Univ_Windsor_Odor_Bibliography

Acquisition, Review, and Correlation of Odor Literature for the Air & Waste Management Association EE-6 Odour CommitteeSubmitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering in Fullfilment of Course 93-409 University of Windsor by: Group 1: Jon David Kehoe James Harcus Group 2: Michael Smith M. Jason Warren Faculty Advisor: Dr. Alex Gnyp Date Submitted: August 9, 1996 ABSTRACT A comprehensive acquisition, review, and correlation of odor literature was undertaken for the Air and Waste Management Association’s EE-6 Odor Committee. This literature was acquired from various sources and represents a substantial collection of materials pertaining to odor investigations from a domestic and international forums of experts in the field. After review, this literature was organized into categories that best represent the different fields of odor investigations that are listed as: - Perception of Odors - Sources of Odors - Impact of Odors - Sampling and Analysis of Odors - Control of Odors - Regulation of Odors The human perception of odors consists of more than just “smell”, it represents a complex series of psychological and physiological responses to the quality of the odourant detected. While the sources of odors may be common chemicals, their characterization in a positive or negative manner is entirely subjective. However, by relating odorous compounds to their more common likenesses, they may be tracked to their origins. As the most commonly recognized form of air pollution, unfamiliar and/or objectionable odors can draw attention to previous or acknowledged problems. Therefore, when determining the impact of odors on individuals and the community as a ii whole, it is important to differentiate between minor annoyance and more serious implications to the well being of the public at large. When sampling for odors, it is important to remember that the actual odourant is only a very small fraction of the air collected and must be carefully treated to ensure the quality of the sample is not compromised before analysis. Hence the sampling technique and vessel of containment must preserve the odorous compound in its originally encountered state. The means of analysis must be adequate to identify the characteristics of the odorous compounds. Choosing a means of analysis will depend on whether the data required is qualitative (odor thresholds, objective preferences) or quantitative (concentration, composition). Although society would prefer zero tolerance of objectionable industrial odors, this is not possible with the best available control technology. With this in mind, a reasonable degree of treatment must be applied to reduce the frequency and annoyance of such events while not creating an unduly punitive financial burden on the source. The lack of a specific unified scale for quantifying all odors makes it impossible for the adoption of legislation by Regulatory Agencies to enforce. Instead, odors are regulated in terms of other characteristics (particulate, vapor, fumes, gases, etc.) and by monitoring the number of legitimate complaints attributed to the producer. Due to the subjective nature of regulating odor emissions, the investigation of foreign policies in similar instances would be invaluable in solving odor problems. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND 1.1.1 DEFINITION OF AN ODOUR 1.1.2 EFFECT OF ODOURS ON HUMANS 1.1.3 DETERMINATION OF ODOURS 1.2 PURPOSE OF STUDY 1.2.1 AIR AND WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (AWMA) 1.2.2 DRAFT REFERENCE MANUAL 1.2.3 CREATION OF A DRAFT ODOUR REFERENCE MANUAL 1.2.4 SUBDIVISIONS OF DRAFT ODOUR REFERENCE MANUAL 2.0 ODOUR PERCEPTION 2.1 BACKGROUND 2.1.1 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PERCEPTION BY HUMANS 2.2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2.2.1 HUMAN OLFACTORY SYSTEM 2.3 REFERENCES 3.0 SOURCES 3.1 BACKGROUND 3.1.1 LOCATION OF AN ODOUROUS EMISSION SOURCE 3.2 COMMON SOURCES 3.2.1 COMMON ODOUR EMISSIONS FROM AN INDUSTRIAL SOURCE 3.3 REFERENCES 4.0 IMPACT ON SOCIETY 4.1 BACKGROUND 4.1.1 