeshwaranand. 24. 81. [14] Davis writes on page 122: “The Saiva worshipper does not worship the object itself as Siva or as representing Siva. [25] Tyagi. [9] Chatterji. p. 281.. p. p. e. viii-ix [34] This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda. Preface. p. The presence of Siva. Chapter 17 of Volume 13. pp 58. Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of MohenjoDaro(Approx 2500-3000 BC). the linga is rather seen as a symbol of the energy and potentiality of the god. Shaivism in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to C.” [44] For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that. he directs his worship toward it as the physical support for Siva’s special presence. [42] For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate. Ishvar Chandra (1982). [7] See Abhayananda. p. [41] Courtright. Andre (2002). pp 113-114. p. p. 7174. 297 [30] Kramrisch. " see: Flood (1996). Iconography of Sadasiva [11] See Shiva Samhita. [29] For appearance of the name महादेव in the Shiva Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996. [38] Keay. [21] See Chidbhavananda. 300. see: Gupta. [2] Flood (1996). See Chidbhavananda.” [36] For complete Sanskrit text.com. Meenakshi Prakashan. The Camphor Flame. as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranama. p. Kashmir Shaivism. 180-98. p. p. 149. p. [24] van Lysebeth. [46] For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood (1996). pg.. [17] “Sanskrit Dictionary”.8 References [1] For the name Kailāsagirivāsī (Sanskrit कैलासिगिरवासी). 124. [47] Singh. p. [55] Srinivasan. harappa. the erotic ascetic. p. kine. [73] For “Note Agni-Rudra concept fused” in epithets Sasipañjara and Tivaṣīmati see: Sivaramamurti.11. [78] Doniger. O Indra. and protector of us. [80] For text of RV 6. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. 204-205. his worshipper” see: Arya & Joshi (2001).155. 45. Graham M.17 as यो गृणतािमदा￭सथािप ती ￱शवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ and translation as "Indra.93. [70] For quotation “An important factor in the process of Rudra’s growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as Rudra-Śiva. Arms and Eyes: Origin. 10. Sharpe. 158. 910. p. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4. our auspicious friend. [67] For translation of Bāṇahasta as “Armed with arrows in his hands”.com. p. and example shared epithets.com. p. REFERENCES 149 [48] Kenoyer.3a as स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा ￱शवो नरामस्तु पाता । and translation as “May that young adorable Indra. p. p. p. pp. [49] Ranbir Vohra (2000). Wendy (1973).E. As such. [86] B. [81] For translation of RV 6. volume 2. [65] For root śarv. a Friend auspicious with thine aid. Woodard (18 August 2006). 17. [59] Michaels. 15. and Rudra.17 as “Thou who hast been the singers’ Friend. [88] Beckwith & 2009 32. Chapter 2. . who has ever been the friend of those who praise you. and barley” see: Arya & Joshi (2001). see: Sivaramamurti. ISBN 978-0-7591-1642-9. p. (11 November 2002). [53] Flood 2003. p. p.” see: Chakravarti. see: Kramrisch. [77] For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti. 45. Ahloowalia (2009). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. Retrieved 2010-06-06. 8. [64] Sharma 1996. p. p. [69] For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas. Agni and Others”.8. Iravatham (2006). [76] RV 8. 11. 454-455. 45. [87] Roger D. Arnold-Heinemann. ever be the friend. [57] Possehl. p. The Making of India: A Historical Survey. Gregory L. India: A History. p. pp. Indra. [61] Doniger. 910. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-9004107588.20. like a richly-streaming (cow). pp. 33. p. and others see: Chakravarti. 89. 221-223. Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. 48. 15-19. [71] For translation from Nirukta 10. and the insurer of their happiness by your protection. milk for us. Sacred-texts. [84] RV 7. Vāyu. wealth of horses. 48. [62] For Śarva as a name of Shiva see: Apte. see: Sharma 1996. [90] Anthony 2007. Jonathan Mark. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Śiva.49. pp. 11. volume 3. Schweig (2006). M. 316.7.3 as स न इन्द्रः ￭सवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उ धारेव दोहते ॥ and translation as “May Indra. Brill. [51] Steven Rosen. p. [58] For Shiva being identified with Agni. see: Chakravarti. 242–. [68] For general statement of the close relationship. p. p. [82] For text of RV 8. p. Prajāpati. grant us felicity” see: Arya & Joshi (2001). 462. [54] John Keay. [52] Flood 1996. 310. 155. [56] Mahadevan. [63] For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch. 28-29. A Note on the Muruku Sign of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe Discovery. Strategic Book Publishing. and for the arrow as an “essential attribute” see: Kramrisch. 1998. [72] Kramrisch. see: Sarup (1927). pp. see: Chakravarti. 89. ISBN 978-160860-691-7. University of Illinois Press. [66] Chidbhavananda. Many Heads. p. pp. The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. p. the benefactor.45. 32. 294. S. Doris Meth (1997). 70.see: Apte. p. Ancient Indian Civilization. 18. [79] For text of RV 2. pp.19. 14. [85] For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra. “The Vedic Antecedents”. Invasion of the Genes Genetic Heritage of India. p. Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art. [89] Anthony 2007. [60] For dating based on “cumulative evidence” see: Oberlies. 91. volume 2. p. [74] “Rig Veda: Rig-Veda. 306 [83] For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti. Grove Press. [50] Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin (1985). 84–9. p. [75] For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull. p. Rowman Altamira. 140–144. Essential Hinduism.45. Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. favour us” see: Griffith 1973. pp. 31. . pp. see. 59 and 109. [102] For the term “Great Trinity” in relation to the Trimurti see: [127] Kramrisch.74. p. [130] For Shiva supporting Gaṅgā upon his head. pp. For translation of Kapardin as “Endowed with matted hair” see: Sharma 1996. 98. 473. [133] Michaels. p. [125] See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda. 475. 215. p. [108] For discussion of the problems in translation of this name. [106] For translation of Tryambakam as “having three mother [132] Flood (1996). For Kapardin as a name of Shiva. 461. Freda. ISBN 978-81-7017-193-5. see: Chakravarti. p.150 CHAPTER 11. (1968). p. see: Chakravarti. Viṣṇu and Śiva and use of the phrase “the Hindu triad” see: [126] For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean Apte. 218. see: Chakravarti. and use of the name Gaṅgādhara see: Chakravarti. 86. p. [137] For use by Kāpālikas.[117] tions. see: Flood (1996). [129] For description of the Gaṅgādhara form. [115] For discussion of the linkages between Soma. 23. see: Apte. see: Flood (1996). ISBN 978-0-87586-484-6. p. see: Kramrisch. 22. see: Chakravarti. 220. p. Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka. 99-105. 8. [116] [94] Mathpal. 161. p. p. and Shiva as the trans[124] former or destroyer see: Zimmer (1972) p. see: Chakravarti. in: Flood (2003). Kramrisch. 205-206. p. p. Chidbhavananda. 109. [141] Kramrisch. Sharma 1996. Retrieved 200838-39. [131] “Mythology ~ The birth of Brahmarishis”. 05-07. p. 83. 161. 483. [114] For the moon iconography as marking the rise of RudraShiva. 473. 78. see: Sivaramamurti (1976). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. [121] [98] Himalaya Academy. 151. pp. 25. [104] For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of tryambaka. and mention of the [128] For alternate stories about this feature. 290 [101] For definition of trimurti as “the unified form” of Brahmā. [140] Sharma 1996. [107] For vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun. p. p. and description of the kaparda hair style. [110] For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti. Flood (1996). 485. p. p. see: Sivaramamurti (1976). 151 eyes” and as an epithet of Rudra. Jansen. p. p. 220. 472. p. 291 [113] For translation “Having the moon as his crest” see: Kramrisch. pp. Moon. [93] Javid. see: Apte. Flood (1996). [138] For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva’s mount. 56. 479. pp. p. Chidbhavananda. 454. Panchayatana puja [99] For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett. p. 151. p. Yashodhar (1 January 1984). Abhinav Publica. and the hypothesis regarding the Ambikās see: Hopkins [136] Jansen. story of the destruction of Kama with it. see: Chakravarti. 926. p. pp. Moon and Fire. p. SHIVA [91] Anthony 2007. Flood (1996). p. Ali (January 2008). 62. p. [134] For definition and shape. 17. see: Apte. [122] “The Purāṇas”. [105] For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction. 5758. [119] [96] Flood 2003. 139. p. and citation to RV 7. [123] [100] For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator. pp. p. [118] [95] Flood 2003. Macdonell. 124. [135] Jansen. 58. Central India. [112] For Candraśekhara as an iconographic form. [120] [97] Michaels. p. [92] Flood 1996. pp. p. p. 279. [103] For Shiva as depicted with a third eye. p. 208-212. and Rudra. Algora Publishing. p. [139] For spelling of alternate proper names Nandī and Nandin see: Stutley. 37-39. 20–21. 461. [109] For the Ambikā variant. [111] For śekhara as crest or crown. pp. 37. p. Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver. 44. see: Kramrisch. 92. p. p. 474. Amiya P. 481. [150] O'Flaherty. death”. 182. see: Apte. pp. p. [167] Kramrisch. For the name Kāla translated as “time. Swami. see: Apte. 28 (note 7). [185] For speculation on the possible etymology of this name. p. For translation of Mahākāla as “time beyond time” see: Kramrisch.11. 481. pp. 20–21. Śiva. howl” as a traditional etymology see: makrishna and his disciples. Orient Blackswan.. [169] For quotation “Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox” and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996).N. [153] Sivananda. “Early days at Dakshineswar”. Sharma 1996. [175] [154] Balagangadhara. 7. p. The Chakra. “God. “The Paris congress of the history of religions”. p. (1998). [151] Isherwood. 49-52. [182] For adoption of the name Śaṇkara by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch. p. 727. REFERENCES 151 [142] Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088. p. [156] Vivekananda. Kramrisch. [145] Michaels. and translation of the adjectival form as “terrible” or “frightful”. Ra[172] For rud. . pp. p. p. 150-151. [161] It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. 33. 476. (2006). 481. [143] For identification of Mount Kailāsa as the central linga.8. [160] For five as a sacred number. [147] Tattwanandaz. Kramrisch. Mayrhofer. p. pp. the Father”. 471. see: Kramrisch. 185. where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time”. S. p.[165] For the epithets pañcamukha and pañcavaktra. [157] Chaturvedi. see: Kramrisch. Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar.). p. “Editor’s Introduction”. Christopher. s. p. (2006). See: Sharma 1996. 29. The Divine Life Trust Society. p. p. [168] Quotation from Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 is from: Kram[146] Flood (1996). see: Chakravarti. [178] 156–157. pp. Sri Ramakrishna Math Mylapore. [158] “Why is Kali dancing on Lord Shiva?". see: Flood (1996).v. The Indis[173] Citation to M. [177] [155] Harding. middle column. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda 4. pp. [170] For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes. 25–26. “Worship of Siva Linga”. 314. “Sivalinga”. Shiv Purana (First ed. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch. see: [166] For variation in attributions among texts. is provided in: Kramrisch. K. p. p. [183] For dating Shankaracharya as 788-820 AD see: Flood 182. p. [181] Kramrisch. “Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples [176] From Hinduism Studies” (PDF). Sarah Claerhout (Spring 2008). left column. 26. both of 1) by Anna L.meaning “cry. Concise Etymological Sanskrit pensable Vivekananda. see Kramrisch. see: Kramrisch. p. p. B. see: Sharma 1988. 177. Swami. Dictionary. [171] For summary of Shiva’s contrasting depictions in the MaOxford: Oxford University Press. 48. “rudra”. and marking point for emergence of all [149] See Monier William’s Sanskrit to english Dictionary basic elements of later sect forms. 92. 150. [162] For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing [184] For translation of Śambhu as “causing happiness” see: the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch. [152] Sen. Motilal Banarsidass. [180] For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch. Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies 7 (19): 118–143. pp. p. 182-189. Principal Symbols of World Religions. [148] Harshananda. p. 62. [159] Bhattacharji 1998. 280. 5. ISBN 81-7182-7217 Sharma 1996. habharata. see: Kramrisch. 5. Swami (1996). 6–8. ISBN 0-19-520250-3. and p. p. Elizabeth U. Chakravarti. as epithets of Śiva. 187. 182. p. [164] For association with the five faces and other groups of five. 301. p. Stutley (1985). p. risch. 216. [144] Keay. 182. see: [163] For distinct iconography. p. ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9. 578. p. 184. [179] For भैरव as one of the eight forms of Shiva. pp. Wendy Doniger (1981). (1996). p. Dallapiccola which mean “five faces”. The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama. [186] For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions. Lord [174] Siva and His Worship. New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. the erotic ascetic. p. Devdutt (2001). 40. [221] Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) “Hanuman Chalisa” p. [220] P. see: [222] Lutgendorf.152 CHAPTER 11. p. see: Chakravarti. 216). see: Chakravarti. dian form. p. Saleem (2001). 49. ISBN 0-19520361-5. [223] Catherine Ludvík (1994). see: Chakravarti. 304. [206] Massey. Palgrave Macmilriod. 71. PrefDakṣiṇāmūrti. p. ence. [219] Winternitz. 151. 155. 278. Volume 1. Routledge. 479. p. Kidwai. 110111. pp. Sivananda (1992). pp. and instead myth in ancient Greece and India. 439. pp. see: Shiva Sahasranama literature.English translation by A. p. Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa. SHIVA [187] For Shiva’s representation as a yogi. [208] Leeming. p. 184 Cultural History from the Vāyu Purāna By Deven[201] For names Nartaka (Sanskrit नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sandrakumar Rajaram Patil skrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva. other queer tales of Hindu lore. 62. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The Presence of Banarsidass Publ. [224] “Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson’s English transla[205] Klostermaier. 289. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. Reginald. p. Abhinav Publications. Philip (2007). see: Chakravarti. The man who was a woman and [217] For the Tripurāntaka form. A History of Indian Literature. pp. Ruth. London: University of adopts the translation by Marglin as “the lord who is half Chicago Press. “Siva’s Dance”. when it was used to enhance Shiva’s increasing influlan. [197] Pattanaik. woman” as given in Marglin (1989. pp. [218] Parrinder. Gualtieri [214] For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as [194] For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta. Siva.Chapter X”. 8. see. Future.[216] For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic pedia: readings from literature and history.46. 1. Same-sex love in In. [215] Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique [195] Doniger. Hanuman’s tale: the messages of Chakravarti. [212] For description of the form as representing teaching funcsee: Chakravarti. V. pp. ISBN 978-0-19-530921-8. Wendy (1999). 32. 69. “India’s Kathak Dance”. [196] Vanita. p. 32. . Moriz. 32. “Mantra of Muladhara Chakra”. tāṇḍavanṛtya [190] For Umāpati. pp. see: Chakravarti. 96. Motilal Banarsidass. 472. Abhinav Publications. p. p. ace. Splitting the difference: gender and Marglin (1989) as “half-man. Kuṇḍalinī Yoga. p. see: Kramrisch. ISBN 978-0-226-15641-5. Oxford University Press US. 23. [225] “Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson’s English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I . see: Sivaramamurti (1976). Umākānta and Umādhava as names in the [211] For iconographic description of the Dakṣiṇāmūrti form. 263–5. half-woman”. Princeton University Press. A Dictionary of Asian Mythology. see: Kramrisch. 978-1-56023-181-3. see: Sharma 1996. 88. p. Goldberg. Stella (1994). [192] For Pārvatī identified as the wife of Shiva. David Adams (2001). Edward Geoffrey (1982). Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Oxford University Press. 62. Klaus K. [193] Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Lord Śiva does it by the ences. Srinivasa Sarma (1981).C. Past Present. [226] “Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 .. ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5. p. India’s Kathak Dance. Mythologies tion of The Vishnu Purana: Book I . see: Chakravarti. ISBN 978-0-312-29324-6. “Shiva the Dancer”. [191] For Umā as the oldest name. 543– [200] For interpretation of the naṭarāja form see: Zimmer. and variants including Pārvatī. [227] “Srimad Bhagavatam. a divine monkey. [203] For popularity of the nṛtyamūrti and prevalence in South India. Avatar and incarna[198] See Mohini#Relationship with Shiva for details tion. p. 151-157. p. 44. [207] Moorthy. and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India. see: Sharma 1996. [199] For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen. [188] For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga. 45. p. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada”. Motilal [204] Kramrisch.Chapter IX”. p. [209] Radha. p. p. p. tions. p. Vijaya (2001). Chakravarti. 544. Romance of the Raga. Sivaramamurti (1976). 5 [202] For prominence of these associations in puranic times. Canto 4 Chapter 1”. p. p. [213] For characterization of Dakṣiṇāmūrti as a mostly south Inp. Motilal Banarsidass. 63. Press. 47. ISBN 34. 150. 10–11. [189] For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influ[210] when it requires to be destroyed. (2009). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the Anuśāsana Parva of the Mahābharata. Paul (2002). Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions. Swami (1997). Malden. Orient Blackswan [230] David Kalupahana (2001). P. Christopher I. [231] Barnaby B. ISBN 81-208-0053-2. Vijayananda Avt.11. Ronald M.9 Sources • Anandamurti. and English Rendering. • Chakravarti. Ravi Prakash & K. • Arya. 37. Vijayananda Avt. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. • Courtright. • Anthony. p. Retrieved 13 October 2013. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. ISBN 1-40513251-5. MA: Blackwell Publishing.). Delhi. 132 Buddhism in Central Asia [235] Puri. • Chatterji. . Albany. Introduction. Princeton. Editor) (1994). ISBN 81-7252-098-0.. 49. The Concept of RudraŚiva Through The Ages (Second Revised ed. ISBN 81-7252-112-X. • Flood. Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam. M. InterVarsiry Press. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World. p. ISBN 9780691073866. Lord of Beginnings. Kolkata: AMPS-Ananda Printers. Swami (January 2006). Princeton University Press • Apte. Dialogue & Alliance: 79–83. ISBN 81-208-05674. transl. David W. “The Śaiva Traditions”. Buddhist Thought and Ritual. vol. Vaman Shivram (1965). • Chidbhavananda. J. 377. Editor) (1994). Vijayananda Avt. The Horse The Wheel And Language. (1986). R. Kashmir Shaivism. from Bengali) (1985). p. • Debnath. Christopher John (2004). • Davidson. Princeton University Press [229] Saraswati. Ac. The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (Fourth revised and enlarged ed. ISBN 9780691120485. • Flood. p. ISBN 8176254274.C. Shrii Shrii (Ac. (1992).9. Parimal Publications. Gavin (2003). 11. ISBN 0521-43878-0. The Jains.). 95. Princeton. • Beckwith. English Translation. its significance in Indonesian society. Diamond Pocket Books Pvt. ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). ISBN 81-7182-686-5. • Fuller. A Prose English Translation of the Mahabharata: (translated Literally from the Original Sanskrit Text). 1. Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Śiva in Medieval India. Discourses on Tantra. In Flood. NY: State University of New York Press. Goddesses and Myths. 43. The Meanings of Hindu Gods. The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and society in India. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: Social History of the Tantric Movement. ISBN 8120817737. Elysium Press. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. 133 Buddhism in Central Asia [236] Religions and Religious Movements – II. Paul B. Dhs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Discourses on Tantra. Volume 13. Shrii Shrii (Ac. Retrieved 25 September 2013. Editor. p. 45. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 81208-0567-4. Narayanananda Avt. • Anandamurti. Retrieved 13 October 2013. ISBN 81-7252-112-X. Shrii Shrii (Ac. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā: Sanskrit Text. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.) (1982). ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5. (2007). • Anandamurti. (2004). Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles. Empires of the Silk Road. Namah Shivaya Shantaya. (Third edition). Kishore (2001). New York: Oxford University Press. 427 [237] Moerdowo (R. Gavin. Rudra Avtar [234] Puri. Bhagalpur: Ananda Marga Pubs. Lord Shiva. • Bhattacharji (1998). Kolkata: AMPS-Ananda Printers. • Dutt. Joshi. L. Mahadev (1994). (1985). Beadon Street. An Introduction to Hinduism. B. 2. 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9. What Is Tantric Practice?. Sailen (2009). “Shiva as Destroyer”. ISBN 812911481X. Calcutta: Dass. Legends Of Devi. ISBN 0-19-505742-2. • Davis. Manmatha Nath (1905). P. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Routledge. • Anandamurti. Anushasana Parva. [233] Composition 10. Chidanand. Gavin (1996). Siva Sahasranama Stotram: With Navavali. vol. [232] Winfried Corduan. 2001. Wayang. Richard H. Calcutta: AMPSAnanda Printers. Shrii Shrii (1959). • Dundas. p. Tantra and its Effect on Society. SOURCES 153 [228] Dr. New Delhi: Rupa & Co. Ltd. India: Sri JayPandya. • Hopkins. The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit. James (2007). original text. New York: State University of New York Press. Delhi: Nag Publishers. • Griffith. Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva. Stella (1981). First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. • Sarup. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ISBN 81-215-0715-4. 1972. • Sharma. Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata (Second ed. ISBN 81-7039-186-5. ISBN 8176254274. “From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition”. Bombay: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Chennai. (1985). • Macdonell. VT: Destiny Books. Princeton. • Keay. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. The Shiva Samhita. First revised edition. Swami (2004). David J. ISBN 9780971646650. Havelte. Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd. The Yoga of Truth: Jnana: The Ancient Path of Silent Knowledge. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. • Parmeshwaranand. (1973). Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-215-1087-2. Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd. ISBN 81-7081-350-6. Eva Rudy (1993). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Peter (2007). Shakti M. ISBN 8121505933. • Gupta. • Zimmer. • Tattwananda. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. SHIVA • Ganguli. transliteration. C. NY: YogVidya. First Princeton-Bollingen printing. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited • Sharma. IL: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226851168. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. This work compares eight versions of the Śivasahasranāmāstotra with comparative analysis and Śivasahasranāmākoṣa (A Dictionary of Names). Chicago. Lakshman (1920-1927). 2002.). Hanuman Chalisa. ISBN 81208-0046-X. E. Jean (1976). Princeton. Originally published in 1915. Ltd. India: A History. New York: Biblo and Tannen. The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography. Vaisnava Sects. • Marshall. Washburn (1969). ISBN 0-691-08953-1. Encyclopaedia of the Śaivism. Kisari Mohan (2004). • Kramrisch. ISBN 81-7120-086-9. • Goswami Tulsidas . Axel (2004). B. M. transliteration. Swami (1984). John (2000). Vijay (2001). Ellen (2002). Margaret (1985). ISBN 81-7120-086-9. India: Sri Ramakrishna Math. The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective. pp. • Swami Tulsidas . Śivasahasranāmāṣṭakam: Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of Śiva. Check date values in: |date= (help) Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass. 2003. The Hymns of the Ṛgveda (New Revised ed. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. 19-50 • Goldberg. . in three volumes. (1988). • Kalupahana. ISBN 0-691-01930-4. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. • Mate. • Jansen. ISBN 81-2081381-2. Epic Mythology. • Nath. • Varenne. ISBN 8120611799. • Mallinson. • Sivaramamurti. Ram Karan (1996). English translation and notes. (1988). Princeton. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Temples and Legends of Maharashtra. Rajasthan. • Stutley. S. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. Iconography of Sadasiva. A critical edition and English translation by James Mallinson. USA: Grove Press. Arthur Anthony (1996).154 CHAPTER 11. Albany. H. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. New York. Śatarudrīya: Vibhūti of Śiva’s Iconography. (1994). Hinduism: Past and Present. Yoga and the Hindu Tradition. English translation and notes. John (1996). Facsimile of 1931 ed edition. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization. (1988). Heinrich (1946). T. original text. ISBN 81-208-0544-5. A history of Buddhist philosophy. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. (1976). Mother Worship. ISBN 90-74597-07-6. • Marchand. Ram Karan (1988).N. Social Scientist 2001. The Nighaṇṭu and The Nirukta. (1976). Woodstock. • Michaels. Rochester. The Book of Hindu Imagery. ISBN 0-7914-5326-X. • Sharma. Jay Chalisa. Holland: Binkey Kok Publications BV. The Presence of Śiva.). Saiva Sects. ISBN 9781594771651. Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa. ISBN 0-691-01778-6. 11.10. Mishra (Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts) 155 . EXTERNAL LINKS 11.10 External links • “Lectures on Saiva” (Oxford Center for Hindu Studies) • “Shiva Legends in Sacred Tradition of Indian Tribes” by Kailash Kr. she is one of the five primary forms of God.[2] According to the Vedas. Devi or Durga is the supreme Being in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism. Another important feature of Mahadevi mythology and theology is the insistence that assumes both benign and terrible aspects of Mahadevi.Chapter 12 Devi For other uses.2. have yielded data on prehistoric religious practices on the Indian subcontinent dating back to 3000 BC. Preserver (Lakshmi.the Creator (Lalitha Tripurasundari or the Divine Mother). Aranyani.2 Vedic period Devī (Devanagari: देवी) is the Sanskrit root-word of Divine. divine masculine. Aditi. Parendi. the Ultimate reality. the core form of every Hindu Goddess.1. and they all are associated with bounties and riches. Devi embodies the active energy and power of male 12. Devi is. and a number of minor ones. Parvati and Saraswati) and Destroyer (Mahishasura-Mardini. The Vedic literature describes a number of significant goddesses including Ushas. similar to such cults in Persia (Anahita). and some have even speculated that this may be the earliest form of Shaktism. myths and rituals concerning goddesses subsume them all under one great female being. which represents consciousness or discrimination. the best example of such texts being the Devi Mahatamaya. Asia Minor and the Mediterranean.1 Mahadevi Main article: Mahadevi Indus Valley The Indus Valley Civilization. Goddess worship is an integral part of Hinduism. Shakti is claimed to be Maya or illusion that casts a veil over Brahman. Some scholars suggest that the Indus Valley culture has a cult of the Great Mother or the Divine Mother. 12. its related masculine term is Deva. 156 . with its neighboring cultures of Zhob and Kulli regions in Balochistan. while in the Smartha tradition. Many texts.[1] Devi is synonymous with Shakti. see Devi (disambiguation).1 Origins 12. remains impotent and void. Kali and Smashanakali). Devi or the divine feminine is an equal counterpart to the with Parvati being the female shakti of Shiva. Prithivi. quintessentially. such as Vishnu in Vaishnavism or Shiva in Shaivism. the female aspect of the divine.1 12. She is the female counterpart without whom the male aspect. Later. Vishnu’s shakti counterpart is called Lakshmi. Dhisana. including Puramdhi. Nirrti.1. Vac. named generally as Mahadevi or Devi. she is also called Prakriti. Bharati. As the female manifestation of the supreme lord.[3][4] In other Hindu traditions. as she balances out the male aspect of the divine addressed Purusha. Saraswati. Hotra are invoked and summoned through hymns to take their share during certain rituals. – hardly mentioned about a dozen times in the Rig Veda. 12. as conceptualized by the Shakta tradition of Hinduism. Raka. Few others like Ila. Shakti and Brahman are inseparable entities that lie in a single body which reaffirms the claim that Shakti and Shiva coexist. Mahi. and hence manifests herself as the Trinity herself .2 Manifestations deities (Purushas). Early Hindu traditions as reflected in the Vedas speak of discrete goddesses like Parvati and Lakshmi. Ratri. there emerged a tendency to relate all goddesses to one ultimate goddess. MANIFESTATIONS 12. and she is no longer a goddess who mentions Durga. images of dent history and attributes. A number of male gods having failed to subdue the demons led by Mahishasura. the creator and member of the Hindu Trinity. and is the creator many palaces in the Indian subcontinent. but has acquired her indepenof later Hinduism.2. Over a period matching the concept of Durga though it has references to of time. She the invincible. and her creation takes place in the context of a cosmic crisis.3 Saraswati Main article: Saraswati Saraswati. and they had become a threat to cosmic stability.2 Durga Main article: Durga Source: Nepal Art Gallery. Around the 4th century AD. Durga. but not in a manner comparable to Durga embodies sacrality of a river. and has Vedic literature does not have any particular goddess been identified with the Saraswati River.2. the flowing one. Durga slaying Mahishasura begin to become common in She is the goddess of speech and learning. asAn image of goddess Saraswati sembled into a conclave and emitted their energies together which took the form of the warrior goddess. One of the most famous festivals associated with her is Durga Puja celebrated in the month of Ashvin (September– October). is one of the most celebrated Durga killing the demon Mahishasura In the Hindu pantheon. Taitriya-aranyaka creased considerably. in later Hinduism.2. has been repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.12. her connection with a river decertain goddesses as slayers of demons. the goddess becomes manifest over and over again to protect the world”. 157 are revealed in Devi Mahatmyam. and is described: “Though she is eternal. 12. She is the consort of The theology underlying Durga’s emergence and exploits Brahma. goddesses from the Vedic period through current times. that is. Durga is one of the most popular goddesses. The male gods were unable to contain and subdue them. and is also called the Navaratri festival. the most famous text extolling her exploits. of Sanskrit. This makes her on par with various Avatars of Vishnu. She . the language of the Vedas. The asuras were on the ascent. including Durga (Goddess Beyond reach)Ambika (mother).5 Lakshmi Lakshmi. The book signified art. to usher in good luck to their families and a long life to their husbands. royal power. science and learning. Shyama (dark complexioned). With the plays of Kalidas (5th-6th centuries) and the Puranas (4th through the 13th centuries) the myths of Sati. namely. In classical Hindu mythology. fortune. commonly known as Lakshmi and also called Shri austerities of Prajapati. and manifests the aspect of the goddess as the wife of Shiva. science and culture. Shri signified the ruling power and the majesty of kings. called the Basant Panchami and also on the Ninth day of the Navaratri festival. and presents a detailed account of her. a vina (lute). She is worshipped on the fifth day of the spring according to Hindu calendar. food. power. holy luster. Gauri (golden). Parvati and Shiva acquired comprehensive details. Parvati.characteristics of a model wife. the raison d’être of Parvati. She is also identified as Mahadevi. but when alone.e. bounteousness. The earliest legend states that Shri is born as a result of Parvati Main article: Parvati Parvati is the daughter of the mountains (the Himalayas). She is also known by a number of other names. wealth. 12. which has not changed in subsequent history.2. called the Maha Navami. appears with two arms. knowledge. and a water pot. She has a considerable body of mythology and history. and before that of Sati. and the prayer beads and water pot signify her association with religious rites. she is shown having four arms. the vina associates her with music and performing arts. Lakshmi became associated with Vishnu. She is shown as having four arms. universal sovereignty. power. Adi-shakti. is to lure Shiva into marriage and thus into a wider circle of worldly affairs. Bhavani (Mother of Universe) Bhairavi (awesome) and Kali (black-colored or Goddess of Time). kingdom. Her name is the basis for “Lady Luck (Lakshmi)" in the Christian West and her form of rising from water is depicted as Venus. DEVI is equally revered by Hindus. This ritual is undertaken by married women of the household.in addition to her earlier attributes . and she represents ten qualities and objects. . She is worshiped on Diwali. is a famous Vedic chant. glory. She has been identified as a reincarnation of Dakshayani or Sati. and emerged as his wife or consort. and higher rank. a mala. and the most common items held by her in her hands are a book.158 CHAPTER 12.[5] Varalakshmi Vratam observed in the month of Shraavana(July-August)involves austerities and worship of Lakshmi.4 Shri-Lakshmi Main article: Lakshmi Shri. Shri appears in several Vedic hymns. extolling Shri. capability. She is generally considered a benign goddess. She is one of the principal deities of Shaktism and is considered the essence of Shakti herself. i. Her iconography depicts her association with art. and battles. when depicted alongside Shiva. Daksha. The hymn also associates her with lotus and elephant – an association.2. is one of the most popular and widely worshipped Devi in Hindu tradition since pre-Buddhist period. By the late epic period (400 AD). who destroyed her by self-immolation because her father. both conceptually and visually. 12. and acquired . In later Vedic literature. and beauty. Jains and the Buddhists. a hymn appended to the Rig Veda. to symbolize that her presence is enough to dispel all the darkness from the hearts of her devotees. ShriSukt. had insulted Shiva. a new moon night. which is dramatically different from some other major goddesses who are identified with fertility. Shiva’s first wife. and Shri is indicative of several positive attributes including beauty. and riding a tiger or lion. and suddenly Kali springs forth from Durga’s forehead. Kali’s most famous appearance in battle contexts are found in the text Devi Mahatmya when during the battle with asuras. Bagla. and locate her in the battle fields fighting asuras. They constitute an important aspect of Mahadevi theology. In the context of Hindu mythology. Kali’s mythology recounts Sodasi. Her temples are recommended to be built away from human habitations.6 Kali 159 Goddess Kali several such appearances. Seven of them represent creative forces embodied in Kali. and the remaining three embody her destructive nature and aspects. and many texts and contexts treat Kali as an independent deity. In case she is associated with a male god. an epithet of both Kali and Durga. but appeared relatively late in Hindu tradition. mostly in terrible aspects. Durga seeks her assistance once Bhuvanesvari. and Bhairavi. she represents the omnipotent Shakti of Shiva. Vana Bhatta's 7th century drama Kadambari features a goddess named Chandi. it is invariably Shiva. 1820) 12.2. Tara. MANIFESTATIONS Parvati suckling baby Ganesha. Watercolor on paper (ca. Durga becomes angry. wears a garland of human heads. more to annihilate Raktabija. is clothed in a Kali. Main article: Kali Kali is one of the most significant divinities. Her face turns pitch dark. She is black. She Ten Mahavidyas are: destroys the asuras. Mahavidyas find no mention in the earliest Hindu texts. Mahavidyas.2.7 Mahavidya associated with a male god. She holds both the Main article: Mahavidya creative and destructive power of time. not directly 12. Later. tiger skin. Matangi.2. and wields a staff topped by a human skull. the supreme knowledge. the origin of the ten Mahavidyas takes place in the story of Sati and Shiva. refer to a group of ten goddesses. In this aspect. Kamla. which emphasizes that the Devi has a tendency to manifest and display herself in a variety of forms and aspects. revelations and manifestations.12. The earliest reference to Kali in Hindu tradition date back to the 6th century. that is. Chinnamasta. Dhumavati. . She is one of the many incarnations of Lakshmi. which literally means sins out of life due to her chastity and devotion towards her nine Durgas. She was married to Rama.tion of Radha and her association with Krishna. The Soundarya Lahari is very well invoke rains. The mother Sita is who worshiped Goddess Gauri. She is one of the Panchkanyas that are worshipped(remembered) daily in the morning period to banish Navadurga (Devanagari: नवदुर्गा). Her breasts are vividly described. one has to first please Adi parashakti. the line made while plowing the land. but reand human worlds which are a part of Devi. Sita is associated with Rama (an Avatar of Vishnu) In fact.1 Soundarya Lahari ing Parvati and Lakshmi. However.3. with slightly modified contents. legend. and other similar devoted wives The Soundarya Lahari is a hymn of 100 verses composed in of Hindu mythology like Savitri and Damayanti. Brahmacharini.mother Earth to receive her back. Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda (12th century) presents a full depicSita is one of the most popular divinities of Hinduism. one has to call Radha first. which means prosperity and success. She represents wifely devotion. when Valmiki told him that they were the Soundarya Lahari they are analogous with the divine his own sons. the ground opens up and tices. benevolent-form).e. It is said she is shakti or prakriti of Rama as told in Ram Raksha Stotram. In Devi .8 CHAPTER 12. the husband. Although the membering the injustices meted out to her. in an ashram of Valmiki. In order to please Parasiva. is the supreme energy in the Hindu religion. and various vernacular renditions of the same. DEVI Navadurga Kausik-sutra and the Paraskara-sutra associates her repeatedly as the wife of Parjanya (a god associated with rains) Main article: Navadurga and Indra. written sometime between 200 BC and 200 AD.2.[6] The nine Navadurgas are Shailaputri. Rama himself comes which is usually located in the human body. she was one of the goddesses associated with fertility. Parvati (in sagun-i. i. These texts extol Rama and Sita as the divine couple.160 12. she raised the tantra.3 Radha a maternal figure. Durga and Saraswati. rently. So In order to please Krishna. She is same as 12. she called her Soundarya Lahari aims at eliminating transgressive prac.3. She emerged as a significant divinity with Valmiki’s Ramayana. Rama requests Sita to come back. which Rama. manifestation of Durga in nine different forms. and countless mythology. and she receives worship along with her husband Shakti. with no mention of her sexual organs.3 Other aspects as the portrayal of ideal woman and ideal wife is concerned. according to Hindu mythology. and Rama is central to her life and existence. Kusha and Lava. The hymn’s main purpose is to provide a Main article: Radha respectable approach to the tantra through Devi. constitute. Kaalratri. whose partial incarnations are Lakshmi.3. who engaged the royal forces is often affiliated with a center of power known a Chakra of Rama and inflicted heavy damage. The description of Devi is even limited. Katyayani. forbearance and chastity. gressive actions are. but her details emerge clearly centuries later. and folklores revolve around them. It was written in honor of the goddess Devi. that is. was abducted by established in the context of the Tantra that is difficult to Ravana. She has the dominant role of all Hindu mythological tradition as far 12. Skandamata. Radha.2 Sita A female divinity called Sita was known before the Ramayana of Valmiki. This Her current history states that she emerged from the earth hymn is frequently referred to as “The Flood of Beauty” or when king Janaka was plowing the field during a ritual to “The Flood of Bliss”. her husband. Radha is the original manifestation of Param(Adi) as his wife. Sanskrit. It provides an appropriate approach to view of kingdom. There are no offenses to the dharma that are actual described. Sita literally means “furrow”. Mahagauri and Siddhidaatri. and in Vedic period. Chandraghanta. In the forests. and is a central figure of Vaishnava theology.e. in to fight with them. initiating the devotees into a period of festivities according to Hindu calendar. Sita is always represented in association with Rama. Early literature speaks of a favourite Gopi of Main article: Sita Krishna. She overshadows several other divine Hindu wives includ12. The link between material and spiritual being her two sons. is one of the Gopis of Vrindavan. Cur. and then banished out of his interpret.she returned to where she had originally emerged. it doesn't go into great detail what the actual trans. Navadurga are famously worshipped during the Autumn Navaratri or the Nine days. over next several centuries. but this is only to hint at her role as 12. reclaimed by Rama. the mothers. Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions.. Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths. Indrani. Each point on the earth where her body parts fell is now venerated as a Shakti Peetha . ISBN 0-941524-79-5. • Sen. p. New Delhi.7 Further reading • Aurobindo. doi:10.7. [5] Hindu Goddesses [6] Clooney. first wife of Lord Shiva fell after being broken apart by the Sudarshana Chakra of Lord Vishnu.4 Shakti Peethas Main article: Shakti Peethas Another important aspects of the Female divine are the various Shakti Peethas spread all across the nation. with her dead body. The Mother Goddess: An Introduction. Maheshvari. Himalayanacademy. New York. Meanings. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 12.1163/156852908X271042. 12. 2004-12-01. (1996). FURTHER READING 161 Bhagavata. Mandala 2: Hinduism”. Kaumari. Radha’s love for Krishna is likened to human soul’s yearning for God. “The Mother”. S. They are Brahmani. [4] Flood. Motilal Banarsidass. Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair: Selected Poems to the Mother Goddess. [2] Devi Traditionally. Ramprasad (1720–1781). USA. 12.6 References [1] Pattanaik. ISBN 81-7017-416-3. Main article: Matrikas Matrikas. that is. Abhinav Publications. threatening its very existence. it is mentioned that she is the one who fulfills all the desires of all creatures by simply crying while remembering her and She is the partial expansion of Parvati. Varahi and Chamunda or Narasimhi. a Proto-Indo-European Goddess . Gavin D. ISBN 81-208-0379-5.5 See also • Hindu deities • Mantra • Shaktism • Diva. Vaishnavi.the seat of Shakti or female power. New Delhi. actual source all energies. (1 Mar 2008).com. and Models. and she is regarded as an ultimate model for devotees. • Kinsley. The Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition. India. 17.3. Madhu Bazaz (2003).8 External links • Devi: The Great Goddess. 12. SUNY Press. Her role is also to be an intermediary between man and God. Goddess Sati had earlier performed self-immolation at the ceremonial feast of her father king Daksha and an enraged and inconsolable Lord Shiva was wandering all over the Creation. are a band of divinities. Devdutt. ISBN 0-934252-94-7. An Exhibit Smithsonian • Hindu Goddess worship 12. Sri. X. • Pintchman. ISBN 0-7914-2112-0. Cambridge University Press. • Wangu. Religion & The Arts.J. An Introduction to Hinduism. ISBN 81-87111-45-3. Tracy (1994). Francis.12. where over 51 body parts of Devi Sati. India. a modern English term 12. Retrieved 2012-06-18.4 Matrikas [3] “Dancing with Siva. “Encountering The (Divine) Mother In Hindu And Christian Hymns”. • Shrimad Devi Bhagavatam Translation by Swami Vijñanananda • Devi. David. 1-3 12: 230–243. which always appear in a group. holy diagrams. both Tantric and noncosmic dynamic is powerfully expressed in the half-Shakti. with all other forms of divinity. prac. are deemed to be inactive in the absence of Shakti.a completely female-oriented system. As Shiva. शाक्तं.Chapter 13 Shaktism Shaktism or Shaktidharma (Sanskrit: Śāktaṃ.] in themselves are One.in the religious history of the world do we come across such ered to be merely her diverse manifestations. of Shakti and Brahman. Shaktas use chants. and his worship is usually relegated to an aux. 800 CE): “If Shiva is united with Shakti. dynamic Hinduism. strongest in South India. its two largest and most visible schools [14] are the Srikula (lit. It is.Shaktism’s focus on the Divine Feminine does not imply a titioners of Shaktism. however.. along with Shaivism. and Smartism one of the primary schools of devotional Hin. Saundaryalahari (c. However.[3][4][5] The aspect. She is also depicted in other itself – she is the embodiment of energy and dynamism. 13. a central Shakta scripture. as well as its embodiment and the energy that Shaktism regards Devi (lit. Shaktism has inspired great tar (here referring to Shiva as Brahman). Ramachandra Dikshi[12] “Shaktism is Over the course of its history.” and beyond. known as Devi. She is considered to be simultaneously the source duism and is especially popular in Bengal and Assam. In the de.”[8] This is the fundamental tenet of Cults of goddess worship are ancient in India. in numerous forms. ultimate Godhead.”[7] tails of its philosophy and practice.. the masculine aspect of divinity.. he is incailiary role.[9] as emphasized in the widely known image of of Hinduism that worships the goddess. In the Devi-Bhagavata Purana. and Devi is often depicted as Parvati the consort of Shiva or as Lak. The branch Shaktism.[10] as the power that underlies the male principle.hymn.” yoga and rituals to call forth cosmic forces. “There is Mother Goddess has many forms.. Brahman is static Shakti Shaktism is practiced throughout the Indian subcontinent [13] In religious art. which teaches rituals and the material universe.[2] pable even of stirring. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti of Shiva. However. It has been observed that “nowhere Brahman itself. such as the fierce Kali or Durga. is the goddess Kali striding atop the seemingly lifeless body called Shaktism. शाक्त). he is able to create. is considered solely set out in the first line of Adi Shankara's renowned Shakta transcendent. some no Shiva without Shakti.. The two [11] are fierce. The excellence of Shaktism lies in its works of Sanskrit literature and Hindu philosophy.1. essence and suband eastern India.Broadly speaking. Shaktas (Sanskrit: Śākta. real magic. or Shakti without Shiva. R. consid. Vaishnavism. In short.[2] stance of virtually everything in creation. Some are gentle.[1] of all creation. 'the Goddess’) as the Supreme animates and governs it. 13. focus most or all worship on Shakti. which prevails in northern Shaktism views the Devi as the source. rejection of Masculine or Neuter divinity. “doctrine of power” or “doctrine of the Goddess”) is a denomination of Hinduism that focuses worship upon Shakti or Devi – the Hindu Divine Mother – as the absolute. providing the divine ground of all being. half-Shiva deity known as Ardhanari. seen or unseen. Shakti is considered to be the cosmos shmi the consort of Vishnu.1 Shakti and Shiva ultimate Godhead. and it affirmation of Shakti as Consciousness and of the identity continues to strongly influence popular Hinduism today. Shaktism is closely and the motivating force behind all action and existence in related with Tantric Hinduism. including Shiva himself. Shiva is her transcendent masculine practices for purification of the mind and body. both as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine. guises. family of Sri). the Devi declares: 162 .Shaktas conceive the Goddess as the supreme.[6] As expressed by the historian V.1 Overview lit. If he is not. [. this and Shakti is dynamic Brahman. Tantric. Shaktism resembles Shaivism. and the Kalikula (family of Kali). of the two genders. Whoever offends them incurs the wrath of the great goddess.[19] In its social interactions. performing the Navavarana Puja.2 Association with Tantra A widely misunderstood aspect of Shaktism is its close association with Tantrism – an ambiguous.