Vaikhanasa Agama

Tantra – Agama – Part four – Vaikhanasa continued12 Oct Continued from Part Three Vaikhanasa Literature- continued 68.1. Vaikhanasa-kalpa –sutra ascribed to Sage Vaikhanasa and the various texts collectively called Vaikhanasa Shastra composed by his four disciples are together taken to be the cannon of the Vaikhanasa tradition. Scholars date these texts as being around third or fourth century. But, the next significant reference to Vaikhanasas appears in the inscriptions dated around ninth century (during the time of Raja Raja Chola).The developments, if any, within the Vaikhanasa tradition between the period of the Vaikhanasa Shastra and the ninth century are rather hazy and virtually unknown. It was only after this period that a number of significant texts were produced detailing temple and domestic rituals. The authors of these texts were mostly the temple priests serving at the major Vishnu temples following the Vaikhanasa mode of worship. 68.2. The reasons for recording those texts appear to be two-fold. One, to prescribe in detail and to establish temple–worship sequences and procedures; and the other to assert and defend the identity of the Vaikhanasa tradition in the face of the challenges it was facing from the Sri Vaishnava sect that was beginning to gain ascendency. 68.3. By about the 11th century, Sri Vaishnavas established themselves as the dominant sect among the Vaishnavas. And, their way of worship (pancharatra) took charge of most Vaishnava temples in South India, and made it open to a larger participation by larger segments of the community. As a result of this development, the Vaikhanasas, rooted in orthodoxy, appeared to have been increasingly marginalized as temple priests. In order to distinguish themselves and to assert their identity as hereditary temple ritual- specialists following the pristine Vedic practices they interpreted certain pre-natal rituals (say, Vishnu –Bali) to serve as the boundaries of their group. those set of rituals and the texts that highlighted the superiority of Vaikhanasa parampara, pantha (tradition) and its siddantha (ideology) attempted to transform the self perception of a close knit group of priestly class placed in a fluid historical and local setting. 69.1. The Vaikhanasas scholars of this period strove to define and defend their unique identity through their unique practices, and by means of their texts on temple worship rituals and the domestic rituals. Among these, Nrsimha Vajapeyin, Bhatta Bhaskaracharya, Anantacharya and above all Sreenivasa-makhin are prominent. 69.2. Nrsimha Vajapeyin (described as the disciple of Varadacharya and son of Madhavacharya) is held in high regard as a great scholar well versed in Vedic srauta rituals (he having performed the Vajapeya yajna), in Vaikhanasa temple worship-rituals, and in Tantra-mantra shastra. His Bhagavad – archa – prakarana details the daily worship procedures at the temple. He also prepared an elaborate and an excellent gloss on the seven chapters of Grihya – sutra, three chapters of Dharma –sutra and on the one chapter of Pravara – sutra. Nrsimha Vajapeyin‘s gloss provides main framework for the elaborations in the later texts. It also lucidly presents the significant aspects of temple-worship sequences, in concise form. 69.3. His disciple, Bhatta Bhaskaracharya wrote commentaries on Daivikaand Manusha sutras and also on Khila (appendix) mantras of Rig-Veda. 69.4. However, the most prolific writer among them was Sreenivasa-makhin (also known as Sreenivasa Dikshita or Sreenivasa-adhvari) hailed as ‗the Vedanta Deshika of Vaikhanasas‘. He enjoys a preeminent position in the Vaikhanasa lore. It is said; he was the son of Govindacharya and Rukminiyamma of Vaikhanasa Brahmin family of Kaushika gotra. He was born at Venkatachala (Vrsagiri), the present Tirumala. Sreenivasa-makhin served as the priest in the temple of Sri Venkateshwara on the Tirumala hills. He is said to have lived after Nrsimha Vajapeyin, Bhatta Bhaskara and Anantacharya. And, his period is said to be around the 1112th century. 69.5. Sreenivasa-makhin in his famous work Dasha – vidha – hetu-nirupana , the descriptions of the tenfold reasons (or arguments why Vaikhanasas are superior) outlines the situation of the Vaikhanasas as obtaining and provides the strategies to establish the superiority of Vaikhanasas over rival traditions, the Vaishnava sects in particular. Dasha – vidha – hetu – nirupana, perhaps, came about as a reaction to the perceived threats from the more aggressive Pancharatra sect, which at that time was gathering strength and gaining ascendency. 70.1. Dasha – vidha – hetu – nirupana emphasized the merits of Vaikhanasa tradition, highlighting its distinctive features and merits; demarcated Vaikhanasa from the rival traditions, particularly the Pancharatra; and put forth elaborate reasons why Vaikhanasa is superior to other traditions. 70.2. At the commencement of the text (2. 5 -9) Sreenivasa-makhin presents in abstract form ten reasons why Vaikhanasa is superior to other traditions: (i) Vaikhanasa-sutra is established by Sage Vaikhana an incarnate Vishnu who is the cause of the world; (ii) it is the first among all the sutras; (iii) it follows the ways of Sruti (Vedas) in all its ritual-actions;(iv) it encases all its ritual-actions in Vedic mantras; (v) it has niseka as its first life-cycle ritual; (vi)it prescribes eighteen kinds of bodily life-cycle rituals (samakaras) that purify body and mind ; (vii) it presents unity of ritual-actions and their associated components ; (viii) it is accepted by Manu and other Sutra-kaaras; (ix) it extols the absolute supremacy of the glorious Narayana who is the only cause of the entire universe; and (x) those who ardently follow the Vaikhanasa dharma as expounded in its sutra are dearest to the adorable Narayana. 70.3. Sreenivasa-makhin cites, in support of his arguments, passages from various Grihya and Dharma sutras, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Upanishads, Puranas and various other texts that are generally held in acclaim. He says the worship at home (griha – archa) which is done for securing individual and family welfare; and worship in temple (alaya -archa) which is done for the good of the whole community are both important. But, for icon-worship the temple is said to be the most suitable place. 70.4. The central issue that runs through Dasha-vidha–hetu-nirupana is establishing the eligibility (adhikara) of the Vaikhanasas, gained by birth, to act as temple- priests (archaka) in Vishnu temples, to worship on behalf of the devotees, and to mediate between god and the devotees. Sreenivasa-makhin argues that the Vaikhanasa worship of the deity installed in temples is for the good of all (sarve janah): the individual, the community (loka), the state (rastra), the glory of the ruler (rajan) and the welfare of the ruled (praja). It prays for timely rains, for abundance of food, the well being of the animals (dvi pade, chatush pade) and of the whole of nature. The worship of the deity installed at the temple is thus benign (soumya) and beneficial/auspicious (Sri Kara) to all. It contributes to the spiritual uplift of all the worshiping devotees. This worship is regarded as Kriya-yoga. 70.5. Sreenivasa-makhin explains that the Vaikhanasa tradition accommodates those who prefer to worship the form-less (amurtha-archana) through yajna, as also those who worship Vishnu through his icon (samurtha – bhagavad – yajna). It is explained; the two are not substantially different. Yet; according to Sreenivasa-makhin, in the present age of Kali the Agama inspired worship is most suitable, since the srauta and smarta rituals are beyond the capability of most of the people. He however adds; the temple must be properly constructed; the and the icon appropriately installed in it; and it should be effectively consecrated. The worship should be carried out with single-minded devotion by priests well trained in conducting worship – sequences. 71.1. Among the other Vaikhanasa texts, the significant ones is, Archana – navanita (the essence of worship) by Keshavacharya who also prepared a gloss (vritti) on Vedanta Sutras of Badarayana, from the standpoint of view of Lakshmi-vishitadvaita. As mentioned earlier, Bhaskara Bhattacharya a disciple of Nrsimha Yajapeyin wrote commentaries on Daivika and Manusha sutras. And, Prayoga –vidhi on procedural aspects of icon worship by Sundara-raja, a writer of later period, is well known. 71.2. One work that includes much of the older material is the renowned Vaikhanasa-mantra – prashnam (daivikacatustyam) or Mantra Samhita. This book contains all the Vedic mantras needed in temple –worship rituals. Most of these are taken from Yajur Veda .The first half (Ch. 1 – 4) contain mantras of Grihyasutra. The second half called daivikacatustyam (Ch 5 – 8) includes portions relating to temple-ritual taken from the handbooks of the four rishis: Atri, Bhrgu, Kashyapa and Marichi. Vaikhanasa Philosophy 72.1. Vaikhanasa is essentially a religious system that preaches worship of Vishnu-icon with devotion and a sense of complete surrender. Its texts are primarily ritual texts (prayoga shastra) containing elaborate discussions on various layers of temples-worship-sequences and their significance; as also instructions on practical aspects concerning yajnas and domestic ritual procedures. The major thrust of Vaikhanasa texts is to provide clear, comprehensive and detailed guidelines for Vishnu worship. The jnana-paada segment of Vaikhanasa Agama texts is , therefore, rather brief as compared to discussion on rituals. It does not go about setting out a detailed philosophical doctrine of its own. However, Vaikhanasa, Surely, prescribes its way of life (dharma) and its outlook (darshana) on God, Man and the relation between the two; and the ways that lead Man towards God. 72.2. During the medieval periods, the Vaikhanasa scholars, most of whom were temple-priests, provided a philosophical basis for worshipping Vishnu icons installed in temples; and to harmonize icon-worship with the Vedic practices of performing Yajnas. These works derive their authority from the Kalpa-sutra of Sage Vaikhana and the Vaikhanasa Shastra texts composed by his four disciples. 72.3. Sreenivasa–makhin, a Vaikhanasa Acharya, produced several works bringing out the characteristic features of Vaikhanasa philosophy. Among his works of this genre, the better known are: Lakshmi- vishistadvaita–bhashya; Vaikhanasa–mahima-manjari; and paramathmika – Upanishad – bhashya. Another author who attempted a clear presentation of Vaikhanasa philosophy was Raghupathi – Bhattacharya (also known as Vasudeva). His work Mokshopaayapradipika spread over twelve chapters discusses the nature of Brahman, the ways of attaining Brahman in his manifest form through worship rendered with intense devotion and a sense of absolute surrender (prapatti – purvaka – bhagavad – aaradhanam). Raghupathi – Bhattacharya explains the Vaikhanasa doctrine employing the terms of Samkhya ideology. And, his work is seen by some as an attempt to bring about a sort of rapprochement between Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra traditions. 73.1. Sreenivasa-makhin in his Lakshmi – vishistadvaita- bhashya, which is a commentary on Badarayana‘s Brahma sutras, states that Vishnu alone is the highest Reality (eka eva paratattvah). Both the authors, Sreenivasa – makhin (Tatparya chintamani) and Raghupathi Bhattacharya, explain that Brahman (Narayana) the Paramatman is of dual nature. He is visible and invisible; perfectly bright and pure; immutable. He is both nishkala (devoid of forms and attributes) and sakala (with forms and attributes). The two aspects, truly, are one; and are inseparable. The former aspect (nishkala) is all-inclusive. It pervades everything, in and out, like ghee in milk, oil in sesame seed, fragrance in flower, juice in the fruit and fire in the wood. It has the nature of space (akasha) in which everything resides; and which resides in everything. That precisely is the nature of Vishnu (vyapanath Vishnuh) who permeates the entire existence. Because of being extremely subtle, he cannot be described as real or unreal. 73.2. Vimanarchana – kalpa ascribed to Sage Marichi mentions that Vishnu may be approached in one of the four ways: recitation / repetition of the sacred name of Vishnu (japa), attentive repetition of prayer; huta, sacrifice; arcana, service to images, or dhyana, yogic meditation. Of the four, the Marichi Samhita says, archana leads to the realisation of all aims. 73.3. Further it is said; the worship of the Vishnu can be either internal (antaryaga) or external (bahiryaga). The Grihya sutras explain: the Godhead is formless –nishkala; perfectly pure and bright filled with lustre tejomaya; beyond comprehension achintya; and is of the nature of pure existence, consciousness and bliss sat-chit-ananda; and abides in the heart-lotus – hridayakamala - of the devotee. But, because of the limitations of the human mind the worship of Brahman –without form, nishkala, is beyond the capability of us who live ordinary lives. The human mind finds it easier to deal with forms, shapes and attributes than with the formless absolute. And therefore, when an icon is properly installed and consecrated; and it is worshipped with love and reverence, a sense of devotion arises from within and envelops the mind and heart of the worshipper. By constant attention to the icon, by seeing it again and again and by offering it various services of devotional worship, icon that is beautiful will engage the mind and delight the heart of the devotee. Enlivened by loving worship, devotion, and absolute surrender (parapatti) , the icon will no longer be just a symbol. The icon invested with love and devotion will be transformed into a true divine manifestation. And, its worship ensures our good here (aihika) and also our ultimate good or emancipation (amusmika). The archa with devotion is therefore the best form of worship. And, Archa is dearer to Vishnu. 73.4. That is the reason, though the nishkala aspect is the ultimate, the worship of Vishnuicon (samurtha-archana) with devotion is recommended as the best way for all, especially for those involved in the transactional world. Yet, the devotee must progressively move from gross sthula towards the subtle sukshma. 74.1. Vishnu‘s visista (aspected) nature becomes manifest when the devotees churn him within their hearts by contemplation and devotion. It is like igniting fire by churning the wood. And, like sparks that fly from the burning fire, Vishnu shines forth in varieties of forms. He appears variously, to satisfy the aspirations of the devotee. Vishnu who is all-pervasive now becomes manifest in all his splendour. This is the Sakala aspect of Vishnu. The devotees must visualize, invoke and worship his divine form (divya mangala vigraha). 74.2. When Vishnu is visualized as a worship-worthy icon, he usually is imagined in a human form with distinguishable features (sakala). Vishnu‘s form, seen in mind‘s eye, for contemplation (dhyana) and worship (archa) is four armed, carrying shanka, chakra, gadha and padma. His countenance is beatific radiating peace and joy (saumya), delight to behold soumya-priya-darshana, his complexion is rosy pink wearing golden lustrous garment (pitambara). To meditate upon a beautiful image of Vishnu with a delightful smiling countenance and graceful looks is the greatest blessing. 75.1. Sreenivasa-makhin in his Lakshmi – vishistadvaita- bhashya, explains that Vishnu the highest Reality (eka eva para-tattvah) is distinguished by Lakshmi (Lakshmi – visistaNarayanah). Isvara associated with Lakshmi (Lakshmi visita isvara tattvam) is Vishnu. Lakshmi (Sri) is not as an independent reality (tattva) but is an aspect that is inseparable from Vishnu (Srisa or Narayana), like moon and moonlight. Vishnu‘s power (maya) and splendour is Sri (Lakshmi); and, she is mula-prakrti the original source of energy and power (shakthi) that enlivens all existence. She is the cause of all actions by all beings. 75.2. Vishnu is Purusha and Lakshmi is Prakrti; the whole of existence proceeds from the union of the two. And, Purusha abiding in Prakrti experiences the qualities that result from Prakrti. The Vaikhanasa, therefore, calls its ideology as Lakshmi-visita-advaita (the advaita, non-duality); and its doctrine of Isvara associated with Lakshmi as Lakshmi visita isvara tattvam. Satya with Jnana (wisdom).2. This is the notion of chatur-murti. as Satya. 77. 76. then the four aspects are regarded as components of that single unit. Purusha is identified with Dharma (virtue). The highest of which is parama pada. But. Lakshmi is inseparable from Vishnu. Satya. As said. Further. Vaikunta the abode of Vishnu (Vishnod paramam padam). then we have the pancha-murti concept. Lakshmi and Ma-kara. Vishnu is also counted along with the other four. The non-duality (advaita) refers to the unity of Vishnu with Lakshmi. and Aniruddha with vairagya (dispassion). the one who pervades all existence and in whom everything resides. chatur-murti.4.1. the devotee. The four virtues or planes of Vishnu are also regarded the four quarters (pada) of Brahman: aamoda. 76.are the four stages of emanations of Vishnu. According to Vaikhanasa ideology. Aniruddha to the North (pragadi chatur – dikshu). Acchuta with Aishvarya (sovereignty). the first four forms of icons.2. For.] 77. . as Acyuta the time-invariant aspect of all matter. the four aspects of Vishnu Purusha. [If Vishnu is considered as the primary deity Adi-murti. the Vaikhanasas evolved the theory of the five aspects (swarupas): of Godhead: Vishnu as sarva vyapin. the four aspects of Vishnu are visualized as four deities located around the main icon of Vishnu: Purusha to the East.] 75. O-kara represents Vishnu. as Aniruddha the ultimate constituent of all existence. 77. Satya to the South. Lakshmi leads the devotee to the grace of Narayana. If Vishnu (purusha) grants release from the phenomenal fetters (Mukthi). and. In other words.3. If on the other hand. The two must be worshipped together. in his sakala form. and. 76. Sreenivasa –-makhin explains that in the Pranava (Om-kara). sammoda and vaikuntaloka (sayujya) . U—Kara. the sakala aspect is brilliant. In the Vaikhanasa temple layout. Those devoted to him are Vaishnavas. the worship of Narayana alone or the worship of Lakshmi separately is not suggested. Vishnu responds most gracefully to devotional worship and contemplation.[The Lakshmi-Visita-advaita varies significantly from the philosophical and religious positions taken by Sri Ramanuja in his Sri Bhashya. The proper worship is the worship of Narayana with Sri or Lakshmi as his aspect (visista). are regarded important. 77. Lakshmi (Prakrti) presides over bhukthi the fulfilment of normal aspirations in one‘s life.3. the principle of life. as Purusha the pure consciousness.1. that which sustains the universe. Acchuta to the West. pramoda. In this scheme. The Ultimate Reality is Vishnu with Sri.3. Lakshmi (U-kara) bridges the transcendental Narayana the Supreme Self and the individual soul (pratyagatma). For the purpose of devotion and worship. The sakala aspect is the excellent form of Vishnu in association with Lakshmi (Sri) who is Prakrti the shakthi of Vishnu. Achyuta and Aniruddha. The Om-kara binds the three together. Therefore. the Snapanabera (usually made of metal and smaller than Kautuka) receives ceremonial bath (abhisheka) and the occasional ritual. The other images in the temple which are worshipped each day during the ritual sequences are but the variations of the original icon (adi-murti). Just as the Vishnu of Rig-Veda takes three strides (trini pada vi-chakrama Vishnuh). Satya by Utsava bera. the immovable (Dhruva-bimba or dhruva-bera) main idol that is installed in the sanctum and to which main worship is offered (archa-murti) represents the primary aspect of the deity known as Vishnu (Vishnu-tattva).worship sequences(naimitta-archana). each stage being designated a plane of Vishnu-experience Vaishnava-ananda. around the central shrine when food offerings are made to Indra and other devas. and for leading the individual to Vishnu‘s grace. To put these together in a combined form:  The main idol (Dhruva-bera) which is immovable represents Vishnu (Vishnu-tattva).associated with Purusha. on occasions when a movable icon is used for daily worship. daily .4. and. in successive stages. The highest plane is vaikunta loka where the individual jiva experiences the supreme joy of union with the Godhead Vyapinarayana (sayujya) . and to all the elements. each form is accorded a specific location. successively away from the Dhruva bera. These other forms are emanations of the main idol.3.5. and Aniruddha by Bali bera.1. the Utsavabera ( always made of metal ) is for festive occasions and for taking out in processions . 78. the main idol (Dhruva – bera) installed in the temple too takes three forms which are represented by Kautuka-bera. copper. as well as to Jaya and Vijaya the doorkeepers of the Lord . silver. In the Vaikhanasa temple. The Kautuka –bera (usually made of gems. stone. These five forms together make Pancha bera or Pancha murti. 78. special rituals. within the temple complex. .associated with Aniruddha. And. To this. Snapana-bera and Utsava-bera. The stage higher than that is saamoda where the jiva experiences the joy of obtaining the same form as the Godhead sadaa-Vishnu (sa-rupya) –associated with Satya. The first stage is aamoda where the jiva experiences the pleasure of residing in the same plane as the Godhead is Vishnu (saalokya). And again it is said. Purusha is symbolized by Kautuka bera. gold or wood and about 1/3 to 5/9 the size of the Dhruva-bera)receives all the daily worship(nitya-archana). Its faith is that when the individual jiva that frees itself from the fetters of the transactional world enters into the sphere of Vishnu vishnuloka through four successive stages. And. it is known as Bhoga-bera. The next stage is pramoda where the jiva experiences the great delight of residing in proximity to with the Godhead Maha-vishnu (saamipya)-associated with Acchyuta.2. 78. Acchuta by Snapana bera. and processions and for food-offering. another icon is added . 78.] 78.[The Vaikhanasa regard the icon worship as the royal way for achieving emancipation from the worldly confines.This is Bali – bera ( always made of shiny metal) taken out . As said earlier. the third stride is that when the Utsava-bera is taken out in processions. water. Achyuta symbolized by Snapana-bera emanates from Satya represented by Utsavabera. Further it is explained.-bera. 79. Kautuka. Achyuta and Aniruddha. And. And.1. the tejas of the main idol moves into the Snapana-bera which is placed in the bathing-enclosure (snapana –mantapa). and is an exact replica of the Dhruva-bimba. does not move about. Achyuta and Aniruddha. Dhruva–bimba. These in turn are compared to the primary elements (earth. it is placed farthest from the Dhruva-bhera residing in the sanctum. the cause of all existence and it is beyond intellect. Satya symbolized by Utsava-bera (processional deity) emanates from Purusha represented Kautuka-bera. Antaryamin is the inbeing who resides as jiva in . that again was rendered into five types of temple deities as pancha-bera: Dhruva. anvaharya. Vibhava represent the Avatars for destroying the evil. Utsava and Bali. dakshinAgni. Vyuha. In Marichi‘s Vimana-archa-kalpa the five forms. vyana. it is placed outside the sanctum in snapana-mantapam enclosure. apana. Of these. and are interesting. the comparison is extended to five vital currents (prana. Snapana. and. Utsava-bera is placed in the next pavilion outside the sanctum. air. The food offerings are submitted to Balibera. and space). the spirit (tejas) of the main idol moves into the Kautuka.Again. Para is the absolute form. Purusha. The main icon represents Vishnu who is all-pervasive. the ceremonial bath.3. uplifting the virtuous and maintain balance in the world. Kautukabera is next in importance. Vibhava. ahavaniya. This is the second stride taken by Vishnu. And. Vyuha are the emanations from Para for sustaining creation. the Vaikhanasa worship-tradition retained the concept of PanchaAgni. udana and samana). Satya. The Vyuha. Satya. assumes five worship-worthy forms: Vishnu. which rests on the worship pedestal (archa-pitha). And. Symbolisms 79. Antaryamin and Archa. The symbolisms associated with the four murtis (chatur-murti) are many. but. fire. at the time of offering ritual bath. [The Vaikhanasa concept of five forms of Godhead parallels with that of Pancharatara which speaks of: Para. And. it is placed in the sanctum very close to Dhruva bera. This is when the tejas of the Main idol reaches out to all. These different icons are not viewed as separate or independent deities. Purusha. Snapana-bera receives Abhisheka. This is the first stride of Vishnu.2. Aniruddhda symbolized by Bali-bera emanates from Achyuta represented by Snapanabera. the four are said to compare with the strides taken by Vishnu/Trivikrama. in turn. but are understood as emanations from the original icon. the panchamurti (when Vishnu is also counted along with the other four forms) are compared to five types of Vedic sacred fires (pancha-agni): garhapatya.    Purusha symbolized by Kautuka-bera is an emanation of the Dhruva-bera. five types of icons. When the worship sequences are conducted. 79. and sabhya. but transformed them into five representations of Vishnu (pancha –murthi): Vishnu. 3.3. And. how the followers of a Vedic branch rooted in Vedic rituals turned into a community of temple priests. 80. the form which protects the devotees and eliminates their sorrows. as a priest. the Vaikhanasas produced many texts on temple –rituals as also prescribed domestic rituals for governing the conduct of their followers. This distinction seems to have come about following the proliferation of temples and with the advent of temple-worship-culture. Thereafter. They are not referred to as professional temple-priests. 81. The earliest Vaikhanasas are projected as a group of hermits affiliated to Krishna Yajurveda . It was seen as an act of devotion and also as duty 81. and the time of the inscriptions) is rather hazy. and it is for the upliftment of self (atmartha). Archa is the most easily accessible form. before he sets out to temple to conduct worship there (parartha) as a priest employed by the temple management. The Vaikhanasa treat the worship at home (atmartha) as more important than worship at the temple.] Vaikhanasa –Temple context 80. After they were established as temple priests. Though the Vaikhanas texts of the later period claim that they derive their authority from the Kalpasutra and also make frequent references to Vedic passages. And.Taittiriya Shakha. of course. And. he is not seeking spiritual benefits for self. there is no mention of temples either.all creatures. the worship at temple appears to have come as a departure from the practice of worship at home. It is mainly for the fulfilment of the desires of those who pray at the temple. The Vaikhanasas make a clear distinction between the worship carried out at home (grihaarchana) and the worship carried out as a priest at a temple (alaya-archana) for which he gets paid. But. But. while he carries out worship at the temple. on the other hand. they gain prominence not only as ritual-specialists who worship Vishnu on behalf of others but also as administrators of temples and managers of its estates. having their own Kalpa-sutra and deeply devoted to worship of Vishnu.2. by about the ninth century (during the time of Raja Raja Chola) they are largely identified as a community of temple priests. he conveys the prayers of the worshipping devotees to the god installed at the temple. they are mostly temple ritual-manuals elaborating upon details of worship sequences carried out in temples. 80.2. the history of the Vaikhanasas during the intervening period (that is. The worship at home performed dutifully is motivated by desire for spiritual attainments (Sakshepa). 81. Rig Vedic culture was centred on home and worship at home.Here. before 3rd or 4th century.1. .1. and offers worship on their behalf (parartha). And. Through these texts and ritual practices they aimed to distinguish themselves from other ritual traditions as also from other Vaishnavas. A Vaikhanasa-priest is therefore required to worship the deities at his home. This is the form that is worshipped in the temples. but is only discharging his duty (nirakshepa). between the time of Kalpa sutra. it is not clear. And. 82. that which is concerned with what is ‗superior‘ or ‗excellent‘. and who is hired to perform worship. and. or acts in a way contrary to their spirit‘.81.Grihya sutra and Dharma –sutra. truly is ‗parartha-yajna’. It is said. it also needs to be mentioned that the status of temple-priests in the Indian context has always been an uncomfortable issue and a dicey proposition. Further. therefore.2. Having said all that.4. The implication is that.5. a Vaikhanasa priest worshipping Vishnu in temple and accepting remuneration there for. the term ‗parartha‘ which ordinarily means worship on behalf of others. However. There is an alternate explanation offered to the term parartha. crystallysized into a close knit in-group with its own ethos and attitudes. cannot in any manner be equated with a Devalaka (Dashavidha-hetu-nirupanam. He worships Vishnu according to Vedic traditions. and offers worship on behalf of the devotees. with the social and economic pressures and with a dire need to earn a living. Sreenivasa –makhin argues vigorously why the term ‗Devalaka‘ should not be slapped on the hereditary Vaikhanasa temple priests. And. And. But. a born-priest (janmathah – archaka) is guided by Vaikhanasa. a person who receives remuneration for worshipping a deity is not held in high esteem. The standing of a temple priest is high insofar as he acts as an intermediary between devotees and god. their practice of receiving gifts which are ritually ‗polluting‘ is also not viewed with favour.‖ That perhaps led to a sort of social prejudices and discriminations among the priestly class. He draws a distinction between a Devalaka and an Archaka who is guided by Vaikhanasa. he provides an alternate interpretation to the term to mean: ‗one who carries out acts not prescribed by Sruti or Smrti. their practice of accepting payment for worship god is rather looked down. is not motivated or distracted by material or personal desires.5-6). which are within the orthodox Vedic . while the priest accepts the gifts he also takes upon himself the impurities of the giver. The old texts sneer at a person ―displaying icons to eke out a living. Sreenivasa–makhin explains: Vaikhanasa. But. Further. naturally. 65. These indeed are the prime characteristics of a true Vaikhanasa– Archaka. Worshipping divine images installed in temples is like the sun which illumines the entire world. and that which prays for the wellbeing of the entire community. 82. Sreenivasa –makhin does not question the traditional definition of Devalaka and its negative import.Grihya sutra and Dharma –sutra. he excludes Vaikhanasas from the scope of the term Devalaka. it is just incidental to his main purpose of his life. 82.4. Traditionally. 82. That is perhaps because. for the reason that Vaikhanasas are indeed the ‗servants of god‘ and are born for the sole purpose of offering worship to Vishnu. the social rank of the priestly class among orthodox Brahmins is not high. a distinct class of temple-priests. parartha worship leads to final liberation. and is not considered virtuous.3. with the change of times.1. When a Vaikhanasa priest accepts remuneration for his priestly duties. 82. Devalaka is a term used in the old texts as a derogatory reference to a person who is ‗desirous of money‘. Following that interpretation. while worship at home is like a domestic lamp. Their loving devotion (bhakthi) towards Vishnu is free from pride or greed. the Atma sukta is particularly unique to the Vaikhanasa paddathi of worship ATMA SUKTA 84. or.14). Depending on the ritual being performed. The Vaikhanasa community is regarded orthodox for yet another reason. Narayana. various panca suktam or sets of five suktams are recited. The guidelines that Vaikhanasas texts frequently refer to are neither static nor closed systems. The Vaikhanasa worship is considered more Vedic. one should recognize that in the present-day the temples are public places of worship and the priests are professionals trained and specialized in their discipline. There is absolutely no justification for looking down upon the priestly class or their profession. sustains and carries forward the life and existence of the society.6. Purusha. He undergoes several samskaras (life-cycle-rituals) . 83. Among these suktas. therefore.Grihya –sutra: 3. to his guru and to his society. The worship of Vishnu. The causes for change may have arisen either from within the system or from outside events. Bhu and Ekakshara suktams. He dedicates his life to worship of Vishnu. for the mere reason they now receive remuneration. what is more important is his devotion to the deity of his worship and his commitment to his calling. The set of fifteen suktas (pancha-sutams + dasha suktams) together make ‗Panca dasha suktam’. Aghamarshana. Nrusimha. there are many ritual sequences in their worship practices that derive inspiration from Tantric ideology. but. Ratri. There is also another set of ten suktas (dahsa suktam): Rudra. Godana and Atma suktams. Vishnu.1. Because. all through his life. whatever might have been the past understanding.2. The Vaikhanasa tradition like any other tradition did absorb innovations and modifications that arose in the context of changing times and circumstances. An Archaka renders a sacred service to the society as a mediator between the god and the worshipping devotee. In fact. Sri and Bhu suktams. The Vaikhanasa Archaka serves in a temple not because it is a means of livelihood. for him is more than mere duty (as detailed in Tatparya Chintamani of Sreenivasa –makhin while commenting upon Vaikhanasa. follows the Vedic mode of performing yaja-yagnas . primarily because he regards it as the fulfilment of the very purpose of his existence. More than book learning. 82.1. They decry a person seeking salvation for himself without discharging his duties. charu-homa etc. He remarked. Durga. 82.culture. He deserves respect and good care. There is not much prominence for a Yati or a Sanyasi in this scheme of things. the various and mantras / suktams from the Vedas are in Sanskrit and there is a greater emphasis on details of worship rituals and yajnas. Viswajit. and they do constitute an important and a legitimate dimension of the templeculture. the . Purusha. And. an Archaka need not be a scholar. ishti. Dhruva. Sri.7. it is the householder that supports. responsibilities and debts to his family. Saraswatam. They consider the life of the householder as the best among the four stages of life. and tends to sacred – fires such as aupasana-agni at home and observes sandhya. Although the Vaikhanasa try to distance themselves from Tantra. 83. the pancha-suktams could be Vishnu. For instance. 81. the worshipper draws the presence of the Highest Spiritual being (paramatma) into his own individual being (jiva). is the famous Atmasukta. The tantra. . and finally identifies himself with the deity: ‗I am you‘ (tvamevaham) and says ‗we are never apart‘. evoking his identity with Vishnu. At the same time. The recitation of Atma-sukta is followed by the hymn Purusha –sukta. extracting it (bahir agatya) and transferring it with ease (sukham thistathu) in to the deity in front (asmin bimbe). It is unique to Vaikhanasa worship sequence. Invoking the deity (avahana) through reciting the Atma –sukta. says that the communication with the divine is not possible unless the worshipper identifies himself with the worshipped.4. colourful lighting.1. and the popular festivities (janapada) and processions (Utasava) where the entire community joins in celebration. practiced within the privacy of the sanctum.2. and investing it upon the deity. singing. and that he as the priest has an enduring divine presence within him. Agama concept of divinity and its elaborate (Upachara) worship sequences. playacting.The transferred Tejas stays in the deity until the worship is formally concluded. The idol is transformed to divinity itself. in that context. The worshipper does this by extracting the power or the lustre (tejas) of the divinity residing in his heart by means of inhalations and exhalations (ucchvasa and nishvasa). 81. and transfer that Tejas into the idol. This a significant step based in the Tantra ideology. The priest conducts these symbolic sequences in the privacy of the sanctum. but also because it concerns transforming the individual self into cosmic Self. with the notion that he and Vishnu are indeed one. Nyasas collectively called bhagavad-aaradhana adhikara-yogyata-siddhi confer on the worshipper the competence to worship the deity. where the worshipper regards his body as a Yantra in which the deity resides. The purpose of Atma-sukta is to invoke the presence of Vishnu who is the Purusha the Cosmic person.49). the worshipper literally breathes life into the deity.This process symbolizes invoking the divine residing in ones heart. The worshipper. initially. Here. the meditation on Vishnu‘s nish-kala aspect is followed by a request to Vishnu to assume his sa-kala form within the idol so that the devotee may submit his worship. 81. offerings of various kinds etc. one cannot truly worship god unless one realizes the divinity within (naadevo bhutva devam pujayet). dancing. 82.2. in the worshipper. He then invokes divine presence in himself.worship sequences conducted at the temple are a combination of several elements: Vedic practices together with its mantra. The mantra that is recited by the Vaikhanasa priest. It is said. beseeches the deity and avers: ‗I am thine‘ (tavevaham). The hymn is called ‗Atmasukta‘ not only because it commences with the words ―Atmatma (the self of the self) ‘. and transfers the Vishnu in him to the idol to be worshipped. Atma-sukta is a collection of nine verses in tristubh chhandas (Vaikhanasa samhita: mantra prashna: 5.3. It is meant to enlarge the consciousness of the worshipper so that he may identify himself with the object of his worship in its cosmic aspect (sa-kala). This is a deeply intimate tantric process that is special to the Vaikhanasa mode of worship. arousing the divinity within him by the ritual sequence of nyasa (placement of divine presence in the structure of the icon as also in the worshipper) is a very important worship ritual based in Tantra ideology. 82. As a prelude to worship per se. spectacular fireworks. Tantra ideology and its techniques. The Pancharatra. sanctified by goddesses Savitri and Gayatri. In the next part of the article let‘s talk about the other major Vaishnava Agama viz.1. savasham devanamatmaka: | savasham muninamatmaka I stapomurtiriha punyamurtirasan || 9 || Taruna-alaya 83. may the essence of all the great sages reside in me. it will ensure the prosperity (sarva-sampathkari) of the whole world. That is. Towards the end of the Atma-sukta the worshipper declares that in his pure heart-lotus (vimalahrutpundarIka).3.82. A unique feature of Vaikhanasa temple construction is the erection of a Taruna-alaya. Vaikhanasa – alaya.3. enters (pravishta) Vishnu in his cosmic aspect (sakala) along with Lakshmi (saLakshmi) in all his glory. the Yajna vedi (altar). Vimanarchana Kalpa ascribed to Sage Marichi says that the Taruna-alaya should be built in the north-east/north-west (Indra) direction of the main temple site in the same premises. 83. within 100sft). and also about its apparent differences from the Vaikhanasa. The mini temple (Taruna-alaya) is intended to gather spiritual power while the construction is in progress. If on the contrary. May my virtuous merit (punya) provide Vishnu the space to reside. The basic idea of the Vaikhanasa faith is that when Vishnu is worshipped in a temple according to the Vaikhanasa scriptures regularly. SavitrI GayatrI maryada vedI | hrutpundarIka vimale pravishta: | sakala: salakshmI: savibhutikango | yatsava punyam mayyadhishtanamastu || 8 || May the essence of all the gods reside in me. the Bala-alaya would be called ‗harakam‘.2. Continued in Part Five . the prescription is not followed. if that requirement is satisfied then the auspicious Bala-alaya which comes up is termed ‗samurtham‘. The symbolic temple could a small one (say. And. at least once each day.nirmana – vidhi also recommends that a Taruna-alaya should be built first. 83. before the construction of the main temple is undertaken a mini-sized temporary temple (termed as Taruna-alaya) is built for Vishnu on the construction. may I become the personification of the fruits of all the austerities (tapo-murti) and of all the virtuous deeds (punya-murti). The main temple to be constructed is termed as Bala-alaya. Atma sukta. Dasha – vidha – hetu . Balaalaya. Agamas and South Indian Vaishnavism.srihayagrivan. the Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra are prominent.org/ebooks/031_sva_v1p1. Vaikhanasa temple worship Tantra – Agama – part Three – Vaikhanasa 12 Oct Vaikhanasa 43. A History of Indian Literature: Epics and Sanskrit religious literature… By Jan Gonda 2.nirupana. Marichi. is regarded relatively less conservative. Varadachari. Lakshmi – vishistadvaita.References and Sources 1. Taruna-alaya. Sreenivasa makhin. 2012 in Agama. The Pancharatra. Kalpataru Research Academy (1994) 3 Comments Posted by sreenivasaraos on October 12. Chapter X pages 407-426.bhashya. 1982. Kashyapa. Tantra Tags: Agama Tantra. Among the Vaishnava Agamas that glorify Vishnu as the Supreme Principle. Nrsima vajapeyin. Vaikhanasa is the older tradition that is rooted in the orthodoxy of the Vedic knowledge. Sri Vaikhanasa Bhagavad Sastram by Shri Ramakrishna Deekshitulu http://www. Vishnu’s children: Prenatal life-cycle rituals in South India By Ute Hüsken. in contrast. Wiesbaden (2009) 3. SK Ramachandra Rao. Vanaprastha . Agama Kosha by Prof. Agamas and the way of life Dr.pdf 4. V. Bhrigu. Some say. Atri. Harrassowitz Verlag . to the exclusion of other deities.1. There are several explanations to the term Vaikhanasa. a bit more liberal and closer to the Tantra ideology. Vaikhanasa. and as the Ultimate Reality. 5. According to one interpretation. It is the stage prior to and in preparation for Sanyasa the last stage of total withdrawal from the world. in its concept. and Phena. But. the scheme could not. what use of antelope skin. Up. he does not lead a harsh and an arid life of self-mortification. 1-2. the liberation. It is the fulfilment of the long journey they travelled together. 33. is not an end by itself.3. along with his wife (sa-pathnika). Vanaprastha stage is conceived as a well balanced rounding off to a worthy life. contented and tranquil life. And it surely has failed in modern times. what use of (growing) the beard. what is the use of tapas? O! Brahmanas! Desire a son. ] 44. but is deemed as a step to reach man‘s highest aspiration. As his sense of detachment ripens. away from the worldly conflicts and its snares. and. Br. And it comes out a little more clearly in Jabalopanisad and in Svetasvataropanisad (VI. For instance. 1). to the family of her sons. even in ancient times. is the third stage (ashrama) in a man‘s life. 21) which speaks of those ‗who had risen above the mere observances of asramas‘.' The idea appears again in Chandogya Upanishad (Ch. 2. 44. Yet. and at the end of his well-lived family-life . mellow glowing wisdom and compassion towards all. including animals and plants. Audumbara. According to him. say at the age of sixty or thereafter. he is a world that is to be highly praised. to lead a peaceful and contemplative life of a recluse . PV Kane in his monumental History of Dharmashastras (pages 417– 419) explains the concept of ashramas (in the sense of different stages in man‘s life) is not found either in the Samhitas or in the Brahmanas. which decries a person who moves away from life and the world: 'what (use is there) of dirt.2. The Varnashrama system expanded by Dharmashastras.1. 11). 23. Vaikhanasa valakhilyau-dumbarah phenapa vane I . 33 etc). a man retires into forest . he views the body and spirit as equal expressions of the divine. be carried out fully by most individuals. the man finally accepts sanyasa. Vanaprastha. Srimad Bhagavata (15. and. Vanaprastha is not distracted by motives of personal gain (artha) or desire for pleasures (Kama). lead a happy. mention that after fulfilling his family responsibilities and social obligations. The theory of asramas was truly an idealist concept. That is because. it is the stage of life marked by selfless friendship. according to the scheme of man‘s lifespan as developed during the later Vedic age*. Valakhilya. the conflicts of interests and distractions of life. [* Prof. open-heartedness.the wife returns home. Vanaprastha. The two live like trusted old friends. Vaikhanasa is the ancient word for Vanaprastha (life of a forest dweller or hermit).into four types Vaikhanasa. a germ of the idea occurs in an obscure form in Aittereya Brahmana (Ait. Owing to the exigencies of the times. It is the maturity of life when positive attitudes and social virtues ripen. though the fault does not lie with the originators of this concept. The later texts and Puranas elaborated on the scheme and devised sub-classifications under each stage (ashrama). The characteristic of its ascetic mode of life is detachment and contemplation.4) classifies the third stage – Vanaprastha.44. The concept of man‘s life span spread over a well-knit scheme of four stages (ashramas) was fully developed in Dharmashastras of Manu (Manu 6. Professor PV Kane clarifies. 44.Nyase kuticakah purvam bahvodo hamsa-niskriyau II 44. Vaikhanasa is also the name of mythical group of saintly hermits who were slain at Muni-marana (death of sages) by one Rahasyu Deva-malimluc (Panchvimshathi Brahmana: 14. Vaikhanasa here has to be understood. Apparently.4. 45. Max Muller. there is nothing in the Vedic literature expressly corresponding to the Vanaprastha.21).21) refers to the Sutra of Gautama which talks of the hermit in the forest who ‗may subsist on flowers. and fruits alone‘. roots. because the term Vaikhanasa doesn‘t merely mean a hermit. the perceptions on the stages of man‘s life had undergone a huge change between the period of Kalpa Sutras and the period of the later Puranas. Following that sub classification. And he explains: ‗here the term Vaikhanasa denotes a shastra or a sutra promulgated by Vaikhanasa. the Gaudiya-Kanthahara. However. asserts that it may not be correct to simply straightaway translate hermit as Vaikhanasa.5. and. Phenapa lives on fruits (phaladbhir jivantah) that drop from the trees on their own accord (svayam patitaih). a twentieth century text ascribed to Atulakrsna Datta of Gaudiya Vaishnavas tradition explains Vaikhanasas as those hermits (Vanaprastha) who retire from active life and live on half-boiled food (ardha-pakvavratya). And the germ of the idea of equating Vanaprastha with Vaikhanasa might have arisen at a later stage in the Sutras. in which the duties of hermits are described in detail‘.21). As regards the question of equating Vaikhanasa directly with Vanaprastha stage of life. 45. however.3. Max Muller in his commentary on the Laws of Manu mentions that Manu (4. He also mentions of Kullaka Bhatta (6. as referring to only those hermits who are ‗abiding by the Vaikhanasa opinion‘ (vaikhanasamate sthithah).2) who opines: ‗the Vanaprastha is called Vaikhanasa because he lives according to rules (sutra) formed and taught by Vaikhanasa‘. In support of his argument. what is interesting is that Vaikhanasa-smarta-sutra. who says that Vaikhanasa were a distinct group who were rooted in their own doctrine (Vaikhanaso vanaprasthah taddarma – pratipadaka –shastra – darshane – sthitah) . Max Muller cites Haradatta the commentator of Apastambha and Gautama (3.1. He reminds: Manu‘s discussion on Vanaprastha also mentions a Vaikhanasa –rule (Manava Dharmashastra: 6. he says. a division of the primary text of Vaikhanasas (Vaikhanasa Kalpa Sutra) does not mention a category of hermits called as Vaikhanasa. Similarly Valakhilya is one who discards the stock of food he has with him (purva ancita anna tyagah) the moment he gets a fresh stock of food (nave pane labdhya).4.] 45. another commentator of Manu.7). Audumbara is one who lives on what he gets from the direction towards which he walks (prathamam disam pasyanti) after sunrise (prathar uttha).2. [Incidentally. a distinguishing feature of Vaikhanasa.17). and was one with the worshipper (Agnim apy atma-sat krtva). 45. the terms Sramana and Sramanaka came to be equated with Vaikhanasa and their scriptures. And. 4. Shanthi parva). the ancient commentator also talks about kindling the sramanaka-agni (sramanakena agnim adhya).The Sramanaka method of invoking sramanaka-agni perhaps involved icon – worship along with the usual fire rituals. [Some say. was amongst the earliest Vaishnavas mentioned in the Narayaniya section of Mahabharata.4. . Bahudayana also describes the forest dwelling hermits as those who devotedly tend sramanakagni. self possessed. That perhaps distinguished the Vaikhanasas from the other hermit (Vanaprastha) groups. The feature of his teaching. is their pre-occupation with tending a sacrificial fire known as sramanaka-agni ( instead of tretagni which is usually tended by householders). Max Muller states that Bahudayana does refer to a Vaikhanasa sutra and gives a short summary of its content in the third chapter of the third prashna of his Dharmashastra. It needs to be mentioned . while it is rooted in the pristine Vedic tradition. He is credited with organizing worship of Vishnu in image form (samurtha-archana). in the ancient context. which. Vaikhanasa community derived its name from its founder (a manifestation of Brahma or Vishnu): sage Vaikhanasa of Angirasa gotra. sramanaka-agni was no ordinary fire. affiliated to Krishna-Yajurveda shakha. But. in effect .3. He describes Vaikhanasas as a group that abides Vedic authority (shastra parigrahas sarvesham vaikhanasam: Bahudayana Dharmasutra: 3. is that it extolled a strong devotion towards Vishnu and worship of Vishnu icon.1.Tandya Mahabrahmana (14. 46.2.habits (Mbh. They are described as peaceful. It appears. Haradatta.3. and to the formation of ekantinah group (or Bhagavatas). Vaikhanasa. It is said. The term Sramana. It is also said. and says it followed the doctrine of the Vaikhanasas (vaikhanasam shastram sramanakam ).1. as given in the early texts . referred to a mendicant who leads a life of restraint and discipline (tapo-yoga). 46. but continues to be in Vedic fold tending sacrificial fires with a sense of duty and not by desire to gain material rewards. 7) says: ‗Vaikhanasa sages were the favourites of Indra (vaikhanasa vaa rushyah Indrasya priya aasan). was the transformation of the Vedic mode of worship through ‗shapeless‘(amurtha) ritual-fire . perhaps. benign (soumya). the Vaikhanasa (Sramanaka) prescription of the abstract worship of one fire (ekagni) perhaps led to the doctrine of ekayana. highly evolved (utcchyante) and satttvic in their food.] Disciples of Sage Vaikhana 47. Sramana 46. it was the fire born out of Vedic rituals. Vaikhanasa is the name of a community as also the name of the philosophy they follow. (bhavitathmanam). Thus. . and preferred the expression ‗Vishnu‘ over ‗Narayana‘ or ‗Vasudeva‘ (although they are synonyms).[An interesting interpretation of the term Vaikhanasa is derived from the root khanana meaning ‗digging into‘. Vishnu must be worshipped morning and evening.2. and . also clung to the Vedic orthodoxy.2. And. the term Vaikhanasa includes in itself several shades of meaning: the forest-dwelling hermit in the third stage of his life. and above all. and traces its origin to Vedas. The Yajna. they are the children of Vishnu. with form (samurtha) and without form (amurtha). who is the Supreme god adored by the Vaikhanasas is not only a Vedic god. therefore he was aptly addressed as Vaikhana: (Khananam –tattva -mimamsa – nigamaarthanam khananad iti nah srutam) . which in all its aspects is devoted to Vishnu. they declare. According to Ananda –samhita ( ascribed to Marichi ) the task of : ‘digging into or deeply inquiring into the meaning of the Vedas and related texts . for that means the worship of all gods (Girhya – smartasutra: parshna 4. khanda 10). 48. The early Vaikhanasas retained Vishnu in his pristine Vedic context.] *** 47. are rooted in the faith that Vishnu who pervades all existence (vyapanath Vishnuh) alone is worthy of worship. and. though yajna might be more awe-inspiring. the worship of the divine through fire. a great sage who was the founder of Vaikhanasa tradition. According to Vaikhanasas. is more colourful and is aesthetically more satisfying. 49. in the later stages. The Vaikhanasa tradition asserts that it is the most ancient. Vishnu. and. But. while the worship offered to an icon is sa-murta. That is because. Their principal text calls upon its followers: that after the customary offerings made to Agni. an incarnate Brahma or Vishnu. archa (worship or puja) the direct communion with your chosen deity is more appealing to ones heart. and. but is also the very personification of Yajna (Yajna-purusha). Perhaps the earliest hermits following this tradition were all of these. is a-murta. proudly asserted that they are the surviving school of Vedic ritual propagated by the sage Vaikhana. They steadfastly held on to the Vedic image of Vishnu.1. all gods reside in Vishnu. because Vishnu is the one that occurs in the Vedas. for the benefit of all mankind ‗ was accomplished by the founder sage of this spiritual heritage ( parampara ). They remained faithful to Vedic principles and traditions. Principles of Vaikhanasa tradition 48. The teachings of sage Vaikhana provide for worship of the Supreme Being having attributes (sa-kala) and also for worship of the one without attributes (nis-kala).1. the followers of the tradition identified and distinguished themselves as disciples of Vaikhana the adept in Vishnuworship (Vishnu – puja – visharada) and those guided by the instructions of Vaikhanasa -kalpa – sutra. the set of the sutras named after him. The Vaikhanasas are distinguished by their uncompromising devotion to Vishnu as the Vedic God par excellence. fellow beings (manushya). Veda. a human form with distinct features. Godhead is described by the performers of Vedic Yajnas as Yajna-Purusha. 50. birds and elements (bhuta).kara Bahudayana (Dharma – sutra: 3. beyond the intellect (achintya) and wondrously lustrous (tejomaya) that abides in one‘s heart lotus (hrudaya pundarika). These were the sacrifices rendered to gods (deva).7) speaks of three varieties of worship (tri -vidho – makhahah) : vaidika. however. gadha and padma). 49. Acchuyta. and therefore are the Vedantins. mace and lotus (shanka. Along with icon form of Vishnu. because they accept the ultimate authority of the Vedas and employ Vedic mantras in all types of rituals. one must worship Vishnu.27. and.parishistha. disc. And.study (Brahma). The ancient smriti.3. Apastamba sutra. and Aniruddha. Vaikhanasa view point is that icon-worship was an integral part of Vedic culture. If one does not perform Yajnas then one must contemplate on Vishnu who is the very personification of Yajna. These were. having rosy pink complexion (shyamala) . Satya. animals. seated in a solar orb (arka-mandala) or in sacred. these perhaps represented the earliest surviving textual references on icon-worship.4.1. The worship practices at home as described by the Vaikhanasa –Grihya-sutra closely follow the vidhi-s prescribed in Bodhayana– Grihya–sutra. wearing yellow silk garments (pitambara). The householder was required to perform regularly a group of five sacrifices (panchamaha-yajna). Further.As regards the term formless (nis-kala). consciousness (chit) and bliss (ananda).17) calls Vaikhanasas as a group that abides Vedic authority (shastra parigrahas sarvesham vaikhanasam). were meant as means for developing the sense of detachment and compassion towards all . the vaidika refers to the Vaikhanasa mode of worship.The Vishnu‘s Sakala form for contemplation (dhyana) and worship (pranamet) is four-armed (chaturbhuja) holding four ayudhas : conch. beaming with blissful countenance dear to look at (saumyat –priya – darshanh) . constantly with devotion. and it was not a later innovation. not Yajnas proper. Sakala. tantrika and misra (mixed). the Agamas are regarded as Vaidika. when Bhagavata-purana (11. 50. and. Vaikhanasa regard themselves as those who moved from the first stage of Vedas to its final import (Vedanta). the ancestors (pitr). in his home . 49. They are also said to resemble mantra prashnas of Taittariyakas and Brahmana of Sama-vedins. the Supreme god. it is explained. And. he can be attained either by Yajnas or by icon-worship. is when the Godhead is visualized as an icon. Vaikhanasas assert. the text suggests techniques for visualising contemplating and worshipping the most adorable form of Vishnu. Sage Vaikhana observed that ‗Vishnu is the very essence of existence (sat). It was explained. their method of worship is indeed truly Vedic. and as Vishnu by those who know the final import of the Vedas (Vedantins).3.water pot (jala-kumbha) or as worship worthy icon (archa-bera). But.2. 49. It says. It also elaborates on four aspects of Vishnu as: Purusha. chakra. and. and Atharvaveda. on the other hand.2. suggests a state of pure-blissfulexistence (satchidananda rupi). and absolute surrender (parathion). but worship of icon (samurtha-archana) performed with devotion (bhakthi) and sense of absolute surrender (prapatthi). This dual spiritual heritage. 50. Therefore. which in turn was the worship of all gods (sangathi deva. ‗archa with devotion is the best form of worship.sampradaya).8-11). the Vaikhanasa teachings provide both for worship the form-less (amurtha-archana) through performance of yajnas and for worship of Vishnu through his image. in fact. the icon is invested with divine presence and its worship ensures our good here (aihika) and also our ultimate good or emancipation (amusmika). blended harmoniously. And. 50. The characteristic of Vaikhanasa view point is that the path way to final emancipation is not devotion alone.10. the rewards of the Yajna are also obtained by worshipping and meditating upon the icon of Vishnu (murtha-archana). It was also explained that worship of Vishnu is in effect the worship of all gods as the whole existence resides in him (vishnau-nitya-archa sarva deva-archa bhavathi: Vaikhanasa – grihya –sutra: 4. and the icon worship was not viewed as distinct from or contrary to Vedic rituals. by seeing it again and again and by offering it various services of devotional worship. It is not therefore surprising that Vaikhanasas describe their text as ‗Bhagava archa-shastra’. That would easily evoke feeling of loving devotion (bhakthi) in the heart of the worshipper. It says.or in a temple. it meant that worship of Vishnu icon was also a Yajna (samurtha-bhagavad-yajna). nay but is superior to Yajna Worship (bhavad-samutha-archana) is indeed more effective and purposeful than mere knowing scriptures. The Vaikhanasa texts are characterized by their attention to details of worship-sequences. It points out that such upanasa is the same as Vedic Yajna. Vishnu is best approached by this means.pujanam yajnah). The two forms of worship are not essentially different. But. Following that. The major thrust of Vaikhanasa texts is to provide clear. comprehensive and detailed guidelines for Vishnu worship.3. but worship-sequences (kriya-yoga. devotion. because the icon that is beautiful will engage the mind and delight the heart of the worshipper‘.1). By constant attention to the icon. The very act of worship (archa) is deemed dear to Vishnu. A sense of devotion envelops the mind and heart when the icon that is properly installed and consecrated is worshipped with love and reverence. with equal dedication and devotion. the worship of formless God (amurtha-archana). And therefore. . the concept of Yajna was re-defined. the icon is a true divine manifestation enliven by loving worship.1.4. The Yajnas and icon worship were regarded as complimentary. The icon is no longer just a symbol. upasana) rendered with utmost diligence when combined with devotion leads to fulfilment of human aspirations. 51. Yajna is by itself Vishnu (yajno vai Visnhuh). Thus. It was explained that Yajna which involves offering through Agni is.12. underline the twofold character of Vaikhanasa worship -tradition (archana. That will surely lead to the highest realm of Vishnu‘ (Vaikhanasa – grihya –sutra: 4. In converse. devotion may at times be a passing mood. is definitely older than the Puranas. There is no mention of the ten Avatars (dashavatara-s) in the core Vaikhanasa texts. It is said. The scholars cite many internal evidences that go to suggest the antiquity of the Vaikhanasa tradition. Yes. It‘s composition having a typical mix of Vedic and classic features suggest that it dates back to the late Vedic era. ‗the ancient Vaikhanasa Sutra which is an important portion of the sacred law preceded Manu Smriti‘. and. repetitions of the sacred mantra (japa) and meditation upon the glory of god (dhyana). the Vaikhanasa worship practices carried out within the inner and surrounding shrines mention only five avatars of Vishnu: Kapila. Varaha. delights the heart. The Vaikhanasas as a group of religious practitioners are of great antiquity. especially by those involved in the transactional world. And.2. engages the mind. Perhaps. it is not advisable to assume that it had any connection with Vaikhanasa sutrakarana a sub division of the Taittiriyas which is one of the youngest schools adhering to Krishna Yajur Veda. It is likely they were a separate forest dweller community that existed some time before the beginning of the Common Era. and. That is the reason the texts advise that icon worship must be resorted to by all. the Nishkala aspect continues to be projected as the ultimate. The devotee must progressively move from gross sthula to the subtle sukshma.2. and particularly in devotional worship of Vishnu-icon (archana).3. This hymn mentions only three Avatars explicitly: Varaha. Nrsimha. According to Max Muller. Atma Sukta hymn is unique to the Vaikhanasa mode of worship. The well made icon of Vishnu pleases the eyes. fills the worshipper with loving devotion. 52. It seeks to evoke in the worshipper his identity with Vishnu in his cosmic form as Purusha. 51. at the same time they did not give up performance of Yajnas altogether.2. Dr. Kapila and Hayashirsha.51.1.1. It identifies the Varaha the boar that blesses (varado) with the upward . Vaikhanasas valued icon worship very highly. Nagendra Kumar Singh in his Encyclopaedia of oriental philosophy and religion (page 891) observes: it is likely that the Vaikhanasa literature documents the community‘s transition from a Vedic School of ritual observance to a School of those engaged in religious performances. The icon worship (archana) is held by Vaikhanasas as being superior to all other modes of worship because it includes in itself the special attitude of devotion (bhakthi). Max Muller opines that the work of Vaikhanasa must be extremely ancient. the concept of dashavataras was then yet to be developed. 