COMMUNITY RESPONSES TO ODOURS 4.1.2 ROLE OF HUMANS IN ODOUR RECOGNITION ii iv vi 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 7 42 42 42 42 42 44 57 57 57 57 iv 1 SYRINGE DILUTION METHOD 5.3 ODOUR CONTROL TECHNIQUES 6.1.1 IDEAL SAMPLING MEHTOD 5.3 FACTORS AFFECTING ODOUR JUDGMENT 4.4.2 REFERENCES 5.0 CONTROL 6.4.3.2.1 DYNAMIC DILUTION METHOD 5.PAGE 4.3 PERISTALTIC PUMP METHOD 5.3 ADSORPTION 6.2.4 REFERENCES 7.1 PHASE 1 OF AN ODOUR CONTROL PROGRAM 6.2.2.2 LUNG TECHNIQUE 5.5 REFERENCES 6.4 GENERAL SELECTION METHOD CRITERIA 5.1 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 5.2 INCINERATION 6.0 REGULATIONS 7.2 CALCULATING D/T (ASTM E679 METHOD) 5.2 ODOUR CONTROL PROGRAM 6.3.3.0 SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS 5.2.3 DYNAMIC TECHNIQUES 5.3.1.6 IMPROVED DISPERSION 6.3.1 SIX-LEVEL DYNAMIC DILUTION FORCED CHOICE TRIANGLE OLFACTOMETER 5.2 PHASE 2 OF AN ODOUR CONTROL PROGRAM 6.1 REFERENCES 58 59 75 75 75 75 75 75 76 76 76 76 77 77 77 79 140 140 140 140 141 142 142 142 142 143 143 143 144 193 194 v .3.4 ANALYSIS 5.5 ODOUR MASKING 6.1 BACKGROUND 6.3.1 PROCESS MODIFICATION 6.4 BIOFILTRATION 6.2 STATIC TECHNIQUES 5.2. INDUSTRIAL SOURCE AND ASSOCIATED ODOUROUS CHEMICALS 6 43 vi .LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES PAGE FIGURE 1.HUMAN OLFACTORY STRUCTURE TABLE 1 . 1.1. This wide variance in an individual’s ability to detect odours. loss of appetite.1.1 DEFINITION OF AN ODOUR. headaches. the effects can be more problematic.1. mental depression. the sensitivity of each individual’s olfactory system is widely varied. However. irritability. interfere with proper working conditions and may cause a depreciation in property values.0 INTRODUCTION 1. The effect of odours on humans is primarily one of nuisance however.2 EFFECTS OF ODOURS ON HUMANS. 1 . Odours can trigger nausea.1. Some individuals possess a heightened sensitivity to odours (hyperosmic) while others are physically unable to detect odourous compounds (anosmics). makes the determination of odours very difficult to standardize and measure quantitatively.1 BACKGROUND 1.3 DETERMINATION OF ODOURS. as well as the variability and complex nature of odours themselves. The human olfactory system can serve as an aid in the detection of potentially hazardous compounds. 1. disturb sleep patterns and if persistent can cause emotional disturbance. An odour can be defined as the sensation of smell perceived as a result of an olfactory stimulus which can be comprised of an individual odourant or a mixture of substances. 2. The goal of this project was to produce a draft reference manual which would contain relevant odour related literature from sources around the globe.1. Organizations like the Air and Waste Management Association (AWMA) have devoted much time and effort to define the causes.2 DRAFT REFERENCE MANUAL. Many documents were provided by various members of the AWMA to Dr. industrial. Alex Gnyp. effects and controls of various types of odours. 1. (including Canada. Netherlands). France. This draft odour reference manual provides a concise.2. consulting and regulatory projects. organized and useful reference document which can be used as a tool by new or well established participants in odour related research. Germany. As part of the AWMA’s continued research into odours.2 PURPOSE OF STUDY 1.3 CREATION OF A DRAFT ODOUR REFERENCE MANUAL. 2 . Russia. the idea of an odour reference manual was conceived by the EE-6 Odor Committee. United States. Japan. 1.2.1 AIR AND WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (AWMA). Approximately 3000 papers and reports have been classified during this study. it was decided to divide the draft odour reference manual into six sections. The following divisions were created: • Perception • Sources • Impact on Society • Sampling and Analysis • Control Methods • Regulations 3 . After considerable thought and analysis of initial source materials.4 SUBDIVISIONS OF DRAFT ODOUR REFERENCE MANUAL.2.1. 