[17] In fact. All women are regarded as manifestations of Shakti. I am Brahma. and the great person of excellent deeds. Andhra Pradesh. to ritualized sexual practices (sometimes referred to as "Neotantra" or "Navatantra") in the West. However. When the term “Tantra” is used in relation to authentic Hindu Shaktism. I am Male in the form of Shiva” [15] Sri Amritananda Natha Saraswathi. India. and – more broadly – to an esoteric methodology of Goddess-focused spiritual practice (sadhana) involving mantra. (Elephanta caves. and I am also the Moon. Devi. Mumbai. often provocative concept that suggests everything from orthodox temple worship in the south of India. I am Female.panchamakara. it most often refers to a class of ritual manuals. half-female form of Ardhanari. but her transcendence is not by some Tantric Shakta sects. and hence they are the object of respect and devotion.1. yantra. such as the “Five Ms” or compasses them. just as not all forms of Tantra are Shaktic in nature. and Transcendent Divinity. India. Every [male aspirant] has to realize the latent Female Principle within himself. I am all animals and birds. not all forms of Shaktism are Tantric in nature. A woman or a shudra is entitled to function in the role of guru. OVERVIEW 163 apart from her immanence. Unmanifest Divinity.More controversial ritual practices.13. these elements . Yet both genders must be included in the ultimate if it is truly ultimate. and the thief. 5th century CE. 2005. Shakta Tantra is “free from all sorts of caste and patriarchal prejudices.1. mudra and certain elements of traditional kundalini yoga. I am the low person of dreadful deeds. in her supreme form as conscious. as well as Saraswati. a Shakta adept and guru. Vishnu and Shiva. a central ritual in Srividya Tantric Shaktism. transcendent reality.” [16] 13. I am the Sun and I am the Stars. and only by [thus] 'becoming female' is he entitled to worship the Supreme Being”[20] The religious scholar C.) “I am Manifest Divinity. at the Sahasrakshi Meru Temple at Devipuram. the feminine represents the dominant power in the universe. MacKenzie Brown explains that Shaktism “clearly insists that. nyasa. Lakshmi and Parvati. are employed under certain circumstances ness thus transcends gender.[18] Shiva and Shakti in the half-male. to black magic and occult practices in North India. all practiced under the guidance of a qualified guru after due initiation (diksha) and oral instruction to supplement various written sources. which goes beyond but still en. and I am the outcaste as well. The masculine and the feminine are aspects of the divine. Kālī. many of them associated with particular temples. geographic features or even individual villages. Moreover. the goddess of wealth. personal resonance and so on. SHAKTISM tend to be overemphasized and sensationalized by commentators (both friendly and hostile) who are ill-informed regarding authentic doctrine and practice. however. even within the tradition there are wide differences of opinion regarding the proper interpretation of the panchamakara. and a profusion of others – it is easy to forget that the Devi is indeed one. While Shakta Tantrism may have originated in [pre-Vedic. Ambikā. There are literally thousands of goddess forms.[25] The primary Devi form worshiped by a Shakta is his or her ishta-devi. and some lineages reject them altogether. The best-known benevolent goddesses of popular . which has been called the mahāvākya.[24] With the many names used to refer to her – Devī. and virtually every female deity in Hinduism is believed to be a manifestation of one or more of these “basic” forms. as are all the other forms she inhabits. world. [In the central Shakta scripture Devi Mahatmyam]. that is. Literary history demonstrates that Vedic-oriented brahmins have been involved in Shakta Tantrism from its incipient stages of development. the complex social and historical interrelations of Tantric and non-Tantric elements in Shaktism – and Hinduism in general – are an extremely fraught and nuanced topic of discussion. The selection of this deity can depend on many factors. Pontiac. they are all considered to be but diverse aspects of the one supreme goddess. “I am alone here in the world.[24] Nonetheless. any attempt to distance Shakta Tantrism from the Sanskritic Hindu traditions [. guru lineage. including family tradition. Caṇḍikā.. Durga and Saraswathi during Navaratri 13. as a general rule: “Ideas and practices that collectively characterize Tantrism pervade classical Hinduism [and] it would be an error to consider Tantrism apart from its complex interrelations with non-Tantric traditions. USA adorned as Goddesses Lakshmi.. Who else is there besides me?" Following this proclamation of divine unity. the Devi reveals that she is one without a second.[21] In sum. saying. regional practice.[22] However. from at least the sixth century. she explains that all [other goddesses] are but projections of her power. or great dictum of Devīmāhātmya.164 CHAPTER 13.] will lead us astray.2 Principal deities Shaktas may approach the Devi in any of a vast number of forms. indigenous] goddess cults.”[23] Devi Shakthi at Parashakthi Temple. several highly popular goddess forms are known and worshiped throughout the Hindu Lakshmi. love. Kali: The Goddess beyond all forms. Gayatri: The Goddess as Mother of Mantras 7.2. tion of Adi Parashakti].the Goddess as Original. most of the temples for doing in nature. original consort (shakti) of Shiva [ IncarnaGoddess groups – such as the “Nine Durgas” (Navadurga). Kaalratri. Skandamata. Durga (Amba. the “Tantric Parvati” . identified with Kali. mostly her deity are wor.”[27] The Mahavidyas are considered Tantric Goddess)etc. The Navadurga are Shailaputri. “Eight Lakshmis” (Ashta-Lakshmi) or the “Fifteen Nityas” – are very common in Hinduism. beauty. 2. the shiped in temple the name of Bhagavathy or Mahadevi (A Divine Mother is adored and approached as ten cosmic generalized term used in temples for worshiping Mother personalities. 2. Durga is rather a general ter.13. consort (shakti) of Brahma.2. Transcendent Source of the Universe. Lakshmi (Sri): The Goddess of Material Fulfillment (wealth. fortune. Radha: The Goddess as Krishna's lover Main articles: Mahavidyas.g.e. but the Sankalpa is that of Devi Kathyayani. fertility. Siddhidaatri. verse. Shaktas beminology for mother goddess. the saguna [i. Matrikas and Yogini 10. In that.). or the Kathyayini. PRINCIPAL DEITIES 165 Hinduism include:[24] 1. music. Lalita-Tripurasundari (Shodashi): The Goddess Who hamaya Kali ('Bha' means delusion or maya and 'dra' is a is “Beautiful in the Three Worlds” (Supreme Deity of superlative means the most or the mightiest))[26] in south India and Maha Kali in Bengal region. Srikula systems).lieve. Sita: The Goddess as Rama's consort 13.). Uma): The Goddess of Spiritual Fulfillment (divine love.Mahavidyas (Dasamahavidya). health. Ganga: The Goddess as Divine River. Durga reveals the elements of Shaktidharma better than the Ten as such is rarely worshiped. etc. etc. the head of the Mahavidyas the Ganges River 8. these are Goddess as Savior the forms of Durga for worshiping. E. Parvati (Gauri. Kushmanda. “the one Truth is sensed in ten different facets. Ambika): The Goddess as Mahadevi. Brahmacharini. Material Manifestation of Supreme Divinity (Brahman) 3. and are usually identified as:[28] rites assume certain forms of Durga as the deity. Death or “Devourer” of Time (Supreme Deity Any of the Navadurga is considered as Sankalpa while of Kalikula systems) worshiping Devi Durga. Chandraghanta. arts and sciences. But perhaps no group The majority of the worship is to Durga or Kali. Kali is directly worshiped as such in the form of Bhadrakali (Translation: Ma3. having material qualities] form of Adi-Parashakti). time and uniDevi temple. consort (shakti) of Shiva 5. Through them. Saraswati: The Goddess of Cultural Fulfillment (knowledge/education. Mahagauri. identified with the Sarasvati River 6. Adi Parashakti (Shree Bhagavathy): Para Brahman itself . Tara: The Goddess as Guide and Protector. The Bhagavathy Temple of Kanyakumari is a Durga or 1. consort (shakti) of Vishnu 4. Sati (goddess) (Dakshayani): The Goddess of Marital relations.1 Tantric deities 9. be a Shaiva. and one of the most famous in all of Hindu mythology. has been carbon-dated to approximately 20. the increasing visibility of Hindu female saints and gurus. belonging to the Upper Paleolithic. the ubiquity of Shaktism as it exists today began with the literature of the goddess worship in some form – has infused popular Vedic Age.Gita (from the Devi-Bhagavata [39] [40] persed.000 BCE. the “Tantric Lakshmi” Other major goddess groups include the Sapta-Matrika (“Seven Little Mothers”). brought together in what has been called the 'crystallization of the Goddess tradition. Slayer of the Buffalo Demon – a central episode of the Devi Mahatmya.600 years ago.[36] the Lalita Sahasranama (from the Brahmanda Purana).[43] and the prodigious rise of the “new” goddess Santoshi Mata following release of the Indian film Jai Santoshi Maa (“Hail to . SHAKTISM 4. Here. “the various mythic.[32] Devi portrayed as Durga. and continued to expand and develop nava. When among friends. 1500 .[33] always be a Shakta. ally give rise to Vedic Civilization (c. Elements of Shaktism – most notably. and described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons”.”[42] The most central and pivotal text in Shaktidharma is the Devi Mahatmya (also known as the Durga Saptashati. “When in public. thereafter. Chandi or Chandi-Path). Dhumavati: The Widow Goddess 8.[35] as well as Shakta-oriented Puranic literature such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana. Bhuvaneshvari: The Goddess as World Mother. the “Tantric Saraswati” 10. Matangi: The Outcaste Goddess (in Kalikula systems). Bhairavi: The Fierce Goddess 6. its peoples mixed with other groups to eventu.Saundaryalahari and the Tantras.3 Historical and philosophical development Main article: History of Shaktism The beginnings of Shaktism are shrouded in the mists of prehistory. current archaeological and anthropological evidence suggests that the religion of the great Indus Valley Civilization is probably a direct predecessor of modern Shaktism. cultic and theological elements relating to diverse female divinities were Recent developments related to Shaktism include the emergence of Bharat Mata (“Mother India”) symbolism.600 BCE). be a VaishAge (300-700 CE). But in private. for the first time. further evolved during the formative period of Hinduism.[31] While it is impossible to reconstruct the spiritual beliefs of a civilization so distantly removed in time. Kamala: The Lotus Goddess. and the 64 Yoginis.[30] Thousands of female statuettes dated as early as c. reached its full flower during the Gupta reflected in the Hindu adage.166 CHAPTER 13.[37] the Devi Purana).[41] Its pervasive influence on the religion is also the Hindu epics. Bagalamukhi: The Goddess Who Paralyzes Enemies 9. composed some 1. “who are the energies of different major gods. 5500 BCE have been recovered at Mehrgarh.'"[34] Other important texts include the canonical Shakta Upanishads. Chhinnamasta: The Self-Decapitated Goddess 7.[29] 13. or the Goddess Whose Body is the Earth/Cosmos 5. The earliest Mother Goddess figurine unearthed in India. the Prime Minister of Lalita (in Srikula systems). one of the most important Neolithic sites in world archaeology.[38] Adi Shankara's As the Indus Valley Civilization slowly declined and dis. pasted to the dashboards of taxis. who is regarded as the Great Goddess (Mahadevi). flower India. the Kaula (a vamamarga practice) and the Samaya (a dakshinamarga practice). postered on the walls of shops. because – as modSince we are not Shiva. the Sri Chakra. “one of Shakta Tantrism’s most influential and theologically sophisticated movements.4. pyramidal form known as the popular saying among Sri Vidya tradition is that one has to Sri Meru. northern and eastern India. of the worship ritual. it has to be the last birth or when ern practitioners assert – “there is no disputing that this is we get it. holding her traditional symbols.[2] Its two largest and most visible Sri Lalita-Tripurasundari enthroned with her left foot upon the Sri schools are the Srikula (family of Sri). widely and beautiful [saundarya]" (in contrast to Kalikula’s focus considered “the best exponent of Shakta philosophy.”[45] 13. moreover. The Kaula or Kaulachara. force in South India no later than the seventh century. strongest in South Chakra. Usually the picture is hung high on the wall so you have to crane your neck backward.[51] and its most revered theoSrividya largely views the Goddess as “benign [saumya] rist is the 18th-century philosopher Bhaskararaya.” Its central symbol. Meru installed in South Indian temples. [. and The Sri Chakra can be visually rendered either as a twois today the prevalent form of Shaktism practiced in South dimensional diagram (whether drawn temporarily as part Indian regions such as Andhra Pradesh.. first appeared as a coherent ritual system in the 8th century in central India. and the Kalikula (family of Kali).[44] Linda Johnsen in 'The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Hinduism' notes: “Today just as 10.”[52] .[46] There is a very or in the three-dimensional. is probably the most famous visual image in all of Hindu Tantric tradition.13. evThe Srikula (family of Sri) tradition (sampradaya) focuses ery aspect of the Goddess – whether malignant or gentle – worship on Devi in the form of the goddess Lalita-Tripura is identified with Lalita.. images of the Goddess are everywhere in India.. looking up toward her feet.. Its literature and practice is perhaps more systematic than that of any other Shakta sect. But what you see in the temples is not the The Srikula’s best-known school is Srividya. Karnataka. Srikula became a Sri Chakra yantra.] In India. it becomes our last birth[47] and One can worship the highest form of Devi and that some of the practice can Lalitha only if she wishes us to do so.1 Srikula: family of Sri on “terrifying [ugra] and horrifying [ghora] goddess forms such as Kali or Durga). In Srikula practice. which prevails in arrows. WORSHIP 167 the Mother of Satisfaction”) in 1975.4. [.4 Worship Shaktism encompasses a nearly endless variety of beliefs and practices – from primitive animism to philosophical speculation of the highest order – that seek to access the Shakti (Divine Energy or Power) that is believed to be the Devi’s nature and form. be done openly.000 years ago.[49] Sundari.' it’s a religion.[48] srichakra worship you see when it is done privately. Goddess worship is not a 'cult.] an extraordinarily spiritually and psychologically mature tradition. Srikula adepts most often worship Lalita using the abstract Rooted in first-millennium Kashmir.”[50] The Srividya paramparas can be further broadly subdivided into two streams. Millions of people turn every day with heartfelt yearning to the Mother of the Universe. noose and goad. It is not uncommon to find a Sri Chakra or Sri be verily Shiva himself or in one’s last birth to get Sri vidya. or permanently engraved in metal) Tamil Nadu and Tamil areas of Sri Lanka. Kerala. the sugarcane bow. You'll often see a color painting of the Goddess prominently displayed in Hindu homes.[2] 13. You'll find them painted on the sides of trucks. which is regarded as her subtle form. trance.2 Kalikula: family of Kali district. and giving [of] offerings.[53] The Samaya-Kaula division marks “an old dispute within Hindu Tantrism.4. They beautiful. Assam.[10] In Nepal devi is mainly worshipped as Kali.. such as Kali periential part of religion. and her worship is often which they view as “overly conservative and denying the excommunal – especially at festivals. chanting [of her] mantras.”[53] Many Samaya practitioners explicitly deny being either Shakta or Tantric. Kolkata. Bihar and Odisha. Bangladesh and some parts is outwardly frightening – with dark skin. There are shamanic elements associated with the Tarapith tradition. considered aspects of the Divine Mother. Other goddesses that enjoy veneration are Tara and all the At Tarapith. and control of spirits.”[10] . the smallpox goddess – all of them. The Devi as Durga. She is one of the important deity in kalikula. Mahishasura. Bangladesh. Bhawani. The main deities of Kalikula are Kali. “Slayer of the Buffalo Demon. Two major centers of Shaktism in West Bengal are Kalighat in Calcutta and Tarapith in Birbhum 13. northern and eastern India. SHAKTISM other Mahavidyas as well as regional goddesses such as Manasa. and is most She is “the loving mother who protects her widely prevalent in West Bengal. during Durga Puja 2005. pray to the goddess during Durga Puja. and a necklace of skulls – but inwardly source of wisdom (vidya) and liberation (moksha). in her form as Mahishasura Mardini.. including 'conquest of the goddess’. children and whose fierceness guards them. She as well as parts of Maharashtra. Photographed at a pandal (temporary shrine) in t Maddox Square. Chandi and Durga. the snake goddess. and they often involve sitting alone at the [cremation] ground. [.[54] CHAPTER 13. In Calcutta. Kalikula lineages focus upon the Devi as the teeth.”[10] Shakta Hindus in Dhaka. though scholars argues that their cult remains technically both. Matrika and Navadurga. October 2003.” great religious insight. She can guarantee a good rebirth or generally stand “in opposition to the brahmanic tradition.168 The Samaya or Samayacharya finds its roots in the work of the 16th-century commentator Lakshmidhara.] The forms of sadhana performed here are more yogic and tantric than devotional. and Sitala. visualization of her form. and is “fiercely puritanical [in its] attempts to reform Tantric practice in ways that bring it in line with high-caste brahmanical norms.”[10] Puja and Durga Puja. again. Devi’s manifestation as Tara (“She Who Saves”) or Ugratara (“Fierce Tara”) is ascendant.”[53] and one that is vigorously debated to this day.There are many shakti peeth in Nepal including the main shakti peeth guhyeshwari temple of Guhyeshwari Devi also called as Guhekali Bhagawati on the bank of holy Bagmati river. as the goddess who gives liberation (kaivalyadayini). emphasis is on devotion (bhakti) to the The Kalikula (family of Kali) form of Shaktism is most goddess as Kali: dominant in Nepal. Worship may involve contemplation of the devotee’s union with or love of the goddess. exorcism. pointed of Kerala. prayer before her image or yantra. surrounded by ash and bone. students (March/April). to celslaying of Mahishasura (lit.Major Shakta temple festivals are Meenakshi Kalyanam and ebration during this period. If one recognizes Kali one must also recognize Brahman. Shaktas (and many nonMain article: Navratri Shaktas) celebrate it as another Lakshmi Puja. also known as “Sharad Navra. On the same basis Shiva-Shiv Sammoh is formed by Awadhoot Kripanandnath at Awadhoot Ashram. The There are variant dates for Saraswati Puja. placing small oil lamps outside their homes and praying for the goddess’s [62] Diwali coincides with the celebration of Kali The most important Shakta festival is Navratri (lit. “Fes. during Ganesha Puja in Western India. Diwali and others Main article: Diwali 13. The summer festival pray for her blessings in their studies. They are like fire and its power to burn: if one thinks of fire one must think of its power to burn. Puja.Matrikas named in the Devi Mahatmya. others.[60] century saint Ramakrishna. is Diwali (or A few of the more important events are listed below:[56] Deepavali. or destroys. WORSHIP 169 The philosophical and devotional underpinning of all such other hand. known as Dusshera Navaratis. In some parts of Inof Magh. and some Shakta traditions focus [63] tri” because it falls during the Hindu month of Sharad their worship on Devi as Kali rather than Lakshmi. preserves. is considered particularly auspicious for devoritual. Saraswati Puja is celebrated in the month[64] Navratri.or deity-specific observances. a major Hindu holiday celebrated across India. during the final three days of month of Ashadha (June/July).4. Brahman and Its Power are identical. popular in Bengal. Navratri festival. however. Diwali marks the beginning of the traditional New Year. one of the most influential figures in modern Bengali Shaktism: Vasant Panchami “Kali is none other than Brahman.3 Festivals Lakshmi Puja is observed by Shaktas and many other HinShaktas celebrate most major Hindu festivals. as well as a dus on the full moon night following the autumn Durga huge variety of local. remains a pervasive vision of the Devi as tees of the boar-headed goddess Varahi. Mother of Ganesha. As expressed by the nineteenth. however..[57] in Bengal and some other parts of Eastern India. It is Brahman whom I address as Shakti or Kali. In North India.4. on the Ambubachi Mela. She is the Primal Energy. The hugely popular Vaishno Devi temple in Jammu observes its major Navaratri cel. Vindhyachal in 1980. the “Festival of Lights”). What you call Brahman I call Kali. and mark one episode in particular: Durga’s iconic Gauri Puja is performed on the fifth day after Ganesh Chaturthi.[59] Ashada Navaratri. This is the festival of union of Shakti & Shiv (Shiva-Shiv). When that Energy remains inactive. and is held on Navratri the night of the new moon in the Hindu month of Kartik (usually October or November).”[55] Main article: Saraswati Pooja Fifth day of Magha Gupta Navratri is very important for all branches of Shakta-pantha. Brahman and Kali are not different. to come While Hindus of all denominations celebrate the autumn and bring her son back home. as it is held during the Hindu dia. tival of Nine Nights”). following Kali Puja. I call It Shakti or Kali.Puja. absolute divinity. one of the seven supreme. Specially in Vindhyachal mahashakti peetham. Srividya lineages dedicate this festival to offer their books and musical instruments to Saraswati and Devi’s form as the goddess Lalita.[58] ebrate the arrival of Gauri. if one recognizes Brahman one must recognize Kali. temple. Meenakshi Kalyanam observes the auspi- . and when It creates..Jagaddhatri Puja is celebrated on the last four days of the gether with the following tenth day. (October/November). and celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra the Hindu month of Phalguna (January–February). the last four days of Navaratri are called Durga Puja. I call It Brahman.[61] Lakshmi’s biggest festival. depending upon spring festival is known as Vasanta Navaratri or Chaitra region and local tradition. the “Buffalo Demon”). That which is called Brahman is really Kali. In Bengal. It is very similar to Durga or Vijayadashami – celebrates the goddess Durga’s victory Puja in its details and observance. in is called Ashada Navaratri.blessings. thousands of chandipatha and other secret rituals performed this day to please Aadishakti. This festival – often taken to. and is especially popular over a series of powerful demons in the Devi Mahatmya. again. on the fifth day of Navatri.13. Shaktas also celebrate two additional Navratris – one in the spring and one in the summer. Commonly. villages and most corrupt stage of development. a Shakta temple at Madurai. literally “Seats of the Devi”. It runs for 12 days.4 Temples of Shiva and Vishnu to the neglect of their male counterparts. India. “the peethas [became] a popular theme of the medieval writers. And indeed it can scarcely be doubted that There are thousands of Shakti temples. the goddesses and their bhairavas [consorts]. Tamil Nadu. found in the Tantra Cudamani). by Dr. and are in bondage to the gross superstitions inculcated in these writings. counting from the second day of the lunar month of Chaitra. countless cities.”[71] geographic landmarks are named for various forms of the Devi. SHAKTISM At various times.[70] A representative criticism of this sort issued from an Indian scholar in the 1920s: A gopuram (tower) of the Meenakshi Amman Temple. Tamil Nadu.“The Hindoo Goddess Karle”. towns. misunderstanding or sectarian bias on the part of some obeven in the place-names of India.(London.[65] Ambubachi Mela is a cele. an illustration from Dr. many of whom took the greatest liberty in fabricating the place names. black magic-infested practice that hardly qualifies as a true religion at all. vast or tiny. holy resorts of the goddess are innumerable and the popularity of her cult is proved Scholars variously attribute such criticism to ignorance. or more broadly.”[69] 13.”[68] .[67] “In this vast country.170 CHAPTER 13. John Scudder June/July (during the monsoon season) at Kamakhya Tem. 1849).[66] tifying all Force with the female principle in nature and teaching an undue adoration of the wives 13. in April or May. famous Shaktism is Hinduism arrived at its worst and or obscure. idenspring flows. cious occasion of Devi’s marriage (as Meenakshi) to Lord Sundareshwara (Shiva) is centered around the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai. ple. Here the Devi is worshiped in the form of a yoni-like stone over which a naturally red-tinted “The Tantras are the Bible of Shaktism. different writers have attempted to organize some of these into lists of "Shakti Peethas". Assam.4. Numbering anywhere from four to 51 (in the most famous list. held in Tales for Little Readers About the Heathen. which was nominated in the "New Seven Wonders of the World" competition in 2004. “Places of Power”. Scudder’s bration of the yearly menstruation of the goddess. It is certain that a vast number of Further information: List of Shakti Temples and Shakti the inhabitants of India are guided in their daily Peethas life by Tantrik [sic] teaching. Moreover. Guwahati.5 Shaktism as a distinct tradition within Hinduism Shaktism has at times been dismissed as a superstitious. .13. the supreme purpose of life – Self-realisation and God-realisation.[77] a Srividya temple in rural Rush.] when the deep symbolic meanings absolute.[79] An academic study of Western Kali enthusiasts noted that.”[72] Within Hinduism. [.[2] Subramuniya’s successor. knowledge. or spiritual liberation.6 Expansion beyond South Asia Sri Chaitanyananda Natha Saraswathi (far right) of the Sri Rajarajeshwari Peetam. Shakta theologians counter that each of the Divine Mother’s forms is a Brahma Vidya. new interpretations mainly originate in “feminist sources..[73] 171 The practice of Shaktism is no longer confined to South Asia. Therefore.”[75] Chaldean. as well as the Near and Middle East.”[82] . immortality.. The Rush temple was.”[74] Some writers and thinkers. or self-contained path to supreme wisdom. if his aspiration is such. recently published an essay on different Hindu approaches to God that did not discuss Shaktism at all. a Shakta temple in Rush. almost none of which base their interpretations on a close when we worship the Divine Mother. The Indians have preserved our lost heritage. it is not uncommon to encounter assertions that the Shaiva and Vaishnava schools of Hinduism lead to moksha. leads devotees in performing the Tantric ritual known as Kamakhya Puja. Australia and elsewhere – some enthusiastically attended by non-Indian as well as Indian diaspora Hindus. “Of these four great ancient civilizations. They offer us a glimpse of what our own ancient wisdom must have been. at best. We would do well to begin our search in India.Y. For example. we are not reading of Kali’s Indian background.” including the serious entry and involvement of non-Indians in traditional Hindu religious practice. California.”[81] by whose grace alone we shall ultimately released Some Westerners believe that many central concepts of from the darkness of ignorance and the bondage Shaktism – including aspects of kundalini yoga as well of maya and taken to the abode of immortal as goddess worship – were once “common to the Hindu. the form of the absolute Brahman. with the rise of the Abrahamic religions: 13. have explored Kali in a new light. and bliss. Greek and Roman civilizations. “It is in this context that many Hindus in India today deny the relevance of Tantra to their tradition. identifying what they call tantra-mantra as so much mumbo-jumbo. Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami. “as shown in the histories of all cross-cultural religious transplants.[78] Shaktism has also become a focus of some Western spiritual seekers attempting to construct new Goddess-centered faiths. Examples in the United States include the Kali Mandir in Laguna Beach. or Parasiva. EXPANSION BEYOND SOUTH ASIA servers. where for not one moment in all of human history have the children of the living Goddess forgotten their Divine Mother. recently the subject an in-depth academic study exploring the “dynamics of diaspora Hinduism.”[80] However. these East-West fusions can also raise accusations of cultural appropriation. N. Kali devotionalism in the West must take on its own indigenous forms if it is to adapt to its new environment. Only in India has the inner tradition of the Goddess endured.. to Shaivism. She is consummarizes the Shakta position as follows: sidered a “symbol of wholeness and healing. New York.. the Americas. “notably feminists and particiMataji Devi Vanamali of the Vanamali ashram in Rishikesh pants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to goddess worship”. in fact. Traditional Shakta temples have sprung up across Southeast Asia.[76] and Sri Rajarajeswari Peetam. as well as unscrupulous practices by some Shaktas.] Today it is up to us to locate and restore the tradition of the living Goddess. Europe. associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality. The sadhaka of any one of these goddess forms “attains ultimately. 2007. This is the reason the teachings of India are so precious. She is that aspect of the supreme power embedded in the native culture are not available. whereas Shaktism leads only to siddhis (occult powers) and bhukti (material enjoyments) – or.” but were largely superseded in the West. working knowledge of the inner forces of enlightenment has survived on a mass scale only in India. the late Shaiva leader Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami taught that worship of the feminine manifest is merely a vehicle for reaching the masculine unmanifest.6.” These “In her transcendental aspect she is Prakriti.” and tend to demononly offering adoration to the supreme in its asstrate the difficulty of “import[ing] the worship of a goddess pect of motherhood but also adoring the supreme from another culture [. past or present. [12] V. Spring 2006. [19] Brooks(a). p. [32] Bhattacharyya(a). [45] Johnsen(b). he contributed “innumerable” articles on “various dimensions of Indian history” to scholarly journals both in India and abroad. [52] (a)Bhattacharyya. translations. and General Editor of the Madras University Historical Series. sanskritdictionary. Retrieved 7 February 2014. “The Goddess in India. p. 131. [10] “Bengali Shakta. p. [49] Brooks(b). Customs and Ceremonies. p. 209. 10. and volumes edited by him.” in Harper. [41] Bhattacharyya(a). [29] Bhattacharyya(a). 320. [31] Bhattacharyya(b). including “original treatises. [46] Brooks(b). p. pp. p. [4] “Hindus in SA”. R. [2] Subramuniyaswami. He was also Honorary Reader in Politics and Public Administration at the same institution. 48. pp. xiii. ix. p. 148. “Rediscovering a Lost Spiritual 'Book'. 68. Vol. [9] Dikshitar. p. [16] Brown(a). p.. VII. 126. Retrieved 7 February 2014. November 1984. later Reader. Ch. [43] Pechilis. 186. p. M. 2015. and finally Professorial Chair of the Department of Indian History and Archaeology at the University of Madras. Madurai. [17] Mohan’s World. 21. 85. 39. p.” [37] See Dikshitar. [14] See. xii. 3. 5. p. p. [18] Brooks(a). ix. [11] Subramanian. pp. 6. [44] Hawley. 124.” in Hawley. I and II. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13. Retrieved May 12. 1.172 13. [20] Bhattacharyya(a). [27] Shankarnarayanan(a). 19.” [35] Krishna Warrier. pp. Joseph’s College. p. [47] “SriVidya the secret path”. Retrieved 7 October 2009. p. 1211. 111. Retrieved 2014-01-25. pp. 3. [7] Bhattacharyya(a). back cover. Bangalore.7 See also CHAPTER 13.33. [24] See Kinsley(a). • Tantrism [23] Brooks(a). [30] Joshi. [28] See Kinsley(b). 154. pp. p. p. 17. p. 4. [51] White. • Kaula [22] Hauser. Scott. 59-60. C.8 Notes [25] Kali. [15] Srimad Devi Bhagavatam. “Historical and Iconographical Aspects of Shakta Tantrism. 164. [34] Brown(a). [13] Dikshitar. p.13-15.149. No. [6] “HimalayanAcademy”. pp. 4.com. [42] Johnsen(a). p. 11. then (from the mid-1940s onward) Lecturer. [5] Dubois. Hindu Manners. A posthumous bio notes that he belonged to a group of “avant-garde historians who introduced a new methodology into the study of Indian history". 376-412. [33] See Bhattacharyya(a). [50] A senior member of Guru Mandali. [3] “ISKCON”. 77-78. 219. 1. [36] Bhattacharyya(a). 47-72. 13. Cosimo. 56. p. John. [39] Bhattacharyya(a). [1] “Shaktism”. [38] Brown(b). p. p. 8. pp. SHAKTISM [21] Woodroffe. cited in Brooks(b). [40] Bhattacharyya(a). Yadav. [26] “Sanskrit Dictionary”. . p. cited in Brown(a). p. 203-204. 202. ix-x. p. Ramachandra Dikshitar (1896–1953) was in the 1920s-1940s a professor of Indian History at St. Retrieved 7 February 2014. p. p. 217. [8] Subramanian.” Rochester Review. [48] Brooks(a). 1991. [81] Fell in Hawley. White. p. • Dempsey. [79] For example. • (b) Bhattacharyya. Victory to the Mother: The Hindu Goddess of Northwest India in Myth. The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Shakta Tantrism. • (a) Brooks. 1991). p. 173 13. 1999). pp. Ritual.” in Hawley. MacKenzie. 157. 171. p. Ltd. The Triumph of the Goddess: The Canonical Models and Theological Issues of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana. et al. “Who Is the Greatest God?. 181. [56] Pattanaik.com [66] “Celebrating the Divine Female Principle. N. Douglas Renfrew. 2002).” Boloji. 1942. 1991). 2d ed. The Goddess Lives in Upstate New York: Breaking Convention and Making Home at a North American Hindu Temple.. History of the Sakta Religion.” About Hinduism. • Coburn. 1992). Katherine (ed. 1996).9 References [54] Active (and non-commercial) discussions of Samaya theory can be found at the Sri Rajarajeshwari Kripa. Oxford University Press (New York. p. Rachel. 1981). Kathleen M. N. [55] Nikhilananda. 734. 2d ed. [71] Kapoor. • Dikshitar.org.” World Culture Encyclopedia.” About Hinduism.” Saraswati Pooja. “The Western Kali. 103-109. Doniger O'Flaherty. [82] Johnsen(b). • (a) Brown. Mackenzie. • (b) Brown. The Pennsylvania State University Press (University Park.. N. State University of New York Press (Albany. Forms of the Goddess Lajja Gauri in Indian Art. Penguin Classics Books (London. 3d ed. 2007. and Symbol. Corinne G. p.13. [58] “Durga Puja. • (b) Brooks.com [67] Pattanaik. [63] “Kali Pooja in Bengal. The Devi Gita: The Song of the Goddess: A Translation. The Hindu. Encountering the Goddess: A translation of the Devi-Mahatmya and a Study of Its Interpretation. N. 1992). State University of New York Press (Albany. [70] Urban. p. 2006). p. 2d ed. 305.. Wendy (translator).org. • (a) Bhattacharyya. [57] “5 Things You Need to Know About Navratri: The 9 Divine Nights.” DurgaPuja.. 1977). [74] Shankarnarayanan(a). • Bolon. REFERENCES [53] Brooks(a). See also Urban. DiwaliFestival.. 1992). BlessingsontheNet. V. South Asia. [64] “Saraswati Pooja. 1990).” Diwali Festival. Penn. • “Bengali Shakta.9. • Harper.org. The Indian Mother Goddess. pp. [59] “About Vasanta Navratri. 262. • Erndl. pp. pp. C. [61] “Lakshmi: Goddess of Wealth & Beauty! What You Need to Know. The Rig Veda: An Anthology. Thomas B. South Asia Books (New Delhi. 172. • Anonymous (author). 1970. (New Delhi. Auspicious Wisdom: The Texts and Traditions of Srividya Shakta Tantrism in South India. R.). State University of New York Press (Suny Series in Hindu Studies. Ltd. p. [72] White. p. The Lalita Cult. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. [69] Bhattacharyya(a). . The Roots of Tantra. [75] Vanamali.” Hinduism Today. Annotation and Commentary. 176. (Delhi. Douglas Renfrew. 281-305. State University of New York Press (Albany. C. [65] “Celebrate Meenakshi Kalyanam”. 1998). [73] Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami.” July 24. [68] Bhattacharyya(a). Oxford University Press (New York.. 10. The University of Chicago Press (Chicago. 110-114. State University of New York Press (Albany. [76] Kali Mandir [77] Sri Rajarajeshwari Peetham [78] See Dempsey. “Shakti Wicca” and Sha'can [80] Fell McDermett. [60] “Regaling Varahi with different 'alankarams’ in 'Ashada Navaratri'. 28. Ramachandra.” About Hinduism. [62] “Diwali Festival”. Carol Radcliffe. 5. 1974. while lively (and also non-commercial) Kaula discussions take place at the Shakti Sadhana website and its associated mailing list. Minn. 2004). M. • Pechilis. 1925 ed. University of California Press (Berkeley. • Subramuniyaswami. Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center (New York. 1998). Part I. Rep. Merging with Siva: Hinduism’s Contemporary Metaphysics. 1996).” Yes International Publishers (St. “Introduction to Tantra Sastra. The Ten Great Cosmic Powers: Dasa Mahavidyas. • (b) Shankarnarayanan. Neeta.K. David. Ganesh & Company (Madras. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal. Printworld (P) Ltd. The Adyar Library and Research Center.. Printworld (P) Ltd (New Delhi. Vol. Vakils. S. Politics and Power in the Study of Religion.org • Nikhilananda. 2003). • Pattanaik. Subodh.. 4th ed. 89. Mataji Devi. Secrecy. 2003).” Interview with Sri Girish Kumar. University of California Press (Berkeley. • Kumar. Oxford University Press (New York. English Translation. Devi the Mother-Goddess: An Introduction. Library Series. 1999). Samata Books (Chennai. The Upanishads. of 1962 ed. M. Shakti: Realm of the Divine Mother. Ltd. Feffer and Simons Ltd. Inner Traditions (Rochester. 2002. 6th ed. Karen (ed. • Kali. CHAPTER 13. 2008). Vasanta Press (Chennai. University of California Press (Berkeley. 13. A. Nicolas-Hays.) and Wulff. • Yadav. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Hinduism. 1999). David Gordon. Dr. USA. (Mumbai. Indigo Books (New Delhi. Oxford University Press (New York. reprint of c. • (b) Johnsen. 1987. Inc. D. C. The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe. Alpha Books (Indianapolis. Sir John. Kena Upanisad: A Study From Sakta Perspective. 4th ed. (2006). University of California Press (Berkeley. Davadatta. 1927. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (Mumbai. F. 2001).). Satguru Sivaya. Ardhanārīśvara in Art and Literature. reprint of 1927 edition). The University of Chicago Press (Chicago. V. Himalayan Academy (Hawaii. 2000).. (Berwick. • Müller. Kiss of the Yogini: “Tantric Sex” in its South Asian Contexts. Sri Chakra.). Swami (trans. • White. 1988). rep. K. Offering Flowers. • Suryanarayana Murthy. 2003).). June. • (a) Johnsen. Ind. 1977. L.). A Short Introduction to Sakta Philosophy. 2000). 1997). History of Indian Literature. 2002). 1999). The Sākta Upaniṣad-s. • Joshi.. Frederick M. In Praise of the Goddess: The Devimahatmya and Its Meaning. Lalita Sahasranama: A Comprehensive Study of the One Thousand Names of Lalita Mahatripurasundari. A.Srivastava. 2000. • Urban. • (b) Kinsley. S. Donna Marie (ed. • Kapoor. S. 3d. Vermont USA. Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. 1998). Manoj Publications. 2002). Linda. Mohan’s World • McDaniel. (Calcutta. Explanatory Notes. • Winternitz. ed. (New Delhi. 1933. Devdutt. 2002). Samata Books (Chennai..10 Further reading • Smith. 1973). Dr. Hugh B. Maine. New Delhi.. • C. SHAKTISM • Sarma. John Stratton (ed. • Vanamali. (Delhi. Saundaryalahari of Sankaracarya: Sanskrit Text in Devanagari with Roman Transliteration. • (a) Shankarnarayanan. 2 vols. Girish.. • Krishna Warrier. The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature. 1967. Tantra: Sex. The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. Sakti and Sakta: Essays and Addresses on the Shâkta Tantrashâstra.M.. 9th Ed. .J... Max (translator). Realization. ISBN 0-231-137486. 2004).. former director of Tantra Vidhya Peethama. Paul. Linda. Kerala. Devi: Goddesses of India. 2009. Columbia University Press. Yantric Diagrams and Index. • (a) Kinsley. 1942.. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (Mumbai. • Subramanian. 2001). Sri Lalita Sahasranama with Introduction and Commentary. Dr. D.). 1971. 1972. 9th ed. • Woodroffe. The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States. Kali Tantra Siddhi. USA.. K.174 • Hawley. David. India. Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas. [1] Sanskrit: वेद véda. the Yajurveda. superhuman”[4] and “impersonal. such philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural author.[11][13][14] Some scholars add fifth category – the Upasanas (worship). and as “with the Veda” by H. just like Sramana traditions. English wit. the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals.[26] ity are classified as “orthodox” (āstika). for orthodox In. in agada-veda “medical scihabharata. express and Main article: Vedic period teach similar ideas such as karma (retributive action) and moksha (liberation) in the fourth layer of the Vedas – the The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts.H. etc.[10] ence”. “form” . ignorant”. meaning “see” or “know”. e. which did not regard the Vedas as authorities are referred to as “heterodox” or “non-orthodox” (nāstika) 14. Schools of Indian Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints.[22] as “studying the Veda” by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana. the word taken differing positions on the Vedas. date to c. as “bundle of grass” by Max Muller. are considered revelations. This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯ eid-. "knowledge") are a large body of texts originating in ancient India.as Divya Prabandham.“to know”. H. ceremonies.5 of the Rigveda.[9] In the Hindu Epic the Ma. Griffith as “ritual lore”. sasya-veda “science of agriculture” or sarpa-veda There are four Vedas: the Rigveda. 1000-500 BCE. for example Tiruvaymoli. various Hindu traditions dwell on. see Veda (disambiguation) and Vedic (disambiguation). mystery”. The Veda. ceremonies and sacrifices).[15][16] “science of snakes” (already found in the early Upanishads). cognate to Greek (ϝ)οἶδα (w)oida “I know”.Chapter 14 Vedas “Veda” and “Vedic” redirect here. durveda means “with evil knowledge. the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[24][25] In The various Indian philosophies and denominations have some south Indian communities such as Iyengars. Root Vedas are also called śruti (“what is heard”) literature. Marai literally means “hidden.cognates are Greek ἰδέα.[8] dis. Other Sramana traditions.2 Chronology schools. as well as the redaction of the Samhitas. etc.19. Wilson. the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.[17] Despite their differences. which means “not of a man. a secret. the Aranyakas (text on rituals. Buddhism and Jainism. but can also be used to refer to fields of study unreother the work of the Deity. The SamhiUpanishads. authorless”. and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation. philosophy and spiritual knowledge). cognate to Greek (ϝ)εἶδος “aspect”.[20] A related word Vedena appears in hymn 8. sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices). For other uses.[2][3] Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya. ˈviː-/.[18] The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯ eidos.[17] tas date to roughly 1700–1100 BCE.The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means “knowldian theologians.g.1 Etymology and usage The Sanskrit word véda “knowledge. which are called see”.. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit. Latin videō “I tinguishing them from other religious texts. 175 .[5][6][7] 14.[21] It was translated by Ralph T. Carvaka.[19] smṛti (“what is remembered”). Ajivika. some way or edge”. Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda. The Vedas (/ˈveɪdəz.[23] Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India.[11][12] Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions).lated to liturgy or ritual. the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.[27] and the “circumVedic” texts. wisdom” is derived from the root vid. such as Lokayata. resulting in a Vedic period. “collection”).[40][41][42] While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period. and Atharva-Veda. however oral tradition hymns. YajurVeda. Kena. There are four “Vedic” Samhitas: the Rig-Veda.[38] It is frequently read in secondary literature. and others). In some contexts.[39][40] The Vedas (sruti) are different from Vedic era texts such as Shrauta Sutras and Gryha Sutras. additional Upanishads were . Sama-Veda.[28] The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts. Texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India) 2. and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically. with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of ceremonies. perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yathe oldest layer of Vedic texts. of which The Sampurnanand Sanskrit University has a Rigveda 72.[32] however. Northern Black Polished Ware).[33] meaning and many connected themes. and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda. “wilderness texts” or “forest treaties”. 1. preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques.1 Vedic Sanskrit corpus The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes: • The Samhitas (Sanskrit saṃhitā. the Vedas and these Sutras form part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.[31] sists of some 89. most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā).000 occur in the four Samhitas. were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period.[29] Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. 1000 CE. Together. which are smriti texts. which were probably essentially complete by [30] predominated until c. Chandogya. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as colrial (birch bark or palm leaves). This is • The Aranyakas. or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). dating to c.3 Categories of Vedic texts separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas.000 padas (metrical feet). • Older Mukhya Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka. Aitareya. Any text considered as “connected to the Vedas” or a “corollary of the Vedas”[34] 14. 500-400 BCE. They may also include the Aranyakas The term “Vedic texts” is used in two distinct meanings: and Upanishads. apart from the Rigvedic jurveda about the 1st century BCE. the 12th to 10th centuries Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript mateBCE. Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. there are a • The Brahmanas are prose texts that comment and exnumber of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal that are dated plain the solemn rituals as well as expound on their from the 11th century onwards. the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. VEDAS spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE. Kaṭha. from ritualisitic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view.3.[36][37] The Brahmanas may either form 14. 1500 BCE to c. He gives 150 BCE (Patañjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BCE the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period.176 CHAPTER 14. A literary tradition set in only in Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari post-Vedic times. surviving manuscripts lected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) conrarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[35] manuscript from the 14th century. 1200 BCE. Some texts were revised into the modern era. As Axel Michaels explains:[39] These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time. and Upanishads.[48] Thus. there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. interpolated and adapted locally. it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition. in modern north Bihar. and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as the later Upanishads and the Sutra literature. and finally repeated again in the original order. but only a canon of various texts accepted by each school. are sometimes not to be distinguished from Āraṇyakas.4. Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language attributed to the Saṃhitās. while it is subject to some debate. states Witzel as well as Renou..3.[43] The Brahmanas.[48][49] Each school likely represented an ancient community of a particular area. giving rise to various recensions of the text. introducing Vedanta philosophy. from a region called Videha. conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately. Upanişads . but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools. or texts of remembered traditions. This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and.”[39] 177 14. without any variant readThe Upanishads are largely philosophical works.[49] Each school followed its own canon. no Vedic “Scripture”.[50] The Vedic canon in its entirety consists of texts from all the various Vedic schools taken together. “the remembered”).. Rigveda that survives in modern times.[56] That these methods have been effective. schools).. Some of these texts have survived.[51][52] The Vedas each have an Index or Anukramani. such as from actual sacrifice to symbolic sacrifice. some in text during the Brahmana [56] ings within that school.2 Shruti literature Main article: Śruti The texts considered “Vedic” in the sense of “corollaries of the Vedas” is less clearly defined.