53. The Vaikhanasa texts hold the view that icon-worship is best suited for the present age of Kali. Antiquity 52. They learnt to combine the two streams of worship harmoniously. The Vaikhanasa tradition represents the passing stage of transformation from pure Vedic Yajna-Yagas to their combination with icon-worship. recitation of mantras. In these texts. evolved and elaborated. blesses with a great sense of joy and fulfillment. 53. but.3. even as they emphasize the relevance and importance of the sakala aspect. the offerings (huta) to god. 52. Vamana/Trivikrama and Hayashirsha (Hayatmaka). Interestingly. Generally. Vaikhanasa Literature Vaikhanasa -Kalpa –sutra 55.3. We find that the later Vaikhanasa Grihya sutra include practices of praying to Kumara while conducting certain life-cycle–rituals (samskaras).1. the ashtottara-shata-namavali of Sri Venkateshvara. The Vaikhanasa association with Kumara (unlike in other Vaishnava tradition). and the horse-headed Hayashirsha with the downward breath (apana). the association of Kumara and Kaumara – mantra with Vaikhanasa tradition is also interesting.The newborn is blessed with mantra: ‗be invincible (sarvatra-jayo bhava) like Kumara. 54. 53. Similarly. son of Shankara‘ (Shankarir iva sarvatra-jayo bhava: Vaikhanasa smarta sutra 3. Markandeya one of the oldest Puanas names Kumara as ‘Vasudeva-priya’. 54.Invocations are also made to protect the child from Kumara-grahas. the one who is dear to Vasudeva. suggest the faint memory of its origin in the tantric traditions of the distant past. the flowers that adorned Kumara. Vaikhanasa were the earliest to adopt the tantra technique of worshipping Vishnu icons.49) is said to represent the earliest form of the tantric school Kaula –vidya. Further. Some say. may you be protected ‗ (Guhasya sesham gurubhih supujitam pushpam dadami –sya Shammukham). Aniruddha et al. Although the Vaikhanasa mode of worship may have evolved and changed over the long periods. 54. Correspondingly. as in the Pancharatra tradition . It is also said. the spirits that seize the children below the age of five. The Kaumara – mantra: Om aghoraya mahaghoraya nejameshaya namo namah (as provided in Vaikhanasa –samhita. the earliest form of temples. The father takes the prasada.2. its core is indeed very ancient.20). the set of Kalpa . there is no mention of Vibhavas or Avatars such as Vasudeva and his Vyuha (group) of Vrishni clan of Sankarshana. Sage Kapila the personification of penance (tapasam ch murthim) with the spreading breath (vyana). the Vaikhanasas invoke Kumara for blessing the infant during its namakarana ceremony (naming the infant). For instance. calls the Lord: ‘karttikeya-vapudharine namah’. and is much older than other temple-traditions. Kumara is also invoked while the Vaikhanasa – child is taken to Kumara temple for its first outing.3. perhaps on account of its Vedic associations. Pradyumna. mantra –prashna: 5. the Vaikhanasa practice of reciting Vedic mantras along with Tantra-related rituals suggests its emanation from the oldest phase of worship in the Chaitya-s . and places it on the child‘s head saying: ‗I give you the flowers with which the Gurus worshipped Kumara (sesham gurubhih supujitam pushpam). even to this day.19.4. Each of the four divisions of the Vedas has its own special Kalpa sutra. 54.This again suggests that Vaikhanasa is older than the Pancharatra. They are meant to guide the daily life and conduct of those affiliated to its division.1.breath (udana). Vishnu and Kumara are said to have an ‗understanding‘ and recognition of each others might. 2. That might be because of the secondary position assigned in this tradition for performing Yajnas. Vaikhanasas belonging to Taittiriya division of Krishna–Yajur Veda are perhaps the only group that rely heavily on their Kalpa sutra. The text is intended to guide him in all spheres of life. 56. its origins are in the very distant past. personal. manuals. The whole set of texts is spread over thirty two prasnas (chapters). It. a Grihya-sutra was essential.3. There is also a section on purification rituals (prayaschitta) to take care of minor or major lapses in conduct of rites or in personal behaviour. As may be seen. prescribes rules governing life in household and also the rules for installation (prathista) and worship of Vishnu‘s image at home (grharchana bimba prathista archana). in essence. and. the basic and authoritative scripture of the Vaikhanasa tradition. Instead . in a shrine or in the yajna mantapa pavilion. The srauta –texts are not however held in highest regard because the rituals are motivated by desire (kamya) to acquire something or the other. in addition to several types of yajnas (yagayajna). 55. provides the necessary framework. and its age is rather uncertain. And. But surely. in addition there is a chapter named Vaikhanasa. Vaikhanasa – grihya – sutra or smarta sutra (7 chapters). However. Vaikhanasa -Kalpa –sutra is ascribed to the ancient Sage Valkanas who is said to have received it from Brahma or Vishnu. Some scholars date it around the third century of the Common Era. Vaikhanasadharma –sutra (3 chapters). the matters relating to Sulba –sutras are covered under its two other sections (srauta and grihya). Thus. Vaikhanasa – srauta – sutra 57. Vaikhanasa -Kalpa –sutra is the primary text. beliefs and practices are derived from this source. And. the Vaikhanasa – kalpa – sutras do not contain a Sulba-sutra of their own. and. Its three main segments include: Vaikhanasa. and Sulba-sutra (relating to mathematical calculations involved in construction of Yajna altars (vedi. code of conduct for a Vaikhanasa in his spiritual.2. Kalpa sutras by their nature are supplementary texts affiliated to the main division of a Veda.1. In order to preserve the Vedic affiliation. all other definitive texts.sutra texts include: Grihya-sutra (relating to domestic rituals). family and social life. traditions. Srauta-sutra (relating to formal yajnas). and specification of the implements used in Yajna (yajna-ayudha). The Vaikhanasa – kalpa – sutra is indeed a group of four texts. It provides the main framework for Vishnu –worship . 55. 56. It has come down to us in oral traditions. they have Pravara-sutra that deals with genealogy of the seers who initiated families (vamsha) into Vaikhanasa tradition. The Vaikhanasa.1. for introduction of divine power . The Vaikhanasa – grihya –sutra or smarta sutra emphasizes devotion to Vishnu or Narayana.1.srautasutra (21 chapters).Pravara – sutra. chiti) and platforms).srauta-sutra deals with all types of ritual-actions which need to be carried out daily (nitya) and occasionally (naimittika). Dharma-sutra (relating to code of conduct and ethics). Vaikhanasa – grihya – sutra or smarta sutra 58. kindness. cleanliness. It also discusses. but not leading to release from samsara the series of births. relates to the way of yogis who are solely intent upon realizing Supreme Self and to attain union (yoga) of the individual self with the Supreme Self.(Om namo Narayanaya) and the other of twelve syllables – dwadashakshari mantra – (Om namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya).These mantras are of great importance and of sacredness in Vaishnava traditions .parishistya-sutra) which supplemented the main Grihya-sutra text. But.yaama ( truthfulness.] . [It is said. and are regarded as divine sacraments (daivika).4. 58. Its passages are quoted in other Valkanas texts.3. study. 58. it is not available at present. generosity etc) . The invocations prescribed here involve two mantras: one of eight syllables ashtakshari mantra. The desire-less action (nis-kama) is of two kinds: activity (prvrtti) and disengagement (nivrtti) . niyama (bathing. In effect. Vaikhanasa – grihya – sutra deals in particular with eighteen life-cycle-rites (samskaras) which are meant to cleanse the body and mind of one born in the Vaikhanasa lineage . with actions without desire (nis-kama) performance of prescribed actions with a sense of duty and without expectations. ascesis. Achhuta and Aniruddha. It describes ways of the hermits devoted to Vishnu and practicing Yoga involving ten external observances. 58. Disengagement (nivrtti). [*This view point as the primacy of Brahman without attributes (nir-guna) and with attributes (sa-guna) differs significantly from the position taken by the later Vaishnava Vedanta School of Vishistadaita.1. in contrast. about other religious observances. and ten internal observances . in detail. Satya. The icon which is divinely auspicious (divyamangala– vigraha) should be sculpted according to the prescriptions of Shilpa-shastra (shilpa – shastrokta –vidanena).2. The text prescribes that the icon of Vishnu must be duly installed at home (tasmad grihe param Vishnum prathistya) and should be worshipped daily – morning and evening.(saayam –prathya) after performing the customary homas. ] Samskaras 59. sincerity etc) .(shakthi) into the image before its worship. The text includes invocation of four aspects of Vishnu: Purusha. It contrasts actions with desire (sa-kama) seeking fruits of action in this world and in the next. The rituals range from niseka (ritu –san – gamana first mating in the proper season) and garbhadana (impregnation) to samavarthana (return from study) and pani-grahana (marriage). it prescribes rites ranging from before-birth and ending with death and cremation (jatakaadi – smasananta). Vaikhanasa – smarta – sutra also teaches yogic paths leading to Brahman without qualities* (nishkala). Vaikhanasa – smarta – sutra is perhaps the only text of its kind to prescribe a ceremony for entering into the hermit stage of life (Vanaprastha). and attune him to be fit for rendering service to Vishnu . ‗activity‘ signifies yogic practices which procure yogic-powers.Here. there was another text (Vaikhanasa-grihya. The related samskaras are meant to define and lend specific identity to a Vaikhanasa. Angira.Grihya sutra and Dharma –sutra . Pulaha. 60.The ceremony involves offering the pregnant woman a cup of payasam in which the insignia of Vishnu –chakra – is dipped. thus. The Vaikhanasa – dharma – sutra also deals with religious life. the one symbolic ceremony.‘ they indeed are Vihṣṇu‘s children. a born-priest (janmathah – archaka) is guided by Vaikhanasa.2. And. Vashista. Vishnu-Bali and the significances attached to it illustrate the concern of the Vaikhanasa community to distinguish themselves as Vaidikas who are different from other Vaishnava sects. protected by Vishnu and preordained for temple service even before birth‘. it acquires the status of a Vaishnava (garbha vaishnavesti). The significance of the offering (Bali) to Vishnu is that. particularly the Pancharatras.1. These are directly linked to the marriage and birth in a Vaikhanasa family. Sage Vaikhanasa is said to have taught his doctrine to his nine disciples: Kashyapa. The inherited identity is beyond the scope of discretion. Works of the four sages: Vaikhanasa Shastra – Agama – Samhita 62. Among these. Pre-natal -life-cycle –rituals (garbha-samskara). duties and responsibilities in different stages of life (asramas).2. as foetus. They also detail the eight-fold system of yoga (ashtanga –yoga) and related spiritual practices. has developed into an essential characteristic of the Vaikhanasas. Pulasthya. A Vaikhanasa. Bhrgu. This is a samskara performed in the eighth month of pregnancy following Pumsavana and Seemantha (parting of the hair) meant for the benefit of the pregnant woman and the foetus growing within her.59. Vaikhanasa – dharma – sutra 61. he automatically becomes eligible to render temple worship-rituals. One has to be a born-Vaikhanasa (janmathah). and the conduct. Atri. The infant the moment it is born is deemed a Vaishnava by birth (garbha – Vaishnava – janmanam). and also to assert their premier position as born-priests not needing any other sort of vaishnava-diksha. Grihya-sutra emphasizes the significance of pre-natal samskaras. and up to the present day. a Vishnu devotee ( garbha vaishnavatava siddyarthyam). Kashyapa. not needing any initiatory rites (diksha) or branding. Atri. As it is often said. four rishis viz. based on the philosophy expounded . become one of the distinguishing features of the Vaikhanasa community. and Marichi composed a set of texts. Bhrgu.1. this is known as Vishnu– Bali (or garbha-chakra samskara) prescribed to be performed during the bright-half of the eighth of pregnancy (garbhaadhady-astame masyeva shukla pakshe). In the case of such male offspring. Marichi. Of the five parental samskaras. in particular.1. which are within the orthodox Vedic culture. Vishnu–Bali 60. and Kratu. it plays an important role in defining their specific identity. This and the rituals of Vishnu-Bali are important for their identity. while even as the un-born is inside the mother‘s womb . Initiation or conversion into Vikhanasa sect is ruled out. Vijita. The four sets of texts together ran into four lakh granthas. they produced four classes of texts: Bhrgu (Tantras). spread over 128 books. 63. Manadhikara . The collection of these texts along with Vaikhanasa‘s original instructions constitutes the core of the Vaikhanasa literature. Kashyapa. Although the Kalpa –sutras of Vaikhanas provided the inspiration and the substance for the later Vaikhanasa writings. 62.1. Kalpa –sutra is different in its approach from its Shastra or Agama texts.by Sage Vaikhanasa. Jnana Samhita. [Having said this.The titles of the eight Samhitas are said to be : Jaya . 62. detailing various aspects of worship. and . ascribed to Marichi talks about the doctrine taught by Sage Vaikhanasa to his four chief disciples: Bhrgu. There is a marked difference between the environment of Kalpa-sutra period and that of the Agama shastra. Puratantra. Archanadhikara . Vasadhikara . 000 granthas) composed by Sage Marichi form the Vaikhanasa Samhita (samhita-ashtaka).kalpa – sutra handed down by their Master Sage Vaikhana is their primary source. and. Tarkakanda. Vimala . let me also mention that there also alternate lists of the texts attributed to these four Rishis. by the time of the . a distinction is drawn between the Sutra (of Valkanas) and the Shastra (by his disciples). Kashyapa is said to have composed three Samhitas consisting 64. Vimānārcakakalpa of Marichi mentions thirteen works attributed to Bhrgu: Khilatantra. Atri and Marichi .But. Ananada. Atri is credited with four works spread over 88.000 verses: Satyakanda. 84. Jnanakanda. came to be known as Vaikhanasa Shastra (chatur-laksha grantham pradadur etad Vaikhanasam shastram ). Uttaratantra.They are also collectively known as Vaikhanasa Agama. and it is the Authority for the Vaikhanasa sampradaya.2. 62. Vishnutantra.5.The disciples who received the knowledge from their Master expanded upon his philosophy and teachings.3. and . The collection of four lakh granthas.000 verses composed in anustuph chhandas: Purvatantra. Atreyatantra . each grantha being 32 letters composed in anustubh chhandas (metrical form). and Marichi (Samhitas). Niruktadhikara . Kriyadhikara . And. All these four classes of texts acknowledge that the Vaikhanasa. Varnadhikara . The set of eight Samhitas (1. Chitradhikara . The Kalpa-sutra belongs to a period when Yajnas and related rituals as prescribed in Yajur Veda . conduct in personal life and several other disciplines. Atri (Kandas). Vimanarchana –kalpa (1001.Vijaya. Yajnadhikara . Samjnana . and. Prakirnadhikara . Khiladhikara. the Brahmanas etc were still being performed fairly regularly .1) a prose work which elaborates on worship of Vishnu–icon . Pratigrihyadhikara . Vira . Kashyapa (Adhikaras).] 62.4. Though the Vedic rituals gradually gave place to worship of Vishnu-icon. 64. the Vaikhanasa –samhita are traditionally taken to be the cannon of the Vaikhanasas (Vaikhanasa-shastra or Vaikhanasa-Bhagavad-shastra). the age of the Yajnas was fading out. and the prescriptions of the srauta section of Kalpa –sutra were also losing the focus of attention. The Agamas thereafter not only transformed the Vedic Yajna ideology (amutha-archana) into worship of Vishnu.4.Agama. the names Vishnu and Narayana came to be used alternatively. Vaikhanasa –Bhagavad shastra or Vaikhanasa Agama. in its living practices it is mostly about temple-rituals. 65. The worship of Agni (homa-puja) which was the focus of attention in the Vedic period was translated by the Kalpa into the worship of Vishnu in the iconic form (bera-puja).1. when Vaikhanasa Agama was composed it had to comment on details which the Kalpa sutra did not contain. by the time of the Agamas. But. The requirements of Agama appear to have necessitated the composition of Shastratexts by the four sages. it is said.2. And. Vaishnava ideology was evident. Together with the Kalpa Sutras. But.The kalpa. or elaborate on details which were only suggested by Sage Vaikhanasa.sutra therefore prescribed worship of Vishnu in the household along with the customary ritual-fires. the worship of Vishnu is indeed equivalent to the performance of Yajna. elaborated on this aspect following the broad principles for worship at home as mentioned in the Kalpa – sutra. compliment the Vaikhanasa-kalpa – sutra. We see here a transition from Vedas to Kalpa and then on to the Agama. the Kalpa –sutra of Vaikhanadid not deal with temple-worship at all. 65. the Grihya –sutra section (which deals with domestic rituals) based on the Smritis and which is also known as Samarta – sutra was still relevant. And.Agamas. the Agama did not entirely give up Vedic rituals. in many ways. The Vaikhanasa tradition frequently avers to its Vedic affiliation and Vedic authority. The texts now classed under Vaikhanasa Agama are primarily ritual texts (prayoga shastra). The use of the term Narayana was not yet prominent. The Kalpa-sutra always addressed their Supreme deity only as Vishnu. But. and they contain elaborate discussions on various aspects concerning temples as also instructions on practical aspects of worship- . The archana (service to the images) detailed in the Vaikhanasa Agama represents the community‘s transition from a Vedic School of ritual observance to a Bhagavata tradition emphasising bhakthi towards Narayana and worship of Vishnu/Narayana idol installed at the temples. Vishnu was a prominent Vedic god. and. Following that. but also extended it into worship of icons installed in temples (samurtha-archana). even the worship at home was discussed rather briefly. resulted in Vaikhanasa.1. 64. to compliment the Kalpa-sutra handed down by their master. and. Transition: Veda – Kalpa –Agama 64. It also elaborates on certain issues that the Kalpa –sutra did not touch upon.2.3. 64. However. his disciples realizing the importance of worshipping Vishnu in temples and having in view the greater good of all mankind.It is said. the Kalpa Sutra said. and it was gaining greater importance. that. and in the Brahmanas Vishnu came to be regarded as the very personification of Yajna (yagno vai Vishnuh) . 66. to usher in a sense of duty. They even tend to quote each other. the Vaikhanasa texts did not generally employ the term Agama to describe themselves. etc 67. commitment and responsibility. They deal with building a shrine to Vishnu (karayathi mandiram). The jnana-paadas of Vaikhanasa Agama texts are brief as compared to discussion on rituals. initially. The main tantras pertaining to the installation and worship of idols are in Bhrgu.3. 66. the texts attributed to the four sages. causes of welfare and defeat. plans for towns and villages.2. in regard to the subjects relating to construction of temples. but with slight variations when it comes to the details of ritual – sequences. 66. Kashyapa‘s Adhikaras are mainly in the form of sutras.1. Atri‘s Kandas also cover these topics at great depth in addition to the design of temples. directions for construction of houses. and the other giving details of preparation of icon for worship. This is supplemented by prescriptions for worship of the image and the philosophy that underlies it. Apart from these. a classification of the good (auspicious) and evil elements. (iii) puja (worship of the idols). the appeasement of the ominous. and . Atri and Marichi Samhitas in particular go into different aspects of architecture of Vaikhanasa Vishnu temples. (ii) prathishtha (installation of idols of gods).Bhagavad-shastra’ or as ‘Daivika-sutra’. The Bhrgu. However. circumstantial descriptions of the same set of procedures or ceremonies. are in agreement as regards their content and the disposition of the topics dealt with. When the four classes of texts are put together. The Agamas combine two types of instructions: one providing the visualization of the icon form. The Vaikhanasa tantra texts (ascribed to Bhrgu) broadly deal with (i) karshana (construction of shrines). [It is said. and worshipping everyday (ahanyahani yogena yajato yan maha-phalam). The four classes of texts produced by the four disciples of Sage Vaikhanasa may be considered as different streams of the same tradition or School handing down the same ritual doctrine and practices. They were known as ‗Vaikhanasa. (v) utsava (festivals and processions). the Kashyapa gives a description of the world. mainly. But.procedures. The texts primarily refer to ordering one‘s life in the light of values of icon worship (Bhagavadarcha). Kashyapa and Marichi Samhitas.4. in the main. (vi) prayashchitta (expiatory rites relating to errors in rituals ). while other fragments cover Chitra karma or painting of pictures of deities. Atri. making a worship-worthy beautiful idol (pratima lakshana vatincha kritim). the donations of village. (iv) snapana (the abhisheka or bathing of idols). the following are discussed: .] Subjects dealt by the four classes of texts 66. the term Vaikhanasa-Agama came into use in later times in order to distinguish them from other Agama traditions.1. Tantra Shastra and Veda by Sir John Woodroffe http://www. the oblation into five fires. Guru Dutt http://yabaluri. construction of the temple proper. celebrations (uthsava) .2. sculpting of the images. preparatory ploughing on that site. consecration and installation of of the icon.htm 8. the sequence of daily worship in the temple. iconography of Vishnu images and of other deities. Kalpataru Research Academy (1994) 6.com/tantra/sas/sas04. various details about the consecration and worship of Avatars. Tantra: its mystic and scientific basis by Lalan Prasad Singh . extensive bathing on special occasions or to regenerate the divinity of the image.sacred-texts. the construction of a provisional miniature temple (bala-alaya) for Vishnu and his attendant deities during the time when the main sanctum is under construction or when an evil omen or a damage has occurred.Concept Publishing Company (1976) 3. the following stages are described: entering the temple. A Companion to Tantra by S C Banerji . the festival. Thames & Hudson (1977) 5. details about the elements of daily worship. occasional festivals. Tribal roots of Hinduism by SK Tiwari .the types of shrines.org/TRIVENI/CDWEB/theperspectiveofthetantrassept45. worship of Vishnu. Sarup & Sons (2002) 4. the deposit of the temple-embryo. The Tantric way by Ajit Mukherjee and Madhu Khanna . temple architecture. the measures of the image . inspection of temple-site. ornaments etc. duties of the assistants (such as the water fetcher and others). collection of materials (stone and wood). preparations and worship of the minor deities . etc. preparation of the clay for modelling the image. The Perspective of the Tantras By K. the measure and other characteristics of the frames and their construction. various details about the flowers to be offered or to be avoided . Abhinav Publications (2007) 2. SK Ramachandra Rao . As regards the topics related to worship at the temple. In the next part let‘s continue with the Vaikhanasa literature and then go on to Vaikhanasa philosophy and its preoccupation with temple –worship. The Tantras: An Overview by Swami Samarpanananda . meditation and personal preparation of the priest.htm 7. Vaikhanasa Continued in Part Four References and Sources 1. invocation of Vishnu. the atonement or correction of errors (pryaschitta) etc 67. bathing of the image . Agama Kosha by Prof. 22. They are of practical applications in day-to-day worship practices associated. It is likely that. Vanaprasta. the supplementary texts appended to the main division of each Veda. Vaikhanasa temple worship. in oral traditions. Surendranath Gupta says ―The date of the Agamas cannot be definitely fixed. Marichi. quite possible the original texts became elastic and new ideas entered into its procedural aspects. Each of the four Vedas has its own special Kalpa sutra. Vishnu Bali. 2012 in Agama. Kalpa sutra. Vaikhanasa shastra. from master to disciple.texts dated around third century. Vaikhanasa Grihya sutra. 21. mainly. 22. at a later period. therefore. And .1. in Grihya-sutra and Srauta-sutra did not call themselves Agamas. mainly. chiti) and platforms). with temple-worship. What we now know as Agama shastra had its roots in the Kalpa-sutras. Srauta-sutra (relating to formal yajnas). over the centuries.D. there are many legends associated with their origins. Evolution of Tantra by Nitin Sridhar http://www. Kashyapa. over the centuries. Vaikhanasa.aspx 1 Comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on October 12. They were rendered into written form as palm –leaf-texts rather quite late. some changes or modifications might have crept into the pristine lore to suit the changing needs of times according to the local contexts. and specification of the implements used in Yajna (yajna-ayudha).1. The initial set of ritual.9. Even these texts were not easily accessible outside the . It is. Bhrigu. and Sulba-sutra (relating to mathematical calculations involved in construction of Yajna altars (vedi. They are meant to guide the daily life and conduct of those affiliated to its division. But. they came into prominence as Agama Shastra following the emergence of temple culture.2.com/essay-chapters/Evolution-of-Tantra-1. Vishnu worship Tantra – Agama – Part Two – Agama 12 Oct Agama – History 21. Agamas are a set of ancient texts and are the guardians of tradition.2. The Agamas have come down to us. Atri.esamskriti. It maybe suggested that the earliest of them were written sometime in the second or third century A. the set of Kalpa sutra texts include: Grihya-sutra (relating to domestic rituals). We may not be sure that the present versions of the agama are exactly those which existed at that ancient past. They are of uncertain antiquity. Dr. Generally. and these must have been continued till the thirteenth or fourteenth century‖. Dharma-sutra (relating to code of conduct and ethics). based. Tantra Tags: Atma sukta. perceiving their essential unity. Agama – Classification 24. as the Temple-culture gathered strength. The Agama thereafter branched into sects. each sect and sub sect of Agamas created its own set of texts and commentaries describing the virtues and powers symbolized by its deity. Each branch. and the particular ways to worship its chosen god. 22.3. four of its eight stages are an integral part of worship sequences. Most of the ritual-worship sequences that are followed during the present-day seem to have developed after the establishment of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy (darshanas). The worshipper initially regards the idol. the history of the Agamas between the period of early texts (3rd or 4th century) and the period when they began to come into prominence (say 10th or 11th century) is rather hazy. The worship of god in a particular form that is dearer to ones heart became the prime concern. the Sadhaka is also aware that the aim and the culmination of his/her worship practises is to attain the ‗ upasaka-upasya-abhedha-bhava’. and deep concentration and contemplation (dhyaana). According to one version. by around 6-7th centuries.1.1. placing or invoking the divine aspects in self (nyaasa or dhaaranaa or atma-nikshepa ). 22. The worship of the deities may have been the immediate cause for the emergence of Agama literature. while at the same time. the sublime state where theupasaka comes to identify her/himself with her/his upasya-devata. The very act of worshipping an idol is based in the Samkhya concept of duality. A very significant change is the integration of Samkhya ideologies and Yoga practices into worship-rituals which somehow are juxtaposed with Vedic mantras. But. But. the most revered object. 23. The summit of the Sadhana is when the worshipper and the worshipped are united as One. each sect affiliated to its chosen god (ishta-devata). As regards the elements of Yoga. the aspects of its manifestations. as also for deity worship (sakala-radhana). The Agama tradition began to flourish by about the 10th or the 11th century with the advent of the Bhakthi School having strong faith in worship of icons installed in homes and temples.2. Agama is of post Darshana period 23. whatever is the non-dual philosophical doctrines to which he/she might be intellectually attracted to.priestly class. posture.2. several Agamas were compiled into written texts as manuals for temple construction and vaastu. 23. breath (life force)-control. The changes in religious rituals from the Vedic to the Aagamic find an echo in the themes elaborated in the six orthodox systems. No significant development seems to have taken place during the intervening period. viz.3. and identifying the self with the archa image. The object is the union (yoga) of the individual with the absolute. There is also the process of transferring ones prana into the worship-image (dhruva-bera). (aasana). The worship of the murti is in the manner of the visible leading to invisible. as separate from him/her. (praanayaama). . (ii) Shaiva. Saiva. Pratishthasara. Thus. each branch having several texts associated with it. 25. Brahma-Yamala. matam cha Vasudevasya tasmad agamam utchyate). Kaumara. The third one. it is recognized by Vasudeva himself.3.Of these. The first five branches follow the panchayatana tradition of the Smartas . Among the Shaktha-agama texts. 25. And the practices of Pashupathas and Kalamukha sects are not in the open. eleven branches of the Agamas are mentioned. and the Shaktha cult is termed as Tantric. Kulasara. and (xi) Cina.2. and Vijnanalalita. 24. It is said. Parvathi explains to Shiva. in her various forms. Devi the divine Mother of all Universes. The union of Shakthi with Siva leads to the freedom of the pasu (inner Self) from the Pasa or the attachment.2. In some of these. are countless. The Shaivas recognize twenty-eight Agama texts. the three prominent branches of Agama shastra in practice during the present times are: the Shaiva. Vasishtha. Rudra-Yamala. the Supreme Self. there is an element of Tantra in Agama worship too. Gautamiya and . The Shaiva branch of the Agama deals with the worship of the deity in the form of Shiva. VishnuYamala and Todala Tantra. (iii) Shaktha . the Agamas. each of these in turn has numerous sects within it. The Agama texts relating to Brahma and Chandra are deemed lost. Tibet or Nepal. The Shaiva-agamas. it is in the mouth of Her who is born from the mountains. of which the Kamica –agama is better known. and. Kularnava. (vii) Chandra . Shaiva–agama has given rise to Shaiva Siddantha and Veerashaiva of the South. (x) Jina.4. Kapila. regard Shiva as the Supreme Conscious Principle of the Universe. 25.24. (v) Ganapathya. (iv) Saura. (viii) Pashupatha . that is why it is Agama‘ (Agatam panchavaktrat tu gatam cha Girijanane. and in others. And. in general. and the Prathyabijnana School of Kashmir Shaivisim which leans towards Advaita. Saura and Ganapathya are now not in common use. But. And. But. the Supreme Lord of the Universe. 25. Vaishanava Agama has four major divisions Vaikhanasa. The term Agama is more often used for the Shaiva and Vasishnava traditions. Jina Agama has a very long history. and. It emphasizes that worship. the Shaktha and Vaishnava. Prapanchasara. The China Agama is presumed to be in China. the better known are: Mahanirvana. The Shaktha Agama texts (also called Tantras) prescribe the rules and tantric rituals for worship of Shakthi. the Vaishanava Agama adores God as Vishnu the protector. It is said.1. there are as many as seventy-seven Shaktha-agama texts.Pancharatra in turn is said to have seven branches: Brahma. generally. Shabda-kalpa-druma integrates the three branches of the tradition and explains: ‗It has come from Him who has five mouths. what else. Tantraraja. The eleven are : (i) Vaishnava. while Shakthi is the Prakrti or the natural principle who is the cause of bondage as also of liberation. is still in practice among the Jains. She is both the cause of delusion (maya) and the liberation. And. in truth. And. (vi) Svyambhuva (Brahma).3. and. Pancharatra. service (archa) and complete surrender (prapatti) to Vishnu with devotion is the only sure path to liberation. each Agama has subsidiary texts (Upa-agama). Most of these texts are in the form of dialogues between Shiva and Parvathi. Shiva answers the questions put by Parvathi. (ix) Kalamukha. the Naradiya. An offshoot of Pancharatra called Tantra Sara is followed mainly by the Dvaita sect (Madhwas). The Vaishnava–agama has the largest number of texts, say , about two hundred and fifteen .Among these , Isvara, Ahirbudhnya, Paushkara, Parama, Sattvata, Brihad-Brahma and Jnanamritasara Samhitas are the important ones. The Naradiya section of the Shanti-Parva of the Mahabharata is one of the earlier references to Pancharatra. Of the Vaishnava Agamas, the Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra are most important. According to one opinion, the Vaikhanasa Agama is the most important and the most ancient Agama; and all other Agamas follow it. 25.5. All Agamas or Tantras of whatever group, share certain common ideas, outlook and practice. They also differ on certain issues depending on the Ishta-devata they worshipped. Agama – Content 26.1. Agamas are a set of ancient texts; and are the guardians of tradition. However, they are not treatises on Philosophy, although they follow and expound a particular theory of life and its goal. They are essentially Sadhana Shastras (practical Scriptures) primarily addressed to ardent aspirants. They, among other things, prescribe the means to attain ones ideal of God through worship, devotion and submission, aided by set of prescribed disciplines. The Agama manuals serve as important guidebooks for deity worship by the devotees of all affiliations: Saiva, Vaishnavas and Shaktas. And each of those has its own set of Agamas. 26.2. According to Varahi Tantra (quoted in Shabda-kalpadruma) : Agama is characterized by seven ‗marks‘ (sapthabhir lakshana-yuktam tva-agamam): creation (shrusti), dissolution (laya), worship of gods (deva-archanam), spiritual practices (sadhana), repetition and visualization of mantras (purascarana), set of six magical practices (shad-karma-sadhana), and contemplative techniques (dhyana yoga). 26.3. The six goals (shad-karma-sadhana) that Agama strive to achieve are said to be:(i) utchatana - vertical integration of natural energies, maintaining the balance in nature; (ii) sthambhana - increase energy and holding capabilities of a particular place; (iii) maaranadestroy the negative energy influences over a particular area; (iv) bhedana – split different energies within a given area to maintain balance of nature; (v) shanthi - maintaining the balance of nature with social progress; and, (vi) pushti – nourishing the nature and species so that evolution progresses. 27.1. Agamas which also mean ‗acquisition of knowledge‘, ‗traditional doctrine‘, ‗science‘ etc draw their theory and practices from many sources, including Tantra. Agamas also draw upon Vedic knowledge, Yogic disciplines, Tantra techniques as also mantras, Yantras and other modes of worship employed in the temples. 27.2. Each Agama consists of four parts (paada). These broadly deal with jnana or vidya –paada (knowledge), Yoga-paada (meditation), Kriya (rituals) and Charya-paada (ways of worship). [The Buddhist and the Jaina traditions too follow this four-fold classification; and with similar details] It is said; each paada has external (bahir-yajnam) and internal (antar-yajnam) interpretations. The former is about the way of doing things; while the latter explains the esoteric or spiritual significance of the rituals performed. (i) The first part (jnana paada) includes the philosophical principles, theoretical framework for explaining the ultimate reality, its manifestations; the nature of the universe, creation and dissolution; and the nature of self, bondage and liberation. (ii) The second part (Yoga-paada) covers the six-limbed yoga (sadanga: asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dhyana, dharana and samadhi) as also the aspects of the physical (bahiranga) and mental (antaranga) disciplines and the essential purity in living and thinking (shuddhi). The aspect of dhyana receives detailed treatment in many of the Agama texts. (iii) The third segment Kriya – paada (rituals) articulates with precision, the principles and practices of deity worship – the mantras, mandalas, mudras etc; the mental disciplines required for the worship; the initiation (diksha) process, the role of the preceptor (acharya) ,the rules for constructing temples and sculpting the images. They also specify the conduct of other worship services, rites, rituals and festivals. (iv) The fourth one, Charya-paada, deals with priestly conduct and other related aspects; as also the austerity, purity in conduct; and devotion to one‘s own Agama in outlook and in practice. 27.3. It is usually the last two segments of the Agama texts – Kriya and Charya paadas – which deal directly with temple or worship. These receive greater emphasis because of their application in the day-to-day worship practices. These are the segments that are in greater use by the priestly class following the Vaishnava-agama – tradition (paddathi) in their day-to-day observances. This seems quite natural, considering that the Agamas in the present-day are mainly related to the temple and its worship practices. [The Shaiva Agamas, in contrast, seem to attach greater importance to the first paada (jnana) than to the other three paadas]. 27.4. The four paadas complement each other; and they all contribute towards the same objective. They all aim at the twin rewards (viniyoga or phala) of liberation from bonds of samsara (mukthi); and prosperity and wellbeing in worldly life (bhukthi).The Agama texts point out that the two aspects are equally important. They decry a person seeking salvation for self without discharging his duties and responsibilities towards his family and fellowmen. And, they therefore praise the virtuous life of a householder as the foundation which supports the other three stages of life; and as the best among the four stages. 28.1. The Agama prescriptions form the basis for worship practices at home or at Temples, as it exists today. They, in fact, cover the entire gamut of activities associated with temples, its functions and its purpose. These include , among other things, the training manuals meant for the performing priests, their initiation into worship-service; the worship attitudes and procedures specially designed for each type of deity; the details of daily rituals, occasional celebrations, festivals etc. 28.2. The Agama texts also give elaborate details about the theories of creation, ontology, cosmology, nature of the universe, the relations that exists between god-world- man, observances of religious rites, rituals, and festivals as also the rules (grihya-sutra) of domestic rites , household life, community living , and celebration of public festivals (uthsava). Agama- Tantra 29.1. Agamas and Tantras are a vast collection of knowledge and form a major portion of religious literature and practices. The two are of similar nature; and share common ideology. Both are dualistic in their outlook and approach. It is the sort of duality that aims at unity. Agamas and Tantra are based in the faith that every experience in this world bears subject-object relation; this world is a passage towards perfection; and the visible is the way to the invisible. Both address the fundamental question: how to gain the direct experience (sakshatkara) of the highest. And, both are primarily concerned with devising practical means of dedicated- action to attain the goal. Both idealize the faith of a person seeking unity with ones ideal of God or the Supreme whose grace alone can save her/him from samasara the misery of worldly involvements. Devotion and implicit surrender is the key to their Sadhana. Without surrender there is no possibility of success. 29.2. Agama and Tantra texts deal with same subjects; adopt the same principles; and quote same set of authorities. It is said; Agama is essentially a tradition and Tantra is technique. But, Agama is wider in its scope; and contains aspects of theory, discussion and speculation about a range of issues. Agamas cover various other subjects with particular reference to worship of the deity installed in the temple. In that context, Agamas discus the minute details of appropriate worship services to be conducted at the temple during each part of the day; yogic disciplines and mental attitudes required of the worshipper. They also indirectly cover various other fields of knowledge such as grammar, etymology, chandas, astrological significances, conduct of a devotee, ethical values in life , observances of religious rites, rituals, and festivals etc. The other important aspect addressed by the Agamas is the Devalaya – vastu- shilpa, temple architecture. Agama -Shilpa 30.1. The Agama texts state that if an image has to be worshipped it has to be worship – worthy. The rituals and sequences of worship are relevant only in the context of an adorable icon installed in the heart of the shrine. And the icon is meaningful when its shrine aptly reflects its glory. The temple should be in harmony with the essential character of its presiding deity; and the temple complex should also truly reflect the attributes of its associate gods and goddesses. The worship services are, therefore, structured by Agama texts having in view the nature of the deity and of the shrine in which it resides. 30.2. It is in this context that Agama texts forge a special relationship with Shilpa shastra which is basic to iconography; and, in particular, with devalaya-vastu-shilpa the temple architecture and design. The involvement of the Agamas with temple architecture is based in the faith that the temple, in truth, is the expansion or outgrowth of its presiding deity installed in the innermost sanctum of the shrine. And, it believes that the temple must be built for the idol, and not an idol got ready for a temple already built, for the temple verily is the expanded reflection of the icon. 30.3. The Agamas thus get related to icons and temple structures, rather circuitously. And, this is how the Agama literature makes its presence felt in the Shilpa-Sastra. 31.1. The Shilpa aspects of the Agamas cover in elaborate detail the principal elements of devalaya-vastu-shilpa, temple architecture such as: the suitable requirements of the temple site (sthala), temple tank (teertha) and the idol (murthy); dimensions, directions and orientations of the temple structures; the suitable building materials; the specifications, the sculpting and carving details of the image of the deity to be installed; as also the placement and orientation of supplementary deities within the temple complex etc. Thus, the icon and its form; the temple and its structure; and the rituals and their details, are all meaningfully interrelated. 31.2. In due course, each branch of Agama tended to create set of its own texts. That gave rise to a new class of texts and rituals. And that coincided with the emergence of the large temples. It is not therefore surprising that town-planning, civil constructions and the arts occupy the interest of early Agamas. Agama – approach 32.1. The Agama Shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two ways. It can be viewed as nishkala, formless – absolute; or as sakala having specific aspects. Nishkala is all-pervasive and is neither explicit nor is it visible. It is analogues, as the Agama texts explain, to the oil in the sesame-seed, fire in the fuel, butter in milk, and scent in flower. It is in human as antaryamin, the inner guide. It has no form and is not apprehended by sense organs, which includes mind. Sakala, on the other hand, is explicit energy like the fire that has emerged out of the fuel, oil extracted out of the seed, butter that floated to the surface after churning milk or like the fragrance that spreads and delights all. That energy can manifest itself in different forms and humans can approach those forms through appropriate means. The Agamas recognize that means as the archa, the worship methods unique to each form of energy-manifestation or divinity. 32.2. The Upanishads idealize the Godhead as formless, attribute-less absolute. The God here is the most sublime concept. Yet; one has to concede that concrete representation of such a God is theoretically impossible. The human mind with its limitations cannot easily comprehend God in absolute. It tries to grasp the divine spirit; bestow a form to the formless (Na cha rupam vina devo dyatum kenapi sakyate: Vishnu Samhita 29. 51). The worship through image helps the devotee : to visualize the incomprehensible divinity in chosen form and attributes; to give substance to one‘s notion of God so that he devotee may dwell on it and engage himself in a certain service ; and, realize her/his aspirations . Else, the mind of an ordinary person might lapse into drowsiness or his/her attention may wither away. 32.3. The worshipper following Agama tradition fully appreciates the Vedic monism and its ideal of formless Brahman that pervades all existence. Yet, he finds comfort in the duality of Tantra and Agama rituals. The worshipper is aware, all the while, that the forms (murti), sounds (mantras) and diagrams (mandalas) employed in worship are just human approximations and are inadequate representations of God (prathima svalpa buddhinaam). Yet, he tries to find through them an approach to the Supreme. 32.4. He would argue: It is not very important whether the medium of worship you choose is either Agni or something else; but it is the archa with devotion and sincerity of purpose that truly matters. Here, faith is more significant than precepts; procedures more significant than concepts and symbolism more relevant than procedures. 33.1. The most widespread rituals of worship today are of the Agamic variety which includes elements of Tantra. The Agama methods are worship of images of God through rituals (Tantra), symbolic charts (Yantra) and verbal symbols (Mantra). The symbolism behind this method of worship is that God pervades the universe and that the entire creation is his manifestation in myriad ways. All the forms of his manifestation are but aspects (vibhuthi) of the Divine .There can exist no object, no form of any sort which is not divine in its nature. Any name, any form that appeals to the heart of the worshipper is gracefully accepted as a representation or manifestation of the Divine. 33.2. Following that, one‘s chosen form of the divine (ishta-devata) is regarded as a concrete and a specific expression of the formless. Vishnu Purana (2.14.32) offers a beautiful analogy to explain the concept of the idol that one loves to worship. It compares the worship-images fashioned according to one‘s heart-desire (mano-kamana) to the notes of the flute. It says; the air that fills the player, the air that flows through the column of the flute, and the air that flies out of the holes of the flute, are but different aspects of the same air that fills the whole emptiness of existence. But, it is the specific vibrations, the modalities and the patterns of relations of the air that flows in and out of the flute that creates the sweetness of the melodious musical notes. From an absolute point of view, all the air that flows in and around the world is but one. But, the same air in its relative form and with its delicate differences creates cognizable sounds and melodies that are enjoyable. Similarly, the all-pervading divine essence can be better grasped when given specific forms through human ingenuity, imagination and love. 34.1. Agama regards devotion and complete submission to the deity as fundamental to pursuit of its aim; and hopes that wisdom, enlightenment (jnana) would follow, eventually, by the grace of the worshipped deity. The Agama is basically dualistic, seeking grace, mercy and love of the Supreme God, represented by the personal deity, for liberation from earthly attachments (moksha). 34.2. The Agama texts hold the view that japa (recitation of mantra as initiated by the Guru), homa (oblations offered in Agni accompanied by appropriate hymns), dhyana (meditation on the aspects of divinity) and archa are the four methods of approaching the divine. And, of these, the 4. eleven Rudras. and is the most accepted approach. Nigama. the aspect of space. has come to mean Vedas. such as the wheel. and Surya the universal energy and life that sustains and governs all existence.archa (worship of the icon) is the most comprehensive method. as Nigamantadeshika. Therefore. of course. The Agama-Tantra tradition is as important and as authentic as the Vedic tradition. in the later ages. The idea of multiple forms of divinity was in the Vedas . Agama is distinct from Nigama. The Vedas did however employ a number of symbols. goad and vehicles etc. Vedas and Agamas are intimately related. the first approach (japa) is through a pattern of sounds (nada/shabda). Those comprised twelve Adityas. a formless absolute entity manifesting itself in phenomenal world of names and forms. foot-prints. 35. The Agama which is allied to Tantra regards God as a personal deity with recognizable forms and attributes. It is archa. eight Vasus. 36. in the heavenly . Nigama is that by which one learns. energy and life on earth. For instance. since Panini (6. Agama. independent of concrete representations.3. The Agama claims that it provides the practical application and the means of action for realizing the teaching of the Vedas and Vedanta. aspects of energy and life. at times. Archana in temples is an integrated mosaic of individual and congregational worship. The two traditions. procedure and rituals of deity worship in the temples.13). And. while Nigama is synonym for Veda.3.1. the directional forces.They spoke about thirty-three divinities classified into those of the earth. just as Tantra is distinct from Veda.1. however. the worship of a deity individually and in communion with the gathering of devotees that is easiest. the ways of worship. If Veda is taken to mean knowledge. Their preoccupation was more with the nature. even during the later times the two terms were used interchangeably.2. Further. one knows (nigamyate jnayate anena iti nigamah: Sabda – kalpa -druma). noose. These symbols.1. Agama -Nigama 35. Agama is closely linked to Tantra. It is explained. movement and air in the mid-region. Agni. and path to salvation etc . aspects ferocious nature. Meditation (dhyana) is. 36. omnipotent. heaven and intermediate regions. The aspects of the thirty-three divinities were later condensed to three viz. The Agama shastra is basically concerned with the attitudes. Vayu. became a part of the vocabulary of the iconography. All these three are individual approaches. abstract divinities and not so much with their physical representations. relationship between man and God. Sri Vedantadeshika is also addressed. in addition to the earth and the space. generally. 36. hold divergent views on matters such as God. stands for Tantra. umbrella.2. The Vedas do not discuss about venerating the icons. It is said. though the icons (prathima or prathika) were known to be in use.The Vedic concept of God is omniscient. the archa includes in itself the essentials of the other three approaches as well. while the second (homa) is through the medium of Agni. lotus. This is the faith on which the Agama shastra is based. 36. the aspect of fire. spear. (samskaara). While the Vedic rituals lay a great emphasis on fire rituals and the sacrifices.Its ultimate aspiration is the unity of the worshipper and worshipped. the gods and their descriptions are. certain religious and domestic rituals. the space. a direct experience (sakshatkara)of his highest ideal. Vedic worship is centred on the fire (the Yajna) the visible representation of the divine. 38. These symbolic activities strengthen the individual‘s conviction and help her/him to bind a harmonious relation with the object of worship. the Agamas recommend worship of images of gods as the efficient means to salvation. The Vedanta ideals of the absolute. As compared to Yajnas. common people worship variety of gods in variety of ways for variety of reasons. symbolic. therefore.1.3. And.region. the supreme divinity with attributes. It is for this reason the Agamas are called pratyaksha Shastra (the science of real experience). the Brahma. Shiva and Vishnu. on his own. very few of Vedic rituals are in common practice today. following the Agamas is. attribute. in practice. performed with exuberance in presence and view of large number of persons participating with gaiety and enthusiasm. But. and. Tantra – Agama regards its rituals as a sort of direct communication between the worshipper (upasaka) and his or her personal deity (upasana-devata). The Yajur and Sama Vedas do refer to conduct of Yajnas. the tantric rites are conducted in quiet privacy within secret enclosures or in secluded spots. The hymns of the Rig Veda are the inspired outpourings of joy and revelations through sublime poetry. Vedic approach to divinity is collective in character involving a number of priests specialized in their branch of learning and having specific roles to play in the conduct of the Yajna. The aim of Agamika. safety and prosperity.less and limit-less universal consciousness were evolved during later times as refinements of those Vedic concepts. calls for quiet contemplation. needs and aspirations. The worship rendered are relevant in the context of each ones idea of god.2. The Agamas provide well defined and time tested practices leading towards that ideal. and. The Yajnas always take place in public places and are of congregational nature. . fears and hopes. intensity and self-discipline as demanded by its texts. 37.. The Yajnas are celebrations. In this tradition. The Upanishads are the pinnacles of idealism that oversee all horizons. The approach of Agama is dualistic: that of a man seeking God the Supreme whose grace alone can save him from samasara the misery of worldly involvements. the ardent aspirant. (shrauta sutraas and griyha sutraas). and not presented as icons for worship. mostly. Rig Veda at many places talks in terms of saguna.1. This provided the basis for the evolution of the classic Indian trinity. but they also suggest certain esoteric symbolic meaning. to gain. and the sacraments. Sadhana Shastra (the science of spiritual practice) and Upasana Shastra. 37. 37. TheTantra or Agamic worship is individualistic in its orientation. Its way is through rituals (tantra) employing word symbols (mantra) and charts (yantra). the pleasures and pains of life. The Agama texts no doubt extol knowledge. though such knowledge is not systematized. 39. The temple worship. This has the advantage of claiming impressive validity from Nigama. In the Nigama tradition greater attention is paid to the knowledge of the gods. is guided by its related Agama texts which invariably borrow the mantras from the Vedic traditions and the ritualistic details from Tantric traditions. while installing the image of the deity. Agama texts.Hence the various ritual practices – mental and physical. clarify that worship-action (karma) and liberating wisdom are secondary to deep devotion. It is this element of devotion that has given rise to temple-worship and the ritual-culture associated with it.3. but they also emphasize that without ritualistic action mere knowing is ineffective and rather pointless. archana whose shape is symbolic. devotion is understood as intense involvement in worship of the deity (pujadi sva anugraha bhaktih). The Upasaka worships the divine through the medium of bera. Further. And. Agamas believe that the worshipper must identify himself with the object of his worship: na devo devam archayet ( one cannot worship a deity unless one becomes that deity) . the Agama harmonized within itself the elements of Veda and Tantra. in course of time there was reproachment between the two. but they also emphasize that without ritualistic action rendered with devotion.1. all aiming to achieve this identification. mantras and mudras are employed. the Vedas. To put it in another way.The two virtues are regarded the primary requisites for attaining wisdom or enlightenment (jnana) leading to the path of salvation.2. In the Agama context. 40. carrying out popular methods of worship. 39. however. per se. but the Agamas borrowed this practice from the Tantra school and combined it with the Vedic ceremony of ―opening the eyes of the deity with a needle‖. For instance.2. any sort of knowledge is ineffective and is rather pointless. Although Agama and Nigama traditions started on divergent approach. invoking the presence of the deity in one‘s body (nyasa). and at the same time.38. murthi.the Agama texts no doubt extol knowledge. In due course the Agama came to be accepted as a subsidiary culture (Vedanga) within the Vedic framework. 39. the Grihya Sutras do not envisage Pranaprathistapana ritual (transferring life into the idol by breathing life into it).1. . The Agama texts combined the rules of the Grihya sutras with the Tantric practices and formed their own set of rules.2. the Bodhayana shesha sutra and Vishhnu-pratishtha kalpa outline certain rite for the installation of an image of Vishnu and for conducting other services. 40. The most distinctive feature of Agamas is immense devotion (Bhakthi) and submission to the will of god (prapatthi). Even in performance of rituals.3.meditation . visualization. Agama – Nigama rapprochement 40. Tantra-Agama barrowed many details from Vedic tradition and adopted many more. largely. and the latter is external worship characterized by splendour. But. to the personified god who is revered as the most venerated guest and as the Lord of Lords who presides over the universe . pranayama (regulation of breath to enable contemplation of the divinity). 41. they did not reject the Tantric rituals and Tantric mantras altogether. the rituals to be performed and the festivals to be celebrated. 41. They form the basis for worship practices at temples. its activities and its purpose. They prescribe the structure and architecture of various kinds of temples. in open. as it exists today. The Agamas in the present day find their full expression in temple. The worships that take place in the sanctum and within the temple premises are important.While rendering worship-services to the deity. They complement each other. dhyana (contemplation). The worship in a temple has to satisfy the needs of individuals as also of the community. The Agamas. adopted the Vedic style homas and Yajnas.3. As regards the external worship it involves several kinds of service sequences (Shodasha Upachara) submitted. in full view of the worshipping devotees. either through image or formless fire or otherwise.2. exuberance . The temple worship ritual has two other distinct aspects. spectacle and an overflow of religious fervour. Agamas accommodate collective worship along with individual worship that is characteristically private when performed at home.4. In manasa puja. They in fact cover the entire gamut of activities associated with temples.worship. While the worship of the deity in the sanctum might be an individual‘s spiritual or religious need . either in communities or in private. The inner worship involving Tantric rituals that takes place in the privacy of the sanctum is more significant than the external worship These are in a sequence such as shudhi (purification of elements). devotion . mudras (assumption of appropriate and effective gestures). Agama – Temple worship 41. The worship of deities in public or at home might be the immediate cause for emergence of Agama traditions. 40. the festival s are the expression of a community‘s joy .1. The former is the inner worship (manasa puja or antar yajna) of the antaryamin (the inner being) residing in ones heart. The worshipper visualizes and contemplates on the resplendent form of the deity as abiding in his own heart. The Agamas deal with all types of worship practices followed either in temples or at home. the customs to be followed. God is the worshipper‘s innermost spirit. mantra (words to help realize the deity in worshipper‘s heart) and mandala (diagrams representing aspects of divinity). the symbolic and the actual which is secondary. the Agamas reduced the use of Tantric mantras. soham_bhava (identity of the worshipper with the worshipped). waving lights etc. though such practices were not a part of the Vedic mode of worship. pride and are also an idiom of a community‘s cohesiveness . so are the festivals and occasional processions that involve direct participation of the entire community. and instead adopted Vedic mantras for services such as offering ceremonial bath. . Sarup & Sons (2002) . Apart from that. In the subsequent parts let‘s talk about specific branches of the Agama. That is so far as Agama in general is concerned. The temple and iconic worship may appear like tantric. drama and other performing arts. processions. The worship routine is rendered more colourful and attractive by presentations of music. but each in its sphere. Tantra: its mystic and scientific basis by Lalan Prasad Singh . Abhinav Publications (2007) 2. In next lets touch upon Vaikhanasa Agama a major branch of the Vaishnava Agama. Thus. All these elements combine harmoniously in the service of the deity and create an integrated Temple –culture. 41. 42. procedures and symbolism. Tribal roots of Hinduism by SK Tiwari . without conflict or contradiction. The Janapada includes periodic Utsavas. The Agama mode of worship invariably borrows the mantras from the Vedic traditions along with ritualistic details from Tantric traditions. dance. adoring the deity with flowers. playacting.5. attitudes and devotion.4. singing. the Agama practices combine in themselves the elements from yoga.Concept Publishing Company (1976) 3. You find that temple worship is judicious mix (misra) of: the Vedic mantras and its vision of the divine. A Companion to Tantra by S C Banerji . spectacular fireworks . dancing. or waving lights. The rituals here are a combination of concepts. The worship practices that are followed in the temples are truly an amalgam of dissimilar streams of ideologies and practices. offerings of various kinds etc. colourful lighting. 