Vedas

VedasFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "Veda" redirects here. For other uses, see Veda (disambiguation). "Vedic" redirects here. For other uses, see Vedic (disambiguation). Part of a series on Hindu scriptures Vedas Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka · Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya · Kena · Maitri · Mundaka · Mandukya · Katha · Kaushitaki · Prashna · Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata · Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Manu Smriti · Agama · Pancharatra · Tantra · Akilathirattu · Sūtra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Yoga Vasistha This box: view • talk • edit The Vedas (Sanskrit वेद véda, "knowledge") are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[1] The class of "Vedic texts" is aggregated around the four canonical Saṃ hitās or Vedas proper (turīya), of which three (traya) are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical (Iron Age) Vedic religion: 1. the Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotṛ or chief priest; 2. the Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest; 3. the Samaveda, containing formulas to be chanted by the udgātṛ. The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and incantations, stories, predictions, apotropaic charms and some speculative hymns.[2] According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "not of human agency"[3], are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard").[4][5]. The four Saṃhitās are metrical (with the exception of prose commentary interspersed in the Black Yajurveda). The term saṃhitā literally means "composition, complation". The individual verses contained in these compilations are known as mantras. Some selected Vedic mantras are still recited at prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions in contemporary Hinduism. The various Indian philosophies and sects have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities are referred to by traditional Hindu texts as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[6][7] In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism [8] [9] and Brahmoism [10] do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Contents [hide] • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1 Etymology and usage 2 Chronology 3 Categories of Vedic texts o 3.1 Vedic Sanskrit corpus o 3.2 Shruti literature 4 Vedic schools or recensions 5 The Four Vedas o 5.1 Rigveda o 5.2 Yajurveda o 5.3 Samaveda o 5.4 Atharvaveda 6 Brahmanas 7 Vedanta 8 In post-Vedic literature o 8.1 Vedanga o 8.2 Parisista o 8.3 Puranas o 8.4 Upaveda o 8.5 "Fifth Veda" 9 Notes 10 References 11 Literature 12 See also 13 External links [edit] Etymology and usage Look up Veda in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Look up Vedic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The Sanskrit word véda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯id-, meaning e "see" or "know".[11] As a noun, the word appears only in a single instance in the Rigveda, in RV 8.19.5, translated by Griffith as "ritual lore": yáḥ samídhā yá âhutī / yó védena dadâśa márto agnáye / yó námasā svadhvaráḥ "The mortal who hath ministered to Agni with oblation, fuel, ritual lore, and reverence, skilled in sacrifice." Geldner's translation of the same passage has Wissen "knowledge". [12] The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯idos, cognate to Greek (ϝ )εϝ δος "aspect", e "form". Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek (ϝ)οϝδα (w)oida "I know". Root cognates are Greek ϝδέα, English wit, etc., Latin video "I see", etc.[13] In English, the term Veda is mostly used to refer to the Samhitas (collection of mantras, or chants) of the four canonical Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda). The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means "knowledge", but can also be used to refer to fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, e.g. in agada-veda "medical science", sasya-veda "science of agriculture" or sarpa-veda "science of snakes" (already found in the early Upanishads); durveda means "with evil knowledge, ignorant".[14] [edit] Chronology Main article: Vedic period The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, spanning the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Gavin Flood[15] sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th c. BCE the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Patañjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.[16]The general accepted historical chronology of the Vedas ranks the Rig Veda as the first, followed by the Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and finally the Atharva Veda. Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition predominated until c. 1000 CE.[17] Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties". were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas.[21][22] certain Sūtra literature. [edit] Categories of Vedic texts The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings: 1. 6th century BC) marks the end of the Vedic period . however. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"[19] [edit] Vedic Sanskrit corpus The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes: • • • • • The Samhita (Sanskrit saṃhitā. Sama-Veda. some of the older Mukhya Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka. there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89. the 12th to 10th centuries BC.[18] The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century. are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Mauryan and Gupta periods.e.years. In some contexts.[23][24] The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (ca. texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India) 2. There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda. While . Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. are late Vedic in language and content. in technical fashion. apart from the Rigvedic hymns. The Shrauta Sutras. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras. which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BC. there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards.[20] The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss. regarded as belonging to the smriti. thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus. most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā). i. dating to ca. "collection"). The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. Kaṭha). and Atharva-Veda.000 padas (metric feet). of which 72. and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the "circum-Vedic" scholarship of Vedanga. The Aranyakas . the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. It is frequently read in secondary literature.000 occur in the four Samhitas. YajurVeda. the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts. While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period. Chandogya. The Brahmanas. They discuss questions of nature philosophy and the fate of the soul.most of the ten mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period. "the remembered"). there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language attributed to the Saṃhitās. and contain some mystic and spiritual .. As Axel Michaels explains: These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time. The latter group of texts is called shruti (Sanskrit: śruti. are sometimes not to be distinguished from Āraṇyakas. [edit] Shruti literature Main article: Shruti The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less clearly defined. that is texts that are considered to be of human origin."[25] The Upanishads are largely philosophical works in dialog form. most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era. "the heard"). Nevertheless. and monographs on Vedic literature. and the soul or the self (Atman). introducing Vedanta philosophy. The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (VaidikaPadānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu.. and published in five volumes in 1935-1965.. translations. Its scope extends to about 400 texts. and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman). Aranyakas. was published in 1973-1976.. Since post-Vedic times it has been considered to be revealed wisdom. it is still widely used. but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools. Upanişads . and underlies the current editions. conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately.. while it is subject to some debate. one of the major trends of later Hinduism. it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition. including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. extending to about 1800 pages. and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as Upanishads or Sutra literature. Volume I: Samhitas Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas Volume III: Upanishads Volume IV: Vedangas A revised edition. This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and. as distinct from other texts. collectively known as smriti (Sanskrit: smṛti. Forms of recitation included the jaṭā-pāṭha (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order. without any variant readings.[28] For example. is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text. and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular extended the term to include the Sanskrit Epics and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancaratra.[26] [edit] Vedic schools or recensions Main article: Shakha Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has been organized into a number of different schools or branches (Sanskrit śākhā. and are thus known as Vedānta ("the end of the Vedas"). Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Sutras are considered shruti or "Vedic" by some Hindu denominations but not universally within Hinduism.[27] Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas. Specific techniques for parsing and reciting the texts were used to assist in the memorization process. as a redacted into single text during the Brahmana period. Taken together. memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. (See also: Vedic chant) Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.[29] That these methods have been effective. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. literally "branch" or "limb") each of which specialized in learning certain texts.interpretations of the Vedas.[29] [edit] The Four Vedas . then repeated in the reverse order. they have been regarded as their putative end and essence. Elaborate methods for preserving the text were based on memorizing by heart instead of writing. the Ṛgveda. For long. and finally repeated again in the original order. they are the basis of the Vedanta school. The Bhakti movement. and each Vedic text may have a number of schools associated with it. The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda. calling them trayam-brahmasanātanam.. which are verses of praise in metre. The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. performing sacrifices (YV).Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari. which often speaks of the three Vedas. and intended for loud recitation. 3. ABr and others). 2. and chanting (SV). that is. sorcery and speculative mantras. Rigveda (RV) Yajurveda (YV. Yajus. also called "trayī vidyā". 4. Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of mantras and hymns intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu. 2. probably due to its use in sorcery and healing. the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. next to their own independent Yajus.[31][32] This triplicity is so introduced in the Brahmanas (ShB. Thus. which are in prose. 3. and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices. Its status has occasionally been ambiguous. Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively. "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RV). The Yajurveda. Sāman.[30] 1. is a collection of original incantations. and intended for singing at the Soma ceremonies. which are in metre. However. it contains very old materials in early Vedic language. except for the fact that the mostly silent Brahmán priest observes the procedures and uses Atharvaveda mantras to 'heal' it . early 19th century The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turīya) viz. Ric. with the main division TS vs. VS) Sama-Veda (SV) Atharva-Veda (AV) Of these. It has no direct relation to the solemn Śrauta sacrifices. but the Rigveda is the older work of the three from which the other two borrow. "the triple eternal Veda". Manusmrti. the first three were the principal original division. or effects the ruin of enemies.[34] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities. unlike the Samaveda. Kapisthala-Katha. Both these portions are termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or written down by men).028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10. the earliest horse-drawn chariots were found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural Mountains and date to ca. While White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana).600 verses in all. [edit] Rigveda Main article: Rigveda The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text. often associated with the Andronovo culture. [edit] Samaveda .when mistakes have been made.[33] It is a collection of 1. They each have an Index or Anukramani. it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites. Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the prose Brahmana part. the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvānukramaṇī.[37] [edit] Yajurveda Main article: Yajurveda The Yajurveda Samhita consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rigveda. Its purpose was practical. the e Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. commonly dated to the period of roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent. Of the Black Yajurveda four major recensions survive (Maitrayani.[36] There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta. 2000 BCE. in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but. Its recitation also produces long life. organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas). Katha. giving discussions and directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. There are two major groups of recensions of this Veda. known as the "Black" (Krishna) and "White" (Shukla) Yajurveda (Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda respectively). giving rise to various recensions of the text. deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times. Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to numerous Shakhas or schools.[35] The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries. Taittiriya). not merely the Somayajna. cures diseases. and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda. which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version. but some sections are in prose.8. This may be connected to an extension of the sacrificial rite from involving three types of priest to the inclusion of the Brahman overseeing the ritual. taken almost entirely (except for 78 stanzas) from the Rigveda. is longer than the Saunaka one. as the repertoire of the udgātṛ or "singer" priests who took part in the sacrifice.1. Vāc "speech" is called the "mother of the Vedas" (ŚBM 6.1. .6).[39] Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda.[47][48] Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations. it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated.Main article: Samaveda The Samaveda Samhita (from sāman.[51] The Atharvaveda is a comparatively late extension of the "Three Vedas" connected to priestly sacrifice to a canon of "Four Vedas". for long life and for various desires or aims in life. Unlike the other three Vedas. spells for the healing of diseases.5. Its purpose was liturgical. there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith. Including repetitions.[40] Two major recensions remain today.[49][50] The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns.[46] The Paippalada text. the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. The Vedas are identified with Brahman.2. for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. [edit] Atharvaveda Main article: Atharvaveda The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda. Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than once. the universal principle (ŚBM 10. the Paippalāda and Śaunaka. the term for a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise[38]) consists of 1549 stanzas.[41] Most of the verses are metrical. the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing. It has 760 hymns.[45] According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas). 10. the Atharvanaveda has less connection with sacrifice.4.[42] It was compiled around 900 BCE.3. The Atharvanaveda is preserved in two recensions.4.[43] and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda[44] though not in linguistic form. concerned with protection against demons and disaster.[52] [edit] Brahmanas Further information: Brahmanas The mystical notions surrounding the concept of the one "Veda" that would flower in Vedantic philosophy have their roots already in Brahmana literature. 5. The knowledge of the Vedas is endless.15) [edit] In post-Vedic literature [edit] Vedanga Main article: Vedanga Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known as vedāṅga "limbs of the Veda". which all austerities aim at. The six subjects of Vedanga are: • • • • • • Phonetics (Śikṣā) Ritual (Kalpa) Grammar (Vyākaraṇa) Etymology (Nirukta) Meter (Chandas) Astrology (Jyotiṣa) [edit] Parisista . svaḥ is the Samaveda" (1.22 has Prajapati reflecting that "truly. Apte defines this group of works as: "N.10. the Katha Upanishad has: "The goal.10. all beings are in the triple Veda"). The Upanishads reduce the "essence of the Vedas" further.4. Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms.2. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials. human knowledge is like mere handfuls of dirt (TB 3.2).2."[53] These subjects are treated in Sūtra literature dating from the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times. Thus. [edit] Vedanta Further information: Vedanta. Mimamsa). which all Vedas declare. bhuvaḥ is the Yajurveda. and which humans desire when they live a life of continence. seeing the transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit.3-5). to the syllable Aum (ॐ).5. V. S. Upanishads.11. The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (ŚBM 10. compared to them.1). The association of the three Vedas with the bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka: "Bhūḥ is the Rigveda.3. and Aranyakas While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (Śrauta. I will tell you briefly it is Aum" (1. associated with the Yajurveda Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda).[58][59] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources.14. the Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭ a and the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭ a.