[45][46] Of the The Vedas were likely written down for the first time around Vedic corpus. all printed editions of the Vedas that tral ideas of the Upanishads are at the spiritual core of survive in the modern times are likely the version existing Hindus. Aranyakas. but revised. then repeated in the reverse order. memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. knowledge/spiritualityrelated sections). and underlies the current editions. translations. and of spirituality in the Upanishads. one of the major trends of later Hinduism. The texts were subsequently “proof-read” by comparing the different recited versions.[53][54] Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity. and monographs on Vedic literature. or kingdom. interpret and discuss the Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman). most lost or yet to be found. In other parts.4 Vedic schools or recensions Main article: Shakha The four Vedas were transmitted in various śākhās (branches. the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvānukramaṇī. VEDIC SCHOOLS OR RECENSIONS composed after the end of the Vedic period. as redacted into a single period. is in only one extremely well preserved school of Śåkalya. among other things. in the 2nd millennium BCE.[15][44] 14. and the cen.[55] For example. Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas. Forms of recitation included the jaṭā-pāṭha (literally “mesh recitation”) in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order. dialogue form.500 BCE. in and after the Vedic period. it is still widely used. Nevertheless. action/ritual-related sections) and jnana-kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड.[49] Each of the four Vedas were shared by the numerous schools.[58] . and the soul or the self (Atman). They are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text. This has inspired later Hindu scholars such as Adi Shankara to classify each Veda into karma-kanda (कर्म खण्ड. Texts not considered to be shruti are known as smriti (Sanskrit: smṛti.[45][47] in about the 16th century CE.. for example. they show evolution of ideas. the Rigveda. south of Nepal. there was likely no canon of one broadly accepted Vedic texts.14. they alone are widely known. raising significant debate on parts of the text which are believed to have been corrupted at a later date.[57] However.. also notes that it is the Vedic period itself. the nature of hymns shift from praise of deities in early books to Nasadiya Sukta with questions such as.[11][13][14] The Upasanas (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars[15][16] as the fifth part. nent. VEDAS Gods came later. Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows. Indra and other gods.6-7[65] The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text.[64] The Samaveda Samhita[73] consists of 1549 stanzas. 1. organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).[67] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities. “what is the origin of the universe?. sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices).[71] Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions). Witzel notes that the rituals.[49][62] The Rigveda is the oldest work. whence this creation sprang? Rigveda into songs.[66] It is a collection of 1.[49] In terms of substance. गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārMain article: Rigveda cika.5. “the triple science” of reciting hymns (Rigveda).2 Samaveda into the modern era. do even gods know the answer?". rituals and reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central [72] rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subconti. also called "trayī vidyā". performing sacrifices (Yajurveda). and their meters too shifts in a Who really knows? descending order.178 14.[68] The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries from roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE (the early Vedic period).[70] and other metaphysical issues in its hymns. Just like Rigveda. Yajurveda (YV. Sama and Atharva. and chanting songs (Samaveda). and many Main article: Samaveda different versions of the Yajur Veda have been found in different parts of South Asia. and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras.028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10. the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses. with the main division TS vs. the Aranyakas (text on rituals.[74] . coming of age. आर्चिक). yet. the early Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity): sections of Samaveda typically begin with Agni and Indra hymns but shift to abstract. The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turīya) Who then knows whence it has arisen? viz. Rigveda (RV) 2. ceremonies such as newborn baby’s rites of passage.[74] A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the arcika books. Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.5 Four Vedas CHAPTER 14. that is. or whether He was mute. where incipient lists divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches: Rig.[49] —Rig Veda 10. He only knows.Asia. and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation. Yajur. for each deity series the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones. The later sections of the Samaveda have Who can here proclaim it? least deviation from substance of hymns they derive from Whence.[39][74] The Samaveda samhita comprises two ma14. which Witzel states are probably from 1900 BCE to 1100 BCE period.1 Rigveda jor parts.[50] Several different versions of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known. marriages.600 verses in all. philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[65] the virtue of Dāna (charity) in society. retirement and cremation. or perhaps He does not know.129. rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts There are similarities between the mythology. Atharvaveda (AV) Of these. all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection. the number of hymns per book increases.[69] The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles – the Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni.5.[61] Whether God’s will created it.[63] Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have survived 14. the first three were the principal original division. ceremonies and sacrifices). Witzel. Samaveda (SV) 4. The first part include four melody collections (gāna. VS) 3. after the creation of this universe. starting with the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the northwest Indian subcontinent. Persia and the European area. the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals.. finally. taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda. 2.3.7 Vedanta Further information: Vedanta. Two studied recensions are the Paippalāda and Aum (ॐ).4 Atharvaveda Main article: Atharvaveda The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. compared to them.[80] According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas). it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated.[86] finding a good husband.[79] 14. such as those to gain better health.[78] The White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana). Mimamsa).4.6. the earliest sections of the Yajurveda are independent from it. The association of the three Vedas with the bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka: "Bhūḥ is the Rigveda.6). in contrast to the “white” (well arranged) Yajurveda.1.3. The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (ŚBM 10. Katha. The term “black” implies “the un-arranged. Of the Black Yajurveda. The Vedas are identified with Brahman. although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda. three (Vajasaneyi. motley collection” of verses in Yajurveda.[88] and others.3 Yajurveda Main article: Yajurveda The Yajurveda Samhita consists of archaic prose mantras.8. Its purpose was liturgical. and they were the repertoire of the udgātṛ or “singer” priests. Unlike Yajurveda. texts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani. is longer than the Saunaka one.5. Including repetitions.1). This may be connected to an extension of the sacrificial rite from involving three types of priest to the inclusion of the Brahman overseeing the ritual.[81][89] The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns.[80][85] It has numerous verses on magic spells and charms.[81] The Atharva veda has been the primary source for information about Vedic culture. The Upanishads Several versions of the Atharvaveda manuscript sur. for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. as well as those associated with kings and governance.6 Brahmanas Further information: Brahmanas The mystical notions surrounding the concept of the one “Veda” that would flower in Vedantic philosophy have their roots already in Brahmana literature. human knowledge is like mere handfuls of dirt (TB 3. While the Samaveda is based on Rigveda mantras. which exists in a Kash“The goal.[84] The Paippalada text. The text also includes hymns dealing with the two major rituals of passage – marriage and cremation. the customs and beliefs. all beings are in the triple Veda”). they are different from earlier Vedic texts.[77] There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the “Black” (Krishna) and the “White” (Shukla).[82] or earlier. Vāc “speech” is called the “mother of the Vedas” (ŚBM 6. some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than once. the Atharvaveda has less connection with sacrifice. 10.5. the universal principle (ŚBM 10. svaḥ is the Samaveda” (1.4. the Katha Upanishad has: the Śaunaka.14. the aspirations and frustrations of everyday Vedic life. Finally.[80] It was compiled last.5. The early part of Yajurveda samhitas are in prose and linguistically.[76] The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals. 14.[80] The Atharvaveda is a comparatively late extension of the “Three Vedas” connected to priestly sacrifice to a canon of “Four Vedas”. the Atharva Veda dedicates significant portion of the text asking the meaning of a ritual. while of the White Yajurveda.2).[83] 179 mir and an Orissa version. but some sections are in prose.[75] Two major recensions remain today. BRAHMANAS In Samaveda.[80] Most of the verses are metrical. Upanishads and Aranyakas While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (Śrauta.3-5). which all aus- . and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda. Thus.reduce the “essence of the Vedas” further.11.10. Kanva and Madhyandina). bhuvaḥ is the Yajurveda. the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. KapisthalaKatha. Taittiriya). 10.[90] 14.[87] peaceful social and family relationships.5.1. 14.2. there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith. The knowledge of the Vedas is endless.22 has Prajapati reflecting that “truly.4.5. It has 760 hymns. to the syllable vives. which all Vedas declare. the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary.[81] probably around 900 BCE. Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of “Veda” in purely philosophical terms. Upaveda The term upaveda (“applied knowledge”) is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works. collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas. S.37) traces the origin • Grammar (Vyākaraṇa) of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum.18. .[95] Main article: Parisista 14. • The Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon.8.14.2. virtue and understanding. and says that it • Etymology (Nirukta) was divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga.43) attributes the • Astronomy (Jyotiṣa) division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. seeing the ment of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa. and which humans desire when they live a life of continence. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains. the Vayu Purana (section • Ritual (Kalpa) 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa.2. there are 79 works. V. because men had declined in age. only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive.2 Parisista sion of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga. dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas. In a • Meter (Chandas) differing account Bhagavata Purana (9. • The Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas. Apte defines this group of works as: “N. The six subjects of Vedanga are: According to the Vishnu Purana (3. transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit. in varying accounts.6. Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda that.3 Puranas Main article: Puranas A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta period[93] ) attributes the current arrangeThese subjects are treated in Sūtra literature dating from [94] the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times. and further frag• Phonetics (Śikṣā) mented into numerous shakhas. was divided into three or four parts. associated with the Rigveda • Architecture (Sthapatyaveda). The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:[98] • Archery (Dhanurveda).[92] 14.8.8.8 In post-Vedic literature 14. consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the Caraṇavyūha)and the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa. However. Brahmanas. associated with the Yajurveda. in the Dvapara Yuga.15) 14.8. The Bhagavata Purana (12. VEDAS terities aim at. • The Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Āpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa.088) also mentions the divi14.) the original Veda was divided into four parts. ascribed to Kātyāyana. which is also found as the second praśna of the Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra'. I will tell you briefly it is Aum" (1. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials.[96][97] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. Aranyakas and Sutras. appendix” is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature.”[91] • The Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical text of two chapters. with 113 and 95 verses respectively.1 Vedanga Main article: Vedanga Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known as vedāṅga “limbs of the Veda”.180 CHAPTER 14.3. 3.4 etc. The Mahabharata (santiparva 13.4 Pariśiṣṭa “supplement. by Lord Vishnu in the form of Vyasa. at the urging of Brahma. the Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa • For the Atharvaveda. pp. 29–39. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957.[8] Apte 1965. 17–18 portance of Vedic Sanskrit for Indo-European studies was also recognized in the early 19th century. page 290 [7] Warren Lee Todd (2013). .8.[103] Let drama and dance (Nātya. specifically the Upanishads. Thus.[9] Müller 1891. p. 68. including the Mahabharata.g.[110] Natyasastra[101] and certain Puranas. MacDonell 2004.14.10. The im. In the early 19th century. From the Rig Veda he drew forth the words. ISBN . Arthur Schopenhauer drew atten. नाट्य) be the fifth vedic scripture. and from the Atharva Veda the sentiment.9 Western Indology Further information: Sanskrit in the West • Hindu philosophy • Historical Vedic religion • Pandit • Shakha • Vedic chant 14. and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular extended the term veda to include the Sanskrit Epics and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancaratra. from the Sama Veda the melody. tending to virtue. see apauruSeya [5] D Sharma.[25][26] Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Sutras are considered shruti or “Vedic” by some Hindu denominations but not universally within Hinduism. he remarked with the Samaveda that: • Medicine (Āyurveda). refer to themselves as the "fifth Veda".[108][109] “Fifth” and other Vedas Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in Some post-Vedic texts. wealth. joy and spiritual freedom. The Bhakti movement. ISBN 9781409466819. p. The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World. page 128 The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century.[107] Ralph T. p. from the Yajur Veda gesture. in the Sacred Books of the East series edited by Müller between 1879 and 1910. is a term for canonical Tamil texts considered as Vernacular Veda by some South Indian Hindus. [4] Vaman Shivaram Apte. Oxford University Press. pages 3539 1889 to 1899. 887 tion to Vedic texts. Accessed 2007-08-09 [3] Sanujit Ghose (2011). ISBN 978-0521438780. Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip’s Encyclopedia.5 The Veda was the most precious gift for which the West had ever been indebted to the East. "Religious Developments in Ancient India" in Ancient History Encyclopedia. H. Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader. Columbia University Press. Griffith also pre. [2] see e. Camsented English translations of the four Samhitas.11 Notes [1] “Veda”. pp. the UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2007. SEE ALSO 181 • Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda). pages 196-197 [6] Jan Westerhoff (2009). it must contain the significance of every scripture. Motilal Banarsidass. in: Flood 2003.[102] The earliest reference to such a “fifth Veda” is found in the Chandogya Upanishad in hymn 14. Brahma framed the Nātya Veda. Witzel. An Introduction to Hinduism.[106] 14.10 See also 7. Sullivan. 3. English transla. ISBN 9780195384963. pages tions of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th cen85-86 tury.[10] Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata Bruce M.1. —First chapter of Nātyaśāstra. Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary.[11] Gavin Flood (1996). associated with the Atharvaveda . Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction. from all the Vedas. and forward every art. Michael. for example Tiruvaymoli. published bridge University Press.2. Abhinaya Darpana [104][105] "Divya Prabandha".[99][100] 14. Combined with an epic story. associated Voltaire regarded Vedas to be exceptional. The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary. “Vedas and Upaniṣads”. p. Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas. 1015. (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II. Apte 1965. [28] Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates. Many Possibilities. [42] The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is incorporated in A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu. 34. the second part is the jnana kanda. [20] Monier-Williams (1899) [21] Sanskrit: यः समिधा य आहुती यो वेदेन ददाश मर्तो अग्नये । यो नमसा स्वध्वरः ॥५॥. pages 67-69 [37] Brahmana Encyclopedia Britannica (2013) [38] Jan Gonda (1975). 69.b. in: Flood 2003.१९.575 are Rigvedic. Second Edition. 51. [35] 37.v. “Vedas and Upaniṣads”. and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul. Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas). [34] according to ISKCON. pages 259-261 [26] Vasudha Narayanan (1994). Harvard Oriental Series 33-37. 856 [19] see e. Wikisource [22] K. Geldner. Shankara’s Introduction at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pages 15. Rig-veda Sanhita Sixth Ashtaka. Michael. Pokorny’s 1959 Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch s.“The Vedas are divided in two parts. also (called) purvakanda.857 appear in the other three Samhitas. “Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e. Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project. p. ISBN 978-3447016032 [15] A Bhattacharya (2006). “Vedas and Upaniṣads”. Oxford University Press. University of Chicago Press. Vedic culture)". pp. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. in: Flood 2003. ISBN 978-0791416402.1. ISBN 9780195332612. u̯ ei̯d-. Sukta VII (8. Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas). Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology. ISBN 978-3447016032.182 CHAPTER 14. Cambridge 1951 [23] HH Wilson. 1977 [30] For the possibility of written texts during the 1st century BCE see: Witzel. p.19. University of South Carolina Press. Upanishads or Sutras [36] Klaus Klostermaier (1994). (2014). 117-119 [27] Lucas F. ISBN 9780791421093. the part which contains knowledge. Joel P. Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture. Stephanie W. “Vedas and Upaniṣads”. ISBN 978-0226093055. p. extending to about 1800 pages.5). page 424-426 [39] Michaels 2004. 179.” . vol. For oral composition and oral transmission for “many hundreds of years” before being written down. [40] Witzel. Volume IV: Vedangas. Whitney Bauman (2014). Holdrege (1995). p. pp. ISBN 978-0595384556. according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. Rix' Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben. the ceremonial part. ISBN 978-0-19-972078-1.2 The Ritual Sutras. also named uttara-kanda or posterior part. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. The Rigveda.g. A history of Indian literature: I. The Vernacular Veda: Revelation. and treats on ceremonies. p. VEDAS [12] Bloomfield. u̯ (e)id-². in: Flood 2003. p. 1. Brereton. Der Rig-Veda. University of South Carolina Press. including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some “sub-Vedic” texts. I. page 285 [31] Brodd. was published in 1973-1976. Oxford University Press. 68 [32] Jamison. Retrieved 4 November 2014. Michael. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5 [14] Jan Gonda (1975). p. A Survey of Hinduism. Jefferey (2003). First Adhayaya. p. and Ritual. Routledge. ISBN 978-0872499652. [13] A Bhattacharya (2006).F. pages 43. George M. MN: Saint Mary’s Press. Quote . Flood 1996.405 are known only from Brahmanas. and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. p.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas). 100–101. pages 194 [25] John Carman (1989). The Vernacular Veda: Revelation. and Ritual. “Vedas and Upaniṣads”. University of Hamburg. M. the first is the karma-kanda. [43] Flood 2003. page 291. World Religions. Michael. Science and Religion: One Planet. [41] For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel. Of the remaining.) Strassburg 1899. 69. 76. Handbook of Hindu Mythology. p. 18. 82 [18] Monier-Williams 2006.. Volume III: Upanishads. 100–101 [44] Edward Roer (Translator). Winona. Michael. [33] “Cultural Heritage of Nepal”. Trubner London [24] Vasudha Narayanan (1994). in: Flood 2003. ISBN 978-0595384556. Its scope extends to about 400 texts. pages 814 [16] Barbara A. Volume I: Samhitas. and 16. see: Avari 2007. J. ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं ८. Recitation. pages 8-14. 37 [29] Witzel. Recitation. The Tamil Veda: Pillan’s Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli. Gonda. Johnston. State University of New York Press. A revised edition. The Atharvaveda and the GopathaBrahmana. Hindu Sacred Texts.g. ISBN 978-0872499652. State University of New York Press. pages 351-357 [17] Flood 1996. Wiesbaden 1975. Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology. Williams (2003). 21. 77. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997. Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism. Paulist Press.600 verses and division into ten mandalas.164. page 6 [51] J. Michael. “What is the semen of the cosmic horse?". and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus. Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview. [69] see e. soul. Varuna. • Translation 1: Max Muller (1859). Avari 2007. 3. Griffith (Translator). in: Flood 2003.164. World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions. 68 [62] MacDonell 2004. Vedic Hinduism. ISBN 978-0-52095067-2. page 12 [52] Albert Friedrich Weber. Hymn 1. pp. Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India . For a translation. [70] Original text translated in English: The Rig Veda. p. pp. Hymn 1. p. Oxford University Press. page 39. 286 [65] • Original Sanskrit: Rigveda 10. C Chatterjee (1995). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. p. p. pages 208-210 [47] Patrick Olivelle (2014). in: Flood 2003. University of Chicago Press. pp 1-9 with footnotes (in German). University of California Press. Witzel. see: Avari 2007. 77. p. Surya. [61] Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957. Mandala 10. “What is the ultimate limit of the earth?". [49] Witzel.. p. NOTES [45] Wendy Doniger (1990). Hymn 117. p. pp. p.11. ISBN 0-8091-2781-4. Penguin. “Where do gods live?" Hymn 1. • Translation 3: David Christian (2011).34. Quote: “The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy. London.164. spirit to the earth?". 183 [60] Joshi 1994. ISBN 978-0791410806. 69. 17–18. 77 Max Müller gave 1700–1100 BCE. “How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?" Hymn 1. 2nd Edition. State University of New York Press. in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. see: Avari 2007. Kasulis et al.. [66] see e. Original Sanskrit Texts at Google Books. “Vedas and Upaniṣads”. Maharṣi-Kātyayāna-viracitā. see Sarvānukramaṇī Vivaraṇa Univ of Pennsylvania rare texts collection [54] R̥ gveda-sarvānukramaṇī Śaunakakr̥tāʼnuvākānukramaṇī ca.164. inseparable companions.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): “Two birds with fair wings. • Translation 2: Kenneth Kramer (1986). One incessantly eats from the fig . 559–565. “What is the ultimate source of human speech?" Hymn 1.129 Wikisource. 77.g. Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years” [59] Nair 2008. p. or the inner self and the cosmic self. 69–70 [58] Michael Witzel. ISBN 978-1592578467. pp. Indische Studien. Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. No 1. 39.g. Indra. H. Ralph T. p. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997. Harvard University. Quote: “The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman. Vol 1. M.). [67] For 1. “What. page 21 [64] Witzel.14.. pp. “Vedas and Upaniṣads”. 29–39 [63] Jamison and Witzel (1992). pp. 1st Edition. 91-93. Muir (1868). Michael Witzel gives 1450-1350 BCE as terminus ad quem. [48] Flood 1996. Avari 2007. Volume 10. page 14 [53] For an example. Soma.. where is the unborn support for the born universe?". etc. Harvard University. Vedic Hinduism. Williams and Norgate. World Religions. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism”. ISBN 978-0226618470. The Early Upanisads. page 3. “What is the center of the universe?". Quote: ". 84-227. M.028 hymns and 10. Quote: “Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti]. ISBN 978-0195352429. von at Google Books. Journal of Human Values.” [46] Wiman Dissanayake (1993).5. p. they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most welleducated Hindus. OCLC 11549595 [55] (Staal 1986) [56] (Filliozat 2004. herausg. [68] For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni.". 139) [57] Avari 2007.their religion and institutions at Google Books. pp. Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009). pages 3-12 [71] For example. pages 2-3. “Where does the sun hide in the night?". “Who gave blood.164. 257–348 [50] Jamison and Witzel (1992).34.6. Anc Sci Life. [100] [82] Flood 1996. Sixty Upanishads of the Veda. htm [95] Muir 1861. p. the 'Word'. ISBN 81-215-0607-7 [93] Flood 1996. . David. 272–274 [78] Paul Deussen. [76] Witzel. Griffith’s introduction mentions the recension history for his text. pp. Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan. M. 1981 Jul-Sep.14. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. [86] Atharva Veda 2. 37. pages 134-135. 1840. 42.130-6. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997. the 'Support'. p. Oxford University Press. 37. pages 64-69. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997.1. 42. Language and Ritual. ISBN 9780595269259. 56. page 368 [84] Apte 1965. 52 Table 3 [80] Michaels 2004. 2. 385 later. p. 3. in The Vedas . thereby showing the acceptance of the Atharva Veda. p. A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads. p. Witzel. 111 dates it to the 4th century CE. Retrieved 7 December 2014. -. Griffith.60. to Prāna. etc [73] (from sāman. (Translator). 3. 387. sexuality and for conceiving a child. 3. p. the 'Breath of Life'.”Flood 1996. Vol. [90] Witzel. The Rigvedic religious system and its central Asian and Hindukush antecedents. ISBN 978-3447016032. just looks on. for the Brahman as overseer of the rites does not appear in the Ṛg Veda and is only incorporated [102] Sullivan 1994. p. [99] but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads. largely composed of magical texts and charms. Oxford University Press [74] Witzel. the Atharva-Veda. 19.g. Lotus Press. 42. pp. 6. [104] “Natyashastra” (PDF). see numbering given in Ralph T. 4. as being of equal English translation: Chandogya Upanishad 7. Accessed 5 April 2007.hymns to Skambha.com/hin/vp/vp078.. 11.. see also chapters 3. 270–271 [77] Witzel. 269–270 [89] Atharva Veda 12. “ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF AYURVEDA: (A BRIEF HISTORY)". [88] Atharva Veda 6. Volume 1. Sacred Books of the East. pages 581-627 [87] Atharva Veda 4.2. Part 1. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. 981. p. Atharvaveda dedicates over 30 chapters to love relationships.30 Maurice Bloomfield (Translator). Prentice Hall. who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe. [94] Vishnu Purana.” Zaehner 1966. p. 42. Retrieved 6 January 2015. page 68 first three Saṃhitās. Jan Gonda. 1(1): 1–7. Sacred Books of the East.25. Vol. Volume 1. New Delhi. Sources: (a) Antonio de Nicholas (2003). [83] “There were originally only three priests associated with the [101] Paul Kuritz (1988). H.78. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997. in: Flood 2003. translation by Horace Hayman Wilson. 275–276 [91] Apte 1965. 6. the term for a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise. G Jha standing with the other texts. [97] Apte 1965. Ch IV. Sacred Books of the East. [81] “The latest of the four Vedas. 5.. Ranade.3.10. Editors: Griffiths and Houben (2004). Motilal Banarsidass. 6. [92] BR Modak. which had been somewhat distinct from the other Saṃhitās [103] Sanskrit original: Chandogya Upanishad. Wikisource. 76. p. 491-99. 293.1 Maurice Bloomfield (Translator). pp. and so on. to Vāc. Hymn 164 Wikisource [85] Flood 1996. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. p.132. Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man. p. 207. see e. Oxford University Press. 37.". M.30. Sanskrit Documents. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957.Texts. is. p.26 etc of Atharva veda [72] Michael Witzel. Subhash (2001). Michael. “Vedas and Upaniṣads”. p. Oxford University Press. Ayurveda. pp. ISBN 978-9069801490. 20–31 [96] Monier-Williams 2006. Vol. [98] “Upaveda”. M. Apte 1965. VEDAS tree. 42.30. ISBN 978-0135478615. 6.36 Strijaratani Maurice Bloomfield (Translator). ISBN 978-8120814684.. vii. Frawley. Vol.sacred-texts. not eating. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997. http://www.2. 1993. the other. chapters 1. Charm to secure perfect health Maurice Bloomfield (Translator).82.184 CHAPTER 14. Rigveda Book 1. pages 217219 [79] Michaels 2004. Brill Academic. pp. Oriental Book Agency.31. Oxford University Press [75] For 1875 total verses.32 Bhaishagykni. Nature’s Medicine. p.11. The Making of Theatre History. and identified with the lower social strata. as we have seen. The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-Veda. M. Sacred Books of the East. p. History of Religions. ISBN 1-4179-0619-7 • M. p. Friedrich Max (author) & Stone. Scribner’s sons. Gavin (1996). ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 • Dundas. New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas.1093/jaarel/LXII.12 References • Apte. [106] Goswami.). ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2 • J. Gavin. p. Monier. Bhaskaran Nair Princeton University Press. Max (1891). MA: Blackwell. (1966). Opera Minora vol. A. Nataraj Books. • Glasenapp. Williams and Norgate • Müller. delivered at the Royal institution of Great Britain in 1861 [and 1863]. Vol. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Michael (ed. 1976.com/od/scripturesepics/a/rigveda.Concordances donell (2004). Kessinger Publishing. pp. pp. • MacDonell. B. Illustrated edition.2.. and religion. Chips from a German Workshop. Harvard University Press. Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself. S. Hindu Scriptures. Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa: A Vedic Word• Monier-Williams. Burjor (2007). • Witzel. A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature — Brahmana and Aranyaka Works. p. “Canonical Authority and Social Classification: Veda and 'Varṇa' in Ancient Indian Texts”. 2010).: Assoc Publishing Group.about. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 1-40513251-5 • J. pp. by Pandit. 1963–1965. Source: (accessed: Friday May 7.) (1997). R. 68. Journal of the American Academy of Religion 62 (1): 377–401. ISBN 978-0-312-29309-3. [107] Müller. htm 14. (1957). Veda and Upanishads (1975). Vaman Shivram (1965). [109] “Lectures on the science of language. (2003). Inside the Texts. 240 pages. 494–498. SUNY Press. ed. [108] “A Critical Study of the Contribution of the Arya Samaj to Indian Education”. Moore. Hinduism: Past and Present. Beyond the Texts. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5 • Sullivan. London: Routledge. (author. ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2. • Holdrege. Jainism. Palgrave Macmillan.l.13.14. ISBN 0-312-29309-7. ISBN 0-912776-88-9 185 • Muir. doi:10. India: The Ancient Past.44 • Radhakrishnan. mythology. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (12th Princeton Paperback ed. “The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition”. “The Mirror of Gesture”. 2–4. Charles A. Overviews Cambridge University Press. Hoshiarpur. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Shrava. Barbara A. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. London: Everyman’s Library 14. Arthur Anthony Arthur Anthony Mac. revised edition 1973881338-58-4. (1995). Paul (2002). Gonda. Harvard Oriental Series. The essential Max Müller: on language. A Vedic Concordance (1907) • Michaels.13 Further reading • Flood. Satsvarupa (1976). ISBN 0-521-43878-0 • Flood. • Vishva Bandhu. C. 148 [110] http://hinduism. Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India.). 1. M. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John (1861). ISBN 1stitute. Axel (2004). FURTHER READING [105] Coormaraswamy and Duggirala (1917). Malden. An Introduction to Hinduism. Volume 1”. Pranava Prakashan (1977). Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research InWilliams Sanskrit Dictionary. (2006). The Jains.377. eds. Sarvepalli. 2. MonierConcordance. S. Helmuth Von (1999). editor) (2002). Bloomfield.. by Max Muller. Routledge. The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed. The University of Chicago Press (1992). Veda and Torah. Saraswati S • Smith. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. Bhim Dev. Brian K. (Summer 1994). An Outline of Vedic Literature (1976). Jon R. . • Avari.). Princeton University Press. 103-125. ed. A History of Indian literature. New York: C. Santucci. Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas. ISBN 0-7914-1639-9 • S. ISBN 0-691-08953-1 (eds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press • Zaehner. VEDAS . ISBN 90-6980-149-3. (2004). and Atharva • Vedas and Upanishads Complete set • Glimpses of Vedic Literature .). Leiden 2002. M. Arlo and Houben.14 External links • Vedas in Hindi and Sanskrit • GRETIL etexts • The Vedas at sacred-texts. (eds.com • Vedas: Rig. language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop. Sama.Kireet Joshi CHAPTER 14. Groningen Oriental Studies 20. 14.186 Conference proceedings • Griffiths. Jan E. Groningen : Forsten. The Vedas : texts. Yajur. which is all pervasive and omniscient.15.Chapter 15 Indian philosophy Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: darśhana) refers to the philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent.15.1 Common themes The Indian thinkers of antiquity (very much like those of the Hellenistic schools) viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best be led. However there are other methods of classification.lives in accordance with it.Indian philosophy is distinctive in its application of analytical compositions of the world. Sages (rishis) centred philosophy on the assumption that there is a unitary un. which date back to the composition of the Upanisads in the later Vedic period.standing questions of how life on earth should be lived.Main articles: Hindu philosophy and Hinduism derlying order (Ṛta) in the universe and everything within it. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical works how it serves human ends (puruṣārtha).2. the structure and function of the human psyche. Vaisesika. Rishis centred philosophy on an assumption that [6] were either assimilated or went extinct. Buddhist and Cārvāka. ary for them to explain how their ideas and treatises served human ends (puruṣārtha). Vidyaranya for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Saiva and Rasesvara traditions.[4] Recent scholarship has The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalised shown that there was a great deal of intercourse between chiefly between 1000 BC to the early centuries AD. It goes into very precise detail about the nature of re. 15. Indian philosophy is distinctive in its application of analytical rigour to metaphysical problems.cal rigour to metaphysical problems and goes into very pretion between the various schools was intense during their cise detail about the nature of reality. Accord. the structure and funcformative years.[5] these. Buddhist.[1] There are six schools of orthodox Hindu philosophy—Nyaya. The concept of natural law (Dharma) was the basis for understanding how life on earth should be lived. Yoga.Greek and Indian philosophy during the era of Hellenistic ing to philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan the earliest of expansion. The phy was a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated sages urged humans to discern this order and to live their to understand how life can best be led.”[3] Competition and integra.there is a unitary underlying order (rta) in the universe turies produced commentaries and reformulations contin. especially between 800 BC and 200 AD. The conPrabhupada among others. It was thus custom. cept of natural law (Dharma) provided a basis for underFor Indian philosophers (dārśanika) of antiquity. and how the relationship between the two have important im.[2] and the metaphysical entity at its source (Brahman). tion of the human psyche and how the relationship between Some schools like the Jain. Shaiva and Advaita the two have important implications for human salvation survived. Mimamsa and Vedanta—and three heterodox schools— Jain. they (moksha). Since the late medieval age (ca.1000–1500) schools of Indian philosophical thought have been identified as either orthodox (astika) or non-orthodox (nastika) depending on whether they regard the Vedas as an infallible source of knowledge. See also: Philosophy from Veda and Philosophy from The various schools concentrated on explaining this order Upanishada 187 .1 Hindu philosophy plications for human salvation (moksha). constitute “the earliest philosophi. but others like Samkhya and Ajivika did not. The efforts by variuing up to as late as the 20th century by Aurobindo and ous schools were concentrated on explaining this order and the metaphysical entity at its source (Brahman).2 Schools ality. Samkhya. Subsequent cen. philoso. Main articles: Jain philosophy and Jainism cism into a standard list of six orthodox (astika) schools (darshanas). Mumbai:10 Dec 1904: “In ancient times. The Vedanta is recognised now as a historical person. schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are categorised by Brahmins as unorthodox (nastika) systems. Zoroaster in Iran. also includes the concept of Rishabha. school of Shaivism by Nakulisa and the Brahmana/Vedantic/Puranic schools represented by Vedanta. become fully liberated and taught the spiritual of Vedic exegesis. Jainism and Cārvāka. the school of logic A Jain is a follower of Jinas. the recognitive school other. These systems. • Pasupata.” Swami Vivekananda also credited Jainsim as one of the influencing forces behind Indian culture. guity over its status. innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Lao‑Tse These are often coupled into three groups for both and Confucious in China and Mahavira and Buddha in historical and conceptual reasons: Nyaya-Vaishesika. and there are other orthodox schools.2 Jain philosophy Many Hindu intellectual traditions were classified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasti. The Hindu scholar Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism in the area of the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals.6th century BC. as the First Tirthankar.[12] Ajativada. • Nyaya.[11] is in some sense alive with many living beings possessing . Jainism is not considered as a part of the Vedic Religion Dvaita (dualism).[7][8][9][10] philosophies and promulgations of the ancient Sramana philosophy. Jain tirthankars find exclusive mention Besides these schools Mādhava Vidyāraṇya also includes in the Vedas and the Hindu epics. the builders’). with emphasis on Vedic Mahavira.[12] The 23rd Thirthankar of Jains. lived in c. all of Jainism came into formal being after Mahavira synthesised which accept the testimony of the Vedas.[18] • Raseśvara. they are the chief ones.[15][16][17] even as there is constitutional ambiSuddhadvaita. Socrates was born in Greece. Dvaitadvaita (dualism-nondualism). (Hinduism). the mercurial school • Pāṇini Darśana. the tradition the dharma.. the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of Sphoṭa)[8] The systems mentioned here are not the only orthodox systems. and Mimamsa-Vedanta. during the period around 550 BC. and the long defunct and Ajivika on one hand. with emphasis on Vedic ritual. the enumeration school is present day Bihar in northern India. the theistic Sankhya school Both streams are known to have mutually influenced each • Pratyabhijña. human beings who have rediscovered • Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa). tural revolution all over the world. accept the authority of Vedas and are regarded as "orthodox" (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy. Jainism. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa and wrote in a letter printed in Bombay Samachar. Jains follow the teachings of 24 special Jinas who are known as Tirthankars ('ford• Vedanta (also called Uttara Mimamsa). Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta. in which the Vedic dominance was challenged by various groups like Jainism and Budserts the metaphysics of Samkhya) dhism. the atomist school Sanskrit for 'victor'). in a period of culphilosophy. is noteworthy as evidence of a mental behaviour. and path for the benefit of beings.[20] Because Jains believe that everything materialistic movement within Hinduism. INDIAN PHILOSOPHY 15.an ideological renaissance. Visishtadvaita (monism of the qualified whole). the school of Patanjali (which provisionally as. represented by Buddhism. During the Vedantic age. India. and Achintya Bheda Abheda schools. This period marked • Yoga.2.. • Saiva. spiritual 'victors’ (Jina is • Vaisheshika. Vaishnava and other movements on the other. lived during 872 school is further divided into six sub-schools: Advaita to 772 BC. besides these. the “Six Philosophies” (ṣad-darśana). Lord Parsvanatha Samkhya-Yoga.188 CHAPTER 15.[8] Chief among the latter category are Buddhism.[19] One of the main characteristics of Jain belief is the empha• Cārvāka is a materialistic and atheistic school sis on the immediate consequences of one’s physical and of thought and. The 24th and most recent Tirthankar. During this period. But the credit for the disappearance of this terrible massacre from the Brahminical religion goes to Jainism. the following of the aforementioned theistic philosophies India had two broad philosophical streams of thought: The based on the Agamas and Tantras:[2] Shramana philosophical schools. Lord Upanishadic tradition. in the region that • Samkhya.[13][14] Jaina tradition is unanimous in making (monism/nondualism). They were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Modern Indian philosophers 15. Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis.[23] They believed that. the Buddha. such as belief in karma. Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan. and this critique is inextricable from the founding of Bud. Cārvāka deemed Vedas to be tainted by the three faults of untruth.[25] could not be ascertained.2. the condition of right Knowledge and the kernel of right Conduct in JainMain article: Cārvāka ism. founded in the Mauryan period. The philosophers in this era gave contemporary meaning to traditional philosophy. Therefore. or cause and effect or from the establishment of identity. Cārvāka held the view that Invariable Concomitance (vyapti). They used quotes from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad to support this claim.3. and that all others would only know a part of the answer. vratae) which is considered vital for one’s spiritual development.[21] one’s business in the world.2. Kireet Joshi. as the individual acting and the one receiving the consequences would be different. a theory of Indian logic which refers to the relation between middle term and major term freed from all Main articles: Buddhist philosophy and Buddhism conditions. Swami Dayananda Saraswati. A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent. Jain thinkers rejected this view. Subhas Chandra Bose. the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the “reasoning of fools”. Buddhism has had a strong philosophical component.3 Modern philosophy and non-being as misleading views caused by reification.15. . a condition of omniscience (Kevala Jnana). Non. Mahatma Gandhi. M. and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism. However. Keshub Chandra Sen. self-existent soul (atman) in favour of anatta (non-Self) and anicca (impermanence).4 Cārvāka philosophy violence ( Ahimsa) is the basis of right View. Pandurang Shastri Athavale.15. From its inception. Some of them were Swami Vivekananda. they mocked the concept of liberation. The goal. and that no single point of view is completely true. Sri Aurobindo.[24] Cārvāka denied inference as a means of knowledge[24] and held sensory indulgence as the final objective of life.[26] “awakened one”. The Buddha criticised all concepts of metaphysical being 15. Roy. G. and has had a very strong influence on Hinduism. is moksha which in Jainism is realisation of the soul’s true nature. Jainism is a religious tradition in which all life is considered to be worthy of respect and Jain teaching emphasises this equality of all life advocating the non-harming of even the smallest creatures. a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. the conviction in individuals that the doer is also the reaper of consequences establishes the existence Modern Indian philosophy was developed during British occupation (1750–1947). Acharya Rajneesh (Osho) and Krishnananda are other prominent names in contemporary Indian philosophy. Buddhism is founded on elements of the shramana movement which flowered around 500 BCE. opining that if no continuing soul could be accepted then even the effort to attain any worldly objective would be useless. N. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. those who have infinite knowledge. MODERN PHILOSOPHY 189 a soul. Anekantavada is one of the principles of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view. and tautology. Swami Sahajanand Saraswati.3 Buddhist philosophy Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems. Krishnamurti. Raja Ram Mohan Roy.[22] And in contrast to Buddhists and Jains. can know the true answer. reincarnation and accumulation of merit or demerit through the performance of certain actions.[22] Cārvāka thought consciousness was an emanation from the body and it ended with the destruction of the body. self-contradiction. Cārvāka or Lokāyata was a philosophy of scepticism and materialism. Buddhists refuted this view by proposing that Invariable ConBuddhist philosophy is a system of thought which started comitance was easily cognizable from the relation between with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama.Further information: Timeline of Eastern philosophers § dhism. Ananda Coomaraswamy. Indra Sen. Jainism encourages spiritual independence (in the sense of relying on and cultivating one’s own personal wisdom) and self-control (व्रत. U. great care and awareness is required in going about of a continuing soul. as with other Indian religions. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. . T. Essentially. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times. Jaini.[14] Mehta. moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology. Bhagvata Gita. A. Bhadrabahu Samhita. Bombay 1951. p.[32][33] 15. Retrieved 2008-03-11. 411-412. 59-60. Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi. The political philosophy most closely associated with India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha. Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo: History of Jaina Monachism. Harper Collins. vol. 15. Majumdar/A. 264. which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas. p. and to a lesser [12] Singh.6 See also • Advaita • Affectionism • Indian logic • Indian religions • M Hiriyanna • Svayam bhagavan 15. 1993. therefore governhim”.12.[8] Chatterjee and Datta. p. p. in: The Cambridge History of India. then he with translation ) Arrah. Schopenhauer writes that one who “has also received and [15] J. p. The Principal Upanisads. p.. Henry David Thoreau and John Ruskin.. Cambridge 1922. as well [10] Nicholson 2010. 153. Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapilosophy to improve upon Kantian thought. karmic doctrine and atheism” [17] Y. World Wisdom. (1996) pp. vedic deities or caste. Central jaina publishing House) " is the best of all prepared to hear what I have to say to As to Jainas being Hindu dissenters. 169 “Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha. we are not told this date of secession [. It was influenced by the Indian Dharmic philosophy. the later movements for independence and civil rights. attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya.” P. in: The Age of Imperial Unity.] ment Transcendentalism was also influenced by Indian Jainism certainly has a longer history than is consistent with its being a creed of dissenters from Hinduism. (Text assimilated the sacred primitive Indian wisdom. as secular writings of authors such as Leo Tolstoy. larised by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for [9] Michaels. 231–232. [5] See McEvilley (2002) [6] Flood. p. Ghatage: Jainism.U (1993).7 References [1] Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. T S Eliot wrote that the great philosophers of India “make most of the great European philosophers look like schoolboys”. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy'249. 45. xii. Faridabad.[28] ligion. In appreciation of complexity of the Indian philosophy. (1979). Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions. 47. soul theory.5 Influence [13] Jarl Charpentier: The History of the Jains.[31] The 19th century American philosophical moveable by Hindu law. 259 [2] Cowell and Gough. Pusalkar. [16] P.D. Jaina Perspective in Philosophy and Reextent Nelson Mandela. “Path of Arhat – A Religious Democracy” 63. ISBN 81-208-0815-0 “There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices.M. p. In the preftha. popu. CHAPTER 15. Page 141 . R. the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins”. L. Delhi. Ramjee Dr. Jaini. 5. cit. ace to his book The World As Will And Representation. Motilal Banarsidass.[29][30] Arthur Schopenhauer used Indian phi.” Page 18 [18] Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West. and. Inc ISBN 1933316-22-5 “What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as sramana dharma.S.4 Political philosophy The Arthashastra. is one of the early Indian texts devoted to political philosophy. independence.12-13 thought. Moore. p.190 15.C. INDIAN PHILOSOPHY [3] p 22. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy. 1. op. ed. the Jain and Buddhist traditions.[27] In turn it influenced [11] Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. [7] Flood. particularly the Buddha. p. Jr. Poona 1956. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. (1916) Jaina Law. 1994 [4] Chatterjee and Datta. especially those led by Martin Luther King. the sramana tradition included it its fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions. The Jaina Path to Purification. Muirhead library of philosophy (2nd edition ed. Retrieved 2012-08-13. London: London Philosophy Study Guide — Indian Philosophy • Articles at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy • Indian Psychology Institute The application of Indian Philosophy to contemporary issues in Psychology • A History of Indian Philosophy by Surendranath Dasgupta (5 Volumes) at archive. Satischandra. B. 15.8 Sources • Nicholson. James D. Ten theories of human nature. Arati (2008). 3 [25] Satis Chandra Vidyābhūṣaṇa. • Jain. 1) | (vol. (1961). • Cowell. [29] Jeffry M. Thomas (2004). Taylor & Francis. Life Force. ISBN 81-7120-825-8 Page 15 [20] Tobias. p. 2) | (vol. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.2011 [33] Werner. 24 Oct. ISBN 978-0-415-24517-3. ISBN 81-208-0565-8.). ISBN 978-81-208-1609-1.. 140. ISBN 0-69108953-1. Ramkrishna. Princeton. p. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. [30] Eliot. The SarvaDarsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy: Trubner’s Oriental Series. Thus Spake Lord Mahavir. (2010). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Vaman Shivram (1965). Indian Philosophy Indian Philosophy. • Michaels. 4) | (vol. Essentials of Indian Philosophy. ISBN 978-81-7211-243-1. ISBN 0-89581-899-X. Eliot’s Indic Studies”. Materialism in India: A Synoptic View. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint Edition ed. p. S. Mediaeval. 170. (1995). 4 [23] Bhattacharya. • Radhakrishnan. Hart ed. 191 • Chatterjee. 40. iii [28] Weber. Retrieved 27 July 2012. [32] “Transcendentalism”. 15. Tuck (1985). Leslie (2004). Berkeley. 1995. 4th edition.org . Moore. E.). P. A. Michael (1991). Axel (2004).. New York: Schocken Books.10 External links • A History of Indian Philosophy | HTML ebook (vol.15. and Modern Schools. p. p. • Flood. • Radhakrishnan. The World of Jainism. Thomas Stearns (1933). Perl and Andrew P. p. Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai. Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math. Andrew J. [26] Cowell and Gough. An Introduction to Hinduism. Dhirendramohan (1984). Karel (1998).The Oxford Companion to American Literature. ISBN 978-1-13945657-9. 3) | (vol. New York: Princeton University Press. 36 [22] Cowell and Gough. “The Hidden Advantage of Tradition: On the Significance of T. p. Yoga And Indian Philosophy. The Practical SanskritEnglish Dictionary (Fourth Revised and Enlarged Edition ed. • Hiriyanna. Columbia University Press 15.9 Further reading • Apte. S.org • Indian Idealism by Surendranath Dasgupta at archive. Motilal Banarsidas. Gough. Philosophy East & West (University of Hawaii Press) 35.K. pp. Motilal Banarsidass. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. California: Asian manush Press. CA (1967). • Stevenson. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Schopenhauer and Indian Philosophy: A Dialogue Between India and Germany. ISBN 81-7120825-8. ISBN 0-691-019584. Northern Book Centre. Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History. 136. Oxford Reference Online. Datta. After Strange Gods: A Primer of Modern Heresy. Dulichand (1998). Web. [21] Cowell and Gough. 15. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. A History of Indian Logic: Ancient.Oxford University Press. Oxford University Press. Hinduism: Past and Present. p. 12-13 [27] Gandhi (1961) p. Gavin (1996). 6–7. M. EXTERNAL LINKS [19] Dulichand Jain (1998) Thus Spake Lord Mahavir.). S (1929). • Gandhi.10. ISBN 0521-43878-0. 3. Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor. E. Non-Violent Resistance (Satyagraha). 5) • A recommended reading guide from the philosophy department of University College. (London: Faber). M. Volume 1. [31] Barua. [24] Cowell and Gough. Cambridge University Press. (2001). ISBN 978-81-208-1304-5. Hiriyanna at archive.192 CHAPTER 15. Mysore Hiriyanna at archive. INDIAN PHILOSOPHY • The Essentials of Indian Philosophy by Prof.org Mysore • Indian Philosophy by Dr.org • Indian Schools of Philosophy and Theology (Jiva Institute) . Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes) at archive.org • Outlines of Indian Philosophy by Prof.org • History of Philosophy – Eastern and Western Edited by Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (2 Volumes) at archive. ”[2] Inserted[2] in this appeal to kshatriya dharma (chivalry)[3] is “a dialogue [. The setting of the Gita in a battlefield has been interpreted as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of the human life.[5][6][7] theistic bhakti. The Bhagavad Gita (Sanskrit: भगवद्गीता.[4] The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis[5][6] of the Brahmanical concept of Dharma. see Gita (disambiguation)..1. Facing the duty as a warrior to fight the Dharma Yudhha or righteous war between Pandavas and Kauravas. “Gita” redirects here.1.1 Authorship The epic Mahabharata is traditionally ascribed to the Sage in IAST. being a part of the Mahab[1] Lord" ). The Bhagavad Gita 's call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the Indian independence movement including Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. is a 700-verse harata's Bhisma Parva. referred to as simply the Gita.[web 1][note 1] Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing views on the essentials.2 Date of composition Theories on the date of composition of the Gita vary considerably. and Dvaita sees them as different.[11] Hindu scripture in Sanskrit that is part of the Hindu epic Mahabharata.1 Composition and significance 16. and Raja Yoga (spoken of in the 6th chapter).Chapter 16 Bhagavad Gita For other uses. lit. [8] and Samkhya philosophy. Professor Jeaneane 193 .[9] whereas Bhedabheda and Vishishtadvaita see Atman and Brahman as both different and non-different. see Bhagavad Gita (disambiguation). Gandhi referred to the Gita as his “spiritual dictionary”. the Bhagavad Gita. For other uses. Arjuna is counselled by Krishna to “fulfill his Kshatriya 16.[10] Krishna and Arjuna at Kurukshetra. bhagavad-gītā (warrior) duty as a warrior and establishing Dharma. karma. is also ascribed to him. Scholars accept dates from fifth century to second century BCE as the probable range. Vedanta commentators read varying relations between Self and Brahman in the text: Advaita Vedanta sees the nondualism of Atman (soul) and Brahman as its essence. bhakti.[8][7] the yogic ideals[6] of moksha[6] through jnana. c. “Song of the Ved Vyasa.] between diverging attitudes concerning and methods toward the attainment of liberation (moksha)".. The Gita is set in a narrative framework of a dialogue between Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide and charioteer Krishna. pronounced [ˈbʱəɡəʋəd̪ ɡiːˈt̪aː]. 1830 painting 16. 3 Hindu synthesis and smriti See also: Smarta Tradition Due to its presence in the Mahabharata. BHAGAVAD GITA the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad (ca. or Greeks. or Parthians. and with foreign people (Yavanas. “Unlike the Vedas. so the earliest “surviving” components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest “external” references we have to the Mahabharata epic. its important contribution was the new emphasis placed on devotion. a period of consolidation in The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists. which has since remained a central path in Hinduism. or Scythians. Pahlavas. 320–467 CE) which he calls the “Hindu synthesis”.[14][8][6][web 1][7] According to Hiltebeitel. the popular theism expressed elsewhere in the Mahabharata and the transcendentalism of the Upanishads converge.[14] According to Deutsch and Dalvi.[14] The Bhagavad Gita is the sealing achievement of this Hindu synthesis.194 CHAPTER 16. In matters of religion. or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].[note 2] The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE-100 CE belong to the emerging “Hindu synthesis”. Acceptance of the Vedas became a central criterion for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies.1. It is estimated that the text probably reached something of a “final form” by the early Gupta period (about the 4th century CE). enlightenment-based renunciation.[11] 16. proclaiming the authority of the Vedas while integrating various Indian traditions and religions. In addition. a Gita scholar. the Bhagavad Gita attempts “to forge a harmony”[16] between different strands of Indian thought: jnana. and a God of personal characteristics is identified with the brahman of the Vedic tradition.[14][6][15] According to Alf Hiltebeitel. Ajivikas) throughout this whole period. incorporating various religious traditions.[12] Kashi Nath Upadhyaya.[5] Scheepers mentions the Bhagavat Gita as a Brahmanical text which uses the shramanic and Yogic terminology to spread the Brahmanic idea of living according to one’s duty or dharma. dharma and bhakti.[8] Deutsch and Dalvi note that the authors of the Bhagavad Gita “must have seen the appeal of the soteriologies both of the “heterodox” traditions of Buddhism and Jainism and of the more “orthodox” ones of Samkhya and Yoga”.[14] The so-called “Hindu synthesis” emerged during the early Classical period (200 BCE-300 CE) of Hinduism. The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved. the Gita was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style”. in contrast to the yogic ideal of liberation from the workings of karma.[web 1] Raju too sees the Bhagavad Gita as a synthesis: The Bhagavadgita may be treated as a great synthesis of the ideas of the impersonal spiritual . Sakas. The Bhagavadgita combines many different elements from Samkhya and Vedanta philosophy. considers second century BCE to be the likely date of composition. or “orthodox synthesis”. which may include an allusion in Panini’s fourth century BCE grammar. 500 BCE) and the period of the rise of the Guptas (ca. which have to be preserved letter-perfect. which rejected the Vedas. which incorporates bhakti into the Brahmanical fold. concludes that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in the fifth or fourth century BCE.[5] while the Brahmanic tradition emphasised “the significance of dharma as the instrument of goodness”. The Bhagavadgita thus gives a typology of the three dominant trends of Indian religion: dharma-based householder life.[6] According to Basham. and Kusanas. the Bhagavad Gita is classified as a Smriti text or “that which is remembered”. bhakti forms an essential ingredient of this synthesis. Brahma sutras. Jains. in her commentary on the Gita. on the basis of the estimated dates of Mahabharata.[13] It is generally agreed that.[14] It developed in interaction with other religions and peoples: Bronze chariot. and devotion-based theism. and other independent sources. depicting discourse of Krishna and Arjuna in Kurukshetra Fowler. “Brahmanic synthesis”. Realizing that his enemies are his own relatives.2.2. Advaita Vedanta sees the non-dualism of Atman and Brahman as its essence. of the yoga of action with the yoga of transcendence of action. and revered teachers. and consider it to be a Śruti or “revealed text”. due to the NeoVedanta of Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan. recorded in the Mahabharata. which are only to be read and heard by the higher castes.3 Overview of chapters pretation of Hinduism. fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. Some branches of Hinduism give it the status of an Upanishad.1 Narrative there is evidence to show that old manuscripts had 745 In the epic Mahabharata. and Shankara. and Dvaita sees them as different.[29] Because of differences in recensions.[17] and the Isvara Gita as borrowing entire verses from the Krishna-oriented Bhagavad Gita and placing them into a new Shiva-oriented context. in contrast to the sruti. are poetic in nature. and its main commentary the Brahman Sutras.and metaphors. which also includes the Upanishads and Brahma sutras.[web 3] According to the recension of the Gita commented on by Adi Shankara. that its synthesis was adapted to and incorporated into specific Indian traditions.[27] Although early Vedanta gives an interpretation of the sruti 16. the verses of the Gita may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters 6. God Incarnate Lord Shri Krishna. “since the Bhagavad Gita represents Gita comprises 18 chapters (section 25 to a summary of the Upanishadic teachings. and • Sanjaya.2. composed with similes Kuru king Dhritarashtra—returns from the battlefield to an. it is sometimes Bhagavad [28][web 2] in the Bhishma Parva of the epic Mahabharata 42) [25] called 'the Upanishad of the Upanishads’.[4] • Dhritarashtra. where the Pandava prince Arjuna is filled with doubt on the battlefield. In recent times the Advaita interpretation has gained worldwide popularity. he begins recounting the de.4 Status The Bhagavad Gita is part of the Prasthanatrayi. and these again with yogas of devotion and knowledge. The verses mostly emnounce the death of Bhisma. for advice. one of the Pandavas that it could not be neglected. Nicholson mentions the Shiva Gita as an adaptation of the Vishnu-oriented Bhagavat Gita into Shivaoriented terminology.[26] The Gita begins before the start of the climactic Kurukshetra War. Responding to Arjuna’s confusion and moral dilemma. but 16.[9] whereas Bhedabheda and Vishishtadvaita see Atman and Brahman as both different and non-different.[22] A manuscript illustration of the battle of Kurukshetra.[19][20][21] which interprets these texts to give a unified meaning. The Bhagavad Gita is different from the Upanishads in format and content.[4] It is referred to in the • Lord Shri Krishna. elaborating on a variety of philosophical concepts.2 Content ters 6. Bhaskara and Ramanuja [4] was actually incarnation of God all three wrote commentaries on it. after Sanjaya—counsellor of the verses. Kuru king.1. a branch of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.16. he turns to his charioteer and guide.” and consists of 700 verses.[18] 16. These are the key texts for the Vedanta.[7] The influence of the Bhagavad Gita was such. the number of verses is 700. counsellor of the Kuru king Dhritarashtra accessible to all.25–42 or as chap16.[23][24] According to Pandit. CONTENT 195 monism with personalistic monotheism.23–40. while the Achintya Bheda Abheda interpretation has gained worldwide popularity via the Hare Krishnas. Bhagavad Gita forms the content of this recollection. beloved friends.2 Characters texts of the Upanishads.[30] The verses themselves. the popularity of the Bhagavad Gita was such • Arjuna.2.16. Arjuna’s charioteer and guru who Brahman Sutras.ploy the range and style of the Sanskrit Anustubh meter . tails of the Mahabharata war. Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince. who gives a modern-orthodox inter. a prominent philosopher of the Vedanta school. Gyaana–Karma-Sanyasa yoga (The Religion of Knowledge[33] contains 42 verses): Krishna reveals that he has lived through many births. Importance of the last thought before death. differences between material and spiritual worlds. However. always teaching yoga for the protection of the pious and the destruction of the impious and stresses the importance of accepting a guru. characterise the relationship of the Gītā to the Upanishads. i. Buddhi yoga and the immortal nature of the soul. Karma yoga (Virtue in Work[33] contains 43 verses): Krishna explains how Karma yoga. Karma yoga.[web 12] . Dhyan yoga or Atmasanyam yoga (Religion by SelfRestraint [33] contains 47 verses): Krishna describes the Ashtanga yoga. figures. Gita Dhyanam: (contains 9 verses) The Gita Dhyanam is not a part of the main Bhagavad Gita. Sankhya yoga.[31] The Sanskrit editions of the Gita name each chapter as a particular form of yoga.[web 10] 7. “trains the body and the mind”. He labels the first chapter “Arjuna Vishada Yogam” or the “Yoga of Arjuna’s Dejection”. Gyaana–ViGyaana yoga (Religion by Discernment [33] contains 30 verses): Krishna describes the absolute reality and its illusory energy Maya. Arjuna is instructed into various subjects such as. is the appropriate course of action for Arjuna. Aksara–Brahma yoga (Religion by Devotion to the One Supreme God[33] contains 28 verses): This chapter contains eschatology of the Bhagavad Gita.[web 8] 5. The verses of the Gita Dhyanam (also called Gītā Dhyāna or Dhyāna Ślokas) offer salutations to a variety of sacred scrip- 6. and affirm the power of divine assistance. but it is commonly published with the Gītā as a prefix.[web 3] Swami Chidbhavananda explains that each of the eighteen chapters is designated as a separate yoga because each chapter. but without attachment to results.[web 4][35] 1. Arjuna–Visada yoga (The Distress of Arjuna[33] contains 46 verses): Arjuna has requested Krishna to move his chariot between the two armies.e. His growing dejection is described as he fears losing friends and relatives as a consequence of war.[web 7] 4. performance of prescribed duties. He further elucidates the difficulties of the mind and the techniques by which mastery of the mind might be gained. Sankhya yoga (The Book of Doctrines[33] contains 72 verses): After asking Krishna for help. these chapter titles do not appear in the Sanskrit text of the Mahabharata.[36] Krishna answers that both are ways to the same goal.[web 5] 2. This chapter is often considered the summary of the entire Bhagavad Gita. Karma–Sanyasa yoga (Religion by Renouncing Fruits of Works[33] contains 29 verses): Arjuna asks Krishna if it is better to forgo action or to act (“renunciation or discipline of action”). and in a few expressive verses the Tristubh meter is used.[32] Sir Edwin Arnold translates this chapter as “The Distress of Arjuna”[33] tures. and entities.[34] It is a common practice to recite these before reading the Gita. Gyaana yoga. BHAGAVAD GITA (chhandas). and light and dark paths that a soul takes after death are described. Krishna displays his Vishvarupa (Universal Form) to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra (chapter 11).[web 9] but that acting in Karma yoga is superior.196 CHAPTER 16.[web 6] 3. like yoga.[web 11] 8. chapter 11 11. verses of this chapter of the Gita are panentheistic.[38] 10. He also explains different forms of spiritual disciplines. and discern between right and wrong action by discernment through Buddhi and evidence from the scriptures. Krishna asks Arjuna to abandon all forms of dharma and simply surrender unto him and describes this as the ultimate perfection of life.1 Dharma verses): In this chapter Krishna glorifies the path of devotion to God. described in Visvarupa–Darsana yoga. the conclusions of previous seventeen chapters are summed up. Daivasura–Sampad–Vibhaga yoga (The Separateness of the Divine and Undivine[33] contains 24 verses): Krishna identifies the human traits of the divine and the demonic natures. omnipotence. omniscience. and destroys the entire universe.e.[web 15] a theophany of a being facing every way and emitting the radiance of a thousand suns. preserves. Moksha–Sanyasa yoga (Religion by Deliverance and Renunciation[33] contains 78 verses): In this chapter. 16.[web 19] Krishna also describes a symbolic tree (representing material existence). Krishna displays his “universal form” (Viśvarūpa). Krishna explains that this tree should be felled with the “axe of detachment”. He counsels that to attain the supreme destination one must give up lust. which has its roots in the heavens and its foliage on earth. re13. difference between transient perishable physical body particular man (Arjuna) as a member of a particular varna. Gunatraya–Vibhaga yoga (Religion by Separation from the Qualities[33] contains 27 verses): Krishna explains the three modes (gunas) of material nature pertaining to goodness.3. characteristics. Vibhuti–Vistara–yoga (Religion by the Heavenly Perfections[33] contains 42 verses): Krishna is described as the ultimate cause of all material and spiritual existence. sponding to Arjuna’s despondency.[web 21] Krishna displays his Vishvarupa (Universal Form) to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra.[web 20] 17.mentally. Bhakti yoga (The Religion of Faith[33] contains 20 16. Sraddhatraya-Vibhaga yoga (Religion by the Threefold Kinds of Faith[33] contains 28 verses): Krishna qualifies the three divisions of faith. it means “what is right”. Purusottama yoga (Religion by Attaining the Supreme[33] contains 20 verses): Krishna identifies the transcendental characteristics of God such as.[web 18] 15.[37] while German physicist and philosopher Max Bernhard Weinstein deems the work pandeistic.Main article: Dharma votional service (Bhakti yoga). greed. Arjuna accepts Krishna as the Supreme Being. creates.3 Themes 12. the ksatriya). 18. and nescience. thoughts. THEMES 9. Their causes. anger.. passion. containing all other beings and material in existence. The dif[40] (i. and the immutable eternal soul is described. deeds. Krishna describes the process of de.16. Ksetra–Ksetrajna Vibhaga yoga (Religion by Sepa. and influence on a living entity are also described. and even eating habits corresponding to the three modes (gunas). quoting great sages who have also done so.[web 22] 16. Visvarupa–Darsana yoga (The Manifesting of the One and Manifold[33] contains 55 verses): On Arjuna’s request.” ference between individual consciousness and universal consciousness is also made clear.[web 16] The term dharma has a number of meanings.[web 17] According to Vivekananda: . after which one can go beyond to his supreme abode.3. and omnipresence. Raja–Vidya–Raja–Guhya yoga (Religion by the Kingly Knowledge and the Kingly Mystery[33] contains 34 verses): Krishna explains how His eternal energy pervades.[web 14] 197 14. Krishna asks him to folration of Matter and Spirit [33] contains 35 verses): The [40][note 3] “the dharma that belongs to a low his swadharma.[web 13] According to theologian Christopher Southgate.[39] Funda[39] Early in the text. cf. “energy. the ideals of honor and courage in battle. Shake off this base faintheartedness and arise. 13. the loss of their status and honour. Kṛṣṇa. not to speak of the shame of having a weak man in the house. whether husband. that is.”[41] क्लैब्यं मा स्म गमः पाथर् नैत वय्युपपद्यते । क्षुद्रं हऋदयदौबर् ल्यं त्यक्त्वो त्तष्ठ परंतप॥ klaibhyaṁ mā sma gamaḥ pārtha naitattvayyupapadyate. for in this one Shloka lies imbedded the whole Message of the Gita. a philosophical and theistic treatise.[2] as the dharma. “Arjuna’s crisis and some of the arguments put forward to call him to action are connected to the debates on war and peace in the UdP [Udyoga Parva]". They bare shown most unforgiving with regard to the humiliations they have gone through.6. son or brother.15). to stop hesitating and fulfill his Kṣatriya (warrior) duty as a warrior and kill.[3][note 5] Michaels defines heroism as “power assimilated with interest in salvation”. dedication and self-sacrifice”. O scorcher of enemies! (2.”[2] According to Malinar. inserted in the sixth book (Bhismaparvan). renunciation of the world. the fifth book of the Mahabharata: This duty consists first of all in standing one’s ground and fighting for status. which values heroism. the epic has an outstanding significance for Hindu heroism. Arjuna is “exhorted by his charioteer. A warrior must resist any impulse to self-preservation that would make him avoid a fight. In brief. Some of the most vigorous formulations of what called the “heart” or the “essence” of heroism (ksatrahrdaya) come from the ladies of the family.198 CHAPTER 16. the UdP emphasizes that one must put up with fate and.157. and probably completed in the second century A.[44][note 4] Malinar gives a description of the dharma of a Ksatriya (warrior) based on the Udyogaparvan. one gets all the merits of reading the entire Gita. with which the Pandava is exhorted by his charioteer. The heroism of the Pandavas.[42][2][43] Axel Michaels in his book Hin- Even though the frame story of the Mahabharata is rather simple.[2] According to Malinar.D. kṣudraṁ hṛdayadaurbhalyaṁ tyaktvottiṣṭha paraṁtapa. are constant sources of treatises in which it is not sacrifice. The Bhagavad Gita. or erudition that is valued. a central point in the dispute between the two parties in the Mahabharata is the question how to define “the law of heroism”.. the BhG personalises the surrender one’s personal interests to the power of destiny by “propagating the view that accepting and enacting the fatal course of events is an act of devotion to this god [Krsna] and his cause. among others. Krishna. a 19th-century manuscript If one reads this one Shloka. to stop hesitating and fulfill his Kṣatriya (warrior) duty as a warrior and kill. It does not become you. is such a text. The main duty of a warrior is never to submit to anybody.3) Dharma and heroism The Bhagavad Gita is set in the narrative frame of the Mahabharata. dedication and self-sacrifice. but energy.[46] According to Malinar. “holy duty”[42] of the Ksatriya (warrior). Do not yield to unmanliness. among others.[45] According to Michaels: Bhagavad Gita. O son of Prithā. 5.”[46] . he ought to be a man (puruso bhava. BHAGAVAD GITA duism: Past and Present writes that in the Bhagavad Gita. swadeshi was "swadharma applied to one’s immediate environment.[54] and that “The language of battle is often found in the scriptures.[39] “The Field of Dharma” is also called the “Field of action” by Sri Aurobindo. for it conveys the strenuous.[note 6][47] This chapter uses the gunas of Shankya philosophy to present a series of typologies.[39] According to Fowler. “what Hindus un. in his commentary on the Gita. away from the social order and its duties toward one’s personal capacities.”[55] Allegory of war Unlike any other religious scripture. 'Field of action' implies the field of righteousness. Krishna as an allegory of Brahman. which is a “battleground for moral struggle”. drawn-out campaign we must wage to free ourselves from the tyranny of the ego.[57] .[49] He recognized in the concept of swadharma his idea of swadeshi. the idea that “man owes his service above all to those who are nearest to him by birth and situation. the cause of all our suffering and sorrow.[48] “finding the fulfillment of the purpose of existence in the individual alone. saw the “The Field of Dharma” as the world (Bhavsagar). dharma in this verse may refer to the sanatana dharma. Arjuna’s chariot as the body. a freedom fighter and philosopher.[39] Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan.16.3. “The Field of Righteousness or Truth”. THEMES 199 Modern interpretations of dharma Svadharma and svabhava The eighteenth chapter of the Gita examines the relationship between svadharma and svabhava.Illustration of the battle of Kurukshetra.[56] interprets the battle as “an allegory in which the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna. where Dhritarashtra refers to the Kurukshetra.[53] Swami Nikhilananda.”[49] To him. where truth will eventually triumph.[48] that the individual should “develop freely”[48] and thereby would be best able to serve society.”[47] Aurobindo modernizes the concept of dharma and svabhava by internalizing it. for it is a term that encompasses Krishna as the charioteer. the struggle for self-mastery that every human being must wage if he or she is to emerge from life victorious”. takes Arjuna as an allegory of Ātman. man’s higher impulses struggling against evil”. which are distinguished by the "gunas proceeding from their nature. and Dhritarashtra as the ignorance filled mind. the location of the battlefield. readily used for ""religion”.”[50] The Field of Dharma The first reference to dharma in the Bhagavad Gita occurs in its first verse. is battling the Kauravas as the gods look wide aspects of religious and traditional thought and is more down. Arjuna (far right). gift. as the Field of Dharma. and uses the same term to characterise the specific activities of the four varnas. with derstand as their religion. the Bhagavad Gita broadcasts its message in the centre of the battlefield. a philosopher and the second president of India.[51] Eknath Easwaran writes that the Gita 's subject is “the war within.[39] Therefore. and capacities”.[48] Gandhi’s view differed from Aurobindo’s view.[web 25] Several modern Indian writers have interpreted the battlefield setting as an allegory of “the war within”.[note 7] Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. which leads to a radical individualism.”[48] He deduced from the Gita the doctrine that “the functions of a man ought to be determined by his natural turn. long.[52] The choice of such an unholy ambience for the delivery of a philosophical discourse has been an enigma to many commentators. Zaehner says that the root meaning of yoga is “yoking” or “preparation".2 Moksha: Liberation Main article: Moksha Liberation or moksha in Vedanta philosophy is not something that can be acquired or reached.. this action is to be undertaken without any attachment to the work or desire for results. “In the model presented by the within man between the tendencies of good and [59] Bhagavad Gītā. by which Krishna leads “Arjuna up the ladder of Yoga from one rung to another. the means to the final goal • Chapters 7–12 = Bhakti yoga or devotion • Chapters 13–18 = Gyaana yoga or knowledge.[61] However. he proposes the basic meaning “spiritual exercise”. performed without desire and attachment. that the setting of the doctrine though not symbolical.3 Yoga Yoga in the Bhagavad Gita refers to the skill of union with the ultimate reality or the Absolute. While the Upanishads largely uphold such a monistic viewpoint of liberation. the goal of moksha. salvation.200 CHAPTER 16. given as a prescription for Arjuna’s despondence.[64] Winthrop means the war which is constantly going on Sargeant further explains.. feeling.[66] In his commentary. the goal itself Karma yoga Main article: Karma yoga As noted by various commentators. BHAGAVAD GITA Swami Vivekananda also emphasised that the first discourse accommodates the dualistic and theistic aspects of mokin the Gita related to the war could be taken allegorically. devotion. However. The Gita. Brahman as the goal. while occasionally hinting at impersonal Vivekananda further remarked. A synthesis of knowledge. and acting in our everyday life and draw from ourselves a larger gush of productivity to enrich the life around us.[71] Lord Krishna. it combination is suggested as a way to moksha.18)". Ātman (Soul). which in turn leads to Gyaana yoga:[69][70] • Chapters 1–6 = Karma yoga. But there is this much of truth in the view.[67] Sivananda’s commentary regards the eighteen chapters of the Bhagavad Gita as having a progressive order. is certainly typical. we find a practical handbook of instruction on how best we can reorganise our inner ways of thinking. The path of Karma yoga upholds the necessity of action.3. and can be revealed by deep intuitive knowledge. Swami Gambhirananda characterises Madhusudana Sarasvati’s system as a successive approach in which Karma yoga leads to Bhakti yoga. the Bhagavad Gita offers a practical approach to liberation in the form of Karma yoga.That is a view which the general character and the actual language of the epic does not justify and. the same When we sum up its esoteric significance. elaborates on the role actions. every aspect of life is in fact a way of evil.[60] while Arjuna typifies a “struggling human soul”. The concept of such detached action is also called Nishkam Karma. if pressed. in the following verses. is “an allegory of the inner life.”[68] The influential commentator Madhusudana Sarasvati divided the Gita 's eighteen chapters into three sections of six chapters each. play in attaining freedom from material bondage and transmigration: . and it will not do to go behind this plain language and thought and wrest them to the service of our fancy. Aurobindo rejected the interpretation that the Gita..”[65] In Aurobindo's view.the Gita is written in plain terms and professes to solve the great ethical and spiritual difficulties which the life of man raises.. would turn the straightforward philosophical language of the Gita into a constant. and has nothing to do with our outward human life and actions":[61] . laborious and somewhat puerile mystification. but his significance in the Gita is as a “symbol of the divine dealings with humanity”. Bhagavad Gita terms this “inaction in action and action in inaction (4.[58] sha. revolves around the relationship between the Self and a personal God or Saguna Brahman. and to emblazon the subjective life within us. and the Mahabharata by extension. and desireless action is This Kurukshetra War is only an allegory.[63] 16. a term not used in the Gita. Krishna was a historical figure.3. is something that is always present as the essence of the self. which conveys the various nuances in the best way. the Bhagavad Gita also 16.[62] Swami Chinmayananda writes: Here in the Bhagavad Gita.. For those whose thoughts have entered into Me. meditation.. focusing on the latter as difference between the body and the knower of both the easiest and the highest path to salvation. (13. abandoning attachment. having abandoned the fruit of action. him.. I hold to be the most attuned (to me in Yoga). Sampatkumaran. a Bhagavad Gita scholar. Arjuna.11)[web 26] And of all yogins. he atCatherine Cornille writes. do thy work. explains in liberation from bondage in material nature. attachment to them is produced. attains steady peace. and worship are essential. O Winner of wealth (Arjuna). worship Me. “The to the supreme goal. from bewilderment loss of memory. you begin.55 is “the essence and the “substance of the whole teaching of the liberation. The following verses illustrate this:[74] Those who make me the supreme goal of all their work and act without selfish attachment. for evenness of mind is called yoga. Gita. ta-Gi'. the realisation of the identity of The introduction to chapter seven of the Bhagavad Gita ex. having abandoned attachment. I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration. the Yogis perform action toward self-purification. “The object of the Gita appears to me to be that of showing the most excellent way to attain self-realization”. with an even mind in success and failure. and direct experience of Brahman as the ultimate reality.6)[web 27] Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi writes.62Main article: Jnana yoga 3)[74] Jnana yoga is the path of wisdom.47-8)[72] point is that mere knowledge of the scriptures cannot lead to final release. with the intellect. and from loss of memJnana yoga ory. (6. action (karma).” In the following verses. i.3. Devotion.55)[81] anger. (2.[78] "'Gita.Ātman and Brahman is held as the key to liberation. Faith (Śraddhā) When a sensible man ceases to see different and total surrender to a chosen God (Ishta-deva) are conidentities due to different material bodies and he sidered to be important aspects of bhakti. (2. ta-Gi. and is therefore depicted Bhakti yoga as being steep and very difficult in the Bhagavad Gita. the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes. but then find yourself saying 'ta-Gi. THEMES 201 To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits. and this can be achieved by selfless action.”[76] M. your intellect on Me. by renouncing fruits of action. renouncing all actions in Me. by surrendering oneself to Him body and soul.[82] plains bhakti as a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God.16. it is important to control all mental desires and of bhakti” [80] Gita": tendencies to enjoy sense pleasures. He who is disciplined in Yoga.. Gita'.(11. he who full of faith worships Me.. From anger arises bewilderment. Krishna elucidates the importance of bhakti: With the body.e. “By desireless action. the body.”[77] Ramakrishna believed that the essential message of the Gita could be obtained by repeating the word Gita several times.47)[79] . neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction Fixed in yoga. with the mind. For the followers of this path. Keep your mind on Me alone. This path is often associated with the non-dualistic Vedantic beMain article: Bhakti yoga lief of the identity of the Ātman with the Brahman. Tagi means one who has renounced everything for God. even merely with the senses. When a man dwells in his mind on the object who devote themselves to me completely and of sense. and regarding Me as the Supreme.[73] To achieve true Radhakrishnan writes that the verse 11.” Gandhi called the Gita “The Gospel of Selfless Action”. and Those who see with eyes of knowledge the loving devotion to God (bhakti).[75] Theologian sees how beings are expanded everywhere. attain his overview of Ramanuja’s commentary on the Gita. (13. enter into attachment springs desire and from desire comes me. by dedicating all activities to God.35)[web 29] . with his inner self abiding in Me. “The text [of the Gita] offers a tains to the Brahman conception. those who.31)[web 28] survey of the different possible disciplines for attaining liberation through knowledge (Gyaana). and can also understand the process of R. Thus you shall dwell in Me hereafter. knowledge. From are free from ill will for any creature. let not the fruits of action be thy motive. The path renounces both desires and actions. (12. (5.. and their presentation in English depending yoga.[101] During his stay in Yeravda jail of 1891 BG translations in 75 languages.[89] Madhva. At a time when Indian nationalists were seeking an indigenous basis for social and political action.[95] tably Vedanta. by Raja Ravi Varma (1904).[97][98] Tilak wrote his commentary one essential point or the other.[93] the renowned philosopher Adi Shankara with Disciples. Jayatirtha.on the Gita in Marathi. the many souls. and that recension has been widely adopted by others. which accounts for the numerous comGandhi.[96] Among nationalists. Samkhya and Yoga. and matter and its divisions”.202 CHAPTER 16.[65] also known as Madhvacharya (Sanskrit: Madhvācārya). which exemplifies the thinking of the “dualist” school. in his book Dnyaneshwari. and other theistic ideas.1 Classical commentaries The oldest and most influential medieval commentary was that of Adi Shankara (788–820 A. Davis cites Callewaert & Hemraj’s 1982 count “spiritual dictionary”..[92] In the Shaiva tradition. a commentator of the Vedanta school.[100] No book was more central to Gandhi’s life and on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. Vallabha (1479 CE). pro.Abhinavagupta (10–11th century CE) has written a commentary on a slightly variant recension called pounding knowledge of absolute as of primary importance Gitartha-Samgraha. Other classical commentators include Nimbarka (1162 CE). wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.[86] Winthrop Sargeant quotes a dualistic assertion of the Madhva’s school that there is “an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme.[99] Different translators and commentators have widely differ. no. who used the text to help inspire the Indian inmentaries on it–each differing from the rest in dependence movement. and Raghavendra Tirtha.[84] .[88] Ramanujacharya’s commentary chiefly seeks to show that the discipline of devotion to God (Bhakti yoga) is the way of salvation. including 273 in in 1929. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 CE). The Gujarati manuscript was translated English. Vana16. It remains a popular text for commentators belonging to various philosophical schools. Bhagavad Gita provided them with a rationale for their activism and fight against injustice.[86][87] Shankara’s commentary was based on a recension of the Gita containing 700 verses.2 Independence movement ture also leads to varying interpretations of the text.While noting that the Gita teaches possible paths to libing views on what multi-layered Sanskrit words and pas. notable commen[The Gita] is one of the hardest books to intaries were written by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma terpret. his commentary places most emphasis on Karma sages signify. Raghavendra Tirtha. which he referred to as his Richard H. BHAGAVAD GITA 16.[83] Shrimadh Bhagvad Gita Rahasya while in jail during the period 1910–1911 serving a six-year sentence imposed by the British colonial government in India for sedition. thought than the Bhagavad Gita. Madhusudana Saraswati. Vidyadhiraja Tirtha. However.4.). D.[65] His commentary on the Gita is called Gita Bhāshya. its composite na. It has been annotated on by many ancient pontiffs of Dvaita Vedanta school like Padmanabha Tirtha.4 Commentaries and translations mali Mishra. In the words of Mysore Hiriyanna.[90] whose dates are given either as (1199–1276 CE)[91] or as (1238– 1317 CE).eration.[94] while Dnyaneshwar (1275–1296 CE) translated and commented Bhagavad Gita integrates various schools of thought.[101] Gandhi wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Gujarati.4.[85] also known as Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: Śaṅkarācārya).16. are based on a translation of the Gita called Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is by His Divine Grace A. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light. stating that “A complete listing of Gita translations and a related secondary bibliography would be nearly endless”.[115] Eknath Easwaran has also written a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. which lay in the reinterpretation of Bhagavad Gita for a new India. on tours undertaken to revive of moral and spiritual values of the Hindus. He has delivered many discourses on Gita and released the first Braille version of the scripture. called God Talks With Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita. such as his lectures on the four yogas – Bhakti. Gyaana. etc.. and Sadly Vasvani.[122]:514 He stated that “Overall. inner contentment. Sri Aurobindo . The first English translation of the Bhagavad Gita was done by Charles Wilkins in 1785. Vivekananda sought to energise the people of India to claim their own dormant but strong identity.. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.[102][103] Mahatma Gandhi expressed his love for the Gita in these words: I find a solace in the Bhagavadgītā that I miss even in the Sermon on the Mount.[108] Aurobindo saw Bhagavad Gita as a “scripture of the future religion” and suggested that Hinduism had acquired a much wider relevance through the Gita.4.[104][105] 16.[120][121] In 1981.[106] Through the message of the Gita. Vinoba Bhave. he borrowed the concept of Gyaana yajna.4. there is a massive translational tradi- .[109] Sivananda called Bhagavad Gita “the most precious jewel of Hindu literature” and suggested its introduction into the curriculum of Indian schools and colleges. Chinmayananda took a syncretistic approach to interpret the text of the Gita. COMMENTARIES AND TRANSLATIONS into English by Mahadev Desai.[113][114] Paramahansa Yogananda's two volume commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. It examines the applicability of the principles of Gita to the problems of modern life. Ithamar Theodor. and dynamic action. and Raja.3 Hindu revivalism 203 as a universal scripture to turn a person from a state of agitation and confusion to a state of complete vision. was released 1995. Karma.[110] In the lectures Chinmayananda gave.[117][118][119] 16. and another English one published by Barnes & Noble.5 Scholarly translations Three translations: Bhagavad Gita As It Is. Larson listed more than 40 English translations of the Gita.4.[107] Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay thought that the answer to the problems that beset Hindu society was a revival of Hinduism in its purity. It was published with a foreword by Gandhi in 1946. or the worship to invoke divine wisdom. no indelible scar on me.16. from the Gita. a Gaudiya Vaishnava religious organisation which spread rapidly in North America in the 1970s and 1980s. Teachings of International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).[111] He viewed the Gita Ramanandacharya delivering a discourse. I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavadgītā.[112] 16.4 Other modern commentaries Among notable modern commentators of the Bhagavad Gita are Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Chinmayananda.[116] Other notable commentators include Jeaneane Fowler. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies – and my life has been full of external tragedies – and if they have left no visible. Although Vivekananda did not write any commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.C. I go back to the Bhagavadgītā. his works contained numerous references to the Gita.4. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. who provided an additional introduction and commentary. a Gujarati translation by Gita Press. commented on the Gita: Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson.[web 33][web 34] The 1995 novel and 2000 golf movie The Legend of Bagger Vance are roughly based on the Bhagavad Gita. on 30 November 2007. In 1808. when disappointphilologically by the French and Germans. Raghava Iyengar translated the Gita in Tamil ter 11 of the Bhagavad Gita.[web 30] The former Turkish Upon witnessing the world’s first nuclear test in 1945.[123] The translation was praised by scholars as well as literary critics[124] and The Bhagavad-Gita deals essentially with the became one of most continually popular translations to spiritual foundation of human existence. mentary. Carl Jung. and having generated in our time a begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorbroadly based cross-cultural awareness of the importance row. the first Prime Minister of independent erature.204 CHAPTER 16. Iyer won the 1993 National Film Award for Best Film. Robert Oppenheimer.[web 31] In Douglas Cuomo’s Arjuna’s dilemma.[125] call of action to meet the obligations and duties The Gita has also been translated into other European lanof life.[130] Ralph Waldo Emerson.S. Robert Oppenheimer. Rudyard Kipling's famous poem "If—" is “the essence of the message of The Gita in English. Herman Hesse. It is a date. My life has been full of external tragedies of the Bhagavad Gita both as an expression of a specifically and if they have not left any visible or invisible Indian spirituality and as one of the great religious “classics” effect on me. the Bhagavad Gita gained a growing appreciation and popularity.[134] produced a translation in 1986 intended to emphasise the poem’s influence and current context within English Lit. pioneered by the British. not only by prominent Indians including Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. citing it later as one scripture. with the original Sanskrit text and a Hindi com.5.[127] 16. Henry David Thoreau.come Death.