41. both the Agama worship-sequences and the symbolic Tantric rituals take place. Each of these finds its relevance in its own context. The services are rendered with gratitude. the Agamic worship practices. the tantric rituals with their elaborate symbolisms. love and devotion to the accompaniment of chanting of passages and mantras taken from Vedas. processions and celebrations in which the entire community participates with great enthusiasm. at the temple. Continued in Part Three . These also ensure larger participation of the enthusiastic devotees. the discipline of Yoga and its symbolic purification gestures. as also various forms of physical austerities accompanied by sincere prayers.1. Vedic mantras are chanted in traditional manner while performing services such as ceremonial bath. However. purana and Janapada the popular celebrations where all segments of the community joyously participate with great enthusiasm and devotion. in practice the worship at temples involves both homa and archa rituals. and.Vaikhanasa Agama References and Sources 1. the exuberance and gaiety of folk festivals.(lokadyaksha). Tantra Tags: Agama. Tantra Tantra – Agama – Part One – Tantra 12 Oct [This article is primarily about Agama.htm 8. The Perspective of the Tantras By K. nigama. Agama Kosha by Prof. signifies tradition. Since Agama is closely aligned to Tantra.61). Agama is also that which helps to understand things correctly and comprehensively. according to Jaya-mangala. Agama temple worship. primarily. which command faith. it is a way of life.com/essay-chapters/Evolution-of-Tantra-1.1.145.com/tantra/sas/sas04. Agama history.sacred-texts. Kalpataru Research Academy (1994) 6. Agama represents the previously ordained practices generally held in esteem (Agama loka-dharmanaam maryada purva-nirmita . Tantra Shastra and Veda by Sir John Woodroffe http://www. The Tantras: An Overview by Swami Samarpanananda 9. Agama Tantra. The term Agama. Agama Nigama. SK Ramachandra Rao .Mbh 8.4. The Tantric way by Ajit Mukherjee and Madhu Khanna . prescribe practices for day-to-day ritualistic life. is a well ascertained (siddam siddau pramanaustu) trustworthy knowledge (shastra aptanam) that contributes to our welfare (hitam) here (vaa tra) and hereafter (para tra cha). Evolution of Tantra by Nitin Sridhar http://www.] Agama 1. Guru Dutt http://yabaluri. Its authoritative traditions. in . Agama. and.aspx 2 Comments Posted by sreenivasaraos on October 12.esamskriti. 2012 in Agama. Thames & Hudson (1977) 5. in attaining the highest objective of Man (aa jna vastu samantaccha gamyat ith agamo matah: Pingala-matha). Agama approach.htm 7.org/TRIVENI/CDWEB/theperspectiveofthetantrassept45. let‘s briefly talk about Tantra before we revert to a discussion on Agamas. Veda. 2.3.2. perform Yajnas in the Vedic mode. for a well disciplined course of right conduct and purposeful worship – actions to be followed at each stage of one‘s pursuit for attaining his/her ideal of God. is an intimate spiritual discipline comprising set of coordinated practices of faith of which rituals form part. and make use of Vedic mantras while performing the service.1. Agamas (the term Agama literally means wisdom traditionally passed on) have come down to us from the distant past through oral traditions. It is also true that Vedas and Agamas are intimately related. in its primary sense is Knowledge which liberates. darkness is not dispelled by mention of the word lamp‘. its well defined and time-tested methods of Sadhana are indeed the practical applications of the teaching of the Vedas and Vedanta. Agama. to experience a thing in its ultimate sense is to be that very thing. it is explained. And.particular. Agama provides form and substance to ones faith and to its quest. mind and spirit. as also the technique for realizing and experiencing the sublime ideals eulogized by the Vedas and its associate scriptures of knowledge. All must act. What is of prime essence is the actual. 2. unless it is supported by purposeful action.3. a single ritual act performed routinely in daily life is rather shallow.4. The Agamas do not derive their authority directly from the Vedas. on the other hand. 2. Agama assures. Tantra – Agama . It is for this reason the ancient faith of Agama has prescribed rituals. But Sadhana. healthy living in body. who have not achieved. Agama developed the esoteric teaching and practice of the Vedas into external forms suitable for the changing needs of times. 1. Truth has to be realized and brought into ones experience. as also a set of disciplines that ensure wholesome. they are Vedic in spirit and character. but. Here again. The Agama is thus a philosophy which not merely argues but acts and experiments. It combines in itself the exposition of spiritual doctrine as also the means to realize its teachings. The argument of the Agamas is that mere knowledge and discussion about That (tat) or the Truth or the Supreme Being will achieve nothing spiritually. That is not possible unless there is a definite. direct immediate experience (Sakshatkara) of the Supreme. it is a sustained and a determined endeavour to realize ones ideal of Truth. which are both symbolic and suggestive. it is said. determined and sustained action (Sadhana kriya) to attain ones ideal of Truth. 1. Agamika – Sadhana is more comprehensive. They are revered as revelations. Agama is a traditional doctrine grasped in faith. The claim of the Agama is that it provides such means of action. They represent two aspects of a fundamental question: how to realize the Truth. It points out that just talking about spiritual experience is rather purposeless: ‗mere words cannot chase away the delusion of the wandering. and will not liberate. Agama is practical philosophy (prayoga shastra) addressed to ardent aspirants. 2. Yet. The Agamas promise that if you follow their direction you will achieve Siddhi. They assert. therefore. aptly calls itself variedly as Pratyaksha Shastra.2. are not essentially treated as part of the Vedas. Sadhana Shastra and Upasana Shastra. Agama is used in South. Tantra – what is? 4. The Agama-Tantra way is as important and as authentic as the Vedic tradition. implicit obedience and unquestioned faith in the guru. 4. knowledge. aspiration. is the art of Tantra. All these are meant to fructify in direct experience of his ideal. 4. here. 4. it has come to be very closely connected with Tantra. The ritual might be external or internal by way of introspection. Ritual is the body tanu in which the spirit of Tantra manifests.2. In the Vedic context speech vak was invested with divine quality. with the help of mantra – Sadhana. itis characterized by high regard. Tantra is therefore an intuitional wisdom that liberates (tatra ya ayat tarayet yastu sa tantra parikirtitah). For instance. the learned ones name it as Tantra(tanuthe trayathe nithyam tantra mithi viduhu budhaha). which indeed is the aim of Tantra as also its justification. it is said. are symbolic activities which strengthen the aspirant‘s conviction and help him to achieve a harmonious relation with his environment in the broadest sense. in general. wherever there is the concept of duality. Tantra brings the realization of tattva (tat = That) within ones experience. Tantra and Agama cite same set of texts. mantras and mudra-s (suggestive gestures). The rituals.3. Tantra is understood as a system which leads to growth of one‘s awareness. Tantra is also Siddantha-Agama (tantriko jnana siddantah). Tantra went a step further and lent the . And. The two terms are often used interchangeably. an Agamika is also called Tantri. If Tantra is said to be in greater use in North. Ritual. quest for truth.kalpa – druma of Raja Radha Kanta Devaexplains: since Agama tries to protect the delicate balance in creation.4. use of symbolic Yantras. action.3. Tantra is a dynamic philosophy which supports life. At the same time. The encyclopaedic dictionary Shabda. 3. Tantra is the process (vidhi) or the regulation (niyama). a path which unshackles the potential of the human mind and helps one to realize the essential unity of all existence.1.2. It is perhaps because Agama is unity of a system of thought (or faith) and a body of practices. Kamikagama explains Tantra as a system which expands (vipula) on matters relating to essence (arthan) of philosophy (tattva) and mantra that help to attain liberation (tanoti vipula – arthaan tattva – mantra samanvitam. An old Tantric text Pingalamata says that Tantras are Agama with characteristics of Chhandas (that is Vedas).1. it breathes life into forms of knowledge and devises methods to realize its aims. tantram cha kurute yasmad tantram ity abhidhiyate). Agama is the Sadhana part of Tantra. higher faculty of reasoning and intuitive power leading to the path of self-realization. It involves elaborate initiation (diksha) ritual. devotion and complete surrender is the secret of Tantra –Sadhana. The Agama texts in South often include the term Tantra in their title. Tattva is the study of the Absolute principle. It is said. in fact. Another feature of Tantra is the importance it assigns to speech and its power. Tantra also stands for ritual. You cannot think of the one without thinking of the other. and Tantra is its technique (prayoga). Agama is essentially a tradition. which amplifies and nurtures knowledge (Tanyate vistaryate jnanam anena iti tantram). In practice. and secretive Sadhana.an established system of knowledge and practices. the dynamic primal energy that manifests. In the words of Sir John Woodroffe: ‗tantra. but is inseparably associated with – and influences through – his Shakthi (Prakrti). as also the passionate love for the Divine as sung in the Puranas. the shastra distinguished by sprit of enterprise and adventure. Tantra Outlook 6. Central to Tantra-faith is the concept of duality that culminates in unity. Shiva) and Prakrti (Shakthi) as put forward by Samkhya. the one cannot be differentiated from the other.offerings of flowers. Tantra. the purifying disciplines of Raja yoga.speech energy and power. Tantra claims it provides the means and the technique (upasana-prakriya) for realizing and experiencing that Truth. as a source of the amplification of consciousness… The Tantra way has been absorbed as a cultural behaviour valid for everyone and not merely to an exclusive group or sect‘ Tantra – a synthesis 5. They are essentially two aspects of One principle. sustains and finally re-absorbs the universe into itself. 5.. It asserts that Truth cannot be attained by mere knowing about it. lights the torch and shows the way.‘ ‗. dharana) etc. beliefs systems and practices. And. Sadhaka. the wisdom (viveka) and detachment (vairagya) of the Upanishads. They exhort the aspirant.. that if the Truth has to be realized and brought into ones experience. the range of manifold experiences in the world are but the expressions of Shiva-Shakthi combine.1. to exercise his/her will and strive even as they practise selfsurrender. from its very nature is an encyclopaedic science… not weighed down by the limitation of words. it surely needs Sadhana. Shiva the pure consciousness and Shakthi its creative power are eternally conjoined. yogic practices (asana. In addition. 6. theframework of the Universe composed by the dual elements of pure consciousness (Purusha. thus aims to attain plural objectives (aneka-muddisya sakrt pravrttis-tantrata). postures and gestures (nyasas and mudras). Tantra is neither religion nor mysticism but is based upon human experience in the very act of living. jnana. It is practical. Tantra is a vast and all comprehensive set of disciplines. In reality.1. bhakthi and yoga for the benefit of the ardent practitioner in his endeavour to realize his ideal.2.5. Its mantras are invariable accompanied by syllabic Bija mantras which are potent with inherent Shakthi. breath control (pranayama). Shiva (Purusha) does not act by himself. The Bija mantras of Tantric nature are subtle sounds of abstract language which attempt to visualize the un-differentiated divine principle. animates.2. incense and ritual ingredients. the whole of existence. The Tantra promises its followers Bhukthi and Mukthi: wellbeing in the present world and ultimate liberation from sorrows of the world. Tantra employs numerous techniques which include mantras. It is proudly calls itself Sadhana Shastra or Prayoga Shastra. Tantra believes that the culmination of all learning is sakshatkara the direct experience of one‘s cherished ideal. It is an accumulation of ideas and practices dating back to pre-historic times. The Tantra works accept the validity of Vedic rituals. Yantras. This Shakthi is all powerful and . 4. The Tantra synthesizes the various insights of karma. dhyana. Tantra is not a single coherent system. praying for divine grace. 3. Tantra strives to show a way to liberation here in this life whilst in this body and in this world: jivanmukthi.world 8. It does not intend to sacrifice the present world to the ‗other world‘. It is only in the relative plane that Shiva-Shakti might appear as separate entities. and as a configuration of vital currents (prana-shakthi).1. but by sustained discipline and practice while still being in the world. And. The individual is a miniature Universe. Tantra asks the aspirants to accept the world as it exists. it attempts to be free from conventional perfectionist clichés. The body is a microcosm of the universe (Brahmande ye gunah santi te tishthanti kalevare). 6. At the core of the Tantra ideology is the faith in ‗upasaka-upasya-abhedha-bhava’. It assures that the tangible world of day-to-day experiences is real. and. It asserts.3. leads to the summit of its philosophy where the upasaka comes to identify her/himself with her/his upasya-devata. Tantra‘s approach is thus practical. Tantra firmly believes. where the worshipper and the worshipped are united. and what is not here is nowhere (yadihasti tadanyatra yannehasti natatkvachit). 7. that is not achieved by denial of the world. . And. but.4. It asks the individual to respect his being for it is Isha-para the city where Shiva dwells. the Reality is unity. The purpose of Tantra is awakening the hidden potential in Man to enable him to realize this Reality. amidst its pleasures. and ‗what is here is elsewhere. and. it is not in conflict with the ‗other‘. and is also against arid speculations. It is against extreme asceticism. But. Tantra regards human body as a mandala – a matrix of energy. and is relevant in its own context. according to Tantra. and. but at the same time lays emphasis on internal purity and detachment. is not isolated but is integrated into the entire cosmic scheme. The individual. This world is a passage towards perfection. The view of the Tantra is that no realization is possible by negation or by escape from the world.infinite. 7. and he realizes his full potential when he is awakened. Tantra. his limited experience is not separated from the Absolute experience. the tangible world of actual experiences is real. and not get involved in far-fetched assumptions. 7. Tantra – Man 7. functioning at a different level. Man is a spiritual being. 8. the visible leading to the invisible. the forces that operate the world are dormant within the person. Tantra believes and says. Tantra is the cult of householders. Tantra promises Bhukthi and Mukthi: wellbeing in the present world and liberation from sorrows of the world.2. The Tantra mode of practice (upasana –prakriya).2. but aims to somehow integrate the two into the framework of liberation. to keep body and mind healthy. It does not encourage renunciation (sanyasa). an indivisible whole. which culminates in true understanding of the self. There is no conflict between this world and the ‗other world‘. The process of realization is self-discovery.1. to strive for self improvement. it is claimed. Tantra is not ‗other-worldly‘ in its outlook. 10. The two most ancient mighty rivers of tradition could not have arisen in isolation nor could they have flourished without one influencing the other. And. of whatever caste. And. They have enriched our lives in countless ways. Apparently. And. hardly any aspect of Indian thought and usage is outside the scope of all embracing twininfluence. there cannot be a religious ceremony without the recitation of Vedic mantras. it is wiser to transform the disintegrating forces into integrating ones. On the other hand. Each aspirant has to strive to realize the true nature of self and attain salvation‘. Veda and Tantra 10. and recognizes the urge of natural human desires.approach was more open and radical. the orthodox followers of Vedic tradition tried to distance themselves from Tantric ideologies and stress that Tantra is not a product of Vedic wisdom. It admits the ever ongoing conflict between flesh and spirit. in the general perception.3. It says: ‗understanding Tantra is by doing it‘. Veda and Tantra are two life-streams of Indian heritage. Tantra cautions: ‗There is no salvation by proxy.1. Hence the Tantra dictum: ‗that by which one falls is also that by which one rises‘ (Yatraiva patanam dravyaih.1. Sri Aurobindo therefore remarks: ‗tantra turns the very obstacles to spiritual realisation into stepping stones. In the context of its times. It is rather complex.Tantra – approach 9.2. for any such attempt binds one into a vicious circle from which there is no escape. and for all women‖ (Sarva – varna. 9. their mutual relations over the centuries have not always been comfortable. the Tantra. The essence of Tantra is direct experience. Tantra appeals to the common aspirations. Though Tantra is more visible in our day-to-day practices. are the warp and woof of the Indian culture and traditions.3. The Gautamiya Tantra declares: ―The Tantra is for all men. the desire can be overcome by desire. 9. cultural and intellectual life. . the two are not only mutually exclusive but also are opposed to each other. Though the Vedic and Tantra traditions are often considered as parallel streams or even as intertwined.2. Tantra sets out its approach through direct action. the Veda and Tantra are distinct currents of India‘s spiritual. It is not feasible either to destroy or to subjugate the object altogether. it willingly admitted into its common fold (samanya) the women and sudras hitherto kept outside the pale of religious practices.adhikaraschcha naarinam yogya eva cha). and definitely not through hired priests. every human experience bears a subject-object relation. Tantra overlooked the artificial restrictions imposed by caste and gender discrimination. in contrast to Vedic rituals performed indirectly through the priests. And.‘ This is a truly distinctive feature of Tantra. 10. the enjoyer and the enjoyed. Yet. siddhis-tatireva). Tantra makes an amazing statement: even as the object can be overcome only by the object. Veda is knowledge and Tantra is cult that aims at liberation. Tantra ideology explains. The Tantra.For instance. away from the conventional purist clichés. The assertions that the Vedas come within the scope of Tantra or that the Vedas originated from Tantra are rather intriguing. Tantra is origin of Vedas 12. in sharp contrast. The Yajnas are occasions of great celebration where a large numbers participate enthusiastically. Here. Contrasts 11. and it is very unlikely. of the Yajnas. a branch of Tantra. 11. Narayaniya-tantra. Yajur Veda from Vishnu Yamala.14th century).1. In the Vedic tradition. Its approach to gods is of collective character. The Tantra ideology is. and it might have overstated its position in order to elevate the Tantra School.2. The Tantric aspirant strives to communicate directly with object of her/his worship. is highly individualistic in its approach.2.4. Narayaniya-tantra claims that the Vedas were derived from the Tantra-sources: Rig Veda from Rudra yamala. much attention is given to knowledge – the knowledge of gods.1) states that Sruti or the revealed word is twofold: Vaidiki and Tantriki (vaidiki tantriki caiva dvividha sruti kirtita). Kulluka Bhatta (15th century). one of the commentators of Manava-Dharmasastra (2. indeed.1. 13. often described as ‗symbolic wisdom. Tantra perhaps developed largely outside the establishment and in the process developed its own outlook and approach to life. on the other hand. involving a number of priests and adepts specialized in each part of the Yajna. Nigama stands for Veda and Agama is a system of practices inspired by Tantra ideology. Tantra is upasana-prakriya based in symbolic representations (sanketa prakriya).Tantra. without the mediation of priests. 12. There are other assertions that try to bind the two traditions together by saying that Veda and Tantra are braches of a single system. mentioned above.2. It is very unlikely that Veda originated from Tantra. The orthodox assert: ‗Tantra is cult and Veda is enlightened philosophy‘ . There is another saying which declares that Veda is. is of recent origin (c. Some Tantra-texts go a step further and assert that Vedas originated from Tantra ideology . For instance. and assures it is not in conflict with Veda or . Tantra – Veda – compatible 14. 13.10. The traditional view is that Tantra and Veda are two distinct strands of Indian cultural fabric.1. directly communicated through the teacher (sanketha-vidya guru-vakthra – gamya).1. put forth their own arguments. and Atharva Veda from Shakthi Yamala. Sama Veda from Brahma Yamala. Some texts of Tantra acknowledge that Vedas are of great antiquity and are highly revered. Tantra accepts the authority of the Vedas. The Agama texts state that the discipline known as Tantra is twofold in nature: Agama and Nigama (agamam nigamam chaiva tantra-sastram dvividha matham). The Tantra School points out that the Samhitas (mantra portion of Vedas) and the Yajna. Tantra calls itself the driving force spreading the light of knowledge (Veda): ‗Tanyate. Kularnava Tantra says (2.rituals are entwined.2. The difference of Tantra lies in its method and certain subtle points of philosophy. vistaryate jñanam anena. The Samhita associated with the practical aspects Yajnas was elaborated in the later Brahmana texts. For instance. adopted the Vedic deities and concepts for purposes of esoteric meditation. simulating the relation between science and technology. 14. Above all. The Puranas conserved and propagated the exoteric ritualistic aspects of the Vedas through the medium of wonderfully delightful legends that common people could relate to and enjoy. and also partly because of it attempts to give a new interpretation to Vedic elements. The Tantra brought into its fold the esoteric teaching and practice of the Vedic mystics. in the main. in their own context. It is therefore argued that the Brahmanas are. the later Upanishads took up to Mantra shastra or Varna sadhana. 14. are about the actual performance of the Yajna. But. The hymns of Yajur Veda.It synthesized all those adorable elements and turned them into forms of worship-practices (archa) designed to satisfy the needs and aspirations of ordinary men and women of the world. constitute the tantra or technique of the Vedas. Tantra argues. the Tantra of the Vedas.141) that Kuladharma is based on and is inspired by the Truth of Veda (tasmat vedatmakam shastram viddhi kaulatmakam priye). and the sense of absolute surrender and intense devotion to ones ideal as extolled in the Puranas . 15. Characteristically.2. there appears to be some substance in other arguments of Tantra School.any other recognized Shastra. 85. the Veda in the distant past was highly idealized poetry inspired by awe and wonder of the surrounding nature and a yearning for a true understanding of the mysteries of the Universe. it said. it is partly because its approach is different. But soon. a bulk of them is attached to the Atharva Veda having direct affinity with the Tantra.140. The mantras of Rig Veda and Sama Veda are concerned with offering Yajnas to various deities. as already said. Vedas may not have originated from Tantra. The growth and development of Indian thought . The Upanishads are appendices to the Brahmanas which. Over the centuries. The Tantra School explains that if one gets the impression that Tantra is opposed to Vedas. it essentially teaches the same tenets as the Vedas. 15. the culmination of the philosophies of Vedanta and Samkhya. magical and other purposes. in aim and content and even in form. the Atharva Veda along with its mystic invocations is also about the practices known as abhicara the practical applications for medicinal. The tantra ideology projects itself as the natural evolution of the thought process. In the Indian context. The older Upanishads. It is the progression from principles and theories to their practical applications. in fact. The Upanishads that followed took up the germ ideas hidden in the philosophical hymns of the Vedas and expanded them into series of discussions. yoga and Yajna. the movement of all thought process has been from the general to the particular. in fact. Pranatoshini tantra claims: ‗Veda is an extension of Tantra‘. The Tantra School argued that Tantra-ideology is thus at the core of the Vedas. It is. from esoteric to the more explicit. iti Tantram‘. the techniques of Yoga.3.1. Vedic elements were introduced into Tantra texts to lend them greater acceptance. and must have faith in the Vedas. 17. l. in course of time there was reproachment between the two. its intent is not easily understood.For instance. it was adopted by Tantra as the representation of the Mother Goddess. 3). it arrived to rejuvenate the Vedic texts and also to rescue men from the depths of depravity. Further. The recital of Vedic hymns now accompanies the various worship-rituals of Tantric . Tantra called itself the culmination of esoteric knowledge of Vedanta. imaginative pattern. And. and. an air of authenticity and respectability. came to be known as a special branch of Veda: Srutishakha-vishesha. Although Tantra and Vedic traditions started on divergent approach. Some Tantra-texts even remark that Vedas had become too distant and rather outdated because of their extreme (viparita) age.3. 4) and the Vishnu-Samhita (S.3. Tantra developed texts in the mode of Vedic scriptures. and the two came closer. says. 3. although the celebrated Gayatri mantra (3. Skanda-Samhita (S. the Smrti-texts represent middle-times. The men of the present age no longer have the capacity. 2. it prescribes a special sadhana or means of its own. to enable common people to attain the objectives of Shastra. 3. And.2. the Vedas represent distant past.1. 5. For the worship of gods – Ganesha. the ancient Vedic mantra Savitri was accepted as the Mother – goddess (asya maata Savitri: Manu. a true believer (astika). It even said. longevity and moral strength necessary to carry out Vedickarma-kanda. l. 16. Its originality lies in the manner it organized various components into a creative. the Puranas represent mythical past. In a like manner. 3.1.12) glorified Gayatri as being that which exists right here. The Tantra texts assert that the Tantra-Sadhaka must be a pure person (shuddhatma). 15. Karthikeya and Vishnu – the Sama-Vidhana-Brahmana prescribed the collection of hymns known as Vinayaka Samhita (S. 16. 9). Tantra – Veda – reproachment 16. It is said. it is the Tantra and Agamas that are most relevant.170). the Vedic tradition admitted within its fold the Samkhya and Yoga Schools aligned to Tantra ideology. 4. The Tantra in general simplified the Vedic rituals and made greater use of esoteric symbols.resembles the imagery of the inverted tree – of which our ancients were very fond – with its roots in the sky and its fruit-laden branches spreading down towards the earth.6) was adopted for worship of Shakthi. that which sings (gayati ) and saves (trayati) all things in their Reality. And today. Its roots are lost in the distant antiquity. V. The Dhyana-slokas portray the picture of a goddess. therefore Tantra.10) of Rig Veda is dedicated to the Vedic solar deity Savitr. Kaula rites were interpreted through the imageries of the Yajna. For instance. and. The orthodox texts accommodated the concepts transformed from Tantra. V.2. the Vedic religion in its essence has survived and spread to common people through Tantra. Similarly the hymn of benediction from Rig Veda (1. respectively. V. The repetition of the Gayatri is preceded by mystic syllables known as Vyahritis which are similar to the Bija-aksharas of Tantric meditation. many of the later Upanishads of sectarian character are about Tantric subjects. 3.62. Tantra drew many details from Vedic and Yoga traditions and adopted many more with suitable additions and alterations. and. Tantra claimed.89. Some say. Chandogya Upanishad (3. its gods and its rites are almost relics of the past. Therefore. 2. almost entirely. 18. every religious sect in India uses tantric modes of worship for its rituals and spiritual practices – both external and internal. maintaining various ritual fires at home) have become too difficult for our age. Tantra seems an easier cult with easier doctrine. The devotee prays for happiness. and mystic aspects. The Hindu.nature. . of all Indian spiritual practices. and yet attractive to worship and to address their prayers. dedication and complete submission to the chosen deity (ishta-devata) fulfils the deepest desire of all. Despite its blemishes and the abuses it received. The Tantra doctrine and worship. and punishes the evil. The legends vividly narrated by the Puranas sound fantastically unrealistic. and are beyond the ken of common people.1. beliefs. its gods and its view of the prospects in after. based in the Tantra philosophy of duality. The life-styles prescribed for Vedic practitioners have also become outdated. in one form or other. invoking the presence of the deity in one‘s body (nyasa). Tantra practices lead men and women to seek the divine with the help of bera. They look up to a god who loves and rescues from difficulties. They need a god to love. it lends various ritual practices – mental and physical. protects the good. The living religion of Hindus. with its dualistic approach. People need something concrete.2. 19. The Vedic ideals. is almost entirely Tantric in nature. to highly respect. simple. its sense of devotion. Tantra – Impact 18. in its outlook and in its approach to god. The common worship practices – from the lowest to the most advanced – both at home or in temples is. murti and other forms whose shape is symbolic.And.life seem too distant. The idealism of Upanishads and its contemplative philosophy are ethereal. The reasons for growing influence of Tantra are not far to seek. It provides comfort to the devotees through its ritualistic. Tantra. philosophical. to submit or even to fear.meditation. 19. The scholars hold the view: what we today have come to appreciate as Indian culture and religion is more influenced by the subtle character of Tantra than the Vedas. Except for Vedic Yajnas.rituals woven into Indian culture are now an integral part of Indian religions. the ultimate-good. to devote. and are difficult to follow. The stipulations for conduct of Vedic Yajnas have become rather impractical in the present context. success and enjoyment in the world. and practices of worship are permeated with Tantra. it is the Tantra that has greater impact on socio religious cultural practices than the Vedas. pranayama etc which are adopted from Tantra and Yoga. Tantra is the most popular mode of worship conducted at homes and in temples.The precepts of the Vedas (say. Buddhist and Jain ideas. visualization. Its importance is heightened mainly because of the fading influence of the ancient Vedic texts. At the same time she/he also has a resolve (sankalpa) for mukthi. At another level. In today‘s world.1. The common people yearn for a relation with the object of their worship. the Vedic rituals are preceded by purification rituals like achamana. There cannot a religious ceremony without the recitation of Vedic mantras . in its simple form. The Tantra ideology continues to form a part. mantras and mudras all aiming to achieve identification with the object of their worship. as practiced today. Accordingly. A Companion to Tantra by S C Banerji . Sir John Woodroffe. they vary from region to region and from time to time to satisfy the needs of the age and the aspirations of worshippers in accordance with the degree of spiritual advancement of the body of men who practice it. Abhinav Publications (2007) 2. The Agama –Tantra tradition is as important and as authentic as the Vedic tradition.sacred-texts. The two permeate the religious life of most Hindus. Tantra: its mystic and scientific basis by Lalan Prasad Singh .Concept Publishing Company (1976) 3. Tribal roots of Hinduism by SK Tiwari . The relevance of Tantra in the life of common people of today is mainly through worship practices carried out at homes and temples following the procedures laid down by Agamas. Tantra despite.org/TRIVENI/CDWEB/theperspectiveofthetantrassept45. And. its variations. all forms do change with the passage of time. Sarup & Sons (2002) 4.htm 7. Let‘s talk of Agamas in the next part. the structure and content of worship-rituals are context-sensitive.htm 8. SK Ramachandra Rao . summed it up excellently with a remarkable statement: The application of Tantric principles in worship-rituals is a question of form. The Tantras: An Overview by Swami Samarpanananda . Agama is the Sadhana part of Tantra.‘ 20. Continued in part two References and Sources 1. Kalpataru Research Academy (1994) 6.com/tantra/sas/sas04. the greatest exponent of Tantra-vidya in recent times. is a specific system within the general system of Hinduism. Guru Dutt http://yabaluri. And.2. But. Tantra Shastra and Veda by Sir John Woodroffe http://www. Thames & Hudson (1977) 5. Tantra and its rituals might therefore undergo changes over a period. in his lectures on ‗Tantra Shastra and Veda’. Agama Kosha by Prof. The Perspective of the Tantras By K.Summing up 20. The Tantric way by Ajit Mukherjee and Madhu Khanna . the ancient and sturdy foundations of Veda and Vedanta on which Tantra rests will remain unaltered and unaffected.1. com/essay-chapters/Evolution-of-Tantra-1. Tantra. They represent the culmination of social and religious aspirations of a society. 2012 in Agama. identity and unity.aspx 4 Comments Posted by sreenivasaraos on October 12. also serves as centre for education and recreation. It draws into its fold people from its various segments and denominations. nigama.esamskriti. In smaller communities the temple apart from being a source of spiritual or religious comfort. Veda. It is also the index of the community‘s wellbeing. Tantra Tags: Agama. Temple is the focal point in the life of a community and often represents its pride. . Veda and Tantra Agama Shastra And Temple Worship 07 Sep T The Hindu temples are complex institutions. and binds them together. Evolution of Tantra by Nitin Sridhar http://www.9. At the same time. pursue the service at the temple as a profession. so are the festivals and occasional processions that involve direct participation of the entire community. While the worship of the deity in the sanctum might be an individual‘s spiritual or religious need . serenity and beauty of intricate sculpture and designs. As someone remarked. pride and are also an idiom of a community‘s cohesiveness .‖ They are trained in the branch of the Agama of a particular persuasion. The worship in a temple has to satisfy the needs of individuals as also of the community. The most significant aspect of the temple worship is its collective character. a service conducted for the sake of others. devotion . A temple evokes in the visitor a sense of beauty in art and in life as well. exuberance .A temple is also a treasure house of art and architecture. The worships that take place in the sanctum and within the temple premises are important. The texts employed in this regard describe the procedural details of temple worship. designed according to the principle of Vaastu Shastra. They complement each other. elevates him to a higher plane dissolving his little ego. characterized by their majesty. ―other people may view their work as worship.religious in character. elaborately and precisely. . It is hence parartha. it awakens him to his insignificance in the grand design of the Creator. Priests. trained in ritual procedures. The rituals that dominate temple worship are therefore socio. Peoples‘ participation is both the purpose and the means of a temple. the festival s are the expression of a community‘s joy . generally. The appointed priests carry out the worship in the temple on behalf of other devotees. but for the priests worship is work. It lifts up his spirit. The community is either actually or symbolically involved in temple worship. These symbols. became a part of the vocabulary of the iconography. as the Agama texts explain. It is analogues. That energy can manifest itself in different forms and humans can approach those forms through appropriate means. The Agama shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two ways. Sakala. oil extracted out of the seed. lotus. foot-prints. It is in human as antaryamin. though the icons (prathima or prathika) were known to be in use.61). to the oil in the sesame-seed.Agama The term Agama primarily means tradition. which includes mind. The Agamas recognize that means as the archa. spear. the inner guide. is explicit energy like the fire that has emerged out of the fuel. fire in the fuel. umbrella. Agama Shastras are not part of the Vedas. in the later ages. formless – absolute. Nishkala is all-pervasive and is neither explicit nor is it visible. Agama is also that which helps to understand things correctly and comprehensively. Their preoccupation was more with the nature. goad and vehicles etc. the worship methods unique to each form of energy-manifestation or divinity. The Vedas did however employ a number of symbols. and scent in flower. abstract divinities and not with their physical representations. They are Vedic in spirit and character and make use of Vedic mantras while performing the service. Agama represents the previously ordained practices generally held in regard (Agama loka-dharmanaam maryada purva-nirmita -Mbh 8. such as the wheel. butter in milk. noose. on the other hand. It has no form and is not apprehended by sense organs.145. . or as sakala having specific aspects. butter that floated to the surface after churning milk or like the fragrance that spreads and delights all. The Vedas do not discuss about venerating the icons. It can be viewed as nishkala. The Agamas do not derive their authority directly from the Vedas. eleven rudras. eight vasus. the directional forces. .The idea of multiple forms of divinity was in the Vedas . Vayu. the aspect of fire. This provided the basis for the evolution of the classic Indian trinity. in the heavenly region. fears and hopes. Shiva and Vishnu. and Surya the universal energy and life that sustains and governs all existence. aspects of energy and life. Agni. The Upanishads are the pinnacles of idealism that oversee all horizons.They spoke about thirty-three divinities classified into those of the earth. Those comprised twelve adityas. in practice common people worshipped variety of gods in variety of ways for variety of reasons. Rig Veda at many places talks in terms of saguna. the aspect of space.less and limit-less universal consciousness evolved as refinements of those Vedic concepts. the Brahma. heaven and intermediate regions. safety and prosperity. The Vedanta ideals of the absolute. the pleasures and pains. But. movement and air in the mid-region. the supreme divinity with attributes. They are relevant in the context of each ones idea of needs and aspirations. the space. in addition to the earth and the space. energy and life on earth. attribute. aspects ferocious nature. The aspects of the thirty-three divinities were later condensed to three viz. and. certain religious and domestic rituals. the ways of worship. enlightenment (jnana) would follow. Vedic worship is centered on the fire (the Yajna).The two traditions. seeking grace. However. for liberation from earthly attachments (moksha). on the other hand. and hopes that wisdom. The Agama methods are worship of images of God through rituals (Tantra). relationship between man and God. A Tantra ritual. Agama regards devotion and complete submission to the deity as fundamental to pursuit of its aim. and in which large numbers participate with gaiety and enthusiasm. The most widespread rituals of worship today are of the Aagamic variety. by the grace of the worshipped deity.The Vedic concept of God is omniscient. (samskaara). The hymns of the Rig Veda are the inspired outpourings of joy and revelations through sublime poetry. symbolic charts (Yantra) and verbal symbols (Mantra).Veda and Tantra – hold divergent views on matters such as God. and path to salvation etc. The Agama is basically dualistic. symbolic. The Yajnas always take place in public places and are of congregational nature. (shrauta sutraas and griyha sutraas). eventually. and the sacraments. In this tradition. self discipline and intensity is its hallmark. Nigama stands for Vedas and Agama is identified with Tantra. not exuberance or enthusiasm.One often hears Agama and Nigama mentioned in one breath as if one follows the other or that both are closely related. . is always carried out in quiet privacy. where a number of priests specialized in each disciple of the Sacrifical aspects participate. The Agama which is a part of Tantra regards God as a personal deity with recognizable forms and attributes. the Tantra or Agamic worship is individualistic in character. It views the rituals as a sort of direct communication between the worshipper and his or her personal deity. but they too carry certain esoteric symbolic meaning. a formless absolute entity manifesting itself in phenomenal world of names and forms. Very few of these rituals are in common practice today. mercy and love of the Supreme God represented by the personal deity. The Yajur and Sama Vedas do contain suggestions of sacrifices. mostly. omnipotent. the gods and their descriptions are. As compared to Vedic rituals (Yajnas) which are collective in form. such as the periodic Utsavas. The Agama texts combined the rules of the Grihya sutras with the Tantric practices and formed their own set of rules. visualization and concretization of ideas and aspirations. While installing the image of the deity. The worship or service to the Deity is respectfully submitted to the accompaniment of chanting of passages and mantras taken from Vedas. which were conducted in open and in which a large number of people participated. codified the of worship practices by judicious combination of Vedic and Tantric procedures. For instance. dance. processions. In addition. the worship routine was rendered more colorful and attractive by incorporating a number of ceremonial services (upacharas) and also presentations of music. and another set of Tantric rituals are conducted by the priests in the privacy of the sanctum away from public gaze. The Agamas. and at the same time. drama and other performing arts.. playacting. but each in its sphere. A temple in Hindu tradition is a public place of worship. . This has the advantage of claiming impressive validity from Nigama. waving lights etc. at the temple. per se.. spectacular fireworks . While rendering worship to the deity the Agamas discarded the Tantric mantras. the Grihya Sutras do not envisage Pranaprathistapana ritual (transferring life into the idol by breathing life into it). as also various forms of physical austerities accompanied by sincere prayers. It could be argued that a representation of the Supreme Godhead is theoretically impossible. both the Agama worship-sequences and the symbolic Tantric rituals take place. But. the worship in a temple takes the aid several streams ideologies and practices. Here. offerings of various kinds etc.The temple worship is the culmination of dissimilar modes or streams of worship. predominantly. several sequences of worship are conducted in full view of the worshipping devotees. the Agamas did not reject the Tantric rituals altogether. is guided by its related Agama texts which invariably borrow the mantras from the Vedic traditions and the ritualistic details from Tantric traditions. dancing. the Bodhayana shesha sutra and Vishhnu-pratishtha kalpa outline certain rite for the installation of an image of Vishnu and for conduting other services. **** The temple worship . and some of them were conducted within the sanctum away from common view. carrying out popular methods of worship. Towards that end. These ensured larger participation of the enthusiastic devotees. yet one has also to concede that an image helps in contemplation. adopted the Vedic style Homas and Yajnas. singing. and instead adopted Vedic mantras even for services such as offering ceremonial bath . the Vedas. The Vaikhanasa Vasishnava archana vidhi. It also brought in the Janapada. There also plenty of celebrations where all segments of the community joyously participate (janapada) with great enthusiasm and devotion. colorful lighting. which perhaps was the earliest text of its kind. but the Agamas borrowed this practice from the Tantra school and combined it with the Vedic ceremony of ―opening the eyes of the deity with a needle‖. the popular celebrations like Uthsavas etc. though such practices were not a part of the Vedic mode of worship. In due course the Agama came to be accepted as a subsidiary culture (Vedanga) within the Vedic framework. if an image has to be worshipped. for a temple is really only an outgrowth of the icon. The fourth one. it has to be worship. It says. procedure and rituals of deity worship in the temples.worthy. That gave rise to a new class of texts and rituals. The rituals and sequences of worship are relevant only in the context of an icon worthy of worship. and coincided with the emergence of the large temples.The Agamas tended to create their own texts. The icon and its form. *** Agamas are a set of ancient texts and are the guardians of tradition .. The Texts hold the view that Japa. civil constructions and the arts occupy the interest of early Agamas. rituals and festivals. an expanded image of the icon. Charya. and such icon has to be contained in a shrine. They broadly deal with jnana(knowledge). the rules for constructing temples and sculpting the images. the mental disciplines required for the worship. homa. They also specify the conduct of other worship services. . The basic idea is that a temple must be built for the icon. That is how the Agama literature makes its presence felt in the Shilpa-Sastra. The Agama shastra is basically concerned with the attitudes. Kriya (rituals) and Charya (ways of worship). and of these. mudras etc. This is the faith on which the Agama shastra is based. and the rituals and their details. the Archa (worship) is the most comprehensive method. and with similar details]. the temple and its structure. the Buddhist and the Jaina traditions too follow this four-fold classification. It is not therefore surprising that townplanning. and not an icon got ready for the temples. rites. thus get interrelated. [Incidentally. And an icon is meaningful only in the context of a shrine that is worthy to house it.The third segment Kriya(rituals) articulate with precision the principles and practices of deity worship – the mantras. mandalas. Architecture. Yoga (meditation). But it gets related to icons and temple structures rather circuitously. deals with priestly conduct and other related aspects. dhyana and Archa are the four methods of approaching the divine. placing or fixation. Surely the Agama tradition began to flourish after the 10th or the 11th century with the advent of the Bhakthi School. the image and its specifications. directions and orientations of the temple structures. and deep concentration and contemplation (dhyaana). (nyaasa or dhaaranaa). namely. However. . The changes in religious rituals from the Vedic to the Aagamic seem consonant with the themes prevalent in the six orthodox systems.The Shipa Shatras of the Agamas describe the requirements of the temple site. I think. posture. The temple architecture too follows the structure of the human body and the six chakras‘ as in yoga. ** . (aasana). (praanaayaama). dimensions. The principal elements are Sthala (temple site). Teertha (Temple tank) and Murthy (the idol). building materials. the most of the present-day Hindu rituals of worship seem to have developed after the establishment of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy (darshanas). I am not sure about the historical development of the Agamas. Four of these eight stages are an integral part of all worship . breath (life force)control. A very significant change is the integration of Yoga methodology into the rituals. Devi the divine mother.But. Agama is wider in its scope. *** Vaikhanasa Agamas As regards Vaikhanasa. The third part specifies rules for the construction of temples and for sculpting and carving the figures of deities for worship in the temples. The first part includes the philosophical and spiritual knowledge. That may . The latter in turn has a sub branch called Tantra Sara followed mainly by the Dvaita sect (Madhwas). The Shaktha Agama prescribes the rules and tantric rituals for worship of Shakthi. and festivals. The second part covers the yoga and the mental discipline. The Shaiva branch of the Agama deals with the worship of the deity in the form of Shiva. rituals. and contains aspects oh theory. Vaishanava Agama adores God as Vishnu the protector. The fourth part of the Agamas includes rules pertaining to the observances of religious rites. Each Agama consists of four parts.There are three main divisions in Agama shastra. This branch has two major divisions Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra. the Shaktha and Vaishnava. Vaikhanasa appear to have been the first set of professional priests and they chose to affiliate to the Vedic tradition. after the emergence of temple – culture. the Shaiva. The third one. Agama is essentially a tradition and Tantra is a technique. particularly in Pancharatra. there is an element of Tantra in Agama worship too. But. This branch in turn has given rise to Shaiva Siddantha of the South and the Prathyabijnana School of Kashmir Shaivisim. The term Agama is used usually for the Shaiva and Vasishnava traditions and the Shaktha cult is termed as Tantric. but both share the same ideology. discussion and speculation. perhaps be the reason they are referred to also as Vaidikagama or Sruthagama. Yet, there is no definite explanation for the term Vaikhanasa. Some say it ascribed to Sage Vaikhanasa whowho taught his four disciples: Atri, Bhrighu, Kasyapa, and Marichi; while some others say it is related to vanaprastha, a community of forest-dwellers. Vaikhanasa claim to be a surviving school of Vedic ritual propagated by the sage Vaikhanasa. The Vaikhanasa tradition asserts that it is the most ancient; traces its origin to Vedas and steadfastly holds on to the Vedic image of Vishnu. For the Vaikhanasa, Vishnu alone is the object of worship; and that too the pristine Vishnu in his Vedic context and not as Vasudeva or Narayana. Though it admits that Vasudeva or Narayana could be synonyms for Vishnu, it prefers to address the Godhead as Vishnu, the Supreme. Vaikhanasa worship is, therefore, essentially Vishnu oriented. And, it assures that when Vishnu is invoked and worshipped, it means the presence of all other gods and their worship too (Vishnor archa sarva devarcha bhavathi).Hence, according to Vaikhanasa, worship of Vishnu means worship of all gods. Agama Grihya sutras explain: the Godhead is formless –nishkala; filled with luster tejomaya; beyond comprehension achintya; and is of the nature of pure existence, consciousness and bliss sat-chit-ananda; and abides in the heart-lotus -hridaya-kamala- of the devotee. But because of the limitations of the human mind the worship of Brahman –with form, sakala, is deemed essentialfor all of us who live ordinary lives. The human mind finds it easier to deal with forms, shapes and attributes than with the formless absolute.A sense of devotion envelops the mind and heart when the icon that is properly installed and consecrated is worshipped with love and reverence.By constant attention to the icon, by seeing it again and again and by offering it various services of devotional worship, the icon is invested with divine presence and its worship ensures our good here (aihika) and also our ultimate good or emancipation (amusmika).That is the reason the texts advise that icon worship must be resorted to by all, especially by those involved in the transactional world. In the Agama texts, the Nishkala aspect continues to be projected as the ultimate, even as they emphasize the relevance and importance of the sakala aspect. The devotee must progressively move from gross sthula to the subtle sukshma. The worship of gods is of two modes: iconic (sa-murta) and non-iconic (a-murta).The Yajna, the worship of the divine through fire, is a-murta; while the worship offered to an icon is sa-murta. According to Vaikhanasas, though yajna might be more awe-inspiring, Archa (worship or puja) the direct communion with your chosen deity is more appealing to ones heart, is more colorful and is aesthetically more satisfying. The Vaikhanasas were greatly in favor of iconic worship of Vishnu; but they did take care to retain their affiliation to the Vedic tradition. Not only that; the Vaikhanasa redefined the context and emphasis of the Yajna. The Yajna, normally, is ritual dominant, with Vishnu in the backdrop. But, the Vaikhanasa interpreted Yajna as worship of Vishnu; and, Yajna as Vishnu himself (yajno vai Vishnuhu). The religious scene shifted from the Yajna mantapa to temple enclosures. Vedic rituals were gradually subordinated to worship of Vishnu. But, the Vedic rituals were not given up entirely.Employment of Vedic passages and mantras during the rites lent an air of purity and merit to the rituals.The Vedic rites too were incorporated into the worship sequences in the temple. Along with the rituals, it stressed on devotion to Vishnu and his worship. The Vaikhanasa thus crystallized the Vishnu cult and lent it a sense of direction. The very act of worship (archa) is deemed dear to Vishnu. The major thrust of Vaikhanasa texts is to provide clear, comprehensive and detailed guidelines for Vishnu worship. The Vaikhanasa texts are characterized by their attention to details of worship-sequences. It is not therefore surprising that Vaikhanasas do not employ the term‘ Agama‘ to describe their text .They know their text as ‗Bhagava archa-shastra’. The characteristic Vaikhanasa view point is that the pathway to salvation is not devotion alone; but it is icon-worship (samurtha-archana) with devotion (bhakthi). ‗The archa with devotion is the best form of worship, because the icon that is beautiful will engage the mind and delight the heart of the worshipper‘. That would easily evoke feeling of loving devotion (bhakthi) in the heart of the worshipper. The icon is no longer just a symbol; the icon is a true divine manifestation enliven by loving worship, devotion, and absolute surrender (parathion). And, Vishnu is best approached by this means. The Agamas combine two types of scriptures: one providing the visualization of the icon form; and the other giving details of preparation of icon for worship. This is supplemented by prescriptions for worship of the image and the philosophy that underlies it. The Agamas also deal with building a shrine to Vishnu (karayathi mandiram); making a worship-worthy beautiful idol (pratima lakshana vatincha kritim); and worshipping everyday (ahanyahani yogena yajato yan maha-phalam). The Agamas primarily refer to ordering one‘s life in the light of values of icon worship (Bhagavadarcha). It ushers in a sense of duty, commitment and responsibility. For worship, Godhead is visualized as in solar orb (arka-mandala) or in sanctified water-jala kumbha; or in an icon (archa-bera). When Godhead is visualized as a worship-worthy icon, a human form with distinguishable features (sakala) is attributed to him. Vishnu‘s form for contemplation (dhyana) and worship (archa) is four armed, carrying shanka, chakra, gadha and padma. His countenance is beatific radiating peace and joy (saumya), delight to behold soumya-priya-darshana, his complexion is rosy pink wearing golden lustrous garment (pitambara). A beautiful image of Vishnu with a delightful smiling countenance and graceful looks must be meditated upon. As regards its philosophy, Srinivasa –makhin (c.1059 AD), a Vaikhanasa Acharya, terms it asLakshmi-Visitad-vaita.Though the term Visistadvaita has been employed, the philosophical and religious positions taken by Srinivasa –makhin vary significantly from that of Sri Ramanuja in his Sri Bhashya. Srinivasa –makhin in his Tatparya chintamani (dasa vidha hetu nirupa) explains that Brahman (paramatman) is nishkala (devoid of forms and attributes) as also sakala (with forms and attributes).They truly are one; not separate. The sakala aspect is distinguished by its association with Lakshmi (Prakrti). For the purpose of devotion and worship the sakala aspect is excellent. The Vaikhanasa therefore views its ideology as Lakshmi-visitadaita (the advaita, non-duality, refers to Vishnu associated with Lakshmi) Lakshmi is inseparable from Vishnu like moon and moonlight. Isvara associated with Lakshmi (Lakshmi visita isvara tattvam) is Vishnu. Those devoted to him as Vaishnavas.If Vishnu (purusha) grants release from the phenomenal fetters (Mukthi), Lakshmi (Prakrti) presides over bhukthi the fulfillment of normal aspirations in one‘s life. The two must be worshipped together. Srinivasa –makhin explains that in the Pranava (Om-kara), O-kara represents Vishnu; U—Kara: Lakshmi and Ma-kara, the devotee. The Om-kara binds the three together. According to Vaikhanasa ideology, the four aspects of Vishnu Purusha, Satya, Achyuta andAniruddha- are identified with Dharma (virtue), Jnana (wisdom), Aishvarya (sovereignty) and vairagya (dispassion). Of the four faces of Vishnu, the Purusha is to the East; Satya to the South; Achyuta to the west; and Aniruddha to the North. The four virtues or planes Vishnu are regarded the four quarters (pada) of Brahman: aamoda, pramoda, sammoda and vaikuntaloka (sayujya) the highest abode – parama pada. [The individual jiva that frees itself from the fetters of the transactional world enters into the sphere of Vishnu vishnuloka through four successive stages; each stage being designated a plane of Vishnu-experience Vaishnava-ananda. The first stage is aamoda where the jiva experiences the pleasure of residing in the same plane as the Godhead is Vishnu (saalokya)- associated with Aniruddha. The next stage is pramoda where the jiva experiences the great delight of residing in proximity to with the Godhead Maha-vishnu (saamipya)-associated with Achyuta. The stage higher than that is saamodawhere the jiva experiences the joy of obtaining the same form as the Godhead sadaa-Vishnu (sa-rupya) –associated with Satya. The highest plane is vaikunta loka where the individual jiva experiences the supreme joy of union with the Godhead Vyapinarayana (sayujya)- associated with Purusha.] In the context of the temple worship and layout, the four forms represent the four iconic variants of the main image in the sanctum (dhruva bhera) which represents Vishnu. And, within the temple complex, each form is accorded a specific location; successively away from the dhruva bhera. Purusha symbolized by Kautuka-bera is placed in the sanctum very close to dhruva bhera; Satya symbolized by Utsava-bera (processional deity) is placed in the next pavilion outside the sanctum; Achyuta symbolized by snapana-bera (oblation) too is placed outside the sanctum; and Aniruddhda symbolized by Bali bera (to which food offerings are submitted) is farthest from the dhruva-bhera in the sanctum. As regards its differences with the other Vaishava –Agama the Pancharatra, the Texts such asprakina-adhikara (kriya-pada, ch 30 -5 to 11) mention that Vaikhanasa mode of worship is more in accordance with Vedic tradition (which does not recognize initiation rites such as branding);Vaikhanasa worshipper being deemed garba-vaishnava –janmanam; he is Vaishnava by his very birth, not needing any initiatory rites (diksha) or branding.The Vaikhanasa are distinguished by acceptance of Vishnu in his Vedic context. Vishnu is supreme; and Vishnu alone is the object of worship. Though they are now a recognized sect of Sri Vaishnavas, their allegiance to Sri Ramanuja as the Guru or to the Alvars or to the Visistadvaita philosophy is rather formal. They also do not recite passages from the Tamil Prabandham. The worship is conducted mainly through verses selected from Rig Veda and Yajur Veda; and performance of the yajna as prescribed in Krishna-yajur Veda. There is also not much use of the Tantra elements of worship such as uttering Beeja-mantras etc, except for the sequence of projecting the deity from ones heart into the icon; that is, the assumed identification of the devotee with the deity during the worship . The Vaikhanasa worshipper, in privacy behind the screen, recites the ‗atmasukta’ aiming to enter into a state of meditative absorption with Vishnu. That is followed by the symbolic ritual placements (nyasas). The icon attains divinity after invocation (avahana) of life force; while divinity always abides in the worshipper. The Vaikhanasa is regarded orthodox for yet another reason; they consider the life of the householder as the best among the four stages of life. Because, it is the householder that supports, sustains and carries forward the life and existence of the society. They treat the worship at home as more important than worship at the temple. A Vaikhanasa is therefore required to worship the deities at his home even in case he is employed as a priest at the temple. There is not much prominence for a Yati or a Sanyasi in this scheme of things. They decry a person seeking salvation for himself without discharging his duties, responsibilities and debts to his family, to his guru and to his society. The Agama texts make a clear distinction between the worship carried out at his home (atmartha) and the worship carried out as priest at a temple(parartha ) for which he gets paid. This distinction must have come into being with the proliferation of temples and with the advent of temple-worship-culture. It appears to have been a departure from the practice of worship at home, an act of devotion and duty. Rig Vedic culture was centered on home and worship at home. The worship at home is regarded as motivated by desire for attainments and for spiritual benefits (Sakshepa). In the temple worship, on the other hand, the priest does not seek spiritual benefits in discharge of his duties (nirakshepa). He worships mainly for the fulfillment of the desires of those who pray at the temple. That, perhaps, appears to be the reason for insisting that a priest should worship at his home before taking up his temple duties. Traditionally, a person who receives remuneration for worshipping a deity is not held in high esteem. The old texts sneer at a person ―displaying icons to eke out a living.