[54] [edit] Puranas A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta period[55]) attributes the current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa. 3. which is also found as the second praśna of the Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra'. According to the Vishnu Purana (3. there are 79 works.Main article: Parisista Pariśiṣṭa "supplement.37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum. Brahmanas.6.18. in the Dvapara Yuga. The Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas. because men had declined in age. in varying accounts. by Lord Vishnu in the form of Vyasa.088) also mentions the division of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga. appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature. Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains. collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. associated with the Rigveda Archery (Dhanurveda). was divided into three or four parts. with 113 and 95 verses respectively. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas: • • • • Medicine (Āyurveda). and says that it was divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga. The Mahabharata (santiparva 13. at the urging of Brahma.2. In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9. virtue and understanding. and further fragmented into numerous shakhas. However.[56]. only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive.4 etc) the original Veda was divided into four parts. Aranyakas and Sutras.3. Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda that. associated with the Atharvaveda . The Bhagavata Purana (12. dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas. • • • • • The Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon. For the Atharvaveda. associated with the Samaveda Military science (Shastrashastra).[57] [edit] Upaveda The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works. The Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical text of two chapters. consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the Caraṇavyūha) The Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Āpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa. the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa. ascribed to Kātyāyana. p. ^ K. "Is Sikhism a Unique Religion or a Vedantic Religion?".what the Buddha is said to have achieved in the three watches of that night . 1977 3. refer to themselves as the "fifth Veda". 887 5.'" R. u̯i̯-. 68 17. 9. J. 109f. pp. For oral composition and . Devindar Singh (Jan-June 2006). ^ Monier-Williams (1899) 15. Michael. Brahmins who have memorized the three Vedas (tevijja) really know nothing: it is the process of achieving Enlightenment . including the Mahabharata. Michael. Gonda. Pokorny's 1959 Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch s. u̯e)id-².F. 68. Cambridge 1951 13.2 The Ritual Sutras. in: Flood 2003. Apte 1965. M. page 120.g.1. "Dravida Veda" is a term for canonical Tamil Bhakti texts. Rix' Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben. Dr. ^ Chahal." Taylor and Francis 2006. ^ "Eclecticism and Modern Hindu Discourse. 3. p. p. 1983. A history of Indian literature: I.F. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana.v. OUP 1999" 11. Geldner. Gombrich in Paul Williams. has "not of the authorship of man. ( ed 14. (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II. ^ Apte 1965. "Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies. ^ see e.the Research Journal 8 (1): 3–5. Michael. "Vedas and Upaniṣads". Understanding Sikhism . in: Flood 2003. Witzel. MacDonell 2004. [edit] "Fifth Veda" Some post-Vedic texts. ^ Flood 1996. Amritsar.) Strassburg 1899. 8.But Sushruta and Bhavaprakasha mention Ayurveda as an upaveda of the Atharvaveda. I. 1015.[citation needed] [edit] Notes 1. Accessed 2007-08-09 2. ^ Witzel.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas). ^ Flood 1996. Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee. ed. ^ "The brahmin by caste alone. ^ Aad Guru Granth Sahib. ^ For the possibility of written texts during the first century BCE see: Witzel. p. p. 37 16. Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. ^ see e. Brian Hatcher. Shilpa Shastras (arts and crafts) are mentioned as fourth upaveda according to later sources.[60] The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the Chandogya Upanishad.. p. in: Flood 2003. the teacher of the Veda. p. Sthapatyaveda (architecture). ^ Apte. 17-18 6. ^ Monier-Williams 2006. Der Rig-Veda. Wiesbaden 1975. p. Harvard Oriental Series 33-37. 82 7.which constitutes the true 'three knowledges. 856 12. 29-39. p. 69. ^ Bloomfield. p. p. the Natyasastra and certain Puranas. "Vedas and Upaniṣads". Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957.b. "Vedas and Upaniṣads". ^ Muller 1891. 10. is (jokingly) etymologized as the 'non-meditator' (ajhāyaka). of divine origin" 4.g. p. 37. ^ Flood 1996. Michael Witzel gives 1450-1350 BCE as terminus ad quem. 45. ^ Apte 1965. Indra. ^ For 1. p. Winona. 44. see: Avari 2007. 18. 43. 51. Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself. Michael. 77. 77. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957. 51. ISBN 0912776889 27. p. World Religions. Soma. 23. p.: Assoc Publishing Group. p. 34.575 are Rigvedic. ^ For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel. Of the remaining. 77. 19. Hindu Sacred Texts.g. 38.g. 35. ^ according to ISKCON. 37. 240 pages. ^ Flood 1996.405 are known only from Brahmanas. see: Avari 2007. ^ Michaels 2004. in: Flood 2003. S. ^ see e. 981. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. 39. 22. 491-99. p. ^ Michaels 2004. Jefferey (2003). ^ Witzel.028 hymns and 10. p. 56. p. Surya. ^ MacDonell 2004. p. ^ Michaels 2004. p. 69. p. in: Flood 2003. Upanishads or Sutras) 21. ^ Witzel.l. ^ Michaels 2004. Vedic culture)". ^ Witzel. p. 28. Max Müller gave 1700–1100 BCE.600 verses and division into ten mandalas. 36. M. 25. see numbering given in Ralph T. 51. Robert (2004).oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down. 24. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.. "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e. . "Vedas and Upaniṣads". ^ 37. 34. Michael. 50. 100–101. in: Flood 2003. ^ Flood 1996. p. Avari 2007. ^ Brodd. 20. p. ^ For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni. S. "Vedas and Upaniṣads". ^ Goswami. ^ Drews. 139) 30. ^ Michaels 2004. ^ Michaels 2004. ^ see e. Avari 2007. 76. pp. 77. ^ a b (Filliozat 2004. p. p. 39. Michael. Griffith. p. 42. p. 29-39 32. 69. (1976). ^ Michaels 2004. H. 37. "Vedas and Upaniṣads". Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe. 36. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997. ^ Apte 1965. see: Avari 2007. p. 257-348 33.g.857 appear in the other three Samhitas. 68 31. 56.D. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 56. Michael. 3. p. 41. etc. 40. Varuna. in: Flood 2003. 46. 56. ^ For 1875 total verses. p. "Vedas and Upaniṣads". p. 47. p. Witzel. MN: Saint Mary's Press. ^ (Staal 1986) 29. p. p. New York: Routledge. p. and 16. 26. 20-31 58. to Prāna. 385 [edit] References • • • • • • • • • Apte. ISBN 0-691-08953-1 Monier-Williams. The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.htm 57. Avari. p. for the Brahman as overseer of the rites does not appear in the Ṛg Veda and is only incorporated later. ^ Michaels 2004. p. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. 42. 76.hymns to Skambha. which had been somewhat distinct from the other Saṃhitās and identified with the lower social strata.pdf ?id=_VCXTBk-PtoC . who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe. p. p. Arthur Anthony (2004). ^ Flood 1996. the 'Word'. 1993. ^ Apte 1965. thereby showing the acceptance of the Atharva Veda. is. 3.sacred-texts. vii. 207. 293. 56."Flood 1996. ISBN 0-521-43878-0 Flood. as we have seen. [1] Accessed 5 April 2007. -. Hinduism: Past and Present. ISBN 18-81338-58-4. 53. ed. Michael. India: The Ancient Past. p. (2006). 54.com/books/pdf/Original_Sanskrit_Texts_on_the_Origin_an. ^ Muir 1861.google. Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary. to Vāc. MA: Blackwell. Monier. largely composed of magical texts and charms. ^ Monier-Williams 2006.). Kessinger Publishing. p. 387. ^ BR Modak. Veda and Torah. ISBN 978-0415-35616-9 Flood. ed. Vaman Shivram (1965). 49. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5 Holdrege. (1995). the 'Breath of Life'. http://books. 52. 1840. ^ Apte 1965. Muir.com/hin/vp/vp078. ISBN 81-215-0607-7 55. "Vedas and Upaniṣads". Axel (2004). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. the 'Support'. New Delhi. The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-Veda. p. and so on. Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India. ISBN 1417906197 Michaels. the Atharva-Veda. but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads. Ch IV. London: Routledge. ISBN 0791416399 MacDonell. ^ "There were originally only three priests associated with the first three Saṃhitās.48. pp. 59. Gavin. translation by Horace Hayman Wilson. http://www. Malden. ^ Witzel. Nataraj Books. p. John (1861). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed. Burjor (2007)." Zaehner 1966. as being of equal standing with the other texts. A History of Sanskrit Literature. ^ Vishnu Purana. 56. An Introduction to Hinduism. SUNY Press. ^ "The latest of the four Vedas. Princeton University Press. Williams and Norgate. 51. p. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957. in: Flood 2003. (2003). Cambridge University Press. Barbara A. 111 dates it to the 4th century CE. 50. 60. Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan. ^ Sullivan 1994. Gavin (1996). p. Arlo and Houben. Groningen Oriental Studies 20. "The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition". language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop. New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas. Beyond the Texts. Hindu Scriptures. (2004). J. doi:10. Max (1891).2. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (12th Princeton Paperback ed. Witzel. Charles A. M. revised edition 1973-1976. Opera Minora vol. R. S. The Vedas : texts. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9783447016032. Bhaskaran Nair (eds.). Groningen : Forsten. S. (1966).). 1963-1965. An Outline of Vedic Literature (1976). Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas. Harvard Oriental Series. Scribner's sons. Leiden 2002. (1957). History of Religions. 2.) (1997). 1. New York: C. 103-125. http://books. Sarvepalli. Bloomfield. A. Jan E. Veda and Upanishads (1975). (Summer 1994). Vol.google. A History of Indian literature. Gonda. Cambridge: Harvard University Press Zaehner. Bhim Dev. Pranava Prakashan (1977). Moore. (eds. ISBN 90-6980-149-3. Santucci. Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute.1093/jaarel/LXII.. Sullivan. eds. Michael (ed. C. London: Everyman's Library [edit] Literature Overviews • • • J. Shrava. Radhakrishnan. Smith.). B. Concordances • • M. The University of Chicago Press (1992).com/books?id=J8Zo_rtoWAEC. Journal of the American Academy of Religion 62 (1): 377–401. Chips from a German Workshop. ISBN 0691-01958-4. Brian K. A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature — Brahmana and Aranyaka Works. Conference proceedings • Griffiths. [edit] See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Vedas . M. Vaidika-PadānukramaKoṣa: A Vedic Word-Concordance..377. Inside the Texts. Hoshiarpur. A Vedic Concordance (1907) Vishva Bandhu.• • • • • • Muller. Canonical Authority and Social Classification: Veda and "Varṇa" in Ancient Indian Texts-. • • • • Hindu Philosophy Pandit Vedic chant Shakha Sanskrit literature From Wikipedia. (December 2007) History of Literature Bronze Age literature Sumerian Egyptian Assyro-Babylonian Classical literatures Chinese Greek Hebrew Latin Pahlavi Pali Prakrit Sanskrit Syriac Tamil Medieval literature . Please help add inline citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. search This article is missing citations or needs footnotes. the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation. . with events like the "All-India Sanskrit Festival" (since 2002) holding composition contests. and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. Literary production saw a late bloom in the 11th century before declining after 1100 AD.Anglo-Saxon Arabic Byzantine Dutch French German Indian Irish Italian Japanese Kannada Nepal Bhasa Norse Persian Telugu Welsh Early Modern literature Renaissance literature Baroque literature Modern literature 18th century 19th century 20th century 21st century v•d•e Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas. the golden age of Classical Sanskrit literature dates to late Antiquity (roughly the 3rd to 8th centuries AD). There are contemporary efforts towards revival. e.2 The Ramayana 4 Classical Sanskrit Literature o 4.4 Classical Poetry o 4.1 The Mahabharata o 3. The older Upanishads (BAU. Vedic literature forms the basis for the further development of Hinduism. each with a main Samhita and a number of circum-vedic genres. Grhyasutras and Shrautasutras and Dharmasutras. the 9th to 7th centuries when the various shakhas (schools) compiled and memorized their respective corpora. Sāma and Atharva. the language and its literature is of great importance in Indian culture akin that of Greek and Latin in European culture. [edit] Sutra literature .1 Drama o 4.Rig. Yajur. Contents [hide] • • • • • • • • • 1 The Vedas 2 Sutra literature 3 The Epics o 3.2 Scholarly treatises o 4. including Brahmanas.Vedang i. but the larger part of the Muktika canon is post-Vedic. KathU. primarily in Hinduism.3 Fairy tales and fables o 4. The main period of Vedic literary activity falls into ca. The Aranyakas form part of both the Brahmana and Upanishad corpus.Given its extensive use in religious literature. JUB. There are four Vedas . and the fact that most modern Indian languages have been directly derived from or strongly influenced by Sanskrit. ChU.5 Puranas 5 Later Sanskrit literature 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links [edit] The Vedas Main article: Vedas Composed between approximately 1500 BC and 600 BC (the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age) in pre-classical Sanskrit . MaitrU) belong to the Vedic period. Aranyakas. authorship of the Mahabharata is attributed to the sage Vyasa.According to the Adi-parva of the Mahabharata (81. They are known as itihasa. Panini's brilliance lies in the nature of his work of a prescriptive generative grammar. or "that which occurred". involving metarules. such as Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya. The Backus-Naur Form or BNF grammars used to describe modern programming languages have significant similarities with Panini's grammar rules. Being prescriptive for all later grammatical works. Yoga Sutras. Main article: Mahabharata The Mahabharata (Great Bharata) is one of the largest poetic works in the world. the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. philosophy and religious tracts. which later became 24.Traditionally.800 verses when it was composed by Vyasa and was known as the Jaya (Victory). and Shastra Continuing the tradition of the late Vedic Shrautasutra literature. Pāṇini's grammar effectively fixed the grammar of Classical Sanskrit.000 verses in the Bharata recited by Vaisampayana.Main article: Sutra See also: Shulba Sutras. While it is clearly a poetic epic. Shulba Sutras. Nyaya Sutras. 101-102). Dharma Sutras. no author had greater influence than Pāṇini with his Aṣṭādhyāyī (ca. . the text was originally 8. it contains large tracts of Hindu mythology. transformations and recursion. [edit] The Epics Main article: Indian epic poetry The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two great epics. 5th century BC). Kalpa Sutras. In the Vedanga disciplines of grammar and phonetics. 500 to 100 BCE) organized knowledge into Sutra treatises. including the Vedanga and the religious or philosophical Brahma Sutras. with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. In the tradition of Sutra literature exposing the full grammar of Sanskrit in extreme brevity. [edit] The Mahabharata The battle of Kurushestra. Late Iron Age scholarship (ca. folio from the Mahabharata. the authorship is attribued to the Hindu sage who is referred to as Adikavi. Similar to the Mahabharata. Phra Lak Phra Lam. Having been molded by Indian culture. the Ramayana is still twice as big as the Iliad and Odyssey put together. Reamker. spanning roughly the 3rd to 8th centuries CE." Valmiki in Ramayana introduced the Anushtubh meter for the first time. the Ramayana is also handed down orally and evolved through several centuries before being transferred into writing. [edit] The Ramayana Main article: Ramayana While not as big as the Mahabharata. The Ramayana is also extant in Ramayana: Southeast Asian versions See also: Hikayat Seri Rama. the Ramayana also has several full-fledged stories appearing as sub-plots. a city in Ancient India. Traditionally.The broad sweep of the story of the Mahabharata chronicles the story of the conflict between two families for control of Hastinapur. It includes tales that form the basis for modern Hindu festivals and even contains a description of the same marriage practice still observed in contemporary times by people of Hindu persuasion. Akin to the Mahabharata. The Ramayana has also played a similar and equally important role in the development of Indian culture as the Mahabharata. and the Lankan war. Ramakien. or "first poet. Thousands of later writers would draw freely from the story and sub-stories of the Mahabharata. The impact of the Mahabharata on India and Hinduism cannot be stressed enough. it has in turn molded the development of Indian culture. The story deals with Prince Rama (Indian vernaculars: Rām or Sri Ram). [edit] Drama Main article: Sanskrit drama . Kakawin Rāmâyaṇa. his exile and the abduction of his wife by the Rakshas king Ravana. and Yama Zatdaw [edit] Classical Sanskrit Literature The classical period of Sanskrit literature dates to the Gupta period and the successive preIslamic Middle kingdoms of India. [edit] Scholarly treatises Indian literature . The only surviving ancient Sanskrit drama theatre is Koodiyattam. 2nd century AD. three famous plays by Kālidāsa are Vikramōrvaśīyam (Vikrama and Urvashi). Bhasa. influenced partly by Vedic mythology and partly by Hellenistic drama. Late (post 6th century) dramatists include Dandi and Sri Harsha. Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available. scene from Abhijñānaśākuntalam. little is known about the authors themselves. Which is being preserved in Kerala by the Chakyar community." though it sometimes translated as "Science of Theatre'") is a keystone work in Sanskrit literature on the subject of stagecraft. Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906). One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays is the Mrichakatika. Famous Sanskrit dramatists include Śhudraka. thought to have been composed by Śhudraka in the 2nd century BC. It reaches its peak between the 4th and 7th centuries before declining together with Sanskrit literature as a whole. Mālavikāgnimitram (Malavika and Agnimitra). and the play that he is most known for: Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala). Bhasa and Kālidāsa are major early authors of the first centuries AD. literally "Scripture of Dance. Asvaghosa and Kālidāsa.Shakuntala stops to look back at Dushyanta. Drama as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC. The Natya Shastra (ca. Kālidāsa qualifying easily as the greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit He deals primarily with famous Hindu legends and themes. Assamese Bengali Bhojpuri Gujarati Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Malayalam Marathi Nepali Oriya Punjabi Rajasthani Sanskrit Sindhi Tamil Telugu . The mathematical portion of the Āryabhaṭīya was composed of 33 sūtras (in verse form) consisting of mathematical statements or rules. Classical Hindu astrology is based on early medieval compilations. Varahamihira in his Pancha-Siddhantika contrasts five of these: The Surya Siddhanta besides the Paitamaha Siddhantas (which is more similar to the "classical" Vedanga Jyotisha). p.Urdu This box: view • talk • edit Main articles: Tantras. "Tantra" is a general term for a scientific. but without any proofs. is documented in treatises known as Siddhantas (which means "established conclusions" [1] ). 