[131][132] Bulent Ecevit[133] and others. especially the works of T. verse 32 from chaphavidwan R.5 Contemporary popularity With the translation and study of the Bhagavad Gita by Western scholars beginning in the early 18th century.[73] who said: 16. solidly grounded When doubts haunt me.Jawaharlal Nehru.”[128] 16. and I see not one ray its indigenous roots by a rich heritage of modern Indian of hope on the horizon. The entire libretto of the opera consists of sayings from the Gita sung in the original Sanskrit. learned Sanskrit in 1933 and read Rambhadracharya released the first Braille version of the the Bhagavad Gita in the original form. passages from the Gita were part of the and grander purpose of the universe.6 See also • Ashtavakra Gita • Avadhuta Gita • The Ganesha Gita • Puranas . The Gita 's emphasis on selfless service was a prime source of inspiration for Gandhi. Bulent Ecevit translated several Sanskrit later said he had thought of the quotation “Now I am bescriptures including the Gita into Turkish language. Henry David India. BHAGAVAD GITA tion in English. directed by G.[137] Main article: Influence of Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita has been highly praised. I owe it to the teaching of the Bhaof all time. the destroyer of worlds”. extended into various disciplinary and find a verse to comfort me.[web 1] According to the well-known Indian historian and writer Khushwant Singh. J. American physicist and director of as the founder of Indian philology in Germany. the philosophical dilemma faced by Arjuna is dramatised in operatic form with a blend of Indian and Western music styles.of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Ma.”[122]:518 Sanskrit scholar Barbara Stoler Miller gavad Gita. Eliot.2 16. he Scholar-Politician.1 Appraisal Adaptations Philip Glass retold the story of Gandhi’s early development as an activist in South Africa through the text of the Gita in the opera Satyagraha (1979). and I immediately areas by Americans.[web 32] The 1993 Sanskrit film. yet keeping in view the spiritual nature guages.[135] first direct translation of Sanskrit into German. provided with ments stare me in the face.[130][136] in sandam metre poetic form.5. I turn to Bhagavad-Gita comment and reflection.[129] but also by Aldous Huxley.[126] Swami the Manhattan Project. V. appearing in a book through which Friedrich Schlegel became known J. Bhagavad Gita. p. The battle. [28] Bose 1986. 1 [25] Pandit 2005. Thomas B.”[web 23] [19] Nicholson 2010. 33 [1] Davis 2014. [35] Ranganathananda 2000. 15–25 [6] Scheepers 2000. 27 [30] Gambhiranda 1997. [16] Deutsch 2004.8 References [31] Egenes 2003. p. and that which you are responsible for (karma). It is acting in accordance with your skills and talents. “inherent constitution. NY: Dover Publications. p. [2] Śruti texts. on what authority. 59. p. pp. [37] Southgate 2005. [36] Miller 1986. Richard J. 2 “Arjuna represents the individual soul. p.” [15] Raju 1992. p. p.8. p. ISBN 0486277828 [4] Deutsch 2004. p. • Uddhava Gita [9] Deutsch & Dalvi 2004. Cole [23] Coburn.”[web 24] nature”. p. and his hundred sons are man’s numerous evil tendencies. p. xxii [27] Deutsch 2004. whereas Smritis are authored recollections of tradition and are therefore fallible. [18] Nicholson 2014.3. REFERENCES 205 • Self-consciousness (Vedanta) [8] Deutsch 2004. 27. Encyclopedia Britannica.). and Zen at War for a Japanese fusion of Buddhism with warfare-ethics. p.16. 97 • Vedas [10] “Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi”. 246 . p. p. [34] Chinmayananda 1998. who is supposed to protect and represent it?"[44] [5] Compare Chivalric code of western knights. 211. [6] “Character”. Journal of the American Academy of Religion 52 (3): 435–459. 62. • Vyadha Gita [11] Fowler 2012. 60. and Sri Krishna the Supreme Soul dwelling in every heart. The warrior who listens to the advice of the Lord speaking from within will triumph in this battle and attain the Highest Good. and how does the definition of kṣatriyadharma affect the position of the king. by Graham Dwyer. 4 [32] Chidbhavananda 1997. 16 [1] The Bhagavad Gita also integrates theism and transcendentalism[web 1] or spiritualmonism. “natural state or [7] Nikhilananda & Hocking 2006. 3 [5] Deutsch 2004. Bhagavadgita (Unabridged ed. 2. p. p.[web 1] [14] Hiltebeitel 2002. 71 [29] Coburn 1991. p. [33] translated by Sir Edwin Arnold (1993). doi:10. 7.[7] and identifies a God of personal characteristics with the Brahman of the Vedic tradition. [2] Michaels 2004. is between the power of good and the power of evil. The blind king Dhritarashtra is the mind under the spell of ignorance.7 Notes [13] Upadhyaya 1998. 37. 211-212. p. JSTOR 1464202 [24] Tapasyananda 1990. 61. p. 59-61. [4] Malinar: "[W]hat law must a warrior follow. [21] Schouler 2009. p. "'Scripture' in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life”. a perennial one.435. p. [3] Sri Sri Ravi Shankar: “Swadharma is that action which is in accordance with your nature. p. [20] Singh 2005. p. [22] “Hare Krishna in the Modern World” – Page 59. p. are believed to be revelations of divine origin. xvii 16. xxiv 16. p. p. such as the Upanishads. 59 [7] Raju 1992. [26] Fowler 2012. xxvi [12] Fowler 2012. [3] Malinar 2007. New York. p.1093/jaarel/52. p. (1984). 39. Arjuna’s chariot is the body. [17] Nicholson 2010. 61-62. your own nature (svabhava). 20–21 [92] Rao 2002. p. 55 [65] Sargeant 2009. 15–16 [88] Gambhiranda 1997. xlv–vii [94] Singh 2006. p. xix [55] Easwaran 2007. 264. p. 120 [73] Gandhi 2009. 70 . So sagt in der Bhagavad-Gîtâ Krishna-Wischnu. 268 [82] Fowler 2012. p. BHAGAVAD GITA [67] Zaehner 1969. The Bhagavad Gita (Second ed. 20–21 [62] Aurobindo 2000. 10–13 [93] For classification of Abhinavagupta’s commentary on the Gita as within the Shaiva tradition see: Flood 1996. p. CHAPTER 16. pp. 211. Welt. xli [51] Fowler 2012. xliii–iv [72] Radhakrishnan 1993. xx [59] Vivekananda.” [39] Fowler 2012. xix [61] Aurobindo 2000. pp. p. p. xvii [69] Gambhiranda 1997. Hervorgegangen aus Religion. p. 125–126 [75] Fowler 2012. p. “Lectures and Discourses ~ Thoughts on the Gita”. pp. p. [47] Hacker & Halbfass 1995. p. pp. 54–55 [52] Krishnananda 1980. 3 [56] see Gandhi 2009 [87] For Shankara’s commentary falling within the Vedanta school of tradition. 12–13 [84] Davis 2014. “Sayings and Utterances”. 36. p. p. Swami. daß die Indier auch den Pandeismus gelehrt haben. 10 [96] Robinson 2006. p. 15 [85] Dating for Shankara as 788–820 CE is from: Sargeant 2009.). 261. 16 [71] Fowler 2012. p. 202. Swami. verse 6. 2. p. [81] Easwaran. 24 [86] Zaehner 1969. 36–39. Eknath (2008). [41] Vivekananda. 124 [57] Fischer 2010. p. [43] Malinar 2007. p. p. 124 [64] Fowler 2012. p. [42] Miller 2004. 278. ISBN 978-1-58638-019-9. p. xxiii [78] Isherwood 1965. p. 15–16 [91] Dating of 1199–1276 CE for Madhva is from: Gambhiranda 1997. [54] Easwaran 2007. xx [70] Gambhiranda 1998. pp.206 [38] Max Bernhard Weinsten. 289 [49] Hacker & Halbfass 1995. p. p.47 [80] Radhakrishnan 1993. 38. 3. page 213: “Wir werden später sehen. 266. 15. p. The Complete works of Swami Vivekananda 5 [89] Sampatkumaran 1985. p. p. p. 124 [60] Aurobindo 2000. 2 [77] For quotation and summarizing bhakti as “a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God” see: Sampatkumaran 1985. p. [40] Hacker & Halbfass 1995. p. [45] Michaels 2004. pp. p. [53] Easwaran 2007. Philosophy and Nature”) (1910). pp. nach vielen Lehren über ein vollkommenes Dasein. pp. 2 [83] Singh 2006. 267. xix [95] see Gyaānadeva & Pradhan 1987 [66] Krishnananda 1980. p. Der letzte Zustand besteht in dieser Lehre im Eingehen in die betreffende Gottheit. see: Flood 1996. [50] Hacker & Halbfass 1995.und Lebensanschauungen. pp. Nilgiri. p. p. p. p. Philosophie und Naturerkenntnis (“World and Life Views. xlii [76] Cornille 2006. xv–xxiv [74] Radhakrishnan 1993. Brahma oder Wischnu. pp. p. The Complete works of Swami Vivekananda 4 [90] For classification of Madhva’s commentary as within the Vedanta school see: Flood 1996. Emerging From Religion. p. xviii [58] Vivekananda. 2 [79] Radhakrishnan 1993. p. p. p. [44] Malinar 2007. 148 [68] Sivananda 1995. [46] Malinar 2007. p. 86 [63] Chinmayananda 2007. [48] Hacker & Halbfass 1995. is cited from Radhakrishnan 1993 Front matter. Yatharth Geeta.9. First Edition 1946.K. xix [123] Miller 1986. G.com. p. Gandhi. [130] Hijiya. p. 58–59 [121] Winternitz 1972. Gandhi and their use to inspire the independence movement JSTOR 1398797. T. pp. Tilak and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi as no. p. Philosophy East and West: A Quarterly of Comparative Philosophy (University [98] For notability of the commentaries by B. Swami (1983). p. p. (1925). 88 [126] What had previously been known of Indian literature in Germany had been translated from the English.9 Sources 16. in: Minor 1986. ISBN 978-817058-612-8 • Bansal. [129] Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavad Gita. (2013)..9. 15 1951. SriAurobindoAshram Publication Dept. p. 42 [110] Robinson 2006. Other editions: 1948. 11 16. has been published as: Anasaktiyoga: The [128] Khushwant Singh. in: Minor 1986. L. translator. 14–17 [99] Stevenson. [106] Minor 1986. in: Minor 1986. “Tilak and the Bhagavadgita’s Doc. K. 44 [124] Bloom 1995. p. xix [114] For Aurobindo as notable commentators.16. year = 1986. 49 Miller”. p. F. Jim Rankin. p. 144.2307/1398797. 2 [105] Sahadeo 2011. 199 [137] https://www. Wendy (August 1993). see: Gambhiranda 1997. p. JSTOR 2058944 [101] Jordens.1 Printed sources • Adgadanandji. James A. (Dry Bones Press.. 36 [133] “The Telegraph . “Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita”. 29 [108] Minor 1986. 2001 is listed as M. pp. Essays on the Gita. pp. 185–189 [136] See Robert Oppenheimer#Trinity for other refs [112] Jones & Ryan 2007.com/modules/smartsection/ item. Chennai. Review of The Book of Prayer by Renuka Gospel of Selfless Action. 1956. Journal of Asian Studies 52 (3): 813–815. J. by Robert Neil Minor.php?itemid=3988 [113] For Aurobindo. p. see: Sargeant 2009. telegraphindia. p.1017/S002191180003789X. 102 [135] Londhe 2008. p. p. Robert W. xix [115] Yogananda 1993 [116] Easwaran 1993 [117] see Fowler 2012 and Theodor 2010 [118] Mahesh Yogi 1990 [119] Tilak 1924 [120] Clarke 1997. 129 (PDF). SOURCES 207 [97] For B.hinduismtoday. xix turies of the Bhagavad Gita in English”. 144 [132] Hume 1959. p. The Gita of Robert Oppenheimer” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Tilak and of Hawai'i Press) 31 (4): 513–540. “Obituary: Barbara Stoler trine of Karmayoga”. India. p. Sri (2000). p.. doi:10. 1972. 531 [100] Stevenson. Shri Paramhans Ashram • Aurobindo. “The Song Celestial: Two centable commentators see: Gambhiranda 1997. and Chinmayananda as notable commentators see: Sargeant 2009. 1078–1079. ISBN 978-149230-465-4 . Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. [109] Robinson 2006. Gandhi. doi:10. p. Srimad Bhagavadgita (The Vedanta Text)|. “Tilak and the Bhagavadgita’s Doctrine of Karmayoga”. p. Mahadev Desai. 27 [107] Minor 1986. Winternitz [102] Gandhi 2009. no. 1998) ISBN 1-883938-47-3. p. The author Narayanan . J. JPH. San Francisco. 69 [134] Sharma 2008.[122] Gerald James Larson (1981). omitting the bulk of Desai’s additional commentary.Calcutta : Opinion”. editor. Young India. India: Bharati Publications. Page 161 [104] Quotation from M. pp. Jaipur. [127] Bhagavadgita.[125] Doniger. p. G. 1997 [103] A shorter edition. 131 [131] Pandit 2005. Robert W. Retrieved 23 December 2013. 191 [111] Patchen 1994. Berkeley. Pradhan. Swami (1998). Gavin (1996). Ryan.208 CHAPTER 16. India: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust. Eliot. Tirupparaitturai: Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam. ISBN 978-0-941532-52-5 • Easwaran. Vedanta Press. Routledge. Albany. Christopher (1965). ISBN 978-1563901607 • Isherwood. Penguin Group (USA) Incorporated. Rohit (2004). Art of Manmaking. Louis (2010). NY. Catherine (2006). The Bhagavad Gita. ISBN 9781490451404 • Jones. (2014). California: Nilgiri Press. Richard H.. Infobase Publishing. Alf (2002). Eknath (2007). Kshetra Books. Jnāneshvari: Bhāvārthadipikā. Song Divine: Christian Commentaries on the Bhagavad Gītā. The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living Volume 1. SUNY Press. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-487-6 • Hacker. In: Joseph Kitagawa. ISBN 978-0-86131-460-7 • Egenes. The Book of Yudhisthir: A Study of the Mahabharat of Vyas. The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students. ISBN 978-81-7597-060-1 • Clarke. Eknath (1984). North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-57322-514-4 • Easwaran. ISBN 978-1-84519-520-5 • Gambhirananda. History. Eknath (1975). Thomas (2003). The Bhagavad Gita. Swami (1998). Oriental enlightenment.). ISBN 978-0-91513219-5 • Fischer. World Wisdom. p. Eastbourne: Sussex Academy Press. Swami (1997). Halbfass. The Bhagavad Gita: The Songs of the Master. ISBN 978-0-415-13375-3 • Coburn. Wilhelm (1995). Gandhi: His Life and Message for the World. ix. The End of Sorrow: The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living (vol 1). (2007). Chinmaya Publications. The “Bhagavad Gita": A Biography. Paul. Ramakrishna and His Disciples. Berkeley. ISBN 978-0-451-53170-4 • Flood. Lambert. Swami (2007). Introduction To Sanskrit. ISBN 0521-43878-0 • Fowler. Bhagavadgītā: With the commentary of Śaṅkarācārya. Berkeley. Vitthal Ganesh (1987). (1959). Routledge • Hume. ISBN 978-0-87481-037-0 • Johnston.). ISBN 978-155643-800-4 • Gyaānadeva. The World’s Living Religions. ISBN 978-1-58638-019-9 • Easwaran. California: The Blue Mountain Center of Meditation. Eknath (1979). ISBN 978-0-91513218-8 • Easwaran. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. ISBN 978-81-208-1693-0 • Chidbhavananda. Berkeley. ISBN 978-0-7914-04461 • Cornille. John James (1997). ISBN 978-0-915132-17-1 • Bose. ISBN 81-7505-041-1 • Gambhirananda. UNESCO Collection of Representative Works: Indian Series. ISBN 81-7505194-9 • Gandhi. Nilgiri Press. Constance. Swami (1997). ISBN 978-0-79142581-7 • Hiltebeitel. “The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion. BHAGAVAD GITA • Bloom. Charles (2014) [1908]. ISBN 978-90-429-1769-9 • Davis. Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedānta. Mumbai. Dalvi. Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5 . The Western canon : the books and school of the ages (1st Riverhead ed. and Culture”.. word-for-word meaning. ISBN 81-7597-0847 • Chinmayananda. Hinduism. The Essential Vedānta: A New Source Book of Advaita Vedānta. translation and commentary (revised ed. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. An Introduction to Hinduism. Harold (1995). USA: SUNY Press. Orient Blackswan. ed. Encountering the Goddess: A Translation of the Devī-Māhātmya and a Study of Its Interpretation. The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living Volume 3. ISBN 978-0-91513217-1 • Easwaran. Hester Marjorie. Eknath (1993). James D. New York: Riverhead Books. Jeaneane D (2012). (1991). Mahatma (2009). California: The Blue Mountain Center of Meditation. SUNY Press. Inc. Buddhadeva (1986). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Robert E. The Bhagavad Gita According to Gandhi. Shreemad Bhagawad Geeta chapter I & II: original Sanskrit text with Roman transliteration. The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living Volume 2. Princeton University Press • Deutsch. ISBN 978-8-180-85147-6 • Chinmayananda. Thomas B. California: The Blue Mountain Center of Meditation. Reprint edition. Vasudeva (2002). The Philosophical Traditions of India. Swami (1995). Orientalism and Religion: PostColonial Theory. Lord Siva’s Song: The Isvara Gita. Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History. Random House LLC • Sargeant. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited • Ranganathananda. (2010). India: A History. Harper Collins. Grove Press. Penguin Books. Orient Blackswan. A tribute to Hinduism: thoughts and wisdom spanning continents and time about India and her culture. Robert N. Susai (2009). New York: State University of New York. The Divine Life Society. Heart of Albion. Gandhi: Thoughts. Alfred (2000). (2006). Retrieved 11 June 2014. ISBN 978-1-4384-2841-3 • Minor. SOURCES • Keay. India and “The Mystic East”. (Swami) (2000). Albany. Hocking. Makiguchi and Gandhi: Their Education Relevance for the 21st Century. University Press of America. Namrata (2008). ISBN 978-1-4653-4282-9 • Miller. Andrew J. Sushama (2008). Words. Albany.9. (1985). Princeton. Barbara (2004). Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavadgita. Cambridge University Press 209 • Ramsukhdas. Swami. Humanity and the Cosmos – 2nd edition: A Companion to the ScienceReligion Debate. The Bhagavad Gītā: Twenty-fifth Anniversary Edition.) (1980). ISBN 978-0231-14986-0 • Nicholson. ISBN 0140192476 • Malinar. ISBN 978-0-7618-4068-8 • Singh. Olive Press • Sharma. Lexington Books. The Bhagavadgītā. Gorakhpur. Kessinger Publishing. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. ISBN 978-1-872883-81-6 • Patchen. The Bhagavad Gita. ISBN 81-7223-087-7 • Schouler. ISBN 0-231-06468-3 • Sampatkumaran. Xlibris Corporation. New York: Columbia University Press. The Bhagavad Gita. Christopher (2005). Axel (2004). Continuum International Publishing Group. Albany: State University of New York Press. Universal message of the Bhagavad Gita: An exposition of the Gita in the light of modern thought and modern needs (Vol. ISBN 978-0-41534671-9 • Michaels. Hinduism. ISBN 978-1-4384-5101-5 • Nikhilananda. New York: State University of New York. Routledge. John (2000). Angelika (2007). Deeds. Winthrop (2009). The Bhagavad-Gita: Krishna’s Counsel in Time of War. Karan (2005). Bansi (2005). Mohandas K. The Bhagavad-Gita. ISBN 81-293-0001-X. Nancy Freeman (1994). ISBN 978-81-250-2297-8 • Robinson. Anthony. (2014). ISBN 978-81-7597-305-3 • Radhakrishnan. ISBN 9781-4254-8607-5 • Pandit. ISBN 978-81-89920-66-1 • Mahesh Yogi. ISBN 0-88706-297-0 • Nicholson. Columbia University Press. The Divine Life Society. India: Gita Press[]. (2006). Srimad Bhagavadgita (in Sanskrit and Hindi). (1992). Chinmaya Mission. Maharishi (1990). New Jersey: Princeton University Press • Sahadeo. Catherine A.16. William E. ISBN 978-0-567-03016-0 . Andrew J. The Bhagavadgita. P. Taylor & Francis e-Library • Krishnananda. The Everything Hinduism Book: Learn the traditions and rituals of the “religion of peace”. Richard (2002). Journey of a Master. Pragun Publication. 1) 1. • Raju. Kenneth. (1993). R. Ramnarine (2011). Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary. ISBN 81-7505-213-9 • Rao. Bombay: Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute • Miller. Raj (2006). Chapters 1–6. Sterling Publishers Pvt. S. (Swami. M. Bhakti and philosophy.T. Hinduism: Past and present. ISBN 0-7391-1424-7 • Sivananda. Barbara Stoler (1986). ISBN 0-8021-3797-0 • King. God. ISBN 81-7052-000-2 • Southgate. The Philosophy of the Bhagavadgita. Ltd • Singh. (1986). Adams Media • Scheepers. De Wortels van het Indiase Denken. Explore Hinduism. Swami (1994). The Gītābhāṣya of Rāmānuja. Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gītā and Images of the Hindu Tradition: The Song of the Lord. Living Traditions in Contemporary Contexts: The Madhva Matha of Udupi. R. ISBN 97881-7052-077-1 • Londhe. S. Creative Commons license: CC0 1. Verse 12. Swami (1998). [5] “Chapter 1. Retrieved 17 July 2012. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. [8] “Chapter 4. Ksetra-Ksetrajna Yoga”. SDL.A. 1999. [27] A. Paramahansa (1993). Daivasura-Sampad-Vibhaga Yoga”. [16] “Chapter 12. Sri Ramakrishna Math. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. [9] “Chapter 5.A. C. God Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita. Encyclopedia Britannica. Bhagavad-Gita • Vivekananda. [6] “Chapter 2.S. IIT Madras. Retrieved 17 July 2012. [24] Klaus Glashoff. Ernest (1954). Delhi: Advaita Ashrama.A.S. Pune. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. “Bhagavad-gita As It Is.A.A. Ltd. spokensanskrit. A Comparative Study of Hinduism.S. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. [26] A. Publishing. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. [2] “Gita Introduction”. Retrieved 14 January 2008. Advaita Ashrama [15] “Chapter 11. Gunatraya-Vibhaga Yoga”. Archived from the original on 7 December 2007. Bhakti Yoga”. R.S. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. Moksha-Opdesa Yoga”. Verse 5. With a New and Literal Translation. OnFaith. Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā. ISBN 978-81-7755-915-6 • Tapasyananda. Retrieved 17 July 2012.A. and Meaning. “Bhagavad-gita As It Is. • Theodor. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. Retrieved 17 July 2012.210 CHAPTER 16.A. Retrieved 17 July 2012. Paramahamsa ViGyaana yoga”. [25] “Reading the Bhagavad Gita today”. Retrieved 10 April 2012. The Bhagavad Gītā. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. Structure.S. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada.de.S. Los Angeles: New Century Foundation Press Trust 1998 – 2009 U. . Gyaana Yoga”.S. C. Retrieved 17 July 2012. Srimad Bhagavad Gita [11] “Chapter 7. [4] “Gita Dhyana Slokas”.S. Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgītā. Retrieved 17 July 2012. The [14] “Chapter 10.0 Universal [12] “Chapter 8. Sraddhatraya-Vibhaga Yoga”. “Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit”.S. [13] “Chapter 9.A. Publ. Thoughts on the Gita. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. Retrieved 17 July 2012. Visvarupa-Darsana Yoga”.A. C. ISBN 978-0-87612-031-6 Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. ISBN 0-19-501666-1 16.S. Indian Book Gallery..S. New Delhi: Oriental Books • Wood. [23] “What Is Swadharma?". Exploring the Bhagavad Gitā: Philosophy. [1] “Hinduism”. Visada Yoga”. ISBN 81-7120-449-X [7] “Chapter 3.A. Rahasya. Retrieved 17 July 2012. [18] “Chapter 14. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U.9. Karma Vairagya Yoga”.6”. History of Indian Literature. Ashgate [10] “Chapter 6. Retrieved 17 July 2012.org. Aksara-Parabrahman yoga”. Raja-Vidya-Guhya Yoga”. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. Retrieved 17 July 2012.S.A. [3] see “The Mahabharata (Electronic text)".A.S. Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). and Christianity. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. Oxford University Press. Maurice (1972).A. Retrieved 14 January 2008.S. • Vivekananda. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. • Yogananda. Self Realization Fellowship [20] “Chapter 16. Karma Yoga”. Retrieved • Zaehner. Ithamar (2010).A. Retrieved 2 October 2011. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. Vibhuti-Vistara Yoga”.A.S. Swami (1990). BHAGAVAD GITA • Tambyah. Kashi Nath (1998). Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.11”.S.A. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. Retrieved 17 July 2012. [22] “Chapter 18. artofliving. [19] “Chapter 15. Tambi-Piḷḷai Isaac (1925). Purusottama Yoga”.S. Bhagavad-Gita • Upadhyaya. Retrieved 17 July 2012. Bal Gangadhar (1924). Archived from the original on 7 December 2007.. Retrieved 17 July 2012. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. ISBN 978-0-7546-6658-5 • Tilak. Retrieved 17 July 2012. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998 – 2009 U. The Bhagavad Gīta Explained. Retrieved 17 July 2012. (1969). [17] “Chapter 13.2 Online sources 17 July 2012.A. [21] “Chapter 17. “Thoughts on the Gita”. Abhyasa Yoga”. Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda 4. Sankhya Yoga”.S. ISBN 81-7505-033-0 • Winternitz. Bhagavad-Gita Trust 1998– 2009 U. ISBN 978-81-208-0880-5 Trust 1998 – 2009 U. Swami. Buddhism. Retrieved 17 July 2012. Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON).A.A. 16.11. EXTERNAL LINKS [28] A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. “Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 13.31”. Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved 14 January 2008. [29] A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. “Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 13.35”. Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved 14 January 2008. [30] “Bhagavad Gita in Braille Language”. Zee News. 3 December 2007. Retrieved 24 April 2011. [31] Tommasini, Anthony (14 April 2008). “Fanciful Visions on the Mahatma’s Road to Truth and Simplicity”. The New York Times. Retrieved 16 October 2009. [32] Tommasini, Anthony (7 November 2008). “Warrior Prince From India Wrestles With Destiny”. The New York Times. Retrieved 16 October 2009. [33] “40th National Film Awards”. India International Film Festival. Retrieved 2 March 2012. [34] “40th National Film Awards (PDF)" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 16.10 Further reading • Davis, Richard H. (2014), The “Bhagavad Gita": A Biography, Princeton University Press 16.11 External links • Sanskrit Wikisource has original text related to this article: भगवद्गीता • Works related to The Bhagavad Gita (Arnold translation) at Wikisource • Bhagavad Gita at DMOZ 211 Chapter 17 Sattvic diet Sattvic diet is a diet based on foods with sattva quality 17.2 Ancient literature (guna).[1] In Yoga and Ayurveda literature, Sattvic diet restores and maintains sattvic state of living.[2][3] In Sattvic system of dietary classification, foods and drinks that have Main article: Mitahara destructive influence on the mind or body are considered Tamasic, while those that neither lead to better health nor Yoga includes recommendations on eating habits. Śāṇḍilya are destructive are considered Rajasic. Upanishad[11] and Svātmārāma[12][13][14] both state that Sattvic diet is meant to include food and eating habit that Mitahara (eating in moderation) is an important part of is “pure, essential, natural, vital, energy-containing, clean, yoga practice. It is one of the Yamas (virtuous self restraints). These texts while discussing yoga diet, however, conscious, true, honest, wise”.[3][4] make no mention of sattvic diet. Sattvic diet is a regimen that places emphasis on seasonal foods, fruits, dairy products, nuts, seeds, oils, ripe The application of Sattva and Tamas concepts to food is a vegetables, legumes, whole grains, and non-meat based later and relatively new extension to the Mitahara virtue in proteins.[5] Some Sattvic diet suggestions, such as its rel- Yoga literature. Verses 1.57 through 1.63 of Hatha Yoga Pradipika[12] suggests that taste cravings should not drive ative emphasis on dairy products, is controversial.[6] one’s eating habits, rather the best diet is one that is tasty, Sattvic diet is sometimes referred to as yogic diet in modern nutritious and likable as well as sufficient to meet the needs literature. In ancient and medieval era Yoga literature, the of one’s body.[15] It recommends that one must “eat only diet concept discussed is Mitahara, which literally means when one feels hungry” and “neither overeat nor eat to com“moderation in eating”.[5][7] pletely fill the capacity of one’s stomach; rather leave a quarter portion empty and fill three quarters with quality food and fresh water”.[15] Verses 1.59 to 1.61 of Hathayoga Pradipika suggests ‘‘mitahara’’ regimen of a yogi avoids 17.1 Etymology foods with excessive amounts of sour, salt, bitterness, oil, spice burn, unripe vegetables, fermented foods or alcohol. Sattvic is derived from Sattva (सत्त्व) which is a Sanskrit The practice of Mitahara, in Hathayoga Pradipika, includes word. Sattva is a complex concept in Indian philosophy, avoiding stale, impure and tamasic foods, and consuming used in many contexts, and it means one that is “pure, moderate amounts of fresh, vital and sattvic foods.[1] essence, nature, vital, energy, clean, conscious, strong, The Indian text Bhagavad Gita links sattva, rajas and tamas courage, true, honest, wise, rudiment of life”.[8] to food in verses 17.8 through 17.10.[16] It states that those Sattva is one of three gunas (quality, peculiarity, tendency, attribute, property). The other two qualities are considered to be Rajas (agitated, passionate, moving, emotional, trendy) and Tamas (dark, destructive, spoiled, ignorant, stale, inertia, unripe, unnatural, weak, unclean). The concept that contrasts with and is opposed to Sattva is Tamas.[9][10] who are in Sattva state prefer foods that is life giving, purifies one’s existence and gives strength, health, happiness and satisfaction. Sattva-oriented foods are juicy, oily, wholesome, and pleasing to taste. Non-Sattva oriented foods are too bitter, too sour, too salty, too spicy, too pungent, too astringent, stale, tasteless and decomposed. Non-Sattvic foods cause distress, disease and disorders.[16] Sattvic diet is thus meant to include food and eating habit In Yoga’s context, attention to diet is essential to good health that is “pure, essential, natural, vital, energy-giving, clean, and mind, and the virtue of Mitahara is one where the yogi is aware of the quantity and quality of food and drinks he or conscious, true, honest, wise”.[1][3][4] 212 17.4. SEE ALSO she consumes, takes neither too much nor too little, and suits it to one’s health condition and needs.[4][5] Mitahara concept also recommends leaving a fourth of stomach empty, filling the rest with 2 parts food and 1 part fresh water. 213 wild meat for those recovering from injuries, growing children, those who do high levels of physical exercise, and expecting mothers.[19] The latest research in brain and gut linkage can be interesting to correlate with ancient Indian theory of Ayruveda and emphasis on food for well being. If Satvic food leads 17.3 Sattvic foods to better gut flora, reduced leaky gut than that clearly indicates that ancient scientists had discovered some linkage [20] Sattvic diet places emphasis on lacto-vegetarian ingredi- between well being and what you eat. ents that is fresh, seasonal, and naturally sourced (nonprocessed).[17] Grains, ripe vegetables (not unripe), fruits, nuts, seeds, legumes that is well prepared and freshly 17.4 See also cooked are favored.[17] Oils and spices are considered sattvic, if naturally sourced and used in moderation. Milk • Lacto vegetarianism and milk products are emphasized in many forms.[17] • Mitahara Moderation is considered a key practice in sattvic lifestyle [17] and yoga, which implies not over-eating. • Diet in Hinduism In Ayurveda and Yoga, Sattvic foods are considered as those that help restore and maintain harmony and balance in one’s body and mind.[18] Given Yoga’s emphasis on virtuous living based on Yamas and Niyamas, the diet consists of food that empowers virtues such as ahimsa (non-injury to all living creatures) and others. Sattvic foods thus place emphasis on vegetarian foods, thereby minimizing injury and harm to animals and ocean life.[18] Raw and cooked ripe, seasonal foods are preferred, including fruits, seeds, vegetables, herbs, whole grains, milk among others. Processed foods are considered tamasic. Stale food, overcooked or over-spiced foods are also considered inappropriate.[18] All six flavors - sweet, salt, sour, pungent, bitter and astringent is preferably present in a Sattvic diet, at least on rotational basis, as each of these tastes are considered vital. Extreme emphasis or over-eating one or few flavors is considered Tamasic.[5][18] Gerson,[3] in his review of Caraka Samhita, states that Yogic diet should include primarily freshly prepared and warm, be slightly unctuous (moist, oily) on palate, in small portions, eaten at a moderate pace (not gulped, nor very slow) and started when hungry (not as habit). Further, a Sattvic diet pays attention to one’s particular physical and biological needs (there is no one diet is right for all, according to the Indian text Caraka Samhita).[3] Food must be combined to get nutrients from a variety of sources. Gerson states,[3] that Sattvic diet recommends the preferred sequence of food variety eaten, and what sorts of food should not be eaten at the same because they react and cause adverse effect on one’s body and mind. Protein-rich salty and fibrous foods are considered ideal at the start of a meal, followed by ripe vegetables (salad), and then fruits is a preferred sequence in a Sattvic diet.[3] Sattvic diet emphasizes vegetarian ingredients. However, ancient Indian texts also recommend carefully prepared • Jain (Satvika) • Ayurveda 17.5 References [1] Steven Rosen (2011), Food for the Soul: Vegetarianism and Yoga Traditions, Praeger, ISBN 978-0313397035, pages 25-29 [2] Amadea Morningstar, Cooking for the Spirit, Yoga Journal, May/June 1996, Vol. 128, pages 44-46 [3] Scott Gerson (2002), The Ayurvedic Guide to Diet, ISBN 978-0910261296, Chapter 8: The Sattvic Diet, pages 107132 [4] BP Desai (1990), Place of nutrition in yoga, Ancient science of life, 9(3): 147-153, PMC 3331325 [5] Paul Turner (2013), FOOD YOGA - Nourishing Body, Mind & Soul, 2nd Edition, ISBN 978-0985045111 [6] Gary Gran, The Sattvic or Yogic Diet Yoga Chicago Magazine, Jan/Feb 2005 [7] Mitihara, in What is Hinduism? (Ed: Hinduism Today Magazine, 2007), Himalayan Academy, Hawaii, ISBN 978-1934145-00-5, page 340 [8] sattva Monier Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany [9] Edward Craig (2009), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, page 463 [10] James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 9780823931798, page 265 214 [11] KN Aiyar (1914), Thirty Minor Upanishads, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1164026419, Chapter 22, pages 173-176 [12] Hatha Yoga Pradipika verse 1.58-63, pages 19-21 [13] Lorenzen, David (1972). The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas. University of California Press. pp. 186–190. ISBN 9780520018426. [14] Subramuniya (2003). Merging with Śiva: Hinduism’s contemporary metaphysics. Himalayan Academy Publications. p. 155. ISBN 9780945497998. Retrieved 6 April 2009. [15] KS Joshi, Speaking of Yoga and Nature-Cure Therapy, Sterling Publishers, ISBN 978-1845570453, page 65-66 [16] Christopher Key Chapple (2009), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 641-643 [17] Paul Pitchford, Healing with Whole Foods: Asian Traditions and Modern Nutrition, ISBN 978-1556434716, page 641 [18] David Frawley, Ayurveda and the Mind: The Healing of Consciousness, ISBN 978-0914955368, pages 190-198 [19] KKL Bhishagratna, Chapter X, Sushruta Samhita, Vol 2, Calcutta, page 216-238 [20] http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/ changing-gut-bacteria-through-245617 17.6 External links • The Sattvic or Yogic Diet at Yoga Chicago • Food and its Effect on the Mind at IVU.org CHAPTER 17. SATTVIC DIET 17.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 215 17.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 17.7.1 Text • Tamas (philosophy) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamas_(philosophy)?oldid=611402070 Contributors: Toby Bartels, AugPi, Dysprosia, Carlossuarez46, LordSimonofShropshire, Rosarino, Keenan Pepper, Lectonar, FlaBot, Gurch, Harishsubramanian, SmackBot, Srkris, Misoshiru, Nharipra, Interlingua, Penbat, Ajitflora, Chhajjusandeep, Ipsingh, Barticus88, Nick Number, Arch dude, .anacondabot, Indu Singh, JaGa, Phaedreus, 1000Faces, VolkovBot, Kkreitler, AlleborgoBot, Daveh4h, BotMultichill, Kutera Genesis, DragonBot, Cminard, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tratthew, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Wiki Truth 108, EmausBot, Manytexts, ClueBot NG, Dorje108, ChrisGualtieri, Faizan and Anonymous: 25 • Samkhya Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya?oldid=661771388 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Arvindn, Edward, Michael Hardy, Ronz, Poor Yorick, Renamed user 4, Imc, Carlossuarez46, Robbot, Goethean, Ashdurbat, Andries, Nat Krause, Orpheus, Utcursch, LordSimonofShropshire, Karl-Henner, Crypticfirefly, Murtasa, Dbachmann, RJHall, El C, Thedavid, CDN99, Viriditas, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Giraffedata, Ogress, Rzelnik, Transmogrifier, Dangerous-Boy, GregorB, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Gurch, DaGizza, YurikBot, Borgx, RobotE, Alma Pater, Deeptrivia, Hede2000, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Douglasfrankfort~enwiki, Calsicol, Tomisti, Nlu, Rudrasharman, Arundhati bakshi, SmackBot, Jagged 85, Adudney, Pretzelogic, Srkris, Magicalsaumy, Bluebot, Zachorious, Chlewbot, Vprajkumar, Spsoni, Sunil vasisht, IronGargoyle, A. Parrot, Interlingua, Ksri99, Joseph Solis in Australia, Sinaloa, TwoHorned, Geoffg, Punanimal, Gregbard, Cydebot, Chhajjusandeep, Babub, Viscious81, Dougweller, Hugo.arg, Joy1963, Kathovo, Northumbrian, WinBot, Luna Santin, MER-C, Kajasudhakarababu, Green23, David Eppstein, SquirleyWurley, Shreevinekar, Anarchia, Abecedare, Philosopher4, Arrow740, Thomas Larsen, Ryan Postlethwaite, Ajnichol, Zerokitsune, VolkovBot, JewelieSF, Amir.far, Brownguy20, HinduDefender, Buddhipriya, Varoon Arya, Freedomji, Screen name1234, Username2577u, Lefty4949, Oldwes, Webrider, Atomar~enwiki, Gsvasktg, Arjun024, SieBot, Ivan Štambuk, Mafat0327, Jacob.jose, Sitush, Stillwaterising, Vinay Jha, Vontrotta, Stealthepiscopalian, Stokakrishna, Singinglemon~enwiki, DragonBot, PixelBot, Ernobe, Jotterbot, Merlinmedved, Editor2020, Indopug, Wakari07, Mitsube, Cminard, Addbot, Rtz-bot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Keithbob, Tom87020, Clara rosa, Materialscientist, VedicScience, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Anonymous from the 21st century, Omnipaedista, Mwadewik, Lecheminlu, FrescoBot, Rudra79, Mayasutra, Aditya soni, Jonesey95, , Gerua, 777sms, Grammarrules, Logical Fuzz, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, TeleComNasSprVen, Kkm010, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Vilietha, Wikignome0530, Thouny, Broomstick33, ClueBot NG, Moryoga, Snotbot, Cntras, Dream of Nyx, Helpful Pixie Bot, Themunozgroup, RyoGTO, Titodutta, BG19bot, Devasagayam, Joshua Jonathan, Snowcream, BattyBot, Amitrochates, Justincheng12345-bot, Rudraprasadmatilal, Khazar2, Rockin It Loud, Makecat-bot, Babitaarora, Ewj001, JimRenge, Vibhisana108, Ms Sarah Welch, Monkbot, Beyondname, Yoddhānāth, Ashishjain190, Kalkin108 and Anonymous: 139 • Sanskrit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit?oldid=662623532 Contributors: AxelBoldt, MichaelTinkler, Brion VIBBER, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Zundark, Taw, Andre Engels, XJaM, Arvindn, Enchanter, PierreAbbat, Little guru, Hannes Hirzel, David spector, Graft, Defrenrokorit, Nd12345, Steverapaport, Infrogmation, Smelialichu, Tillwe, Michael Hardy, Pit~enwiki, Kwertii, Oliver Pereira, Gmalivuk, DopefishJustin, Dante Alighieri, MartinHarper, Gabbe, Menchi, Manojmp, Chinju, Zeno Gantner, Yann, Paddu, Paul A, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Kricxjo, Stan Shebs, Nanshu, CatherineMunro, Gyan, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Julesd, Glenn, Bogdangiusca, Shree, Jacquerie27, John K, Tobias Conradi, Mxn, BRG, Vivin, Pizza Puzzle, Cheeni, David Newton, Zoicon5, IceKarma, Mahaabaala, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Itai, Mowgli~enwiki, Francs2000, Shantavira, Robbot, DavidA, Kizor, Benwing, RedWolf, ZyXoas, Goethean, Altenmann, Naddy, Stewartadcock, Merovingian, Rursus, Gidonb, Diderot, Hippietrail, Italo, Bkell, Hadal, Saforrest, JackofOz, Wereon, Roozbeh, Ambarish, Ruakh, Lupo, JerryFriedman, Guy Peters, Cyrius, Codebytez, Dave6, Arun, Clementi, Giftlite, Crculver, DocWatson42, Djinn112, Wonder al, Nat Krause, Akella, Vishvas vasuki, Lee J Haywood, Meursault2004, Orpheus, Everyking, Varlaam, Sdoles, Sukh, Sundar, Mboverload, Kukkurovaca, Pne, Wiki Wikardo, Wmahan, OldakQuill, Chowbok, Utcursch, Arjuna~enwiki, LordSimonofShropshire, Pgan002, LiDaobing, Antandrus, Rajasekaran Deepak, Mukerjee, Oneiros, Mzajac, Pmanderson, Icairns, Eranb, Yossarian, Soman, Binand, Burschik, Joyous!, Laca, Hardouin, Danarmak, Kartheeque, Pinnerup, Hypotaxis, Everlong, Venu62, CALR, Lafuerzasindical, EugeneZelenko, Alexrexpvt, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Java~enwiki, Oska, Factitious, Wikiacc, Zappaz, Quiensabe, Dbachmann, Ashwatham, Gonzalo Diethelm, Bender235, LordGulliverofGalben, Plugwash, Dara, VishalB, Nuggehalli, Kwamikagami, QuartierLatin1968, Art LaPella, EmilJ, Dannown, CDN99, Erauch, Peter Greenwell, Circeus, Smalljim, John Vandenberg, Cmdrjameson, Nk, Hintha, GatesPlusPlus, Ranveig, Jumbuck, Raj2004, Anthony Appleyard, Nitincse, Marnen, ThePedanticPrick, Ctande, Arthena, Philip Cross, Riana, Balster neb, Theodore Kloba, Eukesh, Ross Burgess, Ksnow, Anoggen, Garzo, Vedant, Skyring, Tarakananda, Pauli133, Embryomystic, HenryLi, Sturmde, Dan100, Daniel Newby, TShilo12, Stemonitis, Angr, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, FeanorStar7, Shreevatsa, BernardM, Sburke, StradivariusTV, JeremyA, Wikiklrsc, Keyur1277, Steinbach, Karmosin, Jon Harald Søby, Cbyneorne, Toussaint, Doric Loon, Stevey7788, Dysepsion, Mandarax, Raguks, Graham87, Lzygenius, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, NatusRoma, Dontbeakakke, Chirags, Sdornan, TheRingess, ErikHaugen, Chekaz, Dewrad, HappyCamper, SeanMack, AndyKali, Fred Bradstadt, Nguyen Thanh Quang, Cassowary, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, VKokielov, Ian Pitchford, Winhunter, Vijayl, TeaDrinker, Wowbobwow12, Malhonen, Ronebofh, Le Anh-Huy, Chobot, DaGizza, Madden, Kess, Guliolopez, Bgwhite, Adoniscik, Therefore, Algebraist, Sophitus, Peter Grey, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Parvati~enwiki, RobotE, Sudarshanhs, Deeptrivia, Ste1n, Poslfit, Praetonia, RussBot, Keep88, Jeff.lopezstuit, Hydrargyrum, Amithchandhran, Rintrah, Gaius Cornelius, Bovineone, Srini81, Edinborgarstefan, Aeusoes1, Rjensen, Retired username, Åm, Xdenizen, Larsinio, Denihilonihil, Vastu, Emersoni, IslandGyrl, BOT-Superzerocool, Bota47, Qrfqr, Zarboki, Thegreyanomaly, Maunus, Smaines, Mugunth Kumar, Tigershrike, Ketanof92, Deville, Zzuuzz, Ninly, RDF, Nikkimaria, Malaiya, Sotakeit, Јованвб, GraemeL, JoanneB, Shyam, Wikipeditor, Liyster, ArielGold, Imperial78, HansM, GrinBot~enwiki, Rehevkor, Daya.sharma, Sardanaphalus, Sassisch, Yakudza, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, TheBilly, Baodo, InverseHypercube, Martin.Budden, Zerida, Jim62sch, ARYAN818, Bomac, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Thunderboltz, Bradtcordeiro, Devanampriya, Kintetsubuffalo, Mauls, Coolian, Stephencarr, Commander Keane bot, Qwertyshan, Jordansmith, Srkris, Magicalsaumy, Peter Isotalo, Brianski, Hmains, Betacommand, Desiphral, Mhss, Bluebot, Geneb1955, MK8, Apeloverage, Sudharsansn, CSWarren, Ikiroid, Aerol, Robth, Colonies Chris, Hongooi, Philip Howard, Amarrg, A. B., VirtualSteve, Lynchical, Tsca.bot, Mikezhao, Supaiku, Mitsuhirato, Writtenright, Mrgah, Nixeagle, Krsont, JesseRafe, SundarBot, Klimov, Grover cleveland, Cameron Nedland, Nakon, RandomP, Salt Yeung, Aaker, Nmpenguin, FlyHigh, Ohconfucius, Gaborgulya, Superdosh, Apalaria, Bcasterline, My name is archie, Unre4L, Kuru, Akshatvishal, JohannaHypatia, Marco polo, Kipala, Svartkell, Breno, JorisvS, Kashmiri, Mgiganteus1, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Yogesh Khandke, Ckatz, RandomCritic, Hvn0413, Vaniba12, Sangramh, Interlingua, CharlesMartel, Ambuj.Saxena, Sharnak, MTSbot~enwiki, Skinsmoke, Udibi, Gokulmad- Rosarino. . Kanatonian. Ranjankar. StrawberryCraze. Dehara. Omnipaedista. Aksera. Samaleks. Dbachmann. Nijgoykar. Norm mit. Thijs!bot. Discospinster. Cminard. Shinju. Sniperspree911. Oatmeal batman. Zollerriia. Goethean. Menon. Download. Manasgarg. KamikazeBot. Wachowich. Sakonal. Norm mit. Sachinvenga. Rajsamb. Lotje. Symane. Ekabhishek. Mabdul. Ocaasi. Preetikapoor0. Chmlpavani. Paul venter. Scottaleger. Eu. Latics. Naveen Sankar. FoxBot. Bandhar33. Lorstaking. Nono64. Cityvalyu. Colin kenney.216 CHAPTER 17. Raamah. Baad. Jo3sampl. Ugog Nizdast. Fyrael. Avicennasis. P1start. Harishsubramanian. NayakDeepti. HeBhagawan. Trialsanderrors. Krishnacgh. Redtigerxyz. Helpful Pixie Bot. Ashwin147. Cometstyles. Citation bot 1. R. I c thefunny side. Cminard. Casablanca2000in. Maestro. Rarevogel. Shrao. PixelBot. Merosonox.gandhi. Titodutta. SJP. Bentley4. Escarbot. Joy. CitationCleanerBot. Hugo. GoonerDP. LordSuryaofShropshire.org/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a?oldid=658120229 Contributors: Arvindn. LinkFA-Bot. Tripping Nambiar. Bn. Molitorppd22. Vitesh 89. Gilo1969. Tydaj.org/wiki/Sattva?oldid=649504062 Contributors: AugPi. Sarvagnya. B9 hummingbird hovering. MKar. IPSOS. LarsJanZeeuwRules. BodhisattvaBot. GRRE. Gimmetrow. Chris83. Berria. Kunjethy. Daeswar. Maurice Carbonaro. Glen.dgro. Sviolante. Carlossuarez46. Clayoquot. JYBot. Vikram2rhyme. Anupam. Wiki-uk. ClueBot. Mcorazao. RobotG. Sudo-swiki. BD2412. Lakun. Grammatical error. Prabeshhimalaya. GhalyBot. Mereien. MikeyMouse10. Johnthebuddhist. Piroshan. Zoomzoom316. BattyBot. Consci. Bility. Austin Hair. ChrisCork. Bazza1971. Drilnoth. Jobrill. Pavel Stankov. Titodutta.om. Arjun G. GrouchoBot. Manumanas. Bazaan. CalicoCatLover. Gustavo José Meano Brito. RedBot. SlyCooperFan1. Toby Bartels. Addbot. Nix.anacondabot. DaGizza. Omnipaedista. Iketsi. Everard Proudfoot. Lekoren. Bilsonius. Ivan Štambuk. EmausBot. Waygugin. Nagualdesign.barahona. Bill william compton. ChrisHodgesUK. Margin1522. Laryaghat. UnLoCode. Thijs!bot. Omnipaedista.mhaswade. Ijustam. Aarem. Sahon. SieBot. Starnestommy. Jago05. Ranjitkct. Cyhawk. IsraphelMac. Deor. Mahmudmasri. Suyog 11. Nick Number.pang~enwiki. JoeBot. Nayansatya. Sponberg. Semper15. ENVI1. Will Beback Auto. AgarwalSumeet. Nvvchar. B9 hummingbird hovering. Vagyoga. Ms Sarah Welch. Wiki Raja. Hertz1888. Nagarjuna198. Hrihr. Rao. John254. Antonio “Tony” Montana “Scarface”. Phaedreus. DragonBot. Charutajk. . FlaBot. TechBot. Bheeshma. Balloonguy. Vidium. ShakingSpirit. Davius. Ghayyour. AmritasyaPutra. Wikivedalankara. MelkorDCLXVI. Miskwito. ShobaRaghu. . Yobot. BotMultichill. WildBot. Ugncreative Usergname. Zarek. BGOATDoughnut. Nakashchit. Eubot. Joseph Solis in Australia. Abecedare. Skumarlabot. ClueBot NG. Joeoettinger. KNM. Keenan Pepper. Armyrifle9. Pigman. BG19bot. AsceticRose.wikipedia. Psychless. Triwbe. Lectonar. RyanCross.DÄP. NathRao. JAnDbot. Vinay misr. RichardKleiner. Eukesh. MartinBot. Themunozgroup. AgniKalpa. Savantas83. Gregfitzy. Dougweller. Gavia immer. Hendrick 99. Satchid. Toby Bartels. HJJHolm. Eshwar. ICouldBeWrong. S3000. JamesLucas. Interlingua. MerlLinkBot. LaaknorBot. WrobjexWiki. JavierMC. Thingg. Merosonox. Filedelinkerbot. Jonkerz. Viscious81. STBotD. Ég er Almar. Khamgatam. Jeppiz. Chobot. Tobias Conradi. SchreiberBike. GSMR. Mild Bill Hiccup. Sunilsrivastava. Wandering-teacher. Luckas-bot. Snowcream. Squids and Chips. Bidhan Singh. Pankajjain.patra. John Riemann Soong. Frank. Cavacosilvaoguna and Anonymous: 44 • Rajas Source: http://en. FlaBot. Anonymous44. ZéroBot. Giggy. SumanaKoundinya. MalafayaBot. SATTVIC DIET havan. Electricmuffin11. Icarot. JNF Tveit. Muzilon. Mandalar. Dreamingclouds. EmausBot. Hamiltonstone. Bharatveer. Athaenara. Haofangjia. Editor3008. Keithbob. Allstarecho. Coolgama. Maxis ftw. RjwilmsiBot.kappler. Lighthead. Wiki. Ingle. Sundar2000. SpacemanSpiff. Websterwebfoot. Born Gay. Fratrep. Youre dreaming eh?. Synthebot. Dbachmann. WikipedianProlific. MintCond. Anir1uph. Future Perfect at Sunrise. Sarayuparin. Raj Singh. Dewritech. Anirudhasingha. Dbachmann. Darkicebot. MalafayaBot. Animum. Soham321. RandomXYZb. LahmacunKebab. Gheuf. Wheely Guy. Redtigerxyz. Abduleep. The Anomebot2. Outis010. And we drown. Gcjdavid. Leszek Jańczuk. Rājagṛha. Faizhaider. DumZiBoT. Arjun024. DanMS. Ka Faraq Gatri. Sandstein. Gurmituppal. Poipoise. Ism schism. Lightmouse. Sahstar. Cosmican. Spurius Furius Fusus. Jookti. Thakurji. Kalarimaster. DrilBot.1992. . Danger. R. NinjaCharlie. Bsskchaitanya. VandVictory. Ivan Štambuk. KLL Joe. ClueBot. Zh67781530. Uma ranjan. TheGoodBadWorst. DHN-bot~enwiki. Muski27. SmackBot. Citation bot. Iokseng. Amarveda. Woohookitty. Gandalf1491. Munci. Curb Chain. Skrodl. M0rphzone. Sanscrit1234. NuclearWarfare. Yashowardhani. YurikBot.wikipedia. WNYY98. Tom Radulovich. RexNL. Robina Fox. Nallimbot.mahoney.org/wiki/Rajas?oldid=644630680 Contributors: Magnus Manske. Lotlil. Lalita wiki. Emptymountains. Jayarathina. Danog-76. Yobot. Dalliance. PotatoBot. Redwrathe.anirudh. Elavarasutt. Jesse Viviano. Sethie. Jorganos. Vaisnavi. Eukesh. Bharat Sawant. Buddhipriya. Tamfang. Agg kapil. Verbum Veritas. Gogo Dodo. Mark Arsten. Kedar. Dv vignesh. Hpfan1. ÄDA . Little Mountain 5. Vanished user sdij4rtltkjasdk3. BenoniBot~enwiki. TXiKiBoT. The Herald. TheRingess. Sprasann. Rokus01. ClueBot. Xufanc. HJ Mitchell. Cerabot~enwiki. Riteshlamsal. Sanchit30 and Anonymous: 677 • Guṇa Source: http://en. NekoDaemon. SunDragon34. Helpful Pixie Bot. CALR. Inbetweener. Arjayay. Rakeshshrestha. Harishsubramanian. AvicAWB. MystBot.anacondabot. AjitPD. Zgialor. Ntsimp. Shijualex. Aatreya.Tango. Nandloka. Spiritindia. Dexbot. Atomaton. Douglas the Comeback Kid. Readanything1729. Mr. Acctry. Dangerous-Boy. Havereric1. Sandeep slash. Uyvsdi. WinBot. Dabomb87. Rudjek. Sp0076. NatureA16. DBaba. Schmloof. Wetwarexpert. Rosarino. Pdpiam. Tgeairn. Hanners.pannu. Artaxiad. Sji2671. Tentoila. GourangaUK. SmackBot. Sfan00 IMG. Escape Orbit. Mercurywoodrose. Solomon7968. Patelurology2. Zerokitsune. Handyunits. Barefact. Leewonbum. Escarbot. Interlingua. Sharnak. Andyhowlett. Keenan Pepper. Smalljim. Jayjrn. Ascii002. Ssven2. Xact. Utkarshsingh. Yarnalgo. Khalid Mahmood. Luke Warmwater101. Mjbmrbot. RobotG. Shashikgp. Kkm010. Wahabijaz. Gzhanstong. HappyColor. The Man in Question. Corvus13~enwiki. R'n'B. Mf1004. Bonadea. Skant. Syncategoremata. Nadirali. Gaia2767spm. Sridharan eee. . Wikiuser13. RaviC. Scalhotrod. Mujahideen194. Freetoreach. 