‖ That perhaps led to a sort of social prejudices and discriminations among the priestly class. But, with the change of times, with the social and economic pressures and with a dire need to earn a living, a distinct class of temple-priests, naturally, crystallysized into a close knit in-group with its own ethos and attitudes. Whatever might be the past, one should recognize that temples are public places of worship; the priests are professionals trained and specialized in their discipline; and they constitute an important and a legitimate dimension of the temple-culture. There is absolutely no justification in looking down upon their profession. Similarly, the Agamas , whatever is their persuasion, are now primarily concerned with worship in temples. And, their relevance or their preoccupation, in the past, with worship at home, has largely faded away. Pancharatra Agama From the end of the tenth century Vaikhanasa are prominently mentioned in South Indian inscriptions. Vaikhanasas were the priests of Vaishnava temples and were also the admistrators. However with the advent of Sri Ramanuja, who was also the first organizer of temple administration at Srirangam Temple, the Vaikhanasa system of worship lost its prominence and gave place to the more liberal Pancharatra system .Sri Ramanuja permitted participation of lower castes and ascetics , the Sanyasis ( who were not placed highly in the Vaikhanasa scheme) in temple services. He also expanded the people participation in other areas too with the introduction of Uthsavas, celebrations, festivals, Prayers etc. This change spread to other Vaishnava temples particularly in Tamil Nadu. Vaikhanasas, however, continues to be important in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and in some temples of Tamil Nadu. It was explained that while the srauta and smarta rituals of the Vedas were intended for the intellectuals, the Pancharatra was given to ordinary people who longed to worship with heart full of devotion and absolute surrender to the will of God. and Aniruddha. each prominent temple follows its favorite text. Pradyumna. This method also employs more Tantras. vyuha and vibhava) assumes great importance in the context of Pancharatra ideology and practice of icon-worship (archa). The Pancharatra philosophy is characterized by its conception of the Supreme assuming five modes of being (prakara). Pancharatra as a system of thought prescribes that worldly involvement must be minimized (nivrtti) in order to engage oneself exclusively in devotion to Bhagavan (ekanta bhakthi). or transcendent form. Pancharatra described as ‗Bhagavata shastra’or ‗Vasudeva –matha’ is centered on worship of Vishnuthe Godhead (Bhagavan) as Narayana identified with Vasudeva of the Vrishni clan. or the several incarnation of God. There are more Jaanapada (popular) methods of worship than mere Vedic performance of Yajnas. the Tenth Book of the Bhagavata Purana. the Alvars. The ecstasy of the Gopi-type of God – intoxicated-love is exhilarating and gives raise to divine intoxication in Nammalvar‘s poetic compositions. aishvarya(sovereignty). And. Here Vishnu is worshipped as the Supreme Godhead. Vaibhava. Vyuha or the categorized form as Vasudeva. or the indwelling immanent form of God as present throughout in creation. That is the reason there are some minor differences even among the Pancharatra temples. virya (matchless valor)and tejas (great splendor). Antaryamin. and especially in the thousand songs known as Tiruvaimozhi of Nammalvar. The peak of Vaishnava devotion is in Dashamaskanda. who are brought together in worship and adoration as a complete body of divine power. They are in brief: Para. and in Nalayira Prabhandam the four thousand Tamil verses of the Vaishnava saints. Pancharathra claims its origin from Sriman Narayana himself. Sankarshana. Archa. it appears to have been a later form of worship that gained prominence with the advent of Sri Ramanuja. Therefore. Even here. the Tamils verses and songs are prominent in Pancharatra worship. Mandalas and Uthsavas which makes room for a large number of devotees of all segments of the society to participate. shakthi (omnipotence). He is regarded as Bhagavan as He is the manifestation of six divine attributes: jnana (omniscience).As regards Pancharatra. The Pancharatra doctrine is associated with the Samkhya ideologies. The differences between the two systems . bala (unhindered energy). or the form of God worshipped in an image or an idol symbolizing the Universal entity. The recognition of three modes of the Deity (para. out of compassion. The large immovable image representing Vishnu‘s niskala form. and as the power. Vaikhanasa consider Vishnu_Vishvaksena_Brighu as the guru_parampara. Vaikhanasa follow the lunar calendar while the Pancharatra follow the solar calendar. Among the other differences between Vaikhanasa and Pancharatra. the principle of life. The smaller movable images represent Vishnu‘s Sakala that is the manifest. etc and moves on to worship the Vyuha forms. if needed be. Shakti. Pradyumna. and Aniruddha. Atchuta. and Aniruddha. the immutable aspect. And . which is imprinting the symbols of Vishnu on their body. ritually placed in a sanctuary and elaborately consecrated. as the allpervading supreme deity as Purusha. The Sanyasis or ascetics have no place in this system. while Pancharatra considerVishnu_Vishvaksena_Satagopa_Nathamuni_Yamuna_Ramanuja as the guru parampara. prakriti. Vishnu is then worshipped as the most honored guest. Vaikhanasa think it is enough if the daily worship is performed once in a day or. . the irreducible aspect. who are brought together in worship and adoration as a complete body of divine power. of Vishnu. Sathya. Even here. The pregnant mother is given a cup of Payasamwith the Vishnu seal in the cup. divisible and emanated forms. on several occasions such as Rama . The Pancharatra regards Narayana and Vasudeva too as forms of Vishnu the Supreme Principle (Para). and the smaller movable images representing Vishnu‘s sakala form are treated differently. the mantras being Sanskrit based and there is a greater emphasis on details of worship rituals and yajnas. It is explained that Vasudeva. The approach to the divine is again graded. Sankarshana. Pancharatra do not place any limit. respectively. The devotee worships the Vibhava form. the householders and celibates get priority in worshipping the deity. stretched to six times in a day (shat kala puja). Shri is important as nature. voluntary assumed the bodily forms so that the devotees may have easy access to his subtle form. In his manifest form (Vyuha) he is regarded as Vasudeva. from Vyuha form he progresses to worship the subtle forms of Vasudeva. they say. The Vaikhanasa worship is considered more Vedic.representing Krishna. Lakshmi . one of the major differences is their view of the Supreme Godhead Vishnu.As regards the differences between the two systems. and transfers that spirit into the immovable idol (Dhruva Bheru) and requests the Vishnu to accept worship. or the incarnation of God. the Supreme Brahman. They consider Griha_archana the worship at home as more important than the congregational worship. the latter say. his elder brother. Here the worshipper contemplates on the absolute form (nishkala) of Vishnu in the universe and as present in the worshippers body. his son and his grandson. They recognize as worthy only such Garbha_Vaishnavas. The Vaikhanasas view Vishnu in the Vedic context . Vaikhanasa see no need for such a ritual. the static aspect of deity. they gain eligibility to worship (Diksha) after the ceremonial Chkrankana. If needed the service could be even 12 times a day. in which the Shiva and the seeker are one. In Southern Shaivism the great Shaiva saints Appar. whatever might be. such as actual worship as well as its preparations. . is the means of liberation for the individual.Yoga. celebrations and processions where all sections of the society including ascetics can participate. and Jnana. Both are equally well accepted. I think. ringing the bell. or seeking identity with Shiva. and the like. The grace of God. Siva is the Supreme God of the Shaiva system. less restrained and less accustomed to social forms of regulations. cleaning the premises of the shrine. or the external service rendered by the devotee. and more Tamil hymns are recited and there is greater scope for festivals . there is not much difference between Pancharatra and Vaikhanasa traditions. alone. or the internal service. ultimately. Sundarar. who is Pati. The worship in Shaiva is graded in steps: Charya. The differences.Whereas in Pancharatra. or wisdom. meaning animal or of beastly nature. The Jiva or the individual is caught in the snare of world-existence and attachment to objects. At a certain level. are not significant to a devotee who visits the temple just to worship the deity and to submit himself to the divine grace. the latter being Pashu. **** The Shaiva Agama worship is less formal than the Vaishnava. *** What surely is more important than the rituals is the symbolism that acts as the guiding spirit for conduct of rituals. Kriya. or Lord over all creatures. such as collecting flowers for worship in the temple. the emphasis is almost entirely on devotional idol worship than on yajnas. symbolism takes precedence over procedures. *** . these four approaches to Shiva. respectively. are said to represent. Similar is the Shakta Agama. the Divine Mother. the Tantra worship of Shakti. Kashmir Shaivism is a world by itself.Jnanasambandar andManikyavachagar. These subjects deserve to be discussed separately. The first approach is through a pattern of sounds (nada/shabda) while the second is through the medium of Agni. recitation of the holy name as initiated by the Guru . temple worship Temple worship and rituals (2 of 5) – Symbolism of Rituals in Temple Worship 06 Sep . Tantric ideology views the divinity in terms of human or semi human forms (murti) and as represented by diagrams (mandala) and incantations of great merit (mantra). The Vedic traditions are centered on Agni (fire) the visible representation of divinity and a medium to approach other gods in celestial realm. (3) Archana. the worship of a deity individually and in communion with fellow devotees that is easiest. SKR Rao Leave a comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 7. meditation on transcendental and empirical aspects of divinity. The Vedic traditions do not generally provide for worship of icons. Archana in temples is an integrated mosaic of individual and congregational worship. Further. Devalaya Vastu. and (4) Dhyana.Symbolism of Rituals in Temple Worship The Agama texts mention that divinity may be worshipped in one of the four ways: (1) Japa. the Archa includes in itself the essentials of the other three approaches as well. Oblations offered into Agni accompanied by recitation of appropriate hymns constitute Vedic worship.Reference: I gratefully acknowledge Soulful paintings of Shri S Rajam And Agama Kosha by Prof. and is the most popular approach. Meditation isindependent of concrete representations. oblations offered in Agni accompanied by appropriate hymns . The formal worship of deities in Hindu traditions broadly follows the Vedic. actual worship (of nine types). 2012 in Agama.( 2) Homa. Temple worship Tags: Agama. Tantric or the mixed (Misra) procedures. . It is the Archa. All these three are individual approaches. The human mind with its limitations cannot easily comprehend God in absolute. God is the worshipper‘s innermost spirit. However. (7) offering fresh clothes and decorations (vastra. The temples generally house images of god in human form except in Shiva temples where the image will be in lingam form (even here the processional image will be in human form). aarathi signifies victory (jaya prada). The temple worship ritual has two distinct aspects. Each of the five senses contributes to our joy in life. but tries to comprehend divine spirit and bestow a form to the formless. Here. Arghya is offered to please celestial deities (deva priyartha). ( 5) offering water to sip and rinse mouth ( aachamana). The worshipper is aware all the while that the forms (murti). (14) offering tambula (betel leaves with areca nut. (9) offering aromatic substances like sandal paste (gandha). (12) waving lights ( deepa). In manasa puja. symbolic and actual. friendliness. he tries to find through them an approach to the Supreme. (Na cha rupam vina devo dyatum kenapi sakyate. reverence etc. The former is the inner worship (manasa puja or antar yajna) and the latter is the procedural aspect.abhushana). affection. (6) providing a bath (snana). Tantra Sara and Siddha yamala list as many as sixty-four upacharas. else. love and devotion. (2) welcoming (swagatha). sandal paste is a favorite of the Brahma. and offering food. in practice. dhupa is dear to Agni (vaishvanara priya). while in Upachara the personified god is treated and revered as the most venerated guest. hence the expression Shodashopachara puja. (4) offering water to wash hands (arghya). concepts are more significant than precepts. (15) prostrations (namaskara) and (16) send off(visarjana). devotion. but it is the devotion and sincerity of purpose that matters. (13) offering four kinds of food (naivedya). about sixteen upacharas are conducted. flowers favor prosperity. Vishnu samhita 29. sounds (mantras) and diagrams (mandalas) employed in worship are human approximations and are inadequate representations of God (prathima svalpa buddhinaam).naivedya or havis is for abundance (samruddhi). The rituals here are a combination of concepts. The symbolism behind this method of worship is that God pervades the universe and that the entire creation is his manifestation. For instance. in sequence: (1) seating ( aasana). Pushpa (flowers). procedures more significant than concepts and symbolism more relevant than procedures. ( 8) offering fresh sacred thread ( yajno_pavitha). The five fold offering (Panchopachara) – of Gandha (sandal paste). The texts suggest that human form of God‘s image helps the devotee better to meditate on the divine attributes . However. 51). It is not very important whether it is archa or the Agni you choose. the mind of an ordinary person might lapse into drowsiness or wither away. in practice the worship at temples involves both homa and archa rituals. Dhupa (fragrance). The Aagama texts. Yet. (10) offering flowers (pushpa). The services are rendered with gratitude. The offerings during the worship are meant to please different aspects of the divine. (3) Â offering water to wash feet (padya). The worship helps the devotee to visualize the incomprehensible divinity in chosen form and attributes so that he may dwell on it and engage himself in a certain service. the service (Upachara). Deepa (lights) and Naivedya (food) . procedures and symbolism. They are . and to relate to the spirit of god with love.The temple and iconic worship may appear like tantric. camphor and spices). (11) burning incense (dhupa). (1) aasana.htm ) *** All the sixteen (shodasha) upacharas like tendering invitation. fruits . (3) sannidhi_karana. Bhishma describes . The personified God is also the Lord of the Lords who oversees the universe (lokadyaksha). seating and invoking life force into the deity. serving food etc. sacred and purifying.offered with reverence and devotion gratify the deities . gladden the mind and hence are Sumanas. vehicles of various sorts. welcoming the divinity to partake the worship. prostrations and absolute surrender do please the Lord. Mudras . flywhisk. in Mahabharata (Anushasana parva).sacred-texts. Abhishekha (pouring water over the deity) is an act of love and submission. Satvic food(Naivedya) of agreeable scent and appearance mixed with milk along with flowers and fruits . and (5) visarjana bidding farewell or literally dismissing. the virtues of worship and talks about the significance of offering flowers . swings. fame and upward motion. Lights dispel darkness and ignorance. It purifies the worshippers‘ mind and fills with devotion. presentation of dry and fresh garments.These offerings submitted with devote bows . offering seat. It is most the sought after and one who receives it considers himself most fortunate and blessed. establishing proper communication with the deity. are performed with devotion and reverence. chariots etc. the inner worship manasa puja of the antaryamin (the inner being) residing in ones heart. offering water for the feet and to sip and to rinse the mouth and also for bath. gratify the deities immediately.. (4) archana main worship.com/hin/m13/m13b063. lights and food to the deity . These are in a sequence such as Shudhi (purification of elements). These include white umbrella. infusing life force into the deity and establishing a proper communication with the divinity residing in the icon. Lights represent energy. flower pavilions. The entire ritual of daily worship is broadly classified into five stages of worship. (KM Ganguli‘s translation http://www.Dhupas just as the flowers. Flowers confer prosperity. dance. (2) sthapana. Prasad and Charanmrit (the residue of the offerings made to the Lord) is most precious. among other things . All the while the worshipper and the devotees are aware that the external worship characterized by splendor and spectacle is an overflow of religious devotion and is secondary to the main worship.Therefore the honors that are due to a king are offered to the icon as Rajopachara. The inner worship that takes place in the privacy of the sanctum is more significant than the external worship. Incidentally. music.– are submission to the Lord with a request to direct our five sensestowards the goodand the God. These Upacharas are submitted to the deity only after conducting ceremonial purification of various kinds. The idol is transformed to divinity itself. the worshipper literally breathes life into the deity during prana_prathista sequence. The worshipper visualizes and contemplates on the resplendent form of the deity as abiding in his own heart. it is not recited in praise of the deity nor is the worshipper seeking through it fulfillment of his desires. According to Tantra ideology. the worshipper draws the presence of the Highest Spiritual being (paramatma) into his own individual being (jiva).(assumption of appropriate and effective gestures).This process symbolizes invoking the divine residing in ones heart. Dhyana is an important sequence in internal worship. extracting it (bahir agatya) and transferring it with ease (sukham thistathu) in to the deity in front (asmin bimbe). Through these nyasas collectively called bhagavad_aaradhana adhikara_yogyata-siddhi.This takes three forms. (1) Matrka-nyasa: placement of fifty seed-sounds (beeja mantra) in several psychic centers (chakras) on different parts of the body. At the same time. and (3) Tattva-nyasa: Endowments of twenty-four basic factors (as per Samkhya) to the deity in order to individualize it. Mantra (words to help realize the deity in worshipper‘s heart) and Mandala (diagrams representing aspects of divinity). Dhyana (contemplation). (2) Devata-nyasa: placement of different aspects of divinity on limbs and different parts of body. The placement (nyasa) of divine presence in the structure of the icon as also in the worshipper is an essential ritual sequence before the actual service (upacharas) commences. the worshipper secures competence to worship the deity. The worshipper does this by extracting the power or the luster (tejas) of the divinity residing in his heart by means of inhalations and exhalations (ucchvasa and nishvasa). . Soham_bhava (identity of the worshipper with the worshipped). Pranayama (regulation of breath to enable contemplation of the divinity). He invokes divine presence in himself. The next step is very significant. the worshipper regards his body as a Yantra where the deity resides. As a prelude to worship per se.The transferred Tejas stays in the deity until the worship is formally concluded. Shuddhi is not merely the purification of the sanctum and its ambiance as the worshipper purifies the earth (bhu shuddhi) and the elements but is also the symbolic transformation and accommodation of all the elements that constitute worshippers body and world around him. It is essentially to attune the inherent divine nature of the worshipper with the divinity of the deity. Mantras that seek to evoke the power of the deity and the mystical designs (yantras or mandalas) that serve as fit abodes for the deity are also important. and investing it upon the deity. It is not a prayer in the sense. confined in a place of honor (sanniruddha) and well concealed under a canopy (avaguntitha). the worship (upachara) commences and acquires a significance. not from his own heart . along with your glory‖ (hrudaya kuru samvasam sriya saha jagatpate). It sometimes provides a structure for abstract form of worship.oh God residing in the icon come back into my heart-lotus‖ (Ehi ehi. positioned right in front of the worshipper (sammukha). The priest evokes Tejas from the main deity . follow a slightly different procedure.The first two forms of nyasa are Tantric in character and are intended to transform the abstract form of divinity residing within the worshipper into a concrete form of divine as invested in the icon. established (stapitha). However.It is the kauthuka beru that is infused with prana at the time of upachara worship. close at hand (sanhita). The Upacharas (services) are rendered not to the main deity but to a smaller image of the Lord (Kauthuka beru). Unless the worshipper establishes his identity with the worshipped. and transfers it to kauthuka beru. The mantras recited in this context say ― Come . Here. ―Reside in my heart . the Shaivas adopt Srikantadi nyasa while Shakthas adopt kala nyasa. O Lord of the worlds . the rituals have no meaning. . The third nyasa is largely Vedic with traces of Tantra. certain temples where the deity is Self-manifest (Swayambhu) or installed by celestial beings (Deva prathistaha) say. ―God is not to be worshipped by one who has himself not become God‖ (nadevo bhutva devam pujayet). mama hrutkamale). The Agama texts prescribe. This ritual signifies withdrawal of the divine presence (temporarily lodged in the icon) and taking it back into worshipper‘s heart (which is its permanent residence). the deity is dismissed (visarjana). After the formal worship is completed. The second form of nyasa is designed to suit a specific type of deity . It is only after the deity is thus properly invoked (Avahita). prathima sthitha purushottama . as in Tirumala. The foregoing is the broad pattern of ritual worship and its symbolism. the deity is the repository of divine powers and the priest need not go through the prana-prathista ritual.The Vaishnavas adopt Keshavadi nyasa. Four important Smritis of Manu. Kanaada in his Vaisheshika Sutra (1. Smritis.2) defines Dharma as‖ Yato bhyudayanih. The smritis were mainly digests of the prevailing practices. liberation. The modern Hindu Law relies on treatment of certain subjects by these texts. The principle Dharma Shastra texts include four Dharma Sutras of Aapasthamba. Jaimini defines Dharma as that which is enjoined by the Vedas and which does not lead to suffering. the Vedas enunciated abstract principles and contained little concrete discussions on duties. Therefore. Dharma in Dharma Shastras Dharma Shastras are made up of a vast number of texts produced over the centuries. Dharma Shastras categorized under Smritis. There are literally hundreds of Dharma Shastra texts and a far greater number of related commentaries and digests. They are not codified . There are of course innumerable commentaries and digests on these texts. Yajnavalkhya.Evolution of Dharma (3 0f 3) 06 Sep Dharma in Mimamsa and Vaisheshika systems Dharma in the Purva Mimamsa is used in a rather restricted sense. accept the authority of the Vedas and stress that moksha. ‖The Vedas. is the ultimate goal of human life. Purva Mimamsa (1.2) speaks of Dharma as Vedic rituals leading to happiness and heaven. It also talks in terms of Apurva. Sacrifices are effective only when conducted with a sense of duty. but hardly any of their contents can be linked to Veda texts. unseen results of such actions or the very fabric of ones life. usages of good men . of course with suitable modifications and necessary revisions. However. which means the subtle effect of actions performed in accordance with the scriptures.‖Codana-lakshnortho dharmaha‖. Dharma is the desired goal as per scriptures. however. They are however not in the form of the law books that we know. are commonly described as Law Books.1. the secondary texts.Dharma here mean actions approved by the scriptures. Dharma Shastras claim they derive their authority from the Vedas. They do.sreyasa siddhih sa dharmah―. Gautama. Bahudayana and Vashista. and saves one from degradation and suffering. They also recognize the need for reflective morality. that which leads to the attainment of prosperity (in this life) and eternal bliss (beyond life). Compare this with what Krishna tells Arjuna in the Gita: Sacrifices will not lead to heaven if the desire for heaven is the sole motive of such rituals. Shanka and Parashara follow them. religious practices and rituals. for all practical purposes custom defined as ―what is in vogue and is long standing‖ was the dominant source of the Dharma. what is agreeable to one‘s self and desire born of deliberation-these are traditionally recognized as the source of Dharma‖(Yajnavalkya Smriti-1.7). These texts derived their importance as the sources of religious law describing the life of an ideal householder. officiating at the sacrifices . the pristine Truth as in Ramayana. Bhagavad-Gita viewed moral and spiritual merits as duties of the Brahmanas. order and harmony as envisaged in the Upanishads. and the Dharma of the Shastras on the other. either. One of the purposes of the texts seemed to be to keep the members of the society within their assigned roles. Nor is it the ordained duties or the Sathya. They are more in the nature of a body jurisprudence. and rules for punishment and penances for violations of the rules of Dharma etc. . Dharma Shastras made extensive use of Mimasa methods to reconcile conflicting texts of equal authority by applying its various rules for interpretation of words. The Dharma these Shastra speak about is not universal. as in Mahabharata. The old spiritual interpretations of those merits were smudged into dogmatic rules . rights and obligations. law. Dharma here is not the one that which upholds the world. The other disciplines.It adopted the Mimamsa style of argumentation. ethics etc. phrases and sentenses.. Dharma here does not refer to the duties as ordained by the scriptures or even to Atma jnana as propounded in the Bhagavad-Gita. It is also not the universal principle of law. Kaala (times) and Achara (valid practices of a region or of a class of people). these texts came to be known as Dharma Shastras. Imparting instructions . receiving gifts . Upanishads and the epics on one hand. Their application is very specific and circumscribed by the limitations of Desha (region). morality and points of law. as the Rig Vedic Rishis envisioned. and as summations of knowledge about religion. a collection of numerous treaties produced by sages on various subjects such as daily rituals to be observed in each of the four stages life. It is not applicable to entire creation or to all human beings. It is not easy to separate the one from the other. Dharma of the Shastras is not the Atman or the sublime cosmic order that governs the universe and sustains our existence. on which Dharma Shastras relied heavily.The distinction between spiritual obligations to the society and an occupation for earning a living was lost. Dharma Shastras are an impulsive mix of religion. rules and procedures for resolving doubts and disputes on issues of Dharma. It is perhaps because of their heavy religious content and reliance on religion. The Dharma Shastras construed them as a means of livelihood for the Brahmanas. The texts viewed the society not as a collection of individuals but as a community of communities. were the grammar (Vyakarana) and logic (Nyaya). Its prescriptions are not valid for all times to come. became the special occupation of the Brahmanas. An individuals Dharma was derived from the caste of his birth. It is not even applicable to all segments and classes that compose the society. customs. It was articulated into specific castes.substantive laws or legal norms. each with its economic functions and a place in the social hierarchy. The Dharma of these Shastras has very limited jurisdiction and authority. duties of four varnas. There is a world of difference between the Dharma of the Rig Veda. legal procedures. For the benifit of the English Judges ignorant of Sanskrit .The process was hastened with the establishment of Supreme Court in 1774. and order of life. institutions for the pursuit of holiness. rules of eating. that a community recognizes as binding on its members. through an indirect route. inheritance etc. dietary restrictions and food transactions. different social groups. The one text that received greater attention in that context was Jagannatha Pandita‘s Nibhanda on . Let me quote from Patrick Olivelle ‗ book on Dharmasastra :. Dharma Shastras are not of much practical significance today. funeray and ancestral rites(antyesti and shraddha) and atonement rites(Prayaschitta) etc. The early British in India tried to dispense law according to local customs. at least into how people. In short. The texts themselves emphasized the need to revise their prescriptions to keep in tune with the changing needs and demands of the individuals and the society. therefore. especially Brahmin males. includes education of the young and their rites of passage. right to property. ritual procedures and religious ceremonies. in a dignified way and tried to retain the best the texts have to offer. caste. stages of life. Many concepts of the Dharma Shastras might look. while at the same time assimilating new currents of thought and transforming itself into an evolving and an expanding religious tradition. rather grotesque and outdated. these unique documents give us a glimpse if not into how people actually lived their lives in ancient India. consecratory rights (samskaras). That is not surprising at all. How that happened is rather interesting. and are therefore not acceptable in their entirety. have since walked into the modern Hindu Law. king and the administration of justice. the right professions for. sins and their expiations. ―Dharma includes all aspects of proper individual and social behavior as demanded by one‘s role in society and in keeping with one‘s social identity according to age. They are thus mainly occupied with the religious rites of a certain class of people and to an extent with the personal laws of marriage. duties of the kings. expiations and penances. categories of sin. marriage and marital rights and obligations. gender. and the proper interaction between. eighteen titles of law. The term dharma may be translated as ―Law‖ if we dp not limit ourselves to its narrow modern definition as civil and criminal statutes but take it to include all the rules of behavior. death and ancestral rites. as its secular aspects dealing with marriage. marital status. and they generally aim to induce ‗appropriate behavior‘ of human beings. today. It is to the credit of the self-balancing genius of Hinduism that it has discarded the inconsistencies and anachronisms of the Dharma Shastras. Those laws were also not meant to cater to the needs of all people at all times. since those texts were addressed to a people of a particular time who lived their life in the context of their times. ancient Sutras relating to civil matters of person and property( Vyvahara) were translated into English. crimes and punishments.Dharma Shastras are principally concerned with the rights and privileges of upper castes. including moral and religious behavior. were ideally expected to live their lives within an ordered and hierarchically arranged society. inheritance etc.‖ The subject-matter of the Dharmasutras. In any case. The ancient Sutra injunctions were no longer relevant in most cases. the Indian society had moved much further away from the society of the Sutras. the Indian socity had passed through Muslim rule. Coming back to the connotation of the term. Further . These limitations and lack of proper understandin of the Indian context have led to narrow and restrictive interpretations of codified statues. However. Therefore. Its translation was completed during 1794. Their attempts were not successful and an agreed – on authoritative chronology could not be established. Further. unfortunately in the present socio-political environment in India. With the metamorphosis of Dharma Shastras into Hindu Law. Many of the old beleifs and rituals had vanished and a certian amout seceptisim and ‗irreligious‘ attitudes had crept in. the Sutras viewd human life as one continuous span stretching from the womb to death and even beyond to the next birth. threatening the minorities in particular. There was much emphasis laid on purification cermonies (shuddhi) and on sacraments (samskaras). the Hindu law. and the pressures of modern political correctness. What we have today is a forest of citations referring to previous judges decisions. but. the secular functions of the Dharma Shastras have to find their survival in the personal law and civil law books. reform of religious law is a contentious swamp that legislators generally try to avoid. and it is left to the skills of the judges and lawyers to find the precedent and to make the law. and the women. The rulings at times fail to serve the cause of Dharma or of justice. For instance.look. by the time the British took to administering civil and criminal laws .Vyvahara. But . by the time the British took to applying the ancient Dharmasastras to the Hindus of the 18-19th century . the case-law was compiled without understanding the basic fact that in the Sutra the ‗secular‘ and ‗religious‘ aspects of Hindu -life are not strictly seperate. Those precedents are again those that were set up by the English judges. An offence was treated both as a sin and as a crime. especially in matters relating to family law and law relating to religious endowments. The term also had religious and caste overtones. What started as a search for the ―ancient Indian Constitution‖ ended up with English law for India and Indians just what Indians would have wanted to avoid. There is no other way. In order to ensure fair and equitable dispensation of . In addition . in the present context. the study of Hindu law is neglected due to the combination of declining knowledge of its classical foundations. Thereafter the English scholars attempted to codify the Shastras and to establish the chronological sequence of the texts in order to trace the authority to a single original source. However. Studying Hindu law is often looked down as a regressive activity. as we have today cries out for a re. This completely transformed the ―Hindu Law‖ into a form of case law.as in Anglo Saxon – derived legal systems. the long years of these exercises yielded a peculiar kind of case law in the form of a chain of interpretations by the English judges based on what they thought were the authoritative portions of the Hindu texts. Dharma in the Dharma Shastras broadly meant ‗appropriate behavior‘ of human beings in a given context. they are closely interwoven in the Hindu motives and actions. the elements of caste and gender have largely disappeared. by 1864. In the ancient Indian criminal-law too the religious and secular punishments were intermixed. That is still relevant. tribulations and dilemmas faced by the men and women of Ramayana and Mahabharata . It prevents us from going down the path of degradation and decay. The answer is. the Dharma. A question that is often asked is. in the context. yes.justice. moral dilemmas and to a meaning for their life. at any cost. That which guides us along the right path and elevates us is.That is the reason for the immense popularity and adulation for the heroes of those epics. That is also not easy to grasp. The Rig Vedic concept of Dharma as Atman or as an all-pervading cosmic order is sublime.Dharma now needs to be interpreted in terms of universal non-hierarchical norms for right conduct. it is. That is relevant today too. The message of the Bhagavad-Gita to discover you true potential. the quality of living and the wellbeing of us and of our coming generations. but is ethereal and beyond the ken of a common person. If one has to appreciate a concept. have sought guidance and inspiration from the illustrations of Dharma as demonstrated in Ramayana and Mahabharata. Dharma is therefore relevant at all times. in reality. including inaction. It safeguards the values of life. peaceful and harmonious living of a person with his family. has the potential to cause a chain of consequences. ethics and detachment is very relevant in today‘s world. Generations of Indians in their quest for right answers to their problems . The Dharma of Ramayana teaches honouring ones ordained duty. one necessarily has to relate it to ones experiences in life. to explore it with skill and diligence. reverence and appreciation for the equanimity. displayed by the epic heroes in their hours of distress. and adherence to Truth amidst temptations. is relevant today too. Its statement that Dharma as a source of law and consciousness should influences the functioning of the State in its day-to-day governance is also relevant. . The Dharma of Mahabharata asks you to see through the evil and devise appropriate approach and action to safeguard the larger interests of Dharma and to perpetuate a living Dharma. judge the situation and act in the best interests of the self and of the fellow beings. and to live an authentic life.Its emphasis on commitment to work. Its call to put Dharma into practice and to experience it in life is also relevant. he needs to think and understand that any human activity. One of the strengths of Dharma is that it is preventive rather than punitive. They have grown up in amazement. It also helped to strengthen their faith that right means will eventually lead to the right end. It is therefore important to choose an appropriate path. One can relate to the trials. is relevant forever . One has to therefore look within oneself. his society and the world. fair dealing and dignity. Dharma Shastras‘ concern for an orderly. Similar is the Upanishad view of Dharma as a universal principle of law and harmony. whether Dharma is relevant today. Because man is free to select his options. constantly interacting with the challenges. the Kauravas sank to the lowest level of adharma. basically. and the story covers a period of about fifty years. Indeed the entire nature. but it is a living experience. Indian Philosophy Tags: Dharma. Evolution of Dharma Evolution of Dharma (2 of 3) 06 Sep Dharma in Mahabharata Ramayana. Dharma is a many splendored thing. At each stage of its unfolding. and with that. who came from the common heritage. the subject matter is rather sullied and its characters are too many in number. Fundamental to the defense of that Dharma was the sanctity of a Sati. What was amazing was that each one of its interpretations was as valid as the rest of them. demands and needs of the times. The main characters in the story are not many in number. but between two groups of cousins and their supporters. ********** Leave a comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 6. in whatever form. and their unwavering adherence to Dharma throughout their trials and tribulations. practicing it and experiencing it. is a story of chaste love between a husband and wife. The most brazen act of evil by the Kauravas was threatening a woman‘s chastity. That is because. spread over several generations. They have a very complicated mental makeup too. It is evolving itself all the time. It is ever fresh and inventing itself all the time. with a sprinkling of the noble among the crowds of not- . Dharma. Ramayana demonstrated that a person of steadfast faith established in Dharma would eventually vanquish evil and ignorance.Dharma is not a stagnant concept. The evil in fact had entered the hearts and minds of almost all of its men and women. purity and nobility. it acquired a newer interpretation in the context of the life and events of that period while retaining all its other interpretations accumulated over the ages. The evil was easily identifiable with its grotesque exterior and it had its base in far off lands. The conflict that eventually took place was not between the absolute right and the wrong. Dharma is fundamentally related to life and its essence is in living it. is much wider. will be relevant at all times. What characterizes the Dharma in Ramayana is its innocence. its elements and animal world made common cause with Rama in re-establishing the Dharma. The evil is neither easily identifiable nor is it far away. a pure woman. The canvass of the Mahabharata on the other hand. 2012 in Dharma. Yet Yudhishthira is . Bhishma lying on his deathbed consoles him by teaching Dharma and the duties of a king. among other things. Dharma is that which upholds the people of the world.. demands to know whether Yudhishtira had a right to stake her in the game after he had staked and lost himself. confessed his inability to decide the issue. it seems only the powerful escape harm. He also talks about Dharma in abnormal circumstances. Years later. and elevated it into a conflict of great significance to uphold Dharma. as will the fruits of sin. cultivated.15-161). Yet.‖ (Dharma eva hato hanti. he was overwhelmed by a sense of horror and melancholy.noble. and was much troubled by the death and destruction caused by the war. Soon after the war. ―Where there is Dharma. Yudhishthira tries to explain: ―None should ever perform virtue with a desire to gain its fruits. On another occasion. such as : ‖Our bodies are short lived. which includes rightful violence without greed. If everything happened by the will of god. Without doubt.so. ―What a strong man says often becomes the only dharma. Draupadi after the dice game. It was said that Dharma is subtle (sukshmam) because its essence is concealed in a dark cavern (dharmasya tattvam nihitath guhaayaam). Mahabharata . Yudhishthira has similar doubts. therefore accumulate Dharma‖ (anityani sarirani vaibhavo naiva sahvataha. riches or power but about the human spirit . makes some great statements on Dharma . It was so difficult a question that even Bhishma. the Dharma pictured in Mahabharata is ambiguous. Pandavas themselves were not perfect. not the righteous. the fruits of virtue will be manifest in time. I do not know what to say‖ (Sabha Parva. and the absolute perspective that transcends the duality of good versus bad. His grief was inconsolable. pleasant versus unpleasant. Dharma. the Dharma. when pointedly challenged by Draupadi. violated. The fruits of true virtue are eternal and indestructible‖. nityam sannito mrtyuh kartavyo dharma-sangrahah) ―It is Dharma since it upholds. ‖I am unable to answer your question because Dharma is subtle‖. but who listens to him? To tell you the truth. if they were the righteous ones. there victory also is‖ (Yato darmah thatho jayaha). uncertain and often disputed. destroys. The stepping in of Krishna alone rescued the epic from degenerating into internecine family feud. right versus wrong. why then do the virtuous suffer? She exclaims. dharmo rakshati rakshitaha). He taught the world that the ultimate conflict was not about land. Vyasa says the purpose of writing Mahabharata was to ‖ engrave Dharma on the hearts of men‖. the recognized authority on Dharma. … Do not doubt virtue because you do not see its results. death is constantly knocking at the door. For instance.‖(Dharanath dharmam ityahuh dharmo dharayate prajaah) ―Dharma. A weak man may have dharma on his side. either. preserves. he says (na dharmasaukshmyat subhage vivektutm shaknomi te prasnam imam yatthaavat). 69. Draupadi wonders why they have to suffer so. wealth does not last long. Krishna responds with two defenses: that it was his own deceit at dice that began this conflict. a sort of safety valve in an emergency when every other normal measure seems to have failed. under his guidance. he judged the gravity and significance of each situation. and the apparent unfair conduct was meant to defeat a greater evil: ―The gods destroyed demons in the past in this way to protect Dharma‖ Duryodhana bitterly replies that the Pandavas could never have won without cheating. ―There are limits to the extent an individual can be moral in an immoral society‖. the ultimate Dharma (larger picture) has to be protected at any cost. In such circumstances. It is context sensitive.‘ But since my wheel sank today. Rather. The logic behind this principle is. Unlike Rama. That is in the larger interests of the Dharma and for the benefit of others (loka) but not for personal gain. for self-protection. right does not always triumph by ideal and unsullied means. often by miraculous intervention. he justified his actions by insisting that the intense desire to protect the larger interests of the Dharma was at the core. it might become necessary for Dharma to abandon its usual course. Arjuna kills Jayadratha at ―night‖ when Krishna simulates darkens. Krishna tells Yudhishthira: ―Sometimes one protects dharma by forgetting it. I think dharma does not always protect.‖ Duryodhana accuses Krishna of unfair conduct. It relates to stressful times of extreme distress or calamities. Krishna did not adhere to conventional exterior of the Dharma. This often put him on a collision course with the conventional adherents of Dharma. asking him whether he was referring to the same Dharma that prevented him from rising above his sense of obligation to Duryodhana. Krishna guided the Pandavas to victory on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. to which Krishna agrees. That is why Dharma is profound and subtle. Nevertheless. which threaten to endanger Dharma. On one occasion. Mahabharata introduces the concept of Apad_Dharma. avenged Draupadi and restored Dharma. Arjuna shoots Karna when unarmed and Bhima crushes Duryodhana‘s thigh (hitting below the waist). It was that outdated. Pandavas. That is precisely what the epic is about: the replacement of the dharma of a lower understanding by one of a higher level. severely limited view of Dharma that Krishna was . Karna laments as death nears him. despite being aware of his evil designs. terming Draupadi a harlot and ordering her to be stripped in public. his righteousness did not make him victorious: ―Knower‘s of dharma have always said. eventually broke each rule of the war: Arjuna shoots Bhishma when he lays down his arms before Sikhandin. and devised innovative methods to preserve and protect the essence of the Dharma. ‗Dharma protects those devoted to dharma.unconvinced and decides to perform Rajasuyaga as penitence for the acknowledged wrongs of the war. Apad_Dharma is that deviation from the normal.‖ Krishna taunts Karna. What is Adharma in normal circumstances might be deemed Dharma in Apad_Dharma. by all counts. The Kshatriya must fight to protect the weak. for that is his dharma. Bhishma. he eventually brought grief on to himself and unto others around him by his indecision and inactivity. It was sad for one who didn‘t even want to be born. he stood by his decision which according to him was the right one. too tired. There is perhaps a lesson here . and not just in talking about it. Vibhishana‗s unpopular decision was open to controversies and even to ridicule. Both Vibhishana and Bhishma strongly disagreed withthe acts of their respective kings. Yet. his brother. Not being true to his Dharma because of inaction. was gifted with a boon to choose the time of his death. His inaction illustrated that Kshatriya‘s ―witness‖ stance brings about the destruction of the kingdom and of the Dharma. meddling with everyone‘s life and finally living on and on . He remained a mute witness to the aggression of Adharma. from his death bed.His listener. it was Vibhishana who had the courageous detachment to disassociate himself from the immoral regime of his king. But. Bhishma in fact had not practiced what he preached. and to join the forces of Dharma which his brother opposed. Yet. while at the same time sheer inactivity renders one irrelevant. on the things that he did not practice in life .] Worse is the case of Drona who abandoned his swadharma and mortgaged his self-respect in exchange for royal patronage. Bhishma endured so much pain in life and in battle that even the bed of arrows did not hurt him anymore. the truth of his nature. He emphasized. I sometimes wonder why he chose to live so long.trying to root out and replace with a pragmatic Dharma.His life too ends in a sort of irony with his past haunting to wound him mortally and thereafter prompting him to render lengthy discourses. And. Both those kings (Ravana and Duryodhana) had sunk to the lowest level of adharma. responsibilities of a king and the need to protect Dharma. Our texts have always talked about a sense of balance that life should have. too much attachment and involvement in where it is not needed is not merely unrewarding but is dangerous too . too listless and disillusioned scarcely had time or opportunity to put into use what he learnt from the savant on a death bed of arrows. It is sad to see a self-sacrificing . Bhima taunts Drona. Had Bishma acted in the true spirit of his Dharma. Bhishma the old-guard needlessly chose to cling to what he did not approve. The death dare not approach him till he accorded it his permission. . because of his misplaced sense of loyalty. unwanted and uncared when he could have chosen to end the agony. it is said. Mahabharata would have been a different epic. In either case. In contrast. It is a validation of this fact we find in Bhishma who from his bed-of-arrows advises Yudhishthira on the duties. the person who occupied the throne they served tried to violate the chastity of a pure and a virtuous woman. Vibhishana was steadfast. brought destruction and misery to not only himself but also the society of which he was a pillar. almost a god getting bogged in the mire of this world . as he did in Gita that Dharma was in living and experiencing it. [There is an interesting comparison between Bhishma of Mahabharata and Vibhishana (younger brother of Ravana) of Ramayana. pointing out his selfishness and failure in life. grasp the true intent and spirit of Dharma in order to judge a situation and act in the best interests of the self and of the . Death by dharma is better than victory by evil deeds. ―With raised hands. that which prevents injury to creatures is Dharma. Because man is free to select his options. In Swargarohana parva he cries out with anguish. complexity and clarity of thought. to learn to distinguish Dharma from its opposite. ―dharma becomes adharma and adharma. ―If one fights with trickery. he needs to think and understand that any human activity. at any cost.Yudhishthira exclaims. It is called Dharma because it upholds all creatures. This concern stems out of the strong faith that Dharma. Dharma was ordained for restricting creatures from injuring one another. Yudhistira are ever concerned how their actions might be perceived by the future generations. even at the risk of his life. that which leads to advancement and growth is Dharma. It touches almost every facet of human life. Bhishma tells Yudhishthira that in the Kali Yuga that had just stepped in. wise men. give up righteousness itself. the essence of right thinking and right living. Joy and Eternal Bliss. That which elevates is Dharma. The deeper you go into the epic the more you are impressed with its concern for the values of life. That which is called the conduct of the good may at times be stained by some errors. One should not relinquish Dharma out of passion or fear or covetousness or for the sake of preserving one‘s life‖ The treatment of Dharma in Mahabharata is remarkable for its erudition. therefore. Bhishma. one should check him with dharma … One should conquer evil with good. but alas. Why do not people practice Dharma? One should not abandon Dharma at any cost. is the law of being and is the basis of our existence. one could oppose him with trickery. I shout at the top of my voice. One can attain wealth and all objects of desire through Dharma. dharma. that is another matter. It has therefore to be protected and perpetuated in the right way for the benefit of all.‖ There is a touch of desperation in the voice of Vyasa as he comes towards the end of the epic. Dharma is that which is capable of upholding all creatures. goes on to say. avoiding those errors. It is therefore important to choose an appropriate path. Bhishma explains that the concept of Dharma is difficult. therefore. take what is good and save themselves. The principle characters such as Krishna. Dharma was ordained for the advancement and growth of all creatures. If he had no options or if he was not free to choose. Mahabharata seeks to awaken the essence of Dharma within us. he continues. One has to look within oneself. including in action. Fools.‖ Somewhat paradoxically. quality of living and for the wellbeing of the individual in harmony with the society. Its anxiety to safeguard the virtues and wellbeing of the coming generations is explicit in its every debate. On the other hand. no one hears my words which can give them Supreme Peace. The accent on healthy growth of Dharma and its perpetuation is primary to the unfolding of Mahabharata. But. it is extremely difficult to ascertain who the good are and whose conduct could be taken as the standard of righteousness. after explaining the difficulties in defining it. and are cautious not to set wrong precedents. Our wellbeing and that of our future generations depends on that Dharma. subtle and defies easy grasp. led by this. if one fights lawfully. has the potential to cause a chain of consequences. 3. the basis of all purusharthas (18. Dharma in Bhagavad-Gita In Bhagavad-Gita. for the sake of ones welfare. By performing his Dharma with diligence and skill.40). Swadharma underlines the importance of ones individuality. It is the art of living. 1.It is a commitment to yourself. creative ability and authenticity in life. Dharma here is righteousness. the highest good (4. Shrinking from ones moral duty. One of the ways to perceive your Swadharma is to engage in Swadhyaya.31.11 etc. Krishna asks Arjuna the warrior to perform his Swadharma and to fight on. and to develop your potential instead of wasting your time and energy on. with the intuition leading the intellect.7). refusal to act when it is difficult to act. It is the question of being and becoming. It was he who stressed that the essence of Dharma was in living. The accent is on realizing for oneself.).30 and Karma yoga (2. self-analysis. How does a warrior perform his duty without doing wrong. Dharma connotes righteousness and the cherished values in life. not polluting himself with the blood of his fellow beings? The answer is detachment: do your duty without concern for the personal consequences. but do not reflect on fruits of the act. to protect and perpetuate a living Dharma. authenticity or individuality.Here. a person attains Abhyudaya. one may necessarily have to innovate the appropriate approach and action to safeguard the larger interests of Sathya and Dharma.fellow beings. Act.8.40. is the message of Mahabharata and Krishna. to your potential and to your purpose in life. we find Dharma in a crystalline form. pleasure and pain are all the same. as suggested in Patanjali‘s Yoga Sutra.33. seek detachment. interests.It is ones duty in the context of ones stage and calling in life. I manifest myself (4. in the external forms of Dharma. The term is employed in a more definite and clear sense. which broadly suggests : inherent aptitude or talent or interest or ability. 18. who was far ahead of his times. Forget desire. letting your potential to flower into something truly wonderful (Gita 3. Introspection and innovation in order to experience. One may not always find ready answers to the problems at hand. or in imitating others or borrowing someone else‘s ideas and goals. or that which comes naturally to you or your calling in life.35). at all costs. That was the genius of Krishna. aptitudes and call in life. ―Victory and defeat. experiencing it. The Self-analysis is both intellectual and intuitive. Selfknowledge (9.attachment to objects and confusion.these weaknesses hinder the development individual and the society. The Lord proclaims whenever Dharma is in decline and Adharma is on rise. 7.Dharma is also a synonym for Atma-jnana. practicing.things that are unnatural to you. the well-being in this world and Nissreyasa. It asks you to realize your strengths.‖ .34). That could potentially lead to ―fear inside‖. Bhagavad-Gita introduces an interesting concept of Swa_dharma. Mahabharata Evolution of Dharma( 1 of 3) 06 Sep Mr. . Read Next: Dharma in Dharma Shastras And After. Indian Philosophy. It has scant respect for mere talk and not putting your belief into practice. on authenticity in life and on experiencing that in your life. The idea of Dharma unfolding itself and acquiring newer interpretations at different stages and in different contexts. with mind fixed on the person of the Lord. Gita emphasizes pravritti (engagement). the eternal principle governing and sustaining the Universe. It lays enormous stress on work. with supreme faith and surrender. 2012 in Dharma. It always set an acceptable norm for a life well lived. Dharma once visualized as the cosmic order. Its underlying principle had always been the welfare of the society and the individual. ethics and detachment. demands and needs of the times. as had not been elaborated in the earlier texts. Dharma was a point of reference to human existence. Since most cannot renounce all actions and intents in life. Along the way. and a protection from confusions. on practicing what you truly believe. Evolution of Dharma. the Gita says there are two paths to liberation : renunciation and performing ones duty without desire. gradually metamorphosed into duties and responsibilities prescribed for varieties of beings in varied contexts and at different stages in the life of the society and the individual. it is evolving itself all the time. whatever was its form. delusions and upheavals. fascinated me much. referred to the issue of the Yuga Dharma and obliquely to the dynamic character of Dharma. constantly interacting with the challenges. Mahabharata Tags: Dharma. Bhagavad-Gita thus highlights and develops a concept of work. as it rolled on over the ages. Leave a comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 6. it acquired an array of meanings and interpretations.Apart from the way of undivided loving devotion. leading to progress and harmony. Dharma is not a stagnant concept but a living experience. That is the Dharma. Rajan in his blog What if Krishna became the Charioteer of Rama?. it is better to work without attachment (nishkama-karma). sense of duty and detachment in the hub of life. At each stage. and puts work . While talking of Dharma, one has to acknowledge the realities of life. The existence of evil in the individual and in the society is inevitable. It just cannot be wished away. At the same time, it is imperative to secure victory over that evil and injustice. Victory in this context means: a progression towards the greatest good of all, leading to peace and development of all beings; harmony of the individual with himself, with the society and with the universe; establishment of the right values in life; and helping humans to attain their ultimate goal. Dharma does not necessarily win the battle each time in that ongoing conflict. Dharma nonetheless relentlessly pushes on, striving to restore and maintain a sense of balance, fair dealing and harmony in life. Evil will always be there and will never be completely eradicated. But it is essential that Dharma assert itself over the evil now and hereafter. *** Let us take a brief look at some definitions of Dharma and its evolution over the ages. Dharma is a richly connotative term that stands for a universal principle that is not easy to define but not impossible to outline. Dharma is ultimately the basis for our existence, prosperity and fair dealing in this world. All the other principles and values in life flow from the fountain of Dharma. Dharma has variously been explained as: the principle or the law that governs the universe; individual conduct in conformity with that principle; that which is established or firm or steadfast; what holds together; the essential function or nature of a thing; codes regulating individual and of social conduct; a body of teachings; a sect or a religion, a way of life; righteousness; justice; duty etc. Every form of life, every group of people has its Dharma, which is the principle or law of its being. The failure to observe Dharma would put the individual and the society in peril. At another plane of consciousness, Dharma is a synonym for Truth, Atman and God. The essence of Dharma, in any case, consists in living and experiencing it. Dharma can mean any one, more, or all of those explanations, depending upon the context in which it is referred. That is because; the term was employed in a variety of ways down the ages in different contexts; and the connotation and the scope of the term underwent huge changes over the period. It would therefore be worthwhile to glance at its evolution. Dharma in Rig Veda Rig Veda adopts a multifaceted approach to Dharma. At one level, Dharma is the, sublime cosmic order that governs the universe and sustains human existence. At another level, it guides the individual towards harmony with the universe. Rig Veda does not engage in a systematic exposition Dharma. The seeds of Dharma are carried in the concepts of rta and sathya that Rig Veda refers to frequently. Rta is the natural or universal order and integrity of all forms of life and ecological systems. It recognizes our oneness with our environment and our unity with all life on earth. It is an inviolable cosmic order and Truth. Those were not imposed or created by God; but, in a sense, they are the God. Rta is also used in the sense of consciousness of Truth; and when expressed through words and deeds it is Sathya. Rta in relation to an individual denotes his right conduct based on truth, the Dharma. Thus, the three terms Rta, Sathya and Dharma almost band together. Dharma thus is not just harmony; it is pure Reality; it is also the law or right conduct based in Truth, which itself is also Dharma. The term Dharma occurs in Rig Veda about fifty-six times (e.g.5.63.7, 5.72.2, 9.7.1, 9.25.2, 10.88.1, 10.170.2). In almost all the instances, it is used in the sense of duty or action, which contributes to the support or sustenance of the world. Atharva Veda too describes dharma symbolically: Prithivim dharmana dhritam, that is, ―this world is upheld by dharma‖. Dharma in Upanishads The Upanishads continue the two-pronged approach to Dharma. The Upanishads at one level see Dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony and the supreme Truth, Brahman. It is the law of being, without which one cannot exist- ―anureshu dharmaha‖- (Katha Upanishad 1.21). Dharma denotes Atman. It is sat, the truth that Rig Veda proclaims in ―Ekam Sat‖ (Truth Is One). It is also the Sat in Satchidananda (TruthConsciousness-Bliss), the grand imagery of that Brahman. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad speaks of the identity of truth and Dharma: Verily, that which is Dharma is truth. Therefore, they say of a man who speaks truth, ‘He speaks the Dharma,’ Or of a man who speaks the Dharma, ‘He speaks the Truth.’ Verily, both these things are the same (Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14) Upanishads also speak of Dharma in the sense of duty or course of conduct, which contributes, to the sustenance of the society and its members. Mahanarayana Upanishad (1.4.14) calls it ―Dharmo vishvasya jagathah prathista‖ – that which sustains the world. Chandogya Upanishad (2.31.1) speaks of ―trio dharma skandaha …‖ the duties in three stages of life as the offshoots or the braches of the Dharma. This refers to the obligations and privileges of a student, a householder and a hermit. The Acharyaopadesha in Taitteriya Upanishad (1.11.1) instructs ―Dharmam chara‖- perform your ordained duties. Here, in these cases, Dharma stands for righteous behavior based on truth, in accordance with the right conduct prescribed as per law in the context of ones stage and/or calling in life. It is in the best interests of the society and the individual. It shapes and sustains ones existence as an individual and as a member of the society. All other meanings, interpretations and derivations from the term Dharma, in the later texts are corollaries of this central idea. Dharma as Purushartha The Rig Veda talks of another concept, that of rna which underlines the responsibility of man to his family, his community, his environment and to himself as a human being. Rna aims to set values in a normal day-to-day life. The fulfillment of three purposes of life (dharma, artha and Kama) acquires meaning only in the context of felt obligations (rnas). It is essential the pursuit of Artha (wealth or power) and Kama (desire or pleasure) is guided and restrained by Dharma. It is the violation of this requirement that sets apart the not-so-virtous from the virtous. Rig Veda (8.1.6) gives a call, ―Man, you must reach upward, not go down below‖. If moksha is the goal, then participate fully in the affairs of society, raise a family, enjoy the good life, and serve the community … all within the framework of Dharma. Dharma in this context is characterized by human values like truth, compassion, self-restraint, non-enmity, forgiveness etc. It sets proper priorities for human achievements, lends a sense of direction to human aspirations and rationalizes the relationship of the individual with the society and the world at large. It also provides ample scope for individual conscience and to exercise options. We see here a logical progression from Rta a cosmic order to a code of conduct prescribed for the individual in the light of righteousness, commitment and a sense of balance in life. Dharma in Ramayana Valmiki presents his view of ideal conduct through Rama and his approach to life. Valmiki portrays Rama not as a supernatural being but as a rational human who in his life encounters several moral dilemmas and deals with each of them in accordance with the Dharma that was relevant in the context of the event and with reference to the stage of life he was then placed. Valmiki says,‖Honour the duties of one‘s stage in life‖. To him Dharma is neither stagnant nor an abstract concept but a dynamic living experience. ―Whichever Dharma you follow with steadfastness and according to the principles, may that Dharma protect you.‖ Valmiki demonstrates the dynamic nature of the Dharma through the stressful events in the life of Rama, and by depicting how Rama reacted to those events in accordance with the Dharma then appropriate. For instance, when the question of his exile came up, Rama was not a king, yet. At that stage in his life, the relation between him and the people of Ayodhya was not that of a king and his subjects. His station in life, then, was of a dutiful son. His primary duty, then, was to his parents and to his family. He rightly respected his father‘s wish, obeyed him and saved him from the danger of breaking his solemn promise. By accepting the exile without hesitation or any ill feeling, Rama protected his Dharma, that of his father and that of his nation too. He acted with great sense of responsibility and set an ideal for the coming generations to follow. That is the reason Rama is regarded the upholder of the right conduct and as the epitome of virtue. At a later stage in his life, after return from exile and crowned as the king, his Dharma as the king took precedence over all other concerns in his life. He placed the interests of the kingdom over that of himself and of his family. As if to demonstrate the contrast, Valmiki also brings out in relief the ill effects of pride, greed, lust, jealousy, distrust, deceit etc. to highlight the virtues of Dharma, and to show how they could lead to degradation and destruction. Another aspect of Dharma that Valmiki highlights is its equation with Sathya, truthfulness. To him, Sathya is Dharma and it is established in Dharma. Accordingly, Rama is entirely committed to truth; he is true to himself in spirit, word and deed. He not only follows the path of truth but also helps others to be truthful and to follow their Dharma. Ramayana delineates the Dharma of a father, son, a brother, a king, a wife, a friend and a follower with illustrative examples. Valmiki in this context presents three contrasting sets of brothers. Rama and his brothers idealize the brotherly love, affection and regard. The relationship of Vaali and Sugreeva, in contrast, is a case where communication between the brothers has broken down. Whatever brotherly affection was there has since vanished. Each does not hesitate to kill the other or usurp the woman and kingdom. The relationship among the brothers Ravana is of a different kind. Kumbhakarna is aware that his elder brother Ravana clearly trespassed Dharma and he tries to dissuade Ravana from pursuing the wrong path. After he fails in his attempts, Kumbhakarna decides to go along with Ravana, regardless; because of brotherly affection, allegiance, loyalty and respect for his elder brother. Vibhishana on the other hand is clear in his mind that lending support to the righteous takes priority over loyalty to the family and to the brother. Vibhishana was perhaps the earliest instance of a whistleblower. Dharma in these cases was a question of choosing the right priorities. It is also a picture of three types of societies, each with its own set of values, mores and structure. One is the kingdom of man; the other is of the Vanaras while the third is of the Rakshasas. They are also pictures of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas gunas. In all the three cases, the elder brother is denied the throne; each for a different reason. Eventually the Sattvics come to throne, but again in three different ways. It is virtually a demonstration of Dharma in action. The principle characters –Rama, Sita,Lakshmana, Dasharatha , Kumbhakarna , Vibhishana et aleach exercises his/her judgment and acts in accordance with what he/she considers is the right or righteous in the context of the then society, his/her Dharma in the circumstance. Ramayana thus sets in motion a context sensitive dynamic interpretation of Dharma, evolving itself all the time. It means that the broad principles of Dharma are translated into applications for use in specific situations; just as in the relation between science and technology. This context sensitive theme, innovative treatment, and dynamic interpretation of Dharma gains greater significance in Mahabharata. rapalas As I am trying to study Hinduism Could I ask you another question? It is about ‘Dwarapal’. I know only that they are security guard in Hindu temples, and every Divinity has his/her own Dwarapal. Vishnu, Shiva, Devi and others have those personal Dwarapals. I have seen them, made of stone, in temples in India. But I cannot find any additional information about Dwarapals in Google Are there any texts about Dwarapals? What kind of beings they are, who they are by nature, what is their role in Hinduism or in worship of Deity? Best regards . Western Malwa -6th century 1.1. Dear Atma Raga, Thank you. I am glad you asked the question. It is rather an unusual question, but an interesting one. Let me try. 1.2. Dvarapalas are regular features of a major Hindu or Buddhist temple complex. They are the formidable looking ‗gate-keepers‘ and guards in service of the presiding deity of the temple. They are the servants and the protectors of their masters. They are typically envisioned as huge and robust warriors. The pairs of Dvarapalas are most usually placed at the entrance to the temple and also at the door way to sanctum (garbha-griha). As you mentioned, each god or goddess has his or her own set of Dvarapalas. The gestures of their fingers and the look in their eyes caution one to behave properly in the presence of the divinity. They form a detail of the larger picture.such as Shiva. numerous Dhyana-slokas. modestly dressed and ornamented. the mace (gada) and a noose (pasha. Dvarapalas are classified as parivara-devathas. the Dvarapalas in a Shiva temple take after Virabhadra. They are adorned with the signs and emblems of Vishnu such as the tilaka on their fore heads and urdhvapundra (Nama) on their faces. the ferocious aspect of Shiva. protruding curved sharp canine teeth. There are in addition. their appearance. substance and attribute of the deity and his or her attendants.1. They wear the emblems of Shiva.1. cross-legged leaning on their mace as if they are resting. 3. structure and other aspects with particular reference to the attributes and disposition of the deity to be installed in the temple . and with their threatening stance and fearsome weapons. and also the affiliation of the temple. insignia or emblems are indicative of the powers. and Devi etc.. They look fierce with bulging eyes. and in the lower hands. Similarly. Their appearances and stance herald the nature and disposition of the main deity. Accordingly. 2. They have thick mustaches. the sculptor. arms. virtues and magnificence of the presiding deity.2. bushy eyebrows and hairy abdomen. These verses are meant for contemplation and guidance of the Shilpi. meaning that Dvarapalas are semi-divine beings of a minor class who form the entourage of the main deity they serve. coil of rope). They carry in their upper hands the conch (shankha) and discus (chakra). horns (at times). such as the stripes of ash. Therefore their costume. chest etc. do make a mention of the nature and appearances of the Dvarapalas to be placed at different locations in the temple complex. The Shilpa Sastra texts that deal with temple architecture (devalaya-vastu) after describing the temple layout. Since Dvarapalas are parivara-devathas. The nature and appearance of the Dvarapalas of Vishnu are described in the Agama texts: Isvara Samhita and Pushkara Samhita. weapons. I do not know if there are any texts that deal exclusively with the depiction of the Dvarapalas. attributes etc have to be in accordance with that of their Master.2. or word-pictures in verse that present graphic details of the form.2. They stand erect. Bhadra Subhadra 3. . Vishnu. the principal deity that resides in the sanctum. the Dvarapalas in a Vishnu temple are rather placid looking. ‘ In the Dakshina-chara School (the right handed method) of Sri Vidya tradition the guarding deities are the physical (sthula) representations of certain symbolic concepts. arrows.animal hides. They carry cutlasses and tridents. The Eastern gate is the way of the mantras. long protruding teeth and tongue spread out of the open mouth. and the Northern gate is the way of wisdom. the approach to the divinities and carrying seals of authority. the standard bearers. or karma-kanda. gesture ominously and stand planting firmly a foot on the mace. the Western gate is for the performance of rites and rituals. guard those entrances. wear garlands of skull. The features of the Dvarapalas of Shiva are described in the latter part (uttarardha) ofKashyapa Shilpa Sastra. In the Shaktha tradition where the distinctions between the gross and subtle forms are marked and sharp. . They resemble in appearance the auspicious form of the Mother Goddess and carry weapons such as bow. or Jnana. broad-sword and a noose. and sport wild unkempt hair. They look ferocious. 3. Quite often they are portrayed with flashy eyes.3. modeled after the ferocious aspect of their Mother deity. long flowing unkempt hair etc. mace. The Dvarapalas of the Devi are pictured in Kalika Puranam. the Dvarapalas of the female deities who represent the grosser elements of nature are fearsome looking females. named Bhupura Chakra . They carry a trident.. has four gates (dvara). For instance. goad and noose. the Southern gate is the way of devotion or bhakti.the earth stretch. The Mudra devathas. the outermost enclosure (avarana) of Sri Chakra. The Dvarapala images are usually scaled in saptha (seven) tala or nava (nine) tala measure. They are elaborately adorned with Kirita (headgear). The Dvarapala are not provided with halos or garlands.2. muscular. The Dvarapalas of major deities such as Vishnu or Shiva have recognizable names and specified positions. karna-kundala (hanging earrings). Bhuja –kirti (shoulder ornaments). In the Agamas they are termed Ganeshvara. As regards the general features of all Dvarapalas placed in the temples. the chief of the horde.1. The Agama texts recommend four pairs of Dvarapalas. they are well built. Dvarapalas are always in pair or in even numbers. Each is endowed with four arms. very tall and sporting fearsome moustaches.4. They are always soldier-like and larger than life. They always carry weapons. They are made either with two or four arms. in each case. each pair to guard a cardinal direction. and are always depicted as standing guard. are in some way associated with their main deity through a legend detailed in a Purana. broad shouldered. . 4. but they can hardly be called very terrifying. The Dvarapalas. Similarly. The Brahma too is said have four sets of Dvarapalas facing four directions: Satya-Dharma. (iii) Jaya and Vijaya. The four doors of Ganapathi temple are guarded by four sets of Dvarapalas : Avijna – Vijnaraja (East ) . and the other to the left. Along with the Dvarapalas their subordinates are depicted in minor relief at on the base of the images. Suvakthra – Balavan (South ) . Gajakarna – Gokarna (West ) . Vijaya – Yajnabhadra. They are said to be Brahmin brothers. with a ―dare not enter‖ look to their faces and gestures . The first named in each pair stands to the right of the doorway. are depicted with four arms. the Dvarapalas of Shiva are (i) Nandi and Mahakala (to the East) . . and (iv) Bhardra and Subhadra. The pairs of Dvarapalas guarding the temple and placed in its exterior (at the entrances) are larger in size and more ferocious or threatening in appearance . The Dvarapalas flanking the doorway to the sanctum are comparatively modest.3. The Dvarapalas of Skanda are named as Sudeha and Sumukha.For instance the four pairs of Dvarapalas of Vishnu are (i) Chanda and Prachanda . Sarvakamada – Vibhava. gently holding lotuses as if inviting the devotee to God‘s home.( ii) Dhatru and Vidhatru. and.( ii) Herambha and Bhringi (to the South). and . They are titled as Ashta-Prathihari (retinue of eight guards). (iii) Durmukha and Pandura (to the West) and(iv) Sita and Asita (to the North). perhaps to keep away the evil influences. The Dwarapalas in the Hoysala temples are particularly graceful with ornate jewellery to suit the delicately carved interiors. Susoumya (Soumya ) – Shubadayaka (Abhaya ) on the North. All of them are short statured having cruel looks and carrying fearsome weapons. Priyodbhava – Yajna. but . 4. like weapon but stood tall or cross-legged. adornments are chiselled like a jewel. by the time of Vijayanagar (15-16th century) the Dvarapalas grew a shade smaller but muscular and more ornate. They are massive towering up on the walls.1. But. But the artistic excellence in depicting the Dvarapalas reached its zenith in the Hoysala architecture.5. They are magnificent works of art in their own right. they didn‘t appear to lean on a mace or a lance. The historical development in the depictions of Dvarapalas is quite interesting. the Dvarapalas of the Chola temples are truly awesome intended to strike terror in the hearts of the wicked. 5. with extreme care. snarling you down with sharp oversized fangs. . However .2. The Dvarapalas in the Pallava temples were made fierce. Their intricate patterns. riding on the Yali (mythical beast) making one feel tiny and submissive. majesty and magnificence of the Lord residing in the temple. Sometimes. . But. The entire Dvarapala panel is basically related to the image of the elephant. the largest land-animal. You can work-back the size and power of the Dvarapala. and you have to work back to gain an estimate of the size and power of the Dvarapala. The serpent looks quite tiny in comparison to the mace on which the Dvarapala has planted his foot.1. For instance. Most of the Dvarapala images are sculpted according to the Agama prescriptions. Shilpis the temple architects employed massive Dwarapalas at the entrances to symbolically emphasize the grandeur. depicted within its frame. staring from the elephant. The mace looks like a toy in the hands of the Dvarapala. But the shilpis do tend to improvise and avail artistic liberties. the Dwarapalas at the Brihadeshwara temple of Thanjavur are massive. what is more interesting is theme the sculptures devised to drive home the message. At the bottom of the panel is the image of an elephant which is being swallowed by a serpent which in turn is coiled around the mace held in the hands of the Dvarapala.6. the Kshetrapala. a village.. the Kshetrapala is provided a small shrine on the North-East side within the temple courtyard for safeguarding the temple. a field or a temple. Kshetrapalas are basically the folk guardian deities who are very popular in village cults. Worship is offered . The Lord who has in his service such gigantic gatekeepers and who resides in such a magnificent temple must truly be mighty and powerful. The Kshetrapalas have broader functions. They are offered worship on occasions of important community celebrations. They are entrusted with the task of safe guarding a Kshetra (a village. and . true to his name Brihadishwara.courtyards blocks of stone are designated and worshipped as Kshetrapala. particularly of Shiva.The Dvarapalas in turn look modest in comparison to the temple and its tower. Kshetra literally means a field or specifically a field of activity (In a broader sense the body is the Kshetra the field. and the one who resides in it as the Antaryamin is kshetrajna).Sometimes in the village open. guards the entire temple –complex. in hierarchy placed higher than Dvarapalas. The Kshetrapala are the protectors of a settlement. In the villages of South India Kshetrapalas are placed in small temples or in open spaces outside of the village. on the other hand. [A note about Kshetrapalas: While the Dvarapalas guard the doors of their deities. In a major temple complex. a field or a temple) against dangers coming from all the eight spatial directions. The Kshetrapala on the other hand have broader functions. Kshetrapala wearing a skull cup. huge. wielding a number of weapons and usually accompanied by dogs .] Sources and references . untidy. to guard the Lord against impure elements. it is said. the Lord of death who resides in the burning Ghats. holding a chopper. . three eyed. the Kshetrapala there also performs the function of Dvarapala. According to one legend Siva created Kshetrapala along with others to organize the army of Kali when she went to fight the demon Daruka. rides a black bear. Kshetrapalas are installed and worshipped in Jain and Buddhist traditions also Buddhist Kshetrapala The Kshetrapalas are identified with Bhairava the terrible aspect of Shiva. praying for efficient and safe conclusion of that ritual. as also with the ferocious looking Veerabhadra the son of Shiva.to Kshetrapala prior to important rituals. they are generally: awe inspiring. When Kshetrapala attends to Mahakala. When the Kshetrapala are depicted in images. terrifying. In the Sri Vishvanatha temple at Kasi. com/books/gcpuram/chapter06. This article and its companion posts may be treated as an extension of the series I posted on the Art of Painting in Ancient India .Gnanananda The other pictures are courtesy of Internet. Gangaikondacholapuram by Dr .html Leave a comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 29. The Big Temple . Kshetrapala. and is the best of the Chola temples.R. which belongs to the Vijayanagara School of art.G. ] Continued from the Legacy of Chitrasutra – Six – Sri Kailasanatha of Kanchipuram 23.blogspot. Nagaswamy http://tamilartsacademy.I gratefully acknowledge the line drawings and notes from Brahmiya Chitra Karma Sastram by Dr.html Indian Temples and Iconography http://indiatemple.) This temple is a jewel among the Indian temples. Dwarapala. A brief mention is also made of the paintings of the Nayak period (17th century) In the next article we shall look at the Paintings at the historic temple of Pampa Virupaksha at Hampi (Karnataka) . 2012 in Temple Architecture Tags: Dvarapala. temple guards The Legacy of Chitrasutra – Seven – Brihadishvara 23 Sep [This is the Seventh article in the series. The present article looks at the surviving Chola murals (earlyeleventh -century) at the magnificenttemple of Brihadishvara. Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu.com/2005/07/gatekeeper-dvarapalas-in-temple. The Big – Temple was. The epigraphic evidences suggest that Rajaraja commenced his temple building project in the 19th year of his reign and completed it successfully on the 257th day in the 25th year of his reign (c.The greatest of Chola emperors Rajaraja-I (985 A. It also became a benchmark in the south Indian architecture. 23. an expression of the devotion as well as the power and grandeur of Rajaraja Chola. in just a matter of six years .D) the son of Sundara Chola (Parantakaa-II) and Vanavanmaha – Devi. highlighting the maturity and technical excellence achieved by the Chola architects and sculptures.1010 AD). The inscriptions at the temple indicate that Rajarajesvaram was exclusively a royal temple conceived. in a way. .He also affectionately addressed his god as Peruvudaiyar (the great lord or the great master) and his temple as Peruvudaiyar-kovil. A remarkable feat. designed. especially when you consider that the hard granite stones that went into the construction of the huge temple were not found anywhere nears the project site.D – 1012 A. and managed by the Emperor himself.2. built a magnificent temple dedicated to Lord Shiva at Rajarajeshwaram near the head of the Cauvery Delta. and called his Lord as Rajarajesvara udaiya Paramasami (The Great God who resides at Rajarajeshwaram). 24. must have been way ahead of their times.23.kovil (the Big-temple of Thanjavur). 23. The engineering skills and the expertise that mounted these huge stones atop the fourteen story high tower structure.1. During their time. the temple came to be known as Brihadisvaram. more robust than the complex curvilinear profiles of other styles. In Tamil. Due to constant exposure to smoke and soot from the lamps and burning of camphor in the sanctum over a period of centuries. sculpted.They added various shrines and gopuras within the temple complex.4. granite blocks weighing 40 tonnes each. In course of time (17th to 19th centuries) the territory came under the rule of the Maratha Nayak rulers . and its presiding deity as Brihadisvara. the restoration and improvement works were undertaken in the temple. The basement of the structure which supports the tower is 96 feet square. standing over 216 feet tall organized by pilasters that break up the facade of the base creating spaces for niches and windows in between. During the reign of King Vijaya Raghava Nayak (1645-1673). the temple is the Thanjai Periya.3. certain parts of . four miles north-east of the city. The crowning glory of the temple is the staggering cupola of the Vimana comprising two huge. Legend says that the stone was brought from Sarapallam(scaffold-hollow). using a specially designed ramp. The Paintings 24. The temple-city came to be known as Thanjavur. The architects and engineers attribute the stability of the massive temple to its pyramidal structure. at places. The modern day scholars could not help remark that the artists of the Nayaks‘ rather overdid their task. crumbled exposing some exquisite ancient paintings.K.2. Thereafter. . as they thought it fit. and decided to replace the old paintings with paintings of their own. covering the old murals completely.the Chola paintings on the circumambulatory passage walls had been badly damaged. 1933. Vol. Professor S. He examined it further. Govindasamy of Annamalai University was inspecting the walls of the six-foot wide dim lit ambulatory (pradakshina patha) around the sanctum of the Brihadisvara. It is said that. They went on to paint their pictures over the thousand year old Chola murals. and at the same time to preserve the paintings of the Nayak period. attempts were made to bring to light the Chola murals. 24. How the underlying Chola murals again saw the light of the day after incarceration of about four hundred years. II. Govindasamy published his findings in the Journal of the Annamalai University. while late Professor S.K. is an interesting story. The artists of the Nayak period tried to set it right. during the year 1930. and was thrilled when he discovered that the paintings hidden underneath the Nayak paintings were the thousand-year-old murals of the time of Rajaraja Chola. he noticed that the painted surfaces on the walls on either side of the ambulatory had. are mainly in the corridors of the ambulatory around the sanctum. the chemical branch of the ASI came out with a unique `destucco‘ process to remove the upper layer of Nayak paintings and display the same on fibreglass boards. Tripurantaka. so far brought to surface. The magnificent temple of Brihadisvara at Thanjavur is a splendorous jewel of Indian temple art and architecture. North and Western walls of the sanctum. and on the walls of the mantapa in front of the Subramanian shrine. on the west and north walls of another pavilion (tiruchchurru-maaligai).The passage 24. It is said that during the 1980s. The themes depicted in the panels so far exposed (1. please check: http://www. The Chola panels 25.htm 25.hinduonnet. For a report on that. The Maratha Nayak paintings (18-19th century) are on the ceiling of the adjoining great-hall (maha-mantapa). the marriage of Shiva and Parvathi. Rajaraja and his three queens worshipping Nataraja at Chidambaram.3. . The Department of Archaeology has done a remarkable conservation of scientifically cleaning the exposed portions revealing the excellence of the Chola paintings and at the same time retaining intact the upper layer on which the Nayak paintings are drawn.com/thehindu/fr/2003/02/28/stories/2003022801300600. They are on the South.1.2.com/fline/fl2410/stories/20070601000106500. the story of Sundarar.hinduonnet. ( For the paintings of the Nayaks‘ period : please see the Appendix posted as Part 8 ) 25.htm http://www. Rajaraja worshipping the Linga to be enshrined in the temple. The original Chola paintings.200 sq ft) are : Shiva as Dakshinamurthy. and Ravana at Kailasa mountain. Sadly. Another. and it is difficult to make out the details. is not yet aware of the danger. swans and owls. It depicts Shiva as Dakshinamurthi under a banyan tree. The figures too are not very clear. A squirrel. A peacock bends his long neck to watch. unmindful of all this. The panel is very rich in details. one . It is often cited as an example for lucidity and display of imagination in Chola paintings. in contrast to the vivacious animals. Below the tree is a herd of elephants. Let‘s take a brief look at some those panels. Bhirava as dog. playful monkeys and birds such as peacocks. 25. The owls do not react as the whole thing happens in daylight. Flying apsaras and gandharvas (celestial beings)complete the scene . However. there is a sudden change in the scenery. A few sensitive swans flutter their wings in fear. happily bites into a nut. The Dakshinamurthy panel The Dakshinamurthi panel is rather huge and occupies almost the entire space on the southern wall. A monkey rushes away while another stares at the new entrant.3. the figure of Dakshinamurthy is barely visible. none of these is panels is complete. There is a stillness of body and reverence on the face of the sages worshipping Dakshinamurthi. But for the efforts of ASI these ancient wall-paintings would have been totally lost.But as a cobra enters the picture. on a faraway branch. it is populated with sages. too. an angry Sundara in a white coat .5. contain some marvellously drawn figures. examination of the document by the villagers assembled there.ferociously breaks a branch and another runs uphill with its trunk coiled around the branch. Another one calmly enjoys the peaceful surroundings. bearing testimony to the skilful brushwork of the Chola artists. The other panels are fragmentary but they. There are also the graceful pictures of the Apsaras.6.4. 25. 25. . The scene of Indra (the king of gods) worshipping the Linga is on the opposite wall. 25. and Sundara appealing to the mercy of Shiva etc. These include scenes of Lord Shiva appearing in the guise of an old man clutching a document proving his claim over the bridegroom Sundara. Saint Sundaramurti Nayanar The panel on the west wall depicts the episodes in the life of Saint Sundaramurti Nayanar. In this panel the scenes of Sundara‘s wedding are depicted in detail. has not survived in its entirety. and Sanathkumara) of Sri Dakshinamurthy.7. . The next panel in northwest corner is the scene of four disciples who are now identified as disciples (Kuravars: Sanka. It is said that Shiva in the mural had a twin expression: the ferociousness in the eye and the sweet smile on the lips.8. glory and the grandeur of the imperial Cholas and their Lord. Now. The Brihadisvara too has a panel dedicated to Tripurantaka. the scholars seem to doubt that plausible explanation. Karuvurdevar. Two figures among them were earlier assumed to be that of Rajaraja standing behind his Guru. It must have once been a magnificent and awe inspiring painting. going into a war fully armed and wielding a bow. Tripuranthaka theme of Shiva raiding a chariot like a warrior. bringing to life the power. Sanathana. portraying a sense of humility. followed by an army of his supporters was a favourite of the Cholas. Sananda.25. sadly. The daemons too have been depicted in detail. 25. The panel. The demon with his consort on the Tripurantaka panel. 25.9. There is a picture of Ravana at Kailasa the snow-abode of Shiva; labouring hard to destabilize mountain peak. 26.Prof. C. Sivaramamurthy , a scholar and art historian of great distinction, described the Chola frescoes of the Thanjavur Big Temple as a masterpiece of Chola art, distinguished by power, grandeur, rhythm and composition, and unparalleled by any other contemporary painting. What is significant about the Chola paintings of Thanjavur is that there is great emotion in all the faces, whether it is the compassion of the guru counselling Rajaraja, or a contemplative rishi, a devout queen, an animated dancer or an angry Shiva. 26.1. Those who have examined the Chola paintings closely have observed that even while depicting a sombre theme of devotion, the artist does not neglect the mundane aspects. The bedecked royal ladies continue to chatter among themselves, in spite of their being in a holy place. In contrast, the common ladies and elders seem absorbed in the performance. 26.2. According to Prof. C. Sivaramamurthy, ―If expression has to be taken as the criterion, by which a great art has to be judged, it is here in abundance in these Chola paintings. The sentiment of heroism – vira rasa- is clearly seen in Tripurantaka‘s face and form; the figures and attitude of the Rakshasas (demons) … wailing tear-stained faces of their women… suggest an emotion of pity – karuna- and terror – raudra; Siva as Dakshinamurthy… is the mirror of peace – shanta; the hands… of the dancer suggests the spirit of wonder – adbhuta… the ganas (Shiva‘s followers) in comic attitude represent hasya. The commingling of emotions is complete in this which is a jumble ofvira, raudraand karuna‖ (Paintings of South India). 27. The Chola artists of the Brihadisvara murals were the inheritors of the hoary tradition of Chitrasutra. They preserved and practiced the concepts and the techniques of the Chitrasutra. The delineation of lines, use of colours and shades, arrangement of the figures on the canvass and treatment of the subject strongly resemble the murals of Ajanta. Its figures are alive with rhythm and movement. The saints, kings and queens are celebrated in their idealized forms; the emphasis was on the ideal person behind the human lineaments rather than on their physical likeness. They figures of humans, animals, birds and vegetation always seem to suggest to something beyond the obvious. Its gods and goddesses too are full of virtue, vitality and grace; and have a universal appeal. They not merely stimulate the senses but also ignite the imagination of the viewer and set the viewer free from the confines of place, time and ego (self).The Chola murals of Brihadisvara have that magical quality, which brings out the essence of life and the grace that permeate the whole of existence. [ I gratefully acknowledge the corrections and improvements suggested by Shri Vijay Kumar the creator of the delightfully articulate website on Shilpa and other related subjects : http://www.poetryinstone.in ] For the paintings of the Nayaks‘ period : please see the Appendix posted as Part 8 And Next The Vijayanagar period paintings on the ceilings of the Sri Pampa Virupaksha temple, Hampi (Karnataka) References and Sources: The Big Temple http://www.thanjavur.com/bragathe.htm http://www.thebigtemple.com/emperor_rajaraja.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_art The Great God of Rajarajeshwaram http://www.whatisindia.com/opinion/2006/03/wis20060331_the_great_god_of_rajeshwaram.htm l Restoration of Chola paintings by ASI http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fr/2003/02/28/stories/2003022801300600.htm http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2410/stories/20070601000106500.htm http://www.thebigtemple.com/frescos.html http://www.hindu.com/2005/12/24/stories/2005122406380400.htm A.A.S.A.I: Paintings Preservation http://conserveheritage.org/paintingpreservation.html Legends across panels by Nandtha Krishna http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2004061300370200.htm&date=2004/ 06/13/&prd=mag& The Swami as photographer http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2005/06/20/stories/2005062000400500.htm Tanjavur Paintings in Koviloor, Sittannavasal, Panamalai, Tanjavur Early Chola Paintings; Photographed by C. Nachiappan (Koviloor Swamy), Kalakshetra Publications. http://saigan.com/heritage/articles/cholamrl.html 2 Comments Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 23, 2012 in Art, Chitrasutra, Indian Painting, Legacy of Chitrasutra, Temple Architecture Tags: Brihadishvara, Chola murals, Indian wall paintings Temple Architecture – Devalaya Vastu – Part Nine (9 of 9) 10 Sep Some norms adopted in the Shipla shastra I. Determination of cardinal points (Dik nirnaya) yupa. vimana. Maana not merely measures the elements of space and time. It was considered essential to align any auspicious structure say. The Sanskrit term.In Sanskrit. for mother is derived from that root ma.There is a close relation in the Indian thought.Measurement separates and differentiates the elements of the world and provides them an identity or a recognizable standard form. . ma. The importance accorded to precise orientation and precise measurements in the construction of the temple reveals the symbolism involved in the act. The standard texts on temple architecture carry extensive discussions on the systems of proportional measurements and the techniques employed for determining true cardinal points. Perhaps the first act of measurement in our universe was the breaking of the barrier between time and timelessness. Ascertaining the exact cardinal points and drawing the East-West line (prachee) was one of the primary concerns of the ancients. between measurement (maa_na) and creation. referred to the temple signifies a ‗well-measured‘ or ―well-proportioned‖ structure. the root. along the prachee. a mantapa. and demonstrates the relation between things. stands for that which gives existence to a thing. the sacrificial altar. or a temple. The term matir. it surely saved our existence from perpetual chaos. It is said that the ritual of measurement performed at the commencement of the temple building or of a Vedic altar is a re-enactment of creation of the world. and. the pavilion. gives it a reality in our world. The Sulaba Sutras of Bhodayana and Kathyayana too describe methods to determine true cardinal points. The ancient text Shathapatha Brahmana repeatedly refers to the term prachee meaning the correct East-West line. but also governs the standard of ones conduct in life. The Shilpa Shastra texts. earth. Vishwakarma Vastu Shastra. carried a rich symbolism. the staff (yasti) of which represented the radius of the celestial sphere and was used for determination of the position of heavenly bodies. such as Kashyapa Shilpa sutra. The Sanku (gnomon) or its variations were used by all ancient civilizations for determining the east-west direction and also for knowing time. the equinoxes and the geographical latitudes. The Sawai Jai Singh‘s Observatories at Ujjain includes a Sanku Yantra. The altar built of five layers.The Yajna altar of the Vedic times. it is often described as the Indian Circle Method. Each text of the Shilpa Shastra recommends its own set of specifications for the height and girth of the gnomon. The method uses the movement of the Sun and the shadows it casts . firmly erected perpendicular to a leveled ground rendered ―as smooth as a mirror―. The Indian astronomers also used it for the determination of the solstices. Shilpa Rathnam. five elements and five directions. (Please check: http://www. let us confine to the Sanku discussed in the texts of Shilpa Shastras and its use for determining the cardinal points. And. The gnomon is probably mankind‘s oldest astronomical device. and water.engr. which was reconstructed each year around the time of vernal equinox.ca/~asharan/JAI_SINGH/index. The Sanku in its simplest form is a piece of sharp edged. Brahmagupta described a conical gnomon. represented the five seasons. Ishana Shiva Guru Doctrine and Manasara etc too discuss elaborately the instruments and the methods employed to determine true directions. The fired bricks symbolized the elements of fire. The akasha provided space and air by breathing upon the bricks of the altar and bringing them to life. The instrument that the texts talk about in this regard is the Sanku Yantra or the gnomon. and also for terrestrial surveying. For instance.mun. smooth surfaced pole made of wood or other material.html ) For the limited purpose of our discussion. The altar was surrounded by a wall of 360 bricks representing 360 days of the year. the . Vastu Vidya. Kshira vriksha Kadira.(In inches) Girth of sanku 2 inches at the bottom Pointed edge at 1 yava Like a pin-head the top of sanku Diameter of Twice the 24 inches the circle height of drawn around the sanku the base of pole from Sanku the ground Ground on Level –like Level –like water surface Level.Tinduka. SaradaOrivory be used for KshiraOr ivory making Sanku Season of the Summer solstice. Before erecting the Sanku pole. with the aid of a measuring rod the height of water at different points are checked to ensure that the water column is of same height . the type of ropes and the pegs to be used.like water Smooth and which SankuIs a stone surface level erected asa mirror How to embed Fixed firmly Some portion to be buried Some portion to be Erected on the the Sanku? underground buried underground ground Which wood to Sara vriksha Kadira. the mode of embedding the gnomon into the earth. it is essential that the ground is rendered absolutely clean. is leveled and enclosed by a frame of bricks. The selected ground. The Mayamata and Manasara describe what is called as ―water method‖ to ensure an even and a flat surfaced ground. any measurements and New-moon days auspiciousday Before drawing the plans and designs for a temple. the orientation of the site has to be established properly. brighter half Any auspicious day Summer year for taking of the month barring Full –moon solstice. The best way to go about it is to commence the exercise at a time when the sun is in the northern part of the sky. Shami. Then. and is filled with water.material or the wood to be used for making the gnomon. and on a day when there are no sunspots disfiguring its visible surface. Some of the salient recommendations of only four of Shilpa texts are briefly tabulated under. and the measurements to be taken etc. Particulars Kashyapa Vishvakarma Vastu Shastra Manasara Ishana Shiva Shilpa Guru 15 inches 12 to 24 inchesand48 inches Uttama12 inches for Temples 24inchesMadhyama18 inchesKanista12inches Uttama -2 2 inches inchesMadhyama 1inchKanista-1/3 inch A sharp pointmade of metal Four times the Twice the height of Sanku height ofSanku Height of Sanku above the ground level. smooth and flat. in a square shape. The total length of the sanku would normally be 18 inches. But all texts say that the radius should not be less than the height of the Sanku. The Vastu Vidya Shilpa text suggests an improvement over the above method. With the base of the Sanku as the centre. The Manasara text however recommends 24 inches as the best (uttama) and 18 inches as next-best (madhyama) height of the Sanku. it recommends the use of a device called avanatha constructed out of three wodden strips of equal length (25 inches each). Its top-end should be pointed. It is argued that the radius of that circle should not be too long. especially during the evenings. The effective height of sanku. and pointed at one end. After the leveling by water-method has been carried out. perfectly circular and without irregularities. after the ground has been dried. Its surface should be smooth. The diameters at the top and bottom should be proportionate to their length. If the pendulum (plumb line) suspended from the apex of the triangle stayserect at all test-points. While some other texts say that the radius (trigya) should be twice the height of the Sanku. [There is some confusion here. Some texts say the diameter (vyasa) should be twice the height of the Sanku. it would be difficult to obtain correct readings. If not. of which six inches would be under the ground level.throughout. it again is checked by the avanatha.An equilateral triangle constructed out of the three wodden strips is placed at different points on the prepared ground. in the interest of uniformity. a circle should be described around the sanku. After it is dried out the uneven surfaces. cleaned and fine-leveled. The ritual of erecting the Sanku is called Sanku_sthapana. The Sanku has to be erected in the mid region of the prepared ground. above ground. adopted here the radius as equal to twice the height of the Sanku. I have. The girth of the Sanku at its bottom should range between two inches to six inches. suitale corrections have to be carried out. Finally. but it should not be too thin. nor should it be too short. would normally be 12 inches. else it might be difficult to mark its shadow on the ground. until it is required. In either case of extreme. The sanku is made of either ivory or the seasoned kadira (hard) wood which does not bend in the heat of the sun. Most texts recommend that the radius should be twice the height of the Sanku. having a radius equal to twice the height of the Sanku.] . The Sanku should be fixed firmly and it should stand perpendicular to the ground. especially during the evenings. it means that the pegs stand at equal height. wrinkles and blotches are corrected and evened out by suitably increasing/decreasing the level at selected points. Now. This line points directly East-West. and the string(rajju) connecting the top of the Sanku to the point of intersection of the base of the triangle with the circle forming the hypotenuse. the shadow first swings to the north and then to the east. If the sanku stands absolutely perpendicular then the string (hypotenuse) should measure exactly 20 inches. the Sanku as its height (12 inches). This in effect forms a right angled triangle . By evening. a circle should be described with the base of Sanku as the centre and with a radius of 16 inches. A line perpendicular to the E-W line is the north-south direction. you again mark the point where the shadow intersects the circle. as the sun travels to . when the shadow of the sanku gets longer. This East-West line is called prachee. It is recommended that the first reading is taken at sunrise during a month when the solar path is towards the north (uttarayana) during a bright fortnight when sunrise is clear. as the sun rises in the east. with a radius equal to twice its height — you proceed with the task of determining the cardinal points with the help of gnomon. They suggest that in case the height of the Sanku is 12 inches. As the sun rises in the morning. when there are no spots in the solar disc and when the sun is in the asterism of the appropriate fortnight. erecting the sanku . Raja_vallabha and Kunda _siddhi recommend a unique method to ensure that the Sanku is standing perpendicular to the ground. mark the point. When the shadow of the top of the Sanku just falls on the circle. as the day advances. the shadow points west. round its base. In this method. Then. This exercise was based on the theory of Brahmagupta (6thcentury AD) otherwise known as the Pythagorean Theorem. having completed the preliminary work — of leveling and smoothening the ground.The Shilpa texts such as Shilpa Dipika. you keep observing the sanku‘s shadow. with the radius as the base of the triangle (16 inches). and drawing a circle .Connect the two points with a straight line. The intersection of these circles creates a fish shaped figure. And. because the earth is tilted toward the sun in summer and away from the sun in the winter. therefore the points marked on the circle indicate only approximately correct directions. An improvement over this method is the drawing of circles with these East and West points as centres. Another issue is that the sun moves most rapidly at the equinoxes.west. A line drawn between the points where the two circles intersect indicate the geographic North-South.The problem with this method is that the shadows are shorter in the summer than in the winter. The radius of the circles is the distance between those East and West points. . Let us name these points as A-a. If the East-West line (prachee) has to be fixed accurately. till he reaches northernmost tip of his path (23.5 degrees or Circle of Tropic of Cancer – Karkataka Sankranti Vritta). the sun shadow on the ground too shifts gradually during this period. from Kataka up to Dhanu signs. Dakshinayana is the progress of Sun to the south of the equator – The winter half of the year. as shown in the following diagram. Further. till he reaches the circle of tropic of Capricorn. A line drawn at 90 degrees to the line indicating North would be the EastWest line. when the shadow of the Sanku is within the circle. which termed as Dakshinayana Punya Kala. he reverses his movement from travelling in southern direction and from that day onwards he starts travelling in the Northern direction for next six months. the readings taken earlier need to be fine-tuned. That is. The shadow points of the Sanku intersecting the circle drawn around it should be marked everyday both in the morning. three points have to be marked three circles should be drawn with these three points as the centre. The points of intersections of these circles should be marked. again for another six months. and B-b. Utarayana can also be explained as the progress of the Sun to the north of equator – The Summer solstice. When the lines joining A-a and B-b are joined and extended backwards they converge in the point N. after touching the southernmost tip of his path (23. . the Indian circle method leads to the error up to 8′ in the time near spring and autumn equinox (March and September). again he starts travelling in Southern direction. from Makara up to Mithuna signs. the sun‘s position shifts by about 8 degrees in each month. Accordingly. Over a period of time these markings form a curvaceous line or an arc. Theoretically.5 degrees or Circle of Tropic of Capricorn – Makara Sankranti Vritta). Sun in his entourage. In a period of six months as the sun moves from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Tropic of Cancer his position shifts by 47 degrees. The Shiva Guru Doctrine suggests the following method in this regard.*** In Uttarayana Punyakala or Makara Sankranti. From that point. Shilpa Shastras caution that the points marked out on the ground based on the shadows cast by the sanku do not therefore indicate the true cardinal points. the vertical gnomon casts its shadow in different directions on different days of the year. The shadow of the sun will on any given day of the year follow a curved path from west towards east.Feb 05 04 04 Dec-Jan 07 06 06 Manasara B C 01 02 01 02 01 00 05 04 07 06 01 02 03 04 05 kanya Bhadrapada Rishabha Vaishaka Mesha Chaitra Kumbha Magha Makara Pushya A 00 01 02 06 08 .*** As the sun rises and sets at shifting points on the horizon. is no uniformity in this regard. The texts suggest that the East. again. Please see the following table for the month -wise corrections suggested by two major texts. Rashi ChandramanMonth Calendar Corrections month Reduction suggested (in inches) Mayamatha A B` C Jul-Aug 01 02 02 Apr-May 01 02 02 Mar-Apr 01 00 00 Jan.No.by reductionof the following numbers of digits for each ten day period of each month. The readings need to be suitably corrected depending on the movement of the sun. From autumn equinox to spring equinox (yellow area above) the curving is northerly. There.West line should be established with adjustments. and on the days of solstice the change is zero. The amount by which the sun changes its declination during the day decreases as the sun moves away from equinox. Sr. The corrections suggested by each text are different. From spring equinox to autumn equinox the path will curve towards south. while the length of shadow also varies from day to day through the year. and the last three columns of corrections are as per Mansara. The East-West line is named Brahma Sutra. and. . A stands for first 10 days of the month.06 07 08 09 10 11 12 Mithuna Kataka Simha Tula Vrishika Dhanus Meena Jesta Ashadha Shravana Ashviyuja Karthika Margashira Phalguna May-Jun 03 Jun-Jul 03 Jul-Aug 01 Sep-Oct 03 Oct-Nov 05 Nov-Dec 07 Feb-Mar 03 04 02 00 04 09 08 01 04 02 00 04 06 08 01 02 04 02 02 04 06 04 03 03 01 03 05 07 03 04 02 00 04 06 08 02 The first three columns of corrections are as per Mayamata. which is achieving the true cardinal points. The North-South line is named Yama Sutra. B stands for days from 11 to 20. The entire exercise is called Dik parchheda or Prachee sadhana. the Diagonal lines are named Karna Rekhas. The final drawing will look as under. you plot the readings and draw the lines and arcs.And C stands for days from 21 to 30 of the month After carrying out the corrections. while the Geographic North Pole is in the Arctic.mention that the line connecting the polar star (dhruva) and the two stars of the Ursa Major (Saptha Rishi mandala) . as the ancient did. based on the position of stars is rather ancient. *** A few points need to be mentioned by way of clarification. when they are 86 inches above the horizon. based on the Sanku method. the ancient methods were given up. The methods which we discussed so far were being followed by the Shiplis until about the 17thcentury . There is no description. looked as shown below. when extended would point to North. for positioning the yupa. They were not talking about the Magnetic North Pole. and Pushya and Punarvasu . The text however does not detail the method to be employed. Incidentally. Now everyone goes by the compass to ascertain the directions.. the diagram. The Shilpa texts –Kathyayaneeya sulba sutra. with the introduction of magnetic compasses. . either. The Magnetic North Pole is currently wandering at a few kilometers per year through the far north of Canada. Yet. TheKathyayaneeya sulba sutra mentions that the true East can be determined with reference to the position of the pairs of stars: Chiita and Swathi. Raja Vallabha and Shilpa deepika.Krutthika and Prathi krutthika.Guided by the stars The practice of determining the directions. is a superior method. of Prathi Shravana and Prathi Krutthika stars. The exercises described were undertaken to find the geographic North Pole which is the pole about which the Earth seems to spin. many feel that determining the geographic north.Thereafter.Shravana and Prathi shravana. the sacrificial altar. He is well-qualified in Shastras and the Vedas. . He has the ability to direct his team. pillars etc. decent man free from vices. The Takshaka is also the master carpenter who is responsible for all the intricate wood work including doors. Vardhaki joins together the building elements shaped by Taksaka. He is also well-versed in the Vedas. Manu and Twasta. the creator. Maya. Taksaka is the craftsman who cuts and shapes the building elements. Four Types of Architects The ancients mention four types of architects – the Sthapati. who directs the rest of the work force. He is an expert draftsman or Rekhagna. The Sutragrahin is the supervisor and is said to be normally the Sthapati‘s son or disciple. He is pictured as a cultured. the sons of Brahma. Sutragrahin. windows. design and direct the construction from the beginning to the end. The Sthapati is the chief architect or master builderempowered to plan. The Vardhaki is the painter and has made a special study of it. These four classes are considered the representations of Viswakarma.**** II. He should be able to give instructions to the other craftsmen. Vardhaki and Takshaka. He is also well-qualified in the Vedas and Sastras. His job is to see that all building parts are aligned correctly. the patches of quartz. khondalite. therefore. The Vishnu Darmottara Purana talks in great detail about the faults in the rocks and the methods to test the rocks. the sthapati and other silpins. They could be used in other areas. The stones collected from open source such as mountain or hill are stronger and more durable as compared to those dug out of earth. either. such stones are not recommended for temple construction. They are not considered fit to bear heavy loads. The reason for preferring the stones from hills or mountains could be that they are well seasoned by constant exposure to the vagaries of weather. as they could be eroded by the chemicals and the salt content of the sea. The traces of chlorite or olivine cause green or black patches and weaken the stones.Building Materials used in temple architecture The building materials that are prominently used in temple construction are the stone. the stones or boulders dug out from the coastal areas are considered weak. Stones such as marble.Acharya is the learned preceptor who gives the yajamana (one who sponsors the temple project) the necessary advice and guidance in selecting the proper site. The sthapati. the white lines. Vishnu and Rudra . It is therefore natural that the Shilpa texts discuss the stones quite elaborately. But. patches.Stones The stones are the major ingredients in temple construction. One cannot think of a temple constructed without using stones. in brief. while black lines of baser materials weaken the stones. for various purposes. steatite. basalt etc are not fit for carving a diety. sandstone. Colour . Similarly. Stone should be free from lines. The Shilpa texts describe in detail the nature of these materials and the criteria for their selection. the bricks and the wood (apart from earth which we discussed separately in the earlier part of this series). The following. strengthen the rock structure. A. blots and cracks or other faults. Let us take a quick look at these three materials. they are compared to Brahma. The white lines or patches in a black or other coloured stone are acceptable. They are not recommended in load bearing areas. blotches. black lines or black patches in white or other coloured stones are not acceptable at all. **** III . and are unaffected by salts and other chemicals. The explanation given is. yajamana and the ahcarya form the trinity of vastusthapana (construction). if needed. is the summarized observations and recommendations of some shilpa texts. . as urd gram etc. as moon. If the stones emanate fragrance it is much better. such a stone is classified as taruna youthful. It might have many holes or might be in a state of decay. the stones are of four basic colours: white. as kinsuka(bright red).the youthful – stones are fit for carving images and for crucial areas of temple. as kapila cow. ―Gender‖ Stones are also classified according to their ―gender‖. Shilpa Ratna describes dozens of such pates. red. as the blood of a rabbit. It is preferable to use uniformly the stones of the same colour. to mean raw or immature. The Kashyapa Shilpa mentions seven categories of white stones: white as milk. Some stones . The black of the stones comes in ten colours: black as the pupil of the eye. yellow and black coloured stones. The yellow colour of the stones is of two types: yellow as the Banduka flower.It gives the touch and feel of a frog or a fish.As regards their colour. as alum and as the kundapushpa (a variety of jasmine). and as koranti flower. Stones of white colour are regarded the best for temple construction. The taruna. youthful (taruna) and the old (vriddha). Those which give brass sound are called ―female‘. such stones are classified as baala. as jasmine. as parijatha flower. stone does not give out any sound and has a dry appearance. as the conch. The red coloured stones are of five types: Red as red hibiscus flower (japa kusuma). the vriddha. An old. and as pomegranate flower. as the indragopa insect. those that do not produce any sound are called genderless (neuter). Such old and spent stones are not fit for making images or for load bearing areas. When smeared with a paste. Those stones which give bronze sound at the hammer weight are called ―male‘. The baala stones are not fit for making idols or for bearing loads. yellow and black. as bee. The next in the order of preference are the red. And. Some of them could be tainted with traces of other colours. overnight. as mascara. If a stone when struck produces the sound resembling the ring of a bell and if such sound resonates for quite a while. it changes its colour. or of half burnt brick. Such stone should have a cold touch and a soft feel.the child. blue lotus. as the neck of peacock. If a stone when tapped gives out a faint sound or the sound is as that of mud.The white stones with traces of blue or slight brown or bee-like black lines are considered good for temple construction. A hollow stone may be taken as pregnant and hence should be discarded. as pearl. ―Age‖ The stones are also classified according to their ―age‖-: child (baala). the rock is considered inauspicious. and of different girths and volumes to produce the right octaves. and the neuter stones could be used for foundations. Usually such pillars are of granite and charnockites. Male stones are big. square or octagonal. When dug out. proxenites and peridoties as well as lamprophyres are regarded male rocks. Coming back to the issue of acoustics in the stones. round or polygonal. and at Sundarehwara temple at Trichendur. the male stones could also be used for construction of sikhara (tower) and stone walls. its apex will be towards north. Highly compact rocks like dolerites. the Shilpis displayed a remarkable skill and ingenuity in crafting ―musical ―pillars. soft to feel and on being struck gives out sonorous notes like that of a mridanga (drum). female stones are used for carving female deities. and should not be used. B. they are weighty and give out sparks when hammered. One can see such pillars in the Vijaya Vittala temple at Hampi. bronzites. A female rock is of medium weight .Bricks (Ishtaka) Bricks have been in use for thousands of years in construction of yupa the sacrificial altars and Chaithyas the early temples of the Vedic ages. Further it is said. are of a singular shape and uniform colour. Meenakshi temple at Madurai. These stones too should be tested by application a paste. Shathapatha Brahmana as also Shilpa Rathna . thick at root and thin near the apex. and the neuter stones are used for other constructions. A neuter gender stone is one that doesn‘t give any sound on being struck and narrow towards its bottom and triangular on its upper side . There might be such ―musical‖ in other temples too. cold to touch. and such stones may be used only for the foundation. It is suggested that male stones are used for carving male deities.are said to carry poisonous effects. the female stone could be used for structures above foundations. If the apex is inclined towards north or west facing. which when struck at right points produce sonorous octaves. fine sand. Interestingly. bricks of different sizes. bricks were made from thoroughly mixed and pulverized earth and other ingredients.8X11. Thus. According to Shukla Yajurveda Samhita. the sanctum. The remnants of the Indus valley civilization too amply demonstrate the extensive use of bricks in construction of buildings and other structures. shapes. this is the ‗Malla Lila’ style of fixing the brick. The bricks having a smooth surface are not to be set one above the other.describes the methods for moulding and burning the bricks. The bricks in concave shape were called neuter bricks. The brick should be directed in a dextral and laevo order. The Sulba sutras and Manasara detail the dimensions of the bricks of various sizes in relation to the sacrificial altars constructed for various purposes. and thoroughly beaten and blended in order to increase the strength of the material by enhancing the cohesion of the earth particles. 