123). the attainment of all objects. magical or mystical treatise and mystical texts both Hindu and Buddhist said to concern themselves with five subjects. 5. the worship of the gods. made its way to Persian and Arabic literatures. a work on astronomy and mathematics. 4.[2] However. Shastra. It was probably a matter of style of exposition. A peculiar style. "this does not necessarily mean that their authors did not prove them. the destruction of the world. 500 CE). The astronomy of the classical Gupta period. 3. 1. and Jataka Further information: Jyotihshastra The earliest surviving treatise on astrology is the Yavanajataka "sayings of the Greeks" (3rd century). the four modes of union with the supreme spirit by meditation. . the Paulisha and Romaka Siddhantas (directly based on Hellenistic astronomy) and the Vasishta Siddhanta. Siddhanta. These texts date to the entire lifespan of Classical Sanskrit literature. notably the Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra and Sārāvalī (7th to 8th century)." From the time of Bhaskara I (600 CE onwards). [edit] Fairy tales and fables Main articles: Panchatantra and Hitopadesha Sanskrit fairy tales and fables are chiefly characterised by ethical reflections and proverbial philosophy. prose commentaries increasingly began to include some derivations (upapatti). the centuries following Indo-Greek contact. The earliest treatise in Indian mathematics is the Āryabhaṭīya (written ca. the creation. exerting a major influence on works such as One Thousand and One Nights. according to (Hayashi 2003. marked by the insertion of a number of different stories within the framework of a single narrative. 2. The earliest surviving treatise on (non-divinatory) Indian astronomy predates the Yavanajataka: the Vedanga Jyotisha of Ladaga documents the state of in the Maurya period. This style is referred to as Kāvya.e. A classic example is the poet Bharavi and his magnum opus. like stanzas that read the same backwards and forwards. Kālidāsa is the foremost example of a classical poet. words that can be split in different ways to produce different meanings. with a highly Oriental colouring. or "Seventy Stories of a Parrot". or "great composition"s: • • • • • Kumārasambhava by Kālidāsa Raghuvamsha by Kālidāsa Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi Shishupala Vadha by Māgha Naishadha-Charita by Sriharsha . or "Century of Conduct. which also goes by the name of Vikrama-charita. the Kiratarjuniya (6th-7th century). [edit] Classical Poetry This refers to the poetry produced from the approximately the 3rd to 8th centuries. or "Science of Political Ethics". the Siṃhāsana-dvātriṃçikā or "Thirty-two Stories of the Lion-seat" (i. which was developed before the rise of Buddhism in the sixth century B." and Vairāgya-śataka..The two most important collections are Panchatantra and Hitopadesha. Magh is noted for his epic poem (mahAkAvya) Shishupala Vadha. originally serving as the handbooks of practical moral philosophy. sophisticated metaphors. throne).C. These three collections of fairy tales are all written in prose and are comparatively short. entitled respectively Nīti-śataka.000 shlokas. It contains more than 22. and so on. Somadeva's Kathā-sarit-sāgara or "Ocean of Rivers of Stories" is a work of special importance: composed in verse and is of very considerable length. and has dominated Indian thought ever since. But a striking characteristic of Indian literary tradition is that sometimes poets show off their technical dexterity with highly Oulipian word-games. Other notable prose works include a collection of pretty and ingenious fairy tales. originally intended as manuals for the instruction of kings in domestic and foreign policy. the 20 cantos of which are based on the Mahabharata episode where the defiant king Shishupala is beheaded by Krishna's chakra (disc) The greatest works of poetry in this period are the five Mahākāvyas. equal to nearly one-fourth of the Mahābhārata." The keynote prevailing in this new ethical poetry style is the doctrine of the vanity of human life. or "Century of Renunciation. or "Adventures of Vikrama" and the Śuka-saptati. they belong to the class of literature which the Hindus call nīti-śāstra. the Vetāla-panchaviṃśati or "Twenty-five Tales of the Vetāla" (a demon supposed to occupy corpses). Fable collections. provided an abundant reservoir of ethical maxims that become so popular that works consisting exclusively of poetical aphorisms started to appear. The most important are the two collections by the highly-gifted Bhartṛhari. [edit] Puranas Main article: Puranas The corpus of the Hindu Puranas likewise falls into the classical period of Sanskrit literature. Sarga . of the 'Bhana' style of drama. and the three shatakas of Bhartṛhari.Secondary creations. On the other side of the spectrum. who sacrifices himself to save the tribe of serpents.Various eras. Vamśa . additional") corpus. [edit] Later Sanskrit literature Some important works from the 11th century include the Katha-sarit-sagara and the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva. Other major literary works from this period are Kadambari by Banabhatta. Ubhayabhisarika is a one-person drama of an endearing lecher who knows every courtesan and her family by name. The Katha-sarita-sagara (An Ocean of Stories) by Somadeva was an 11th century poetic adaptation in Sanskrit of Brihat-katha. mostly re-creations after dissolution. Manvañtara .Dynastic histories. It is also unique in that it invokes Lord Buddha in what is a predominantly Hindu drama. The Puranas are classified into a Mahā. and marks the emergence of the Vaishna and Shaiva denominations of classical Hinduism.The creation of the universe. called pañcalakṣaṇa ("five distinguishing marks"): Sargaśca pratisargasca vamśo manvantarāņi ca I Vamśānucaritam caiva Purāņam pañcalakśaņam II They are: 1. known to every child in India.Some scholars include the Bhattikavya as a sixth Mahākāvya[3]. 3. One of the famous series of stories in this work is the Vikrama and Vetāla series. the Kama Sutra by Vatsyayana. . Vamśānucaritam .("great") and a Upa. A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity (Shiva. attributed to King Harsha.("lower. 4. Traditionally[4] they are said to narrate five subjects. Pratisarga . is an outstanding drama that outlines the story of King Jimutavahana. 5. the first Sanskrit novelist (6th-7th centuries). written in the 5th century BC in the Paishachi dialect. Vishnu or Krishna.Genealogy of royals and sages. dating to between the 5th and 10th centuries. Durga) and depicts the other gods as subservient. Nagananda. 2. Sanskrit continued to be used. the use of Sanskrit for general literature declined. and Kannada). [edit] See also • • • • • • Sanskrit drama Hindu scripture Indian literature Early Medieval literature List of Sanskrit poets Yoga Vasistha Literature portal Rigveda . Orissa. Basohli painting (circa 1730 AD) depicting a scene from Jayadeva's Gita Govinda. A central text for several Hindu sects in eastern India. and the Sanskrit language itself continued to have a profound influence over the development of Indian literature in general. largely for Hindu religious and philosophical literature. most importantly because of the emergence of literature in vernacular Indian languages (notably Hindi. and is written in spectacularly lyrical and musical Sanskrit. Marathi. the Gita Govinda is recited regularly at major Hindu pilgrimage sites such as Jagannath temple at Puri. The Ashtapadis of the Gita Govinda also form a staple theme in Bharatanatyam and Odissi classical dance recitals. Telugu. Attempts at revival of Sanskrit have been undertaken in the Republic of India since its foundation in 1947. Sanskrit literature fueled literature in vernacular languages.The Gita Govinda (The song of Govinda) by the Oriya composer Jayadeva is the story of Krishna's love for Radha. Beyond the 11th century. the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation.From Wikipedia. search This article is about the collection of Vedic hymns. For the manga series. Part of a series on Hindu scriptures Vedas Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka · Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya · Kena · Maitri · Mundaka · Mandukya · Katha · Kaushitaki · Prashna · Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata · Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Manu Smriti · Agama · . see RG Veda. 1 Hindu revivalism o 5. It is counted among the four canonical sacred texts (śruti) of Hinduism known as the Vedas. putting these among the world's oldest religious texts in continued use.2 Recensions 1.1 Organization 1. verse"[1] and veda "knowledge") is an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns.2 "Indigenous Aryans" debate 6 Translations 7 Notes 8 Bibliography 9 See also o o o o • • • • • • • • • 10 External links . often associated with the early Andronovo (SintashtaPetrovka) culture of ca.[2] Some of its verses are still recited as Hindu prayers. deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times.3 Rishis 1. 2200-1600 BC. a compound of ṛc "praise. roughly between 1700–1100 BC[4] (the early Vedic period). There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta.4 Manuscripts 2 Contents 3 Dating and historical context 4 Ancillary Texts o 4. Philological and linguistic evidence indicate that the Rigveda was composed in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent.Pancharatra · Tantra · Akilathirattu · Sūtra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Yoga Vasistha This box: view • talk • edit The Rigveda (Sanskrit: ऋगवेद ṛgvedá. at religious functions and other occasions.2 Rigveda Aranyakas 5 In contemporary Hinduism o 5. [3] It is one of the oldest extant texts of any Indo-European language.1 Rigveda Brahmanas o 4. Contents [hide] • 1 Text 1. co-eval with the redaction of the other Vedas. vol. most importantly the Padapatha that has each word isolated in pausa form and is used for just one way of memorization. The Padapatha and the Pratisakhya anchor the text's fidelity and meaning[6] and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more than a millennium by oral tradition alone. BC) collection that established the core 'family books' (mandalas 2-7. Each mandala consists of hymns called sūkta (su-ukta. Organization The text is organized in 10 books. they are also the longest books. As with the other Vedas. which are further analysed into units of verse called pada ("foot"). respectively. 1888). and the Samhitapatha that combines words according to the rules of sandhi (the process being described in the Pratisakhya) and is the memorized text used for recitation. dating several centuries after the hymns were composed. . The meters most used in the ṛcas are the jagati(a pada consists of 12 syllables). This redaction also included some additions (contradicting the strict ordering scheme) and orthoepic changes to the Vedic Sanskrit such as the regularization of sandhi (termed orthoepische Diaskeuase by Oldenberg. ordered by author. as printed in the Harvard Oriental Series. The sūktas in turn consist of individual stanzas called ṛc ("praise". 10th c. account for 15% and 9%. ṛcas). 50 (1994) [8] . deity and meter [5] ) and a later redaction. the redacted text has been handed down in several versions. The Rigveda was probably not written down until the Gupta period (4th to 6th century AD). The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest. of 191 suktas each. This interplay with sounds gave rise to a scholarly tradition of morphology and phonetics. The oral tradition still continued into recent times. The eighth and ninth mandalas. accounting for 37% of the text. "well recited. The original text (as authored by the Rishis) is close to but not identical to the extant Samhitapatha. The "family books": mandalas 2-7. eulogy") intended for various sacrificial rituals. of varying age and length. viraj(10).Text The surviving form of the Rigveda is based on an early Iron Age (c. gayatri and anushtubh(8). literally. by which time the Brahmi script had become widespread (the oldest surviving manuscripts date to the Late Middle Ages[7]). trishtubh(11). but metrical and other observations allow to reconstruct (in part at least) the original text from the extant one. comprising hymns of mixed age. as well as certain permutations. pl. involving breaking down the Sanskrit compounds into stems and inflections. are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books. they are arranged by length and account for 38% of the text. known as Mandalas. In order to achieve this the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation. 552 ṛcs. E.[12] In the 1877 edition of Aufrecht. 10 families of rishis account for more than 95% of the ṛcs. the housepriest" and the final pada is • 10.[14] Most sūktas are attributed to single composers. Rishis See also: Anukramani Tradition associates a rishi (the composer) with each ṛc of the Rigveda. and an appendix of 11 vālakhilya hymns[9] which are now customarily included in the 8th mandala (as 8. or 39.. The Shatapatha Brahmana gives the number of syllables to be 432.4d yáthā vaḥ súsahā́sati Recensions The major Rigvedic shakha ("branch".49–8. the Khilani. adhyāya ("chapter") and varga ("class").1. although this is uncertain[clarification needed]. The "family books" (2-7) are so-called because they have hymns by members of the same clan in each book. Another scheme divides the entire text over the 10 mandalas into aṣṭaka ("eighth"). if required). . The Śākala recension has 1. but other clans are also represented in the Rigveda.1a agním īḷe puróhitaṃ "Agni I invoke.g. which modern publishers often omit. used for animal sacrifice in the soma ritual). for them the Rigveda includes a lineage-specific āprī hymn (a special sūkta of rigidly formulaic structure.[13] while the metrical text of van Nooten and Holland (1994) has a total of 395.93 syllables per pada).563 syllables (or an average of 9.191. for a total of 1028 hymns. counting the number of syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi and the post-Rigvedic pronunciation of syllables like súvar as svàr. the first pada is • 1.831 padas. The most common numbering scheme is by book. called anuvāka ("recitation"). e. Some publishers give both classifications in a single edition. i. it is practically identical to the Śākala text. In all.000. Another shakha reportedly surviving is Bāṣkala.[10] The Bāṣkala recension includes 8 of these vālakhilya hymns among its regular hymns. each mandala is synthetically divided into roughly equal sections of several sūktas. the 1028 hymns of the Rigveda contain a total of 10. c . b. making a total of 1025 regular hymns for this śākhā.[11] In addition. if genuine...59). recension) that has survived is Śākala. the Bāṣkala recension has its own appendix of 98 hymns.. hymn and stanza (and pada a.017 regular hymns.For pedagogical convenience. a heroic god praised for having slain his enemy Vrtra. while the Pune Edition used over five dozen manuscripts. chief of whom are Indra. Father Heaven ).5 X. in the late 19th century.13 VII. 5 have the padapatha in addition. Prithivi (the earth.70 Ṛcas[15] 3619 (especially Mandala 6) 1315 (especially Mandala 8) 1276 (Mandala 7) 983 (Mandala 3) 885 (Mandala 5) 473 415 (part of Mandala 9) 401 (Mandala 2) 316 170 Manuscripts There are 30 manuscripts of Rigveda at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. was used by Max Müller for his edition of the Rigveda with Sayana’s commentary. collected in the 19th century by Georg Bühler. Mother Earth). written on birch bark in bold Sharada. Agni. Gujarat. MS no. Central Provinces etc. They were transferred to Deccan College. At least 5 manuscripts (MS. The 30 manuscripts were added to UNESCO's "Memory of the World" Register in 2007. but the editors of Pune Edition could not procure many manuscripts used by Max Müller and by Bombay Edition.4 V. Vayu or Vata (the wind).5 II.Family Angiras Kanva Vasishtha Vishvamitra Atri Bhrgu Kashyapa Grtsamada Agastya Bharata Āprī I. Pushan. Parjanya (the thunder and rain). Vac (the word). Rudra. 5/187576. including Kashmir. and Soma. 9 contain the samhita text. Pune. Surya (the sun god). the then Rajaputana. Equally prominent gods are the Adityas or Asura gods Mitra-Varuna and Ushas (the dawn). as well as from some other sources . written on birch bark and paper. 1/A1881-82.2 III. Apas (the waters). no.110 IX. the sacred potion or the plant it is made from. the sacrificial fire.188 X. as well as deified natural phenomena such as Dyaus Pita (the shining sky. hence the total number of extant manuscripts must surpass perhaps eighty at least[17] Contents See also: Rigvedic deities The Rigvedic hymns are dedicated to various deities.[16] Of these 30 manuscripts.142 I. Vishnu. Brihaspati or Brahmanaspati. Max Müller used 24 manuscripts. They are in the Sharada and Devanagari scripts. The oldest of them is dated to 1464. originating from different parts of India.3 I. 331/1883-84 and 5/Viś I) have preserved the complete text of the Rigveda. 13 contain Sayana's commentary. . Franz Kielhorn and others. 1/A1879-80. Also invoked are Savitr. etc. The Vedic accent is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red. Maruts. Ashvins.10 has great importance in Hinduism as the Gayatri Mantra.. Vayu. Aum(3) . Sadhyas. and his name is the first word of the Rigveda. Visnu. puraḥ-hitaṃ . early 19th century.62. the Maruts. The verse 3.1 is addressed to Agni. and the Sarasvati River). Brhaspati. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vāmadeva gautama. the Paṇi (the Bactrian Parna). the Maruts. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra. mainly to Agni and Indra. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi gṛtsamada śaunahotra. Ashvins. Mandala 2 comprises 43 hymns. the Dasa or Dasyu and their mythical prototypes. mainly to Agni and Indra and the Vishvedevas. Surya.1 (agniṃ . as well as Varuna. Rudras. Mandala 3 comprises 62 hymns. Rbhus. and contain fragmentary references to possible historical events. Rbhus. Vasus.many rivers (notably the Sapta Sindhu. After a scribal benediction ("śrīgaṇéśāyanamaḥ . Rudra. The Adityas. Heaven and Earth. a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans) and their enemies. Usas. phenomena and items.. the Ashvins. Hymn 1. Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns. notably the struggle between the early Vedic people (known as Vedic Aryans.1. ṛtvijaṃ). the twin-deity Mitra-Varuna and the Asvins. Most hymns in this book are attributed to viśvāmitra gāthinaḥ. mainly to Agni and Indra as well as the Rbhus. yajñasya . iḷe . persons. Vayu. The hymns mention various further minor gods. Two hymns each .1. and all the Gods. Usas. and the Vishvadevas ("all-gods") as well as the "thirty-three gods" are the groups of deities mentioned. • • • • • Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns. the Visvedevas ("all the gods'). Mandala 4 comprises 58 hymns."). concepts. devaṃ . mainly to Agni and Indra. Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari. Mitra. Brhaspati. the first line has the opening words of RV. It also contains the Nasadiya sukta (10. with river names.59 are the apocryphal vālakhilya. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vasiṣṭha maitravaruṇi. It contains the Nadistuti sukta which is in praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization and the Purusha sukta which has great significance in Hindu social tradition. etc. frequently in later language. Pusan. The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion. Mandala 10 comprises additional 191 hymns.[18] . which deals with creation. Hymns 1-48 and 60-66 are attributed to the kāṇva clan. The dating of Rigveda has been a center of controversies. Ashvin. probably the most celebrated hymn in the west. the Maruts. the Asvins. Mitra-Varuna. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the bārhaspatya family of Angirasas. The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. Indra-Varuna.• • • • • are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and to Savitr. Mandala 6 comprises 75 hymns. entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana. to Agni. Mandala 9 comprises 114 hymns. two each to Sarasvati (ancient river/goddess of learning) and Vishnu. the extent of the Swat and Cemetery H cultures are also indicated.49 to 8. Dating and historical context Geography of the Rigveda. the Visvadevas. Indra. addressed to Agni. Mandala 8 comprises 103 hymns to various gods.10-18) still are of great importance in the performance of the corresponding Grhya rituals. all the gods. there is a strong disagreement among scholars. There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the early Iranian Avesta. the cleansing of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the atri clan.129). mainly to Agni and Indra. Hymns 8. For this reason. and to others.85) and the death hymns (10. Vayu (the wind). Mandala 7 comprises 104 hymns. Varuna. it was in the center of attention of western scholarship from the times of Max Müller and Rudolf Roth onwards. the rest to other (Angirasa) poets. Indra and various other deities. The marriage hymns (10. Usas. Ushas. The Brahma Purana and the Vayu Purana name one Vidagdha as the author of the Padapatha. Aufrecht and Max Müller.[26] Exact dates are not established.v. and it has to be purchased from tribal people). 306) gives 1500–1000. The geography described is consistent with that of the Greater Punjab: Rivers flow north to south. Chambers. 1400 BC. After their composition. Nevertheless.[dubious – discuss] While written manuscripts were used for teaching in medieval times. making it one of the few examples with an unbroken tradition. the mountains are relatively remote but still visible and reachable (Soma is a plant found in the high mountains.deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The text in the following centuries underwent pronunciation revisions and standardization (samhitapatha. the hymns were certainly composed over a long period. World Treasures of the Library of Congress Beginnings by Irene U. a date corresponding to the Neolithic late Mehrgarh culture. and metal (bronze) weapons. p. Compare Max Müller's statement "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 BC" ('Veda and Vedanta'. with the oldest (not preserved) elements possibly reaching back to times close to the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian (around 2000 BC)[29] Thus there was some debate over whether the boasts of the destruction of stone forts by the Vedic Aryans and particularly by Indra refer to cities of the Indus Valley civilization or whether they rather hark back to clashes between the early Indo-Aryans with the BMAC in what is now northern . Writing appears in India around the 3rd century BC in the form of the Brahmi script. which decompose fairly quickly in the tropical climate.[27] The Rkpratishakhya names Sthavira Shakalya of the Aitareya Aranyaka as its author. and the entire Rigveda was preserved in shakhas for another 2. The EIEC (s. Michael S. Roth. padapatha).500 years from the time of its redaction until the editio princeps by Rosen.[22].[23] Several other evidences also pointed out 1400 BC as the most reasonable date[24][25]. semi-nomadic culture.[19][20] often associated with the early Andronovo culture of ca. but they fall within the pre-Buddhist period (500. Some Rigveda commentaries may date from the second half of the first millennium CE. It is certain that the hymns post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca.[28] The Rigveda describes a mobile. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium. dating it to as early as 4000 BC. oxendrawn wagons. the oldest surviving Rigvedic manuscript dating to the 14th century. with horse-drawn chariots.[21] The Rigveda's core is accepted to date to the late Bronze Age. 7th lecture in India: What Can It Teach Us: A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge. the texts were preserved and codified by an extensive body of Vedic priesthood as the central philosophy of the Iron Age Vedic civilization. Indo-Iranian languages. The hymns were thus preserved by oral tradition for up to a millennium from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rigveda. but texts of the length of the Rigveda were likely not written down until much later. until the advent of the printing press from the 16th[dubious – discuss] century. or rather 400 BC). some writers out of the mainstream claim to trace astronomical references in the Rigveda. summarized by Klaus Klostermaier in a 1998 presentation. This redaction would have been completed around the 6th century BC. 2000 BC and probably that of the Indo-Aryan Mitanni documents of c. 2000 BC. they were written on birch bark or palm leaves. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between 1700–1100 BC. and supports the Out of India theory. The fixing of the samhitapatha (by keeping Sandhi) intact and of the padapatha (by dissolving Sandhi out of the earlier metrical text). the goose (hamsa) and the chakravaka (Anas casarca) are some birds mentioned in the Rigveda. two have come down to us. sheep and goat play an important role in the Rigveda. Kazanas[32] in an argument against the so-called "Aryan Invasion Theory" suggests a date as early as 3100 BC. The Iron Age in northern India begins in the 10th century in the Greater Panjab and at the 12th century BC with the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture. namely those of the Aitareyins and the Kaushitakins. buffalo (Mahisa). based on an identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati River as the Ghaggar-Hakra and on glottochronological arguments. mountain goat (sarabha) and to the gaur in the Rigveda. wolf.[34]. and some 400 km distant).e. The horse (ashva). "possessed of many verses"). which assumes a date as late as 3000 BC for the age of late ProtoIndo-European itself. This time coincides with the early Kuru kingdom. camel (Ustra. lion (Simha).).[35] The peafowl (mayura). N.Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan (separated from the upper Indus by the Hindu Kush mountain range. cattle. Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the Rigveda are found amongst other belief systems based on Proto-Indo-European religion. hyena. There is a widely accepted timeframe for the beginning codification of the Rigveda by compiling the hymns very late in the Rigvedic or rather in the early postRigvedic period. Some writers based on astronomical calculations even claim dates as early as 4000 BC. ass (khara. suggesting that Vedic culture only penetrated into the plains of India after its completion.(or Sankhayana-) brahmana evidently have for their groundwork the same . occurred during the later Brahmana period. as the followers of the Rigveda are called. [31] The "black metal" (kṛṣṇa ayas) is first mentioned in the post-Rigvedic texts (Atharvaveda etc. This is in diametrical opposition to views in western academic historical linguistics.[33] a date well within the Indian Neolithic. The Aitareya-brahmana[36] and the Kaushitaki. coeval with and the composition of the younger Veda Samhitas. there is no mention of either tigers or rice[30] in the Rigveda (as opposed to the later Vedas). especially in Mandala 8). Ancillary Texts Rigveda Brahmanas See also: Brahmana Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools of the Bahvṛcas (i. Similarly. An author. there is no mention of iron as the term ayas occurring in the Rig Veda refers to useful metal in general. While it is highly likely that the bulk of the Rigvedic hymns were composed in the Punjab. There are also references to the elephant (Hastin. even if based on earlier poetic traditions. including the arrangement of the individual hymns in ten books. while words used share common roots with words from other Indo-European languages. Varana). rasabha). shifting the center of Vedic culture east from the Punjab into what is now Uttar Pradesh. stock of traditional exegetic matter. They differ, however, considerably as regards both the arrangement of this matter and their stylistic handling of it, with the exception of the numerous legends common to both, in which the discrepancy is comparatively slight. There is also a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them. The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and more systematic in its arrangement features which would lead one to infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two. It consists of thirty chapters (adhyaya); while the Aitareya has forty, divided into eight books (or pentads, pancaka), of five chapters each. The last ten adhyayas of the latter work are, however, clearly a later addition though they must have already formed part of it at the time of Panini (ca. 5th c. BC), if, as seems probable, one of his grammatical sutras, regulating the formation of the names of Brahmanas, consisting of thirty and forty adhyayas, refers to these two works. In this last portion occurs the well-known legend (also found in the Shankhayana-sutra, but not in the Kaushitaki-brahmana) of Shunahshepa, whom his father Ajigarta sells and offers to slay, the recital of which formed part of the inauguration of kings. While the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma sacrifice, the Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of the several kinds of haviryajna, or offerings of rice, milk, ghee, &c., whereupon follows the Soma sacrifice in this way, that chapters 7-10 contain the practical ceremonial and 11-30 the recitations (shastra) of the hotar. Sayana, in the introduction to his commentary on the work, ascribes the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya (i.e. son of Itara), also mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it seems likely enough that this person arranged the Brahmana and founded the school of the Aitareyins. Regarding the authorship of the sister work we have no information, except that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki is frequently referred to in it as authoritative, and generally in opposition to the Paingya — the Brahmana, it would seem, of a rival school, the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one of the manuscripts calls it — the Brahmana of Sankhayana (composed) in accordance with the views of Kaushitaki. Rigveda Aranyakas See also: Aranyaka Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a "forest book", or Aranyaka. The Aitareyaranyaka is not a uniform production. It consists of five books (aranyaka), three of which, the first and the last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the ceremony called mahavrata, or great vow. The last of these books, composed in sutra form, is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is, indeed, ascribed by Hindu authorities either to Shaunaka or to Ashvalayana. The second and third books, on the other hand, are purely speculative, and are also styled the Bahvrca-brahmana-upanishad. Again, the last four chapters of the second book are usually singled out as the Aitareyopanishad, ascribed, like its Brahmana (and the first book), to Mahidasa Aitareya; and the third book is also referred to as the Samhita-upanishad. As regards the Kaushitaki-aranyaka, this work consists of 15 adhyayas, the first two (treating of the mahavrata ceremony) and the 7th and 8th of which correspond to the 1st, 5th, and 3rd books of the Aitareyaranyaka, respectively, whilst the four adhyayas usually inserted between them constitute the highly interesting Kaushitaki (brahmana-) upanishad, of which we possess two different recensions. The remaining portions (9-15) of the Aranyaka treat of the vital airs, the internal Agnihotra, etc., ending with the vamsha, or succession of teachers. In contemporary Hinduism According to Hindu tradition, the Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyāsa, who formed the Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to the Śatapatha Brāhmana, the number of syllables in the Rigveda is 432,000, equalling the number of muhurtas (1 day = 30 muhurtas) in forty years. This statement stresses the underlying philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual. The authors of the Brāhmana literature discussed and interpreted the Vedic ritual. Yaska was an early commentator of the Rigveda by discussing the meanings of difficult words. In the 14th century, Sāyana wrote an exhaustive commentary on it. Other Bhāṣyas (commentaries) that have been preserved up to present times are those by Mādhava, Skandasvāmin and Veńkatamādhava. Hindu revivalism Since the 19th and 20th centuries, some reformers like Swami Dayananda, founder of the Arya Samaj and Sri Aurobindo have attempted to re-interpret the Vedas to conform to modern and established moral and spiritual norms. Dayananda considered the Vedas (which he defined to include only the samhitas) to be source of truth, totally free of error and containing the seeds of all valid knowledge. Contrary to common understanding, he was adamant that Vedas were monotheistic and that they did not sanction idol worship.[37] Starting 1877, he intended to publish commentary on the four vedas but completed work on only the Yajurveda, and a partial commentary on the Rigveda. Dayananda's work is not highly regarded by Vedic scholars and Indologist Louis Renou, among others, dismissed it as, "a vigorous (and from our point of view, extremely aberrant) interpretation in the social and political sense."[38][39] Dayananda and Aurobindo moved the Vedantic perception of the Rigveda from the original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation. For example, instances of animal sacrifice were not seen by them as literal slaughtering, but as transcendental processes. "Indigenous Aryans" debate Further information: Indigenous Aryans The Sarasvati river, lauded in RV 7.95 as the greatest river flowing from the mountain to the sea is sometimes equated with the Ghaggar-Hakra river, which went dry perhaps before 2600 BC or certainly before 1900 BC. Others argue that the Sarasvati was originally the Helmand in Afghanistan. These questions are tied to the debate about the Indo-Aryan migration (termed "Aryan Invasion Theory") vs. the claim that Vedic culture together with Vedic Sanskrit originated in the Indus Valley Civilisation (termed "Out of India theory"), a topic of great significance in Hindu nationalism, addressed for example by Amal Kiran and Shrikant G. Talageri. Subhash Kak has claimed that there is an astronomical code in the organization of the hymns. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, also based on astronomical alignments in the Rigveda, in his "The Orion" (1893) claimed presence of the Rigvedic culture in India in the 4th millennium BC, and in his "Arctic Home in the Vedas" (1903) even argued that the Aryans originated near the North Pole and came south during the Ice Age. Translations The first published translation of any portion of the Rigveda in any Western language was into Latin, by Friedrich August Rosen (Rigvedae specimen, London 1830). Predating Müller's editio princeps of the text, Rosen was working from manuscripts brought back from India by Colebrooke. H. H. Wilson was the first to make a complete translation of the Rig Veda into English, published in six volumes during the period 1850-88.[40] Wilson's version was based on the commentary of Sāyaṇa. In 1977, Wilson's edition was enlarged by Nag Sharan Singh (Nag Publishers, Delhi, 2nd ed. 1990). In 1889, Ralph T.H. Griffith published his translation as The Hymns of the Rig Veda, published in London (1889).[41] A German translation was published by Karl Friedrich Geldner, Der Rig-Veda: aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche Übersetzt, Harvard Oriental Studies, vols. 33–37 (Cambridge, Mass.: 1951-7).[42] Geldner's translation was the philologically best-informed to date, and a Russian translation based on Geldner's by Tatyana Elizarenkova was published by Nauka 1989-1999[43] A 2001 revised edition of Wilson's translation was published by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi.[44] The revised edition updates Wilson's translation by replacing obsolete English forms with more modern equivalents, giving the English translation along with the original Sanskrit text in Devanagari script, along with a critical apparatus. In 2004 the United States' National Endowment for the Humanities funded Joel Brereton and Stephanie W. Jamison as project directors for a new original translation to be issued by Oxford University Press.[45][46] Numerous partial translations exist into various languages. Notable examples include: • • A. A. Macdonell. Hymns from the Rigveda (Calcutta, London, 1922); A Vedic Reader for Students (Oxford, 1917). French: A. Langlois, Rig-véda, ou livre des hymnes, Paris 1948-51 ISBN 2-72001029-4 • • • • Hungarian: Laszlo Forizs, Rigvéda - Teremtéshimnuszok (Creation Hymns of the Rig-Veda), Budapest, 1995 ISBN 963-85349-1-5 Hymns of the Rig-Veda Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty issued a modern selection with a translation of 108 hymns, along with critical apparatus. A bibliography of translations of the Rig Veda appears as an Appendix that work.[47] A new German translations of books 1 and 2 was presented in 2007 by Michael Witzel and Toshifumi Goto (ISBN 978-3-458-70001-2 / ISBN 978-3-458-700013). A partial Hindi translation by Govind Chandra Pande was published in 2008 (by Lokbharti Booksellers and Distributors, Allahabad, covering books 3-5). Notes 1. ^ derived from the root ṛc "to praise", cf. Dhātupātha 28.19. Monier-Williams translates "a Veda of Praise or Hymn-Veda" 2. ^ There is some confusion with the term "Veda", which is traditionally applied to the texts associated with the samhita proper, such as Brahmanas or Upanishads. In English usage, the term Rigveda is usually used to refer to the Rigveda samhita alone, and texts like the Aitareya-Brahmana are not considered "part of the Rigveda" but rather "associated with the Rigveda" in the tradition of a certain shakha.[citation needed] 3. ^ most popularly the Gayatri mantra of RV 3. Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5. 4. ^ Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100 5. ^ H. Oldenberg, Prolegomena,1888, Engl. transl. New Delhi: Motilal 2004 6. ^ K. Meenakshi (2002). "Making of Panini". in George Cardona, Madhav Deshpande , Peter Edwin Hook. Indian Linguistic Studies: Festschrift in Honor of George Cardona. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 235. ISBN 8120818857. 