100110100. Anonymi. Cydebot. DrilBot. Keithbob. Dzubint. SieBot. LordSimonofShropshire. IronChris. Owlmonkey. Thisthat2011. Babub. GirishAdiga. Nallimbot. IAF. Rms1. Bluebot. StasMalyga. Ahyangyi. WikitanvirBot.wikipedia. Mitsube. Jujhar. JhsBot. Jazzmand. MelbourneStar. Thijs!bot. Ripchip Bot.iyer1. InTeGeR13. OccultZone. DBaba. Idioma-bot. DuncanHill. EmxBot. Cremepuff222. SlackerMom. Mogism. Thuraiyur. Legobot. Moonraker. Phildar60. Foreverknowledge. Yes. Cbomo. Srikym. User06201. LilHelpa. Phaedreus. Laysforme. DumZiBoT. RaulRavndra. Esteban. JohnBluePlus. Aravind Vlad. Kseon. Inertia720. Jamessugrono. Barticus88. Cminard. Drkpp. Skywalker. Evano1van. FrescoBot. Ankush 89. Bped1985 and Anonymous: 23 • Sattva Source: http://en. Steven J. Rogerb67. Saberlotus. Landroo. TXiKiBoT. Esszet. Calmargulis. Wandering-teacher. Sparkplay. Thirusivaperur. Der Golem. Zerokitsune. WikitanvirBot. Rebeccastrunk. Logos112. MartinBotIII. Hsxeric. Ljgua124. AnomieBOT. AnomieBOT. Cowlibob. Iridescent. Rivertorch. Jonesey95. John of Reading. Thaurisil. PrimroseGuy. Adeptzare3. Khestwol. VoABot II. Monkbot. Bigweeboy. Mintoo44. Vikramadityachandel. Keenan Pepper. Kaveri. InfocenterM. Serein (renamed because of SUL). Stefano Vincenzi. Longroof. SchreiberBike. Cyberbot II. Luckas-bot. KasparBot. Martarius. Tuncrypt. हेमन्त डबराल. Puppyvels. AntiVandalBot. Chess. Lfdder. Carlossuarez46. Varanwal. Vagobot. Jarkeld. Irisbox. Moonriddengirl. MovingTree. Izmi. fiend. Kotakkasut. Jncraton. Anderson. Mild Bill Hiccup. Anuvarshanw. DragonBot.Foxtrot.arg. Mdmday. Yoonadue. Aoidh.atul. Benwing. Rosarino. Adnat. AugPi. Vijñaptimātra. Roberts7. Fsjpy. Leegee23. Rockthemind. LordAnubisBOT. Xqbot. Raayen. Vladsinger. Fconaway. John Cline. KarBOT. TobeBot. Vinay. Sindhutvavadin. Sinhaempire. Hemant wikikosh. 2macia22. FlaBot. Bakasuprman. Neechalkaran. Joseph Biddulph. Cobaltcigs. Nownownow. TVSujal. DumbBOT. Carlossuarez46. Dougweller. Dysprosia. Kapil kalpana. Fuddle. OKBot. Magioladitis. Sirmylesnagopaleentheda. CookieMonster755. Erutuon. Quinyu. Maqs. Flewis.aravind. Azalea pomp. Addbot. TjBot. Nshirodkar. Kipholbeck.stefan. Adavidb. UrsusArctosL71. Makerowner. Docu. Wikidas. Vidyasankar. AlnoktaBOT. BendelacBOT. Melbinsuresh. Shreevatsa. Bbi5291. Sam Medany. VolkovBot. Dwivedianay. Bsskchaitanya. Darrendeng. Trelawnie. Numbo3bot. Mopenstein. DonaldSutherland. MichaelFayez. Ryulong. Vijaykum. Dream of Nyx. David. Wetman. Hillel.wikipedia. Peter McGinley. Bonadea. Thesilverbail. Elspru. Wiqi55. Dirgela. JLaTondre. Rohitbd. Ceoil. Whoami~enwiki. Antaeus Feldspar. Thiseye. Guettarda. Ohconfucius. Kungfuadam. Aeusoes1. Ne0Freedom. clown will eat me. YellowMonkey. UtherSRG. Sjorford. Lastorset. Despentes. TRUTHSEEKER. RickReinckens. Marcok. Profvk. Ganeshk. Gucci 124. Siddhartha21. Ligulembot. Merope. Wookipedian. Anupamsr. NetBot. Ground. Mike Rosoft. Pizza Puzzle. Mkweise. Sir Arthur Wellington. FrescoBot. Liftarn. Tzaquiel. Hmains.man. Jsmilgin. Satanael. Jordain. Tydaj. Holy Ganga. Carbon Caryatid. Ahoerstemeier. Usingha~enwiki. Wiglaf. DanielCD. Taxman. Heron. Rishartha. Ashwatham. Laurencooper. CARNASSUS. Nachiket. Qadri. Manasgarg. JoshuaZ. Garion96. Scottperry. Tarakananda. Academic Challenger. Girmitya. AreJay. Oblivious. Banana04131. John K. MarkSutton. Tastemyhouse. Kbdank71. Cyrillic. Gary. Curps. Vpatel. Quadell.Mestel. William Vroman. Jwy. Flcelloguy. Jredmond. Uber nemo. Nat Krause. Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj. Delldot. DaGizza. Smithfarm. Rdsmith4. Konstable. Joyous!. SWDesai21. CONTRIBUTORS. Alex Bakharev. Anclation~enwiki. Michael Devore. Yamla. Deeptrivia. Naufana. OptimusPrime~enwiki. Ariel Pontes. Regan123. Essjay. Stepheno. Lexicon. Christian List. Chameleon.Z-man. Dazednconfused. Wmahan. GPHemsley. Paul A. Kingturtle. Knightblazer. Xezbeth. Func. Paul-L~enwiki. DarkFalls. Gershwinrb. DJ Clayworth. Lagalag. Hairy Dude. TheRingess. Huon. Rama’s Arrow. Chemica. Tirdun. R6MaY89. VigilancePrime. Medar~enwiki. Shridharvk. Yogesh Khandke. Notcarlos. Reedy. Canderson7. Emiellaiendiay. Engti. Amir85. RandomCritic. The Singing Badger. Dontbeakakke. AND LICENSES 217 Allenc48. Emre D. Jerrch. CGP. Spirituality. Sam Spade. User2004. David Gerard. RedWolf. NCurse. Ramashray. Benji man. Paul August. TShilo12. Shreevatsa. Paul Raj. Judgesurreal777. Sharnak. SMRT4UCR2002. Steelhead. Marskell. DavidJ710. Pigman. Dingodangodongo. Stephen Day. Rich Farmbrough. Mulder416. Islandboy99. Netscott. Drunken Pirate. Nikai. IZAK. Luis Dantas. T3gah. Antandrus. Cuchullain. Heman. Joelr31. Xasf. Wavelength. Xorkl000. Altenmann. Baronnet. Yamamoto Ichiro. Will Beback. Avb. LordSimonofShropshire. Chokerman88. Cybercobra. Nightscream. Emc2. The Rambling Man. Iztwoz. Dbachmann. Ran. Hijiri88. Nehrams2020. Salt Yeung. BDD. Rahuldewan. Diberri. Chamatkaribaba. Bgwhite. Seraphimblade.nanjund. DropDeadGorgias. Wimt. Zoicon5. Merovingian. Mukkakukaku. Stephenb. Ragib. Aparajith. Zoney. WikiSSMN. Bobrayner. QuartierLatin1968. VolkovBot. TravisTX. Gracefool. Mooncowboy. Andries. Childzy. Nirvana2013. Lokesh 2000. Jfingers88.maurya.Saxena. Dark Shikari. DocWatson42. Zunaid. Skinnyweed. . Doldrums. Zzedar. Allens. T-Money. Yansa. Hornplease. Ranveig. FlaBot. Yurivict. AnonMoos. Yom. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES. Minnow117. Danny. BattyBot. Dharmabum420. Prameya. Bookofjude. Goethean. Vaikunda Raja. Broken Segue. TUF-KAT. Mr. Leaflord. Magister Mathematicae. Doc glasgow. Siroxo. Soumyasch. Makemi. Sjain. Homagetocatalonia. Persian Poet Gal. Bcorr. Paval. Irishguy. Emops. Zafarnamah. Grenavitar. Sam Hocevar. Arvindn. Cohesion. Rursus. Oskar Sigvardsson. Pilotguy. Ndpandit. Spoonboy42. Rajeeshvp. Hariraja. Sango123. Sannse. Andrewman327. GregAsche. Bodnotbod. Rickyrab. Thomas Mills Hinkle. Borgx. Stizz. Fabiform. Malhonen. SNIyer12. Nivix. Kukkurovaca. Gunter. Ronz. Tree Biting Conspiracy. Nakon. Ocatecir. Can't sleep. Cabhan. Shoeofdeath. Mr Adequate. JoeBlogsDord. Zizzybaluba. Clasqm. Saluyot. Christopher Parham. Ramayan. Alsandro. Grm wnr. Gilliam. Avant Guard. Hu. Ninly. Guruduttmallapur. Caknuck. Stevertigo. Zachorious. Anetode. Venu62. MAGEN. OrphanBot. Pecher. Sferrier. Niteowlneils. Digitalme. Anirvan. Bikeable. GraemeL. Machaon. Subramanian. Dionyseus. Malcolm Farmer. Bobblewik. Addbot. Sjmiester. Desiphral. Fred J. Fredrik. Raul654. RexNL. Bijee~enwiki. Hurricane111.Vikram. Retired username. Frymaster. Harp. TheParanoidOne. Lir. Alren.17. Saga City. Palaniyapan. Sardanaphalus. SmackBot. Corwin8. Eequor. Sundar. Ixfd64. Scifiintel. Jedi Davideus. Glenn. Gary D. Kralizec!. Michael Hardy. Aquillion. DVD R W. RSpeeter. StuffOfInterest. Shakher59. Abhishek-Kumar. WpZurp. Kmg90. Rmky87. Rrjanbiah. Khoikhoi. NickPenguin. SteinbDJ. Gaurav. RanchoRosco. Jguk 2. Jossi. Ankur. Sjakkalle. Sunborn. Anwar saadat. Tiresais. ZZyXx. Everyking. Jagged 85. Ian Pitchford. Cactus. Ekrub-ntyh. Anitaa~enwiki. Peruvianllama. Sganjam. Karthik. Pjacobi. Triona. Sdfert123 and Anonymous: 43 • Hinduism Source: http://en. Dan100. Alcidebava. Lkdasa. Bobo192. Henry Flower. DanKeshet. Rasmus Faber. RickK. The Anome. Juzeris. Hyacinth. Helicon. Epolk. Ramkrish. El C. Dori. SpLoT. Zsinj. ARYAN818. Satish~enwiki. Mild Bill Hiccup. Angela. MartinHarper. Ogress. Ohnoitsjamie. Master Of Ninja. Tachyon01. Zazaban. BradBeattie. Alrasheedan. Selmo. CambridgeBayWeather. Water Fish. Lugita15. Appaiah. Tail. Magicalsaumy. Maximus Rex. Tux the penguin. Mani1. BostonMA. Mskadu. LestatdeLioncourt. Nmpenguin. Toddst1. RobertG. TigerShark. Stevietheman. Cribananda. Hanuman Das. CALR. ABoerma. Aoidh. SpeedyGonsales. The Man in Question. Nichalp. Pak21. Mebden. Midnightblueowl. Hottentot. Freedom skies. ImpuMozhi. Ryan Roos. Gwernol. Cowman109. Jorge Stolfi. Samir. Bomac.7. Hbackman. Yngwin. Deepak~enwiki. Pranathi. OneGuy. WoodElf. Baodo. Master of Puppets. Davenbelle. KRS. Bhupinder Schwartz. Somepostman. Elimisteve. Rjwilmsi. Green Giant. Ligulem. Akubra. . Zzuuzz. Gaius Cornelius. Knowledge Seeker. Gobonobo. Yogeesh. Wiki alf. Kungming2. Bob A. Zfr. Bantman. MrRadioGuy. A bit iffy. DanielAtticus. Davewild. Tillwe. Wtwilson3. Rumour. Jusjih. Kipala. Ciceronl. SKhumbani. Knutux. SHASHI KAPOOR. Graham87. Phoenix2~enwiki. Mike Dillon. Goodnightmush. Norvy. Zain engineer. Planders. Sciurinæ. Andrew c. Eliyak. Tgeorgescu. Benevolent56. Aneeshm. Rudrasharman. Le Anh-Huy. Sfacets. Wikicrusader. Oliver Pereira. Dangerous-Boy. TimBentley. Adashiel. SimonD. JohnOwens. Cyberblah. Samhita. Mowgli~enwiki. RoyBoy. Alamandrax. William Avery. Oolong. RussBot. BorgQueen. Andres. Paul Stansifer. Onjacktallcuca. Idleguy. Tek022. SpNeo. Oatmeal batman. Vernekar8. SarekOfVulcan. Sanjoyroy. Keenan Pepper. Invader05. Damicatz. SV~enwiki. Ellywa. OwenX. Morgan1008. David Parfitt. Thor Waldsen. Garzo. Edivorce. Imc. Savidan. Midnightcomm. Kusma. Aksi great. Keegan. RadicalBender. Lorenzarius. R. Haza-w. Bhudiya2. Bryantjs6. Kwamikagami. Florian Blaschke. SQGibbon. Krsont.org/wiki/Hinduism?oldid=663056557 Contributors: Mav. Bsskchaitanya. Sterio. Chris the speller. Gurch. Dpotter. Dosey. Eismcsquare. Dineshkannambadi. Kartik. Crazycomputers.. EmausBot. CatherineMunro. NeilN. Willardo. Gawain~enwiki. Jayjg. Kaysov. J00tel. Chinju. Acerperi. Kevin B12. Jpatokal. Minesweeper. Bender235. Musical Linguist. Eddpayne. SEWilcoBot. Koavf. Rory096. Dwaipayanc. Ashley Y. Dreadstar. Hsriniva. Xdenizen. Pizzadeliveryboy. Kintetsubuffalo. Jkelly. Improbcat. Flyguy649. Indus~enwiki. NawlinWiki. KnowledgeOfSelf. Denihilonihil. Hongooi. Orangebot. Circeus. Jeff3000. Sl. Muroogan. Hemanshu. John Hill. Vary. Chimesmonster. Graft. Didactohedron. Specs112. Duncharris. NatusRoma. Yann. Mac Davis. Nirav. Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason. Hadal. Wiki-uk. Harryboyles. Chancemill. Frau Holle. XJaM. SCEhardt. Modulatum. Hoserjoe. Fabiob~enwiki. FUCK OFF. GourangaUK. FF2010. Spartian. Samsara. BrokenSegue. Jan van Male. Khukri. Jay. Appple. HalfShadow. Diderot. (. Charles Matthews. Varlaam. Vegaswikian. HenryMPiironen. Docboat. Harishsubramanian. Crystallina. Raguks. Richard Arthur Norton (1958. Discospinster. Mano1. Langdell~enwiki. Themusicking. RHB. SriniG. Kewp. RaCha'ar. Cholling. Terence. Cmdrjameson. BD2412.). OkashiraShinomori. Dcsohl. PseudoSudo. Zigger. TheMandarin. Echuck215. Wknight94. Infocidal. Lupin. Snarendran. Ansh25. Baryonic Being. CrazyVas. LordAnubisBOT. Xiaopo. Irishpunktom. Moncrief. SimonP. Gaff. Wik. Private Butcher. Gdje je nestala duša svijeta. Blacksun. Nograpes. UberCryxic. Suse999. Mo0. Lupinoid. Bhadani. BRG. Chobot. Vfsalom. Yelyos. ScaldingHotSoup. Victor. Pgk. Brandon. Joshteeters. Luk. Rchamberlain. Jangam. Shyam29. Utcursch. RxS. AppleJuggler. Apalaria. ElvisThePrince. Ketiltrout. Raj2004. Vudujava. Thunderboltz. Tom harrison. Art LaPella. Sukh. Susurrus. Zagalejo. Sisodia. Paxsimius. ClockworkSoul. PaintedRed216. Sietse Snel. TPK. Riana. Navneeth. Meni Rosenfeld. Humus sapiens. Bluebot. Robbot. Zondor. Hgilbert. Apeloverage. Mwanner. Woohookitty. Trevdna. RK. Saravask. Santap. Per Honor et Gloria. Mofaz. DeadEyeArrow. Srnec. Bird is the word~enwiki. Fuzzypeg. Klemen Kocjancic. ChrisO~enwiki. Cjthellama. Ambarish. Ricky81682. Mashburn. Knyght27. Ambuj. Elidorius. MANISCHEVITTS. Syrthiss. W Tanoto. Paul Barlow. Mahaabaala. Websurfer11. Conti. Sptata. Trevor MacInnis. Dysprosia. Nanshu. Shree. Maelnuneb. Sduplessie. Priyanath. JoanneB. Ben-Zin~enwiki. Orbst. Egctraders. Mkchaudhari. Orayzio. Womenman69. Anthonyhcole. Schizophonix. Slash1150. Numbo3-bot. Blinksteal.delanoy. Nshirodkar. VolkovBot. John of Reading. AvicBot. Davidalex1. Ideogram. LeMaster. Sobreira. Steve Newport. Xqbot. Gauravchauhan4. Lokanth. Tiptoety. RjwilmsiBot. Piper06w. R'n'B. Anshuman. Anakin187. Mrmaroon25. The Behnam. Hmrox. Go4ash. Pajz. Jethwarp. Danhomer. TheChrisD. Trappist the monk. KKMMH. Thigle. Pratikthakore. InMemoriamLuangPu. Ninelvndeathtrap~enwiki. Yobot. Codeman07. Tomgeorge22. Lotadutt. Bharatadesam.Kimpstein 101. The chosen one fire. Shiva das. Lmanchi. AntiVandalBot. Bakasuprman. EscapingLife. OAC. Acalamari. Johnbrownsbody. VNNS. Mattmiller2. TriniMuñoz. Lordvolton. 0rrAvenger. Gaura79. Eik Corell. Shiva Evolved. Ridernyc. DarthTel. Pichpich. Yupik. Tyc22. Lilwik. HFret. Remember the dot. Rossen4. Eubulides. -Midorihana-. IRISZOOM. Pax:Vobiscum. Unbuttered Parsnip. TXiKiBoT. LinkFA-Bot. Masako Kawasaki. FactoidCow. Hindumon. Maelgwnbot. H4ppym1nt. Rav142857. K. Kulasman. Nityanandaram. RedBot. Lucyin. Ntsimp. Srsingh75. Luckas-bot. FoxBot. Mojo Hand. Siddhartharaina. Fixmacs. Aupmanyav. Dilli Billi. Anonymous44. Werieth. Editor2020. Wafulz. Ghaly. Ambi saba. Tawkerbot4. Zack Holly Venturi. Smallmac03. Neonblak. Backupinfo. And my axe. Majorly. CarbonRod85. Shiva’s Trident. CarTick. Deor. Mnemeson. Hindudharma. Tgeairn. TjBot. Azad singh parihar. DBose2. Dr. Sunilshamnur. Ramsis II. Ember of Light. Jordan Morgan. WikitanvirBot. Worthadonkey. Varundala. Krishnaji. LadyofShalott. Mynameistupid. Deepakasani123. Yahel Guhan. Nite-Sirk. Shoessss. Shizane. Freeboson. VAIBHAV AKSH. Sccrking768. Chhajjusandeep. Shadowjams. Vishalvibhu. Ahavat. Cinosaur. Van Nooz. 1ifes4v3r. Padshah99. Lateral thinker. Bwhack. FisherQueen. Sid b6505~enwiki. MER-C. Smokizzy. Sendrin. Citation bot. Philosopher123. John254. Red minx. Brms. Hut 8. Amalas. Timeroom. Newbie. Addbot. MyTwoCopperCoins. Cwaters09. Maheshkumaryadav. NittyG. Thaurisil. Lawrence Cohen. Savitr. Martarius. Betty Logan. Bonadea. AlleborgoBot. J04n. Faizhaider. Philosopher4. Opiner. Davshul.learning. Wobwana. Professor marginalia. Josephcunningham. Hanberke. Ajeyaajeya. Ekajati. HeBhagawan.bot. Lactovegan. Tim1988. Cutie-11. Neonmaximus. Mulliey. Nt92116. Profitoftruth85. Kajasudhakarababu. Masala47. Qwyrxian. Airborne84. Caltas. Pink!Teen. DanielEng. Ansumang. Fieldday-sunday. Leolaursen. JAnDbot. Mes9696. SD5. Maijinsan. Otlw112.5. Tilakman. Johnhardcastle. EmausBot. Desibhagera. Glen. Aks818guy. CommonsDelinker. TaborL. Asakun. Julian Mendez. Voldemortuet. Diannaa. Escarbot. Mimihitam. Evaders99. HinduDefender. SieBot. S Seagal. Sritri~enwiki. Olivemountain. Gimmetrow. Sir Vicious. Poindexter Propellerhead. Dawn Bard. Pyrospirit. Muro Bot. Mm9n. Jojalozzo. Caper13. Msk jatt. Maleabroad. Saileshrh. Guy Macon. Lahaun. Ollyrobotham. D. Eu. Ism schism. WereSpielChequers. Sdebbad. Rshah41. VeeereshBT. Jonesey95. Jklumker. Will-B. Kunjethy. Ekabhishek. Wikid77. Bogey97. Sindhian.sakalle. Ripchip Bot. Paranomia. TheTruthiness. B9 hummingbird hovering. Samson101. Fowler&fowler. SATTVIC DIET TwoHorned. Omicronpersei8. Gemini1980. GHe. Vvitor. Audaciter. Nflav. Arjayay. BrendanFrye. Abecedare. Dbrown123. Indianstar. Siberian Husky. Sadycat. RunningAway. Poeloq. L09whita. Quesotiotyo. Pmj005. Sodabottle. Myanw. Pfaffy. Brothers1sa. Sudhirkbhargava. No1lakersfan. Euicho. Tamilan101. . Moorematthews. GoingBatty. Idioma-bot.M. MatheoDJ. OlEnglish. Wikibangla. Basawala. Texas12345~enwiki. Luuva. CoupleKlonopin. Kkrystian. Foxracer604. Royalmate1. Slammerjam. Abdel Sinoctou. Pratap Singh Rajawat. SpaceFlight89. MikeLeeds. Wikifect. LucienBOT. Unibond.stefan. Sindhutvavadin. Mahayogini. Nosedown. Yankee Rajput. Divya. Thaejas. Intelligentsium. Pxl Buzzard. Arios20. Chovain. Tellyaddict. Plasticup. Shaanm. Hipsit18. Drm 1976. Mrbean123. Mayasutra. Anirudh777. Setmymax. Turkishbob. SpacemanSpiff.nayan. Dominator54. Tinucherian. Meekywiki. Jdsteakley. Nikitakotov. Bsroiaadn. Billinghurst. Toddy1. OliviaGuest. from Ukraine. Andicat59. Sikh-history. Az1568. J. Comte de Chagny. The Random Editor. MerlLinkBot. Vanished user zm34pq51mz. Zero555. Jeepday. KnowledgeHegemony. Arnibanssej. Abhishek3092. Tltltetd. Truthlover. SupaStarGirl. Mbc362. MightyParty. Jaeyoon25. NewEnglandYankee. Rigmahroll. ST47. Sarvabhaum. Xterms. Nshuks7. Luna Santin. Avinash Limaye. Pxma. Sun Creator. Gnanapiti. EJF. Froogal. Superdudemarkheckman. Niiishha. Jordan Rothstein. Sephiroth storm. Drjasmindiwan. India Rising. Mudaliar. Szajci. Aabster. KamikazeBot. RabinK007. UberScienceNerd. Storkk. Flowerpotman. Oldag07. Galileo seven. Dsj1008. Larry Rosenfeld. IPSOS. ‫ماني‬. 1SunStar. Arrow740. KNM. Kingthwomp. LittleOldMe. Apandey. Catgunhome. Katxijasotzaile. MECU. Tuncrypt. RamRamji. Bob Cigar. Oda Mari. AroundTheGlobe. Oxymoron83. Volkdahl~enwiki. Basar. Pieisgoodly. Noq. Escape Orbit. Cuziyam. Bazaan. Ekotkie. Haroon hamid. Soleswaran. Pikolas. Varanwal. Macy. Nanda524. Boohoocachoo. Hrishirise. Kmishra19. Fireice. Drouid. Jim1138. Torquemama007. Asharma gwl. Sweckform2. PhilKnight. O Govinda. Prasun92. Anit. Sppopuri. Govindk.thomson. 11achitturi. Richard Reinhardt. Llydawr.rawa. Future Perfect at Sunrise. Oktuck. Makkis~enwiki. Sd31415. Cydebot. RegentsPark. Nobleeagle. Youonlylivetwice. Bencherlite. BulldogBeing. Heroman5. Lightmouse.m. Rajpoot91. Hkelkar. Debnathsandeep. Legobot. Defioti. Evanh2008. Green11. Tides of Chaos. RaviC. Synthebot. Waris Guud. Matthewbird. Sjb2440. Sarayuparin. Ignatzmice. Indian Chronicles. Anuraagvaidya. Randhirreddy. Quatreryukami. Gamer007. Fabricebaro. Anonymomr. Amit20081980. Jonwilliamsl. Patalbhuvaneshwar. David Plum.jrt. Kalidasa 777. Vs. RenamedUser01302013. Tookery. Vigneswar. Ggffhe. Rumpelstiltskin223. Ozypyro. Shruti14. Ginsengbomb. Cyrene juby. Dharmadhyaksha. Bubba hotep. MartinBot. Jarble. Ouishoebean. Rueben lys. HveyVermnt. KuwarOnline. Knewace. Rettetast. Vamooom. Drake. Munci. THDju. Yavoh. Viscious81. Vector Potential. IAF. Bharatveer. Nima1024. Proabivouac. Indon. The Transhumanist. AnomieBOT. MeStevo. Scholarus. Kablammo. DumbBOT. Barneca. Beenagent. Drmies. Comedyman PC. Paine Ellsworth. Buddhipriya. Hariax. Kshrishail. Moonisah. ToePeu. Cuñado. Biswa roop. Krukouski. Dazedbythebell. Hulagu. MartinDK. Naveen Sankar. Kesshaka. Arthurlo. WikipedianMarlith. Oudeis23. Barrynirmal. Sitush. Townblight. Kozuch. SchreiberBike. 0nlyth3truth. Peter Napkin Party. Upparna. Dewan357. FrancoGG. Radhakrishnan Kadengal. Q Chris. Islamuslim. Kgwikipedian. AuburnPilot. LilHelpa. S gutierr. Lacius. Leosgirl22. Webankur. Dchall1. Shoshonna. Zerokitsune. WarthogDemon. Saran9669. Relata refero. Jed. Corvus cornix. DerHexer. Gunnar DeGraw. Luuvabot. Civilizededucation. Suyog 11. Kenfyre. Eyeris. M M. Gabriello. Fconaway. Magioladitis. Andyp777. Aoidh. Huzzahmaster018. Yogacharya. Radhasrini. Marwatt. Cosmic Latte. Filthyfix. Ian. Bot-Schafter. King Zebu. Philip Trueman. Hindu in Canada. Lucon50. PadmaDharma101. Jon Ascton. Daniel5127. Desione. Radon210. The Mummy. Gsrihariraju. Scottgn. The Sanctuary Sparrow. Andrew E. Tmusgrove. World. Trusilver. Swadhyayee. Nikkul. Smartmailman. Grim-Gym. Khoenr. Floresrm. Redtigerxyz. Richwil. Hindushudra. VoABot II. Blood Red Sandman. NSH002. Fleiger. Interested2. Rrrrrsss. Mjconry. Binary0110. Wikidas. Sriramwins. 99DBSIMLR. Oshwah. Littlewing1. MastiBot. Babub. Arjun024. Natalie Erin. Leafyplant. Husond. AjitPD. Mind meal. Sjerickson07. Iohannes Animosus. Rwessel. Corpx. AMuraliKumar. Bunzil. Rumiton. ClueBot. Alphachimpbot. Debresser. Mittal saumya. Sudeep. Scohoust. Don4of4. PigFlu Oink. TheJC. Gogo Dodo. Fbarton. AntiSpamBot. Estéban. Pandacomics. Raokasturi. Tpth. Wdgwdgwdg. Edward321. Freeyourmind0123. Sunsang. Qxz. Jauerback. Lihaas. KConWiki. RibotBOT. Tripping Nambiar. Desidudeguy. Mrceleb2007. Skumarlabot. Presearch.218 CHAPTER 17. Piledhigheranddeeper. Steve3849. Viking17. Skyerise. Ramitmahajan. Astynax. Jotterbot. FrescoBot. Kanchanamala. Euthymios. Katara0722. ThambeEeE. MartinBotIII. Chain27. Maxim. Chrislk02. Mitsube. Matthew Fennell. Tassedethe. Hniyer. Zeddicus Zu'l Zorander. Innotata. Enviroboy. Vrite2me. Jay jay 727. FoianZ. Pathan wannabe. GrouchoBot. Johnbod. Jakethisisnot1234567890. The Profesor. Scarpy. Arl123wiki. Bhrgvsridhar. Legoktm. CmdrObot. Sd07. Nitinkarani. Roydude1. Lucyintheskywithdada. Leopart. Wikiality123. Lesleygeojohn. The Enslaver. Haaqfun. Mafat0327. Atulsnischal. Lilac Soul.agc. Pectore. Abrarzawed. Hard Sin. Lights. Bhuvann.pimple. Spiritualindia. Nareshgupta. Arjun01. NMChico24. SJP. I dream of horses. Gumok. Jonnyboy 01. Rui Gabriel Correia. Vinay Jha. Suuperturtle. RafaAzevedo. JinJian. Mind Swapper. Vrixmaster. Sniperz11. Dantheman531. Mattskills. JForget. Ilkali. JohnBlackburne. ArmadilloFromHell. Gossamers. Daa89563. Imsittingnexttoryan. Kim-Zhang-Hong. Tawkerbot2. LeonisRugitur. Anupam. Spock of Vulcan. Tobby72. Treexchopper. Nmadhubala. Naval Scene. Pjoef. Citation bot 1. Ke4roh. Mwanner. Canderson7. Nat Krause.haddock. Scorpionman. Riteshkochar. Le Anh-Huy. Beta m. LindsayH. Roboshed. Jeremy112233. Yuppie15. Joshers. Mendaliv. Kusma. Accepttruth. Elipongo. Beardo.man. Jyoti Woodhouse. Lukobe. Monkbot. Quadduc. Snowcream. MrSomeone. Jodosma. Sasquatch. Rhinomantis88. Malo. HangingCurve. Avochelm. Atlant. 2. Ezhiki. Russell Dovey. Gingekerr. Millosh. CesarB. QuartierLatin1968. Todd Vierling. Anthony. Irrigator. Agragora. Bikeable. Kingroyos. Sfrantzman. Waxmop. Olivier.neel.K. Arjunkrishna90. FoxCE. Fvw. Ktsquare. Daveman16. Tbone. Malcolm Farmer. Hurvashtahumvata888. Altered Walter. Saurabh. Nadavspi. Morgangrether. Lokisis and Anonymous: 2004 • Buddhism Source: http://en. Tslocum. Chulaww. Hottentot. Dangerous-Boy. CountMango. Marudubshinki. Pandora. Nivix. Magister Mathematicae. T1980. Susurrus. Docboat. Marc Venot. Capitals00. LordAmeth. Graham87. Bongan. Raraja123. HarmonicSphere. Digitalme. Keith Edkins. Vreswiki. Bloodshedder. Curps. Khabboos. Grenavitar. Vagobot. Yas~enwiki. SEWilco. Leopetra. Paul August. RxS. Viridian. Gunnar Gällmo~enwiki. DÅ‚ugosz. Pinball22. AcidSnow. Adityan bhadra. Brutannica. Sciurinæ. Bill37212. RoyBoy. Bodnotbod. Ms Sarah Welch. Vespertine27. Evandra.Healey. Ellywa. Tabletop. Alansohn. Cherubinirules. Shantavira. Evercat. D6. Schneelocke. 20040302. LittleSocrates. Chowells. JabberWok. Deltabeignet. Min. Radharani11. Baryonic Being. Woohookitty. MrBill3. Jjron. SporkBot.org/wiki/Buddhism?oldid=659827284 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp. Pritha1997. RickK. Commander. Compfreak7. Technopilgrim. Causa sui. Raghu-holkar. Snowolf. Ixfd64. Bkonrad. Ganeshk. Angela. David. R Lowry. ShakataGaNai. Navidazizi. AsianAstronaut. Aadigeog. John Hill. Dysepsion. Saltine. Media lib. Rasmus Faber. Adambro. Rholton. LordSimonofShropshire. Aks23121990. Glenn. SqueakBox. Aliceinlampyland. LogX. Shanes. Atomician. Lucidish. Backin72. Hendrick 99. Ghatus. Rim sim. Eleland. CALR. Guy M. Kaldari. The sanch. Bladesmulti. Tronno. Albert Frankenstein. Goethean. PZFUN. Ray Van De Walker. Pratyeka. Madkayaker. Chmouel. D-Notice. Zavatter. Hillbillyholiday. Jersyko. 468SM. L'etudiant. Cerabot~enwiki. Super-Magician. VictoriaGrayson. SpeedyGonsales.wikipedia. Deepesh bhattarai. DopefishJustin. Per Honor et Gloria. Debasishkoley. Zoicon5. Septate. Brian0918. GTBacchus. TheMidnighters. CONTRIBUTORS. Heron. Maebmij. ChrisGualtieri. Lucent474. ElBodhisattva. Bradeos Graphon. Nightngle. Aponar Kestrel. Andrevan. Ruth patterson.Monniaux. Murtasa. Creativegb. Darcagn. Gustafson. Surachit. Hanuman Das. Luis Dantas. NagaSindu. Inter. Rincewind42. Bobo192. Lincher. BreakfastJr. Chan Han Xiang. Wester. TonyMPNS. Tariqabjotu. Optichan. Wgw2024. The Rahul Jain. GavinZac. GoldRock23. Francois-Pier.17. PeregrineAY.romano. Dream of Nyx. RobertG. Kz9dsr0t387346. Hadal. Roland2~enwiki. TPK. Gdr. Grace Note. Sdej. CocuBot. Exploding Boy. Islam90. Cedrus-Libani. Brettz9. Scott. AND LICENSES 219 NearTheZoo. Dabbler. TigerShark. Fuzheado. Yoonadue. Gooldenwending. Kautilya3. NeWorldorder. Redfarmer. TexasAndroid. Robevans123. Lbs6380. Amitrochates. Flcelloguy. IZAK. Kukkurovaca. Vinegar5. FeanorStar7. Zach Garner. Rjwilmsi. Arinjatt. Sputnikcccp. Jon Harald Søby.vinian. Everyking. MangoWong. Mogism.xerox. GregAsche. Jdbruce. LFaraone. Joepearson. Mav.madhavan. Guliolopez. Chester Markel. Wetman. Altenmann. Ludraman. Andrew Gray. No Guru. Roy da Vinci. Triona. Bth. Darkwind. Netscott. BD2412. SaibAbaVenkatesh. Peruvianllama. Victor Gijsbers. Rajatantra. Netpilgrim. Kapil. Furrykef. Peter_Olin. Syvanen. SoWhy. Davidiad. Geni. Omegatron.Karthikeyan. Andrewman327. Jkominek. JahaalChakravarti. Usedbook. Marskell. Neelkamala. Caitanya108. MPF. Mandarax. Rursus. Cnwb. Emops. Nilagriva. Wayland. Jacoplane. Thisthat2011. Andre Engels. Starquake. Ragib. Lupin. T3gah. Eveningfalls. Sjc. Lexi Marie. Shrikanthv. Duncharris. Ponshivam. USSJoin. Ashley Y. Malhonen. Sawadeekrap. Kalogeropoulos. Gwernol. ChuispastonBot. Lectonar. Art LaPella. Nanshu. Rashkesh. Ciceronl. LordSuryaofShropshire. Mentibot. Miguel~enwiki. Kh7. Akamad. DanielCD. Darkness Shines. PhnomPencil. Sjakkalle. Ivirivi00. CanisRufus. Dexbot. Gaius Cornelius. Porcher. Riana. Aude. Nagig. Meera5589. Trinanjon. Srisharmaa. Crazycomputers. FlaBot. Elhim. Fonzy. Crazypower. Eequor. Menchi. Bryce Carmony. Bz2. Gsp. Modulatum. Lumos3.a. Violetriga. Supadawg. HappyCamper. Angr. Ora7. Thebige. Maximus Rex. Tom harrison. AndrewNewYork. Arie~enwiki. Ian Pitchford. Aranel. Roadrunner. Din123. Jez. Titoxd. Bishwasm. Chaser. Brion VIBBER. Hen3ry.). RussBot. HenryLi. TShilo12. Sminthopsis84. Chobot. Shii. Commander Keane. Paxsimius. Randhwasingh. JesseGarrett. Alan Liefting. Smack. Ranveig. Angelo. Oneiros. Thirdid. Josve05a. Bogdan Nagachop. Mboverload. Jojit fb. Kuntz~enwiki. Sceptre. Stewartadcock. Sam Korn. Bobblewik. Smalljim. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES. Wavelength. Epicgenius. Nk. Timlane. ExitControl. Tulsirama. Tarakananda. Naus. Neutrality. Srchild. Ds13. Mattbrundage. CheshireKatz. Mal~enwiki. Several Pending. Frazzydee. Freakofnurture. Januarythe18th. Antaeus Feldspar. Tpbradbury. Gakuro. Academic Challenger. KrozanDarshan. Bhadani. Ugen64. Nikai. Richard Arthur Norton (1958. Solipsist. Wafaashohdy. Adjutor101. Mani1. Xiaopo. Kevin B12. SlingPro. Jguk 2. Skr. CBDunkerson. MingMecca. El C. Timwi. Jhf. Viriditas. Zondor. Gscshoyru. ClueBot NG. Liftarn. Yertsams. Deanos. CO2Northeast. Physchim62. Shokk. Raul654. Swamp Ig. Pigman. Walkerma. Evil Monkey. Iamtrhino. Rdsmith4. Moondyne. Cpt. Lupo. Delibzr. Phantomsteve. Kesuari. Gurch. Fataltourist. Mandel. FWBOarticle. Kanga Roo in the Zoo. Anders Feder. Tutmosis. Samuel de mazarin. Dhammafriend. Andkaha. Gimboid13. Umapathy. Python eggs. Rockin It Loud. TheDJ. Terence. Kwertii. Notcarlos. Mana Excalibur. Cookieballer. Lee Horn. Sannse. Splat. Bbatsell. Brunoton. Ferkelparade. Stevietheman. Andycjp. Raam2. Sdeepak scor. Vapour. Tabrez. Phidauex. CorinneSD. Rossum. Whir. MartinHarper. Jutta. 2ct7. E0N. CryptoDerk. Avaagaa. Quadell. Vsmith. Kilopi. None~enwiki. Stephen Hodge. HGB. OwenX. SteinbDJ. Acmuller. Stephenb. Henry Flower. Regulus. Ankur. Pydisc. Itinerant1. John Abbe. Tapasya Dev. Aditya Mahar. Rockear. Ashish-Sharma-Dilli. Jambolik. Mel Etitis. Dara. Taxman. Texture. Ian Page. Sjschen. SWAdair. Caeruleancentaur. Manop. Igorre25. Écrivain. Wolfkeeper. Rudyh01. M Tracy Hunter. Snoyes. FolkTraditionalist. Sampranta. FUCK OFF. Uwo222. Shinjiman. Hurricane111. Mahusha. Djonn~enwiki. Abitoby. Onkar Karambe. Blolay. Gark. Bharathi. Golbez. Chicago god. Tawker. Yoliju. Jumbuck. ZéroBot. Heidimo. Wayward. Cactus. F. Anarula. Syiem. Calabe1992. Docu. Adam Carr. Melonkelon. Kbdank71. Asumiko Nakamura.tiang. Meggar. Sunborn. Skywalker. Brandmeister (old). MarkSweep. Aethelwolf Emsworth. Mahahahaneapneap. Joriki. Caid Raspa. Ogress. Rgenung. Joshua Jonathan. Mr Tan. OwnDealers. NetBot. Tamisrahan.7. Zbxgscqf. Shah-E-Zaman. Imc. Movses-bot. Clawson. Hu. Justo. Mike Rosoft. Somesh Tripathi. Lightdarkness. Bobrayner. Heartjewel. Bdonlan. David Gerard. Jiang. Cooldream99. Ambarish. WillWare. WadeSimMiser. Aluion. Urbster1. Michael Hardy. BRG. Munge. Jeffrey O. Mailer diablo. Frietjes. Algri. Ruakh. Paul Pogonyshev. BG19bot. North Atlanticist Usonian. Fennec. KyuuA4. Mr Adequate. Swaggart. Richard Weil. Cihan. NSR. Desmay. Adityanet. Koavf. Alexblainelayder. Andres. Banazir. Bkrish68. Boothy443. Ccord. Hashar. Niteowlneils. Vanished user kjn lsr35kjhwertsek4. Spasemunki. Bijee~enwiki. Sfacets. Ran. Raguks. Cambridge- . RexNL. Velho. Acampbell70. Naddy. BrahmanAdvaita. Icarus3. Robbot. Alex. Bertilone. Skysmith. Rozenthalm. Zhen Lin. Scientificquest. MONGO. PuzzletChung. A. VonBismarck. Tangotango. Gaurav. Nigelj. Tapuu. Nihiltres. Alex011. Evershade. Hz. BrokenSegue. Antandrus. Amarvc. Aquillion. Michael Snow. Spellbinder. Rschmertz. Discospinster. Vary. Yamamoto Ichiro. UtherSRG.718281828. H3llBot. Rich Farmbrough. Sango123. Delusion23. Richard. ESkog. Guanaco. EvanProdromou. Hayabusa future. Wrathjtr. NickSchweitzer. Shoujun. Ronz. Jossi. Cyrillic. Zizonus. Sietse Snel. Pragmatic Idealist. ProjeX. Cdc. MadEwokHerd. Scoops. Ronald-biggs. Sam Spade. CloudNine. Abolitionist. Drewrau. XJaM. Haiduc. Seano1. JeffBobFrank. Goodfaith17. Conscious. Firsfron. JustPhil. Feil0014. Kross. Alangnixon. Ssd. Wikiklrsc.tan. Rajputbhatti. Wclark. Koyaanis Qatsi. Sputnik-de. Bdesham. Ahoerstemeier. Chris 73. Meursault2004. Pied Hornbill. Jebba. Adnaan1. Iztwoz. Utcursch. Patsup. BattyBot. Bookandcoffee. OrbitOne. PFHLai. Jeff3000. Raj2004. Mxn. Goatasaur. PaniniPartha. Helpful Pixie Bot. Ankush 89. JYBot. Zigger. Mark Arsten. Randy Johnston. Bhishk. Boccobrock. Yo8088. Slrubenstein. Dawud. Sumit2709. Will Beback Auto. Erzengel. MarkGallagher. Meelar. Stevertigo. Lowellian. FreplySpang. Thebeginning. Sunray. Ejaz92. Kingturtle. Mahaabaala. Feezo. Alexwatson. Deeptrivia. Grm wnr. Vegaswikian. Alberuni. Danny. Ed g2s. Astanhope. RTCearly. Ashvawiki. Benchars. Pb30. SusanLesch. Noah Salzman. Lloegr-Cymru. 1000Faces. Seba5618. AtTheAbyss. CommonsDelinker. Izehar. Metta Bubble. Zainaldin. Magioladitis. JoeBlogsDord. RSpeeter. Macedonian. JJ Harrison. KConWiki. Neil916. Hydrogen Iodide. Bragr. Mranaweera. Hasek is the best. Janviermichelle. Anupam. Waywardson13. Phanerozoic. Addshore. RevWaldo. Pseudomonas. Zedla. Opelio. E rulez. Forgoten sally. Azza1990. Intranetusa. Geekdiva. LuisGomez111. MJD86. Smckrt. TBadger. B9 hummingbird hovering. SU Linguist. Cbankst. SFH. Thatperson. Ucanlookitup. Akral. Psora. Spellcast. Bot-Schafter. Arichnad. CzarB. Annastacia. 0zymandias. MichaelMaggs. Johncatsoulis. C. NeilN. Refractorist. Henitsirk. Frank Thomas. Mdsats. Fedayee. NewEnglandYankee. Barbacana. CapitalR. Sjlain. Tawkerbot4. Nirvana2013. User86654. Martinwilke1980. Philip ea. Iridescent. Noir~enwiki. Bullzeye. Fredil Yupigo. Llort. Bmearns. AdamWeeden.A. Xaosflux. Sagaciousuk. Archer904. Joseph Solis in Australia. Umicel. Rama’s Arrow. RedRollerskate. Patiwat. Steenjager.A. Vgy7ujm. Traderob. Mdwyer. Ig0774. Kkailas. Scepia. Kaesle. RandomP. Jus1193. Sardanaphalus. JohnColtrane. Ph89~enwiki. Cap97. Jehswong. Magicalsaumy. FHSUser. Igoldste. InkQuill. Hyfzyz. Coolbo. VoABot II. Rowsees. John1838. Rory096. MetsFan76. Nishkid64. WJBscribe. Philip Trueman. Danger. ALR. Ntfletch. Quokkapox. AndyBQ. Keycard. Lahiru k. Krishnaji. Garkbit. Prodego. YellowMonkey. Timmybug24. Joel Mc. Paladinwannabe2. Extransit. Sandrog. Saimdusan. Mcaruso. Shizane. A Softer Answer. AjaxSmack. Pgk. Soetermans. Cydebot. Middleman 77. The Transhumanist. NawlinWiki. Jayen466. Schun. Ohnoitsjamie. Hcobb. Potaco99.U. MK8. Runcorn. Steamwheel. Tawkerbot2. Equendil. Epbr123. InverseHypercube. Tapir Terrific. Peter morrell. Naturalmetal.Saxena. Wknight94. Juaniychema. Darth Panda. Scout1. Akuyume. RDF. Tanaats. Astral. Skepticus. Animum. Thecanadiankid. Fan-1967. Whomp. GregMinton. Amatulic. Asarelah. Hybernator. Midnightblueowl. Cnota. Dhammamedhi. Priyanath. PhilipO.Nut. James086. Nosig638. Rarian rakista.J. Robert Daoust. Rjm656s. Sacca. Jaxl. WhaleyTim. Sdcvhj. Husond. Pharaoh of the Wizards. Zzuuzz. BGManofID. Tigeroo. Davedoom. Jzick33. Geologik.S. Yanksox. Hdt83. Kinghalax3. Flowerpotman. Danrok. Stumps. Lakers. Sciamachy. Az1568. Pax:Vobiscum. Whitejay251. Snowolfd4. JuJube. Jfsamper. KenCavallon. Sheldoodly. Theda. AP1787. Big Jock Knew. Spacebirdy. Elharo. Barneca. Khukri. RPoplar. Yahel Guhan. Zerokitsune. Adukaboy. Irishguy. Nshuks7.. Vanjagenije. JaGa. Phgao. AGToth. Wookipedian. Beno1000. Green11. Hypehuman. Nikian95. Bharatshah. Vssun. Jéské Couriano. Paulbunyon. Prabeshhimalaya. Tree Biting Conspiracy. Wujastyk. Casper2k3. Splorpy. A. Para. Celarnor. Jim Casper. Smokizzy. Sensei48.Bhatta. Nomadcowboy. Bob. Amitch. Read-write-services. Blah3. Katxijasotzaile. Salavat. Seandinmamma. Pomte. Slreporter. Banes. T. Fiksdal. Paul 012. Danny-w. DroEsperanto. ArielGold. Kt66. Dantheman531. Escarbot. Portillo. DumbBOT. Delong71487. Davewild. Cyberevil. Mr. KingDoorknob. Edipedia. Archmagusrm. Hotguytay11. Sigma 7. Leolaursen. SATTVIC DIET BayWeather. Jwissick. Kaiwanxiao. JLaTondre. Geneb1955. Wikipeditor. Nicklattan. Lawrencekhoo. Philiplin2345.Squark. Justin Stafford. Condem. Peter-F. Gabriello. Vanished user fj0390923roktg4tlkm2pkd. Rumpelstiltskin223. Spike Wilbury. Fralupo. Longshot14. Yashgaroth. Nealh 1. AirRaven. Amcbride. Hu12. Byelf2007. Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington. Acroterion. Emx~enwiki. Katalaveno. Chrislk02. Rangjung2. CWY2190. MBarry. A. Lynchical. Kribbeh. KnowledgeOfSelf. Dog Eat Dog World. Sethie. Lestrade. Kuru. FrancoGG. DerHexer. Green Giant. Snuffles72. Nompo. ElTchanggo. Anthee. Ryulong. Icenine378. Khoikhoi. Natl1. Wordnitpick. Eduardo Cuellar. Krich. Latebird. Colincbn. Jeff G. Tribal-fusion. ZerodEgo. Marek69. Bosheng. ACinfo. Nick. Nayak52. RandomTask. Gbwiki. Ling. ImaginaryFriend.daniel. Homicidal llama. FRA. OzzieOrca. Golgo-13. SimpleBeep. Parrot. Lxlbananasplitlxl. West Brom 4ever. Druksoogs. Csbodine. Ale jrb. Wimt.LeilaMcRaven.firth. . BetBot~enwiki. Emre D. Morinae. Indrakeerthi. D-Katana. A3RO. StephenBuxton. Tommy Herbert. BeyRel. Dgw. Johan1298~enwiki. InsaneAsylum. DeadEyeArrow. Abeg92. Fusionmix. Kipholbeck. Kc2dpt. Madskillzediter. SuedeHead. Shlomi Hillel. Rocinante9. Ghostbear616. Kimse. Appleby. ThomasO1989. Homestarmy. Sentausa. Kylu. Meco. Darrendeng. FelisLeo. Nmpenguin. Igiffin. Ph0kin. Codypedia. Mark Froelich. Lolwikiscum. Elgati. Impmon. Chowmajid. Cyclonenim. Catgut. IrishPete. Gammadion. JJ6000. Anniemclaughlin. Tsharpfilm. Lotusskywalker. DVD R W.msc. David Marriott. U. Slakr. Luna Santin. Rycanada. St. Gurchzilla. Rnb. Dycedarg. Daniel. Justin Eiler. AntiVan. WinBot. Hans Dunkelberg. Pyrospirit. Juliancolton. Drfunko. WLU. Suchness. Tony1. Carlif. Cometstyles. Mr. Lewien. Frymaster. Yoji Hajime. Dhammapal. Alsandro. FT in Leeds. JOE IBRAHIM. Joecool94. Gnanapiti. Robsomebody. St0ne. This user has left wikipedia. Leaderofearth. Commander Keane bot. ArdenD. Delldot. Weregerbil. Wikieditor06. BuddhaDharma. RB972. Reedy. Gogo Dodo.. MrFish. Ludwig354. Martiniminister. Closermac. Randomwhiteman. Nietz. Rpeh. Esanchez7587. ShakingSpirit. Optimist on the run. Martychacha. Bharatveer. Karafias. Vina-iwbot~enwiki. Dinnerbone. Rebeldealegre. Rgrant. clown will eat me. Tikiwont. CPMcE. Ninly. Xiahou. AntiVandalBot. Speyroyal. FluteBoy 15. Farosdaughter. Gotz. Ohho. UberCryxic. Amanbis.. Talonis1993. ABF. Howcheng. Phillip J. Gtg204y. Tdudkowski. Srkris. Phaedriel. MartinBot. Malcolm. Lifeontheplains. Sorkhadem. EnlightenedIOne. RandomCritic. Krovisser.S. Prasood185. Johnpseudo. Zazaban. 0612. Blckavnger. FJPB. Yogesh Khandke. JForget. TheKMan. Aesopos. PeteShanosky. Sumple. Andypham3000. Buddism. Thisisnotjake. Alanbly. Bethling. Zsinj. Ff1959. Stephencarr. Dleong. Peter jackson. Gardeyloo. Persian Poet Gal. Idioma-bot. 56352. Mr.A. JoanneB. Ligulembot. LittleOldMe. Afitillidie13. PhilKnight. Pissek. Ophion. ARYAN818. Scifiintel. Baronnet. Jacek Kendysz. DarkFalls. Nakon. Pixelface. BlytheG. Evrik. JAnDbot.troughton. Cophus.U. BinaryTed. Milldog 93. Itsmejudith. Mamin27. OMGsplosion. Slim~enwiki. Rosemania. Closedmouth. Dana murty. Jagged 85. Rsrikanth05. OrphanBot. Tidde. Whiteheadj. Nrahamthulla. Indon. Swatjester. Smally989. Thijs!bot. Educe. Natalie Erin. DabMachine.5. Picaroon. Voyaging. Mississippi~enwiki. Luk. VolkovBot. Dogears. Wassupwestcoast. Quintote. Holy Ganga. Teyes. Tanthalas39. CmdrObot. Leutha. Pleasantville. Josephfeinstein. Ziusudra. Pilotguy. Radiowar. Shanel. EncMstr. Shadowlynk. Farzon Lotfi. Nipoc. ThoHug. Herbythyme. Siludin. Dr. JONJONAUG. Wikiwerks. SmackBot. Truth777. Extreme Unction. Nareshgupta. Kajasudhakarababu. Gregfitzy. Ishmaelblues. Jasperdoomen. Rettetast. Modernist. Atomota. 653. Clinkophonist. Sopranosmob781. Liebeskind. Legotech. Afaprof01. Majorly. SoCalSuperEagle. Starnestommy. RichardF. Ineffable3000. Donmac. George415. Yettie0711. Green23. AstroPig7. Nirvanatoday. Jkauffman. Hut 8. Diddyeinstein. Jamesmichaelsf. J'onn J'onzz.A. Uncle Lemon. Sunderland06. Tony Fox. Zalgo. Langdell~enwiki. Thedjatclubrock. Jeremy Butler. Chris the speller. Abid6814. Indytanner. Euchiasmus. BorgQueen. Larry Rosenfeld. Omicronpersei8. Prajya. Ambuj. Shub iitkgp. Gradster1. Twejoel. Johann Wolfgang. Kukini. Htanata. Sylvain1972. Sjoshi999. Msnxy. Malleus Fatuorum. Osirishotep. 4455. SeanMD80.S. R'n'B. Prolog. MiroslavPragl. Rucha58. Jonwilliamsl. Galanskov. Bubba hotep. Pax85. FF2010. Dylan Lake. Fdags629. Gaff. JorisvS. Eu. NickBush24. Klimov. Writtenonsand. ArglebargleIV. Pcbene. NatureA16.Fred. Sangha. EVula. Poeloq. Richar4034. Andy Marchbanks. RHBridges. Melchoir. Brat32. McSly. Betacommand. Master Jay. Narcissus1012. Tyciol. Cheeroth. Anirudh777. Dantedanti. Ck lostsword. Pseudo-Richard. Maleabroad. Arjun01. Scohoust. Squids and Chips. Headbomb. Alebalba. MER-C. Peyna. Buddha2be. Arrow740. Shravak. Colonies Chris. Leuko. Tastemyhouse. Rentwa. Tomer T. Alasdair. Rmky87. Link12345161. Life is like a box of chocolates. Storkk.Zman. Saravask. RUL3R. Jrajesh. Hmains. John254. Ian Rose.delanoy. TjeerdAukes. Glen. Msikma. Paxfeline. NAHID. ACSE. Veinor. Vreemdst. Kripkenstein. Basar. Myasuda. JFD. Top.stefan. Gerards brother. Captain Gu. Realton. Deepak~enwiki. Steel. Avanidixit. SpLoT. Emersoni. PrimeCupEevee.220 CHAPTER 17. Attasarana. BranStark. Oktemplar. SineWave. Kozuch. Tasfan. Tigershrike. Xact. Tourbillon. Tachyon01. Monkeykiss. Fimbulfamb. Furtom. Lucasliso. Dfrg. Sebras. Lefty. Poseursloth.Cardenas. Gdk411. Iapetus. RazorICE. Dominio~enwiki. Mackan79.. Dr. Tjkiesel. AlexiusHoratius. SJP. Rsmyth. Beginnermind. Deeptii. Nearfar. Bongwarrior. Helen lace. Mugunth Kumar. Xzqx. Lrdwhyt. Lordmaster913. Fang Aili. Gaoshan. Hgilbert. Yeditor. Dppowell. J. CliffC. Tellyaddict. Mr. Brisvegas. Sjr10. Sealevelns. Gracenotes. Kungfuadam. Abc2992. Jolb. Cestrada. MrDemeanour. Huru179. SpK. Kennethtennyson. Dreadstar. Brett. Godardesque. AAA765. GraemeL. Can't sleep. SchfiftyThree. Caiaffa. Tenzinla. Wandering Star. Leebo. An Eternal Now. Sonyray. Zujine.whiskers. Hodness. Chummi. Drawn Some. Msundqvist. Excess noise. WikHead. Seren-dipper. YODAFON~enwiki. Apop123. Kutera Genesis. FoxCE..behind666. Rror. BenTrotsky. Truthsayer62. Yksin. Impulse1494. Jusdafax. Rjd0060. Evercat. Anna Frodesiak. Gdseal. LeadSongDog. Lotusfred22. Matmill. MuZemike. Kalamrir. LhunGrub. Joe Feather. Justincheng12345-bot. Nozix. Thisara. Lokantha. Weeliljimmy. BenBaker. Fat&Happy. Javierfv1212.kamila. BenKovitz. O034. Xp54321. Rsquire3. Haden is a homo.org/wiki/Sikhism?oldid=663360727 Contributors: MichaelTinkler. AvocatoBot. Bluehotel. Bennett858. Psykocree. Vagobot. M. Anjafa7. Jakewilliam. Zanimum. Jacob Newton. ClueBot. Погодин. Gerrymc1960. Truthbody. Jonadin93. Deathblud. EdwardLawrence. Imc. Youbetcha. 22kevin. Saltywood. Fieldday-sunday. Nobody60. FvdP. 1ChineseKid. Galoubet. SporkBot. VictoriaGrayson. Seraphim. TechBot. Eeepl. Dbdolan. VVPushkin. Revotfel. Michael Hardy. Marcocapelle. Tengu800. Neverquick. Yobot. Eclecticology. Lisaspank. Pectore. Alexander Rudik. Elizium23. Insanity Incarnate. Wall of putrid flesh. Buddhipriya. SafwanZabalawi. World8115. Jobas. Loopady321. Angela. Tkdman99. Sandlas Juagas. Omnipaedista. Spuzzy. Ggbsha. Stickee. Kid nightflyer. Ppyoonus. Right America. Gail. SpBot. Clasqm. Drrai s. Jim1138. GrouchoBot. Notedgrant. SlayerBloodySlayer. FabFaris. Gkedpage. Dexbot. Rebel XTi. Tehtrigger. Wassermann~enwiki. Riversid. NeWorldorder. Marinaro. Dominus. SallyForth123. Diannaa. FILWISE. Lechonero. Crowsnest. Darkerhat. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES. Capt. Leggette. Ajraval. The Thing That Should Not Be. Pham Hoang-Khoi. CO2Northeast. Accepttruth. ?oygul. Ewen. D'ohBot. Jerryofaiken. Left. CarsracBot. Taxman. Piledhighandeep. MastiBot. SJK. Andi 3ö. Bookworm729. Eweker. Friend. Lightlowemon. Gyroerrol. Dineshmed. Doug. Setmymax. Sevilledade. Lakewood fire. SheenShin. Mason0190. Notlivingdead. LittleDan. Filedelinkerbot. Swimmerfan13. GreyWinterOwl. Wingspeed. Tomcat7. BattyBot. Hak-kâ-ngìn. Mbroshi. A8UDI. Jroberts 84. Sbfw. Lampak. Chris Q. Earth. Billy bob johnson. Buddhakahika. Graft.a. CounterVandalismBot. Giants27. Radon210. JCJC777. ChrisGualtieri. GlooscapSinclair. Glum Muffin. TheNano7474. . DiverDave. Nathanielfirst. Pmdkh. Shatrunjaymall. THEN WHO WAS PHONE?. Jayefex. Changewords. Kingfifi. Jester5x5. Sahilm. Dawn Bard. Cflm001. Cremepuff222. Drewrau. Helpful Pixie Bot. Rkpdesilva. Mudithachampika. RK. Srushe. Materialscientist. Fratrep. Valaris17. BG19bot. AvicBot. Cheezybeans1. Chamath Mc. AlleborgoBot.O. Keilana. Bunny bella. Snotbot. Zoey101fan. KnowledgeAndVision. TanmayaPanda. Stemoc. Mikeg2000. Seibun. Someone65. WatchAndObserve. Moonsell. Happydude12345. Tapasya Dev. Danscottgraham. Tulsirama. DuckeJ. Shashmann. Robedob22. SchreiberBike. Austriacus. Kim-Zhang-Hong. Windyhead. ArthurBot. Bambuway. Vidium. Erget2005. Chavezh19. Thingg. Oda Mari. Aoidh. Javierito92. Arjun024. ViskonBot. Triwbe. Doseiai2. Andrewbowden987654321. Windy Wanderer. Ocdnctx. Euloiix. THDju. The Marine. Prowikipedians. Kathmandu2007. Dr3w1492. JYBot. AND LICENSES 221 TXiKiBoT. Dusti. Ryanmartel6. Ijustplainrockok. James T. Dharmaling. Alcmaeonid. Explicit. Robtoth1. Borakai. Nannan123. Pasta4470. Filodelphia. Optimusprimechucknorris. Ravikanthvarmag. SpaceFlight89. Smitanarang. Ctny.Prof.X. Dayan de Alwis. DJ Clayworth. Wikiwoowiki. Wutizevrybudylookingat?. Branden-Olsen. Nepenthes. Alexius08. South Bay. Canuck100. WikipedianMarlith. Burner0718. Spitface33. Mspraveen. MackSalmon. AjitPD. EmausBot. FoxBot. Brandmeister. Buddhisttrain. Drmies. Josephbg. Yesser. . CanadianLinuxUser. Monkbot. AgentCDE. Wik. Shrigley. Aitias. Wikilost. Emil K2. Faithlessthewonderboy. Brutaldeluxe. Mei~enwiki. Modernyoo. Malnormalulo. Lradrama.d. Calypsomusic. Iziizi. Martindo. Avisbliss. Paine Ellsworth. Greg Pandatshang. GhalyBot. Ed2975. Ebaran. MacCraich. Lightmouse. Kgrad. Ironholds. Rejectwater. Russel Mcpigmin. Xenus. King Zebu. Wisebuddy. FluffyRocks. Nikolyne~enwiki. Phillip Rosenthal. Editor2020. EditingElite. Mikessej. Derek Ross. Addbot. DiEb. ComputerJA. Eumolpo. Pinkadelica. Xyxyo. Rpm099. Skarz. Arjun G. Lupinoid. Kiwimac. Betterusername. Niceguyedc. GoonerDP. Jimfbleak. Ret. Suddha. Rekowo. VeryVerily. Bleff. Palfrey. Auntof6.wikipedia. Lukewaring. Paul Stansifer. Sploot. Sarpasarpeti101. Spartan-James. Alexandru Stanoi. Kamalmonami. Dmarquard. Tryptofish. Himom222. HolIgor.wilton. Saleems. Chsbcgs. Lotje.m. Suntalkha and Anonymous: 2730 • Sikhism Source: http://en. Dumdumdom. Mogimogi~enwiki. Monkeypox37. Zedshort. Ocean92~enwiki. Caltas. Horst 75. Qscaxz. Samuel de mazarin. Rich jj. Cirt. Tutuy. Blobr186.Ureche. UkFaith. Baz00k4 Jo3. Darkstar8225. Newt Winkler. Noah03. Anarchangel. Oxymoron83. Kurri. Dewan357. Didaktron. Marklm. NHRHS2010. Lele giannoni. Anam Gumnam. Ff22. Lloydee7. Socksiong. Vlad. Lastbetrayal. Narendrafd. BOTarate. Sahimrobot. Wikimelee. Leszek Jańczuk. Numbo3-bot. IZAK. Punyam. Wrathjtr. Thigle. Mannymm25. Glane23. Goldenhawk 0. Dabomb87. Khmaisoldier94. RjwilmsiBot. Xqbot. Mr. Atif. Min. Mhockey. Bhvintri. Leo messi123. Rakhmanhakim. LinDrug. Shamrockman455. Retrospector87. Vancouver Outlaw. JoshEdgar. Anonymous101. AchillesTruth. Erik the Red 2. Bobisbob. Janjeewa. Tanhabot. AnomieBOT. Olivemountain. Bn2500. Ep347. Ptr123. Nite-Sirk. Bowei Huang 2. Penguin12314. Centaurioid. Rumping. Helpsome. Composemi. Jo3sampl. Paragonson. Ejosse1. JSpung. Lihaas. MediaJet. Antonio Lopez. Cookieballer. Dr Prashanna Jain Gotani. Skynden. ImageRemovalBot. Lewsbestfriend. Goldtop72. Oliverkahnisthebest07. AdjustShift. LinkFA-Bot. PhaedrusTheStudent. Vegetarianiwow9. Alegge. StaticGull. FrescoBot. Bodigami. AbelBergaigne. AnwarInsaan. Battman95. Griswaldo. Vipinhari. AzianPyro. Menon. Beat Buddha. Askalan. Obaid Raza. Simon D M. Cardinal 1962. Mitsube. Mandolinface. Geofferybard. KamikazeBot. Catman7965. The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick. The Thin Man Who Never Leaves. Rossen4. Iwanttoeditthissh. The Banner. Thehelpfulone. Citation bot 1. Aunt Entropy. Movses-bot. Brianna8cD. MerlLinkBot. Gettochink21. Amcsports. Tiptoety. Emperor Genius. Brenont.17. CitationCleanerBot. Delirium. SD5bot. SuperHamster. NellieBly. Pgallert. Wameya. Repmartinshaw. Puttingfacts. Amilaganegoda. Almabot. Tnnr789. Dust Filter. Who then was a gentleman?. Bluedenim. DougsTech. Oakleywisdom. Ajh16. А. . Jarble. Sudheeras. CL. PseudoOne. Vik-Thor. Abdullais4u. HexaChord. Comancheros. Julzpop. Angelo De La Paz. HiDrNick. Witchkraut. XLinkBot. Opus88888. Yann. XkamkikazeX. Shadowjams. Rockin It Loud. Ludwigs2. Gabbiegurl. Thehotelambush. Robertb-dc. PhnomPencil. ZéroBot. Apophaticlogos. Polarwolf. S paw1. Ano-User. Cherubinirules. Martin451. Joe coxen. Metatron’s Cube. OKBot. Citation bot.t2. Deathk2. TjBot. Tlhslobus. Abstruce. Steven Zhang. Mohonu. UniQue tree. Ttony21. Fionnchú. Ixfd64. E mc46. Deconstructhis. JimRenge. Tide rolls. Eklipse. Charles Matthews. Isshii. Harland1. Jotterbot. Gtg462y. Kimsoohyun. Mifter. Moby-Dick3000. Bodinagamin. MerlIwBot. Meekywiki. Sblenz.7. Jackelfive. Little Mountain 5. Heygofish1. Verdana Bold. Bladesmulti. HeroGiant. Fedaykinx. PericlesofAthens. Jessrobinson83. Julianlzb87. Redhill54. The Anome. Straycode. Camerajohn.barahona. Žiedas. Randy Kryn. CynofGavuf. JFerrand. Winston365. Nasir Ghobar. Proofreader77. Jerodlycett.haddock. Puchiko. Multiplestars~enwiki. Sudipta. Chen yanto. Barkjon. Soni. Mnmsgp. Kenath. Ss1234. Adityamadhav83. Frietjes. Simonteoh. Sirkad. Ankush 89. AloysiusLiliusBot. Cfahland. Lanka07. Danny. DumZiBoT. Varanwal. DragonBot. Brianga. Mizanthrop.hey. . Mogism. Winston786. Washburnmav. Arakunem. Dsvyas. BobTheTomato. Peter238. DOI bot. Loren. SimonP. Party. Jakemitra. Oasis08. Jemesouviens32. Adriansrfr. Ethically Yours. Richard Pecorino. Michael Reiter. HFret. Sabotager808. XZeroBot. Saman SL. CONTRIBUTORS. Montgomery '39. Franceroy. Maxim. Dorje108. DivineDeeds. VAwebteam. Dulandias. Airborne84. JChris90. Wikibdt. Enviroboy. Tongueey. Joshua Jonathan. Trphierth. Elvenmuse. Hermes67.neel. Ashisfishy. Khazar2. Aero13792468. Zentek. Pikdude. Esteban. DSisyphBot. Euryalus. Ivan romero. CocuBot. SkinSack. Gaia Octavia Agrippa. Nanshu. Muffincakes. Vicithorana. Debresser. Arthurborges. J04n. Dante Alighieri. Tassedethe. TenzinNamgyal. RaseaC. Dkusic1. Shrabulator. Evanbrks. Stormed~enwiki. RibotBOT. Realm of Shadows. Azucar1223. Snowcream. Borock. HamburgerRadio. Cpt. January. WorldWarUSA. WikitanvirBot. Tobby72. Gantuya eng. TheSeez. Knverma. Jivearse. Silananda. Raze5667. Rightfully in First Place. MACNIFICINT. Kirk. Tpbradbury. Tombomp. Emptymountains. Mjbmrbot. Axegod12. Synthebot. Johnny Undead. OllieFury. SieBot. Mooch025. Ambrosius80. BillyTanjung. Rajatantra. Krizpo. Kyocat1234. TheoloJ. Rabuve. Prestigiouzman. Seanbond5. Lothar von Richthofen. Ceci14. Scifilover386. Silkdogg111. Kristoffer Shae-Khow. LordSuryaofShropshire. Ashish-SharmaDilli. Pxma. Luckas-bot. Daveydweeb. SEWilcoBot. Mani1. Djalo24. Soler97. Rowellcf. Remiel. Jessemerriman. Coffee. Der Golem. Falcon8765. Aalam. Yamamoto Ichiro. Mc6809e. Fplay. Editor2020. Klemen Kocjancic. MelonBot. Pegasus1138. KrisWales. Epbr123. Kwfinken. Rs2player4life. Treisijs. Elinnea. Brian0918. RevRagnarok. Busillis. Zenohockey. EvocativeIntrigue. Aristophanes68. Jtalledo. Chris 73. OrphanBot. Rsm99833. Nakon. DabMachine. Mentifisto. Nepenthes. Cat Parade. My parents are mean! They never let me eat candy before dinner!. Fang Aili. Edie. Aymatth2. Nite-Sirk. Gurnaik. Sunny Gill265. Ashyp lrgg. Mlk. SashatoBot. McSly. EoGuy.bunderson. RobertG. Haemo. Robbot. Sohailstyle. Hmains. Rami R. Vary. Bhinderpatiala. Golbez. Guru Fatha Singh Khalsa. Ucanlookitup. Anomalocaris. BernardM. Wikipediarules2221. Manjithkaini. Kipala. Shal1y. MasterofTurkey. Notea42. CmdrObot. Pgk. Seaphoto. Improv. Adam7davies. Indiantrumpet. Hgilbert. Alagahd. ST47. Mohi700. Kungfuadam. Jon Ascton. PMLF. Astynax. MartinBot. Magbatz. JzG. Schnell. Lacrimosus. Kiop. Notcarlos. Cpom. Elven6. Bonadea. Sześćsetsześćdziesiątsześć. Chaser. Maurice45. YODAFON~enwiki. Apeloverage. YurikBot. Rpyle731.for. NawlinWiki. Nick Number. Harisingh. Franknotes. Uncle Dick. Ggakk. Duskrider. Kotra. Peter Kirby. Zfr. Waggers. Andy Marchbanks. Icarus3. Aulakh. KylieTastic. Wimt. Dan D. Fitzhugh. Genostriker5. Aeon1006. Liberal Humanist. Yahel Guhan. JCIV. MaoMistikus. Arrow740. MrFish. Aronzak. AmritWorld. Apuldram. Lala prav. Gbmaizol. Aozeba. Mommy’sboy. Luna Santin. UserDoe. Zurkhardo.). Eequor. Jawandapuck. Tangotango. CJCurrie. Sintaku. Juliancolton. Manscher. Gavia immer. Eugene van der Pijll. Vlastislav. Astronautics~enwiki. Kintetsubuffalo. WiggettMonster. Cambridge08. D. Feydey. JoeBlogsDord. Paragon12321. Zazaban. Closedmouth. Cek. Courcelles. YellowMonkey. Aardmark. Anime07angel. Shalimer. Jaggi. Ksingh20. Optakeover. Cbrown1023. Sikhphilosophy. ImageRemovalBot. JamesBWatson. Animum. J. Snowolf. Bz2. Emiellaiendiay. Ohnoitsjamie. AlleborgoBot. Ichormosquito. Oxymoron83. Ajitflora. MGD55. GDonato.thomson. Bsrinadh. Traegorn. Ambiquad. Brarpavittar. JohnGH. Qxz. Dekisugi. PL290. Passepartout. Bobo192. Mini-Geek. Hpt lucky. Boing! said Zebedee. Rjwilmsi. AntiVandalBot. John Carter. Jungle23. Vanished User 1004. Atulsnischal. NZ forever. DrAjitParkash. Cpuwhiz11. Blanchardb. Roadahead. Brighterorange. Nobleeagle. Thetruth. Skizzik. Macmanus. Gtrmp. Kazvorpal. Ekabhishek. RadioFan2 (usurped). Koavf. Rajamatage. Ksawhney. Hansahni. Yonidebot. Ssilk. SupaStarGirl. Erik the Red 2. Sunnybondsinghjalwehra. Bentogoa. Malo. NickBush24. SundarBot. from Ukraine. Allens. Tjmandur. Kafziel. NewEnglandYankee. Suitov.nl. Steveozone. Jts5039. Abrarzawed. Antandrus. CommonsDelinker. Gimmetrow. Monkeyman389. MrASingh. BD2412. Arbor to SJ. Vigyani. RussBot. Picapica. Sam Spade. Xx-Desi Kuri-xX. Jackollie. Muéro. Mild Bill Hiccup. BigHaz. Sikh 1. Jazradel. B9 hummingbird hovering. Hihowareyou33. Madmanguruman. Canthusus. Khalsalions. Amalas. Peripitus. clown will eat me. Mhking. JaGa. Me006. Hayabusa future. D'n. MER-C. SEJohnston. Simrit. Domitius. Rajat Ghai. Buddhipriya. J. Ketsuekigata.M. Jmlk17. Sebras.. Professor marginalia. Funandtrvl. Cedrus-Libani. Happytime. Wereon. Katieh5584. PiMaster3. Park3r.222 CHAPTER 17. Rivertorch. Jake Wartenberg. Tawkerbot2. Mike6271. Excirial. Patman2648. SATTVIC DIET Traroth. SteveRamone. Cenarium. Rangek. Murdockh. Mattbrundage. The Rambling Man. Skoosh. ArglebargleIV. Rothorpe. Ashmoo. Cydebot. Metropolitan90. Jpgordon. Cpl Syx. Nishkid64. Yomangani. Deflective. Gurry. Argyll Lassie. Neil916. Academic Challenger. Egmontaz. Member. Porphyra. Omicronpersei8. Thryduulf. VoABot II. NorwegianBlue. Ktims. Sunray. Stevietheman. Spangineer. Divad100. GimmeBot. Little Mountain 5. Yaksar. Chasingsol. Caissa’s DeathAngel. Arthena. Sikh historian. Loyo. Woohookitty. DialUp. Richard Arthur Norton (1958. Frazzydee. Gurch. Netuser500. Timberframe. Blanchette. Narinder29. Bgwhite. Lightmouse. MrErku. Sikh-history. CTZMSC3. Grm wnr. Singhkhalsa. Foobaz. Useight. D99figge. ChopMonkey. Adam78. Hippyman333. Wknight94. Singhls. Alex 167. Andonic. Arfy900. Gurm. Peter Isotalo. Hanuman Das. CALR. Peacenik. Lradrama. JohnI. Goethean. Lawrencekhoo. RekishiEJ. Ginkgo100. Srikeit. DocBrown. KCinDC. Ninly. Sonjaaa. Tawkerbot4. NeilN. BradBeattie. Smooth O. Karmafist. LordSimonofShropshire. Raehl. Crazycomputers. Sango123. Marek69. Mooncowboy. Kaypoh. Cjsahansra. Rachel Pearce. Bald Zebra. S mand213. Tremblay. Nihiltres. Indon. Oysterguitarist. Gurkhaboy. Jonny5813. TallNapoleon. Pythn. Robomaeyhem.barahona. Sfahey. Thatotherdude. Inter. Top. Utcursch. Fundamental metric tensor. Icey. Nivix. Caltas. Livitup. Arvind Iyengar. Thehelpfulone. Dougweller. LeaveSleaves. Duffman~enwiki. ShaunES. DanielCD. Addshore. TastyPoutine. CharlotteWebb. AlnoktaBOT. Hs khalsa. JoanneB. Jghuman2.Squark. Markkawika. B. Agamemnon2. Mark Shaw. Fatidiot1234. Thosewithnoeyes. Ian Dalziel. Russelllowman. Airplaneman. Themindset. El Slameron. Vssun. Ale jrb. KnowledgeOfSelf. Catgut. Noctibus. Mandarax. Empcoorg. Simetrical.is. ConfuciusOrnis.Saxena. Alansohn. BookwormUK. Akriasas. Pko. Crust. Girmitya. Oop. Msamra. Anthony Appleyard. Krylonblue83. Konman72. John254. T3gah. Leoboudv. Astanhope. Philg88. Balmik. Iksingh. DoubleBlue. Ged UK. Alan Liefting. Timlane. Garik. Emmett5. RyanGerbil10. MatthewVanitas. Ustadny. Illestsaini. Invincible Ninja. Guanaco. David matthews. The Thing That Should Not Be. WikipedianMarlith. Kwamikagami. Darkicebot. Rigmahroll. Green Giant. DocWatson42. Jeremiad. Asdhillon. Ncmvocalist. Thijs!bot. Himom223. N8dawg. ClueBot. Makyen.Mestel. Flyer22. Janus Shadowsong. Smaines. Daniel Olsen. Muzilon. Moeron. Arjayay. Udzu. RichardF. Mboverload. Kidthatwhippedu. Jusdafax. Sunborn. Bharatveer. Anil1956. Thindh. Naddy. RexNL. Tiptoety. Belovedfreak. Reywas92. Pritraj. Jonathan Hall. Kelisi. Optimist on the run. Skybum. Avoided. The coool. Terminal overdrive. Peter Delmonte. Dawn Bard. Padishar. Ingolfson. Kukini. Dan Guan. Jarry1250. Thesikh. Himom222. Nirvana2013. Navraj ghataura. Ckatz. Pahari Sahib. Polymorp. Sikol99. Mikeo. Haphar. Krea. Contele de Grozavesti. MayerG. TimNelson. Riana. Magioladitis. Lilac Soul. RJaguar3. Rama’s Arrow. Veinor. Canley. Tubbyalonso. Royalmate1. Esteban. Kbdank71. Happy-melon. Pajz. Mantej. Ambuj. Stunnaman2k5. Kymara. Kasanax. InverseHypercube. Jwissick. Gr8opinionater. Jlacount. Goodgary. Antoni Barau. Nvvchar. Jmmastey. Anthonyhcole. Alexeifjodor. Max314. Olve Utne. Escarbot. Chobot. Actown. Kaduzo. Amazon10x. TXiKiBoT. Owen. Bobblewik. Tabletop. Deeptrivia. Jossi. Nlu. DarkFalls. Nihonjoe. DoomsDay349. FlaBot. Krich. Mareino. Logan. Holy Ganga. Myxsoma. Metamagician3000. Emc2. Quadell. Gaius Cornelius. Ian. Zootsuits. MightyWarrior. Sikh scholar. Writtenright. Sardanaphalus. Freeboson. Nixer. Yintan. Wgfxkmf. JohnBlackburne. Ric. El C. David. Graham87. DierkA. Unreal128. Ukexpat. Modest Genius. Jeev. Niteowlneils. Isidore. Xezbeth. Jtichelm. Rsrikanth05. NTBot~enwiki. Andries.real. Aquillion. Storkk. Bobbean52. BOT-Superzerocool. Lebha. ABF. MartinSpacek. Asiem13. Gopher65. Rrburke. Sinofreeman. Idioma-bot.delanoy. Sukh. Jawan101. Hekerui. FisherQueen. Howcheng. J-stan. Gsingh. Indu Singh. Mygerardromance. MonkeyCutie2. Hjr. Narzos. UtherSRG. Ekajati. Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington. Bobaboba. Bhadani. Grenavitar. Jasjitsinghkhalsa. RDF. Vsmith. Heaviestcat. Bondegezou. Rich Farmbrough. Can't sleep. ThePedanticPrick. Wobwana. Joost~enwiki. S. Rockchalkjayhawk07. XLinkBot. Shmitra. Lakers. LanguageMan. Mydietblogger. Rdsmith4. Gnusbiz. Am Singh. Gurudabhagat. Magicalsaumy. Sjö. Dracontes. Thingg. Basawala. Mistercow. Byelf2007.virk. Airconswitch. Hertz1888. The Transhumanist. A. JTBX. Philip Trueman. Rursus. Kjoonlee. Shinmawa. Poohneat. Projectnaad. Borisblue. Surdinmood. CrimsonSingh. Marudubshinki. The very model of a minor general. A. Everyking. ClubApotheosis. Cosmos416. SidP. ESkog. Beowulf314159. Mike Rosoft. JaSsa. Ocatecir. Kolbasz. Fireworks. SqueakBox. Iuhkjhk87y678. Trusilver. PeterSymonds. Pigman. Singhrup. Mosmas. Ccswiki123. Pravrai. Arthur Holland. HelloAnnyong. Splitpeasoup. Soulstice. JAnDbot. Sfacets. Hadal. Kwarizmi. IP Singh. Arjun024. Ret3. Svick. SmackBot. . Prezboy1. Aristotle~enwiki. Raul654. SieBot. Martin451. GrinBot~enwiki. Jcw69. Mind meal. West Brom 4ever. CWenger. Jondel. FF2010. LiangHH. Carl. Penisjunkie.5. NongBot~enwiki. NitinP. M5. JhsBot. Yaris678. Thedionysianone. Keith D. CalveroTheFlame. Dbachmann. Urs sukhdeep. Tfperic. Wmahan. Kent Wang. Tellyaddict. Harprit. Thewayforward. Dantadd. ARYAN818. Kbdankbot. Socarates. ArdClose. Wtmitchell. MalafayaBot. Kulveer. Funnyfarmofdoom. Gurmeetb. Harry r s. Arvinder. Niceguyedc. Eleassar. Steven Walling. Acs4b. Eskimbot. Zafiroblue05. Lexicon. Reedy. Lusanaherandraton. Infindebula. Kkrystian. Showtime2009. BenoniBot~enwiki. DerHexer. Pip2andahalf. WODUP. Keenan Pepper. Generic Player. Sundar. DaGizza. Sfacets. The KZA. Ahoerstemeier. Robert1947. WinBot. SidP. Qalik. Weegeerunner. Cybermount. Portesamo217. Discoversikhism. AmphBot. FlaBot. Jmason317. Mboverload. Lisasmall. Cam skinner. Bryan Derksen. Madambaterflaj. Lordoftherings1. Simmie84. Fizzy786. SWAdair. IRISZOOM. Khalsaman. Agent Sundee. Mike Rosoft. Kaurgagan. AvocatoBot. Vin09. FrescoBot. ***Ria777. Kcrox8. Titodutta. Jjakacki. Woogee. QaisSaleem. L Kensington. Schrojon. Deadstar. Kasod. Wqwt. Vrenator. Solipsist. Sunray. Hidoshi. Lilkiz909. Glane23. Snowolf. Acather96. Abecedare. Nirbhai1699. TUF-KAT. JasonCooney. Yosri. Halexa123. Punjab55. Grentworthy. Sanshlistha m. Diderot. XJaM. Josephcunningham. Evanh2008. Heman. Sscheema. Ivan Shmakov. RoyBoy. Adityamadhav83. Triphala108. A8UDI. Savh. Micronationalist1999. Babakb2007.pannu. Pinecar. Oddbodz. Kwamikagami. Docu. Pavoo. Stellarthy.H. SieBot. Wikipedian Penguin. Quantum4. THEN WHO WAS PHONE?. Raj sachg. Stormie. Lethe.singh1. Iqwinder. Mahadevsaudiyal. NeilN. Jaggajat. Download. Diannaa. Sminthopsis84. Hanumanta. Tbhotch. Gaspodia. Satyemevajayete. Helpful Pixie Bot. Citation bot. MarkAHershberger. Monica124. QueenCake. Everyone Dies In the End. Nemesis of Reason. Babanwalia. Jauhienij. Jkb1961. Jodosma. Amaury. SmackBot. Orenburg1. Doug757. 4twenty42o. GD Kaur. MelbourneStar. Jjared. Arnabbhattacharya 1991. OgreBot. Mahendrabalan. Posywillos73. MastiBot. Mowgli~enwiki. LucienBOT. WikiPuppies. Juliusz Gonera. CrazyYou. Mustang335 and Anonymous: 169 • Shiva Source: http://en. Lkharb. Floricuan. Qrsdogg. Sverdrup. K. Trevor MacInnis. Stinger999. Karthik. JoshuaBegbie. Abstruce. Kareemhassan. Ssriram mt. LOL LOLLOLLOL lolage. CONTRIBUTORS. Axl. Sherurcij. Migelot. Enervation. Jamcrit. DASHBot. MastiBot. Kuralyov. Kaysov. Kevin Gorman. GoingBatty. BG19bot. Riana. Gurujot. ProfessorDiljitSingh. LRBurdak. Anbu121. Robbot. Nihalpuria. Spy89. Wikipe-tan. Wolf530. Rajam6. Мурад 97. Tkbrar. Rich Farmbrough. Arun. Rubinbot. JDiala. Jaigan. Numbo3-bot. RjwilmsiBot. Dr Ishmael. Colorwiki. ਰਾਜੇਨ੍ਦ੍ਰ ਸਿੰਘ. Luckk95. Fæ. Sysy. PrivateMasterHD.B. Keenan Pepper. Pawanjit. Bmohit.om.wikipedia. Aecarol. Tommy2010. WikitanvirBot. Arynnebean. A. Babbage. Intelligentsium. DopefishJustin. Anupamsr. The Uncyclopedian. Mogism. Sarabveer. Hazhk. SinghisKinngwot!. Samsworde. Hurricanefan24. Geegn1. Keidax. Frosty. Rmchopra. Gunkarta. Siddhartha Ghai. AnomieBOT. Parvsingh. Imatharoo. HimmatGuron. Magnus Manske. Marjoleinkl. Nifky?. Lelfin Ferdan. Wavelength. Nharipra. Ubiquity. Robotics5. Asianacamp. Harithavhs. Altaïr. Pratyya Ghosh. Akali96crori. HRoestBot. Asbestos. Hajirah. Sanchit. Nasir Ghobar. Widr. Rursus. Imc. ClueBot NG. Out90. Rileyjacobwilliamson777. Ninjamonkey227. Orphan Wiki. Mr d logan. Jasjitsinghkhalsa. Mrhyde. Ranvir123455. Evil Monkey. RA0808. Bgwhite. Mpsahuja. Bunnyhop11. A1234mnd. Zoicon5. FoxBot. Slamdunkan. Sharmalan. Samharaj. HitroMilanese. ChamithN. Paul Barlow. Carlossuarez46. Shelbone77. FrescoBot. Nealmcb. Xezbeth. Internet Scholar. VasuVR. VolkovBot. Editor2020. Crculver. Gurpartaap11. Hardeepsinghmed. Gundu1000. J36miles. KWcrew1983. PhnomPencil. Dsinghdsingh. DARTH SIDIOUS 2. Lotje. Yogeshrj. Schmeater. Dasamgranth. Per Honor et Gloria. Islam90. Orpheus. Oneiros. Shekhalsa. TheGeneralUser. Corruptcopper. Hintha. Saumyasingh1. Gpoduval. Heron. LuckySniper973. RedBot. . Carturo222. Dharmpreet. FourViolas. Landon1980. MrBill3. Cntras. DanielCD. Notedgrant. OlEnglish. Wierdo5000. Atheismfanatic. Arvindn. Obaid Raza. Certitude1. Shadowjams. Dthomsen8. Dbenbenn. Érico Júnior Wouters. Addbot. Bikrampratapsingh. Theandynmattbrothers. Nijgoykar. MrOllie. I dream of horses. Veppex. Hind meri jaan. Bikka. Mark Arsten. Cst17. Kingpin13.max1. Delhumide. Dave6. Nakirar. Unceasingwaves. El C. Rfassbind. Supdiop. Petrb. Kahlonmanveer. . Jatinrawal. Jeffrey Mall. ThomasRules. Kwamikagami. Jkominek. Skr15081997. Eumolpo. Arman Cagle. Gavisahavit. Mar4d. John of Reading. Knifepartyrs. Balajiviswanathan. Bouncyluke. Mpt. Chuckiesdad. ShintoMan. Mintu. Turniplp. Vizziee. Coltmorman. Jagman Mahal. Tom X. Zavatter. Ghewgill. DaughterofSun. Marioluigi344. Bkonrad. DeludedFan. The sock that should not be. MKar. Phytogreen. Sivanath. Eequor. Ekabhishek. Ubhi manjits. Thejatboy. Kuljeet Singh Khurana. CALR. Ragib. Eukesh. MithrandirAgain. Anusha~enwiki. Showmemiss. Pepper. Theman244. Tobby72. Skyerise. Raul654. Ethyltigley. Docman500.T. Hardeepmed. Dsprc. Immunize. Ravi2565. Pizza Puzzle. Tentinator. Costesseyboy. Cookieballer. Kmh2014. Samistheb. EmausBot. Captainbasilisx03. TrueSikhHistory. AzaToth. Irek Biernat. DragonflySixtyseven. Fylbecatulous.sehaj. Sureshinde.org/wiki/Shiva?oldid=662638157 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp. Jonesey95. Mom1667432357656789. Wereldburger758. Enlightenmebro. RaGanZone. LordSimonofShropshire. LaaknorBot. Setmymax. Edclay-croome. Onel5969. Quinto Simmaco. Hemanshu. Adrian 1001. SimonP. LoLMaz. Dantezz. Hari. AmaryllisGardener. D'ohBot. Someone9692. DogoftheLord. Luckas-bot. Hoo man. Kaldari.singh.wikipedia. Yobot. Haps09. Gauss. Apostrophe. Arunkumararun. Maclennan harris. Webclient101. T1980. TheoloJ. Mav. Captain-n00dle. Captain panda. SvAbhinava. Regancy42. William Avery. Arthurpayne. Haruth. WikiTrueHistory. Jethwarp. Venu62. Blobotomy. Faizan. 02jleach. Khalsaholic. RibotBOT. Dentalplanlisa. Wiki-uk. MusikAnimal. Epicgenius. Hanuman Das. Jarble. Floquenbeam. LuK3. Shivnag. Tassedethe. HRoestBot. Winner4evercool. Skinsmoke. Lor. Lalit Jagannath. Lightbot. North Atlanticist Usonian.Awal789. Nishant rupani. SryoGodFlow. RedWolf. Alansohn. Bhavdeep Singh Khalsa. Aamonkey1. OverlordQ. Woohookitty. Whoami~enwiki. ISTB351. OneBlood30. Filemon. Mean as custard. JaconaFrere. Kulwant55. Luniabhishek. Goethean. Sirkablaam. Leslie mauloa. Wjkk20. Sm041188. ChrisGualtieri. Gurmatscholar. HJ Mitchell. VishalB. Dhillonowns. Fiberglass Monkey. Mogism. Aja286. Sobolewski. Eric119. Arulraja. Joy1963. Jacquerie27. Romanm. TimShell. A little insignificant. Bladesmulti. Rholton. Good Olfactory.beg. Special Cases. Raven in Orbit. Adityanet. Historyluver6666. Eukesh. Wolfsprime1. Hujgbyu. ZenerV. Gnaneswaratn. Rasnaboy. IgnorantArmies. Allen3. Soni. ClueBot NG. XLinkBot. Gabhroo. Dewan357. Nursingxmajor. Lord Emsworth.jenson. ISpamThisSite4. Mentibot. ThePwnanator. Anir1uph. AND LICENSES 223 ReadandWrite123. Frietjes. Parashar30. ChocokakeIII.17. Singh111. Saddamjit Singh Rajput. Reach Out to the Truth. Wiki-uk. Ryantheking. OllieFury. Everyking. Doniago. WetFirefighter. Capricorn42. Sant reyn. Dakinijones. World8115. Dustinasby. Mini. Raj2004. Tide rolls. Setu. Flygongengar. JYBot. Gurmukhi freak. Nv8200pa. Δ. Pearle. Tentinator. Salvio giuliano. Jatt 143. Instantk. DaMainWikiEditor. Dbachmann. Hratanpa. Super48paul. Daizyj. Polymathica. Royote. DaGizza. Rajuganesh01.org/wiki/Bhairava?oldid=662224449 Contributors: Paul Barlow. DASHBotAV. Bobo192. Unugy~enwiki. Pinethicket. DarkBuisman. Coasterlover1994. Singhstylestudio. Hindujew. Gadget850. Bli. OccultZone. Stevertigo. Glacialfox. Dwaipayanc. Jake Nelson.T. Janebush08. Deep7nikehoops. Wtmitchell. SFK2. Tobin. J gehani. Catpowerzzz. Leonardo Singh. Deeptrivia. Dinamik-bot. TheRingess. Hjvesey. Flyer22. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES. WrackAce. Tea with toast. Gurdevsinghsidhu. Freakmighty. Melakavijay. Profitoftruth85. Tagishsimon. Arqum. MichaelTinkler. Ziroby. Tpbradbury.A. Richa Sachdeva. 9kaurR. Moxy. Cydebot. Altenmann. Jigglyfidders. Primergrey. Daz117. Waltervulej. Download. Vertium. Harroco. Chanigur. Nunh-huh. Xqbot. BG19bot. KSNagra. Ohnoitsjamie. Glenn. Magioladitis. Hekerui. Sam Spade. ElHef. Raj2004. Michael Anon.ifa. Kay rishma. 1exec1. Humane doctor. Discospinster. Huaxiaojie. Kikichugirl. AnomieBOT. Adishesha. Anthony Appleyard. Meursault2004. Subramanian. 0. Cosmoskramer. Pjottermans. Dilpreetklair. Aslep321. Cpsheer. Finalsaber. Faizan. Tacosunday. Mjs1991. Harizotoh9. Diannaa. Lowercase sigmabot. Simonides. Andrew Weevlos. HeikoEvermann. MKar. Cuñado. 3swordz. Jojhutton. Fatalvenom. Brosen~enwiki. ERK. Umapat316. Yobot. Satellizer. Monkbot. Dangerous-Boy. Materialscientist. Lumos3. Utcursch. Favonian. Gautamh. Paddu. Compfreak7. Glimz~enwiki. Luckas-bot. Tanda123. Nohat. Jeltz. Uthaya3.S. Vyom25. The Singing Badger. Kongr43gpen. Addbot. Faruq~enwiki. Jonathansammy. Gaurava99. Zfr. Sole Soul. Zzynat231. Ghanonmatta. Closedmouth. Names are hard to think of. Theopolisme. Scarletletter4455. Eshwar. Bhadani. Jim1138. Shadanan. Sacha Sach. Joshtaco. Xqbot. Perfecto. MrOllie. Cether Rochmp and Anonymous: 1808 • Bhairava Source: http://en. Some jerk on the Internet. Nvidura. Ulric1313. Parsingh21. CsDix. Mpaa. Jim1138. Haukurth. Winner 42. Quadell. Kieran Lowry. Laurajanejackson1984. Airborne84. Σ. DocWatson42. Eranb. Ricamn. Xaonon. Indu. Prove It.7. Jujhar. JakeJohn1.mand. Redtigerxyz. Curious Blue. SATTVIC DIET Someoneinmyheadbutit’snotme. Bhvreddybe. Ragodel. Fnerchei. Hydrogen Iodide. Thomasionus. Chopper Dave. LilHelpa. Sizzle Flambé. Bharatveer. Sarayuparin. RobotG. Rawjokes99. Reaswaran. Prabeshdhaubaji. TXiKiBoT. Ginsengbomb. Hut 8. GcSwRhIc. Paris By Night. Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki. Blackmagic219. Shivnag. Racerx11. WoodElf. Clarince63. Thegreatandmightyshiva. LeaveSleaves. CommonsDelinker. AdalCobos.unnithan. Prateekkiran. Netcool67. Tanner Swett.. RenamedUser01302013. Vijayakumar. YurikBot.Falcon. Raymondluxuryacht. Shaun. Sharnak.jayaraj. Warmon. Stemonitis. TheDestitutionOfOrganizedReligion. Slightsmile. RAMA. RobotE. Kylejtod. CarsracBot. John Hill. Tribhuwan. ArKaiN123. AmmRyn. Capricorn42. Veinor. Addbot. Jauhienij. The Thing That Should Not Be. Debnatha. OpelC. Zakirnaik. Ism schism. Otterpops. Vertium. Niceguyedc. VINU. Saravask. DisambigBot. Thapa. AMbroodEY. Jennica. Anclation~enwiki. Names of gods. Radix~enwiki. Varunbhandanker. Seraphim. Soul assassin~enwiki.shawan. Cydebot. TLSuda. Emperor Genius. David Eppstein. Jacobko.maurya. Makeemlighter. Addshore. Underwood. Kaippally. FUtheresa. RexNL. Elemesh. Sean. GreatUncleEscobar. NHSavage. Carhonda. Chasingsol. Appaiah. Tawkerbot2. Huzzlet the bot. Bkangel. Nvvchar. Iamtheealmighty. SchreiberBike. ZX81. DVD R W. Philippe. Netscott. Michaelas10. Nharipra. Tbone. MER-C. Maxim. Closedmouth. Dilsemsrp. Kenfyre. Rettetast. Alvis. Kieraneber. Jedibob5. WilyD. Shonedeep. Naerhu. Akuap2001. ImageRemovalBot. Dougweller. Pigeonjj. Nancy. Flamingspinach. Shreemaa. BOTarate. Ssriram mt. GourangaUK. SigPig. Bgwhite. Muhandes. Alamandrax. Wiki Raja. David G Brault. JamesBWatson. BookwormUK. Iridescent. Optimus82. Jrajesh. SteveM123. Aeonx. BorgQueen. Redkind. Gilliam. C69888. Legobot. S3000. Bibodha. MansonP.Fred. Snigbrook. Evaders99. SamatBot. Ragothaman22. CambridgeBayWeather. Franz14.delanoy. Ish dude. PadmaDharma101. Snehilsharma. SriniG. Timeroom. Bento00. Scholarus. Kaushal irm. J Milburn.Mudkipz. Mpbabaji. Teardrop onthefire. Rohitbd. MartinBot. Sunilbharatpur. Ragumar. Bless sins. Oda Mari. Bhadani. Shaivani. Soleswaran. GideonF. RjwilmsiBot. AlleborgoBot. Cosmic Engine. Mlpkr. Tiddly Tom. Ambar wiki. Rammohan65. Baseballbaker23. Srkris. XLinkBot. Piousspirit. Swanbau. Senthilkumaras. Neo. AvicBot. Naveen Sankar. Lightmouse. The wub. Sunilshamnur. Grey Shadow. SorryGuy. Sarvagnya. Devshoppe. InvisibleK. Zerokitsune. Nnemo. Agnideva. ShivNarayanan. JanderVK. Asim Chatterjee. Krano. Vprashanth87. Rushbugled13. Sharmashiv. Holy Ganga. Z4ns4tsu. FlaBot. Dan117shimon. PratyushaVenkat. RegentsPark. Shivohum. TinucherianBot II. SieBot. Daniel5127. Liveindia. KocjoBot~enwiki. Fougsdhopn. Vikram2009. DeadEyeArrow. SDC. Suffusion of Yellow. Bailbeedu. KhanBoston. Chandu15. Syrthiss. Gespee. Eeekster. Dhwani1989. Matt Deres. Deepak~enwiki. ColinBoylett. C. MsZarin20. WikiEditor 09111. GregAsche. Cvenky. Open2universe. Jimbo0392. Jasminek. Bstepp99. Seemagoel. Xyz7890. Anishbabu. Zsinj. B1atv. Attriwiki. Sankalpdravid. Drpindoria. Titands64. TheGerm. NewEnglandYankee. Barek. RG2. Grsz11. ManiF. Raamah. W. DLand.blue. Rudhron. Bill52270. Softdynamite. Qqa23. Malatesta. Emre D.hoyland. Lo2u. SkyWalker. JNW. Spitfire. Wahabijaz. Khalid Mahmood. Xaosflux. Dg harini. RedBot. Peter Isotalo. Twerbrou. Maheshyerra. Dharmadhyaksha. Arthur Rubin. OverSS. LookingGlass.laxman. Colonies Chris. Frankenpuppy. Harvestman. Vsundar. Diablokrom. Earlygreen82. Bsskchaitanya. Bovineboy2008. DotShell. Dougofborg. NaSuraLK. Jim1138. Marginal38. Rsrikanth05. DumZiBoT. Anirudhvyas010. Sailen Debnath. Kaburicho. Sisya. ABF. Gioto. AntiVandalBot. robot. Bsreddys. Tornadokid23. Sisodia. Skizzik. Sluzzelin. Fbv65edel. Gail. Opelio. Uncle Dick. Macellarius. BD2412. Drasky1. Balajijagadesh. Harsha. Cuñado. Dangerous-Boy. Excirial. Skyerise. E. Simeon H. FF2010. SpacemanSpiff. Dawnseeker2000. Lenticel. Renmiri. Rabo3. Ashsadubai. Sundhukumar. Gatewaycat. VolkovBot. Kkm010. Americanfreedom. Mifter. Sachchida. Nagarji. PeterSymonds. Rémih. Moszczynski. NeilN. Zanarky. EmxBot. Aldux. Seantyrer. WSaindon. Mattisse. Maleabroad. AdamDobay. Rajasekhar1961. Sisterdetestai. J. Chalutz. Savyasaachi. Cpiral. Editorcade. Vrenator. AgentPeppermint. Armyrifle9. Cobi. Mike Dillon. Passnodeman. Sardaka. Alex43223. Benne. Glover. GrouchoBot. CPUlkj. Bilbobee. Avedeus. PureRED. Icarusgeek. Rock zap11.master. HenryLi. DoorsAjar. Intranetx. Hvn0413.. Freeboson. Wikidudeman. Yintan. Guru coolguy. Pasqual. Wikiisawesome. Sidharth2008. Rogerd. Arnesh. Rossen4. Graham87. Azhockeyboy. Sn4everin. Ab aditya. J. Nirav. RA0808. AlanM1. NaiPiak. NawlinWiki. LittleOldMe. Chi!. Rubinbot. The Devil’s Advocate. Zephyrmaten. Aefields. Katieh5584. Nightscream. EnSamulili. Venkat379. RockMFR. Femajesus. Sreekanthv. Hi2lok. Siddalingeshts. PrometheusDesmotes.ga~enwiki. MercuryBlue. Abdullais4u. Click23. The Nut. Nirmalanarayanan. VoABot II. Sigurd Dragon Slayer. DANE YOUSSEF. Apparition11. Pratheepps. Magioladitis. XxxDI3xxx. Jan1nad. Jujhar. Gaius Cornelius. Download. Mr. Stephenb. Bdragon. Melakavijay. Jethwarp. Writtenright. Gman124. Ketiltrout. Laurens-af. Ccacsmss. Elockid. Bongwarrior. Nareshgupta. Darkness1089. Chaheel Riens. Pings. Instinct. Gogo Dodo. Materialscientist. Chanlord. Qwertyz. Mind Swapper. SpuriousQ. Alsandro. Himanshu2212. FrescoBot. Mukuruthi. Shaardu. Chimaeridae. B9 hummingbird hovering. OKBot. BiT. Skoglund. Midnightblueowl. Chintu rohit. Ekabhishek. Nihiltres. Rokas99. Oldag07. Sephiroth storm. Dallben. Asarelah. MECU. Diannaa. Hariraja. Ravichandar84. Leandroii.anacondabot. JaGa. Tolly4bolly. Theonlynitin. Arjun024. Sselvakumar. Shervin dokht. Sivanath. . Escarbot. God1337. SteinbDJ. Qball6. Vishalbarot 2006. Grammatical error. C1defence. Luminum. Hehest. Powerprowess. SoxBot III. Ry2k7an. Skinsmoke. Nederlandse Leeuw. Mrhyde. Shivam kapoor. Aniish72. Elb2000. ShelfSkewed. Raj@ttscourses. Sstrader. Tariqabjotu. Kibi78704. ProtoDrake. PhilKnight. Vwake. Yobot. Canyouhearmenow. Luckasbot. Anup Ramakrishnan. Ravi Chaudhary. Redtigerxyz. Jdavis70. JAnDbot. Huttelmk. Martarius. Coffee. Qwertyus.pannu. Citation bot 1. Bobrayner. Willking1979. Bruce1ee. ImpuMozhi. AlanD. DumbBOT. Jacek Kendysz. Immunize. KyraVixen. Fraggle81. Denisarona. PangkatKawayan. Prolog. Vdmishra. Savant13. Ryan Roos. Gregfitzy. HRoestBot. Vasishtha33. Nádvorník. Karrar-commando. MysterM. Jagged 85. Slakr. Rajadoor. Cfrydj. Fuhghettaboutit. Pranabnaik. Roninbk. Mrmrbeaniepiece. World8115. Raakeshp. Misza13. Nehrams2020. Rama’s Arrow. Rhrad. Skapur. Skumarlabot. Rudrasharman. Kalikumaun. Smaines. Tux the penguin. Renwick. JahaalChakravarti. Mejda. Karthik. Arun. Djones4899. AtticusX. Alosel. Randy Kryn.224 CHAPTER 17. Mild Bill Hiccup. Vinayarajvr. Mygerardromance. SmackBot. Avoided. Tcncv. Lifebonzza. Razorflame. Darkicebot. Accurizer. Spudtater. KorinoChikara. Rakesh1947. Steven Zhang. Neverquick. Sivw. Modzilla222. ZodiacBook. Salvidrim!. Funnyfarmofdoom. M G Harish. Grim23. Benevolent56. Chris the speller. Omnipaedista. Bluebot. JarlaxleArtemis. Alifshinobi. Thijs!bot. Day&NightDreamer. Onel5969. KConWiki. Servus Triviae. Kannan87. DanielRigal. Arjayay. Donner60. Rjwilmsi. Rasnaboy. Deepakpillai 009. Nakon. Linguisticgeek. Falcon8765. Stevenwmccrary58. Leuko. MelanieN. Ashutosh g. Glen. Salmar. Numbo3-bot. Bgpaulus. C Denninger. Apnavana.pillai. Sophie means wisdom. TheMandarin. Muro Bot. . Arto Tapio. Safemariner. Subiksha. Hibana.raman. WikiDan61. Tawker. Scartol. Dawn Bard. Lokmahi. Shivabhakta. ClueBot. Érico Júnior Wouters. Tachyon502. Rampart. NAHID. Pratheek. Voltigeur. R'n'B. Bdb484. SomeStranger.au. Mr. EmausBot. Kkrystian. Prater~enwiki. Bigtrevs1998. JWB. Tanmaya cs. Zzuuzz. Rameshngbot. John Reaves. Qst. Googleanvar. AGK. Buddhipriya. TopAce~enwiki. Apalaria. Fconaway. Before My Ken. Akjar13. SilvonenBot. Tanthalas39. Wikidas. RadioDell. Vikas duhan. Phantomsteve. King Zebu. Xqbot. IMpbt. Philg88. Sundeip. Deflective. Dkonwar. B4upradeep. Chhora. SporkBot. Flyer22. Wembwandt. Lemchesvej. Oxymoron83. Solde. Mankar Camoran. TheRingess. A8UDI. Moe Epsilon. Shivarka. MikeLynch. JuTa. Mordani. Akkida. AshishG. YellowMonkey. NeoNerd. Dak. NHRHS2010. Nikki134. Woohookitty. Odie5533. Girish. Citation bot. Chobot. Abecedare. Farosdaughter. RandomAct. Brownguy20. Iswarparam. Favonian.5. Shiva’s Trident. Twsx. Loveuchetan. NPrice. Hybernator. DVdm. Dazedbythebell. ArmadilloFromHell. Snowmanradio. BalanceRestored. AnomieBOT. Sandeepmanudhane. Bodigami. Anantashakti. Shankar. Jetstreamer. Love. Arjun01. MongolianMoose. Arjuna Filips. Wlodzimierz. Aherunar. Gene Nygaard. JForget. Rei-bot. Cometstyles. Regstuff. Luckas Blade. R9tgokunks. Brandagbullet. Aminuday. A Ramachandran.com. Hindu porn. Jago05. Songyanbabu. SundaLives. Nikkul. Ged UK. Srini81. Benjaminmnorthrup. UrsaFoot. Magicalsaumy. Jovianeye. OrphanBot. DaGizza. The Firewall. DowhAdaliBraDo. Rigadoun. Benjaminnorthrup. Discospinster. Vishvas vasuki. Nurg. Vinay Madhusudanan. FisherQueen. BD2412. ‫ادریس فاتح‬.wikipedia. Girish10. Delirium. Marteau. Genoxz195. Sthitadebasis. Ramachandra Goswami. Zerokitsune. Arnab. Aditya Kabir. Jacquerie27. Thisthat2011. WikiDreamer Bot. Dante Alighieri. MKar. Shishirgiri. Graphium. Wtmitchell. SigmaEpsilon. Ashmoo. SharanyaG. Mike2vil. Anonymous10015. ChrisGualtieri. SahilSahadevan. Yash!. BudChrSch and Anonymous: 81 • Vedas Source: http://en. Maclithon. Ranjithsiji. ***Ria777. Koavf. Dev Monk. Goodfaith17. XJaM. Koavf. Bluebot. Stamptrader. Snowgrouse. ImpuMozhi.maulick. Didactohedron. Munnavijayprakash. Buddhipriya.hoyland. Wclark. Mu.S. Widr. Lowercase sigmabot. YodaRULZ. DMS. PhnomPencil. Anderson. Kanga Roo in the Zoo. XLinkBot. Harryboyles. Bladesmulti. BattyBot. Davehi1. ProtectionTaggingBot. Pratik12951. Pizza Puzzle. Lindashiers. Podzemnik. N5iln. Guidance63. Harekrsna 1993. Roux. Khazar2. Innovator GenZ. William Avery. MASTER8. Cyberbot II. E-book free downlod. Devas090. Veeru. Wikinamaste. MKar. FenixFeather. Shashikirannagendra. Jk2016. ScrollsofAryavarta. අනුරාධ. Arjunkrishna90. Motre. Tarosan~enwiki. Rajnikki. Gopa23. Kavikumarchelliah. Raj2004. Adityashashtri. Piguy101. Cyraan. QuartierLatin1968. King of Wikis. Arjunkanagal. Vieque.tiang. Muugokszhiion. Rak3sh. Charles Matthews. Damon4salvatore. Pigman. Dazedbythebell. Neutrality. Dshivashankar1994. JaGa. Tvswamy. Ryanaxp.17. Sameboat. Hippietrail. Phoenixincognito. Ojs. Abhi. Tetsuotheironman. Adashiel. Aman87. Sophontevy. Hazhk. Lightningfarron. Bladesmulti. Gogo Dodo. Visarga. Ekabhishek. Kkrystian. Arunkumararun. Nidhishwar. Zorrobot. Psgs123xyz. Haruth. Svarma. HappyInGeneral. Wayoyo. Addbot. Shunyananda. Shivap. Snehilsharma. Monkbot. Heroravi. Cjhareen. Bhojaldham.in. BDD. Gagan1997. Parnashree. Helpful Pixie Bot. Tylko. Gdm. Hinduwarrior. Jamesx12345. Faizan. Thuresson.org/wiki/Vedas?oldid=661176258 Contributors: Mav. Chris Q. Sm041188. Michael Devore.delanoy. Proloyb. Abhijitraiwal. BG19bot. Archon 2488. Bellus Delphina. Varaprasad02333. FrescoBot. Gtrmp. Bhanulakhwani. Badagnani. Arjun01. Strawberry 35. ClueBot NG. Glacialfox. Memail2. Chrisnawanto Nugroho. VoABot II. Hz. Alexbot. Agastya21. Bechan12. Ramiyer 1977. Klilidiplomus. HangingCurve. Cminard. AbHiSHARMA143. Seemagoel. Edgar181. Utcursch. PKT. Priyanath. FlaBot. Youandme. Karthikeyan. Hebrides. JzG. Jewman7890. Häxa-gudinna. Darkicebot.isha. Rajenver. Exercisephys. TransVannian. Eshwar. AkhilKumarPal. Cyberpower678. Incognitos. SupernovaeIA. Romarin. Antonisawesometo. GoingBatty. Marcuscalabresus. CountryBot. Sivaaiyar23. J04n. Helpful Pixie Bot. Rupesh. Sumit Dhawan. Magicalsaumy. Brahmadutta. Akshay B Deokar. Ism schism. Ism schism. Ubhan shiva. GoShow. Kaysov. Sethoeph. DitsyDaisy. Teardrop onthefire. Hidrogeno. Swill325.Wiki. Yoonadue. Goethean. Lir. DANE RAMADAN YOUSSEF. Rashkesh. Rijan321. Apnavana. Wikipelli. DurgaDevi. AlleborgoBot. Dr Saurav Deka. Snowgrouse. Flying Saucer. Jagdishsarva. Naveen Sankar. Geremy. Yobot. Drpravinpurecha. Saisula. Arjsub. Luckas-bot. ***Ria777. Bgwhite. Ashwin2345. ClueBot NG. ImpuMozhi. Hq3473. JamesMLane. Work2win.wikipedia. Addbot. Nortonew. LadyofShalott. TheRingess. AHLM13. I am One of Many. R powers. Imc. CommonsDelinker. Sulalita. Jebo1951. Names of gods. DASHBotAV. Rossen4. EmausBot. Max Vohra. Benevolent56. IndianBio. Bhadani.om. Madbehemoth. SmackBot.maurya. VolkovBot. Iztwoz. Tanay rocks. Vrisakapi. Jaioy. Olivier. Bharatveer. Smauritius. Arnavchaudhary. Grenavitar. Secretlondon. Nepalrudraksha. CensoredScribe. Lugia2453. ImageRemovalBot. Vrnthmsn. Jac16888. Green Arrow. CONTRIBUTORS. Robertgreer. . Atatat001. DBigXray. Percyjackonlover. OliviaGuest. Classicfilms. Carlossuarez46. Shivam kr. M. Ebadje15. Timwi. DaGizza. . Orbst. Teardrop onthefire. Ankitx. Whkoh. Andres. Thatsmeshubh. Arjuncm3. Hinio.malhotra. Sowmya4cc. Mark Arsten. Vipulrattan. Anupamsr. Forgot to put name. User mj. TamizhNesh. Carlossuarez46. Pathare Prabhu. Jpaulm1194. ClueBot NG. Yogawatcher. Arjunkrishna90. Sindhusankar and Anonymous: 121 • Shaktism Source: http://en. Sam Spade. Engrkrishan. Thingg. Gparker. Magentic Manifestations. Carlossuarez46.Hebert. T@nn. Zackattakkx. Axe DB. Lk56835. Podzemnik. Joshua Jonathan. Sanoel222. OrphanBot. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES. Ranveig. Marie Paradox. Kulasman. Manni9812. DumZiBoT. Mattstevensmullet. Randy Kryn. MerlIwBot. Mboverload. Ilango adikal chera. Piast93. Victoranto. Pritha1997. Nightscream. Frietjes. Mboverload. Sam Spade. Texture. Akhil kylm. Andres. Ankisur2. Will Beback. Mirtuh. DocWatson42. SohanDsouza. Nobody60. Tamravidhir. Terrifictriffid. DotShell. Benjamín Preciado. Babitaarora. Atulsnischal. Krenair. LilHelpa. Mrjoshyful. Cminard. Arjun024. Swami tusharananda. Danielba894. Wavelength.. Ram K Bhattatirippad. Kingroyos. FrederickE. Douglasfrankfort~enwiki. ChamithN. Swami Vimokshananda. Rockin It Loud. Mike Rosoft. Dexbot. Samskriti5. Wmahan. Volodyka. Anusha. Truthlover2000. Sam Spade. RaviC. Alansohn. Editor2020. Footage. Goethean. Petiatil. Hedonistbot4000. Sizzle Flambé.org/wiki/Devi?oldid=661007599 Contributors: The Anome. Raiabhishek1. Muon. Andriesb. Kkrystian. TobeBot. Fraxinus23. Johanna-Hypatia. Lightbot. Smaines. Gnusbiz. Eragon97. Redtigerxyz. JohnCD. Wiki-uk. SlackerMom. CommonsDelinker. Chris the speller. Youngballer44. Goodmanatheart. Rajanishkarla. Sfacets. BrightStarSky. Skinsmoke. EvergreenFir. Drgopitmc. Rama’s Arrow. Srisharmaa. Epicgenius. Sam Hocevar. Dangerous-Boy. Pattyhulez. Wavelength. OoeeLila. Chobot. PhnomPencil. KD-Singhania. Alcoved id. Ayushi parsheera. Jbuc14. Yogi. SchreiberBike. Zigger. GourangaUK. Bineetojha. Sankarrukku. Sardaka. Wighson. Parag1626. Pjacobi. Arvindn. Adityasaxena. Dbachmann. Abyshree. Lk56835. Graft. Pt. ZéroBot. Saivinodhini. Arvindn. Mindmatrix. Shii. Dougweller. TUF-KAT. Amirobot. Arunix. Greecoroman. Billman9597. Rim sim. MusikAnimal. Irrigator. Lagoset. Vyom25. Dream of Nyx. AaronCarson. LordSimonofShropshire. Xeteli.7. EmausBot. Gsmodak. Caitbrooke. Grenavitar. Vishputh. Nirav. Robbot. Somchaturvedi95. Januarythe18th. Pearle. Srahulbose. El C. DerekWinters. Yes Siva and Anonymous: 1519 • Devi Source: http://en. John of Reading. Hashar. Tail. Ugog Nizdast. ImageRemovalBot. Raj2004. Paul Barlow. Sedusa66. Anupmehra. Iselilja. Monkbot. Rammohan1. Gareth Griffith-Jones. Mlpkr. Bhadani. 4twenty42o. Cornelius383. Carlos28. Akhilan. ESkog. Redenex. Ginsuloft. Nicke Lilltroll~enwiki. Snehilsharma. Maheshsinghjoshi. CaseyAllenShobe. Mkrishna87. VedicScience. Wiki-uk.santhanam. Jengod. KocjoBot~enwiki. Dkonwar. The Rahul Jain. Redtigerxyz. Hyacinth. Vishal0816. John Nevard.corp. Hazeburn. Skumarlabot. Mdennis (WMF). Copperchloride. Yann. NawlinWiki. MartinBotIII. Pgan002. Florian Blaschke. Ekabhishek. David spector. WoodElf. Titodutta. Ayvak. Ganesh Paudel. Astronautics~enwiki. Thijs!bot. Banda.org/wiki/Shaktism?oldid=662682448 Contributors: Edward. Suman. Titodutta. TheJJJunk. Willard84. CALR. Subbu06111987. ChuispastonBot. Flying Buttress. Naraharisumadhwa. Hinio. Marchoctober. Nallimbot. Devi bhakta. SriMesh. Singam-2000. AND LICENSES 225 Wolveriner. Samenewguy. Lkharb. Thijs!bot. Jamierc. Veena78. CrazyCatz345. TX55. Tadorne. Mogism. BG19bot. Kajasudhakarababu. Vikneshraj 108. M. Prince. Madhusai. Apparition11. AstaBOTh15. WikHead. Shivambawlia. Special-T. Ram K Bhattatirippad. Shree. Vatasura. Tentinator. SmackBot. Hridith Sudev Nambiar. Lucyintheskywithdada. Mschlindwein. Dzr333. Pernoctator. Nayansatya. Lk56835. Kkm010. LhunGrub. Commons fair use upload bot (usurped). Soulsdone3. Helpful Pixie Bot. Ramtulsi0. Agletarang. EdoBot. Oldag07. J. Smeher. Ahoerstemeier. Gurunripa. Fatbuu1000. Dkonwar. RodC. W Tanoto. Doug. Ritik18. Stalkford. ShaktaScholar. Joliver(jolly). Ben-Zin~enwiki. HypotenuseLeg. Waff1e5tomper7379. Waerth. ClueBot. TUF-KAT. Mahaabaala. Arg89. Sridhar52. Rajaramraok. Singh. Ohnoitsjamie.wikipedia. Ponshivam. Thisthat2011. GlassFET. Discospinster. Alensha. Cameron Ehteshami. Bogdan Nagachop. Pratik Basu tkwbi. Glacialfox. Idleguy.mondal728. Ankush 89. Gadget850. Roboticsram. Trinexx. Darkwind. VolkovBot. Nmisal. Gaurav38. Sfacets.Account.patel232297. Sean. Ishwar77. Snotbot. Kkm010. Durga Destroyer. MythoEditor. DaGizza. Skandasol. Alwaysasking. AnomieBOT. Askthepatrick. JYBot. TheRingess. Dangerous-Boy. DesertRat262. Kumargaurav. Bidhanbarabazar. Glenn.krishna. Nobody60. Dbachmann. Jeffreydavidspeck. Slinkcube. Rtucker913. KasparBot. Kwamikagami.Google. Chaitanyanettem. This lousy T-shirt. Ashley thomas80. Menchi. Nihiltres. Magrover10.K. GregAlexander1. Discospinster. Jalandhara. Pukeville. Rocketrod1960. ZéroBot. Neyonae. Gilliam. Buddhipriya. Stormie. Robert1947. Bineeth Neethu. Qualities108.pandian. Consider42. Wayne Slam. Heron. Toddst1. FrescoBot. Savyasaachi. Xqbot. Babub. Sathya venkat. Kishor Nasery. Kar403. NekoDaemon. Nixeagle. Florian Blaschke. SchreiberBike. Ahoerstemeier. World8115. Looxix~enwiki. Mordicai. NjardarBot. Omnipaedista. VolkovBot. Knutux. John. Floorwalker. Zazaban. KI. Arch dude. Neverquick. Seth Ilys. Stamptrader. I dream of horses. VolkovBot.delta. Rudrasharman. Cablecow. WikiFlier. Endroit. Martial75. Editswikifornepali. Violask81976. Dougweller. Jacob. Rachotilko. Ekabhishek. Sunilsrivastava. Issa. Luxure. Fang Aili. Coredesat. Suraduttashandilya. Sarveshshukla. Fraytel. Akarkera. Solus ipse Inc. Venu62. DGJM. Alterego. Anypodetos. Lucent474. Velho. PhnomPencil. LordSuryaofShropshire. Fastfission. InMooseWeTrust. Vishvas vasuki. Kim Bruning. JaGa. Cminard. 1exec1. SmackBot. Vishal. Buddhipriya. Psychofox. Budumer. Mark Arsten. Xoloitzcuintle. Jeffhos. KRLS. Sptata. Rei-bot. Ravimpillay. Someone65. Paul Barlow. Mebizzare. KFP. Vastu. Aoidh. Vedayagya. Ott. Kablammo. NellieBly. Zerokitsune. Townblight. Poipoise. Anantashakti. Hu12. Manu. Polyamorph. Whycram. Sammod. NongBot~enwiki. Potatohead90. Sun Creator. Ranveig. Vakatiseshu. Gohdan. M7. Nimishms. Vanished user g454XxNpUVWvxzlr. Irishguy. Insanity Incarnate. Quaeler. Anirudh K Bharadwaj. Gobbleswoggler. Citation bot.pimple. Zadcat. Ranveig. GrouchoBot. FayssalF. Vikramaditiya.jose. Vineetkumarpn. Obersachsebot. WikipedianMarlith. MalafayaBot. FolkTraditionalist. C. C. Amitrochates. BigFatBuddha. Nobleeagle. Brijeshkrishnan.31. Lostinindia. Kaysov. Bakasuprman. Ugog Nizdast. Truthseeker81. Bhuston. RadicalBender. Hiplibrarianship. Sciurinæ. AnomieBOT. Pearle. Aulakh. Per Honor et Gloria. Scithe. Citation bot. Didactohedron. JFD. Sanjeevnewar. Xinjao. Blatven. Skoosh. Nishkid64. Peter James. Xyzzyva. Bluebot. Langdell~enwiki. Verbum Veritas. NawlinWiki. Srkris. BGhimire. BalanceRestored. Xenobot. Info D. Ramashray. Gadfium. Chobot. Epbr123. Stogerov. CsDix. Lord Emsworth. Begoon.V. Jagged 85.Logan. Danny. Acharya. Essjay. S. Graft. Moxy. Yamamoto Ichiro. FlaBot. Keenan Pepper. Uppland. Nayansatya. Ism schism. Maldek. Kkm010. Arvind Derhgawen and Anonymous: 116 • Bhagavad Gita Source: http://en. Jayantanth. Wikiuser13. Sabyasachi Mishra. 1truthsoul. EmausBot. Sbblr0803. Cosmic Latte.. CommonsDelinker. Vkbmenon. Bender235. CmdrObot. Rmky87. Antandrus. Soni Ruchi. Ne0Freedom. Luckas-bot. RjwilmsiBot. Qae. 999~enwiki. Nithayanandan77. Fourdee. FlaBot. Monkbot. Meno25. Liz. Wavelength. Ganesh J. A.). Discospinster. Topbanana. ZéroBot. Axl. Idioma-bot. DanielRigal. Ms Sarah Welch. TomS TDotO. DSisyphBot. AVand. Shii. Ashvawiki. Moreschi. Kajasudhakarababu. SieBot. Raj2004. Snowolf. Riana. Naveen Sankar. Majorly. Knverma. Mladifilozof. RussBot. MassimoAr. Rajneeshhegde. MER-C. Rockin It Loud. Zerokitsune. Keenan Pepper. YurikBot. Helpful Pixie Bot. Wiki Raja. GemmaMR. Leithp. Arjun024. Skbhat. Buddhipriya. Muthukumar. Sodabottle. DOI bot.wikipedia. Zawersh. Devb. Lele giannoni. Arvindn. Ctkohl. AndrewN. Rjwilmsi. Addbot. BodhisattvaBot. Qualities108. AnomieBOT. Luckas-bot. ChangeDetection. Pranathi. Soumit ban. Dogposter. SATTVIC DIET Dbachmann. ReyBrujo. Iulius. Sainath468. RjwilmsiBot. Drilnoth. Neerajamb. CounterVandalismBot. Bladesmulti. RafaAzevedo. Vishnava. Bdesham. BorgQueen. North Atlanticist Usonian. JoeSmack. Kedarjk. Fiddlersmouth. Ixfd64. Rohansingh. Lunkwill. DonaldSutherland. Aoidh. Yobot. Interiot. Wclark. CiTrusD. Tommy2010. Ramendra. Zaven2. Yogacharya. Sarayuparin. DerHexer. Quangbao. Sangeetapriya. Samaleks. Rambot. MaximusPrius. Ligulembot. Joshua Jonathan. Temp07. Kungfuadam. Optimist on the run. Teardrop onthefire. Monkbot. AnirvacanIya. Yoddhānāth. Brianhe. Rebroad. TAnthony. RussBot. Rudrasharman. RDF. SQGibbon. Sardanaphalus. Indopug. Darsie. ARYAN818. LilHelpa. Citation bot 1. Hvvisweswaran. Somkey russell. CALR. IAF. SarahR2008.. Mm9n. Rosamaple. Knutsandvik. . Unugy~enwiki. Pasuhi. Arteitle. Aranea Mortem. Helpful Pixie Bot. Ankushksharma. CardinalDan. DaGizza. Sligocki. Karrock. Ojigiri~enwiki. Superbun. Bender235. Butterplantforest. Catchbarat. STBot. Vibiesh. Lost-theory. YurikBot. Bhadani. Redtigerxyz1. FlareNUKE. Hindushudra. Mkweise. Kaobear. Suyashmanjul. Figureskatingfan. Sandstein. Raga. Ssault. Wiki-uk. XLinkBot. Thue. The wub. Kukini. Mild Bill Hiccup. TXiKiBoT. Santhangopal. Carlossuarez46. Mtrack81. Lacrimosus. Wikidas. Arrow740. Wikijos. Yoonadue. Goethean. Yonderboy~enwiki. Iztwoz. The Rahul Jain. Venu62. Isomeme. Zahid Abdassabur. Shiva bakta. ClueBot. Bentogoa. Mohammedadhil16. Sethie. Guanabot. Fuhghettaboutit. Ballon845. Firien. Friday. Amitrochates. Abecedare. Gregbard. Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki. Jotterbot. Hkelkar. Jeff G. Beetstra. Dazedbythebell. Softdynamite. Chappa07.m. ExecTaxes. JAnDbot. NeilN. Cbrown1023. Corvus cornix. Dputig07. Magioladitis. Widr. Jose Ramos. Hnaluru. Cmiller01.226 CHAPTER 17. Maurice Carbonaro. Soni Ruchi. Sac1891. Desirani628. Shridharan.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy?oldid=662501418 Contributors: The Anome. Anit. Yurik. Piperh. SmackBot. Yobot. Colonies Chris. Vivin. Nitinsunny. Joey80. Chancemill. Pigman. . Rtz-bot. Vervin. Voxii. Iridescent. Semitransgenic. Rama’s Arrow. Gaura79. Arjuna~enwiki. Chase me ladies. Vinay4454. Gdrbot. Just James. Sam Spade. Snowgrouse. Barek. Sardanaphalus. ArthurBot. Qweniden. Dogface. Pythonriot. Cultural Freedom. Rjwilmsi. Bunzil. Jumbuck. KamikazeBot. Walter Görlitz. Ekabhishek. Mitsube. Ravichandar84. SpellBott. Newbyguesses. Anjalipatwal. Anthony Appleyard. Editor2020. Martarius. KNM. Kostisl. Bsskchaitanya. Revelation2:27. Protozoan. Mogism. Andries. Peru Serv.Selvakumar. Ohconfucius. Azzamination220. Maurice Carbonaro. Ivan Štambuk. Marek69. CharlieHuang. Cool3. Deeptrivia. ChuispastonBot. Vedika0611.R. DaGizza. Spundun. ClueBot NG. Saberlotus. Koavf. Redtigerxyz. Dbachmann. Tdudkowski. Will Beback. Abbas motiwala.K. Jdcullum. Timeroom. Gaidinliu. Salt Yeung. Suresh Elangovan. Woohookitty. Nealmcb. Ankush 89 and Anonymous: 488 • Indian philosophy Source: http://en. DHNbot~enwiki. Gauravchauhan4. Samskrt. Raj2004. WeggeBot. Orpheus. Bhuvann. Shriramshishya. HairyWombat. Rkvemuri. B9 hummingbird hovering. Rājagṛha. Hmains. Mani1. Petiatil. Mel Etitis. Kane5187. Cheeni. Yoonadue. Aunt Entropy. Viriditas. Sreejith. Jj137. Mitsube.Siju. Hardyplants. Fusionmix. Cpaikra. Kkrystian. BullRangifer. Vinaybv.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita?oldid=663343289 Contributors: AxelBoldt. Bharathpv 9. Fazla Rabbi. Monitagopal. MatthijsPdy. Krsont. LemRobotry. Wavelength. LaaknorBot. DoriSmith. Compfreak7. Hu12. Seb35. Indubitably. HasharBot~enwiki. Balasubramanian A. Leolaursen. Guptasuneet. APH.anacondabot. Brendanwinter. IPSOS. Cyrius. Sindhu kb. Redmist. OKBot. Curb Chain. A. Chris the speller. ZéroBot. Borgx. Naddy. Vilietha. Ritz1on1. Rameshngbot. Brujo~enwiki. Nick Number. DadaNeem. Richard Arthur Norton (1958. Tintin1107. LordSimonofShropshire. RubyQ. Kukkurovaca. Dexbot. Ashishjain190. AstareGod. Swarnimraj. Steven Zhang. MPerel. Cjhareen. JForget. Knewace. LeadSongDog. Materialscientist. Kamenev. Yeditor. KocjoBot~enwiki. Stemonitis. KSchutte. Mayankjohri. Unjpmaiya. Woohookitty. Closedmouth. Bijuresh007. Spasemunki. ChandlerMapBot. Ankur. Adam78. Jumbuck. DBaba. Anirudh777. Priyanath. -Ril-. Badagnani. Aupmanyav. Gogo Dodo. Indian Chronicles. Foreverknowledge. Govindk. Dougweller. Wikipediarules2221. Mahayogini. Bobo192. Onorem. ClueBot. Funandtrvl. Hidoshi. Marosha.delanoy. . MKar. Freedom skies. Dewan357. Malo. Pigman. FolkTraditionalist. Bhawani Gautam. RussellSpence. BGlaze250. I'm the Cavalry. FrescoBot. Antiuser. Andrew Dalby. DMahalko. Robbot. Renamed user 4. The sunder king. Gnanapiti. NittyG. Dbachmann. Varanwal. BD2412. Jagged 85. Sindhutvavadin. Duk. Chitvamasi. Kbir1. Hulagu. Koavf. Aubreybardo. Revolving Bugbear. Ohnoitsjamie. BenzolBot. RickK. Dawg12345. John of Reading. Madmedea~enwiki. Rohitm. Thijs!bot. Chopper Dave. Engineering Guy. Trachys. Thamis. Aoclery. Haukurth. Trivandrum1024. Ppalem. Abecedare. Randy Kryn.wikipedia. Dangerous-Boy. Venkatesh kadam. Riana. Plurisubharmonic. The Transhumanist. Ashishtripat. Dexbot. VoABot II. Cardreader. Dream of Nyx. JamesBWatson. LilHelpa. Lukefinsaas. Neelix. FreplySpang. Ansuva. Lockesdonkey. Srkris. Neil Clancy. Bishonen. Onco p53. Peyre. Melaen. Trewbuk. Benna. Fyrael. Yann.areena. Shlomke. Deepak~enwiki. Elipongo. Addbot. Ahkond. Wikidas. Kishreddy. Vik-Thor. HPN. Devatmashishya. Zuggernaut. Flex. Cydebot. MartinBot. Tomisti. BD2412. Kbdank71. IShadowed. Imunuri. Barnwalusa. Aitias. Anirvan. Suruena.. Sohailstyle. Savitr. WillWare. Addshore. Chhajjusandeep. Deeptrivia. CDPLPCPL. Enaidmawr. Titodutta. TobeBot. Yintan. Doug. Dr. J. Allstarecho. Donnoit. Anwin52. Mandarax. Sol~enwiki. Academic Challenger. WookieInHeat. AntiVandalBot. ExplicitImplicity. Winode sv. Wahabijaz. Adivyatejaredy. Cacapowers. MER-C. TheRingess. Indrajit Bhattacharjee. Cahoot. Dlrohrer2003. Wavelength. TheLedBalloon. Ankushksharma. Bomac. Wictator. Eronel189. Devarsiratdas. Vinodagarwal. Zazaban. Akiyama(tentative). AbhisheksinghWIKI. Spiritllama. Luke Warmwater101. Lapaz1. Devadaru. GourangaUK. Lex Rex. JDSavage8. BishuYadav. Rahul RJ Jain. Faizhaider.Fred. Jigesh. Lawrencekhoo. Gracenotes. FordPrefect1979. LMANSH. Neelix. Thirteen squared. TheMandarin. Jonesey95. ACSE. AlleborgoBot. Ghufranraghib. Gabriel Pradiipaka. Gotovikas. Cdw1952. Thatdog. Chickenmonkey. Bhrigu. Humanism two. Abhishek tiwari ji. GraemeL. DadaNeem.17. Aditya San. Manjunatha immadihalli. Ptbotgourou. FF2010. Rezabot. YellowMonkey. Biblioworm. Slickk. RoyGoldsmith. SriMesh. Tavernsenses. Thiseye. Inwind. Manictagger. Helpful Pixie Bot. LilHelpa. Activision45. Sardaukar86. Karthikndr. Malapati. Ruptor. Bsskchaitanya. CityOfSilver. Nanakshahi chd. Mikeheth. ClueBot NG. Gilliam. Luna Santin. Chuniyana. Colonies Chris. DemocraticLuntz. Lairor. Anastomoses. Ananthp. DBaba. Hijiri88. Akronym. Surv1v4l1st. Takumar eng. Fpenteado. Numbo3-bot. Pydisc. TinucherianBot II. The Thing That Should Not Be. Joeoettinger. Brithnoth. Howcheng. Massage33316. Pshamb. Biruitorul. Yobot. Tawkerbot2. Faschwaa. Luk. Dr. XLinkBot. Davin. Sun Creator. Benne. Materialscientist. Innocent bystander 75. Senthilvelsp. The Obento Musubi. Redheylin. Thistheman. Shudra123. Vedavyaasa. Aitias. NathanWubs. Andhrabhoja. Jonoikobangali. Broberds. Jessemerriman. Sarayuparin. Addbot. SmackBot. Titodutta. BiT. Indopug. Demetriusss. Fbifriday. OrenBochman. Citation bot 1. JL-Bot. True Pagan Warrior. DASHBot. BG19bot. Jey78. Cguntur. God’sFlute. Abecedare. CliffC. FrescoBot. Deepak~enwiki. Vedicsciences. Marek69. Sitush. Udaysagar1. Zippymarmalade. Doublea278. Secret of success. BostonMA. Lajpatdhingra. Jacek Kendysz. Gitabhakt. Sandesh Saboo. Casimir Declan O'Conchobhar. Reg porter. JCJC777. DrilBot. Rajammaselvi. John of Reading. LogX. Bepositiveyarr. Myscrnnm. Gesalbte. Pvivek. Navindevda. Soham. Adventomega. PeaceLoveHarmony. Flaviusvulso. Boris Barowski. Carl. Verbum Veritas. Falcorian. DoctorJoeE. Monkbot. Lilamrta. AmritasyaPutra. Avipedia. Mankar Camoran. Zachorious. Airborne84. S3000. Wahabijaz. Rajivksaxena. Radrianne. Johnthebuddhist. Shishuram. DaGizza. Kcfree. VsBot. Kakofonous. Kpsaravu. Tassedethe. Nithya Balaji. Tashabot. Qxwwxq. (jarbarf). Dvptl. Wadya2012. Satbahadur. SeoMac. Interlingua. Rajivi. Tonygilloz. Nicke L. SteveM123. Tseno Maximov. Whitebox. NotWith. CONTRIBUTORS. Erinkhoo. Gansven. LizardWizard. Rmky87. SieBot. Buddhipriya. Shruti14. Ashishtripat. Bibekananda. Susan118. Sahirshah. Timlarkers. Chaitanya.Ashram. SWDesai21. Jaipurschool. Mann jess. Noncompliant one. Technopat. Crazyvas. Rjwilmsi. Myocastor. Koavf. Bharati Svami. SaibAbaVenkatesh. Mary Calm. Eshum. Diannaa. SynergyBlades. Slightsmile. R9tgokunks. Bennievermeer. Wikidas. Solarra. Varadarajd. CO2Northeast. Dougweller. Slowaltima. SQGibbon. RevDavid13. Chopper Dave. BorgQueen. Coderzombie. Whycram. TobeBot. KamikazeBot. Camitava. Alpinemonkey. Sikh-history. Spalepu.bunderson. Scribblednote. Radhadait. Martarius. Jezhotwells. RandomP. Taichi. Fraggle81. Gzhong. Jwy. Seshagiri2006. Iridescent. Omnipaedista. PhilKnight. Kkm5848. Kartikkaul1. Sudhirjeesharma. AnomieBOT. American Hindu. NawlinWiki. Theismcontrib. Sangwal. Pankajjain. H3llBot. Beetstra. Holy Ganga. Coasterlover1994.21r. Bhuvann. Sfauthor. Babub. Abichal. Latigid. Rmanjunath85 and Anonymous: 67 . Camw. Jro571. Vivrana. JeepdaySock. Thaurisil. CommonsDelinker. Simon D M. Curb Chain. C. Gawaxay. Zeuspitar. Ohconfucius. Fatbuu1000. Guru. Rajpaj. Armyrifle9. Amirobot. BG19bot. Premandom. Kh23. Alcmaeonid.org/wiki/Sattvic_diet?oldid=646834120 Contributors: HiramvdG. Ibadibam. Deeptrivia. Angielaj. Dwaipayanc. Wiki-uk. Kmg90. Whatrwe2do. Bharatveer.prashant. Chat. Pranathi. Tbone. Edhayan.john. Sloth039. Uwo222. Legobot III. Jaimalleshk. Maans76. Keithbob. Portia327. Good Olfactory. Pjpawaskar. Schmloof. Artimaean. Elgin222. Amitrochates. Shreevatsa. BirgitteSB. Falcon8765. Dazedbythebell. Graham87. Gyanesh75. Kuldeeppandey. Heathen001. Pseudo-Richard. PranksterTurtle. DHN-bot~enwiki. Alma Pater. Raokasturi. Carbon-16.lala. InverseHypercube. Janoside. Beprop. DSGruss. Zerokitsune.maynard.book. Adityan bhadra. Eyesnore. Redtigerxyz. Abhishek007p. Kozuch. Alan Joe Skarda. Bhaskarachandra. Kyle the bot. AnomieBOT. GoingBatty. Jyot. RedBot. Barek. Versus22. Thijs!bot.7. Xqbot. Onel5969. Nikolaj Christensen. Vbansal108. Rjwilmsi. MauritsBot. Citation bot. SmackBot. Phreyan. Syamadas. Philip Trueman. Modernist. Kellie Arlet. TBH. Scoutersig. Lejarrag. Haruth. Bigweeboy. Kukini. Vijaykum. JoeBlogsDord. Randy Kryn. Ganeshbot. Yashowardhani. Jagat92. Nedrutland. BD2412. Pgilman. Kar403. Nickzlapeor. Chariot11. MusikAnimal. Pathak ashu2003. JaGa. Aditya soni. Todeswalzer. Mr.. R'n'B. Maldek. RG2. Jotterbot. Mel Etitis. Pollinosisss. Mogism. Wikivedalankara. Pjnkumar. Bhojaldham. Ragnarstroberg. Epbr123. Ptcamn. MastiBot. Riley Huntley. II MusLiM HyBRiD II. Rudrasharman. WillNess. Jaipaldatta. Rsrikanth05. Handyunits. Josvebot. Gurubrahma. Bschandrasgr. V das. Gd. Kedarjk. Tubeyes. Niceguyedc. TheSoundAndTheFury. ProtectionTaggingBot. Sfvace. Ekabhishek. SpacemanSpiff. Supersymmetry123. Vishnuvarthanan Moorthy. DumZiBoT. Samisbored9. MKar. Zuggernaut. Subhashdus. Citymama. B9 hummingbird hovering. Urch9999. Smeazel. Randy Kryn. Glane23. Presearch. RolandR. JAnDbot. Imz. Adityavyas. Krazylearner. WikitanvirBot. Pisapatis. Rambo89. Joshua Jonathan. Ugog Nizdast. Faten Ali. Gitabook. Sfacets. Websterwebfoot. Shreemaa. Wikismartaleck. Cydebot. DJ Bungi. N sahi. Srinidhiprana. Mouse Nightshirt. Prashantparikh. Coolazice. Tipthepizzaguy. Kkrystian. Haptic-feedback and Anonymous: 830 • Sattvic diet Source: http://en. Fluffernutter. Chobot. Jim1138. 25 Cents FC. BrParitoshChaitanya. AssociateLong. Stradivarius. Nharipra. Siyavash. All Is One. Apparition11. Leggette. Red1~enwiki. Onel5969. TreasuryTag. Tim1357. Strike Eagle.Vittal. Seemagoel. Jayaprakashsaminathan. Scientist Prateek Kumar Das. Lovingwhatis. Elithabeth. Red Rose 13. 2048B. Lotje.wikipedia. Maxim. Cinosaur. Mr manilow. Jjbielas. Anonymous from the 21st century. RegentsPark. ClueBot NG. MGA73. ClueBot. J. Prabhavati. Smithfarm. Arms & Hearts. Bansuriheaven. AntiVandalBot. Reywas92. Bondego. Dharm4u india. S2000magician. Iddli. Pandeist. Gen2oo. EWikist. DerHexer. Luckas-bot. Shekey. Bgwhite. MyTwoCopperCoins. Cribananda. AND LICENSES 227 Tarakananda. Comancheros. HJ Mitchell. Wiki Truth 108. SlackerMom. VictoriaGrayson. Ayanosh. Trewbuk. CountryBot. Shiva das. Srini81. TXiKiBoT. Nlu. Jamesgowld. Souparna. Devb. Prahbridge. Raveendra rrr. CanadianLinuxUser. Nikil44. Auntof6. Kastrel. MatthewVanitas. Adellefrank. Magioladitis.behera149. Froid. Astynax. Gaius Cornelius. Lentower. VirtualSteve. Iitkgp. Dangerous-Boy. Samsbanned. Rcsprinter123. Ligulembot. Hirenada. Firsfron. Woohookitty. Merosonox. Thevikas. Filedelinkerbot. Hcpappu. Savyasaachi.singh. MC10. Sethie. HamburgerRadio. Tkynerd. Pranabnaik. Nrahamthulla. Truthseeker81. Pjoef. Sbinfinity. FlaBot. SoxBot III. Welsh. Bhawani Gautam. BreakfastJr. Addbot. Rama’s Arrow. Utcursch. Nasumani. Moe Epsilon. Aniish72. Pizzadeliveryboy. 999~enwiki. Skyerise. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES. Ringbang. Knewace. Slon02. Billinghurst. Pectore. Rohanmalviya. Sachindhaka. Britsin. Bobbyswimcandy. IndianGeneralist. AntiSpamBot. Nehrams2020. Iamcreative1000. Rouenpucelle. O Govinda. Hindushudra. Daxesh68. NaiPiak. Kbdank71. Qwert18. Vimalkalyan. Chandraveer. Keynes. Objectivesea. Pigman. Sanjw. YurikBot. Northumbrian. Wbm1058. DuncanCraig1949. Bladesmulti.delanoy. RjwilmsiBot. Od Mishehu. Arvind Iyengar. BS Murthy. Leolaursen. HeBhagawan. The Man in Question. Guy1890. Barek. TjBot. Pvskrishnapraveen. Sethie. VolkovBot. Unjpmaiya. Myanw. Avinashkumar1987. Abie the Fish Peddler. Koavf. Seaphoto. Jagprakash. Ism schism. Zzuuzz. Ms Sarah Welch. KocjoBot~enwiki. Kevin. Gokulum. Arjun024. Fgnievinski. CommanderCool1654. Gaura79. Nathan000000. Saswatt1. Maldek2. BrahmanAdvaita. Yobot. Sechzehn. Anandkarthikeyan. BattyBot. Cherryness. Logan. Nishkid64. Blacksun. Priyanath. Scriberius. Fladrif. Dsj1008. Denisarona. Vizziee. Minimac. EmausBot. Ovsek. Anirudh777. SectionFinale. Rekcomet. Woohookitty. Luckas-bot. Aoidh. gif Source: http://upload.svg Source: http://upload. by Dr.