1 ½. while those with a broad front side and a narrower back side or those of curved shape were called female bricks. The corners of the walls should be on the ratio of 5: 3: 4 and at right angle to each other. The bricks should be well burnt and be of uniform colour. iron flake or filings and powdered stone. Brick lying was done with the aid of moulds. The length of the bricks were 1 ¼. the bricks were used in the temple structures mainly for erecting Gopuras the temple towers and Vimanas the domes over the sanctum. The Bodhayana Sulaba sutra specifies the arrangement of bricks. Triphala concoction is said to render the earth. 1 ¾ or 2 times the width . but were used for lining the walls of the well. As per the descriptions given in Manasara the bricks were made in various sizes. the size of the bricks varying from 7 inches to 26 or even to 31 inches in length. white ants (termite) and microbe proof. the bricks were burnt in enclosed kilns. etc. During the later ages. Earth was also mixed with ‗raal oil‘. shape and baking of a brick depended upon the use to which it was put. According to the Sumrangana . Bricks black in colour or half baked or broken or defective otherwise were rejected. and. but are to be fixed in straight line and the wall should be of an equal thickness all over.4X5. The female bricks were used for the sanctum of female deities. According to Shulba Sutra. The neuter bricks were generally not used in temple construction. The brick ends should not be piled one over the other. bricks measuring 22. The joints of the brick in each third row of brick may fall over the brick of the first row. while constructing a wall. The works like Shilpa Ratna and Vastuvidya explain that the brick moulds were baked for 24 hours in a fire of firewood. The male bricks could be used in the construction of the prasada. The earth was strengthened by mixing goat hair. the bricks with straight and linier edges were called male bricks.7 cms were used in construction of walls. based on the arrangement of the joints of the brick. and types were made.The height of the brick was ½ its width or equal to the width. The composition. C. and Tinduka. Pindi. Panasa (jackfruit). Trees such as Nibaka (Neem). Chandana . Dhanwalan. Kramuk. It is said that the altar constructed for major sacrifices. Certain other trees are also mentioned as being suitable for pillaras. Its application is mainly for carving doors. Kshirani.Sutradhara. Simpa. Shaal. Coconut. For instance Shaala (teak) and Kadira a type of hard wood was used for carving images. wood is suited for hut constructions. Saptaparni. in rare cases (as in Sri Jagannath temple at Puri or at Sri Marikamba temple in Sirsi) the principal idol dhruva bhera is made of wood. the square of the diagonal of the wall should be equal to the sum total of the square of the width of the wall. Pishit. pillars. bricks of about 200 types were used. In rare cases as in Puri a new chariot is created each year. Oudumbara (silk cotton etc. erecting Dwajasthamba the flag posts and for other utilities such as platforms. gnomon (sanku) and other durables. ribs and rafters etc. wood are said to be best for roofing work. Timish. The text mentions a certain Takshaka as a highly skilled artist who carved wood. However use of certain trees considered holy or godlike was not recommended in temple construction. The most extensive use of the wood is of course in the construction of the Ratha the temple chariot. Likuch. Rahjadan. Shatapatha Brahmana a Vedic text of about 1500 BC or earlier makes repeated references to wood and its applications. Sirish. But. Aajkarni. Panas.Wood Wood has limited use in traditional temple structure of medieval times. Dhanvan. Shinshipa. stands etc. posts etc: Khadi. During its time the temples and the images were mostly made of wood (kasta shilpa). It names a number of trees the wood from which was used for various purposes. depending upon the size and shape of the altar. Vata. Stambak. Kitki. Nagrodha (banyan). Bamboo. Kaal. The trees such as Ashwattha (Peepal). Asana. Shami. were some such sacred and godlike trees. is a genderless tree. trees in which are honeycombs. and those above 50 years of age were Vriddha. or in places which had been paraclieris. Tall trees of uniform girth without knot and holes. are solid and temperate may be taken as masculine trees. trees growing close to tanks or wells. devils. in that order. Bilva. trees that have been burnt. trees in which are birds‘ nests.(sandalwood).. Age The lifetime of a tree was regarded as 103 years. trees in burning-grounds. The feminine trees have slender roots and are thick at apical part. and capitals. The trees that are white under the bark are in the best category. in forsaken places. trees in which maggots dwell. trees from a village or from the precincts of a temple. Gender The trees that are round from the root to its apex. yellow and dark interiors. While the male trees serve for pillars. followed by those having red. yielding male wood. – these are all bad trees and to be avoided. The juicy or milky trees are preferable. trees that have fallen down of themselves. in their youth. The trees between the age of 16 and 50 years were regarded most suitable for construction of temple and homes.trees in their old age. trees broken by elephants. The southern text Shilpa Rathnam states that the wood from the following is not suited for temple construction. Kadira. or corpses. trees in places where there are hobgoblins. Parijatha. The structure built by joining such male and female wood last for centuries Neuter Trees Slender and long in the middle of the trunk and having a thick head. give a gentle fragrance. joists. Satwak. Kadamba. trees in which snakes live. but a much thicker middle part with no fragrance or odor in the wood. and rafters. . and Bakula. trees supporting creepers. The trees under the age of 16 were Baala – child trees. etc. Chandana. trees fruiting out of season. beams. female trees for wall-plates. were used for engraving and carving artwork. withered trees. trees planted in the earth but reared by constant watering. grown on dense hilly regions are most suited for construction of pillars. are deep rooted. trees blown down by the wind. the hermaphrodite trees serve for cross-joists. Badari. kinsuka. trees growing on anthills. Saptaparni. The wood should be straight and without any knot. crevice or cavity. Trees from a place of public resort. The wood culled from the trees cut down in a cremation ground. Yoni – source or the orientation of the building. boat or an aircraft. Nakshatra. . only one type of wood may be used for one particular construction. which are applied to certain dimensions of the building and its astrological associations. temple.Ayaadi Shadvarga Ayadi _shadvarga is a matrix of architecture and astrological calculations. ashram or shrine should not be utilized. The purpose of the exercise is to ascertain the longevity of the house as also the suitability to its owner.star of the day. Vara. which are auspicious. and the suitability or longevity of the building is ascertained from the reminder so obtained. it should be cut in squares after which are to be transported to the workshop where these pieces should be stored upon spread out sand in an orderly manner for 3 to 8 months for seasoning. and the remainder is either 1 or3 or 5. Vyaya. These norms are applied to temples too. The use of more than tree types of wood in a construction is not recommended. The root and apex sides must be marked because in pillars the root side is to be kept down and apex part up. A youthful and healthy tree should be cut and its bark removed. According to Samarangana Sutradhara Ayaadi-shadvarga is a set of six criteria: Aaya.Agastya Samhita has described the wood that is to be used in a chariot.. The area of the structure is divided by certain factors assigned to each element of the Aayadi Shadvarga.day of the week. Amsha. and Tithi – the day in lunar calendar for construction of building and performing invocation of Vastu Purusha. Simha garbha and Rishabha garbha. if the plinth area of the house is divided by 8. As far as possible. Materials confiscated by the King should not be used.. Nakshatra. Stolen and renovated material should never be purchased. then these are called Garuda garbha. It is said the ISI standard A-883-1957 regarding a wooden items is based on the specification s mentioned in the ancient Indian Texts ***** Precautions in the selection of the building materials: No used building material should be used. Yoni and Vara-tithi. thereafter. For instance. The term Aaya could be taken to mean increase or plus or profit. Vyaya – decrease or minus or loss. *** IV. Since the reminder is more than 60. ill heath of the head of the family and spouse. health . Crow 08 Very bad. Manasara says ―When there is more merit than demerit. Simhaya Lion 03 Very Good. Ill health and bad omens. then its area is 11 X 5 = 55 sq. improvent in heath and wealth. 55 X 27 = 1485.it is a very healthy result. there is no defect in it. . According to this method the total area should be divided by 100 and if the reminder is more than 45. There is another method for arriving at the Aayadi value. The result is categorized in to eight types of Aayas. Head of family will turn a vagabond. Multiply the area by 27 (Nakshatra factor) .-which indicates the projected longevity of the house.‖ . The reminders 1 to 8 are interpreted as good or bad. Divide the product 1485 by 100. Kharaya Donkey 06 Very bad. Victory over enemies. and the width 5 meters. Life of head of family and members brightens. Kakaya. Shwnaya Dog 04 Bad. as indicated in the following table.Hence the plinth area of the building should be manipulated or altered to arrive at an auspicious reminder. it is good and if it is more than 60 it is very good. Sorrow to family. but if the demerit is more than the merit.mts. According to this method. if the length of the house 11 meters. wealth and fortune. Vrishabhaya Bull 05 Good. premature death in family. the area (length X breadth) is multiplied by 9. and no peace. The remainder is 85. Aaya Symbolizing Reminder Interpretation Dhwajaya Money 01 Good.wealth and prosperity. Gajaya Elephant 07 Good. The rule is also applied to ascertain the longevity of the building. For instance. and divided by 8. Brings wealth Dhumraya Smoke 02 Not good. it would be all defective. geomancy.References: Vastu Darsha by Dr. G Gnanananda.com/vastu/vastubuilding1.ignca. Temple Architecture. Orienting From the Centre by Michael S. Schneider www.htm Vastu Interiors http://www. 2012 in Temple Architecture Tags: Devalaya. Vastu.nic.org/…/summer/orienting/index. Dik nirnaya Temple Architecture – Devalaya Vastu – Part eight (8 of 9) .in/ps_05005.htm Leave a comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 10.gkindia..html Cosmogony and the Elements… by John McKim Malville http://www. Shilpa Shastra. It is a complex system of iconometry that defies rigid definitions . the details of the number of arms and faces that endow a super-human quality to the idol. . creation of the idols. and they also detail the hand gestures and poses. triple. developed its own norms of measures and proportions. delineate the spiritual quality of each deity and its forms and attributes. They also specify whether the image should be dynamic or static. As explained in the earlier part of this post. It plays a central role in the creation of temple icons and images. the palm of hand (from the tip of the middle finger to the wrist). the contemplative hymns. and also the descriptions of its ayudhas the weapons. seated or standing. the lakshanas. The Dhyana Slokas also provide the details of the flexions – slight. the system of measurements by Tala.09 Sep Iconometry The ancient Indian art of sculpture. or extreme bends. the Dhyana shlokas.It is called Talamana paddathi. the ornaments etc. Iconometry (the doctrine about proportions) was an integral part of the Murti shilpa. But. in checking which of the known canons of iconometry were followed by the sculptors. Two systems of iconometry seem to have existed. the iconometry of an image helps the sculptures of a later period in restoration work. and in hypothesizing how many sculptors were involved in executing the work. as well. across different periods and regions. in deducing which methods of sculpting were employed. These rules also govern the relative proportions of various physical features – of each class and each type of the deities. and to ascertain the variations within a given set of stipulated proportions. These rules specify thevarious standards to be adopted for ensuring a harmonious creation endowed with well proportioned height. width and girth. length. . and both were called taalamana. It also helps the art historians in dating sculptures. The standards of iconometry are of immense use for other reasons. and the art students in studying the iconometric values of different Schools. it is the elaborate rules of the traditional iconometry that guide the practicing Shilpi in sculpturing the image and realizing his vision. For instance. or in other words in the same tala. nail.Each tala is subdivided in to 12 angulas. which will cover the entire height of the idol from head to foot. The second is the system of derived proportions (deha labdh angulam).The expression ―its own angula‖ is explained thus: divide the total length of the selected stone or wooden piece. and such an angula becomes a fixed-length. the texts mention that the selected piece of material should be divided into 108―Its own angulas ―. the one who sponsors the project. If the image is said to be navatala. Dr. the unit of measurement is derived from the divisions marked on the stone piece. In Shilpa Shastra. into 108 equal parts. That tala is subdivided into twelve angulas. And. In the second method. In the former system. The value of the angula so derived becomes a fixed length (manangulam). The shilpa shastra normally employ such divisions on a scale of one (eka tala) to ten (dasa tala). the division is known as dasatala (ten facelengths) or in case it is divided in to nine equal parts then the division is known as navatala (nine face-lengths) and so on. . Similar logic is extended to panels where more than one variety of images have to be accommodated harmoniously. However. ― In Indian art the important figures in a group are often represented as taller figures and inferior beings are represented as smaller figures. One of the parts would then be its own angula. For instance. and if the image is navatala. There are obvious differences between the two systems. it means that the height of the image is 108 times ―its own angula‖. the multiplicity and relative sizes take precedence over the absolute specific sizes of the units. measured by the length of the palm (from the wrist to the tip of the middle finer) of the shilpi or the yajamana. ears and their shapes are always discussed in terms of their proportions and in relations to the other organs and particularly to that of the size of the face. while the deha labdh angulam is a system based on derived proportions. if the intended height of the image is nine tala (which is regarded the standard height for images of certain deities and celestial beings). Therefore. To such smaller figures a lower tala is often prescribed. In practice. if both the larger and the smaller figures were to represent deities of equal rank (say Siva and Vishnu) then strictly speaking they should be made in the same proportion. the proportions of the head-trunk-arms-legs of the image. and the finer specifications of nose. the tala. The stone or the block of wood selected for carving is divided into a number of equal parts. it would mean that the height of the image is nine times the size of the tala or the palm of shilpi. is taken as an absolute unit of measurement (and the image-face is made equal to that length). Gift Siromoney and his team who have carried out remarkable Iconometric studies based on measurements made by anthropometric instruments says. Let me explain.In the first system. This system is more flexible. the angula (literally ‗finger‘) is a finger‘s width and measures one quarter of the width of the shilpi‘s fist (as explained in the earlier posts). the measurements are related to the size of the palm of the shilpi. all other measurements of the image are in terms of that unit. In case the selected piece is divided into ten equal parts. and the size of the image-face is one tala or one-ninth of the total height of the image. The manangulam system relies on a fixed set of measurements. ac. other than the standard one. would be made to a shorter height. the image. among the three. is divided in to three equal parts: the fore-head. would adopt the image of mid-status.cmi. In other words. the face – length. Despite the differences. Such instances. the pubis (base of the male organ) is the midpoint of the height of a nude figure. the image would then have a height of 108 angulas. say. as the standard. In the two cases. In case they belong to the first system. Secondly. but in same proportions as that of the standard image. of 96 angulas. In other words. the proportions of these two images are derived from that of a third image. fourthly. The image with least status. which system the text was actually referring to. The confusion got compounded with both the systems carrying the same title. the distance from the sole of the feet to the pubis is equal to the distance from the pubis to the topknot.in/gift/Iconometry/icon_pallavasculpture. of 120 angulas. would be made to a greater height. explain the need for adopting the second system. And. but by borrowing the angula value from the image of the standard size.face length will have to be 12 fixed-angulas. but here again the angula value is borrowed from the image of the standard size. irrespective of its total height. and relate the proportions of the other two images to that of the standard image. there are certain features common to both the systems. The practicing Shilpis do therefore have to check carefully whether the specifications mentioned in a given text belong to the first system or to the second system. the basic unit of measure is not ―its own angula‖.http://www. children are represented in a lower tala like the chatusra tala (four tala). the angulas being ―its own angulas‖. the celestial beings are assigned a higher tala compared to human figures. the image with the best status. Thirdly. The sculptor. the two systems got mixed up . but it is a unit borrowed from the standard Image. Over a period of time.Let us assume that three types of figures of three different statuses are to be depicted on the same panel.htm I think this needs some explanation . Assuming that the standard image was made by adopting the nava tala. talamana paddathi. nose and nose-tochin. . Those two images would then have to be made in different sizes. in such a case. among the three. Similarly. say. and in some texts it became rather difficult to make out . perhaps. The face length will be comparatively large for children and dwarfs. in either case. The first is. the flexible system of derived proportions. For instance. the face length – from the chin up to the root of the hair on the forehead – would be 12 angulas or one tala. knee. the height of a nine tala image might be the same as that of a tentala image. depending on the nature and the status of the image. the shilpa shastra normally employs a method of division of the imagebody. Accordingly. the ten tala image with its smaller face-size looks taller than the nine tala image. Dwarf figures were therefore made by adopting the four ―taala‖ system where the total height is only four times the face length. the neck and topknot. There are variations within each type of tala. the madhyama navatala (standard length of nine-face lengths) is normally used for images of celestial beings such as Yakshas. The diminished height is adhama tala. One tala is distributed equally between the heights of foot. from navel to top of knee would be three tala. in height (108 angulas). along with the height. ** As mentioned earlier. Here. and the importance assigned to it in the overall context of the theme of the sculpture. . certain other dimensions of the latter two images are duly modulated. This demonstrated that the figures of different sizes can be made while following the same set of proportions. That is.The Indian system makes use of the fact that persons with disproportionately larger faces appear short and those with smaller faces appear tall. while the extended height is Uttama tala. Each tala is divided in to 12 angulas. And. from the lower knee to ankle would be two tala making a total of eight tala. each type of tala is sub-divided into three subtypes: The standard or the mean height is the madhyama tala. The length from throat to navel would be two tala. but. the height of the image would be nine talas (with each tala divided in to 12 angulas) or a total height of 108 angulas. on a scale of one (eka tala) to ten (dasa tala). For instance. The nava tala thus has a total of nine tala units. Apsaras and Vidhyadharas. These two variations are in effect. the kneecap. In such cases. between the heights of the foot.The texts also mention that the images of the devas such as the eight Vasus. the neck and the topknot. the eight Dikpalas and the eight Vidyeshwarsa are to be depicted in Uttama navatala. Gandharvas and the pitris are to be depicted in adhama navatala. Whereas. evenly. The said four angulas are to be distributed. the images in uttama nava tala type are rendered four angulas taller and the images in the adhama nava tala type are rendered four angulas shorter. the images of Rakshasas. . the deviations from the standard values of the image. Siddhas. twice the height of the ―heart‖ etc. . the thighs and legs being . as usual.It is said that The uttama dasatala is built on the values of navatala ( regarded purest in terms of the proportions) by systematically adding one angula to each section of navatala . The uttama dasatala aims to project the majesty of the higher divinities. Some texts mention that human figures and gods at rest.*** There is no uniformity among the various Shilpa texts. when performing heroic deeds. Some texts describe a system of one to twelve talas. or while involved in some pleasant activity. Further. . their height increases to twelve talas. but that measure is hardly in use. And. in their fearsome aspect. should measure ten talas. There is even a mention of a twenty-one tala image of Bhirava. they even grow to fourteen talas. the kinnaras . 60. These ten talas correspond to 12. 24. the birds and the vahanas of the deities are depicted in three or four talas. the animals and birds are depicted in four or less talas. 36. as state earlier. . in sequence. The series is built by adding 12 angulas for each successive tala. and the dwarfs. 72. 108 and 120 angulas. 96. crocodile and rabbit in two tala. For instance. 84. 48. go beyond ten talas (dasatala). in effect. These talas have their three variations. tortoise and fish are depicted in one tala. the Shilpis in South India do not. Uttama dasatala(124) and nine other talas – by Shilpi Shri Siddalinga Swamy As per the norms that are commonly in use.But. while the extended height is Uttama tala. only ten types of divisions from the eka tala (single tala) to dasa tala (ten tala) are in use. generally. The standard or the mean height is the madhyama tala.Thus. and the diminished height is adhama tala. there is no unanimity among the texts in this regard. Nine tala (nine face-lengths) is largely taken as the height of certain gods and celestial beings. while children are six talas high. Shiva. Buddha and Jina. so that they might look tall and majestic. Uma and other major. Saraswathi. Vamana an incarnation of Vishnu in seven talas. The madhyama dasatala is applied to the images of Lakshmi. again. Brahma. The talas from nine to twelve are meant for images of deities. The relative height of goddesses is eight or nine talas. The rest are depicted in Adhama dasatala. Rama. in accordance with the importance assigned to them.Humans and demigods are depicted in five to eight talas. But. . According to some texts. the Uttama dasatala is applied to major deities like Vishnu. The consorts of the deities and minor goddesses are depicted in eight talas. Vertical proportions of four main types of Images (Figures in angulas) Type of the image/Particulars 7* Tala 8 Tala 9 Tala 10 Tala Face 12 12 12 13 Neck 03 04 04 05 Neck to the horizontal line connecting the nipples(heart) 09 10 12 13 From there to navel(belly. the height of the proposed image is divided equally into 120 mana-angulas and providing for another four additional angulas distributed at different body-parts for corrections/ extensions at joints etc. udara) 09 10 12 13 From navel to genitals(lower belly.17 and 18 of a total of 357 verses). This Adhikarana provides various types of units of measurements and proportions of dasatala and Uttama dasatala image . Human eye. Let‘s. cannot make out a Paramanu. 8 Paramanu=one anu 8 anu = one renu (a speck of dust) . for instance. twenty-three chapters has in total about 1115 verses (sloka). it is described as:‖when the sun‘s rays pass through a close knit lattice (jaala) the minute breadth of a beam of light (anu-gatra) is Paramanu‖. of course.It specifies with precision the measure and proportion of the gatra of each body part. The text divided into four major divisions (adhikarana). vasti) 09 10 12 13 Thigh 18 21 24 26 Knee 03 04 04 05 Leg 18 21 24 26 Foot 03 04 04 05 Total height in angulas 84 96 108 120 (One Tala = 12 angulas) [I am also referring to Brahmiya Chitra Karma Shastram (translated admirably into Kannada by the renowned scholar Dr. And. four varieties are in wider use. Out of the ten varieties of talas mentioned above.The third Adhikarana of the text titled Maanadhikarana Kaanda (chapters 16. A standard unit of a mana-angula is reckoned according to the following table: Paramanu is the least and incredibly tiniest unit. The iconometry of these talas are briefly indicated in the following table. That is. take the measures and proportions given in the text in relation to Uttama Dasatala of 120 + 4 managulam. Gnananda) a rare text of the Vaishnava Agama dated around fifth or sixth century.The extra ordinary deities like Trivikrama or Narasimha or the huge demons are at times depicted in twelve talas. but their proportions are maintained. The length of the thigh and that of the leg are twice as long as each of the three earlier mentioned sections. the waist. The length is accounted in this manner: arm= 27a + elbow= 2a + forearm = 21a + outer hasta-tala (from wrist to beginning or knuckle of middle finger) = 7a + middle figure =6a. perhaps the egg of la very small insect) 8 likhya = One Yuka (a minute insect. the knee and the foot are of equal height.the chapter 18 of the text details the measurements of fingers. the height that is not included in the texts is added to the image by enhancing the height of the parts above its hair. starting from its forehead. The actual lengths of these lengths might vary. among others.let‘s say the length of a figure from its shoulder to the tip of the middle figure . A tala in Dasatala is one-tenth (1 / 10) of the image height or the length from tip of the middle finger to the wrist of Shilpi‘s or the Yajamana‘ palm. heart-navel. Apart from defining the relative height of the various gods.) To take a specific aspect . The elaborately crowned gods thus exceed the proportions of the human body and standout with a super natural appearance. in each case: neck-heart. The head together with the crown atop would form one sculptural unit. perhaps) 8 likhya = One yuva (a standard grain of barley) And 8 yuva = one mana-angula. there are extensive specifications for horizontal measurements such as the width of the shoulders. the Sarvatala Vibhagaha . at times. is quite considerable. it is 12 angulas (except in the case of dasatala). 4y (6 ½ a). Further. The subdivisions of a Tala follow the above table. an angula is taken as 1/12 of a tala. Because. the head. nails etc. (In practice.] Stella Kramrisch explains in her Hindu Temple: the rules are that the proportions of the trunk are the same in all the four types. In addition to the norms concerning the height. the total length from shoulder point to the tip of the middle figure is taken as 63a 4y (63 ½ a). the distance between the eyes. According to that. the tala also serves as a module for all representations of each separate figure. The distance from the root of the neck to the genitals is divided in to three equal parts. Such height. the nose. and so on. the neck. and navel-genitals. such as the distance between the back of the head and the tip of . This is also the case with the measurements for depth. The height of the crown might often exceed the height of the face. Sometimes. the gods of higher hierarchy are adorned with elaborate crowns in order to emphasize and enhance their majesty and grandeur. As regards the size of the face.8 renu= one romagra or valagra (tip of a single brand of hair) 8 romagra = one likhya (it is not clear what it is. figure joints. the nose. and Pandya and Chera periods. of the arms and legs.Gift Siromoney and his team of researchers applied computer analysis methods to study a large sample of South Indian sculptures. Chola. There are measurements for the figure in the frontal position. (please see the earlier part of this post) **** Dr . etcetera. in profile or in three-quarter profile. and so on). seated. also plays an important role in the iconographic determination of the images. For such measurements. dancing. reclining. a central axis line or a plumb line is used. those included the sculptures of the Pallava. It is said that anthropometric instruments were used for the analysis . the back and the nipples. The position of the body (standing. brahmasutra. which runs from the crown of the head through the navel to between the heels. The sculpture seemed to have enjoyed a certain degree of artistic freedom within the framework of the Shilpa texts.ac. Please visit Dr. Siromoney‘s home page and other study reports: http://www.of facial proportions of the carvings.cmi. The team came up with the conclusion that there existed two systems of proportions which had run into each other. The shilpis innovated or improvised their working methods for creation of well proportioned images. cluster analysis was used for collating the sculptures into groups that contain very similar features.htm . The average values of the facial proportions of the sculptures that were studied were at variance with the proportions prescribed in the canonical texts.in/gift/Iconometry. cmi. Gift Siromoney http://www. .cmi.in/gift/Iconometry/icon_pallavasculpture.Next post Norms in temple architecture References: Cannons of Icometry by Dr.htm http://www.in/gift/Iconometry/icon_southindian.ac.ac.htm Line drawings By Shilpi Sri Siddalinga Swamy. Aasana (seated). shayana (reclining) and yanaka (relating to deities like Hanuman or Garuda who serve as the ride for other deities). The Shipa Shastras mention four basic postures of the idols. Chenna keshava or Jina. as in the case of Sri Venkateshwara. radiating peace. They are the sthanaka (standing). The standing postures are named Bhanga. is classified according to its posture. its dispensation or attitude or Bhava.Dr. . rajas or tamasic) and its attitude of benevolence or otherwise. That expression of benevolence. neck and torsos in a line. They are. Sthanaka The Sthanaka posture ( standing posture) of the image will be in accordance with its nature (sattvic. knees (janu) and feet (paada). The Dhruva bera. A. Jnananada And from Shilpa Soundarya Leave a comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 9. waist (kati). iconically. Each of these postures has its sub classifications. grace or the other attitude depicted on the face of the image is enhanced by the manner and style of its stance. which involves appropriate stance. briefly: Samabhanga is standing erect. The basic styles of the standing postures are five in number. position and bent of the neck (greeva). fulfillment and benediction.iconometry Temple Architecture – Devalaya Vastu – Part seven (7 of 9) 09 Sep Iconography continued For the purpose of this post let us confine the discussion to the Dhruva bera images. with the head. which depicts its attributes. shoulder (bhuja). 2012 in Temple Architecture Tags: Temple Architecture. as in the case of Sri Rama holding a bow.Abhanga is a stance with only a slight bent of head or waist. or with a hand on the waist as in the case of Dakshinamurthy. . Dvibhanga is a posture with a bend at the waist. while the parts from waist to the head and from waist to feet are otherwise in samabhangha. Velayuda or Vatu the boy Subrahmanya. Shiva or bracket images of damsels. . This is essentially a classic dance pose.Tribhanga is when the body is in three distinct delicate and graceful bends – at the neck. Kanchipuram. as in the case of female deities. athi bhanga is the one with several twists in the body and arms. the shoulder and the waist. And. This bhanga brings out anger and ferociousness as in the case of Durga slaying the demon. Krishna dancing on Kalinga serpent and Ganapathi in dancing poses. and Ugra Nrusimha slaying and tearing apart the demon. or to bring out wonder and amazement (adbhuta) as in the case of Trvikrama. or fearsome or grotesque attitudes as in the case of sculptures of kailasanath temple. . Vishnu. Vishnu is represented in three forms of Shayana. with two arms and without his ayudhas. are also classified according to their nature: dhirodaatha. the sattvic type. Only Vishnu and the Buddha images are represented in this position. In the Yoga shayana posture. and Brahma the divinity responsible for creation is seated on the lotus emerging from Vishnu‘s navel. aspect. sthanaka. B. Yoga shayana Vishnu symbolizes his creation. Yogic sleep. dhira lalitha (rajasa) and Ddhiroddatha (tamasa). is depicted in yoga nidra. the baser elements such as the demons (Apasmara) are shown lying under the feet of Nataraja or the Devi. contemplating the unfolding of the universe. The Yoga shayana images are installed in temples located in forest region or in forts on top of hills. shrusti. Vishnu is reclining on the coils of Anantha the serpent who symbolizes time.The idols in the standing posture. Apart from this. Shayana Shayana is the idol of the deity in reclining or sleeping position. Sri Ranganatha or Anantha shayana is the most celebrated form of Vishnu in reclining posture. sthiti. auspicious signs of srivatsa. ( Line drawing by Shilpi Shri Thippajappa) The veera shayana form of Vishnu is adorned with four to eight arms. and it should not be located where people especially where women and children dwell. the gandarvas and his entourage including Garuda. rajasa and tamasa. is sitting in padmasana (lotus position) or yogasana (yogic posture. radiating peace and joy. the Buddha and Mahaveera being the other well known examples. and blessing the devotees are the most common forms of sattvic class of idols in sitting posture. The temples of Vishnu in Bhoga shayana form are located in the midst of a populous city or town. Bhoga shayana Vishnu symbolizes his well-being. happy and benevolent disposition. Veera shayana Vishnu symbolizes his absorption.Bhoga shayana Vishnu is similar but is adorned with four arms. and among them about eleven or twelve postures of sitting are usually depicted in temple architecture. C. He has a very pleasing disposition. kausthuba on his chest. aspect. his ride. He is surrounded by the rishis. The deity. He is represented as if he is just about to wage a battle. There is also an unusual form of Vishnu in shayana posture. his preservation aspect. The demons Madhu and Kaitaba are shown at his feet. he looks emaciated too. . as in the case of Yoga Nrusimha or Ayyappa). in such cases. He is holding his weapons. Aasana Aasana class is when the deity is in sitting posture. There are several modes and styles of sitting. Vishnu is reclining on the floor. Such an inauspicious form of Vishnu is employed in Tantric worship. samhara. Vishnu‘s gaze is fixed on his consorts serving at his feet. The images depicting the deity in a peaceful. These are again classified into sattvic. The Abhicharika shayana does not have the serpent bed or the Brahma. and with his usual set of ayudhas.Dakshinamurthy. Brahma is as usual seated atop the lotus from Vishnu‘s navel. In some cases. Vishnu. Rajarajeshwari . peaceful and joyous. The images of the deity sitting with its one foot down. and the other leg down and almost touching the ground. the deity rests his foot on an asura (demon) lying on the ground. Chandikeshwara( a form of Rudra ) are the common examples. radiating majesty and authority are the rajasa type of idols in Aasana posture . Images of Padmapani . almost touching the ground. as if displaying authority and power. The deity is in a relaxed position looking happy. . Vishnu . Shiva or Devi in Sukhasana are the most common examples.Sukhasana is sitting with one leg bent at the knee and across. . nruthya Ganapathi and Sarawathi are some of the well known examples of this genre. Mahisha mardini and such other forms of the Devi. sitting or mounted on a beast.The images of goddess Durga. D. The images of Krishna dancing on the Kalinga. with her one foot almost touching the ground are the tamasic class of idols in Aasana posture. Nataraja. Chamundi. Nruthya bhanga: The deity is depicted in a classic dancing posture. the postures of Hanuman. the term indicates whatever objects the idol holds in his or her hands. Garuda and Bhuvaraha are depicted. character and functions . but.Yana In the Yana. The Ayudhas delineate the nature. ***** Ayudha Ayudha generally translates to weapons. in shilpa sastra.E. yoga. drums. but the shilpa employs those as symbols to expand and depict and interpret the nature of the idol and its meaning. For instance. The Shilpa shastra has however its own use for the mudras . grass etc) and miscellaneous objects (mirror. pipes. the Ankusha (goad) signifies exercising control over senses and baser instincts. dance and music. flag. plants and trees (ashvatta. The Ayudhas held by auspicious deities are in even number. musical instruments (flute.There are in .). and it has developed its own set of mudras . Apart from the weapons a variety of objects are employed as Ayudhas. seedlings of paddy. a rosary symbolizing the cyclical nature of time. plow. In a way of speaking. sickle etc. they are the symbols of a symbolism. hammer. bell. umbrella etc. They are commonly used in tantric worship. vedanga and shastras.associated with the idol. All these objects are not weapons in the conventional sense.). bilva. lamp. trumpets etc. and the musical instrument veena symbolizing music and her benevolent nature. veena. These include instruments of various professions (pen. It is a symbolic gesture or position usually of hands and fingers. vase. and. the mirror signifies a clear mind and awareness. Damaru in the hands of shiva signifies creation and origin of sound and learning.) ***** Mudra: Mudra means sign or a seal. Saraswathi holds in her hands a book symbolizing the Vedas and learning. the scepter signifies authority and rule of law. For instance. chisel. The Dhyana slokas associated with each deity specify the Ayudhas to be held in its right or left or upper or lower arms. Each of these Ayudhas signifies a certain aspect or it stands for a concept. the flag signifies victory or celebration. book. a Kamandala (a water jug) symbolizing smruthi. of Sri Rama as if he is holding the bow. dantha.).) and so on. The Tantrika also include Jata. veena. and of Shiva as if he is holding the damaru. padma etc. pusthaka. Varada mudra with the fingers pointing down ward in act of giving. which are mostly single hand mudras. They are commonly employed by the Hindu. the guards at the sanctum. Chandana etc. Mudras are again classified into those that convey a message (sankethica). . and Agni has 7 (flames. the better known are the Abhya mudra with right palm fingers pointing upward assuring protection. Tilaka. Ganesha has 7(ankusha. The common examples of Vastu rupa mudra are those of Saraswathi or Dakshinamurthy with hands in such a position as if the deity is playing on the veena. which mean attributes. The other examples are those of Rishba_rudha Shiva as if Shiva is reclining against his ride the bull. while the two hand mudras (sanyuktha) are about 23. According to Tantrasara Vishnu has 19 mudras (shankha. those with one-hand and those with two-hand. The one handed mudras (asanyuktha orkevala) number about 28. Saraswathi has 7(maala.). And. horns etc. Vrishbha-ruda Shiva – as if reclining against Nandi bull.).general two types of mudras. Gadha. where the diety actually holds an ayudha. The next are the vastu rupa mudras which suggest as if the diety is holding in his or her hands some object. Shiva has 10 mudras (yoni.). and ala_padma with raised palm conveying happy welcome as in the images of dwarapalakas. the third is ayudha grahana . Vyakhna mudra as if teaching or explaining as in images of Dakshinamurty and the Buddha. a sort of drum (damaru hastha).The mudras give an expression and eloquence to the attributes of the image and to its message. etc. chakra. linga tc. modaka etc. Trishula. All these symbols and mudras form the pool of Indian art language. Buddhist and Jaina traditions. Bhasma. Among the Sankethica mudras. The Ayudha mudras are those where the deity actually holds an object such as pasha (rope). a staff in the hands of Skanda(danda hastha) ***** . Danda .ankusha (goad or hook) as in the case of Ganapathi. and there are the legs folded in sitting postures as in Udarabhandam (as in Ganesha) and in paada-patta or Yoga –patta (as in Yoga Nrusimha ) . Prathyalidanam (opposite of Alidanam.adidaivatha form of Vishnu). with right leg drawn forward). Paada mudras the position of the lower limbs and the feet are as important as the hand gestures (hastha mudras).In Hindu Iconography. Ardhasam or Mandalam (one leg is thrown out and the other remains stable – as in Nataraja or Vishakadeva). Sampadanam (standing erect with legs joined and body weight distributed evenly).left foot in front). The samarangana Sutradhara lists six paada mudras: Vaishnavam (one leg straight and another slightly curved.It is the paada mudra that suggest movement or animation or stillness of the image. Alidanam (Standing like an archer. It is shaped like an inverted flowerpot. which are twisted into encircling braids of spiral curls and tied into a knot looped at the top. Jata-makuta. For all the makuta-s. It is held in place by a patta (band).Kirita. The jata. rich in design.is made up of jata or matted locks. the ancient text of Shilpa shastra. Mansara. a cobra and the Ganga. The female deities such as Saraswathi and Savithri have kesha_bandha or Kuntala type of hair arrangement. rajas or tamas) and the nobility of the image. The Karanda-makuta is a small conical cornet receding in tier. Rudra or the Buddha . 1-232). classifies these types of head gears under the term makuta or mouli (Mansara: Mauli-lakshanam: 49. highly ornate kirita. Among these. as also for consorts of Shiva. A simpler crown of the Karanda class is meant for lesser deities. and the ratna-kuta. the width commencing from the bottom should be gradually made lesser and lesser towards the top. and is adorned with forest flowers and by a number of ornamental discs like the makara-kuta. The height of the Kirita-makuta should be two or three times the length of the wearer‘s face. Karanda-makuta and Jata-makuta.makuta is suitable according to Mansara for Brahma . . the Kirita-makuta is an highly ornate elaborate crown that adorns major gods such as Vishnu and his forms (Narayana) and also emperors (Sarvabhouma). however. the jata-makuta is adorned with a crescent of the moon. patra-kuta. The Hoysala School of sculpture in particular adorns its images with elaborate and highly ornate crowns. The width of a Karanda-makuta at the top should. makuta adorns images of Vishnu and his aspects. The head-gears that are commonly mentioned are the Kirita -makuta.It has the appearance of Taranga-s (waves) and its middle is made into the shape of flowers and adorned with precious stones.Usually. makuta and Jatamakuta The headgear is a distinctive feature of the Indian icons. The Karanda-makuta is prescribed for lesser gods and for goddesses when depicted along with their spouse. It is simpler and shallower as compared to Kirita-makuta. The base of the Kirita-makuta should be curved like a crescent (ardha-chandra) just above the forehead. tapering from the bottom upwards and ending in a bud. be only one-half or one-third less than that at its base. In the case of Shiva. The kiritas or the makuta (crown) emphasise the nature (sattva. His hair is prasarith jata. the flying hair. the Buddha and the sages. Nataraja‘s hair is flying in the wind as he swirls in his tandava dance. . Agni has a special hairdo called agni_kesha with his hair spreading out like tongues of fire. coiled hair mopped on top of head is for the images of Shiva.Jataa-makuta. Brahma. are adorned with rich ornaments. both male and female. the minor deties and humans are provided modest ornaments. . the Alankara element offers the artists abundant scope to exercise their imagination and to display their ingenuity.***** Alankara -ornamentation: The shilpis took great delight in adorning the image with rich and finely carved ornaments. the amazing varieties. Alankara also conveys the nobility. the patterns and the desingns of ornaments that one comes across in the Indian sculpture are virtually limitless. Therefore. Often. The Hoysala sculptures in particular are rich in ornamentation. the grandeur and the lovely nature of the adorable image. The major deities. the ornaments serve as the costume of the image. While the other segments of the carving are regulated by the prescriptions of the Sahastras and the tradition. The term used for ornamentation is Alankara which encompasses forms of beauty and visual appeal in all forms of Indian art including poetry and music. Alankara is not merely bejeweling but it also implies enhancing the grace and beauty of the image and to enchant and please the eyes of the beholder. Specific names are given to the ornaments that adorn various body. Skandamaala (necklaces) and manihara (strings of precious stones or beads). Katakas are bangles made of gold or precious stones. SKR Rao Line drawings of kirita and ornaments by the renowned Shilpi and Yogi Sri Siddalinga Swamy of Mysore Other Line drawings from Shilpa Soundarya Other pictures from internet . Kati bandha or kati sutra (waist belt). The ornaments below or around the neck are Kanti (like a collar). nupura (the bells) and rings that decorate the toes. In the abdomen region. Continued Next: Iconometry References: Shilpa Soundarya by KT Pankajaksha The Lord of Seven Hills by Prof.parts of image. are the Yajnopavitha (sacred thread). The feet are adorned with paada jalaka (ornament made of strings). in particular. it involves a multiple sets of ideas and imagery. Thirtha. the temple complex. . is compared to the human body in which the god resides. One. the abode of God. As such it has got to be symbolic. and between the actual and the ideal. Vimana is another term that denotes temple in general and the Sanctum and its dome. Temple Architecture Temple Architecture – Devalaya Vastu – Part Six (6 of 9) 09 Sep Symbolism of the temple A Temple is a huge symbolism. And. 2012 in Temple Architecture Tags: Iconography. And the other is its comparison to Sri Chakra. the other is the symbolisms associated with Vimana the temple per se. The symbolisms of the temple are conceived in several layers. is also referred to as Prasada meaning a palace with very pleasing aspects. a place of pilgrimage is it‘s another name.Leave a comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 9. which also is looked upon as the body of the deity. The temple is seen as a link between man and god. at large. A temple usually called Devalaya. the very representation of One cosmic Principle. the Vigraha. And. In the case of Sri Chakra the Bindu is the dimension-less and therefore imperceptible source of energy. In this process. the ajna chakra. but it is impossible to think of a temple without an icon of the divinity. and the top of the head. courtyards and prakaras. . in the Garbagriha represents the manifestation of that imperceptible energy or principle. the very hearts of the temple. In fact. The other symbolism is that the human body is a temple in which the antaryamin resides. the tower. and is its reason. The space between the eyebrows. and it radiates that energy.moves from the gross to the subtle. The very purpose of a temple is its icon. That image residing at the heart of the temple is its life. representing the sole creative principle. the devotee proceeds from the outer structures towards the deity in the inner sanctum. and submits himself to the Lord residing in the serenity of garbhagrha. the entire temple is conceived as the manifestation or the outgrowth of the icon. is the seat of the divinity. Similarly the devotee who enters the temple through the gateway below the Gopura (feet of the Lord) passes through several gates. therefore is the most important structure of the temple is the Garbagriha where the icon resides. The Sri Chakra upasaka too proceeds from the outer Avarana (enclosure) pass through circuitous routes and successive stages to reach the Bindu at the centre of the Chakr. At the centre of the temple is the image of divinity and its purity that generations after generations have revered and venerated. The analogy is extended to explain the various parts of the body as being representations of the aspects of a temple. the forehead is said to represent the sanctum. very often.both at the temple and in Sri Chakra. The finial of the tower is the unseen the sahasrara located above the head. One can think of an icon without a temple. And. which compares to the Bindu in the Chakra. The temple as also the Sri Chakra employs the imagery of an all – enveloping space and time continuum issuing out of the womb. the temple is the outpouring or the expansion of the deity residing in Brahmasthana at the centre. The idol. The devotee. the ground-plan of a temple is a mandala. Just as the Sri Chakra is the unfolding of the Bindu at its centre.Let‘s start with the temple complex being looked upon as a representation of Sri Chakra. In the temple. the sanctum is viewed as the head. the kalasha (finial) the tuft of hair (shikha) and so on. Tantric and Agama principles.Accordingly. and Right on top of that head is the passage through which the currents of life ascend to the tower through that stone slab Brahmarandra_shila. Around the four corners of this slab are placed the images of the vehicles or emblems that characterize the icon inside the sanctum. Another interesting aspect is that the temple concept is a curious mixture of Vedic. The symbolism extends to the conception of Vimana or the central part of the temple as the physical form of god. the shikhara (superstructure over the garbhagrha) the head. and here it is an immobile (achala or sthavara) Mandala. the various mantapas are the body. The analogy of the temple with the human body finds closer relationships. and it is mobile (chara or jangama) Mandala. the sukanasi or ardhamantapa (the small enclosure in front of the garbhagrha) is the nose. Vertically. the antarala is the neck. the garbhagrha represents the neck. the prakaras are the hands and so on. For instance. . The Tantra regards the human body as a Mandala. The Agama shastras regard a temple too as Mandala. The sanctum is viewed as the head. For instance. These symbolisms also suggest seeking the divinity within our heart. The garbhagrha represents the heart and the image the antrayamin (the indwelling Lord). . The temple is also seen as a representation of the subtle body with the seven psychic centres or chakras. jangha (trunk) is parts of the superstructure over the base. the Brahma randra is represented in the structure erected on top of the sanctum.The names assigned to various parts of the Vimana seem to go along with this symbolism. Gala or griva (neck) is the part between moulding which resembles the neck. Pada (foot) is the column. and right on top of the head is the passage through which the currents of life ascend to the tower through this stone slab. Nasika (nose) is any nose shaped architectural part and so on. In the structure of the temple. The flat-roof (kapota) of the sanctum is overlaid by a single square stone slab known in the texts as Brahma-ranhra-sila (the stone denoting the upper passage of life). the seat of consciousness.Interestingly. the Kalasha placed on top of the Vimana is not imbedded into the structure by any packing it with mortar or cement. oil extracted out of the seed. Sakala. It has no form and is not apprehended by sense organs. And fire being the active element that fuses the others. as the Agama texts explain. formless – absolute. It is analogues. It is. through the Brahma randra. that sanctum is the water (aapa) principle and the tower over it is Fire (tejas). on the other hand. *** Iconography Before we deal with iconography per se . or as sakala having specific aspects. It can be viewed as nishkala. the inner guide. the finial of the tower (Vimana) stands for air (vayu) and above the Vimana is the formless space (akasha). is explicit energy like the fire that has emerged out of the fuel. It is through this tube that the lanchana ‗tokens‘ (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. butter in milk. Nishkala is all-pervasive and is neither explicit nor is it visible. The other symbolisms associated with the Sanctum and the tower above it are. The Agama shastras are based in the belief that the divinity can be approached in two ways. let‘s briefly go-over some its general principles associated with it . butter that floated to the surface after churning milk or like the . One of the explanations is the hallow tube represents the central channel of energy the Shushumna that connects to the Sahasra. to the oil in the sesame-seed. placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of the centre of the tower and runs through the vase. which includes mind. fire in the fuel. The sanctum is thus a constellation of the five elements that are basic to the universe. It is in human as antaryamin. the Kalasha. in fact. the tower becomes an important limb in the structure of a temple. and scent in flower. the worship methods unique to each form of energy-manifestation or divinity. for it is only through a divinity with aspects one can represent and worship ones ideal with love. virtues.shthithi (expansion). An image is the visual and concrete form of idealism. . literature and iconography. characteristics. Five heads stand for five principles or elements (pancha-bhuthas) or five divine attributes or five stages of the evolutionary process [shristi (creation). The concept of polytheism gave tremendous impetus to all branches of Indian arts. and Surya the universal energy and life that sustains and governs all existence. This provided the basis for the evolution of the classic Indian trinity. powers. Ganapathi is best worshipped in the roots of the arka plant. movement and air in the mid-region. The aspects of the thirty-three divinities were later condensed to three viz. samhara (withdrawal). symbols and its disposition. powers. virtues and disposition. Shiva is represented usually by a conic linga or an un-carved rock. or overseeing four directions. The idea of multiple forms of divinity was in the Vedas. in fact. energy and life on earth. The polytheism is. triodhana (concealing) and anugraha (preserving till the commencement of the next cycle of evolution)] Not all divine representations are made through icons. jnana(consciousness) and kriya (action) shakthis or powers]. Vayu. The Devi in Kamakhya temple is worshipped in a natural fissure of a rock. The Agamas recognize that means as the archa. Yet all these divinities have specified well defined iconographic forms.Four heads represent compreneshion or enveloping four Vedas. and he is also represented by red stones (sona shila) or turmeric cones or pieces (haridra churna). the lifeblood of iconography. Rig Veda at many places talks in terms of saguna.fragrance that spreads and delights all. the Brahma. Iconographic representations of gods and goddesses are the idioms aiming to give expression to their attributes. the idioms of beauty grace and power nurtured and honed by generations after generations. three heads of a divinity indicates trio guna (guna-triad: sattva. It is a representation of a community‘s collective aspirations. Rajas and tamas) or shakthi traya [iccha (will). Vishnu and Narasimha are worshipped at homes as Saligrama (a special types of smooth dark stones found on bed of the Gandaki river). For instance. the aspect of space. in the heavenly region. the aspect of fire. Shiva and Vishnu. adoration and earnestness. Making an image involves an understanding of its attributes. Multiplicity of heads denotes presence of their concurrent abilities. Agni. the supreme divinity with attributes. the space. and multiplicity of hands denotes their versatile abilities. That energy can manifest itself in different forms and humans can approach those forms through appropriate means. per se. The temple iconography is more concerned with the concept. let us talk for a while about temple iconography. Bimba means reflection.] Besides the agamas. In other words. The Indian term for Iconography is therefore Prathima –lakshana. and specify the rules governing iconography and iconometry. [A short explanation about the term iconography. It refers to one Nagnajit. the reflection or Prathima. the study of images. translated to a form in stone or metal or wood. We are using it for want of a better term in English. a conception or the mental image of god. but. Iconography. and with the prescriptions of the shilpa shastra. like the reflection of moon in a tranquil pool. But. and the temple is regarded the virtual expansion of the image. That reflection is not the moon but an image (prathima) of the moon. what is worshipped in a temple is an idea. In the Indian tradition what is worshipped is Bimba. interpretation and validity of the icon in terms of the themes detailed in the scriptures or the mythological texts. is the study and interpretation of images in art. there are several texts that detail the processes involved in practicing the art. as the author of a contemporary work on Silpasastra – but not much is . There is not much discussion on the styles of architecture or the art forms. The Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira (6th century AD) is an ancient text that provides descriptions of certain images. the image of god. it is not the god itself. and it stands for a sign or that which resembles the god it represents. in the context of this discussion it could be restricted to the study of icons meant for worship and the images used in temple architecture. in general terms. The word icon is derived from Greek eikon. but not the god itself.Since the very purpose of the temple structure is the image residing in it. Narada. Kumaratantra. are well known and widely accepted. Shaunaka. and Devagraha nirmana (the construction of places of worship). there are the major and authoritative texts that deal comprehensively with all aspects of Devalaya Vastu. Garga. Mayamata. The Vishnu purana (dated about 3rd century AD) too contains several chapters on the subjects of architecture and sculpture. Kumara. Further. Nanditha. Maya. In addition to the Sanskrit texts. Nagnajit. He is credited with introducing a method of construction that did not use lime. In part three of the text there is virtually a catalouge of the various deities with descriptions of their features. in particular. The Shilpa and Chitra (painting) are closely related to Natyasastra (ca. which deals with temple architecture and construction. Shuka and Brihaspathi. Visalaksa. Manasara. These include Kashyapa shilpa samhitha. the Tamil works – Mandalapurusha‘s Chintamini Nigandu and Sendanar‘s Divakara nigandu. Shilpa rathna. Many of these names appear to come from mythology. And. the works of most of these savants are now lost. Vashista. Similarly. Prathimavidhi (the mode of making images). Hemadri (13th century AD) who hailed from Dakshina Kannada region authored Caturvarga_chintamini. Sadly. iconography and painting. The Mathsya purana says that the best aspect of karma yoga is the building temples and installing deities. there is an ancient work by an unknown author. the Agnipurana details the Prathima_lakshanam (the characteristics of images). and the Tantrasara of Ananda Tirtha (Sri Madhwacharya) . but quite a few of them could be historical. Vishwakarma. Rupamanada. and therefore devotes several chapters to the subject of temple construction and image making. In addition. Vasudeva. second century BCE). Silpam (perhaps a translation of an ancient Sanskrit text). Atri. Brahma. Aniruddha. The subject he dealt with has since developed into Iconometry. Shukranithisara is another treatise which discusses aspects such as the proportions and the measurements recommended for the images of various classes and attributes. This work which is in the form of a conversation between the sage Markandeya and the King Vajra is spread over 42 chapters. it includes the Vishnu_dharmotthara_purana (perhaps an insertion into the Vishnupurana at a later period). which contains sections dealing with the study of images (iconography and iconometry). stance and gestures (mudras) apart from their disposition and attributes. appear to have been derived . which is popular among the shilpis.known about him or his work. Among the puranas. Besides. Lakshana_samuchayya. A special mention needs to be made about iconography ‗s (prathima lakshana) relation with Natyasastra. The rules of the iconography (prathima lakshana). Someshwara‘s (a 1th century western Chalukya king) Abhilashitartha Chintamini contains interesting iconographical details of many important deities. the Matsya Purana (dated around second century AD) has eighteen comprehensive chapters on architecture and sculpture. which is a masterly treatise on temple architecture. Purandara. This purana mentions as many as eighteen ancient architects (vastu_shatropadeshkaha): Brighu. from the Natyasastra. The Natya and Shilpa sastras developed a remarkable approach to the structure of the human body. and that is indicated by the term Sama. demonstrate the principles of stasis. and delineated the relation between its central point (navel). balance. the expressions. knees and ankles. first with the positions and movements of the principal joints of neck. repose and perfect symmetry. And. . and on the sthanas (positions of standing. pelvis. It then coordinated them. The Shilpa (just as the Natya) is based on a system of medians (sutras). These. say. dvibhanga and tribhanga). they are of fundamental importance in Indian arts. Based on these principles. postures of symmetry (bhangas) and asymmetry (abhanga. and reclining). The Indian sculptures are often the frozen versions or representations of the gestures and poses of dance (caaris and karanas) described in Natyasastra. verticals and horizontals. sitting. drama. Natyasastra enumerated many standing and sitting positions. dance. and then with the emotive states. The concept of perfect symmetry is present in Shilpa as in Nrittya. measures (maanas). painting or sculpture. It is as if the rich and overpowering passages of Natyasastra are translated in to stone and published on temple walls. and in the vibrant movements of dance captured in the motifs carved on the walls of the Indian temples depicting gandharvas. . Shiva. the flying figures recreate the karanas (larger movements). kinnaras.The representations of about one hundred and eight of the karanas described in the Natyasastra find expression on the walls of temples spread across the country. vidyadharas and other gods and demigods. If the saala bhanjikas (bracket figures) recreate the caaris(primary movements) . abhanga of Kodanda-Rama and tribhanga of Nataraja.The demonstrations of those principles of alignment could be seen in the sama-bhanga of Vishnu. All other image parts are co-related to the Brahma-bindu. The image of the main deity along with that of the consorts and subsidiary figures are located within the square grid. below the Brahma-bhaga). the pedastal and the mount (vahana) are in the lower vahana-bhaga. The verticle and horizontal axis of the square as also its diagonal axis of the square pass through what is known as the Brahma-bindu right at the centre of the Brahma-bhaga. Dhyana shlokas . and Gandharva-bhagha (two squares in the top on either side of Shiro-bhaga for depicting the Gandarvas).Bhaktha -bhaga ( two bottom sqares on either side of Peeta -bhaga for locating images of the worshipping devotees). its head or crown or hair-do is figured in the Deva-shiro-bhaga. The central part of the main deity is accomodated in the Brahma-bhaga. Deva -kesha or Deva shiro-alankara -bhaga ( two squares on top of Brahma-bhaga for depicting the crown or elaborate hair arrangement) .For the purpose of creating an image . Devi-bhaga ( two squares each on either side of Brahma-bhaga for the accompanying female deities) .Vahana-bhaga or peeta-bhaga ( space for pedestal – two bottom squares . It is at the Brahmabindu the navel (nabhi) of the deity would be located. initially. while the f eet of the deity. a square grid is divided into sixteen equal squares . These squares are grouped into six segments : Brahma -bhaga ( the central four squares) . For this purpose. the attitudes. its countenance. details of the number of arms.One of the main resources for a practicing shilpi is the collection of Dhyana shlokas. 