7. ^ The oldest manuscript in the Pune collection dates to the 15th century. The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the 14th century. Earlier manuscripts are extremely rare; the oldest known manuscript preserving a Vedic text was written in the 11th century in Nepal (catalogued by the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project, Hamburg. 8. ^ B. van Nooten and G. Holland, Rig Veda. A metrically restored text. Cambridge: Harvard Oriental Series 1994 9. ^ Mantras of "khila" hymns were called khailika and not ṛcas (Khila meant distinct "part" of Rgveda separate from regular hymns; all regular hymns make up the akhila or "the whole" recognised in a śākhā, although khila hymns have sanctified roles in rituals from ancient times). 10. ^ Hermann Grassmann had numbered the hymns 1 through to 1028, putting the vālakhilya at the end. Griffith's translation has these 11 at the end of the 8th mandala, after 8.92 in the regular series. 36 "Probably the least-contested observation concerning the various Indo-European dialects is that those languages grouped together as Indic and Iranian show such remarkable similarities with one another that we can confidently posit a period of Indo-Iranian unity. signifying lack of certainty. ^ Oldenberg 1894 (tr. Preface to Khila section by C. there is a close resemblance between them in metrical form. There seems to be economic and religious interaction and perhaps rivalry operating here. Oberlies (p. ^ Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10.htm 17. ^ Talageri (2000). ^ Mallory 1989 p. The Brahmana period is later than the composition of the samhitas of the other Vedas. ^ http://hinduism. in fact. p. then this may often give. 13. This would mean that the redaction of the texts . ^ cf..uidaho. 14. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100 23. the number of bricks used for the uttaravedi: the number is motivated numerologically rather than based on an actual syllable count. If it is noticed that whole Avesta verses can be easily translated into the Vedic alone by virtue of comparative phonetics. ^ Bryant 2001:130-131 "The oldest part of the Avesta.14 "The Vedic diction has a great number of favourite expressions which are common with the Avestic. ^ In a few cases.800. more than one rishi is given.. which mentions four of the major Rgvedic gods: mitra. ^ cf.htm 26. though not with later Indian diction. B. ISBN 8125013849 25. ^ "As a possible date ad quem for the RV one usually adduces the Hittite-Mitanni agreement of the middle of the 14th cent. Rajesh Kochar." 20.edu/ngier/306/contrasarav.. Orient Longman. 2000. out of which the soul of Vedic poetry appears to speak.. 379) places it near the end of the Brahmana period." 19. ^ Mallory 1989 "The identification of the Andronovo culure as Indo-Iranian is commonly accepted by scholars. geographical and cultural proximity to each other not far removed from a joint Indo-Iranian period. seeing that the older Brahmanas still contain pre-normalized Rigvedic citations. Witzel.Kāshikar in Volume-5 of Pune Edition of RV (in references). in their overall poetic character.C. ^ Oldenberg (p. p. In addition. see references. ^ equalling 40 times 10." 21. Early Sanskritization ." 22. stretching for about the 10th to 6th centuries.Origin and development of the Kuru state.com/od/scripturesepics/a/rigveda.. 18. varuNa. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain.. not only correct Vedic words and phrases. 12. ^ The Vedic People: Their History and Geography.11.class.about. indra and the nAsatya azvin)" M. 24. 15.G. but also the verses. Shrotri). which justifies scholars in placing the Vedic and Avestan worlds in close chronological. is linguistically and culturally very close to the material preserved in the Rgveda. ^ These Khilani hymns have also been found in a manuscript of the Śākala recension of the Kashmir Rigveda (and are included in the Poone edition). Editorial notes in various volumes of Pune Edition. ^ Rigveda and River Saraswati: http://www.33 16. Edwin and Laurie L. ^ Ravi Prakash Arya and K. D. terms that. ^ Edited. John (1994). ^ There is however mention of ApUpa. 37. published in 1972. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 65–91. The Early Use of Iron in India (1992) Oxford University Press argues that it may refer to any metal. (2004). special issue of Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research (June. "Dayananda Saraswati". by M. The EIEC (p. has been published by Th. The destiny of the Veda in India. pp. Aufrecht (Bonn. 32. Dayananda Sarasvati and nineteenth-century polemics against idolatry. ISBN 0-88920-419-5. and canon: essays in Vedic interpretation. ISBN 0-7914-1937-1. 5 (1999). Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. although Chakrabarti. Authority. 2-volume set. ^[page needed]. 28. ^ reprint: Harvard Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies Harvard (University Press) (2003) ISBN 0-674-01226-7 43. see Talageri (2000) 31. ^ Wilson. 40. ^ Salmond. Routledge/Curzon. ^ reprinted Delhi 1973. Noel A. G C Pande & D Krishna. 27. "From interpretation to reform: Dayanand's reading of the Vedas".g. 38.. ISBN 81-86471-77-4. The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to a Vidagdha Shakalya without discussing anything related to the Padapatha. (2000) ed. ^ among others. Michael Witzel. Puro-das and Odana in the Rigveda. Joshi. issue 2 (December) [1]. English Translation. The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts. usually translated as "bronze". Aditya Prakashan. and Talageri 2000. Albany.. An edition in Roman transliteration. N. Kazanas. 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9 . anxiety. H. Complete revised and enlarged edition. 1850-88). 39. ^ Llewellwyn. ^ Jha 1992[page needed] 29. Bryant. 44. at least in later texts. (Parimal Publications: Delhi.as preserved was completed in roughly the 6th century BC. Patton (2005) The Indo-Aryan Controversy. p. pp. ^ minority opinions name dates as early as the 4th millennium BC. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā: Sanskrit Text.Y: State University of New York Press. 2001) ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). with an English translation. Laurie L. If ayas refers to iron. Haug (2 vols. 6 vols. 45. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. the Rigveda must date to the late 2nd millennium at the earliest. ^ Renou. Ṛig-Veda-Sanhitā: A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns. 2001) 33. ^ The term "ayas" (=metal) occurs in the Rigveda. ^ extended from a partial translation Rigveda: Izbrannye Gimny. Koenraad (1999). (London. 1879). in Patton. ^ summarized by Klaus Klostermaier in a 1998 presentation 34. EVJS Vol. 35. 4. with extracts from the commentary. ^ N. repring: Cosmo Publications (1977) 41. reprinted by Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers: 1999. Elst. Hindu iconoclasts: Rammohun Roy. "The Aryan Non-Invasionist Model" by Koenraad Elst 30. Lal 2005 36.. A new date for the Rgveda Philosophy and Chronology. H.K. Louis (1965). ^ e. ISBN 8121500419 42. refer to rice dishes. Notes & Index of Verses. L. Macdonell and Keith. 1863). 235–252. Motilal Banarsidas. Bombay. 306) gives a 7th century date. 2nd ed. S. Holland. ed. 1890-92. S. ^ http://www. S.45. Massachusetts and London. published by Vaidika Samśodhana Mandala. ^ Joel Brereton and Stephanie W. originally in 1888.html retrieved 22 March. Wisconsin ISBN 0-914955-22-5 [2] Philology • • Vashishtha Narayan Jha. 2nd ed.in 5 volumes (It is original commentary of Sāyana in Sanskrit based on over 60 manuscripts). V. 6 vols.Delhi-7. ed. 1972) in 5 volumes. . 2007. Webster. Text in Devanagari.)..A.neh.Reprint 1972-1983. Journal of the Mongolian Society XI. o ed. Harvard University Press. Rgveda-Samhitā: ŚrimatSāyanāchārya virachita-bhāṣya-sametā (First ed. The Hymns of the Rigveda. Pune: Vaidika Samśodhana Maṇḍala. Bonn. (1933-46. 11A/U. M. H. Twin Lakes. Delhi (1992). and T. England. N..F. Varadarājaśarmā. with Sayana's commentary. Theodor Aufrecht. Pune (2nd ed. (Penguin Books: 1981) ISBN 0-140-44989-2 Bibliography Editions • • • • • editio princeps: Friedrich Max Müller. O'Flaherty. a metrically restored text. Rgveda-Samhitā Srimat-sāyanāchārya virachita-bhāṣya-sametā. Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. The Editorial Board for the First Edition included N. Bjorn Merker. K. ^ See Appendix 3.. Oxford. Vāsudevaśāstri. Sontakke et al. Cambridge. The Rig Veda: Translation and Explanatory Notes.1972 . Müller (original commentary of Sāyana in Sanskrit based on 24 manuscripts). 1877. A Linguistic Analysis of the Rgveda-Padapatha Sri Satguru Publications. Harvard University. Jamison. Wendy Doniger. 46. The Rig Veda. by Sontakke et al.Pune-9. London. English translation Notes and indices by H. 1994. Published Nag Publishers 1990. published by Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala. M. Mongolian Studies... Commentary • • • Sayana (14th century) o ed. Rgveda-Samhita. B. Wilson. W. Jawaharnagar. 1988. Rājvade. Ed. Sri Aurobindo: Hymns of the Mystic Fire (Commentary on the Rig Veda). 1849-75. Sontakke (Managing Editor). o ed. van Nooten und G. 4 vols. Rig Veda.gov/news/awards/collaborative2004. Lotus Press. Sontakke. (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0195179188 47.). Müller 1849-75 (German translation).. Rig Veda Riddles In Nomad Perspective. ISBN 81-7742-010-0 Archaeoastronomy • Tilak. The Rigveda: The Oldest Literature of the Indians (trans. Boston. 1893. 1. The Sacred Books of the East vo. R.com) . Darmstadt 1977 — Vedic Hymns. 46 ed. B. 2004 reprint: ISBN 9781417982059. 2000. — Die Religion des Veda. Berlin 1888. Edwin (2001). Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology. 2005.. Teil: Metrische und textgeschichtliche Prolegomena. Friedrich Max Müller. Ginn and Co. Die Religion des Rgveda.• • • • • Thomas Oberlies. See also • • Vedas Upanishads External links Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Rig Veda Wikisource has original text related to this article: Original Sanskrit text in Devanagari Wikisource has original text related to this article: Original Sanskrit text in ASCII transliteration Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Rigveda • Rigveda . (. Wien 1998. Shrikant: The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis. The Homeland of the Aryans. ISBN 0195137779 Lal.doc format) Text • in Devanagari and IAST (sacred-texts. Stuttgart 1927. Wiesbaden 1982. Talageri.Nominations submitted by India in 2006-2007 for inclusion in the Memory of the World Register. Oldenberg. Oxford 1897 Adolf Kaegi. Aryan Books International. Stuttgart 1917. Berlin 1894. Historical • • • Bryant. Arrowsmith). Hermann: Hymnen des Rigveda. The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate.B. Oxford: Oxford University Press. l. New Delhi. (1886). Bal Gangadhar: The Orion. 4 vols. The Hymns of the Rigveda.• • • • in ITRANS. without meter or same meter. (online at sacred-texts. Oxford. U. 2nd ed.com)[North Indian style. with Sayana's commentary London. 1849-7.. with diacritics . PDF format. full text online pdf ascii. yeha swara] Friedrich Max Müller. Translation • • • Ralph Griffith.org/wiki/Rigveda" Categories: Rig Veda | Vedas | Sanskrit texts | Hindu texts | Sanskrit words and phrases | Memory of the World Register Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2008 | Wikipedia articles needing page number citations | Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages | Articles containing Sanskrit language text | All pages needing cleanup | Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2008 | All accuracy disputes | Articles with disputed statements from May 2009 Views • • • • Article Discussion View source History . Devanagari and transliteration (by Detlef Eichler) metrically restored (Linguistics Research Center.. full text.com) English translation based on Sayana and Wilson.by Keith Briggs Interpretation • Rig Veda (Sri Aurobindo Kapali Sastry Institute) [hide] v•d•e The Rigveda Mandalas 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 · 6 · 7 · 8 · 9 · 10 Deities Rivers Rishis Devas (Agni · Indra · Soma · Ushas · Mitra · Varuna) · Asuras (Vrtra) · Visvedevas · Maruts · Ashvins Sapta Sindhu · Nadistuti · Sarasvati · Sindhu · Sarayu · Rasā Saptarishi (Gritsamada · Vishvamitra · Vamadeva · Atri · Angiras · Bharadvaja · Vasishta) Retrieved from "http://en. in Unicode] mp3 audio download (gatewayforindia.wikipedia. The Rig Veda 1895. Texas) [Romanized. 1890-92.e. i. 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Contact us Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Yajurveda From Wikipedia. the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. a nonprofit organization. Inc. additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.• • • • • Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.. (July 2009) Part of a series on Hindu scriptures Vedas Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka · Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya · Kena · Maitri · Mundaka · Mandukya · Katha · Kaushitaki · Prashna · Shvetashvatara . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. search This section does not cite any references or sources. 400 and 1000 BCE. + veda "knowledge") is the third of the four canonical texts of Hinduism. the Vedas. and the added Brahmana and Shrautasutra add information on the interpretation and on the details of their performance. it is estimated to have been composed between 1. Contents [hide] • • • • • • 1 Recensions o 1. or 'compilation'. By some. contains the liturgy (mantras) needed to perform the sacrifices of the religion of the Vedic period.2 Krishna Yajurveda 2 Legend 3 References 4 Literature 5 See also 6 External links [edit] Recensions .Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata · Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Manu Smriti · Agama · Pancharatra · Tantra · Akilathirattu · Sūtra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Yoga Vasistha This box: view • talk • edit The Yajurveda (Sanskrit यजुवेदः yajurveda.1 Shukla Yajurveda o 1. a tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula'. the Yajurveda 'Samhita'. Orissa. Raghu vamsam. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is the most voluminous of all Upanishads.-18.: the final adhyaya is the famous Isha Upanishad The VSM was edited and published by Weber (London and Berlin.: Sautramani.: New and Full Moon sacrifices 3.: Somayajna 9.: Vajapeya and Rajasuya.-25.-8.-21.: Pitriyajna 36. H. Dasaratha and Sri Rama's clan follows the Shukla Yajurveda branch. 1899).-29.-39. The VS has forty chapters or adhyayas (but 41 in Orissa). is said to have followed the Kanva shakha.-34.-10. The Guru himself followed the Taittiriya Shakha with the Apastamba Kalpasutra. parts of Maharashtra (north of Nashik) and thus commands a numerous following.: Ashvamedha 26. The White Yajurveda has two Upanishads associated with it: the Isha Vasya and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishads. containing the formulas used with the following rituals: 1.: construction of altars and hearths. Gujarat. 1852). The Vedic rituals of the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam.: Pravargya 40. especially the Agnicayana 19. originally of Bihar Vajasaneyi Kanva of originally of Kosala (VSK) The former is popular in North India. and translated into English by Ralph T. Both contain the verses necessary for rituals. while the Shukla Yajurveda has separately a Brahmana text. Karnataka. [edit] Shukla Yajurveda There are two (nearly identical) shakhas or recensions of the Shukla (White) Yajurveda. The Kanva Shakha is popular in parts of Maharashtra (south of Nasik). Sureshvaracharya. both known as Vajasaneyi-Samhita (VS): • • Vajasaneyi Madhyandiniya (VSM).-2.: Purushamedha 32. the second biggest temple in India.: supplementary formulas for various rituals 30. a ritual originally counteracting the effects of excessive Somadrinking 22. [edit] Krishna Yajurveda . one of the four main disciples of Jagadguru Adi Shankara. are performed according to the Kanva shakha.There are two primary versions or Samhitas of the Yajurveda: Shukla (white) and Krishna (black). Griffith (Benares. two modifications of the Soma sacrifice 11. the Shatapatha Brahmana. but the Krishna Yajurveda includes the Brahmana prose discussions within the Samhita.: Sarvamedha 35.-31.: Agnihotra 4. Grhyasutras. the Apastamba Sutras are the common. Aranyakas.6. 1871-72).Shiksha valli. The Taittiriya Shakha: The best known and best preserved of these recensions is the TS. There is another Short tract apart from the above and that is commonly known as Ekagni Kanda which mainly consists of mantra-s used in the marriage and other rituals. ninth and tenth prashnas of the Aranyaka. Vaishampayana was so enraged that he demanded the return of all the knowledge he had imparted to Yajnavalkya. XII (Berlin. Taittiriya Upanishad (having three prashnas or vallis . subdivided in chapters or prapathakas. TS 4. On one occasion. The Taittiriya Shakha consists of Taittiriya Samhita (having seven kandas). eager to receive this knowledge. the Maitrayani by Leopold von Schroeder (Leipzig. 1881-86) and the Kathaka by von Schroeder (Leipzig. while 1. Some individual hymns in this Samhita have gained particular importance in Hinduism. The beejas bhūr bhuvaḥ suvaḥ prefixed to the (rigvedic) Savitur Gayatri mantra are also from the Yajurveda. The words prapathaka and kanda (meaning sections) are interchangeably used in Vedic literature. The other disciples of Vaishampayana.5 and TS 4. B. Taittiriya Aranyaka (having seven prashnas) (See Aranyaka Literature). 1900-09). Taittiriya Brahmana (having three kandas). a pupil of Yaska. Yajnavalkya's birth was with a purpose as purported by Gods.8.There are four recensions of the Krishna ("black") Yajurveda: • • • • Taittirīya saṃhita (TS) originally of Panchala Maitrayani saṃhita (MS) originally of the area south of Kurukshetra Caraka-Katha saṃhita (KS) originally of Madra and Kurukshetra Kapiṣṭhala-Katha saṃhita (KapS) of the southern Panjab. Three recensions have been edited and published: the Taittiriya by Albrecht Weber in "Indische Studien". assumed the form of tittiri birds and . named after Tittiri. Translations of the Taittiriya Samhita into English were composed by A. The Taittiriya recension of the Black Yajurveda is the shakha now most prevalent in southern India.7 constitute the Rudram Chamakam.g. Keith (Oxford 1913) and Devi Chand. e. He was an Ekasandhigrāhi. the vedic seer Yajnavalkya studied the Yajurveda collection under the tutelage of sage Vaishampayana maternal uncle of Yajnavalkya. Upanishads and Pratishakhyas. It consists of 7 books or kandas. Ananda valli and Bhrigu valli) and the Mahanarayana Upanishad. eighth. Yajnavalkya returned in indignation or (literally vomited) all the knowledge he had learnt. further subdivided into individual sections (anuvakas).i is the Shaivaite Tryambakam mantra. Among the followers of this Shakha. Bahika Each of the recensions has or had a Brahmana associated with it. meaning he learnt anything with just once teaching. [edit] Legend According to tradition. XI. The Taittiriya Upanishad and Mahanarayana Upanishad are considered to be the seventh. Prashna and valli refer to sections of the Aranyaka. and most of them also have associated Shrautasutras. The two came to have serious differences in interpretation. search Part of a series on Hindu scriptures Vedas Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · . Indica.. Yajnavalkya worshipped Surya (the Sun God) and acquired new knowledge directly from Narayana who taught the Shukla Yajurveda taking the shape of a stallion (vāji-rūpa). Taittiriya Brahmanam (Krsnam Yajurveda). [edit] See also Samaveda From Wikipedia. After having regurgitated the knowledge acquired from his teacher. Pushpendra. 