2. (See Figure 1. The nature of the odour itself may also cloud an individual’s natural detection ability.1 HUMAN OLFACTORY SYSTEM.2.1 BACKGROUND 2. “The receptors for smell (olfaction) are specialized to respond to volatile chemicals that have dissolved in the mucous coating of the nasal cavity.Human Olfactory Structure). predominant weather conditions and the originating source of an odour may all act in some fashion to muddle an individual’s perception of the odour. The chemical composition. The olfactory receptors are contained in a region of the nasal mucosa called the olfactory epithelium 4 . Any study on the perception of odours by humans must begin with an examination of the anatomy and physiology of the human olfactory system.1.2.1 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PERCEPTION BY HUMANS. The response to an odour may provoke an emotional response as well as draw on an individual’s past experience which may be associated with that particular odour.0 ODOUR PERCEPTION 2.2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2. The perception of odours by humans is not completely understood because of the complex series of chemical and neurological interactions that take place in the human olfactory system. West Publishing Co. St.” 1 Tiny hairs or cilia. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 5 . Minn. odour perception is very subjective and difficult to standardize and measure quantitatively. 1 Mason. 1992. The thalamus initiates conscious perception and fine discrimination of an odour through the cortex. 4th ed. This nerve impulse triggers a response from two areas of the brain.that is located in the upper portion of the nasal cavity on either side of the nasal septum. This interaction causes the cell to depolarize and generate a general potential that causes a nerve impulse to be conveyed to the brain by way of the olfactory nerve.. The limbic system coordinates certain behavioral and emotional responses to particular odours. the thalamus and the limbic systems. Elliott et al. It is believed that these cilia provide several different receptor sites for odourous molecules to interact with the cell. The exact basis for this discrimination is largely unknown. Paul. These responses to the odourous stimuli vary significantly from person to person. As a result of the complex nature of the anatomy and physiology involved.. are the receptive portion of the olfactory receptor cell. Location and Structure of the Olfactory Receptors .Figure 1. Adrian. E. 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Humans remain the primary instrument in determining the existence of an odour problem. the effect of odours on a population is primarily one of nuisance.1 BACKGROUND 4. there does not exist any analytical means to determine an individual’s annoyance with a particular odour.0 IMPACT ON SOCIETY 4. Generally. Some odourous compounds can exist and exhibit their effects at concentrations in the parts per billion (ppb) range.2 ROLE OF HUMANS IN ODOUR RECOGNITION. 4. The human olfactory system. drinking smoking habits • personal experience • pregnancy • education The existence and verification of an odour is a complex and multi-stage process which requires investigating numerous individual responses and evaluating those responses in order to arrive at any conclusion. 59 .3 FACTORS AFFECTING ODOUR JUDGMENT.1. 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National Society for Clean Air Seminar. 1975. 1977. Dusseldorf. and J. Stand der Erkenntnisse zur Ermittlung von Belastung und Belastigung. Koelega (ed. In Olfaction and Taste VI.. Washington: Information Retrieval. G. Kasta.). 19. Comparison of odour-annoyance data from different industrial sources: problems and indications.. Birmingham. Odor pollution and odor annoyance reactions in industrial areas of the Rhine-Ruhr region. Winkler. 471-479.. Chemical Warfare Laboratories Special Publication. K. 1956.F. 14. M. Health. Zibireva. Wolf. Toxicological Studies of Certain Alkylated Benzenes and Benzene. D. Sanit. Human Ecology.I. MDI and PMPPI. Rowe. [English translation of Russian article]. Massachusetts. Code C1. Work Papers for the Conference on the Dose-Response Relationship Affecting Human Reaction to Odorous Substances. Zapp. Hyg. 43. Hollingsworth & F. R. Oyen. 1974. Ind. Cambridge. McCollister. Hyg. Woolrich.. Toxicology. Arther D. V. Code C1. 