64 of yoginis. Dhyana shlokas are more than prayers or hymns.Each one of those forms has a Dhyana shloka illustrating its aspects and attributes. Shiva and Devi . The Shilpis who actually carved the images had no knowledge of Sanskrit and could not therefore read the texts or interpret the shlokas. it is said that there are about 32 aspects or forms of Ganapathi. 5 of Brahma. and the scholars who could read those texts knew next to nothing about sculpture. Mudras (hand gestures).000 such Dhyana shlokas. the Bhangas (flexions – slight. the verses in contemplation. the nature. ayudhas (objects it holds in its hands) etc. seated or standing). This dichotomy was bridged by the generations of Shilpis who maintained their own set of personal notes. the postures (dynamic or static. the Agamas and the Puranas. triple. It is said that there are more than 2. explanations and norms. the details of its physiognomy. and details of its ornaments. and also from Buddhist and Jain texts. he needs to be clear in his mind on its form. 16 of Skanda. or extreme bends). they are the word-pictures or verbal images of a three-dimensional image. They help the Shilpi to visualize the deity and to come up with a line drawing of the image. Before a shilpi starts on a project to sculpt an image. the Shilpis generally refer to a wonderful collection of most amazingly articulate verses called Dhyana Shlokas. heads and eyes. and innumerable forms of Vishnu. its posture. precisely. describe. How this collection came to be built up over the centuries is truly amazing. its facial and bodily expressions. . the consorts and other vital details of each aspect that provides the deity with power and grace. These verses have their origin in Sanskrit texts. its aspects. These verses culled from various texts of Shipa Shastra. the bow(saranga). discus (sudarshana) and conch (panchjanya). and passed them on to their succeeding generations and to their disciples. buckler. He should be wearing a diadem and ear-rings. He should be made as dark as the Atasi (Linum usitatissimum). and the four on the left side.as also references to shlokas. his ears like sukthi. Thus. With the emergence of the various academies of sculpture and organized efforts to collate and publish the old texts with detailed explanations. The mode of transmission of knowledge of this community is both oral and practical. His head should be in the form of an umbrella. Please look at the summary of a few Dhyana shlokas. arrow and abhaya _hastha. Yet. among the many traditions (parampara) inherited in India. there is now a greater awareness among the shilpis of the present day. he should have high nose. His breast must bear the Srivatsa mark and be adorned with the Kaustubha gem. clad in yellow robes. four or two arms. and zeal to maintain purity and sensitivity of its traditions. mace(kaumodaki). the neglect of Sanskrit and inability to read the texts in Sanskrit is still an impediment that badly needs to be got over. mudra of assurance and protection (the fingers raised and the palm facing the devotees). The rigor and discipline required to create objects that defy time and persist beyond generations of artists. and to carry it forward. the tradition of Vishwakarma is unique. The image of Lord Narayana must be made with eight. Of the eight hands the four on the right side must have the sword(nandaka). the art and skills without falling prey to the market and its dynamics. strong thighs and arms. . This has enabled them to protect and carry forward the knowledge. his neck should be like counch. has imbued this tradition with tremendous sense of purpose. having a serene and gracious countenance. This is how the image of the Lord Vishnu is to be made for prosperity. [Yogesvara is sometimes shown with four faces and twelve hands. When Vishnu is two armed and carries discus and mace. He is dressed in white or mild red clothes. the two hands on the right side will display the abhaya mudra or lotus. His complexion is mellow –bright like that of conch. And the upper two hands holding conch and discus. then the right hand bestows peace and hope (shanthi-kara-dakshina hastha) and the left holds the conch. milk or jasmine. And. He has four hands with lower two hands resting on his lap on yogic posture (yoga mudra).] . with halfclosed eyes. . in case he is made with only two arms. in his hands in the left. He wears an ornate head dress or a coiled mop of hair. Yogasana_ murthi (yoga Narayana) is Vishnu seated in yogic posture on a white lotus. he holds the conch and mace.In case the image is to have only four arms. He wears modest but pleasant ornaments. And. he is known as Loka-paala-Vishnu. and discus respectively. he should be dressed in robes covering the body from breast to foot. the Sun-God should be represented with elevated nose.Such an image of the Sun will be beneficial to the maker (and to the worshipper). . shanks. He holds two lotuses in both of his hands. forehead. a halo that is made very resplendent by gems on the crown).Surya. and has a halo of bright luster of gems (or. His face is as lustrous as the interior of the lotus. he wears an elaborate crown. He has a long pearl necklace and a girdle round the waist. thighs. His body is covered with armor. lit up with a pleasant smile. His face is beautified with ear-rings. His chariot drawn by seven horses has one wheel and one charioteer . cheeks and breast. she has three eyes and ornaments decked on all her limbs. She shines like a blue stone and has ten faces and ten feet. trident. Pancha bera . cudgel. mace. conch. and conch. The Mahakali is ―Wielding in her hand the sword. whom the lotus born Brahma lauded in order to slay Madhu and Kaitaba when Hari was asleep‖. bow. human head. battle axe. bow. trident. iron club. shield. arrow. The Goddess is described as having eighteen arms. That Mahakali I worship.The dhyana shloka preceding the middle episode of Devi Mahatmya gives the iconographic details of the Devi. She has a complexion of coral and is seated on a lotus. mace. wine-cup. arrow. sword. water-pot. bell. lotus. bearing string of beads. noose and the discuss sudarsana. lance. sling. thunderbolt. discuss. Shakta and Vaishnava. It is usually made of stone. Shakti and Vishnu. special rituals. The fifth idol is Bali – bera ( always made of shiny metal) taken out . It receives all the daily worship(nitya-archana) including those of tantric nature. to which the services of putting the Lord to sleep are offered. the immovable (dhruva-bera) represents the primary aspect of the deity known as Vishnu (Vishnu-tattva).worship sequences(naimitta-archana). The images in the temple could be achala (immovable) Dhruva-bimba or dhruva-bera. The fourth is the Uthsava (always made of metal). around the central shrine when food offerings are made to Indra and other devas. Such images are regarded chala-achala (both movable and immovable)] . In a temple following the Vaikhanasa tradition.The images in the Hindu temples can be classified into three broad groups: Shaiva. respectively. representing the three cults of Shiva. within the temple complex. would usually have four or five representations of the principal deity (pancha bera). daily . The next is the Snapana-bera (usually made of metal and smaller than Kautuka) which receives ceremonial bath (abhisheka) and the occasional ritual. stone. The other images in the temple that are worshipped each day during the ritual sequences are but the variations of the original icon (adimurti). The third is the shayana-bera. is meant for taking the idol out of the temple premises on ceremonial processions. apart from the Dhruva bera. usually made of pancha loha (alloy of five metals). sometimes another icon is added for daily worship. these different icons are not viewed as separate or independent deities. silver. each form is accorded a specific location. These five forms together make Pancha bera or Pancha murti. it is known as Bhoga-bera. in successive stages. These other forms are emanations of the main idol. gold or wood and about 1/3 to 5/9 the size of the Dhruva-bera). A major temple. is that of Lord Jagannath of Puri. Dhruva–bimba. The dhruva-bera is the immovable image of the presiding deity of the temple and resides in the sanctum and to which main worship is offered (archa-murti). But. are meant for other forms of worship and ceremonial services. The chala bera. as well as to Jaya and Vijaya the doorkeepers of the Lord . and to all the elements.They are: Kautuka –bera is a mini replica of the main idol (usually madeof gems. successively away from the Dhruva bera. [One of the few cases (that I am aware of) where the principal deity is taken out of the sanctum for procession. To this. and processions and for food-offering. but are understood as emanations from the original icon. and is placed in the sanctum near the main idol and is connected to it by a metal string or silk thread. and chala(movable). copper. And. and sabhya. the transcendent one (Vishnu). And. and space). made of silver. And. the Bali bera is antaryamin (one who resides within) representing Vairagya (spirit of renunciation) and Aniruddha. Dharma and Vasudeva. the Vaikhanasa worship-tradition retained the concept of Pancha-Agni. donated an almost (but not exact) replica of the dhruva bera. and it symbolizes Para. water. five types of icons. (Let‘s talk more about the dhruva bera. towards the end of this post). The four are said to compare with the strides taken by Vishnu/Trivikrama. The symbolisms associated with the four murtis (chatur-murti) are many. vyana. This is the second stride taken by Vishnu. When the worship sequences are conducted. He is addressed as Sri Venkatesgwara. Kautuka. the comparison is extended to five vital currents (prana. And again it is said. This is when the tejas of the Main idol reaches out to all. but. Achyuta symbolized by Snapana-bera emanates from Utsava-bera. The dhruva bera at the Tirumala shrine is of course the magnificent and most adorable image of the Lord made of hard-black-stone. In terms of the Agama texts. the third stride is that when the Utsava-bera is taken out in processions. and has a recorded history of about two thousand years.-bera. truth (Sathya) and Sankarshana. udana and samana). anvaharya. Sri Srinivasa and by host of other names. Satya symbolized by Utsava-bera emanates from Kautuka-bera. ahavaniya. It is said that around the year 966AD. the . The kouthuka is bhoga (worship idol) representing purusha (personification of the Supreme). Achyuta and Aniruddha. And. for instance. Let us. Utsava and Bali.. apana. and are interesting. In Marichi‘s Vimana-archa-kalpa the five forms. And. the tejas of the main idol moves into the Snapana-bera which is placed in the bathing-enclosure (snapana –mantapa). And. but in the Tirumala shrine it is called Bhoga Srinivasa. Purusha symbolized by Kautuka-bera is an emanation of the Dhruva-bera. this image is called kouthuka bera. In Tirumala . which rests on the worship pedestal (archa-pitha). air. does not move about. that again was rendered into five types of temple deities as pancha-bera: Dhruva. take the case of the idols in the shrine on the hills of Tirumala. but transformed them into five representations of Vishnu (pancha –murthi): Vishnu. The snapana is ugra (fearsome aspect) represented by Pradyumna or Achutha. dakshinAgni. the Pallava Queen. The main icon represents Vishnu who is all-pervasive.Again. perhaps because the temple predates most of the other temples in South India and that it has a tradition of its own.According to Vyuha -siddantha of the Agamas. Purusha. at the time of offering ritual bath. This is the first stride of Vishnu. the pancha-murti (when Vishnu is also counted along with the other four forms) are compared to five types of Vedic sacred fires (pancha-agni): garhapatya. Snapana. The practices at the Tirumala temple are slightly at variance with the standard procedures. Devi Samavai. Satya. Further it is explained. the dhruva bera which is immovable represents Vishnu (Vishnu-tattva). the spirit (tejas) of the main idol moves into the Kautuka. fire. These in turn are compared to the primary elements (earth. The uthsava bera is vaibhava (the resplendent) representing Jnana (knowledge). Aniruddhda symbolized by Bali-bera emanates from Bali-bera. representing the six virtues of knowledge (jnana). For that reason it is also addressed as sambhandha-sutra-kauthuka-murthy.kauthuka serves as snapana bera too (that is. Yet. beautiful image. perhaps because the other services such as the daily ceremonial bath and ekantha seva that are due to the dhruva _bera are rendered to it. silver and silk. abundance (Aishvarya). the earliest reference to which is found in an inscription dated 1369 AD. standing three feet tall on a pedestal of fourteen inches. power (shakthi). strength (bala). The kauthuka is placed right in front of the Lord‘s foot stool (paada pitha) and is linked to the dhruva_bera through a string with strands of gold. resplendence (tejas) andvalor or virility (veeerya). It is ever linked to the dhruva bera and is never brought out of the antarala (bangaru vakili). it has a very pleasing disposition and is modestly ornamented. . the one to which ceremonial bath service is rendered). Malayappan is a very skillfully crafted. This idol might have entered into the temple regimen with the rise of the Pancharathra School of worship. This image has come to be known as Bhoga srinivasa. It does not greatly resemble the dhruva_bera. The Uthsava_bera at Tirumala shrine is named Malayappan. made of panchloha. His consorts Sridevi and Bhudevi (of about twenty-nine inches height) are on his either side. There is a six cornered Vaishnava chakra (mandala) placed at the foot of the kauthuka. processions and celebrations conducted outside the sanctum are rendered to Malayappan. All services. to the temple priests and attendant staff takes place in the presence of koluvu_srinivasa. After the rendering the ceremonial food service to the dhruva_bera. it has a rather sad history. offerings are made to the bali_bera who accepts it on behalf of the basic elements in nature . The other bera in the Tirumala temple is the Ugra Srinivasa.The Bali bera in Tirumala shrine is addressed as Koluvu srinivasa. and where the accounts of the previous day‘s collections at the Srivari hundi are submitted. which apart from the dhruva bera is perhaps the oldest idol in Tirumala shrine. the host of spirits guarding the temple and other minor deities. where the day‘s almanac is read out. But. A unique feature of the bali_bera in Tirumala shrine is that it presides over the formal court summoned at the commencement of the day. It is not clear how this practice came into being at Tirumala. in the form of food grains and provisions. The traditional distribution of the daily remuneration. The earliest reference . it would spark fire in the temple premises. when a fire broke out in the temple. and Chola etc. the crown. It has four arms though its two upper hands are always kept covered (for whatever reason). The iconography of Sri Venkateshwara in the Tirumala temple: There are no known descriptions or specifications of the iconography of the Sri Venkateshwara idol in any texts of the Shilpa shastra.black – polished stone (often described as saligrama shila) . it stands more than six feet in height. Tirupathi and Mangapura regions. It is feared that if the sunrays touch the idol. and the idol is mounted on a pedestal of about eighteen inches. with the Kirita . The pedestal with lotus motif is almost at the ground level. Sri Vekateshwara is standing alone. That might be because the image of Sri Venkateshwara predates all such schools. Chalukya. The idol. not accompanied by his consorts. The sanctum at Tirumala is eka murthy griha a sanctum housing a single deity. The total height of idol is estimated to be a little more than eight feet (A person of normal height with arms raised just falls short of reaching the top of the idol‘s crown) . Of . it is said. outside Tirumala. The idol does not also fall within the interpretations of any of the known schools of architecture such as Pallava. The icon is made of hard. The Ugra Srinivasa no longer serves as the uthsava bera and it is never bought out of the temple after sunrise. and thereafter it was replaced by Malayappan. is wonderfully well proportioned and is very pleasing to look at. Ugra Srinivasa was used as the Uthsava murthy till about 14th century.to this idol is in an inscription dated 10th century. measuring about twenty inches high.Though the precise measurements of the image of the deity cannot be ascertained. except on a single occasion in a year (utthana dwadasi in karthika) that too well before the sunrise. crafted with great skill. Till about the Vijayanagar period there were no temples of Sri Venkateshwara. 2012 in Temple Architecture Tags: Temple Architecture. temple iconography Temple Architecture – Devalaya Vastu – Part Five (5 of 9) 09 Sep . The left hand is almost near the left knee in Katyavalambita mudrawith the thumb almost parallel to the waist. is only knee deep for those who submit to him and seek salvation. blessing the devotees. the mundane existence .the other two hands. Let‘s discuss some specific forms of iconography in the next segment. in a posture of benediction. as if to assure that the mire of the samsara . SKR Rao Line drawings of kirita and ornaments By the renowned Shilpi and Yogi Sri Siddalinga Swamy of Mysore Other Line drawings are from Shilpa Soundarya Other pictures are from internet 6 Comments Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 9. the right hand is in Varada mudra. Iconography continued in the next part…> References: Shilpa Soundarya by KT Pankajaksha The Lord of Seven Hills by Prof. meaning not merely symmetry.Measures and proportions The structural harmony. Without harmony. . entering a doorway. circumambulating or approaching the inner sanctuary or worshipping there– one is accessing an aspect of the whole. The rules of Vastu-shastra render beauty. It is also believed that a meticulously well constructed temple radiates peace and joy. They also evoke in the devotee an attuning of his person to its structure and ambience. It not merely resolves the contradictions but also expresses harmony by encompassing all contradictions. The ancient texts. good-looking person. transforming into pure and uncompromised details of structure. This is analogues to the precise relation between the features and organs of a well proportioned. sound and volume management. is to manifest a sense of coherence and harmony among the elements of the temple and it‘s whole.‖ The Hindu temple is a feast of a variety of visual aspects. symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in the design of any temple. and wherever one engages one of them. The standard text Mayamata mentions ―Only if the temple is constructed correctly according to a mathematical system can it be expected to function in harmony with the universe. is of utmost importance in the construction of a temple. insist on a high degree of precision in their measurements. The aim of a proportional system. and ensures the welfare of the world and its people. Only if the measurement of the temple is in every way perfect. It is believed that the power and purity of the structure radiates from its exact proportions and measures as specified in the texts. there will be perfection in the universe as well. the rhythm and a fine sense of proportion is the hall mark of Indian temple architecture. structural stability and quality of spaces by virtue of light. therefore. therefore. The proportional harmonization of design. Sundareshwara temple Tirchendur. entrance porch) is semi-open with maximum light. An interesting feature of these systems is the standard unit of measurement.875 cms) and the hasta (cubit. Eight nulu = one hair (breadth of horse hair).00am to 3. for instance. which when struck at precise parts. Eight anus (particles) = one nulu (breadth of a fine cotton or silk fiber). Garbhagirha with a single opening in front of deity allows light only on deity. The Shilpis. the eyes and facial features of the image of presiding deity. the smallest unit mentioned is the anu or the particle. and the Vijaya Vittala temple of Hampi. These help the worshippers to keep away the distractions and to focus their attention on the deity. As regards the volumes. Madurai. Echoes are avoided by a clever manipulation of open spaces. If the directions and measurements are followed correctly the sun rays should fall into the mantapa for at least six hours (from 9. The ancient shilpis used a great degree of precision in their measurements. every part of the temple is rigorously controlled by a precise proportional system of interrelated measurements. maintaining the fundamental unity of the architecture and sculpture. proportions. Further. or in the amaziningly delicate and minute carvings of the Hoyasla images. Eight mustard-seeds = one bamboo seed.00pm. Eight hairs = one grain of sand. is illumined by natural oil lamps. The anu measure was employed for extremely delicate or intricate or the most vital aspects of a sculpture. it is said. elevations and designs in the structured areas. and.Vijayanagar) displayed remarkable ingenuity in sculpting ―musical‖ pillars.00am). 45 cms) are the units that are normally used for deriving the dimensions. if the sun rise is at 6. placed on either side of the deity. are still in use. Much of this system is followed by the present shilpis too. Look at the table of measurements for minute and delicate carvings.The lighting of spaces inside a temple is orchestrated such that the mukha mantapa (i. The Sabha Mantapa (for worshippers) has moderate light with few openings. . in some cases (Meenkshi temple. Eight bamboo-seeds = one angula. The angula (1. The net effect of this arrangement is that it projects the images against the dark wall. the height and other details of a sculpture. These measures are in two categories. The norms and measures specified in the Southern texts. Absolute quiet is ensured in the Sanctum vicinity. the surroundings of the Garbhagriha are modest in sculptural details. The Danda (four cubits) used for measuring less-delicate or lengthier structure is equivalent to 180 cms. produce the seven swaras (octaves). Eight grains of sand = one mustard seed. which is hardly perceptible.e. one for delicate and intricate work and the other for normal structures. the breadths the heights of various elements of the temple too are related to each other by certain ratios. These lend esthetic appeal and stability to the temple structure. 8 ratha renu = one valagrasa (hair end). . nail. 8 Dandas = One Rajju (rope) 1000 Rajju = One Yojana The proportions of the head-trunk-arms-legs of images. 8 valagrasa =One grain of yava. but are meant as guidelines to maintain proper proportions. Generally: it is dasatala (ten talas) for the height of image of male deity.) Further. navatala (nine talas) for his consort and astatala (eight talas) for bhakta. This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified in terms of eight and as multiples of eight. Four Hasthas = one Danda= 96 angulas = 180 cms. the particle. when added on to the body‘s eight units.One Hastha = one cubit= 45 cms. According to them Anu or paramanu. was the smallest measure. the Vastu believes that every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of space measure.(We shall discuss more about these aspects in the part dealing with Temple Iconography. each of which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body and. kneecap and toe nails. According to the Vastu.875 cms. and also their finer specifications like nose. 8 anus = one ratha renu (grain of dust). Similarly. 4 yavas = one angula. One Hastha =24 angulas = 45 cms. These are not absolute measurements. ears and their shapes are specified in the texts. these nine units are applied in making sculptures of gods. and derives that the time is equal to space. 12 angulas = one vitasta or Tala (span) 2 Vitasta or Tala = Hastha (cubit) = 24 angulas 26 angulas= Dhanurbhagha (handle of a bow). the lengths. The old Sanskrit texts too mention a set of measurements. Traditionally. 4 hatas = One Danda. Thus one angula = 1. at the subtle level the human form is a structure of eight spatial units apart from elements like the hair. increases the height of the total form to nine units. The square. it is said.. Yoni. Vyaya. Shikhara. Further. Vaara and Nakshatra are applied by the Acharya to derive the proper orientation and dimensions of the structure. The size of the structure will also determine the various kinds of building materials to be used at different stages of the construction. the rectangle. as the size of the pada (bay. . The vertical alignment consisting the pyramid. the cross section of pillars also increases in size and width of beam has to be exactly same as that of the pillar. (More of Ayadivarga in the final part. the set of six formulae or Ayadivarga viz. the weight of the tower is contained within itself. Tithi. The subdivisions of the ground plan detail the Brahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller shrines) and the Mantapas (pavilions).For instance. to twice its width at the base. the circle and the curve are meant for designing the Gopura (entrance ways). These norms carry shades of religious intentions too. the Vimana (the structure above the main shrine) and the prakara (the walls). They also help to control the proportions of the dimensions of the temple. by restricting the height of the tower. the octagon and the pentagon patterns drawn in the Mandala relate to the horizontal section or the ground plan. distance between two pillars) increases.) The Vastu Purusha Mandala of the temple projects the temple in two main sections: the ground plan and the vertical alignment. the Aaya. There are a number of prescribed methods. A. In this method. Let us look at just two of them. the square of 4 (16) and the square of 8(64) are considered auspicious. in which case the width would be 4 or 8 units. All the main horizontal as well as vertical proportions are with reference to either of these numbers (mulasutra).The area of the Vimana (the prasada or the tower above the sanctum) is divided into 16 squares (maha-pitha) or 64 squares (manduka). is really interesting. This relates to the construction of the Garbhagriha (sanctum) and the Vimana or Prasada on top of it. Hindu temple construction is strictly based on a complex system of measurements and proportions. from its width and height to the size of its doorways and moldings. These proportions control every aspect of a temple‘s design. .How these designs of certain measurements and proportions are translated into three dimensional constructions. as the case may be. then the width of the sanctum would be 2 units. the height of the Vimana would also be 4. This proportion builds a relationship between the vertical and horizontal extents of the other parts of the temple. If the directions and measurements are correctly followed the sun rays should fall into the mantapa for six hours (from 9. A line drawn at an angle of 22 ½ degrees from the mid-point between the brows of the idol should cut the top of the Dwajasthamba. The size of a temple is always a fixed multiple of the height of image of main deity. The outer measurement of the sanctum would be 10 feet on each side. The normal height of a man is taken as six feet. at the point where the imaginary line drawn from the idol emerges out of the roof of the mantapa. If the idol is less than six feet tall. The total height of the sanctum with Sikhara would be three times the width of the sanctum(8×3). of six feet. the hole in the roof and the top of Dwaja sthamba are all aligned along one straight line. this perhaps is relates to the axis of the earth which makes an angle of 22 ½ degrees with the sun. and the base of the Vimana would be a cube. A mantapa. in front of the sanctum.00am to 3.00pm.00am). and therefore the inner side of the Mantapa should be 20 feet. Some scholars say. the outer side of the sanctum is ten feet. would have certain special features. The Dwaja –sthamba should be perpendicular and placed directly opposite to the idol. 4×2). and the sanctum would be in the shape of a square of its inner length and width. should be six feet tall. in standing position. For a sanctum of this size. In this method. The width of the sanctum walls would be two feet. In case the width of the sanctum is 8 units. This is achieved by extending the face (door) side of the sanctum on either side to form the inner dimension (20‘) of the Mantapa. B.The cube and the Sikhara would together rise to a height of 12 units. Thus. of which the height of the Sikhara would be 2/3 the total height. on its way to reach the top of the Dwajasthamba.If the width of the Vimana is 4. For instance. . The idol should be installed exactly at the mid-point of the chosen direction (usually facing east). its pedestal should be raised to obtain the required height. Sometimes. The height of the Dwajasthamba thus is related to the to the height of the image. if the sun rise is at 6. the size of the sanctum and the Dwajasthamba is determined by the height of the image of main deity in the sanctum. in this case. the idol. The line when extended further from the top of the Dwaja sthamba should touch the Kalasha on top of the Gopura. The inner length and breadth of a mantapa should be twice that of the sanctum. in width. it is ensured that the mid point between the brows of the idol. a hole is made in the roof of the mantapa. The Sikhara on top this cube would be twice its height (that is. at times the transportation to the site. a pillar is made of at least five parts. These aspects are ensured during the third stage. specifications and guidelines. These parts are usually composed of several elements. designs. the teams of assistants of the Shilpi carve the parts and segments according to the temple Acharya‘s and Shilpi‘s drawings. the actual construction of temple. The stability of the temple structure is attributed to its principles of unity. as its parts are not joined rigidly (say by materials like cement) but can vibrate within the surrounding structured space. For example. itself. it is said. The third stage is the assembling of the readied parts i. Hence. In the second stage. why the temples do not normally collapse in case of earthquakes or cyclones.e. harmony. beams. It is said. second is the carving of different parts and the third is assembling the parts. The first is the planning of the temple by architect. This is one of the reasons. The actual construction process of a temple can be divided into three steps. and brackets etc. while the dome is made of several units. The parts thus got ready are transported to the site. . the architect prepares a list of all the parts that go into the details of the temple. the distance and the height of the Gopuram get related to the height of the idol and the Dwajasthamba. All the parts have mortise and tenon joint for ensuring strength. The various elements and parts of temples are interlocked to hold in position. In the first stage. These mortise . the unity. For instance.Thus. no member moves from its place. like the figures. for a projecting part tenon of the adjacent part to be inserted into the next. peace and stability of the family is sure to crumble. and holds the structure together even in the face of destruction all around. pillars. it is said that a four km long ramp was constructed to transport and place in position the dome of the Brihadishwara temple in Tanjore. and a hole or slot is cut into each piece of readied part. balance and distribution of weight. if one member of this family breaks. becomes a huge task. And. (There are elaborate methods for testing and grading the stones. takes extra care to ensure precise positioning and alignment of each part and segment. etc. wood. it is said. stability and visual appeal. The third stage and the second stage have to be well coordinated in order to take care of precise alignments and possible corrections. means the slowing down of the construction pace.and tenons not only hold the parts their positions securely but also allow space for the stones to expand in heat or even to vibrate modestly.. The most important structure of a temple is the garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum which houses the idol of the presiding deity. are designed to last for 800 years unlike RCC structures which are guaranteed for 80 years. the Ayadi aspects are worked out to ensure longevity of the temple. and to meticulously follow the overall proportion. is strictly avoided within the temple structure. Though this stage. Incidentally. Marble is not used in Southern structures. The Building materials like stone. is the major building material employed in temple construction. Only organic materials are used in temple architecture. inevitably. are selected for the main body of the temple. brick. as iron tends to get rusty and endangers the stability and the life of the structure. the Sthaphti or Sthalapahi. are not acceptable building materials. mortar. strictly. The stone which has a far longer life and is less corrosive. Some essential aspects of Temple Structure A typical South Indian temple has a certain fairly well defined features and a generally accepted layout. and more about that in the final part) The main structure and the dome are invariably constructed of tested stone. The traditional Indian temples of stone. The size and the nature of the structure will determine the various kinds of building materials to be employed at different stages of its construction. Materials like simulated marble. the one who supervises the actual construction process on site. it is said. considered the crudest of metals. whereas elements like gold and silver are be used for final ornamentation. Generally the use of iron. . plastic and asbestos. as specified and envisaged in the Vastu mandala and the construction plans. The Garbagriha is followed by four types of mantapas or pavilions. occupied by a deity. The navaranga will usually be on a raised platform and will have nine anganas (openings) and sixteen pillars. is a big hall used for congregational services like singing. It usually will have niches in the north and south walls. religious discourses and so on. standing independently or connected to the sanctum of the temple. . a narrow pavilion connecting the gharbhagriha and the navaranga. It represents the flag post of the ‗King of kings‘. a hall used for ceremonial purposes. dancing. The Dwajasthamba (flag post) in front of either the garbhagrha or antarala or the mantapa is another common feature. In a few temples the antarala serves as the navaranga too. The next mantapa is nrttamantapa or navaranga. The first of the mantapas is the antarala (sometimes called sukanas or sukanasi or ardhamantapa). with attendant divinities in secondary niches flanking the central niche. Mantapa means any roofed. This leads to mukha mantapa the opening pavilion. This is followed by Sanapana mantapa. open or enclosed pavilion (hall) resting on pillars. The lanchana (insignia) made of copper or brass fixed like a flag to the top of the post varies according to the deity in the temple and his/her nature. recitation of mythological texts. Temples will also usually have a treasury. The top of this post has a bud shaped chamber to receive the lamp. A Dipastambha (lamp post) is situated either in front of the Balipitha or outside the main gate. alankara-mantapa.The Balipitha (pedestal of sacrificial offerings) with a lotus or the footprints of the deity is fixed near the Dwajasthamba. The whole temple is surrounded by a high wall (prakara) with one main and three subsidiary gates. Apart from these. where the processional deity is dressed before being taken on procession. A well or a puskarini (tank). finally leading to the sanctum. Vahana mantapa . flower garden and Ratha (the temple chariot) and its shed are the other essentials associated the temple. and in due course became characteristic features of South Indian temple architecture. are kept on this at appropriate stages of rituals for feeding the parivara_devatas and panchabhuthas or the elements. asthana-mantapa. since 10th century. It is said. but nearer to the deity. the temple precincts include a yagasala. plus the halls. their structures and details became increasingly complicated . and gardens are surrounded by a single wall (prakara) or enclosure. A gopura (high tower. marriage or a general purpose hall. The prakara in its many layers provides for a number of minor temples or shrines for the deities. kalyana-mantapa. And. It is needless to mention that the prakara contributes to the security and beauty of the temple With the growth and development of the temples . These were of course later developments. . But. But many major temples do have a series of enclosures. and utsava mantapa. the concentric – enclosing walls. As mentioned earlier the Sri Rangam temple has seven enclosing walls. a store room (ugrana). tanks.) adorns these gateways. connected with the presiding deity of the temple. the Agama texts provide for as many as 32 prakaras. a kitchen (paka-sala). where the processional deity holds court. they recommend five to seven as advisable. to erect towers (gopuras) over such gateways. The Agama texts prescribe that each enclosure must have door-ways in all four directions. In many cases.The structural arrangements of the major temples became more elaborate. in case more than one enclosure is needed. opening in the cardinal directions. hall used on festive occasions. a hall in the middle of the temple tank used for festivals. vasanta-mantapa. very few temples followed this rule. But. to store the various ―vehicles‖ used to mount the processional deity during festivals and processions. enveloping the whole township. it became customary. perhaps with the exception of the great temple at Tiruvannamalai. and a dining hall. though a gopura was not an essential feature of the temple per se. Red-colored offerings like rice mixed with vermillion powder. (a hall for occasional yajna or yagas). In most cases. the main area of the temple. the doorways lead from one courtyard to the next. The garbha-griha is encircled by the first prakara. often narrow. . Beyond this and just outside the main bali-pitha is the flagstaff (dhvaja-stambha). The fourth enclosure is called bhayahara. Around the main mantapa and antara-mandala is the second prakara (antahara). The next enclosure is called madhyahara. This forms a broad verandah with doorways on all four sides. or last wall. The flight of stairs that connects the first prakara with the sanctum sanctorum is called the sopana. permitting the devotees to circumambulate the sanctum in a customary act of devotion. The antahara leads out into an enclosure containing the main bali-pitha. This is a passageway. called antara-mandala. In front of the sopana is the main mantapa. The fifth prakara (enclosure) is the maryada (limit). Vishnu dharmottama purna. To illustrate. facing the midpoint of the chosen direction. indicates certain specifications of the sanctum.9‖.0‖.‘4 ½ ―. *** The sixth century text. and the placement of the other deities in the temple should be in relation to the main idol.‖ located within the Brahmasthana of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. the deity in the Dhruva Bheru (immovable) form is installed. The height of the door should be made double its width. Here on the altar. The height of the sanctum door would be 6‘. The sanctum would be in the shape of a square. The image of the deity is stationed in the geometrical centre. placed earlier in the earth during the garbhadhana ceremony. It says the idol should preferably face east. The whole place completely dark. . would be 3. directly above the gold box. The placement of other deities will also be determined accordingly.0‖ high and the image would be 4‘. the entrance will be determined either to North or to East of Garbagriha. the cave-like cube-shaped ―womb room. It is commendable to make the width of the door equal to 1/4 of [the width of] the shrine ―The height of the door should be [that of] the deities increased by 1/8. o king. except for the light that comes through the front opening. emerging later. The name garbhagriha perhaps has reference to the devotee finding his way to this secret inner place and being reborn from it. The image [should be] two parts [of the whole] and the pedestal a third part. if the total height of the idol is 6‘. Garbhagriha usually is a cube with a low roof and with no doors or windows except for the front opening. the presiding deity. [One should make] the image together with the pedestal on 1/8 lower than the height of the door.0‖ high.***** Let us briefly go over the broad features of some of the essential aspects of the temple. its very heart as it were. transformed. According to the nature and placement of the Duruva Bheru. is the garbhagrha or the sanctum sanctorum. ―It is commendable to place the central door of the temple in one of the cardinal points.6‖. The width of the sanctum would be (four times the width of the door) 13‘. One should make the height of the door double [its] width‖. Sanctum The most important part of a temple. the pedestal would then be 2‘. and its width. by grace. I am not sure. comprises only the sanctum and the tower on the top of it. the mantapa and the path for circumblation pradakshina.As regards the thickness of the sanctum walls (bhitti). here. and these two are the only essential parts of a shrine.) Next. as it carries the entire weight of the Garbha griha. Further. If we apply this to our illustration. Applying this norm to our illustration . The walls of the sanctum raise above a series of moldings. the only light entering into that part of the temple falls on the deity. (I am not certain. the text seems to suggests that the walls should be 1/8 the width of the sanctum. (It is a bit confusing. Some texts therefore argue that that the temple. constituting the socle (adhisthana). Garbagriha is the very purpose of the temple. . to enable the devotees to go round the deity. the walls of the sanctum would be about three feet thick. The vesara temples do not have this passage.) *** The sculpture and carvings at the doors and the vicinity of the Garbagriha are modest and not so exuberant as to distract the attention of the devotee. Absolute quiet is ensured in the vicinity of the sanctum. Its enclosures are supplementary in nature. per se. if the portion relating to the sanctum walls sounds reasonable. and also of the weight of the super structures. a pradaksinapatha (a circumambulatory passage) is provided just round the garbhagrha. Some texts say that the shrine extends up to Balipeeta. a base that sticks out from under the bottom wall. it seems to suggest that the passage around the sanctum would be about 3 ½ feet in width. The oil lamps that illumine the deity enhance the ambiance of serenity and peace. the ‗dispensing seat‘ and no further. such as the Vimana and its details. the text seems to suggest that the width of the sanctum should be 8/15 of the length of the enclosure surrounding it. The adistana should be strong and massive. In some temples. particularly from the late 10th century onward. this arrangement of the superstructure is loaded with decoration.The adhisthana consists of several mouldings (from bottom up). Kanta (neck) and Kapolapalika (double layer of lotus petals) In the Hoysala or the Vesara architecture. Upana or upatala (the base). . Jagathi (straight and mnodestly decorated). Padma (a layer of lotus motif). Kumuda (round and ribbed). Perhaps this is the most secure sanctum wall one can find.While on the subject. It is surmised that the outer wall might have been erected sometime around 1260AD. the sanctum of the most celebrated temple in India that of Sri Venkateshwara in Tirumala is a square of twelve feet and nine inches. The three sides of the sanctum (other than the one with the opening to view the deity) are enclosed by another set of wall/s. Vimana . The sanctum is considered so holy that it is addressed as Koil Alwar meaning the divinity in the form of temple. The total thickness of the walls surrounding the sanctum is about seven feet and two inches. The pleasing Ananda Nilaya Vimana stands on these sets of walls. the Southern texts call them Vimana. strictly. the term vimana. some say that the term Vimana should. and the third born from the synthesis of the other two called the Vesara. In other words. Sometimes the term Vimana stands for the temple. The Vimana is pyramid like. refer to the rotund structure above the series of elevations (tala) which stand on kapota (the flat roof over the sanctum). But.The term Vimana has acquired various interpretations. refers to the rising tower of a temple constructed as per the architecture of North India. the three most common ones are: the Dravida prevalent in south India. Often. the Nagara the most common style. We may for the present go with the last mentioned interpretation. and Prasada is curvilinear in its outline. Among the several styles of Sikharas that obtain in temple architecture. it is said. the end. . Another interpretation is that Sikhara meaning mountain peak. Vimana means the tower shikara. and is it‘s most prominent and visible feature. The Vimana rests or is surrounded by the Kanta (neck). While the Northern texts identify the Sikhara as Prasada. raised to its final height above the sanctum . should refer to the structure between the final Tala and the stupi. seen mostly in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples of Karnataka. in south. The sadvargas of a Vimana are Adistana. During the later times. Kanta. The layers in a Tala are called Varga. like the vimanam of Kadambar koil. The southern texts describe the temples as sadvarga Devalaya. Prastara. and the sadvarga (six modules) is regarded the classic version. In the Vesara style. the Nagara style is simpler and consists of a curvilinear dome. In every style of Sikhara/Vimanam. . Pada. The vertical expansion of the sadvarga developed into Vimanas of Dvitala (in two stages) and tritala (in three stages) structures. The early vimanas. the body of the Vimana tended to be more complex and multi layered rising up in several stages (tala). the flat-roof (kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rest and rises is overlaid by a single square stone slab known in the text as ―the stone denoting the upper passage of life‖ (brahma-ranhra-sila). the dome is highly ornate and emerges from the Sukanasi or from the richly carved outer walls of the temple. In certain structures. Sikhara and stupi. slab after slab is placed in a diminishing order with the final slab crowned by a perforated stone ring (amalaka) giving the structure a pyramid shape. were circular until they ended in a point of the finial (stupi). the structure culminates with a Kalashaat its peak.The Dravida style is highly ornate. In some cases . Each stage of the sikhara contained within itself several layers of mouldings depicting traditional motifs. It is said. While the temple complex is designed as a Mandala with the sanctum at its heart (Brahma – sthana). that is. For instance. for covering the Vimana. Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagar Empire. the needle of the Vimana being the bindu of its Mandala configuration. around 1250 AD. was. thus. complicated and huge. equitant of his weight. The image is located in the mid-point of the sanctum which is designed as a square. and rendered as the sthupi or the central point of the Vimana. the Vimanas tended to grow shorter. The entire structure of the Vimana resting on a square base. according to their importance. The Vimana was renovated in the year 1417 by the Kings of Chandragiri. where its diagonals intersect each other. donated 30. starting with the grosser ones on the outer periphery of the Vimana (outermost layer of the Mandala). projecting into the air in successive diminishing tiers and concluding into a needle (bindu) is a Mandala resembling the Chakra. that is. represents the worshipful (archa) form of the divinity. Thereafter. the towers that stand over the gate-ways (dwara-gopura) became increasingly ornate. Another temple of the same period at Gangaikonda-chola-puram (1025 AD) rises to a height of 48 meters. The Kalasha is installed at this point.(please also see para below) Before we go further we may talk a little more about Vimana. ***** . he performed Tula-bhara and donated gold. the sanctum along with the Vimana atop is itself regarded a Mandala. one could take its top-elevation. The earliest reference to the Ananda Nilaya Vimana was in the inscription of Virasinga Deva Yadava who ruled the Tondamandala region. This point is elevated.The most celebrated Dvitala Vimana is the Ananda Nilaya Vimana atop the sanctum of the Sri Venkateshwara shrine on the hills of Tirumala.000 pieces of gold for covering the Ananda Nilaya Vimana with gold polish. The Vimana is verily the representation or the outer visible form of the murthi that resides within it. the Vimana had to be austere and carry only the prescribed divinities associated with the mula-bhera in the sanctum. the most magnificent Vimana of the Raja-rajeshwara temple at Tanjavur (1009 AD) rises to an imposing height of 58 meters. In order to appreciate the Mandala configuration of the Vimana. in the subsequent periods. While the sculptures on the outer Gopuras could house secular and even erotic themes. who. But the Gopuras. and is revered as such. It is not clear when it was constructed and who caused it to be constructed. take an aerial view from directly above the Vimana. of course. The sanctum with its Vimana. The most famous patron.The sthupi . in the year 1517. the central point . The sanctity of Vimanas was not in any manner affected by its diminished size. The Gopura on the other hand does not usually command an equal status. in a three dimensional projection. The Vimana in the South Indian temple history had an interesting career. in the later years. The different deities associated with the mula-bhera are aligned along the four sides of the Vimana (Mandala). It represents the glory (vaibhava) of the deity the antaryamin who resides within it. and the Vimana is in Dvitala. is circular in shape. The upper tala depicts about fifty-nine images including those of Hanuman. This has reference to the ancient imagery of the universe. and on the top of the second tala is the Vimana. The most famous Sri Vimana Venkateshwara is on the North face of the upper Tala. . Garuda and several Rishis. at the end of each Tala . Sathya. The imagery associated with its shape is that of an inverted tree with its branches spreading downwards. It is said there are a few temples with their Vimana having as many as sixteen sides. per se. The Kanta (neck). The rotund Vimana. in its four sides. In the later stages of South Indian architecture. atop the second Tala and enclosed by the circular Kanta (neck) is adorned with lotus motif. Its total height from its base to the top of the Kalasha is 32‘08‖ . The temple in Madurai is reputed to have as many as 65 sides!. Achtuta and Aniruddha. in a rotund shape.Ananda Nilaya Vimana is of Vesara architecture. The basic shape of the Vimana is pyramid like. the Vimanas grew more complex and muti-sided. meaning that structure above the Kapotha slab has risen in two stages. encased within the body of the superstructure. The six-sided and eight-sided Vimans became quite common. The lower Tala depicts. one above the other.Both the Talas are square in shape. the icons of the Vaikhanasa School: Purusha. Sri Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram i (mid-8th century) has a unique and an interesting arrangement of three sanctums. built at the Chola capital of Thanjavur is a fine example of the grandeur and majesty of the temples of this period. . The main walls are raised in two stories. above which the superstructure rises to a height of 190 feet. each of which consists of a wall with a parapet of shrines carved in relatively low relief. The Brhadisvara or Rajarajesvara. temple. The temple construction begun around 1003 and was completed about seven years later. It has 16 stories.Some of the best examples of the Vimans come from the massive temples erected by the Chola kings. . four miles north-east of the city. They say it is more robust than its counterparts from north India with their complex curvilinear profiles. using a specially designed ramp. granite blocks weighing 40 tonnes each. sculpted. It is believed the sikhara and the stupi does not throw on the ground. The architects and engineers attribute the stability of the massive temple to its pyramidal structure. Normally the gopuras are taller than the vimana. The dome rests on a single block of granite.5 feet square. a tower of fourteen storeys.The crowning glory of the Brihadeeswara temple is the staggering cupola of the Vimana comprising two huge. However. The basement of the structure which supports the tower is 96 feet square.5 feet high. the temple departs from southern Indian convention in one significant way: the vimana is taller than the gopura (gateways) of the temple‘s walls. The gilded Kalasa over it is 12. 25. The engineering skills and the expertise that made the mounting of these huge stones atop a structure that is nearly 200 feet high must have been way ahead of their times. creating spaces for niches and windows in between. Vertically the vimana is organized by pilasters that break up the facade of the base. The Vimana rises to a height of abut 216 feet. Legend says that the stone was brought from Sarapallam (scaffold-hollow). rises up in a concave manner with fluid lines. The temple when completed (say by 2014) will be 35 stories tall and almost as high as the great pyramid in Giza. The early kalashas were perhaps made of stone blocks. In the development of the Indian temple this feature appears to have arrived rather late.com/bragathe. and the agama books favor use of copper vases. round or ribbed.htm) The tallest Sikhara of a Hindu temple. The Vimanam of this temple. please visit http://www. Some say it is reminiscent of the life giving Amrita-kalasha that emerged out of the milky ocean when it was churned. which succeeded Tanjore as the capital of the Chola Empire. is under construction at Mayapur in west Bengal. Kalash symbolizes blessings and well-being.Another fine example of the Chola temple architecture is the temple in Gangaikondacholapuram. . the vase. as in the North Indian temples. They might have been in the nature of cap-stones that structurally held the tall and tapering vimana. in contrast to the rigid pyramidal structure of the Brihadeeswara temple. The copper and brass vases seem to have been the later innovations. (For more information. Kalasha The crowning glory of the Vimana is its Kalasha.thanjavur. it is said. the flower bud. The first of the mantapas is the antarala (sometimes called sukanas or sukanasi or ardhamantapa). It appears. The womb. like the one on top of the Vimana. religious discourses and so on. the golden person (suvarna purusha) who is regarded the personification of the temple-spirit. The . open or enclosed pavilion (hall) resting on pillars. but have not come across much discussion about it. Interestingly. Another kalasha is deposited under the sanctum. In a few temples the antarala serves as the navaranga too.. it is said. I have heard of inserting a ―golden person ―inside the Kalasha. in fact. the lump. occupied by a deity. such as ―the foot-hold‖ (padagrahi) which is its foothold. the pot. alter or pot. the Kalasha. A tiny golden icon holding a lotus flower and a triple flag rests on that cot. and is almost a replica of the ―womb‖ buried under the sanctum. One of the explanations is the hallow tube represents the central channel of energy the Shushumna that connects to the Sahasra. is a big hall used for congregational services like singing. Mantapas The Garbagriha is followed by four types of mantapas or pavilions. the lotus-band (padma-pashika). Mantapa means any roofed. this Kalasha also contain tokens of growth and prosperity. dancing. There are a few other symbolisms associated with the Kalasha. It is. This is completes the analogy of the temple to the purusha ot to the human form. the Kalasha. And. cereals with subtle seeds (such as millet) and nine types of precious stones. coconut. The structure of the Kalasha resembles an inverted tree. Both are described as roots. standing independently or connected to the sanctum of the temple. It usually will have niches in the north and south walls.Kalasha has several members. the neck (griva). There is also a tiny pot of ghee near the cot. The next mantapa is nrttamantapa or navaranga. The shape of this unit could resemble the bell. over which is laid a soft feather mattress. the egg (anda) or the belly. Four tiny pots made of gold. silver or copper containing consecrated water are placed on the four sides of the cot. The one at the bottom urges upward growth. placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of the centre of the tower and runs through the vase. the Kalasa placed on top of the Vimana. with attendant divinities in secondary niches flanking the central niche. all these shapes symbolize the potential and the possibilities of life. while the one atop is the root of the inverted tree. has an important hidden component. It is through this tube that the lanchana‗tokens‘ (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. copper or sandal. the rim (karnika) and the bud (bija-pura). This entire procedure of introducing the ―golden-person ―into the Kalasha is known as hrudaya-varnaka-vidhi. viz. a narrow pavilion connecting the gharbhagriha and the navaranga. recitation of mythological texts. The belly of the Kalasha contains a tiny cot made of silver. the seat of consciousness. is not imbedded into the structure by packing it with mortar or cement. through the Brahma randra. the icon and the sthupi the finial run along the same axis. It is a small but stylized stone seat that is installed directly in front of the icon and very near the sanctum. and Sarvato-bhadra and so on.The more affluent temples as the one at Tirumala. give the Pradana Bali-pitha a metal covering with gold polish. 