1854-1899) Kumar. 10 volumes. The Texts of the White Yajurveda. [edit] References [edit] Literature • • • • Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith. The Sanhitâ of the Black Yajur Veda with the Commentary of Mâdhava ‘Achârya. the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation. Delhi (1998). Devi Chand. that knowledge came to be called the Taittiriya Samhita (a derivation of tittiri). Calcutta (Bibl. Thus. Translated with a Popular Commentary (1899). The Yajurveda.absorbed while being recited during the return (or ate the knowledge). Sanskrit text with English translation. Third thoroughly revised and enlarged edition (1980). 3 vols. portions of hymns. using specifically indicated melodies called Samagana. by Udgatar priests at sacrifices in which the juice of the Soma plant. to suit the rituals in which they were to be employed. There are frequent variations from the text of the Rigveda that are in some cases glosses but in others offer an older . Its earliest parts are believed to date from 1000 BC and it ranks next in sanctity and liturgical importance to the Rigveda. It consists of a collection (samhita) of hymns. the ancient core Hindu scriptures.Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka · Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya · Kena · Maitri · Mundaka · Mandukya · Katha · Kaushitaki · Prashna · Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata · Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Manu Smriti · Agama · Pancharatra · Tantra · Akilathirattu · Sūtra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Yoga Vasistha This box: view • talk • edit The Samaveda (Sanskrit: सामवेद. without reference to their original order. to be sung. sāmaveda. is offered in libation to various deities. is second (in the usual order) of the four Vedas. clarified and mixed with milk and other ingredients. all but 75 taken from the Rigveda. and detached verses. The verses have been transposed and re-arranged. from sāman "melody" + veda "knowledge" ). but only parts of the Shrautasutra. as well as the neglected Upanishad [5] . Breslau 1907 4. ^ W. Sharma). Shrautasutra and ancillary Sutras. In retrospect and prospect. repetition and insertion of stray syllables (stobha). Studia Orientalia XLIII:6. p. Bihar. [edit] Notes 1. R. 2. 1954. (Sarasvati-Vihara Series 31. H. T.R. Die Jaiminīya-Saṃhitā mit einer Einleitung über die Sāmavedaliteratur. While the Kauthuma recension has been published (Samhita.) Nagpur. Parpola. parts of the Jaiminiya tradition remain unpublished [2]. cit. The Sāmaveda Saṃhitā. There is an edition of the first part of the Samhita by W. ^ Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra. Delhi 1986 .pronunciation than that of the Rigveda (such as [ai] for common [e]). vi. Contents [hide] • • • • • 1 Recensions 2 Notes 3 See also 4 Books 5 External links [edit] Recensions R. H. rests and other modifications prescribed in the song-books (Ganas). Jaiminīya-Brāhmaṇa of the Sāmaveda. ^ A. The literature and study of the Jaiminīya Sāmaveda. However. Caland [3] and of the Brahmana by Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra [4]. ^ Griffith. T. op. an edition is now being prepared by some well-known Samaveda specialists.. mainly by the late B. The song books remain unpublished [6] and the tradition is rapidly fading. Helsinki 1973 3. the Jaiminiya in the Carnatic and Kerala. and since a few decades in Darbhanga. Griffith says that there are three recensions of the text of the Samaveda Samhita:[1] • • • the Kauthuma recension is current in Gujarat. Samaveda's Upaveda (technical manual) is Gāndharvaveda that deals not only with the topics of music but also of dance and theatre. Caland. Brahmana. as well as various modulations. When sung the verses are further altered by prolongation. and the Rāṇāyanīya in the Maharatta country. 2nd revised ed. Griffith. ^ A. 1873). (Calcutta. JAOS 16. Griffith.1895. Finnish Oriental Society 1988 [edit] See also • • • Hinduism Vedas Historical Vedic religion [edit] Books • The Samaveda has been edited and published by Theodor Benfey (Leipzig. translation. A translation in Hindi by Mridul Kirti called "Samveda Ka Hindi Padyanuvad" has also been published recently. 1848. enlarged by Nag Sharan Singh and Surendra Pratap. The Jaiminīya or Talavakāra Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa. Translated by Ralph T. An English translation is due to Griffith (Benares. First published 1893. Text. H. and notes. • Atharvaveda From Wikipedia. 1991) ISBN 81-7081-244-5. Ralph T. Oertel. The Sāmaveda Saṃhitā. Text. 79-260 6. Revised and enlarged edition. H. Commentary & Notes in English. with a German translation) and by Satyavrata Samashrami in Bibl. This edition provides the text in Devanagari with full metrical marks needed for chanting. 1991 (Nag Publishers: Delhi.5. Translation. 1893). search Part of a series on Hindu scriptures Vedas Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · . Parpola. The decipherment of the Samavedic notation of the Jaiminīyas. ^ H. the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation. Ind. the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa. According to tradition. and one of the four Vedas. In the Late Vedic Gopatha Brahmana. known as Śaunakīya (AVS) and Paippalāda (AVP). often called the "fourth Veda". a tatpurusha compound of atharvan. . There are two surviving recensions (śākhās). it is attributed to the Bhrigu and Angirasa. Additionally. such as Kauśika. an ancient Rishi. atharvaveda. tradition ascribes parts to other rishis.Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka · Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya · Kena · Maitri · Mundaka · Mandukya · Katha · Kaushitaki · Prashna · Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata · Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Manu Smriti · Agama · Pancharatra · Tantra · Akilathirattu · Sūtra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Yoga Vasistha This box: view • talk • edit The Atharvaveda (Sanskrit: अथवर वेद. and veda meaning "knowledge") is a sacred text of Hinduism. hence its oldest name is Ātharvāṅgirasa. Vasiṣṭha and Kaśyapa. in some ways represents an independent parallel tradition to that of the Rigveda and Yajurveda.More over we cant find any Gayatree Mantra in atharva veda(Shaunaka Shaka)but we find Mantra at the end of the 19 Canto which praises Goddess gayatri. while undoubtedly belonging to the core Vedic corpus. (May 2008) The Atharvaveda.Contents [hide] • • • • • • • • 1 Status 2 Recensions 3 Dating 4 Divisions and issues of note 5 Editions 6 Recitation Style of the Atharva Veda 7 Notes 8 References [edit] Status This article needs additional citations for verification. The Atharvaveda Parishishtas Pariśiṣṭas (appendices) state that priests of the Mauda and Jalada schools of the Atharvaveda should be avoided. It incorporates much of early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in other IndoEuropean literatures. Though an early text. pertaining to the spirits and the afterlife. its status has been ambiguous. Although it is stated that the Gayatri mantra used in Atharva Veda is different from other three Vedas. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. A special initiation of the Gayatri is required to learn the Atharva Veda[citation needed] . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. when the Pandavas are exiled . or strict discipline should be followed as per the rules and regulations set by the Atharva Veda.But so far many vedic schools are teaching the Atharva Veda without the Upanayanam. The Atharva Veda is less predominant than other Vedas as it is little used in solemn (Shrauta) ritual. There are striking parallels with Hittite and Germanic sorcery stanzas[citation needed]. The Atharvaveda is considered by many[citation needed] to be as dark and secret knowledge.[citation needed].Few Vidwan's in Atharva Veda state that they never came across such initiations before learning atharva veda. It is even stated that women associated with Atharvan may suffer from abortions if pregnant women remain while the chants for warfare are pronounced. due to its magical character. The largely silent Brahmán priest observes the procedures of the ritual and 'heals' it with two mantras and pouring of ghee when a mistake occurs. In the Mahabharata. Several Upanishads also are associated with the AV. jalada 7. The most important of these are the muṇḍaka and the praśna Upanishads.. śaunakīya 5." [edit] Recensions The Caraṇavyuha (attributed to Shaunaka) lists nine shakhas. but appear to be relatively late additions to the tradition. mauda 4. or each has additional verses not in the other. The Vaitanasutra deals with the participation of the Atharvaveda priest (brahmán) in the Shrauta ritual while the Kauśikasūtra contains many applications of Atharvaveda mantras in healing and magic. stauda 3. devadarśa 10. kuntap 8. and hereby compress thirteen years to thirteen days. Both have some later additions.roughly contemporary with the Yajurveda mantras. only the Śaunakīya (AVS) and the Paippalāda (AVP) recensions have survived. jājala 6. and falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of 2nd millennium BC .to the forests for thirteen years. Saṃhitāvidhi. suggests to Yudhisthira that they consult the Atharvaveda. of the Atharvaveda:[1] 1. the founder of the Shaunakiya shakha. Bhima. The former contains an important reference to Śaunaka. Often in corresponding hymns. and "shrink time. but the core Paippalāda text is considered earlier than the Śaunakīya. and the Sāmaveda. while the latter is associated with the Paippalāda shakha. Śāntikalpa and Nakṣatrakalpa are some of the five kalpa texts adduced to the Śaunakīya tradition and not separate schools of their own. brahmavada 9. the Rigvedic Khilani. [edit] Dating It is clear that the core text of the Atharvaveda is not particularly recent in the Vedic Saṃhitā tradition.. . cāraṇavaidyā Of these. or schools. Two main post-Samhita texts associated with the AV are the Vaitāna Sūtra and the Kauśika Sūtra. paippalāda 2. This serves the same purpose as the vidhāna of the Rigveda and is of great value in studying the application of the AV text in Vedic times. being frustrated. the two recensions have different verse orders. and Vaidharbhī. During its oral tradition. Kandas 19 is an addition and Kanda 20 is a very late addition containing Rgvedic hymns for the use of the Atharvanic Brahmanacchamsin priest as well as for the enigmatic Kuntapa ritual of the Kuru kingdom of Parikshit. 18. corresponding to the 12th to 10th centuries BC or the early Kuru kingdom. death and female rivalry. Kandas 13-18 deal with issues of a householder's life. the Purāṇic text suggests germs as a cause for leprosy. Jain and Buddhist texts are considerably more hostile to the Atharvaveda (they call it Aggvāna or Ahavāna Veda) than they are to the other Hindu texts. and it is only from comparative philology of the two surviving recensions that we may hope to arrive at an approximation of the original reading. Thus the AV may be one of the earliest texts to record uses of the antibiotic agents. however. so that scholarly consensus dates the bulk of the Atharvaveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age. From the description of the auṣadhi as black branching entity with dusky patches. one of the late contributors associated with the Atharvanic text. the krimi or kṛmi and the durṇāma.The Atharvaveda is also the first Indic text to mention Iron (as śyāma ayas.chapter: 164). They continue the speculative tradition of some Rigvedic poets. from the first tooth of a baby to regaining kingship.34. as well as with the ambiguous Vratyas on the fringes of society and with the Rohita sun as an embodiment of royal power. The Paippalada text has a similar arrangement into four parts (Kandas 1-15. such as marriage. Tradition suggests that Paippalāda. Kandas 8-12 constitute early speculation on the nature of the universe and of humans as well as on ritual. [edit] Divisions and issues of note • The Shaunakiya text is clearly divided into four parts: Kāṇḍas 1-7 deal with healing and general black and white magic that is to be applied in all situations of life. 16-17. the kimīdin. These two can be directly traced back to the Atharvaveda saṃhitā. lived during the reign of prince Hiranyanabha of the Ikshvāku dynasty. It identifies the causes of disease as living causative agents such as the yatudhāna. 19-20) with roughly the same contents. This approach to disease is quite different compared to the trihumoral theory of Ayurveda.23-24 describes the disease leprosy and recommends the rajani auṣadhi for its treatment. literally "black metal").[citation needed] The AV is the first Indic text dealing with medicine. In the same chapter Suśruta also expands on the role of helminths in disease. The hymn AV I. • • .9). one of the early collators. The Atharvans seek to kill them with a variety of incantations or plant based drugs in order to counter the disease (see XIX. and are thus predecessors of the Upanishads. karma kāṃḍa . Here following the Atharvan theory. the text has been corrupted considerably more than some other Vedas. Remnants of the original atharvanic thought did persist. it is very likely that is a lichen with antibiotic properties. as can be seen in Suśruta's medical treatise and in (Garuḍa Purāṇa. there are some rituals aimed at the destruction of the enemies (Abhicārika hymns and rites).10. In the Mahabharata there is a frequent comparison between weapons and the mantras of the heroes. This theme is repeatedly presented in various interpretations in later Hindu philosophies. The development of the Abhichārika rites to their more "modern" form is clearly seen in the vidhāna literature.• The Atharvaveda also informs about warfare. The foundations of Vaiṣeśika Darśana is expressed in the mantra XII. Abhicārika rites were an integral part of Vedic culture. The Vrātya rituals were performed by individuals who took on a seminomadic way of living and were generally roaming about in neighboring tribal territories to gain wealth in cattle by putting pressure on householders grihastha. (Hiraṇyagarba = " The golden embryo. vrātyas and kṣatriyas.7. There are also hymns that are specific to rituals of the bhṛgu-aṅgirasas.") This Skambha is Indra and Indra is the Skambha which describes all existence. IX. The major rituals covered by the AV are marriage in kāṃḍa . One peculiar rite is the Viṣāsahi Vrata. from which the Universe was formed. performed with the mantras of the XVII kāṃḍa in a spell against female rivals. that was the precursor of the complex world in a very simple form (X.38): skaṃbha is the heat (tapaḥ) that spreads through the universe (Bhuvana) as waves of water. Moreover. A variety of devices such as an arrow with a duct for poison (apāskambha) and castor bean poison.1. The author of the ṛgvidhāna provides passing reference to the development of similar rites in the AV tradition (the references to the Āṅgirasa Krityās).7 that describes the common thread running through all manifest and nonmanifest existence as the skaṃbha. the Hymn to goddess Earth or the Pṛthivī Sūkta used in the Āgrayana rite. the units of this spreading entity are the gods even as branches of one tree. the trisaṃdi and nyārbudi hymns). Finally. as is amply attested in the brāhmaṇa literature. use of disease spreading insects and smoke screens[citation needed] find a place in the Atharvaveda saṃhita (eg. Early pantheistic thought is seen in the hymn X.9.XVIII. • • . These references to military practices and associated Kṣatriya rites were what gave the Atharvaveda its reputation. Thus the Atharvaveda is fully within the classic Vedic fold. Philosophical excursions are found in books 8-12.I. in content they are mirrored by several other hymns from the Rig as well as the Yajuṣes. The hymn also describes a pantheistic nature of the Vedic gods (X. the stones agglutinating to form the rocks and the rocks held together to form the Earth. This skaṃbha is described as what poured out of the Hiraṇyagarbha. While these support traditional negative views on the AV. particularly found in chapters 1-7.XIV and the funeral in kāṃḍa . poisoned net and hook traps.28).26 in which the 'atoms' (Pāṃsu) are described forming the stone. just as in the three other Vedas.7. though it was more specific to certain Brahmán clans of priests. hymns IX . One of the most spectacular expressions of philosophical thought is seen in the hymn XII. Several regular and special rituals of the Aryans ārya are a major concern of the Atharvaveda. These rites reached their culmination in the Kauśika Sutra and in some of the Pariśiṣṭas (appendices) of the atharvan literature. The bulk of the Paippalāda text was edited by Leroy Carr Barret from 1905 to 1940 (book 6 by F. A few manuscripts were collected by Prof. Whitney (revised by Lanman. who describes the theft as valiant daredevilry: . Some manuscripts are in the Orissa State Museum. in Orissa and some neighboring districts. after a recent introduction from Benares. The Gokarna version follows the northern style. There is a provisional (unpublished) edition of book 20 by Dipak Bhattacharya. Bhattacharya secured a manuscript from an illiterate Brahmin on promise of return .. Gokarna and. The Shaunaka Shaka of the Atharva Veda is recited in western Saurasthra. at Benares. The knowledge of the villagers.15 (footnote 8) . which resembles the way the Maharashtrians recite the Rigveda Samhita. with minute variations in Kampa Svara. but many manuscripts are in private possession. "The Atharvaveda" in "Grundriss der Indoarischen Philologie". in whose possession many important manuscripts remain. The Paippalada Atharvaveda is recited. 1899). and books 6-7 by Arlo Griffiths (2004). Mass.[edit] Editions The Shaunakiya text was edited by Rudolf Roth and William Dwight Whitney (Berlin. 1905). Translations into English were made by Ralph Griffith (2 vols. Similarly in South India. the Shaunaka Shaka is recited using the Rig Veda as a base. Book 2 was edited and translated by Thomas Zehnder (1999) and book 5 by Alexander Lubotsky (2002). [edit] Notes 1. Durgamohan Bhattacharya of Bengal by deceiving their owners. since various other manuscripts were subsequently discovered in Orissa. 1856) and by Vishva Bandhu (Hoshiarpur. and are kept hidden by their owners. D."[2] Books 1–15 were edited by Durgamohan Bhattacharya (1997). 1960–62). etc).. 1915) from a single Kashmirian Śāradā manuscript (now in Tübingen). Chidamabaram. as told by his son Dipak Bhattacharya in 1968 (below). the way of recitation is little different. Cambridge. Bloomfield (SBE Vol XLII). about their possession is often very hazy [... [edit] Recitation Style of the Atharva Veda The current recitation style of this Veda mostly resembles the Rigvedic one. This edition is outdated. II (Strasburg. Edgerton. that derives its style from Gujarat.] Prof. and M. while its Kashmir branch has been extinct for some centuries. Benares 1897).. ^ Modak (1993) p. also see Bloomfield. In Varanasi. though only in portions and without svara.. 2 vols. also in South India (Tirupati. full text. The Hymns of the Atharvaveda 1895-6. lxxv) in a postscript assures that this account is misleading.2. Ralph Griffith. search . 