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Andronovo_culture. • File:Atheism_template.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://warfare2.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.wikimedia.png Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/ commons/8/83/Arjuna_BattlesWith_the_Kauravas_At_Kuruksheta_Bhagavad_Gita.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. John Scudder • File:20110725_Budha_eyes_closeup_Bodhnath_Stupa_Kathmandu_Nepal.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Sunildangi78 • File:1849_engraving_of_\char"0022\relax{}the_Hindoo_Goddess_Karle”.com/ Original artist: Mstyslav Chernov • File:Acap.asp?RegionID=1&CountryID=2&ChapterID=10&ObjectID=479 Original artist: Asia Society created the file. http://mstyslav-chernov.wikimedia.svg License: CC BY-SA 3. Original artist: The original uploader was Dhammajoti at Dutch Wikipedia • File:Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse._1800_%28circa%29_BM.org/research/search_ the_collection_database/search_object_details.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Angkor_Thom_%286648411831% 29.jpg Source: http://upload. Artwork created by an anonymous ancient source.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Anahata_blue.likamva.wikimedia.wikimedia.0 Contributors: English Wikipedia Original artist: User:Pratheepps • File:Ardhanari.wikimedia.aspx?objectid=3381498&partid=1&searchText=Bhairava&fromADBC=ad&toADBC=ad& numpages=10&images=on&orig=%2fresearch%2fsearch_the_collection_database.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Akshardham_angled.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Ggia • File:6_Śiva_and_Pārvatī_seated_on_a_terrace.228 17.png License: CC-BY-SA3.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/bd/1849_engraving_of_%22the_Hindoo_Goddess_Karle%22.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/ Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Dharmacakra_Discourse.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Ardhanari.jpg Source: http://upload.2 CHAPTER 17.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: F l a n k e r • File:Akshardham_angled.wikimedia.svg Source: http://upload.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.wikimedia.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Asoka_Kaart. _Sri_Lanka.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from nl.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Atheism_template.jpg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Angkor_Thom_(6648411831).wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3..jpg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload..wikimedia. SATTVIC DIET Images • File:(ॐ_नम-_शिवाय_)_ॐ_शब्द_हिन्दू_धर्म_में_और_आध्यात्मिक_जीवन_में_और_हमारे_वेदों_में_बहु_2014-06-04_23-12.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/%28%E0%A5%90_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE-_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF% E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF_%29_%E0%A5%90_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6_%E0%A4% B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4% AE_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4% AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4% B5%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4% BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5% 87%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81_2014-06-04_23-12.0 Contributors: Angkor Thom Original artist: Michael Day • File:Ardhanari.in/Moghul/Arjuna_Battles_With_the_Kauravas_At_Kuruksheta-Bhagavad_Gita.xerox • File:Amritsar-golden-temple-00.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: The Project Gutenberg EBook of Dr.JPG Source: http://upload.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adityamadhav83 • File:A_young_monk_against_the_background_of_Big_Buddha_statue_in_Weherahena_Temple.jpeg Source: http://upload. Scudder’s Tales for Little Readers..org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Ascetic_ Bodhisatta_Gotama_with_the_Group_of_Five.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/6_ %C5%9Aiva_and_P%C4%81rvat%C4%AB_seated_on_a_terrace.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Amritsar-golden-temple-00._1800_(circa)_BM.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mirzolot2 • File:Andronovo_culture.wikipedia to Commons.jpg Source: http://upload.aspx&currentPage=2 Original artist: Rajasthan School • File:A_view_of_Ruined_Buddhist_temple_on_hilltop_at_---File---Ramatheertham_Vizianagaram_AP_India.htm Original artist: Unknown • File:Ascetic_Bodhisatta_Gotama_with_the_Group_of_Five.0 Contributors: .svg License: CC BY-SA 3. John Scudder [EBook #13539] Original artist: Dr.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Arjuna_BattlesWith_the_Kauravas_At_Kuruksheta_Bhagavad_Gita.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY 2.wikimedia.JPG Source: http://upload.7.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ian Sewell • File:Anahata_blue. About the Heathen.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/c/cd/20110725_Budha_eyes_closeup_Bodhnath_Stupa_Kathmandu_Nepal.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Acap.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://asiasocietymuseum.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.wikimedia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Museum Original artist: anonimus • File:A_standing_figure_of_Bhairava._Matara.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kapil.wikimedia._Matara%2C_Southern_Province%2C_Sri_Lanka.org/region_ object.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: myself • File:Asoka_Kaart._a_form_of_Śiva.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/A_view_of_Ruined_Buddhist_temple_on_hilltop_at_---File---Ramatheertham_ Vizianagaram_AP_India.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/A_young_monk_against_the_background_of_Big_ Buddha_statue_in_Weherahena_Temple.0 Contributors: Self-photographed.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Ardhanari.jpg Source: http://upload.britishmuseum._Southern_Province.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/A_standing_ figure_of_Bhairava%2C_a_form_of_%C5%9Aiva.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Dasam.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo. A catalogue of the findings of the Second German Turfan Expedition (1904–1905) led by Albert von Le Coq.Manuscript.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Buddhism_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Buddhist_data_by_Pew_Research.wikimedia.narod.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Javierfv1212 • File:Central_Asian_Buddhist_Monks.nii.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Bon_shim.wikimedia.com/photos/festivefrog/2901377745/ Original artist: Jon Bragg • File:Commons-logo.barahona .wikimedia.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Deepawali-festival.ac.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. CONTRIBUTORS.BL.jpeg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload.com .jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Commentary: The Devimahatmya cropped from http: //www. Granth.ru/symbol/bhavachakra.1825-1850.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Bhagavad_Gita% 2C_a_19th_century_manuscript.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://probud.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1800_1899/ranjitsingh/drawings/drawings.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Chinese_ Buddhist_Monks_Ceremony_Hangzhou. which were destroyed in WW2.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Bodyguard_of_Ranjit_Singh.0 Contributors: Captured by uploader.jpg Source: http://upload.Unknown.JPG License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Deepawali-festival.wikimedia.svg: User:Zanaq • File:Avatars_of_Vishnu. Albert von Le Coq.wikimedia. Esteban.0 Contributors: Flickr.flickr.BL.jpg License: CC BY 2. 1913.wikimedia.jp/toyobunko/ LFc-42/'>Chotscho: Facsimile Reproduction of Important Findings of the First Royal Prussian Expedition to Turfan in East Turkistan</a>.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Libray of Congress [1] Original artist: Anonymous • File:Bhavachakra.jpeg Source: http://upload.JPG Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Buddhist_sects.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Buddha_in_Haw_Phra_Kaew.Manuscript.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.jpg Original artist: Anonymous • File:Dharma_Wheel.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload. containing colour reproductions of the murals.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Dasam.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Buddha-Footprint. html Original artist: Unknown • File:Bon_shim.Frontispiece.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.7.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Devimahatmya_ Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.org Original artist: Branislav Sobotka • File:Buddha-Footprint.jpg.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Buddha_in_Haw_Phra_Kaew.png License: CC BY-SA 3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.20/ms2174.columbia.wikimedia.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 2.svg Source: http://upload.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3. kwanumeurope.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.com/photos/69871685@N05/6916052573/sizes/m/in/photostream/ Original artist: Ashish Kanitkar • File:Devimahatmya_Sanskrit_MS_Nepal_11c.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shazz.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Bhavachakra.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/BuddhistTriad. Original artist: ผู้สร้างสรรค์ผลงาน/ส่งข้อมูลเก็บในคลังข้อมูลเสรีวิกิมีเดียคอมมอนส์ .1825-1850.png Source: http://upload.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Debating_Monks. AND LICENSES 229 • Atom_of_Atheism-Zanaq.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Central_Asian_Buddhist_ Monks.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Captured by uploader.wikimedia. • File:Chinese_Buddhist_Monks_Ceremony_Hangzhou.org/wikipedia/en/4/40/Bhagavad-Gitas.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Daibatsu-2.Frontispiece.Granth.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Bangladesh_Prayer.no/baser/schoyen/5/5.wikimedia.wikimedia.wikimedia.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://dsr.jpg Source: http://upload.เทวประภาส มากคล้าย • File:Buddhism_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Buddhist_data_by_Pew_Research. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES. taken from: w:en:Image:Devimahatmya Sanskrit MS Nepal 11c.nb.jpg Source: http://upload. Original artist: ผู้สร้างสรรค์ผลงาน/ส่งข้อมูลเก็บในคลังข้อมูลเสรีวิกิมีเดียคอมมอนส์ .org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Debating_Monks.wikimedia. Of the book. wikimedia.0 Contributors: http://www.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Bodhitree.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY 2.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Buddhist_sects.wikimedia.0 Contributors: http://www.svg Original artist: Atom_of_Atheism-Zanaq._a_19th_century_manuscript.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.wikimedia.17.jpeg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Bangladesh_Prayer.เทวประภาส มากคล้าย • File:Bodyguard_of_Ranjit_Singh.0 Contributors: www.JPG Source: http://upload.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Daibatsu-2.html Original artist: Unknown • File:Bodhitree. (National Institute of Informatics – Digital Silk Road Project Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books) Original artist: of the paintings . Bangladesh • File:Bhagavad-Gitas.jpg Source: http://upload.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Avatars_of_Vishnu.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.JPG Source: http://upload.JPG License: ? Contributors: A photo of the books Original artist: ? • File:Bhagavad_Gita.image description page Original artist: Hasan Iqbal Wamy from Dhaka.wikimedia.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: M Tracy Hunter • File:BuddhistTriad. Berlin.flickr. 9.230 CHAPTER 17.text.svg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload.JPG License: CC-BYSA-3.svg Source: http://upload.moci.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Belize.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Ephesians_2%2C12_-_Greek_ atheos.of.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Advanced Papyrological Information System.wikimedia.text.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various .svg Source: http://upload.com.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Durga_2005.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Kuwait.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.jpg Source: http://upload.pantone. Schedule 1 [1] Original artist: Drawn by User:Pumbaa80.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.0 Contributors: http: //www. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion (original uploader).flickr.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Evolution_in_Samkhya.wikipedia • File:Durga_Mahisasuramardini.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Early_Vedic_Culture_ %281700-1100_BCE%29.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Flag_of_Fiji.svg Source: http://upload.gov.svg Source: http://upload.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Guyana.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India. the author of xrmap (improved version) • File:Flag_of_Fiji. 5.of.dcaa.wikimedia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from http://www.wikimedia. Original artist: Unknown • File:Early_Vedic_Culture_(1700-1100_BCE).svg Source: http://upload.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.wikimedia. Original artist: Caleb Moore • File:Flag_of_Bhutan.wikimedia.sid=4b37e91656bda8ae09cb1eb875668eba'>here</a> • Improved version from xrmap flag collection 2.complex. • File:Evolution_in_Samkhya. UM.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.wikimedia.svg Source: http://upload.svg Source: http://upload. SATTVIC DIET • File:Durga_2005.svg Source: http://upload.com/photos/andihefti/2091525508/sizes/o/ Original artist: andihefti • File:Ephesians_2. transferred to Commons by User:Kajasudhakarababu using CommonsHelper.</span>.wikipedia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Qatar.wikimedia.bh/en/KingdomofBahrain/BahrainFlag/ Original artist: Source: Drawn by User:SKopp.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.svg Source: http://upload.svg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Avantiputra7 • File:Elephanta_Marriage.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Elephanta_Marriage.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Flag_of_Belize.wikimedia.svg Source: http://upload. com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.svg Source: http://upload.www.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.svg Source: http://upload. pp.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_Guyana.wikimedia.<span>.png License: CC BY-SA 3.jpg Source: http://upload.JPG Source: http://upload.complex.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal.svg Source: http://upload. Colors from the book: (2001).jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sivaraj D • File:ElloraPuja.aspx. User:Achim1999 • File:Flag_of_Oman.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website. Article 5.wikimedia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_France.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal. Singapore: Ministry of Information.wikimedia.airliners.wikipedia by en:User:Brian0918 on 15:48.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Example.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Malaysia. then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: Original uploader was Unmadindu at en.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore. 29 March 2007.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Durga_Mahisasuramardini.wikimedia.12_-_Greek_atheos.rendering.net/photo/Belize---Air/ Britten-Norman-BN-2A-21-Defender/0925855/L/.png Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait. rendering.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/ElloraPuja.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wereon • File:Flag_of_Bahrain.wikimedia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version) Original artist: SKopp.5 Contributors: Transferred from en. [1] Original artist: Image uploaded to en. rewritten by User: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.wikimedia.&. Zscout370 and Ranking Update • File:Flag_of_Mauritius. Communications and the Arts.svg Source: http://upload.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Nepal.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: CorrectKnowledge • File:Example.wikimedia.wikimedia. The National Symbols Kit.wikimedia.JPG Source: http://upload.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: picture of the “Guler School”.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.sg/who/42/National-Flag.wikimedia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Used as Air Force insigna seen <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://www.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi• File:Flag_of_Singapore. org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Seychelles.sikhiwiki.org/detail/4831/ganesha-holds-court/ Original artist: Unknown • File:Ginkakuji_Temple_Togudo_2009_059.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.png Source: http://upload. permission for use given by Sri Amritananda Natha Saraswathi.gif: Original uploader was Mahima13 at en.jpg License: CC BY 2.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload. AND LICENSES 231 • File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.gif Original artist: In-jain.png License: CC-BYSA-3.wikimedia.wikimedia.php?title=Image:Interior_of_akal_takht.wikimedia.svg Source: http://upload.jpg Original artist: Navroop Sehmi .wikimedia.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Hindu_wedding_ceremony_fire.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/In-jain.flickr.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/77/GntGowSala.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made. CONTRIBUTORS.wikimedia. Devipuram Original artist: Devi bhakta • File:Halebid3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES.png Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Halebid3.wikipedia • File:India_statue_of_nataraja.com/photos/rosemania/86746598/in/set-72057594048518296/ Original artist: Rosemania • File:Indian_sadhu_performing_namaste.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Piyal Kundu • File:Gopuram-madurai.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.wikimedia.jpg License: Cc-by-sa-3.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/ Illustration_of_Devangari_as_used_for_writing_Sanskrit. Original artist: Unknown • File:Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Gopuram-madurai.wikimedia.JPG Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Indo-Iranian_origins.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Goddess_Kali_By_Piyal_Kundu1.wikimedia.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/HinduismSymbol.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn according Description of flag and Corporate design guidelines .wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Goddess_Kali_By_Piyal_ Kundu1.wikimedia.flickr.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/IE_expansion.org/index.wikimedia.0 Contributors: http://www.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shekhartagra • File:IE_expansion.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.jpg Source: http://upload.thewalters.flickr.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/GuruNanakFresco-Goindwal.flickr. wikimedia.svg Source: http://upload.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.PNG Source: http://upload.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://art.jpg Source: http://upload.svg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: http://www.wikimedia.0 Contributors: Created by Tinette user of Italian Wikipedia.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.jpg Source: http://upload.com/photos/mkosut/4669560678/ Original artist: http://www.jpg Source: http://upload.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:HinduismSymbol.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.wikimedia.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Ganesha_pachayatana.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AmritasyaPutra • File:In-jain.National flag colours.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_Seychelles.wikimedia.0 Contributors: http://www.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:InsideSikhGurdwara.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Interior_of_Akal_Takht.com/photos/mkosut/4669560678/ • File:Interior_of_Akal_Takht.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Ganesha_pachayatana.wikimedia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.jpg Source: http://upload.wikipedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dingy • File:GntGowSala. description page is (was) here Original artist: User Nataraja on fr.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).wikipedia • File:GuruNanakFresco-Goindwal.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Gurdwara Goindwal Sahib Original artist: Unknown • File:Guruji_puja.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SLS 693 .0 Contributors: • In-jain.17.jpg License: CC BY-SA 1.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/InsideSikhGurdwara.7.jpg License: CC BY 2.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Ginkakuji_Temple_ Togudo_2009_059.wikimedia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.jpeg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload. Original artist: Tinette (talk · contribs) • File:Hinduism_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Hindu_data_by_Pew_Research.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Hindu_wedding_ceremony_fire.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: M Tracy Hunter • File:Hitopadesha.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Hitopadesha.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_ Emirates.wikimedia.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Hinduism_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Hindu_data_by_Pew_Research.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Indian_sadhu_performing_ namaste.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbachmann (talk · contribs) • File:Illustration_of_Devangari_as_used_for_writing_Sanskrit.svg Source: http://upload.PNG License: CC-BY-SA-3.National flag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Suriname.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/India_statue_of_nataraja. for the RGB approximations [2] Original artist: User:Vxb83 • File:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.wikimedia.com/photos/clodreno/116303538/ Original artist: Claude Renault (Crop applied by uploader) • File:Indo-Iranian_origins.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago.0 Contributors: http://www.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Guruji_puja.wikimedia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1].wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Originally from fr. jpg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Le_grand_d%C3%A9part.wikimedia.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: myself • File:Lalita_sm.jpg Source: http://upload.org Original artist: Shri Tulsi Peeth Seva Nyas • File:Japanese_buddhist_monk_by_Arashiyama_cut.svg Source: http://upload.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.wellcome.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Kumuthavalli_AvatharaAthalam.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.com/photos/asianu/3993969533/ Original artist: anurupa_chowdhury • File:Ken_Dedes_as_Boddhisattva.png 2x' data-file-width='186' data-file-height='220' /></a> Original artist: Fred the Oyster • File:Konchog-wangdu. purchased by uploader in antique lot of assorted early deity prints. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.uk/indexplus/obf_images/06/be/c9c466b8dd2eca222a98d0a1e171.png/75px-Khanda. 1920-1930) without copyright notice.aspx?objectId=3375007& partId=1 Original artist: Unknown • File:Krishna_holding_flute.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.jpg Source: http://upload. University of Tuebingen.wikimedia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marubatsu • File:Kali_and_Bhairava_in_Union.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_ Koreana-01.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gombang • File:Khanda.jpg Original artist: Raja Ravi Varma • File:Kamakhya_aiya.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: The complete Hindoo Pantheon.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Konchog-wangdu.5x.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Kashmir_Sharada_MS.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Krishna_holding_flute.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Lingodbhava_murti.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Ken_Dedes_as_Boddhisattva.jpeg License: CC-BY-SA-3.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Kamakhya_aiya.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Popular religious art print (c.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.png' src='//upload.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Kamakura-buddha-2.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Krishna_Arjuna_Gita.wikimedia. Then transferred from en.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.wikimedia.png 1.png/150px-Khanda.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Unicode Original artist: Self-made • File:Khanda_emblem. • File:Le_grand_départ.wikipedia.ac.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/MenandrosCoin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: LACMA[1] Original artist: Unknown • File:Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma. library catalog numbers Ma I 404.0 Contributors: jagadgururambhadracharya. Rodrigues • File:Mahabodhitemple. //upload.html .wikimedia.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vishwajith33 • File:Kurukshetra.png/113px-Khanda.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Japanese_ buddhist_monk_by_Arashiyama_cut.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Kurukshetra.wikimedia.svg Source: http://upload.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_object_details.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Thyes • File:Kashmir_Sharada_MS.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? .jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The original is kept in the University Library.e-ternals.jpg Source: http://upload.svg License: Public domain Contributors: <a href='//commons.jpg License: CC BY 2. Original artist: Devi bhakta • File:Kamakura-buddha-2.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Kedarnathroute.wikimedia.232 CHAPTER 17.org/ wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Khanda.JPG License: CC BY 3.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Lalita_sm.png' width='75' height='89' srcset='//upload.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Khanda.wikimedia. Taken from http://www.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Carved Door Detail Original artist: Joe M500 • File:Kumuthavalli_AvatharaAthalam.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Kushinara1.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Khanda_emblem.com/english/publications/publications20col2.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.0 Contributors: http://flickr.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia. SATTVIC DIET • File:Jagadguru_Rambhadracharya_at_Baroda.0 Contributors: http://www.org/wiki/File:Khanda.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload. and electronically scanned and color-enhanced to counteract extreme wash-out/fading.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY 2.flickr.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Jagadguru_ Rambhadracharya_at_Baroda.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/e/e2/Khanda.wikimedia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.wikimedia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Kushinara1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://images.wikimedia.wikimedia.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: myself • File:MenandrosCoin.wikimedia.wikimedia.png' class='image'><img alt='Khanda.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.JPG Source: http://upload. but name illegible. comprising the principal deities worshipped by the Natives of British India throughout Hindoostan Original artist: E.com/photos/malpuella/2583843433/ Original artist: Lauren Heckler (the Flickr ID is malpuella) at Flicker • File:Krishna_Arjuna_Gita.JPG Source: http://upload. Original artist: ? • File:Kedarnathroute.jpg License: FAL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ddalbiez • File:Lingodbhava_murti.1-3.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Mahaparinirvana.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY 2.jpg Source: http://upload.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bpilgrim • File:Mahaparinirvana.britishmuseum.jpg Source: http://upload. Original artist: Print appears signed in lower right corner.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Permission for use granted by Sri Amritananda Natha.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Kali_and_Bhairava_in_Union.wikimedia. A.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Khanda. org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.jpg Source: http://upload. Calamar from Brooklyn.svg.wikimedia.wikimedia.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.jpg Source: http://upload.nb.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_ folder_home.5x.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Parvati_Ganesha.jpg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: Parashakthi Temple Original artist: Rashkesh • File:Nepalese_-_Bhairava_with_Goddess_-_Walters_543024_(2). New York.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JJ Harrison ([email protected] License: CC BY-SA 3.jpg Source: http://upload.png 1. Original artist: Raja Ravi Varma • File:Rank_celebration_of_Thai_Buddhist_monk_1.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Monywa-shwezigon-paya-d01.png 1.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.svg' src='//upload.JPG Source: http://upload.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Rigveda_MS2097.0 Contributors: Saranath Original artist: R.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Preah_Pithu_T_Monks_-_Siem_Reap.svg Source: http://upload.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http: //abhisays. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project • File:Om.7.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/raja_ravivarma_painting_lakshmi.5x.com) • File:Phrase_sanskrit.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.svg.svg' src='//upload.เทวประภาส มากคล้าย • File:Rath_Yatra_russia_winter.svg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload. USA • File:Monywa-shwezigon-paya-d01.jpg Original artist: Raja Ravi Varma • File:Rigveda_MS2097.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.wikimedia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://abhisays.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.wikimedia.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3. M. Based on Image:Question book.html Original artist: Raja Ravi Varma . //upload. //upload.wikimedia.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bernard Gagnon • File:Saraswati.svg License: PD Contributors: svg created by Rugby471 from a public domain symbol Original artist: Rugby471 • File:Panj_pyare.org/wikipedia/en/8/8e/Om.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.jpg Source: http://upload. AND LICENSES 233 • File:Monastery_around_Dhamek_stupa.png Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.5 es Contributors: Digital photo taken by author and post-processed with The GIMP.wikimedia.wikimedia.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.no/baser/schoyen/5/5.wikimedia.thewalters.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Ravi_Varma-Lakshmi.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adityamadhav83 Source: • File:Samadhi_Buddha_02.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (Nepal) • File:Office-book.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Navarathri_at_Parashakthi_ Temple.jpg http://upload.svg Source: http://upload.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original source not stated by uploader.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Asdf07 • File:Parvati_Ganesha.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Panj_pyare.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Monastery_around_ Dhamek_stupa%2C_Sarnath.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY 3.wikimedia._Sarnath.wikimedia.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/3/3f/Nepalese_-_Bhairava_with_Goddess_-_Walters_543024_%282%29.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Samadhi_Buddha_02.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2. CONTRIBUTORS.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_ Sankaracharya.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Preah_Pithu_T_Monks_-_ Siem_Reap. however many sources available on web including this.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Rath_Yatra_russia_winter.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Phrase_sanskrit.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Portal-puzzle.org/detail/39014' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg.jpg Source: http://upload.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload. Original artist: Colegota • File:Navarathri_at_Parashakthi_Temple.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_ folder_home.wikimedia.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JJ Harrison ([email protected]/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Saraswati.svg.svg.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.jpg Source: http://upload.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This and myself.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Rank_celebration_ of_Thai_Buddhist_monk_1.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Rock-cut_Lord_--Buddha--_Statue_at_Bojjanakonda_near_Anakapalle_of_ Visakhapatnam_dist_in_AP.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.svg/20px-Information_icon.jpg License: CC BY 3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.wikimedia.20/ms2097.17.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/ 81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.wikimedia.0 Contributors: Captured by uploader. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES.jpg Original artist: Unknown • File:Rock-cut_Lord_--Buddha--_Statue_at_Bojjanakonda_near_Anakapalle_of_Visakhapatnam_dist_in_AP.png 2x' data-file-width='128' data-fileheight='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola filesystems folder home.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [2] Original artist: Unknown • File:Phra_Buddha_Jinaraj_-_Phitsanulok.wikimedia.com) • File:Question_book-new.wikimedia.wikimedia.svg/30px-Information_icon.com/art/selected-paintings-of-raja-ravi-varma-part-3.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon. Original artist: ผู้สร้างสรรค์ผลงาน/ส่งข้อมูลเก็บในคลังข้อมูลเสรีวิกิมีเดียคอมมอนส์ .jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Phra_Buddha_Jinaraj_-_ Phitsanulok.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lite • File:Ravi_Varma-Lakshmi.wikimedia.svg. com/about/about.flickr.0 Contributors: http://www.png Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Sri_Guru_Granth_Sahib_Nishan. jpg License: CC BY 2. Original artist: ? • File:Shiva_meditating_Rishikesh.wikimedia.wikipedia.wikimedia.JPG License: CC BY 3. photographed by the LACMA.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg License: PD Contributors: Housed in Smithsonian Institute.org/index.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jujhar.svg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Shiva_Bangalore.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/StandingBuddha.jpg License: CC BY 2.[1] Original artist: ? • File:Siddhasana.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Sikh_musicians.jpg Original artist: ? • File:Shiva_Pashupati.wikimedia.sikhiwiki.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/protoshiva/protoshiva.jpg Original artist: Unknown • File:Sikh_musicians.org/sites/default/files/remote_images/piction/ma-31972238-O3.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Dziewa at en.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work at the Guimet Museum.jpg Source: http://upload.html • File:Sikh.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/SriSwarnaKalaBhairavar.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Sikh.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.org/wikipedia/en/a/ad/Shiva_parivar.JPG Source: http://upload.flickr.com/photos/blaiq/75116239/ Original artist: Iqbal Mohammed • File:Shiva_parivar.man.jpg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ilya Mauter • File:Siva_With_Moustache_From_Archaeological_Museum_GOA_IMG_20141222_122455775.jpg License: CC BY 2.86.Golden.6.jpg Source: http://upload.com/photos/ashish100/49287601/ Original artist: Ashish 100 • File:Sikhs_on_the_move!.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.Temple.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Siva_ Lingam_at_Jambukesvara_temple_in_Srirangam.com/photos/liz_at_blackrose/35312447/ Original artist: Liz Highleyman • File:Sikh_wedding. • File:Sound-icon.wikimedia.at.345.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg Source: http://upload.234 CHAPTER 17.svg License: CC BY-SA 2. 86.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/SriGuruNanak%27sTravels.jpg: http://www.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Sikh_Gurus_ with_Bhai_Bala_and_Bhai_Mardana.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Sikhs_on_the_move%21.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Shiva_Tripurantaka.svg Source: http://upload.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.wikimedia.lacma.at.drishtikone.wikimedia.jpg Original artist: unknown Indus Valley Civilization sealmaker from Mohenjodaro archaeological site • File:Shiva_Tripurantaka.svg License: LGPL Contributors: Derivative work from Silsor's versio Original artist: Crystal SVG icon set • File:Speaker_Icon.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Sikhs on the move! Original artist: Joel Friesen • File:Siva_Lingam_at_Jambukesvara_temple_in_Srirangam.wikipedia .jpg Source: http://upload.com/files/images/Guru%20Nanak1.jpg License: CC BY 2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:SriGuruNanak’{}sTravels.man.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as “Album Cover with Shiva as the Destroyer of the Tree Cities of the Demons (Tripurantaka)" Original artist: Clinton Steeds • File:Shiva_as_the_Lord_of_Dance_LACMA_edit.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arulraja • File:Sri_Guru_Granth_Sahib_Nishan.yogaartandscience.5 Contributors: • Siddhasana. Paris Original artist: personal photograph by [1] • File:Swami_Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Swami_ Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.wikimedia.6.jpg Source: http://upload. org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Siva_With_Moustache_From_Archaeological_Museum_GOA_IMG_20141222_122455775.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.wikipedia to Commons.0 Contributors: http://www.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.wikimedia.the. SATTVIC DIET • File:Shiva_Bangalore_.Golden.wikimedia.wikimedia.columbia.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.wikimedia.wikimedia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Image: http://collections.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Shiva_Bearing_the_Descent_of_the_Ganges_River%2C_folio_ from_a_Hindi_manuscript_by_the_saint_Narayan_LACMA_M.0 Contributors: http://www.pannu • File:SriSwarnaKalaBhairavar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.jpg License: CC BY 2.Temple.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:SikhGurus-LifeSpans-GurushipSpans.JPG Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dharmpreet.flickr.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as ShivMandir .org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Shiva_meditating_Rishikesh.jpg Original artist: Siddhasana.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Shiva_as_the_Lord_ of_Dance_LACMA_edit.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ranjithsiji • File:Socrates. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.345.wikimedia.the.jpg.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Siddhasana.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/ SikhGurus-LifeSpans-GurushipSpans.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon. Kemp Fort Original artist: Kalyan Kumar • File:Shiva_Bearing_the_Descent_of_the_Ganges_River._folio_from_a_Hindi_manuscript_by_the_saint_Narayan_LACMA_M.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Sikh_wedding.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Shiva_as_the_Lord_of_Dance_LACMA.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.php Original artist: Unknown • File:StandingBuddha.mand • File:Sikh_Gurus_with_Bhai_Bala_and_Bhai_Mardana. org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/d/da/Tamil_nadu%2C_epoca_cola%2C_bhairava%2C_la_forma_terribile_di_shiva%2C_x-xi_sec.. • File:Wikibooks-logo. User:Ramac et al.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. • File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.org/wikipedia/en/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Uma_maheswar.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo._Leiden.wikimedia.7. Original uploader was Tsui at de.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia. Original artist: Benjamin D.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tubantia • File:View_over_Arunchaleshvara_Temple_from_the_Red_Mountain_-_Tiruvannamalai_-_India_02.wikimedia.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.wikimedia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/0100_0199/gita/vishvapaint/vishvapaint.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/View_over_Arunchaleshvara_Temple_from_the_Red_Mountain_-_Tiruvannamalai_ -_India_02.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.wikimedia.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.html Original artist: Unknown • File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.wikimedia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www. Originally uploaded by Simon.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad • File:Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.wikimedia.wikimedia. AND LICENSES 235 • File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en. • File:Tamil_nadu._epoca_cola.jpg Source: http://upload.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.17.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.png.JPG Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw • File:Wiktionary-logo-en.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: self-made.wikimedia..0 Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) • File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.wikimedia._x-xi_sec.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/The_word_ %E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_ %28Sanskrit%29_in_Sanskrit.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adam Jones Adam63 • File:Vishnuvishvarupa.svg Source: http://upload.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Vishnuvishvarupa.jpg Original artist: Buddha_Bamiyan_1963. based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber • File:Yamna-en.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.png.columbia.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.svg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: • Buddha_Bamiyan_1963.svg Source: http://upload.wikipedia. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05. User:Ramac et al.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs).jpg: UNESCO/A Lezine.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: handmade Original artist: Theoteryi • File:Taj_Mahal_pr.wikimedia. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES. Berlin Original artist: PHGCOM • File:Uma_maheswar.wikimedia.svg from the Tango project.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikiquote-logo. photographed at Museum für Asiatische Kunst.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/ ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.jpg License: CC BY 3.wikimedia.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.svg License: CC BYSA 3.svg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: OldakQuill • File:ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3._la_forma_terribile_di_shiva.jpg Source: http://upload.pannu .jpg Source: http://upload.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Balaji • File:Vallana_-_Haagweg_14.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Yamna-en.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Yuba_City_Nagar_Kirtan_2011.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pedro Roque Hidalgo • File:Taller_Buddha_of_Bamiyan_before_and_after_destruction.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Joostik • File:Yuba_City_Nagar_Kirtan_2011.svg Source: http://upload.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique.svg Source: http://upload.svg License: CC BY-SA 2. jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jujhar.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg Source: http://upload.JPG Source: http: //upload. 2 August 2006 (UTC) Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. • File:Wikidata-logo.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.wikimedia.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil • File:Symbol_information_vote.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_with_ red_question_mark.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Vallana_-_Haagweg_14%2C_ Leiden. based upon Text-x-generic. Esham (bdesham) • File:The_word_संस्कृतम्_(Sanskrit)_in_Sanskrit.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko • File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/ Taller_Buddha_of_Bamiyan_before_and_after_destruction.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Taj_Mahal_pr. CONTRIBUTORS.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.wikimedia.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky • File:Wikiversity-logo.wikimedia.jpg Source: http://upload.svg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Symbol_information_vote._bhairava. svg.org/detail/9601' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon. SATTVIC DIET • File:Zahir_al-Din_Muhammad_Babur_-_Babur_and_His_Warriors_Visiting_a_Hindu_Temple_-_Walters_W59622B_ -_Full_Page.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Аркадий Зарубин 17.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.5x.svg' src='//upload.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_ folder_home.JPG Source: http://upload.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola filesystems folder home.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Zahir_al-Din_Muhammad_Babur_-_Babur_ and_His_Warriors_Visiting_a_Hindu_Temple_-_Walters_W59622B_-_Full_Page.0 .5x.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.thewalters.wikimedia.svg.svg.png 1.wikimedia.wikimedia.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.svg/40px-Information_icon.7.wikimedia.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.jpg Source: http://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_ folder_home.svg/20px-Information_icon.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.png 2x' data-file-width='128' data-fileheight='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.wikimedia.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Babur • File:Хуварак. //upload.236 CHAPTER 17.svg.wikimedia.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.svg.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.3 Content license • Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0% B0%D0%BA. //upload.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/ 81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.