2. P. Health. 1971. Little. 32. Relative Toxicity of Microconcentrations of Two Chlorisocyanates (paraand meta-isomers)...Wohlwill.. 1982. Assoc. Code B2. Code E2. Human adaptation to levels of environmental stimulation.A. Arch. I. 1967. Industrial Hygiene and Medical Control of TDI.F. pp 127-147. Ind. Hazards of Isocyanates in Polyurethane Foam Plastic Production.A.D. 1957. Am. J. 75 .A. USSR. J. J. Ind. AMA Arch. 15. In the past.1 SYRINGE DILUTION METHOD.1 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 5.1. due to the large surface-to-sample volume ratio. this direct odour measurement technique is impractical because a mobile laboratory equipped for sensory testing is required. However. An ideal procedure would involve having a panel of test subjects directly at the source of the emission.2 LUNG TECHNIQUE. 5.2. this method was susceptible to odour adsorption effects.0 SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS 5.2. a simple sample collection procedure depended on the syringe dilution method. where the odour sample could be continuously withdrawn without the need for storage.1 IDEAL SAMPLING METHOD. There are several procedures that can be used to collect odour samples for analysis. The lung technique involves evacuating the air between a Tedlar sample bag and the lung wall which causes the bag to fill with the sample. This approach involved the use of a large syringe to collect a sample and dilute it for presentation to odour panelists. 76 . 5.2 STATIC TECHNIQUES 5.5. However. Based on these criteria. ruggedness. In the peristaltic pump method. The dynamic dilution method involves the flow of sample into a mixing chamber at a well defined constant rate where it mixes with the odour free dilution air or nitrogen (also flowing at a measured constant rate) and continuously fills a Tedlar sample bag at the desired dilution.1 DYNAMIC DILUTION METHOD. 5. In both the lung and peristaltic pump methods. 5.3. ease in handling.2.3 PERISTALTIC PUMP METHOD. The general criteria for selection of a sampling container are size considerations. the collection devices most generally used today are a Tedlar bag for the lung technique or the peristaltic pump method. the material that will contact the sample must be conditioned with the odourous gas prior to collection.3 DYNAMIC TECHNIQUES 5. 77 . The peristaltic pump method operates on the same principle as the lung technique but differs in that there is no contact between the interior of the pump and the odourous sample.4 GENERAL SELECTION METHOD CRITERIA. the odourous sample is transferred from a source through disposable odourless plastic tubing into a plastic sample bag. inertness. temperature sensitivity and permeation. The benefit of this method is minimization or even elimination of condensation and adsorption effects.2.5. The panel coordinator records the results on a special form and calculates the data following a statistical procedure which results in an averaged panel value termed ED50. A signal box with six triple sets of lights provides the panelist inside the odour-free room with a means of communicating responses to the panel coordinator.4. Even if a panelist is unsure. This approach is necessary to avoid a temporary loss of sensitivity if a stronger odour is sampled first. This procedure involves estimation of the individual maximum likelihood threshold for 78 . Eight to ten odour panelists are told that at one of the three ports they may detect an odour and their task is to identify the port that provides the odourous dilution. a decision must be made and recorded (forced choice). or now referred to as the D/T or dilution to threshold value. The current method for analyzing odour samples depends on the Six-Level Dynamic Dilution Forced Choice Triangle Olfactometer.5. Two of the ports emit deodorized air while the other discharges the odour sample diluted with odour free air. 5.1 SIX-LEVEL DYNAMIC DILUTION FORCED CHOICE TRIANGLE OLFACTOMETER. each equipped with a set of 3 glass sniffing ports.2 CALCULATING D/T (ASTM E679 METHOD).4. The panelists proceed from the most diluted sample towards the higher concentrations of the sample. The olfactometer supplies six dilution levels.4 ANALYSIS 5. (See Figure 2). This value represents the dilution at which 50% of the panel would detect the presence of the odour in the diluted sample. The simplest method for determining the D/T value is the ASTM E679 method. 