42 (1897). selection. But later I discovered some documents testifying to the purchase of the manuscripts. Paippalada-Samhita of the Atharvaveda Volume 2.com) Alexander Lubotsky. (online at sacred-texts.wikipedia.. asking "Why does Zehnder imagin deceipt of which there is no hint in my statemet? Is it a matter of common knowledge to Zehnder in connection with persons he is acquainted with? [. (1999) B. [edit] References • • • • • • Dipak Bhattacharya. The Asiatic Society (2007). (2002) Thomas Zehnder. Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan. The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-veda. Bhattacarya (2007. Buch 2 Idstein.] We never thought in Zehnder's line. ^ Zehnder (1999). Any Doubting Thomas may come and see them.19. Modak. (online at sacredtexts. p. p. Kanda Five Harvard College.com) Maurice Bloomfield. the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation. v. Sacred Books of the East.R. Atharvaveda-Paippalada..org/wiki/Atharvaveda" Categories: Vedas | Sanskrit words and phrases Vedic period From Wikipedia. Atharvaveda-Paippalada. New Delhi (1993) ISBN 81-215-0607-7 Retrieved from "http://en. Hymns of the Atharva-veda. In its late phase (from ca.1 Political organization o 2. Archaeologically. The associated culture. Linguistically. and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements. the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: 1. was centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.1 Kingdoms 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Overview The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Scholars place the Vedic period in the second and first millennia BCE continuing up to the 6th century BCE based on literary evidence. the oldest sacred texts of the Indo-Aryans. 320 BCE). sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization. Rigvedic: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved. There is no widely accepted archaeological or linguistic evidence of direct cultural continuity from the Indus Valley civilization. and apart from that of the youngest books (first part of 1 and all of 10). it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas. 600 BCE). were being composed. and was succeeded by the Maurya Empire (from ca. the Cemetery H culture of the Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. the golden age. classical age of Sanskrit literature. . that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Contents [hide] • • • • • • • • • 1 Overview 2 Rigvedic period o 2.2 Society and economy 3 Vedic Religious Practices 4 The later Vedic period o 4. and the Middle kingdoms of India. would have been complete by 1000(?) BCE. this period may correspond with the Gandhara Grave Culture. Its early phase saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries.Map of northern India in the late Vedic period The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period during which the Vedas. both in language and in content. The earliest Vedanta. KathU. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence. and the shift of the political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the Ganges. Archaeologically. the rapid spread of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this period. Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. Brahmana prose: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period. Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive. Archaeologically.verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). and some Upanishads (e. Many of these texts are largely derived from the Rigveda. continued in the kingdoms of the Indo Greeks. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva. Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya).g. This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-western India. Gautama Buddha. dating from ca. Epic and Paninian Sanskrit: The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics. 4. MaitrU). The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic. new waves of immigration from 150 BCE (Abhira. Sutra language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. ChU. All but the five prose Upanishads are post-Buddhist[1]). JUB) and the oldest Shrautasutras (BSS. cultural and political changes. 500 BCE. corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture. and remain scarce throughout the Indian Middle Ages. but have undergone certain changes. comprising the bulk of the Śrauta and Grhya Sutras. KS. Megasthenes. and the Classical Sanskrit described by Panini is considered post-Vedic. the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. and belongs to the time after 500 BCE. the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU. VadhSS). Kushan and ultimately the Islamic Sultans. the Rigveda Khilani. Shaka). The grammar of Panini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts. and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. 6. 3. Rigvedic period See also Rigvedic tribes .2. and the spread of the kuru. The most important historical source of the geography of post-Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian whose report is based on the Mauryan time ambassador to Patna. 900 BCE corresponds. 5. TS) belongs to this period. and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Bihar) as a third political center is established. both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. the 10th century BCE. and the kingdom of the Kurus. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda (MS. the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda). as well as the Aranyakas. and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period. Videha (N. The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. the Soma Mandala. The king employed spaś (spies) and dutas (messengers). Political organization The grama (wagon train). various myths and stories. sitated outside of settlement. The king is often referred to as gopa (protector) and occasionally as samrat (supreme ruler). common Indo-Iranian society. sena: army). The oldest hymns. The leader of a grama was called gramani and that of a vish was called vishpati. although some hold book 9. and a grama was a smaller unit than the other two. bands of roving Brahmins and Kshatriyas in search of cattle. and in its earliest phase describes tribes that were essentially on the move. The rashtra (polity) was governed by a rajan (chieftain. Also. from the people which he had to redistribute. with a common woman (pumscali) [2] while the vidatha was the potlatch-like ritual distribution of bounty [3]. it cannot be easily localized. RigVedic Aryans have a lot in common with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni kingdoms as well as with early Iranians. were common. Society and economy . The Sabha. due to the semi-nomadic nature of the society described. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of religious hymns. He governed the people with their consent and approval. probably in books 2–7. The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also was his chariot driver and practiced spells and charms for success in war. often leading to disputes on the history of Vedic culture. There were various types of meetings such as the vidhata or "Sabha". vis and jana were political units of the early Vedic Aryans. it is difficult to define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period". He was aided by several functionaries. as it emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. but not explanation of.The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus Valley civilization. 'king'). including the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief. He was elected from a restricted class of 'royals' (rajanya). The Andronovo culture is believed to be the site of the first horse-drawn chariots. bali). and allusions to. was restricted to the Vratyas. Therefore. He collected taxes (originally ceremonial gifts. contain many elements inherited from pre-Vedic. Gana was the nonmonarchial assembly that is a parallel one to the monarchial assemblies of that period headed by Jyestha the same was referred in Buddhist text named Jettaka. to be even more ancient. A vish was a subdivision of a jana or "krishti". armed with bow and arrow. IndoAryan migration and Gandhara Grave culture related cultures remains controversial and politically charged in Indian society. Soldiers on foot (pattis) and on chariots (rathins). jati) Vedic Religious Practices Main articles: Historical Vedic religion. The Society was strictly organized in a system of four varna (classes.90. 1300 BCE. goddesses were often compared to cows. The status of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas was higher than that of the Vaishyas and Shudras. literature. and carrying out various types of rituals. Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic times. preserving the sacred texts. The economy was based on bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt or metals. The Vaishyas were pastoralists and farmers. war. Kshatriyas. Vedic astrology . and helped in maintaining law and order. The proper enunciation of verses in ritual was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and harvests. Families were patrilineal. Functioning as intellectual leadership. The concept of varna (class) and the rules of marriage were rigid as is evident from Vedic verses (RV 10. Kshatriyas helped in administering the polity. and gods to bulls. Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns. and many commissioned the performance of sacrifices. Malwa. religion and the environment. As the caste system became deep-rooted there were many restrictions and rules which were to be followed.Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli. Kshatriyas amassed wealth (cattle). In the Early Vedic Period all the three upper classes Brahmins. as in the fields of science. the Shudras were the lower class. and Vaishyas were considered as —relatively— equal Arya. they also restricted social mobility between the varnas. maintained the structure of society and the economy of a tribe. W. The Brahmins were specialized in creating poetry. but in the Later Vedic Age the Brahmins and Kshatriyas became upper class. to be distinguished from caste. they included artisans and were meant to serve the upper three classes [4]. Rau 1957). and people prayed for the abundance of sons. Agni (the sacrificial fire). in part with the exception of animal sacrifice. long life and gaining 'heaven'. Several changes went hand in hand with this. especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta tradition. The later Vedic period The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. but the Brahmanas. were also considered goddesses. especially Saraswati. The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant). which was mostly abandoned by the higher castes by the end of the Vedic period. along with later texts like Upanishads. Rivers. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible. Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. For instance. epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat). Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Vayu (the wind). People offered for abundance of rain. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction. the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the purohitas. The rishis. was continued in India until at least the 4th century AD and revived under Jay Singh in 1740 AD. cattle. further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun). The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra. Prithivi (the earth). Bhaga and Amsa. and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra-Varuna. several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance of land and long . Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn). partly under the influence of the Buddhist and Jain religions. The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture. strictly excluding the Sudras. a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas. singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of offering mantras (Yajus) . have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. in Rome and old Ireland. Śrauta means "what is heard"). These post-Vedic systems of thought. and their criticism of such practices[citation needed]. with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. The priests executed rituals for the three upper classes (varna) of Vedic society. both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism. sons. Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta. Aryaman. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas.The Vedic forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda. New Delhi.Falk. Paris. ^ V. 2005. Kutch. 1997b. EVJS Vol. http://www. The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. 97–265. Several functionaries. Kuiper. sarvabhauma (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin ('who moves the wheel'). Michael Witzel. ^ F. more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the Middle kingdoms of India known from historical sources.J. from ca. ^ H. for supreme dominance over other kings. See also • • • Vedic science Indus Valley Civilization History of India Notes 1. The power of the king and the Kshatriyas greatly increased. S. Aryan Books International. issue 2 (December) [1]. Kingdoms The late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas referred to in some of the literature. vajapeya (including a chariot race) and. took part. Staat und Gesellschaft.org/ebud/ebdha255. "Horse Remains from the Prehistoric Site of Surkotada. The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya (royal consecration).". Kocchar. Late 3rd Millennium BC. Gunasekara. Caillat.B. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler). B. The Homeland of the Aryans. in addition to the purohita and the senani. The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts. Bruderschaft udn Würfelspiel. pp. Rajesh. The Vedic people: their history and geography. Rau. The role of the people in political decision making and the status of the Vaishyas as such was greatly decreased. Selected Writings on Indian Linguistics and Philology. Further reading . Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology. 5 (1999).htm 2.budsas. The late Vedic period. South Asian Studies 13: 297-307. 406417 4. Hyderabad: Orient Longmans (1999).A.B. 1989. Michael Witzel. 1957 References • • • • • Bokonyi. ^ W. Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures IndoAryennes ed. Lal. the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). 500 BCE onward. Freiburg 1986 3.distance trade. see Brahman (disambiguation).Brahmana From Wikipedia. the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation. Part of a series on Hindu scriptures Vedas Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka · Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya · Kena · Maitri · Mundaka · Mandukya · Katha · Kaushitaki · Prashna · Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata · Ramayana Other scriptures . For other uses of this word and similar words. search This page deals with the Hindu theological texts. while the Vamsa Brahmana can be printed on a single page. the concept of Karma. sannyasi. including Hindu philosophy. with some of the younger Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana) overlapping with the Sutra period.[1] Historically. linguistics (Panini). geometry. 8th and 7th centuries BC. younger than the text of the samhitas (the mantra text of the Vedas proper) but for the most part older than the text of the Sutras. Each Vedic shakha (school) had its own Brahmana. six with the Yajurveda. astronomy. They are commentaries on the four Vedas.2 Yajurveda o 1.1 Rigveda o 1. predecessors of Vedanta. Contents [hide] • 1 List of Brahmanas o 1. dating to about the 6th century BC. Some Brahmanas contain sections that are Aranyakas or Upanishads in their own right. and it is not known how many of these texts existed during the Mahajanapadas period. the edition of the Shatapatha Brahmana fills five volumes of the Sacred Books of the East.3 Samaveda . or the stages in life such as brahmacarya. They vary greatly in length. this corresponds to the emergence of great kingdoms or Mahajanapadas out of the earlier tribal kingdoms during the later Vedic period. detailing the proper performance of rituals.Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Manu Smriti · Agama · Pancharatra · Tantra · Akilathirattu · Sūtra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Yoga Vasistha This box: view • talk • edit The Brāhma ṇ as (Devanagari: बाहणं) are part of the Hindu śruti literature. Additionally. there are a handful of fragmentarily preserved texts. grihastha and eventually. or about the 9th. The Brahmanas were seminal in the development of later Indian thought and scholarship. law. A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety: two associated with the Rigveda. It dates to the Iron Age. ten with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda. The language of the Brahmanas is a separate stage of Vedic Sanskrit. Madhyadina recension (SBM) o Kanva: Shatapatha Brahmana.• • o 1. Śādviṃśa Brahmana (ṢadvB) Samavidhana Brahmana Arseya Brahmana Devatadhyaya or Daivata Brahmana Shakdwipiya or Mag Brahman Mantra or Chandogya Brahmana (MB) Samhitopanisad Brahmana Vamsa Brahmana.4 Atharvaveda 2 References 3 External links [edit] List of Brahmanas Each Brahmana is associated with one of the four Vedas. and within the tradition of that Veda with a particular shakha or school: [edit] Rigveda • • Shakala shakha: Aitareya Brahmana. detailing successions of teachers and disciples. the Katha school has an additional fragmentary Brahmana (KathB) and Aranyaka (KathA) o Kapisthalakatha Samhita (KpS).) o (Caraka)Katha Samhita (KS). o Maitrayani Samhita (MS) and an Aranyaka (= accented Maitr.[4] Jaiminiya Brahmana (JB) . Kanva recension (SBK) [edit] Samaveda • • • • • • • • • Kauthuma: Tandyamaha or Pañcaviṃśa Brahmana (PB). The text consists of one short chapter.) White Yajurveda o Vajasaneyi Madhyandina: Shatapatha Brahmana. ŚānkhB)[3] [edit] Yajurveda • • In the Black Yajurveda. and a few fragments of its Brahmana o Taittiriya Samhita (TS). Up. the Brahmana text is integrated in the samhita. rarely also known as Ashvalayana Brahmana (AB)[2] Bashkala shakha: Kaushitaki Brahmana (also called Śāṅkhāyana Brahmana) (KB. The Taittiriya school has an additional Taittiriya Brahmana (TB) and Aranyaka (TA) as well as the late Vedic Vadhula Anvakhyana (Br. AO II. Sreekrishna Sarma. Introduction. Utrecht 1956. R. 108 (1964). Rigveda Brahmanas (1920). ^ "Vedic Samhitas and Brahmanas . Arthur Berriedale Keith.b) Strassburg 1899 [edit] External links • GRETIL etexts . Motilal Banarsidass (1963) E. 4. W. ^ ed. 1924. R. "Brāhmaṇas". 105 (1961).A popular. W. extracts from the commentaries and notes. AO IV. ^ Michael Witzel.• • Jaiminiya Arseya Brahmana Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (JUB) [edit] Atharvaveda • Paippalada: Gopatha Brahmana [edit] References 1. 1-65. A History of Sanskrit Literature.doc. Caland. 3-11. W. 106 (1962). comm. Bodewitz. 1928. Bodewitz. Appleton and company. Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures IndoAryennes ed. pp. Leiden 1973. B. 107 (1963). Bonn 1879. 1989. Banerjea. W.) Calcutta 1931. Leiden 1990. 104 (1960). Paris. 1-41. 161-213. ed. Repr. Caillat. Jaiminiya Brahmana I. Gaastra. Wiesbaden (1968. New York: D. 268-541] Caland. Delhi 1982. D. reprint: Motilal Banarsidass (1998) ISBN 978-8120813595.org/Vedic_SB_Intro. 