1/7 or 1/5 of the dimension of the sanctum. The Pradhana Bali-pitha will often be covered metal sheets . in the sanctum.navaranga will usually be on a raised platform and will have nine anganas (openings) and sixteen pillars. . with several limbs such as the base. It is an altar or the dispensing seat of the deity. the altars are classified into several types such as Sri-bandha. ornate. Sri-bhadra. and majestic. Most texts suggest that the size of the altar should be 1/8. It is usually made of hard granite and will be highly stylized. and rice mixed with pepper are offered to the attendant divinities and the guardian goblins. Depending on their sizes and shapes. is completed. in the form of vermilion colored rice. cornices. wall-surface with door-lets or niches. It is on this Bali_pitha that the food offerings. The chief (pradhana) Bali_pitha will be directly in front of the icon and often near the Dwajasthamba. Bali pitha Bali_pitha is an indispensable associate of the sanctum. This leads to mukha mantapa the opening pavilion. a hall used for ceremonial purposes. This is followed by Sanapana mantapa. These offerings are placed only after the main food offering to the presiding deity. It is the seat on which offerings to deity are placed. Their positions are determined in accordance with the prescriptions of the canonical texts that the temple follows. Bali_pitha will be directly in front of the icon. located in the prakara. there will be several such other altars. The top of this post has a bud shaped chamber to receive the lamp Flag staff The dhvajastambha (flag post) in front of either the garbhagrha or antarala or the mantapa is another common feature of the temples. positioned in eight directions. Some suggest that the yupastambha (Sacrificial post) and the balipitha (sacrificial pedestal) of the Vedic age have metamorphosed into the dhvajastambha and the balipitha of the present day. around the sanctum. A dipastambha (lamp post) is situated either in front of the balipitha. It should be perpendicular and directly opposite to the .While the main (pradhana). Vishnu the Preserver and Siva the destroyer). or even silver plates gilded and installed on a raised stone platform. Even today. brass.located in front of the sanctum.idol. The practice of erecting tall columns of fifty to eighty feet in height appears to be of recent origin. often square in shape. In Devi temples it is the lion that finds its place.number of joints. The old texts favoured wooden or bamboo poles. This was perhaps to suggest that the celebrations at the temple took precedence over those at homes. The ceremony of flying the temple flag marked the inauguration of a major Uthsava at the temple. the temples in North India fly long flowing banners and flags from the tower atop the sanctum. The older temples had flagstaffs made of stone. The figure on the lanchana is invariably that of the vahana (carrier vehicle) of the deity. pointing towards the sanctum. reputation and prosperity. In course of time the permanently fixed flag-staff became a common feature in temple architecture. And. In Vishnu temples the Garuda gets that honour. The lanchana (insignia) made of copper or brass fixed like a flag to the top of the post varies according to the deity in the temple. The top portion of this tall mast will have three horizontal perches (symbolizing righteousness. . That gave place to the practice of erecting a stone pillar or wooden pole covered with copper. the flag-staff was not intended to be a permanent structure. The old customs required that no major domestic auspicious functions be held in the village while the temple flag is hoisted. In the early stages. It represents the flag post of the ‗King of kings‘. The flag also served as signal to indicate to the people of the town and the visitors that a Uthsava is on. these flag posts were perhaps meant to indicate the position of the sanctum. For instance. and that everyone in the village should participate in the temple celebrations. in Siva temples it contains Nandi. and the Bali pitha will be between the sanctum and the Dwajasthamba. or the three divinities Brahma the Creator. with odd. up to twentyfive. It will be located very close to the Bali pitha. pyramidal towers. the entire temple area is surrounded by a series of conectric protective walls. And. These rectangular. . Gopura In the case of major temples. adorned with intricate and brightly painted sculptures of gods. the prakaras. for the flag-staff was uniquely a royal insignia. they are not the essential aspect of a temple layout or its structure. and the other schools of architecture do not have equivalent features.The pedestal or the seat of the flag-staff as well as the mast with perches became highly stylized in South India during the days of the Chola and Pallaya rulers. The Gopura emphasizes the importance of the temple within the city. demons. The lofty towers erected over the entrance gateways of these walls are the Gopuras. though. have become the hallmark of southern architecture. humans. The Gopura is a unique feature of the Dravidian architecture. strictly. and animals. It had its origin and development in South. often fifty metres high dominate the city skyline. palaces and cities. The Gopuras of the Meenakshi temple at Madurai are of course the most magnificent array of temple towers. Among the finest examples are the Sundara Pandya Gopura (13th century) of the Jambukesvara temple at Tiruchchirappalli and the Gopuras of the great Siva temple at Chidambaram. What started as a defensive structure rapidly developed into a prominent and an architectural extravaganza with great visual appeal. carved with the most exquisite scroll patterns of elaborate foliage. in depth. The outer four towers dominating the city landscape are truly huge in size and magnificence. 9 in. The edifice of the Gopuras measure 174 ft.. The heights of the Gopuras range from 161 feet to 170 feet. from north to south. wide.Some of them are extremely large and elaborately decorated with sculpture. initially. and 107 ft. and the gatepost is 6o ft high. and quite dominating the architectural ensemble. made of blocks of granite.There are twelve impressive Gopuras soaring over the three tier Prakara walls. the temple cities (prominently Madurai and Sri Rangam) found it expedient to erect a series of protective walls to safeguard and defend their temples. served as watch and denseive towers. The nine -storied towers came up between 13-16th centuries during the reign of Madurai Nayaks. until the colossal ones rose to dominate the temple complex. surpassing the main sanctum . built largely in the 12th–13th century. The Gopuras grew in size from the mid-12th century and came to be greatly emphasized. And. The practice of erecting a Gopura at the entrance gateway to the temple seems to have come into being during the mid-12th century. The Gopuras constructed on the gateways leading from one enclosure to the next. with the decline of the mighty Cholas and with the increasing threat from invading armies.The gateway is 21 ft.The advent of Gopura in Dravidian architecture was rather late. . workshops etc. thus transforming the temple from a purely place of worship to the hub of a vibrant living city. A particularly interesting example of this is the Sri Ranganatha temple at Sri Rangam. enclosing an area of about six hundred acres. dormitories. the lesser was its eminence. enclosure is 3072 feet in length and 2521 feet in breadth. other temples and township constructed over several centuries. which we discussed in the earlier parts of this article. The outermost ring had buildings of a more utilitarian or a secular nature – shops. halls. The spaces around the shrine became hierarchical.The Gopuras appear to have influenced revision in the temple design and layout. as if to justify the Gopuras. The grand Meenakshi temple in Madurai is another great illustration of this development which was initiated by the Pandya kings.. the Southern temples came to be designed as a series of courtyards. the outer most. It was during this period that the building of a temple became the nucleus of a town-planning exercise. Such was the emphasis placed on the eminence of Gopuras that as time went by. the further the space was from the main shrine. The seventh. . which has seven enclosure walls and as many as twenty-one Gopuras. sheds. . in Karnataka. For instance. they often were of very fine workmanship. the Subrahmanya temple of the 17th century. built in the Brhadisvara temple complex at Thanjavur. indicates the vitality of architectural traditions even at that late date.Though the evolution of the Dravidian temple architecture stalled briefly after the demise of the Pandyan Empire. the architectural expression scaled new heights during the reign of the Vijayanagara kings (15th and 16th centuries). said to be the tallest gopura in Asia. The gopura is fitted with elevator services and the temple plans to have museums and art galleries on all the 21 floors of the gopura. completed during the year 1987. is perhaps the tallest in South India. The twentyone story high gopura measures 249 feet high and is taller than the 243 Raja Gopura at Sri Rangam and 239 feet tall gopura of Brihadeshwara. The Gopura with 13 stories is 243 feet high. In the meantime a 249 feet tall gopura. The Raja-Gopuram of Sri Rangam temple. and with twelve Kalashas adorning its peak. Although the later temples were not huge in size. has come up in the Shiva temple at Murudeshwar in the coastal district Uttara Kannada. mythical animals and other beings located in the outer enclosure. either. A Gopura has to be towering and massive. or gateways through the prakaras. mind and intelligence-that envelop the consciousness of the living entities in the material world. air. are symbolic of being liberated from the bondage of matter as one enters the temple and proceeds toward the central shrine. The gopuras. In the Sri Rangam temple the seven concentric prakara walls are said to represent the seven layers of matter-earth. ***** ***** . the feet of the Lord.A Gopura is generally constructed with a massive stone base and a superstructure of brick and pilaster. Yalis. A devotes bows at the at the entrance. Above that rectangular base a pyramidal structure covered with brightly coloured plethora of sculpture is raised to a great height. leaving behind the world of contradictions. as he steps into the temple and proceeds towards the sanctum. water. the Gopura and the entrance to the temple represent the feet of the deity. The peak of the Gopura. fire. It differs from the Vimanam in that it need not necessarily be square-based. It is rectangular in plan and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of finials. the Kalasha is at the centre of the Mandala Symbolically. The humans and the divine beings are in the inner enclosures. the cities all over South India could be discerned from afar by the distinctive shape of their Gopuras dominating the skyline. as if supporting the weight of the mandala. the Gopura too resembles a Mandala. When viewed from top. With the Goblins. In the ancient times. Devalaya Vastu by Prof.orientalarchitecture.pdf Leave a comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 9.Other pictures from Internet.CONTINUED in the next part-> Sources: A.com/dday/print?articleId=109585&fullArticle=true&tocId=65333 https://openaccess. Others: http://www. Vastu – Astrology and Architecture E. C. SKR Rao D.sanathanadharma.htm http://www.nl/dspace/bitstream/1887/2668/1/299_022.com/ Encyclopaedia Britannica http://www. Stella Kramrisch.leidenuniv.com/temple/essential. The Hindu Temple.britannica. Maps of Madurai and Sri Rangam By courtesy of Kultur in Indien B. 2012 in Temple Architecture . triangular (dwaja). describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts: the Square (Chandura). Rectangle (Agatra). by the famous artist Silpi. diamond or rhombus (vajra) .sword (khadga). Iconography. and are not to be used generally. Temple Architecture Temple Architecture. These layouts have specific applications.umbrella (chatra) . conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are recommended only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. measures and proportions in temple.conch (shanka). pot (kumbha). Circle (Vritta).Devalaya Vastu – Part Four (4 of 9) 08 Sep Temple Layout The drawing of the court yard of the Shiva temple at Thiruvālangādu. diamond or rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are recommended for Devi temples. pot (kumbha). fish (meena).back of a tortoise (kurma). . crescent (ardha-chandra). The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its chapter titled vastu-bhumi-bedha. Arrow (shara). For instance: the back of a tortoise (kurma). Similarly the Square (Chandura).Tags: Devalaya Vastu. Rectangle (Agatra).Trapezium ( with uneven sides – like a cart – shakata). Elliptical (kritta vritta). fish (meena). symbolism in temple. The rest of the lay outs are for other (lesser) deities. and lotus (kamala). 4:6. the best of all. ***** Having determined the suitability of the land for constructing a temple.But all texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of layout are the best and most auspicious. Even the Sri Harmandir Sahib. with the Sanctum placed in the Brahma sthana. *** Pada Vinyasa The land considered suitable for the purpose of constructing the temple (vastu bhumi) and placed at the center (Brahma Sthana) of the Vastu mandala of the township must be in the shape of a rectangle or a square. and having drawn up the Vastu Mandala of the town and identified the temple location . the area meant for the temple should be demarcated and rendered a square or a rectangle in shape. Incidentally. triangular (trikona). . I fear. The ratio between the breadth and the length of the area may be 4:8. the Golden Temple at Amritsar is structured in a square shape. rod shaped (dandakriti). For the limited purpose of this discussion let us stick to the square or rectangular layout. This again involves preparation of another Vastu Mandala. 4:7. or 4:5. in case it becomes necessary to construct a temple on a land of such ―un approved‖ shape. And.This specifies the location.the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension. it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher. In case the layout is rectangular . the next stage is to draw up a construction plan . Shapes of sites to be avoided are: circular (vritta). It is also said . ignoring the rest. the size and the orientation of the various temples to come up in the proposed complex. the Buddhist and Jain temples too follow the same principles. it might get too complicated. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi. bow shaped (dhanur akara) and other irregular shapes. Else. (The square would be 4:4). In case of a rectangular site. That is the reason we find our temple walls (prakara) on north-south shorter than the walls on east-west.The following is the layout of a Jain temple. The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the east and the north direction should be in the northeast corner. . it must have north – south orientation. The depth of the site (Aayaprofit) should be more than its breadth (vyaya-loss). white Champak. In the open space surrounding the temple. The grid made up of squares and equilateral triangles is imbued with religious significance. Star Coral plants etc. and the Vastu is the extent of existence in its ordered site. the Jasmine. Let us look at the following example of an 81 cell parama-saayika layout. The entire process is rich in symbolism.Fountains or lotus ponds of the temple should be in the northeast direction. Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal. a Yantra. along the east-west axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the architecture. This process of drawing the Mandala . with each cell belonging to a deity. The ground plan. Movement towards the sanctuary. while the outer cells house deities of lower order. known as Pada-vinyasa or Vastu mandala Vinyasa is essential not only for construction of the main temple but also for deciding upon the location. *** The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan. The square shape of the Mandala is symbolic of earth. Four approach roads are much recommended. . with unit cells (pada) of 64. is symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature.The central portion of the square (Brahma Sthana) is occupied by the presiding deity of the temple . 81 or 256 in number. again. The position of the deity is in accordance to the importance assigned to him . Basil plant with raised bed should be in the east. Purusha being the source of existence. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so should have its entrance to the east. signifying the four directions which bind and define it. the orientation and the size of the sanctum. The Vastu Purusha represents terrestrial world with constant movements. Vastu Purusha Mandala. and for placement of retinue-divinities. should be in the northwest corner or the east. Brahma is the God at the centre. The Manduka Mandala (8×8) the whole square would be divided by the two axes that go Northsouth and East-west. lunar and solar.The site-plan is to be regarded as the body of the Vastu-purusha whose height extends from Pitrah (in the bottom left corner) to Agni (top right corner). the entire square would be unevenly divided. . In the case of Parama Saayika Mandala (9×9) . It is the representation of all cyclical time. The Vastu purusha mandala is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala having astronomical reference points. The mandala of 81 squares has 32 squares around the border representing the four cardinal points and the lunar constellations. There are 8 spirits in four corners. Yama. When placed on the building site the vastupurusha-mandala determines the positions and orientations of the temples and the time for commencing the construction. . reside in the East .. who assist in the affairs of universal management. Thus there are in all 45 spirits (including Brahma). The Three cells to its east are for Aryaman. Vayu . North-West. North and North-East respectively. West. Agni. Niritti. forming a sort of map or diagram of astrological influences that constitute the order of the universe. Only by the combination of the vastu-purusha-mandala and the astrological calculations can this factor be ascertained. Varuna. Dikpalas or guardian deities of different quarters. This provides a method that determines the requirements of architecture in relation to its directions. Establishing Vastu Mandala on the site The vastu-purusha-mandala. Indra. Kubera and Isana. South. the first of beings and the engineer of universal order. are an important part of the Vastu. is now complete. There are four spirits surrounding Brahma.The center of the mandala consisting nine cells is dedicated to Brahma. South-West. South-East . In this site plan 32 spirits reside in the outer ring. All except Kubera are principal Vedic deities. three cells to its west are for Mitra and three cells to its north are for Prihvidhara. the vimana (the structure above the main shrine or chapel) and the prakara (the walls). In the vertical alignment the pyramid. the octagon and the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance of the temple can best be understood by viewing it from above (top elevation). The ground for civil construction is demarcated by dividing the site into 81 cells. the rectangle. assembly halls and auditoriums). by drawing 10 lines from East to West and 10 lines from North to South in which Vastu Mandala deities are installed. In addition the deities of the Sarvathobhadra-mandala are also established after performing Vastu Homa.From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect next proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The square. The subdivisions of the ground plan include thebrahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the mantapa(balconies. the circle and the curve are more prominent. In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on the construction site. The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopura (entrance ways). The construction of the temple follows in three dimensional forms. it is first drafted on planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. . in exactly the patterns laid out by the mandala. it involves letting in to the earth a ceremonial copper pot. . except in the middle portion of the garbhagraha area. It is laid in the north-western corner of the building plan. After this. containing nine types of precious stones. up to the plinth level. This part of the temple is usually constructed first. It is the laying of the first stone (square in shape) or a brick signifying the start of construction. The cells sustain the temple in their own sphere of effectiveness.The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite in itself. The ceremony related to it is known as Garba-dana or Garba-nasya. Garbhadhana. and. The sanctum is technically known as Garba-Griha. The following is alittle more detail about it. herbs and soils symbolizing creation and prosperity. in the manner that the actual foundation supports its weight. Shilanyasa is the ceremony for laying foundation stone. the construction of the foundation is taken up. minerals. drawn on the ground. The foundation is built and the ground filled up. several metals. which is filled up three-fourths. Ananta. It is believed that the Vastu Purusha sleeps during Bhadrapada. and the icon its sap. The final tier of the Vimana is air (vayu) and above it is the form-less space (akasha). cats-eye and jade – to appease the nine planets. The sanctum constructed around it is the body.The sanctum is thus a constellation of five elements that are basic building blocks of all existence. The external features of the temple are brought to life through finely sculpted figures and paintings. That pot represents the roots of the ―temple-tree‖. In this ritual. meaning where the doves rest. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras (lunar mansions). meaning eternal or timeless. a golden box is imbedded in the earth. Another set of symbolism is that the foundation of the temple represents the Earth (prithvi). The imagery suggested is that of a tree with birds perched on its branches. as drawn on the grounda ritual is performed calledgarbhadhana. emeralds. The art and sculpture frequently portray the forms of divine entities and the different stages of consciousness in the gradual evolution of life throughout the universe. yellow sapphire. A stone slab (adhara-shila) is thereafter placed over the spot the copper pot is buried. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling thevastu-purushamandala. red coral. The copper pot signifies the womb. pearls.The Brahmasthana . and the tower over it the fire (tejas). In phalguna. the units of Brahma and the twelve sons of Aditi. The structure of the Vimana rises above it in a series of tiers. the hooded serpent . the walls of the sanctum the water (apaha). When the foundation is finished the vertical structure is raised. During Margashira. is the nucleus of the Vastu Purusha Yantra. is also placed in the box. . The box also contains nine precious stones – diamonds.And. the principal location in a temple where the Garbagraha will eventually come up. inviting the soul of the temple (Vastu Purusha) to enter within the buildings confines. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with earth. At thebrahmasthana. Once the garbhadhana and agni-hotra ceremonies are complete the actual construction of the temple commences according to the plan. and blue sapphire. also represents theenergy that supports the universe. over this slab will rise the foundation for installing the Mula-bhera. The sanctum is thus a model of a growing tree. rubies. Pushya and Magha months he sleeps facing south. and icon the life arising out of it.An Image of Ananta . The four walls around the icon represent the branches spreading around. the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the presence of the corresponding divinity . Ashviyuja and Karhika months facing east. The roof resting over the walls is called Kapotha. The ideal Temple should have at least one entrance. Cleveland The Agama Shastras say that the Temple structure is a mini cosmos. he sleeps facing west. .Chaitra and Vaishaka. a Mandapa or a large hall. The doors facing towards those directions are fixed in the respective months. in Jeysta Ashada and Shravana. A Towering structure called the Rajagopuram (pyramid in pattern) on the Eastern side at the entrance to the Temple. **** Temple Layout and its symbolism Sri Venkateshwara temple . The Temple entrance should face east – the direction of the Rising Sun. And. he sleeps facing north. an Ardh-Mandapa. a Garba-Griha and a Shikara directly above the Garbha-Griha. The design comprises: 1. 7. 5. The ―Sthapathi‖ is an expert in Temple architecture and idol creation. Near the Dwajasthamba is a lotus shaped pedestal for offerings. The procedure of worship in the Temple is known as ―Agama Vidhi‖. 3. The above design applies both to the ―Shiva‖ and ―Vaishnava‖ Temples with small variations. the antarala (the passage next to the previous one. the prkaras (surrounding walls) are . The symbolism of the temple plan and elevation suggests that the garbhagrha represents the head and the gopuram the feet of the deity.2. There is a circumnutating passage or ―Pradakshira Patha‖ around the Garba Griha and Mandapa. A Dwajasthamba (pillar) in line with the main shrine immediately after the Rajagopuram. Ardha Mandapa adjacent to the main Mandapa and before the ―Garba-Griha‖. Architecture is otherwise called ―Shilpa‖ and the one who constructs the Temple is called a ―Sthapathi‖. 8. 9. The pyramidal or tapering roof over the Deity is called ―Shikara‖ or ―Gopuram‖ which is a dome. called the Balipeeta. The Temple is not only a home of God but his representation in the structure of temple which resembles human form. For instance. 6. Other parts of the building complex are identified with other parts of the body. the various mantapas are the body. 4. leading to passage next to the previous one. The passage through the Mandapa leads to the ―Garba-Griha‖ (womb chamber) where the Main Deity is installed. leading to the main mantapa called nrttamantapa) is the neck. A large Mandapa or hall for assembly of devotees. The Main Deity faces East word inside and the Garba-Griha is located inside a structure or sanctuary called the ―Vimana‖. the sukhanasi or ardhamantapa (the small enclosure in front of the garbhagrha) is the nose. carved on the inner walls attune his attitude. leads the devotee further to tranquility. devoid of any ornamentation. The garbhagriha is usually surrounded by a circumambulatory path. . Finally the shrine. around which the devotee walks in a clockwise direction. to fulfilment and to the presence of God. This is explained in the following way.the hands and so on. which awaits him as he stands in front of the deity in the in the sanctum. The immediate pavilion and vestibule near the sanctum are restrained in sculptural details and decorations. In accordance with this scheme. This marks the transition from the way of the world to the world of God. It represents the phases of progress in a man‘s journey towards divine. the architectural and sculptural details vary from phase to phase . and with its plainly adorned entrance. the sikhara (superstructure over the garbhagrha) the head. a worshipper first bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. he is greeted by a host of secular figures on the outer walls. Entering the gateway. As he proceeds. representing the outward and diverse concerns of man. His progress through the pavilions to reach the sanctum is also symbolic. this represents an encircling of the universe itself. the kalasa (finial) the tuft of hair (sikha) and so on. In Hindu and Buddhist thought. gradually leading him to the experience. these simpler motifs and the prevailing semi darkness help the worshipper to put aside distractions and try focusing his attention on the sanctum. the garbhagrha represents the neck. Vertically. On reaching the main gateway. the familiar mythological themes. he is virtually entering into a mandala and therefore participating in a power-field. Another interesting symbolism is that when a devotee enters the temple. . This plan relates to construction of a Vishnu temple.Positions and orientations of the temples The following plan indicates the position of gods and goddesses in an 81 celled temple-site. The central figure in the sanctum of the ground floor is Vasudeva facing west. with three sanctums on the three floors one over the other and a concealed staircase leading to the upper floors. The three sanctums enshrine Vishnu in three postures – seated. and the enclosure is open on only three sides.Atri Samhita prescribes that the central Brahma bagha must be divided into four equal parts and the main shrine facing east must be located on the North-western side thereof. and the shrine should have three stories. i. Its architecture is unique. power (bala). reclining and standing. the Earth.‘ Coming back to the issue of placing the sanctum slightly to the North-West. this feature occurs in the temple of Sri Venkateshwara at Tirumala too. . the realm of human life. The sanctum of the third floor represents the realm of space-time. and Aniruddha facing south. action (virya). to house five forms of Vishnu. Sri Vaikunta Perumal temple of Kanchipuram (which follows the Pancharatra Agama) is an excellent illustration of the fulfillment of these requirements. the realm of ancestors. The enclosure immediately surrounding the sanctum called Mukkoti Pradkshina is rather skewed. V The seventh-eighth century Pallava temple Viz. Sankarshana facing north. The width of the enclosure is uneven. sovereignty (aishwarya). The sculptural scheme matches the Pancharatra concept. Pradyumna facing east towards heaven.e. brilliance (tejas) and potency (sakthi). depicting Vasudeva as he appeared in the human form of Krishna (manusha Vasudeva). The temple per se signifies the `body of God. The shrine must have five sanctums. The Vimana is represented as a three dimensional Mandala. representing the six `glorious excellences‘: omniscient knowledge (jnana). . Veerabhadra and Candesvara would placed in the surrounding cells of the temples Vastu Purusha Mandala. The Shiva temples too have their own configuration. slightly to the North West. This skewed position of the sanctum. Subramanya . within the Brahma bagha was perhaps to satisfy the requirements of the temple vastu norms. Ganapati. In a Siva temple.The path in the south (on the right side of the deity) is seven feet wide and twenty feet long. while the path on the other side (towards the left of the deity) is seventeen feet wide and ninetytwo and half feet long. the shrines are dedicated to Parvathi. as illustrated in the following typical layout of the famous Shiva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram(mid 11th century). the Shivaliga would be placed at the Brahma sthana. Bali pita and Dwajasthamba. Shiva shrine is at the Brahmastana. have their shrine in the Prakara behind the shrine.Similarly in the Sri Kailasanathaswamy and Nithyakalyani Amman Temple. The shrine of Nitya_kalyani Amman is located independently in the North. The Sapth Mathrikas. Durga and Skanda. . the seven female divinities. opposite to Shiva is lined Nandi. Karaikudi. In the Mantapa adjoining the Sanctum are Ganapathi. Saraswathi . 2012 in Temple Architecture Tags: Devalaya Vastu.Other pictures from Internet.Kashyapa Shilpa Sastram by Prof. Sources: A.G Gnanananda 4 Comments Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 8. Temple layout . Devalaya Vastu By Prof. SKR Rao D. C. Maps of Madurai and Sri Rangam By courtesy of Kultur in Indien B. Durgi . pada vinyasa.The Shakthi temples have their layout with shrines for other manifestations of the Mother Lakshmi . Chamundi and related goddesses. is fundamental to the Vastu Shastra. he is the Vastu Purusha. air and space. The site for the proposed construction is his field. In fact the Vastu Purusha Mandala. All symbolisms flow from these visualizations. fire. The faith that Earth is a living organism. such as the earth.Temple Architecture-Devalaya Vastu – Part Three ( 3 Of 9) 08 Sep Vastu Purusha Mandala Before we proceed further. Purusha means ‗person‘ literally and refers to Universal Man. the site plan. Vastu Purusha is associated with the Earth and its movable and immovable basic elements of nature. water. Purusha is the body of god incarnated in the ground of existence. The Vastu purusha mandala is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala having astronomical reference points.The Vastu Purusha Mandala also depicts the origin of the effects on the human body. Vastu Purusha Mandala. divided within the myriad forms. let us briefly discuss the concept of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. just as a human being does. He is also that fragmented body simultaneously sacrificed for the restoration of unity. That living energy is symbolized as a person. throbbing with life and energy. is his body. the Vastu Purusha Mandala is also the cosmos in . and it is treated as such. His height extends from the South West corner (pitrah) to the North East corner (Agni). Further. upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. even according to the atmospheric cycles the South West region receives comparatively more heat. the man and his creations are all one. and the texts believe ―what obtains in a microcosm.‖Everything is governed by one law. the base (adhistana) for the muladhara should be stable and strong. to suggest as if he is carrying the weight of the structure.‖ In the end. Accordingly. it is to the South and to the West . the laws prevailing in the cosmos also operate in the minutest space of the human being. Just as the feet are warm.miniature. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building. ―The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being.Therefore the . and should be strong enough to support heavy weights.e.‖ Similarly. The temple is situated in Him. Just as the legs support the weight of the body. The Hindu Temple. and is a manifestation of Him.. His head is at North East (ishanya) and his legs are at the South West corner (nairutya). Vol. the South West cell represents warmth and heat.On the Vastu Purusha Mandala. it believes that.‖ (Stella Kramrisch. the nature. the South West portion of the building is the load bearing area. A human being is a microcosmos. comes from Him. Svadhistana chakra is in the lower stomach region near the kidneys. It is related to water principle (apa). i. obtains in macrocosm too (yatha pinde thatha brahmande). The South West corner (nairutya) where the Vastu Purusha has his legs corresponds to the Muladhara chakra and denotes the earth principle. I) The Vastu Purusha is visualized as lying with his face and stomach touching the ground. It is left open and unoccupied. and relates to energy or fire or tejas. The store room is recommended here. and so should be ones head. Atmospherically. It is for sewerage (utsarjana).wet areas like bathroom etc are recommended in the south or in the west portions of the building. It is related to vayu air regulated by lungs. the fetus is fed with the essence of food and energy through the umbilical chord connected with its navel. vayuvya. Liver (yakrt) is towards South East. . The head of Vastu Purusha is in the North East corner (Ishanya).Thus navel connects Brahman with Jiva or panda or life.This direction is related to open spaces (akasha). The puja room Devagraha is recommended in the North east portion of the house. The Vastu Purusha Mandala shows Brahma at the navel of the Vastu Purusha. is presided over by air vayu. Anahata chakra is near the heart. Manipura Chakra is at the navel. because it is related to Agni. The echo of that sound vibrates in the hallow of the bone-box of the head and in the space in brain. The lung region of the Vastu Purusha should be airy. perhaps because the spleen in the body does the work of storing and restoring blood. This region represents Space (Akasha). The ajna chakra is between the eyebrows. The Organs like spleen. It is believed that Vastu Purusha breaths through this open area. While in the womb of the mother. . The North West. The limbs of Vastu Purusha. rectum of the Vastu Purusha fall in this portion. The cooking area is recommended in South East. The central portion of the building is to be kept open. North East is cooler. Further.The word OM is uttered through throat. the lotus is the base (Adhistana) of Brahma. other than the above are also related to the construction of the building. Vishuddaha chakra is near the throat from where the sounds come out and reverberate in space. The rays of sun reach here first and cleanse the atmosphere. set up the south door. Aug : east . if Taurus set up the west door. if Kubera set up the north door. When Leo is ascending is the proper time for placing a door in a temple of Vishnu. hardly anyone goes by this schedule. tula. might have something to do with the onset of monsoon . If the moon is passing the meridian. kataka. this concept of purusha sleeping may have only astrological significance. May : north . and Dec : south-south-west. When Kubera is ascending is the proper time for setting a door in Ganesa's temple. July : east-north-east . as it is impractical. Mar : west-north-west .Apr : north-north-west. For instance: If Leo is ascending. vrichika. Feb: west. Nov : south . They cannot be generally applied. Even otherwise. Perhaps the four months of non-activity as recommended. set up the east door. vrishabha. When the moon is passing the meridian. Some others say that the vaastu purusha sleeps in vaastu chakra on the left side and rotates clockwise during twelve months with his head towards: Jan: west-south-west. and the four months of sleep : dhanur. now.] Vastu and directions . mina. winter and such seasonal constraints. a door may be set up for any one. simha. digging in the sector where Vastu-purusha‘s head lies is not recommended. mithuna and kanya). The schedule for erecting the doors is also based on this concept. Sept : east-south-east . June : north-north-east . I think. Oct : southsouth-east. and therefore varies from person to person and from site to site.[ There is a belief that the vastu purusha is awake during eight months of the year and is asleep in the other four months (eight months of wakefulness: mesha. When Taurus is ascending is the proper time for placing a door in a temple of Mahadeva. makara and kumbha. While taking up construction of a structure. ears tounge are in the head.The vastu purusha mandala. .perhaps to suggest that he carries the burden on his back. The sensitive organs like brain.These areas are also related to various planets and their position. just as in the case of a hill or a tree. they are the inlets and outlets. like the horoscope is another way of illustrating the intersection where the sky and earth meet at the horizon. The general guidelines are. eyes.-North east and South East. and the head should be lighter and secure. study are recommended in and towards east and adjoining directions.The base should be heavy and the apex be lighter. Pillars are not recommended on sensitive parts of Vastu Purusha. Activities like worship. at the equinox points. and the zenith and nadir The Vastu Purusha lies with his back up. . The head of the Vastu Purusha is in the North East and it should be kept free of pillars. the South West should be heavier and North East where gods dwell should not be so . etc. and that which purifies mind is Thirtha. The Brihat Samhita text (4th century CE) says the temple should reflect cormic order. **** ―The Hindu temple typically involves a multiple set of ideas. . the earth and others rotate around it.Sun is at the centre of the solar system. The Vastu follows the same principle. city of the gods. A vastu is temple. his navel in the center. symmetrically filling the gridded space of the floor plan. After sun set the South West and North West are warmer. the auspicious direction where the sun rises to dispel darkness. The middle house . To understand the uses of recursive geometrical forms involving self-similarity on different scales (fractals) in the Hindu temple complex we will need to explore some of these deep images and their uses. planets. One encounters these simultaneous archetypal themes and meanings conveyed (and hidden) in the semi-abstract forms in many Hindu temples.). and it includes the archetype of the cosmic mountain. A brick and stone construct is house. It is said that. the dining hall and work space represent the sun aspect. bedrooms and store house are recommended here. The temple design includes the archetypal image of a Cosmic Person spread out yogi-like. deities. There are rules of shape and proportion in the authoritative texts of Hindu tradition (shastras and agamas) which give birth to a variety of complex temple designs. between earth and heaven. although water is everywhere that which cleanses the body is water. of fertility. The temple is oriented to face east. Perhaps Hindu traditional architecture has more symbolic meanings than other cultures. It is highly articulated. svadhisthana and mainpura situated .―The form of the temple. the antrayamin (the indwelling Lord). The geometric configuration ―of central squares with others surrounding it is taken to be a microscopic image of the universe with its concentrically organized structure. The vastupurusha mandala is a microcosm with some fractal qualities. carana. and is accessible to man. stands upon the diagram of the vastupurusha. Whatever its actual surroundings… the place where the temple is built is occupied by the vastupurusha in his diagram. jangha (shank) is parts of the superstructure over the base. sikha. there are self-similar squares within squares within squares. it equally symbolises the body of man on the microcosmic palne. Gala ot griva (neck) is the part between moulding which ressmbles the neck. it is the fundament from which the building arises. The names of the various parts of the temple are the very names used to denote the various parts of human body! Look at the following technical names: paduka. uru.‖ The gods altogether make up the composite body of the Purusha.‖(25) The cosmic person became the universe. It is a ‗forecast‘ of the temple and is drawn on the levelled ground. sira. Nasika (nose) is any noseshaped architectural part and so on. This symbology tries to impress upon us the need to seek the Lord within our heart and not outisde. The garbhagrha represents the head and the image.‖ Thus the grid at the spatial base and temporal beginning of the temple represents the universe. gala. kantha. with its heavenly bodies. the Vastupurusha mandala…. The garbhagrha represents the anahata cakra (the fourth psychic centre in the region of the heart) and the topmost part of the kalasa point to the sahasrara (seventh and the last centre situated at the top of the head). Sirsa. It is also more– it simultaneously symbolizes the pantheon of Vedic gods– ―each square [is] a seat of particular deity. all that it is and signifies. karna. If the temple symbolises the body of god on the macrocosmic plane. where the whole world is present in terms of measure. The first three centres (muladhara. The temple also represents the subtle body with the seven psychic centres or cakras. It is the place for the meeting and marriage of heaven and earth. pada. nasika. As shown in the illustration. griva. and to recreate this origin is to construct a cosmos which offers a return to the transcendent oneness. Pada (foot) is the column. anghri. jangha. the brahma randra is represented in the structure erected on top of the sanctum. but commonly a square. Like Chakra. one of the explanations is the hallow tube represents the central channel of energy the shushumna that connects to the Sahasra. situated at the root of the throat and in between the eyebrows) are on the sikhara area. the seat of consciousness. Chakra suggests a circular form. it is through this tube that the lanchana ‗tokens‘ (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. For instance. . Yantra is a three-dimensional projection. the ground plan and the vertical plan are cast in two dimensions and in three dimensional representations of the structure.The Chakra and Yantra too perform similar functions.respectively near the anus. and right on top of the head is the passage through which the currents of life ascend to the tower through this stone slab. Interestingly. in fact. The Hindu Temple. placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of the centre of the tower and runs through the vase. The expressions Mandala. called brahma randra.In the structure of the temple. those details might pertain to the world or the body or the structure of the building or whatever. the kalasha placed on top of the vimana is not imbedded into the structure by any packing it with mortar or cement. the kalasha.‖ (Stella Kramrisch. Vol. In the Vastu Purusha Mandala too. An aperture on top of the head. The sanctum is viewed as the head. it is. Mandala is explained as that which gathers the essential detail (mandam laati). an act of bringing together all significant details. The flat-roof (kapota) of the sanctum is overlaid by a single square stone slab known in the texts as brahma-ranhra-shila (the stone denoting the upper passage of life). Chakra and Yantra are synonymous. they have somehow seemed to have acquired distinct forms. It also brings together the outer and the inner faculties or energies. The fifth and the sixth (visuddha and ajna cakaras. Though all the three mean the same. leads to it. the Mandala too denotes visualization. While both Chakra and Mandala are lenier representations. through the Brahma randra. while the Mandala might be a figure of any shape. I) Sahasra chakra is regarded the seat of consciousness. sex-organ and navel0 are below the ground level. the combat of the devas with the asuras. but also usher in complete harmony of existence. In the case of Sri Chakra the Bibdu is dimension-less and is the imperceptible source of energy.‖ (Please check: ( http://www. or of the ‗angels‘ with the ‗demons‘. The idol.com/archives/2006/11/the_symbolism_of_che. It has been pointed out that this diagram symbolizes existence as a ‗field of action‘ of the divine powers. [There is an theory that suggests that the board of chess was inspired by the 64 celled Vastu Purusha Mandala. The combat which takes place in the game of chess thus represents.cultdeadcow. the temple is the outpouring or the expansion of the deity residing in Brahmasthana at the centre. They embody and preside over all the aspects of their domain. In a way of speaking the Vastu Purusha and the Chakreshwari of the Sri Chakra represent the same principles. Just as the Sri Chakra is the unfolding of the Bindu at its centre.php3 ] . They not merely resolve the internal and external contradictions. the diagram which also constitutes the basic lay-out of a temple or a city. all other meanings of the game deriving from this one. in the Garbagriha at the Brahmasthana represents the manifestation of that imperceptible energy or the principle. the Vigraha. of the ‗gods‘ with the ‗titans‘. Both the forms employ the imagery of an all – enveloping space and time continuum issuing out of the womb. and it radiates that energy. in its most universal meaning.Whether you call it Chakra or Mandala or Yantra. it represents a sphere of influence and brings together and energizes all its components. It states ―The form of the chess-board corresponds to the ‗classical‘ type of Vastu-mandala. which is universal. Temple Architecture. Vastu. 2012 in Temple Architecture Tags: Devalaya. Vastu purusha Temple Architecture-Devalaya Vastu – Part Two (2 Of 9) .. Vastu. Mandala. : A collection of essays by various authors Leave a comment Posted by sreenivasaraos on September 8. Devalaya Vastu by Prof. by Stella Kramrisch.. Temple Architecture. Devalaya. The Hindu Temple.References. Astrology and Architecture Pictures are from internet.SKR Rao Vastu -. for a temple is really an outgrowth of the icon. The land should be fertile and soil suitable. The details of the steps involved vary from one school of Agama to another. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata. an image of the icon. The procedure is cryptically expressed as ―Karshanadi Pratisthantam―. but broadly these are the steps in temple construction: Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. and not an icon got ready for the temples. One cannot think of a temple without an idol. Then the location is fit for town/temple construction.08 Sep Temple and Township Madurai The Indian temple is not a building. . Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. it is an image. and centres round the icon. While it is both natural and necessary for the image to be projected into a spatial arrangement and concretized by a structural movement. A temple must be built for the icon. meaning beginning with ―Karshana‖ and ending with ―Pratistha―. the image does not depend upon such activities for its continuance. a conception of divinity. The temple is an enclosure to the icon. The temple construction process involves several steps. the water table had to be at about eight feet (height of a person standing with raised arms). Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place of main deity. This involves examination of all aspects relating to the location. gopura etc. the extent. Sthala (temple site) The temple construction project begins with the appointment of a team of experts headed by a qualified and an experienced Sthapati. If the site was located along the river bank. the holy city of Varanasi is situated along the convex side of the river Ganga and presents a semi-lunar phase. sound and touch. kheta.Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out and removed. in the past. The Temple construction. of course. to look for a proper site. Else. the water source. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness. . Then the temple is constructed. Mansara explains that the proposed site for setting up a township should be determined by its smell. nagara etc. the quality of Soil. durga. kharvata. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. in a summary form. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed. water mixed withnavaratnas. navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. often began as the nucleus of a new village or a township which went by names such as grama. the ancient city of Madurai was located along the Vaigai. taste. For instance. navadhanyas. They are the key figures in the construction of a temple. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara. shape and direction. The first step is. Let us now try to briefly go over some significant stages commonly involved in temple construction. the Acharya. A pit is dug. the director for the temple construction project and the Shilpi (sculptor). This elongated process goes by the name: Bhupariksha. and then the pinnacles are placed. pura. the township had to be on the convex side of the river-bend. This again involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. the environment and astrological suitability of the site. The preferred sites for such townships should be along the banks of a river or near a tank or the seashore. The sites with inclination (slope) towards its Eastern or the Northern side. yellow. which abounds in lotus and lilies (supadma) and which inclines towards east or north. and the third Sadharana is of the average quality consisting vast stretches of unused land areas. Etc. hills. The ground (Desha) is classified into three categories on the basis of sixteen criteria of physical features of the land (desha-bhumi). beautiful countryside with moderate climate and water sources. or trees such as milky trees. red or black. caves. the colors could be white. mixed colors are to be avoided. Sandy soils with assured supply of water are preferable. artificial buildings. bulbous planes. were preferred. A land which abounds in any one of these colors is preferable. a combination of colors. or the site had to have equal elevation on all the sides‘. . As regards the colors of the soil. The sites located to the west of a hill were avoided.The temperatures had to be modest in summers and winters (sukha – samsparsa). the second is Anupa. The three broad categories are: the Barren land where warm winds blow is Jangala. The best land is Anupa. The Village boundaries should always be marked by rivers. to receive sunlight. conch (shanka). goats etc. diamond or rhombus (vajra) . crescent (ardha-chandra). or like waves of the sea are considered best. Dharba. broken pot etc are to. describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts: the Square (Chandura). cool in summer and one should generally evoke a happy feeling. dead bones.be avoided. Arrow (shara).The soil should have pleasant odor as of flowers. Circle (Vritta). . The soils tasting sour. and also plenty of anti. As regards the sound tested by pounding the soil . The soil should be pleasant to touch. Hibiscus and Dhruva grasses and flowers. Rectangle (Agatra). The soils with obnoxious odor as of excreta. bitter and pungent. and lotus (kamala). ash. animals like sheep .sword (khadga). warm in winter. There also other tests for determining the strength of the soil by digging test pits. drainage.back of a tortoise (kurma). And. of grains. The site should have in their surroundings milky trees (four variety of trees having milky sap:nigrodha. Township Layout The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its chapter titled vastu-bhumi-bedha. The next in order is the soils that sound like birds. The site should be large and should evoke pleasant feelings (manorama) and should generally be acceptable to all. bones. broken up with dead roots. Elliptical (kritta vritta). The taste of the soil too should be acceptable. of cow urine etc. Vishnukrantha. salty should be avoided. The sites which were earlier graveyards or the land bloated like the belly of sick animal. The taste of sweet is said to be best. oudumbara. filling them with water or driving pegs at various points are discussed in various texts. or rotten material should be avoided. trees bearing fruit and flowers. triangular (dwaja). fish (meena). ashvatta and madhuka). the soils that sound like donkey. neighing of horse. of corpse. of fermented liquor etc should be avoided. pot (kumbha).Trapezium ( with uneven sides – like a cart – shakata).malarial Neem (nimba) trees. The site should be suitable for growing Tulasi.umbrella (chatra) . of ghee. the soils giving out sounds of musical instruments like drums (mridanga). Kusha. The others in order are astringent (kashaya). and entrances. The rest of the lay outs are for other (lesser) deities. conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are recommended only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. 2. . The square shape is considered secure and amenable to progress. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi. For instance: the back of a tortoise (kurma). The city should appear as a big square or a rectangle comprising of so many small squares. it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher. separated by the roads that run north-south and east-west. the Vastu Shastra recommends five types of town -shapes: the Square (Chandura). Elliptical (kritta vritta). diamond or rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are recommended for Devi temples. pot (kumbha). The plan for the village or the township commences with placing the temple right at the centre and expanding the layout in layers and layers of streets. fish (meena). Generally . But all texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of layout are the best and most auspicious. If a square shape is not possible then the city could be laid out in a rectangular shape. in accordance with the appropriate Vastu Mandala. The entire township is laid out in the form of a square. Fortifying walls should be built round the city. It is also said. 1. A bow shaped town is considered powerful. A diamond or a rhombus shape is not recommended. In case the layout is rectangular.The following are a few of the general recommended features of a city. Similarly the Square (Chandura). Rectangle (Agatra). and circular (Gola). Rectangle (Agatra).These layouts have specific applications. Circle (Vritta). the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension. the best of all. and are not to be used generally. Their width would be about 10 to 12 meters. and in which the temples of other deities are accommodated. the principle temple would be at centre of the city. The temple complex is in a rectangular shape. at about 3200 ft above sea level. The city would be divided into four parts by two broad royal roads (Raja marga) that run north-south and east-west. The dwelling places of the people of various castes and professions are identified. Please check this site (Madurai. enclosing an area of more than two acres. with the depth (Aaya) being more than the breadth (Vyaya). Places like the royal palaces should be in the East. The markets would be in North East and prisons would be in South West. is located in a depression surrounded by raising hills on its three sides. with bulging mounds of about fifteen feet.3. including the swamipushkarani area. spread over several centuries. The best example of such a formation is the ancient city of Madurai. . But. And in case of temple cities .The streets (maadas) running around the outer walls of temple are of uneven length. say as in the case of Srirangam and Madurai. And the place beyond that fortified wall would belong to the humans and other beings. The outer walls of the temple. 5. measure 414feet (E-W) and 263(N-S). 4. in the Brahma Sthana. developed in stages. Another example of a well laid out Temple Town is that of the Tirumala Tirupati . the architecture of a city by Julian S Smith) for the layout map of the old city. in length. per se. there would be fortifying walls built round it. Some parts of these mounds now been levelled to make room for ―developments‖. in length. 7. on the interior side of the fortifying wall.. rising in all four directions. . The west side street (behind the temple) measures 900 feet in length..The holy deity of the temple has a history dating back to about two thousand. the temple. The temple is enclosed in a box-like formation. while the East side street (in front of the temple) measures 750 feet. . To go round the city. The temple is on top of a hill series. leaving open an approach from the North-East. And. The temple structures around it. 8. The North-South streets running by the side of the outer walls measure 800 feet. 6. a broad road would be built. Swami Pushkarani is located to the northeast of the temple.The streets (maadas) running around the outer walls of . The outer walls of the temple. enclosing an area of more than two acres. The temple complex is in a rectangular shape. in length. while the temple store houses are in the North-West and North side. with the depth (Aaya) being more than the breadth (Vyaya). The Kitchen is in Southeast. A waterfall is in the northern direction and the water from it is used for the holy bath of the main deity every day.The temple is facing east. . measure 414feet (E-W) and 263(N-S). while the East side street (in front of the temple) measures 750 feet. while the path on the other side(towards the left of the deity) is seventeen feet wide and ninety-two and half feet long. The width of the enclosure is uneven.The main entrance leads into Sampangi Pradkshina . said to represent the seven layers of matter-earth. The path in the south (on the right side of the deity) is seven feet wide and twenty feet long. The Second enclosure is the VimanaPradakshina. like the one in Sri Rangam. . fire. The North-South streets running by the side of the outer walls measure 800 feet.The Kalyana mantapa(80×36) and kitchen are also here. The prakaras or walls that fortify the temple may vary in size and number according to the dimensions of the temple. measuring about250 feet(E-W) and 160feet(NS). water. air. and narasimha . Tirumalaraya mantapa and others. about 11 feet wide. and the enclosure is open on only three sides. Presently.temple are of uneven length.There are are a number of pavilions within this enclosure. are sometimes surrounded by up to seven concentric walls . The third enclosure is the Mukkoti Pradkshina.. There are three enclosures or Pradakshina-pathas. including the swamipushkarani area. of about 120 feet in depth. In the case of Sri Rangam an entire township was placed within the well laid out rectangular temple complex. for circumambulating the temple. which encloses the sanctum. mind and intelligence-that cover the original consciousness of the living entities in the material world.This enclosure contains shrines to house Varadaraja.Presently this enclosure is closed to pilgrims. such as Prtathima mantapa. This skewed position of the sanctum within the Brahma bagha was perhaps to satisfy the requirements of the temple vastu norms. Larger temples. Ranga mantapa. in length. The Dwajasthamba is in front of the Tirumalaraya mantapa. it is rather difficult to identify it as an enclosure. either. The temple faces east and has only one entrance. The west side street (behind the temple) measures 900 feet in length. locations and sizes of facilities like water tanks are determined based on the size of town. and roads with East-west and North South orientation.Then the location of temple (Brahma sthana) in the town is decided. The entire arrangement is called grama vinyasa.Jaipur was another city which was laid out according to Vastu Shastra. The thumb . Here. with the Palace and temple at the centre. breadth of different levels of streets. Temple is usually in the center of village.Roads running in Eastern axis ensure purification by sun rays. its size. the layout of town. Vastu Purusha Mandala for the township To start with the Vastu mandala of the entire village needs to be drawn and the location of the temples to gods. Vishnu and others be fixed. and the roads running North South ensure circulation of air and cooler atmosphere. parama-saayika andtriyuta. auditoriums. palaces. As for Manduka Mandala (8×8). In the case of Parama Saayika Mandala (9×9). respectively.rule is . . 81 padas and 256 padas. They are called Manduka. the simplest among them is with one square. temples etc. About 32 types of Vastu Purusha mandalas are enumerated. the entire squire would be unevenly divided. the whole square would be divided by the two axes that go North-south and East-west. But the most common ones are those with 64 squares (padas). the area demarcated for the temple at the centre should at least be 1/9th of the total area of the proposed township. different types of Vastu Purusha Mandalas depending upon their applications such as residential buildings. There are. Among these. a shrine may be constructed in the centre of the township or on the western side.The Vishnu icon may be in any posture: standing. The sanctum may house only the Dhruva and Kautuka Bheru (immobile) idols. if one can afford. Maya-mata and Vastu-Vidya have their slight variations. When it is in the centre. else. Vishnu may be single or accompanied by the two Devis. the site – plan should provide for locating the shrine at the North-western direction within the Brahma bagha. the different texts such as Marichi. a single icon of Vishnu would suffice. It is best if the temple complex has nine. Orientation of the temples in existing towns . To summarize their position on the question of locating the Vishnu temple within the town. sitting or recumbent. six or five forms of Vishnu installed. but always facing the town. The direction of a temple is according to this triple orientation – towards the Sun.As regards constructing temples and their orientation in already existing village or towns three principles are generally followed: First. Where it is impossible. any direction may represent east. for the temple to face the town. The other directions can be described as being east. Third. towards the centre. but it is not necessary that they physically must. the temple should face the rising Sun in the east. The proper place for Siva temples is in forests and mountains according to one text. and facing towards the place where people live. To the tantrics who have some obscure symbolism about Sunrise in the east. . The majority of the preserved temples do face the east. the temple should face the centre of the town or village. Siva should be turned away except when situated in the east or west. and wrathful (urga) aspect should be situated outside and facing away from where people live. The temples and images to be turned away include Narasimha and Rudra. this is remedied by painting an exact likeness of the sacred image in the Garbhagrha upon the wall of the temple facing the desired way towards the village. the deity in a peaceful (shanta) aspect should be located in. south. In certain exceptional cases a temple may face south. Second. provided it faces a natural formation say a hill or a water body . for some reason. west is next best. even south is permissible but they definitely should not face the north. Most temples face east. west and north relative to ones spiritual evolution. towards man. o .