79 . The most likely dilution threshold would then be the geometric mean of the dilution factors for the third and fourth levels. The D/T or ED50 value of the panel is calculated by evaluating the geometric mean of the individual odour thresholds. Considering that a panelist makes three correct responses from the fourth dilution level onwards.each panelist and a calculation of the panel’s geometric mean. a statistical assumption is made that the panelist would be capable of making a correct judgment at a dilution level somewhere between the third and fourth level. F. R. Nelson. Air Pollution Control Association (APCA) TT-4 Committe Dynamic Olfactometer Round Robin Interlaboratory Test Results. D. GA-DR-03-01. Aitken. and C. 48. 1980. Lako. van Kamp. Adams D. 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M. 1: Olfactometry: Odour Threshold Determination. Gnyp. Odour Threshold Determination. Beuth-Verlag.C. Varshney. 1. 1986. Development of Procedures for Determing Industrial Odor Thresholds. Sampling. and C. Berlin. VDI 3882 Bl. VDI 3787. Berlin. Fundamentals. Berlin. VDI 3881. 3: Olfactometry: Odour Threshold Determination. 2: Olfactometry: Odour Threshold Determination.. VDI 3881 Bl.Ph. Berlin. and P. 1994. 1986.. Richtlinien. Beuth-Verlag.Sc. Olfactometry. Richtlinien. Heeres. 1993. May 1986. 1992. Olfactometry. VDI 3883 Bl. A. VDI 3881 part 2. BeuthVerlag. Fundamentals. 2: Effects and Assessment of Odours-Determination of Annoyance Parameters by Questioning-Repeated Brief Questioning of Neighbour Panellists. VDI 3881 Part 3. 1979. University of Windsor.van Harreveld.W. VDI. Varsheny. E. January 1987. VDI. A Rapid Procedure for Selecting Attenuators for IITRI Dynamic Dilution Olfactometers. 1986. November. A. Blatt 3. Berlin. 1995. Olfactometers with Gas Jet Dilution. Beuth-Verlag. 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Code A. M.. Proc. J. Sewage Sludge Management Program. ed. 1975.W. C. F.. M. Willhite. Their Detection and Measurement. Chem.W. Sci. A New Look at Odorization Levels for Propane Gas.T.D. H. 1979. 1978. Wick. 1965. Acta Chem. Assessment and Control of Large Emission Area Odor Risk. 1974. Dusseldorf. Food Technology. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association..M. J.. and T. Use of Odor Thresholds for Predicting Off-Property Odor Impacts.. 18. Whisman.J. S. 64.. Bartlesville Energy ResearchCenter. Variation in Recognition Odour Threshold of a Panel. The Odor Comparator an Improved Instrument for Quatntitative Odor Measurement. Alford. Controls. V.L. Vergleich Zweier Methoden fur die Messung von Geruchen. Process Development and Engineering. Williams. Goetzinger. 1969.W..V. In: Odour Trevention and control of organic sludge and livestock farming. California. Emele & M.O.O. Am.. Brinkman D. 1977. No. Code C2.. Scand. Technol. The Application of the Dynamic Triangle Olfactometer to the Evaluation of Oral Odor. 1991. Whisman M. Gas Assoc. california. Wijnen. In: Human Responses to Environmental Odors.F.Weurman. Bartlesville. Code A.. Sampling in Airborne Odorant Analysis. 12. Chemical and Sensory Aspects of the Identification of Odor Constituents in Food. Voorburg. Senses Flavour.L. and Technology. C. Schroepfer.. London. Volume 4A: Odor Studies. 1977.C.H.W. Wilson.. New York.. G. Elseviers Applied Sceence Pubglishers. Wilby. 5. 1964. Pennsylvania. Brinkman. 