113 (1969). brief introduction". http://www. 98 (1954). [= Vadhula Sutra and Brahmana fragments (Anvakhyana)].E. Acta Orientalia 1. M. 101 (1957). H.. (Bibliotheca Indica 255. C. Wiesbaden 1968. 1926. 97-241. 109 (1965). Das Gopatha Brahmana. PAPS 92 (1948). AO VI. TITUS etext 3. Mit Auszügen aus dem Commentare von Sayanacarya und anderen Beilagen. 142-167. Translation and commentary with a study of the Agnihotra and Pranagnihotra. 1976). Stuttgart 1990. Kauṣītaki-Brāhmaṇa. E. • • • • • • • • • • • • Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1900). 97–265. The Jyotistoma Ritual. Pancavimsa-Brahmana.66-364.1922. Das Aitareya Braahmana. Dumont. The Brahmana of twenty five chapters. Bollée. W. H. ^ Theodor Aufrecht. Sreekrishna Sarma.dharmicscriptures. [translations of sections of TB 3 ]. Sadvinsa-Brahmana. Eine zweite / dritte / vierte Mitteilung über das Vadhulasutra. Jaiminiya Brahmana I. 2. WItzel. translation and commentary. M.P. Introd. A. [= Kleine Schriften. transl. 103 (1959). Studies in the Brāhmaṇas.1. Leiden 1919 Bloomfield. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana (Grundriss der IndoArischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II. 95 (1951). Über das Vadhulasutra.. org/wiki/Brahmana" Categories: Brahmanas | Hindu texts | Sanskrit words and phrases Hidden categories: Articles containing Sanskrit language text Views • • • • Article Discussion Edit this page History Personal tools • • Try Beta Log in / create account Navigation • • • • • Search Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Interaction • • • • • • Toolbox • • • • • • About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Donate to Wikipedia Help What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Printable version Permanent link .Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia. See Terms of Use for details. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.. the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation. search This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation. Inc. additional terms may apply. (February 2008) Part of a series on Hindu scriptures .• Cite this page Languages • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Català Česky Deutsch Español Français िहनदी Lietuvių Magyar 日本語 Polski Português Русский Slovenčina Svenska Українська 中文 • • • • • This page was last modified on 25 November 2009 at 16:15. Contact us Privacy policy About Wikipedia DisclaAranyaka From Wikipedia. a nonprofit organization. Please improve this article if you can. Vedas Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka · Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya · Kena · Maitri · Mundaka · Mandukya · Katha · Kaushitaki · Prashna · Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata · Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Manu Smriti · Agama · Pancharatra · Tantra · Akilathirattu · Sūtra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Yoga Vasistha This box: view • talk • edit . They have also served as receptacles of later additions to the Vedic corpus. . they have nothing to do. "Aranyaka" (āraṇyaka) means "belonging to the wilderness" (araṇya).2 says. with Sannyasins or Vanaprasthas and they are not of "mystical" nature but very close to the Brahmanas proper. The Aranyakas are 'secret' in the sense that they are restricted to a particular class of rituals that nevertheless were frequently included in the Vedic curriculum that was primarily conveyed individually from teacher to student. that is. as Taitt.The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरणयक āraṇyaka) are part of the Hindu śruti.1 Aitareya Aranyaka o 1. Contents [hide] • • • • • 1 The Wilderness Books o 1. of which the last 6 are the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. these religious texts were composed in Late Vedic Sanskrit typical of the Brahmanas and early Upanishads.2 Taittiriya-Aranyaka o 1. indeed. However. • • • • • • Aitareya Aranyaka belongs to the Shakala Shakha of Rigveda Kaushitaki Aranyaka belongs to the Kaushitaki and Shankhayana Shakhas of Rigveda Taittiriya Aranyaka belongs to the Taittiriya Shakha of Krishna-Yajurveda Maitrayaniya Aranyaka belongs to the Maitrayaniya Shakha of Krishna-Yajurveda Katha Aranyaka belongs to the (Caraka)Katha Shakha of the Krishna-Yajurveda[1] Brihad-Aranyaka in the Madhyandina and the Kanva versions. They contain Brahmana-style discussion of especially dangerous rituals such as the Mahavrata and Pravargya. in the style of the Brahmanas and thus are primarily concerned with the proper performance of ritual. as later tradition has it.3 Shankhayana Aranyaka o 1.4 Brihad – Aranyaka 2 Rahasya Brahmanas 3 References 4 References 5 See also [edit] The Wilderness Books The Aranyakas discuss dangerous sacrifices. "from where one cannot see the roofs of the settlement". The M version has 8 sections. and therefore had to be learned in the wilderness. they frequently form part of either the Brahmanas or the Upanishads. The Aranyakas are associated with and named after individual Vedic shakhas.Ar. the four Vedas. Praana is Vama deva. 'Vishwa' indicates all the universe is the object of experience. This elaborates on the various ways – like pada-paatha. The first one deals with the regimen known as ‘Mahaa-vrata’. 'Vaama' indicates the respectfull attitude towards those to be worshipped and served. 2.of reciting the Vedas and the nuances of the ‘svaras’. etc. the Vital Air that constitutes the life-breath of a living body is also the life-breath of all mantras. The explanations are both ritualistic as well as absolutistic. The fourth and the fifth Aranyaka are technical and dwell respectively on the mantras known as ‘MahaanaamnI’ and the yajna known as ‘Madhyandina’. krama-paatha. Praana is Atri Maharishi.2 of aitareya Aranyaka). It is in this portion of the Aranyaka that one finds specific statements about how one who follows the vedic injunctions and performs the sacrifices goes to become the God of Fire. all vedas and all vedic declarations (cf. Praana is Vash ishta. Prana. a remnant of a larger Atharva (Paippalada) Brahmana. or the Sun or Air and how one who transgresses the vedic prescriptions is born into lower levels of being. In Aitareya Aranyaka. namely. The 4th. The third Aranyaka in this chain of Aranyakas is also known as ‘Samhitopanishad’. The second one has six chapters of which the first three are about ‘Praana-vidyaa’ – meaning. ‘Vas’ indicates the dwelling in this body of the senses made possible by praana. ‘Bhara’ denotes supporting and the ‘Vaaja’ indicates the mortal body.2. Praana is Bharad vaja. [edit] Aitareya Aranyaka There are five chapters each of which is even considered as a full Aranyaka. though one may regard the Gopatha Brahmana as its Aranyaka. Praana is worshipped in the form of the Rishis: Praana is Vishva mitra. ‘Traayate’ indicates the protection from sin. made mobile by the resident praana. as birds and reptiles. -.• • • Talavakara Aranyaka or Jaiminiya Upanisadbrahmana belongs to the Talavakara or Jaiminiya Shakha of Samaveda Aranyaka Samhita The Purvarchika of the Samaveda Samhitas have a section called the 'Aranyaka Samhita' on which the Aranyagana Samans are sung. The Atharvaveda has no surviving Aranyaka. 5th and 6th chapters of this second Aranyaka constitute what is known as Aitareya Upanishad. [edit] Taittiriya-Aranyaka . Chapter 9. Chapter 6. the cleansing homa-sacrifice or 'kushmanda-homa' are all treated in detail. Chapter 2. Vayu in Prana. the directions in the ears and water in the potency. with several important mantras culled from the three vedas. of which. In this chapter the word ‘shramana’ is used (2-7-1) in the meaning of a doer of penance (tapasvii). Chapter 8. is the second part of the well-known Taittiriya Upanishad. of the brahmin is extolled and elaborated here. is the third part of the well-known Taittiriya Upanishad. Chapter 7. All divine personalities are inherent in the Purusha. The sandhya worship. worship of the brahman through the brahma-yajna. Chapter 1. Chapter 4. Chapter 3. treats technicalities of several other homas and yajnas. the Sun in the eyes. one to six form the Aranyaka proper. says the Aranyaka. just as Agni in speech. [edit] Shankhayana Aranyaka There are fifteen chapters: Chapters 1-2 deal with the Mahavrata. recited on the occasion of. Chapter 5. the Moon in the mind. the worship of the manes.There are ten chapters. Chapter 10 deals with the esoteric implications of the agnihotra ritual. describes the five maha-yajnas that every brahmin has to do daily. Chapters 7-8 are known as a Samhitopanishad. is the famous Surya namaskara chapter. is the first part of the well-known Taittiriya Upanishad. The sacred thread. treats the yajnas in an academic analysis. the rituals for the disposal of the dead body. the yajnopavita. records the ‘pitr-medha’ mantras. Chapter 9 presents the greatness of Prana. this word came to mean in later times. is the Maha Naryana Upanishad. a recluse of the Buddhist and Jain religions. Chapter 10. Chapters 3-6 constitute the Kaushitaki Upanishad. The one who knows this. and in the strength of that conviction goes about . treats technicalities of homas and yajnas and has sections on mantras that may be used for averting (or causing !) havoc. New Delhi 1981 Taittiriya Aranyaka. Pune 1926. (cf.10-1). with Sayana Bhashya . translation. . . the Brahmana of secrets. B. Vishwa Prakashan (A unit of Wylie Eastern) 1994. It also details the effects of dreams. notes. self-control etc. The second mantra declares that one who does not get the meaning of mantras but only recites vedic chants is like an animal which does not know the value of the weight it carries. unpublished of the Sankhayana Aranyaka. Dr. [edit] Brihad – Aranyaka This is the famous Upanishad of that name. Suman Sharma. [edit] Rahasya Brahmanas There is also a certain continuity of the Aranyakas from the Brahmanas in the sense that the Aranyakas go into the meanings of the 'secret' rituals not detailed in the Brahmanas. Later tradition sees this as a leap into subtlety that provides the reason for Durgacharya in his commentary on the Nirukta to say that the Aranyakas are ‘Rahasya Brahmana’ . Chapter 15 gives a long genealogy of spiritual teachers from Brahma down to GunaSankhayana. Eastern Book Linkers. that is. One extols the “I am Brahman” mantra and says it is the apex of all Vedic mantras. The Self is the subject of discussion here from all aspects. Anandashram. satisfies all the gods and what he offers in the fire reaches those gods in heaven. Chapter 13 treats more philosophical matters and says one must first attitudinally discard one’s bodily attachment and then carry on the ‘shravana’. taking and giving. London 1909 o Arthur Berriedale Keith. faith. The Aitareya Aranyaka: Edited from the manuscripts in the India Office and the Library of the Royal Asiatic Society with introduction. Eastern Book Linkers (1995) ISBN 81-86339-14-0 Aitareya Aranyaka – A Study . Chapter 14 gives just two mantras. [edit] References • • • • Vaidik Sahitya aur Samskriti ka swarup (in Hindi) by Om Prakash Pande. walking. Chapter 11 prescribes several antidotes in the form of rituals for warding off death and sickness...eating. Keith. manana and nidhidhyasana and practise all the disciplines of penance. New Delhi .ISBN 81-7328-037-1 Aitareya Aranyaka – English Translation by A. For a complete discussion see Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad. Chapter 12 elaborates the fruits of prayer. These are the ten oldest Upanishads. predating Panini. approximately contemporary with the Bhagavad Gita (roughly dating to the period from the 4th century BC to the beginning of the Common Era. or "eminent". (AV) "The Breath of Life" 5. Bṛhadāraṇyaka (ŚYV) Linguistically. [edit] See also • Samanya Vedanta Upanishads Kalpa (Vedanga) . Chāndogya (SV) "Song and Sacrifice" 10. "chief". Also known as Dashopanishads. ISBN 81-212-0094-6 Michael Witzel. (ṚV) "The Microcosm of Man" 9. (ŚYV) "The Inner Ruler" 2. South Asia Books (1989). Kena (SV) "Who moves the world?" 3. these ten Mukhya Upanishads probably all predate the Common Era. SV. Taittirīya (KYV) "From Food to Joy" 8. roughly contemporary with Panini. ŚYV. the oldest of these (Bṛhadāraṇyaka. or the Mauryan period). Katha Aranyaka : Critical Edition with a Translation into German and an Introduction. Māṇḍūkya (AV) "Consciousness and its phases" 7. Aitareya. search The Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads is headed by 10 Mukhya Upanishads.• • B. and the youngest are in early Classical Sanskrit. known to and commented upon by the 9th century scholar Shankara. KYV. Īṣa. Mysticism and Symbolism in Aitareya and Taittiriya Aranyakas. Sanskrit mukhya means "principal". Chāndogya) belong to the "Brahmana" period of Vedic Sanskrit. Praṣna. Harvard Oriental Series. the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation.D. Muṇḍaka (AV) "Two modes of Knowing" 6. Harvard Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies (2005) ISBN 0-674-01806-0 Mukhya Upanishads From Wikipedia. A middle layer (Kaṭha) belongs to the "Sutra" period of late Vedic Sanskrit. and they are accepted as śruti by all Hindus. Dhawan. They are listed with their associated Veda (ṚV. AV): 1. Kaṭha (KYV) "Death as Teacher" 4. the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Shrauta Sutras) Jump to: navigation.From Wikipedia. search Part of a series on Hindu scriptures Vedas Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · Upanishad Upanishad Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka · Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya · Kena · Maitri · Mundaka · Mandukya · Katha · Kaushitaki · Prashna · Shvetashvatara Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa Itihasa Mahabharata · Ramayana Other scriptures Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Manu Smriti · Agama · . which treat customs and social duties. but sacrificial practice gave rise to a large number of systematic sutras for the several classes of priests. i. rules of the cord.. connected with simple offerings into the domestic fire. or domestic rules. usually called Parishishta (παραλιπομενα). The Kalpa-sutras. which treat of the measurement by means of cords.Pancharatra · Tantra · Akilathirattu · Sūtra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Yoga Vasistha This box: view • talk • edit Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga.e. Along with the Sutras may be classed a large number of supplementary treatises. and (2) the Dharmasutras. etc. namegiving. and have formed the chief sources of the later law-books. the Shrauta-sutras of the Yajurveda have usually include a set of so-called Shulva-sutras. which are based on the shruti. on various subjects connected with the sacred texts and Vedic religion generally. requiring three or five sacrificial fires. Tradition does not single out any special work in this branch of the Vedanga. Further. and (2) the Smartasutras. or rules of ceremonial. and the construction. The latter class again includes two kinds of treatises: (1) the Grhyasutras. are of two kinds: (1) the Shrautasutras. and they occupy by far the most prominent place among the literary productions of the sutra-period. or rules based on the smrti or tradition. of different kinds of altars required for sacrifices. treating the rites of passage. such as marriage. and teach the performance of the great sacrifices. Contents [hide] • • • • • • • 1 Shrauta Sutras 2 Grhya Sutras 3 Dharma Sutras 4 Shulba Sutras 5 Notes 6 References 7 See also [edit] Shrauta Sutras . A number of these works have come down to us. These treatises are of special interest as supplying important information regarding the earliest geometrical operations in India. treating ritual. birth. Their language is late Vedic Sanskrit.The Shrautasutras (śrautasūtra) form a part of the corpus of Sanskrit Sutra literature. contemporary with the Shrautasutras. Some early Shrautasutras were composed in the late Brahmana period (such as the Baudhyanana and Vadhula Sutras). dating to the middle of the first millennium BCE. Their topic are the instructions relating to the use of the shruti corpus in ritual ('kalpa') and the correct performance of rituals as such. their language being late Vedic Sanskrit. Veda R̥veda g Sāmaveda Śrautasûtra[1] Āśvalāyana Śrautasûtra Sāṅkhāyana Śrautasûtra Lātyāyana Śrautasûtra Drāhyāyana Śrautasûtra Jaiminiya Śrautasûtra Baudhāyana Śrautasûtra Vādhūla Śrautasûtra Mānava Śrautasûtra Bharadvāja Śrautasûtra Āpastamba Śrautasûtra Hiraṅyakeśi Śrautasûtra Vārāha Śrautasûtra Vaikhānasa Śrautasûtra Kātyāyana Śrautasûtra Vaitāna Śrautasûtra Kr̥na Yajurveda s Śukla Yajurveda Atharvaveda [edit] Grhya Sutras The Grhya Sutras "domestic sutras" are a category of Sanskrit texts prescribing Vedic ritual. but the bulk of the Shrautasutras are roughly contemporary to the Grhya corpus of domestic Sutras. Veda R̥veda g Gr̥ yasûtra[1] h Âśvalâyana-Grhyasûtra Kausîtaki-Grhyasûtra Śāṅkhāyana-Gr̥yasūtra [1] h Gobhila-Grhyasûtra Khâdira-Grhyasûtra (Drâhyâyana-Grhyasûtra) Jaiminiya-Grhyasûtra Kauthuma-Grhyasûtra Baudhâyana-Grhyasûtra Hiraṇyakeśi-Grhyasūtra (Satyâsâdha-Grhyasûtra) [2] Mânava-Grhyasûtra Sâmaveda Kr̥na Yajurveda s . They are named after Vedic shakhas. and they date to around roughly 500 BCE. generally predating Panini). mainly relating to rites of passage. ^ a b c d Kochar. 2000.Śukla Yajurveda Atharvaveda Bhâradvâja-Grhyasûtra Âpastamba-Grhyasûtra Âgniveśya-Grhyasûtra Vaikhânasa-Grhyasûtra Kâthaka-Grhyasûtra (Laugâksi-Grhyasûtra) Vârâha-Grhyasûtra Vâdhûla-Grhyasûtra Kapisthala-Katha Grhyasûtra (unpublished) Kâtyâyana Grhyasûtra (different from Pâraskara-Grhyasûtra) Pâraskara-Grhyasûtra Kauśika Grhyasûtra [edit] Dharma Sutras The Dharmasutras are Sanskrit texts dealing with custom. The oldest Dharmasutra is generally believed to have been that of Apastamba. Unlike the later Dharmashastra. the dharmasutras are composed in prose. They include the four surviving written works of the ancient Indian tradition on the subject of dharma. Baudhayana. Orient Longman. Brhaspati. and Ushanas. p. followed by the dharmasutras of Gautama. It is difficult to determine exact dates for these texts. ISBN 81 250 1080 7. or the rules of behavior recognized by a community. Later Dharmasutras include those of Kasyapa. but the dates between 500-300 BCE have been suggested for the oldest Dharmasutras. Veda R̥veda g Sāmaveda Kr̥na Yajurveda s Dharmasûtra[1] Vasishtha Dharmasûtra Gautama Dharmasûtra Baudhāyana Dharmasûtra Āpastamba Dharmasûtra [edit] Shulba Sutras The Śulbasûtra that deal with laying out the offering ground and altar geometry are part of the Shrauta Sutras. Rajesh Vedic People:Their History and Geography.18 . rituals and law. Veda Kr̥na Yajurveda s Śukla Yajurveda Śulbasûtra[1] Baudhāyana Śulbasûtra Mānava Śulbasûtra Āpastamba Śulbasûtra Kātyāyana Śulbasûtra [edit] Notes 1. and an early version of Vasishtha. New Delhi. the Jain Scriptures Mimamsa orthopraxy [hide] v•d•e Hinduism Sruti · Smriti · Denominations · Deities · Gurus and saints · Schools · Karma / Dharma · Moksha · Yoga · Mantras · Jyotish / Ayurveda Portal Retrieved from "http://en. [edit] See also • • • Kalpasutra (Jain) . Eleventh Edition.[edit] References • Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna Dhallapiccola This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica. a publication now in the public domain.org/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" Categories: Vedangas | Ritual | Hindu texts | Sanskrit w .wikipedia.