19.. Cotton & D.C. Goetzinger J. Pittsburgh. Odors. Academic Press. Code B.E. Guideline for Olfactometric measurements in the Netherlands: Comparison with Western European Cuidelines. Nielsen. Cotton F. 1951. E. 137 . Sacramento.. L’Hermite. Winkler. and M. Preliminary Reassessment of Odor Risk. Problems and Implications. Luft 39. In: Environmental Annoyance Characterization. American Society for Testing and Materials. Comparison of Odour Annoyance Data from Different Industrial Sources. M. Californea. 1978.. Both. 1979. M. Sacramento Area Consultants. e. and A. G.W. Winneke. Measurement and Evaluation of Odours in Air Quality Control. In German. G. Keldenich. Winneke. T. G. Wollin. An Assessment of the Applicability of a Venturi Dynamic Dilution Probe to the Collection of Odourous Samples From Stationary Sources. R. K.. 1993. 1975-1977. Vergleichende olfaktometrische Untersuchungen zu Formaldehyd und Schwefelwasserstof. The Selection of Judges for Odor Discrimination Panels. University of Windsor. Code C1. 1988.pp. G. reviewed at TRC. Part2: Interdependence of Specific Odour Parameters Affecting the The Annoyance Level.-H. VDI-Verlag. H. Winneke.. A. Pennsylvania. Measurement Science Technology. Ontario. and J. reinhalt.und Feldbedingungen.-B. 138 . Zur Wahrehmung von Schwefelwasserstoff unter Labor. Hangartner. K. Elsevier Science Publications. 1979. Master’s Thesis. F. Society for Clean Air in the Netherlands. Philadelphia. H. 1986. 1975. Wolfermann.W. G. Winneke. 319-324. The Netherlands. Turk. Paduch. G. Frechen. J. Sewage Sludge Management Program.E.E. Zur Diskussion Gestellt: Immissionsgrenzwerte zur Verhinderung von Geruchsbelastigungen. Staub.Wilson. Sewage Sludge Management Program. Oxford.. 1967.. Paduch. Medrow. Kastka. Diurnal Odor Evaluations at the Solid Storage Basins. California. 1989. Plattig.. in Staub-Reinhaltung der Luft 48.E. ASTM STP 440.. Dusseldorf.. 5. Wilson. and Others.-O. sacramento area Consultants.. Performance of an Electronic Nose for Quality Estimation of Ground Meat. 19. Schroepfer. and T. In: Correlation of Subjective-Objective Methods in the Study of Odors and Taste. Winneke. Volume 3A: Odor Studies. Luft und Betr. J. Stationare und mobile Olfaktometer. In: Geruchsprobleme bei Tierhaltung und Tierkorperbeseitigung. 1987. and J. Windsor. Huang. 1979. Wittes. Measurement and Control... 1975. Schroepfer.a. Characterization of Odour Annoyance. W. and P. Kotalik.F. and J. F. Wasser. Winquist. Punter. Volume 4B: Odor Studies. Amsterdam. 4. Kastka. G. New York..H. Predicting Olfactory Quality From Far Infrared Spectra. Istanbul.. Wright. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Nature 216. 1975. 1967. Woskow. R. 1973. M. Los Angeles.. Inc.. Doctoral Dissertation.M.H. Sci.. Multidimensional Scaling of Odors. Thesis. 1964. and B. Asakur Shobo.H. Zool.. 53. R. Multidimensional Scaling of Odors. Japan. Wright.. Los Angeles.H. XLVI.. Odour and Chemical Constitution. J. Wright. and H.H. Senses and Flavor 2. Burgess. Nature 239. 139 .. Wright. University of California. 3. R. Yamazaki. Michels. Utilization. Olfactory Coding. Mich. R. Soap Perfumery and Cosmetics. Michels. New York. University of California. Woskow. M.E. Nature 173. 1954.F. University Microfilms. H.. H. A New Olfactometric Technique and Some Results.. 1974. Evaluation of Far Infrared Relations to Odors by a Standards Similarity Method. Wright. 1973. Understanding Olfaction. Theories of Odors and Odor Measurements.D. R. 1917. and K. 1964.. 535. Karpman. Istanbul. New York Academy of Sciences Conference on Odors: Evaluation.H. and M.H. Chem.H. Wright.Woodrow. of Sci. 1968. Michaels. 116. Can. Woskow. Schlosberg.H. & K. R.H. Wright. Steriochemical and Vibrational Theories of Odour. In: Theories of Odors and Odor Measurement. Multidimensional Scaling of Odors. Acad. Multidimensional Scaling of Odors. Robert College. 1984. M. Molecular Coding of Olfactory Specificity. Odour and Molecular Variation Vibration: A Possible Membrane Interaction Mechanism. Evaluation of Far Infrared Relations to Odors by a Standards Similarity Methods. 1964. Sensor Technology. Annals of the New York Academy of Science. and K. Evaluation of Far Infarred Relations to Odor by a Standards Similarity Method. N. 116. 1964. R. H. 1972. Tokyo. Robert College Research Center.M. & R. 116. Moriyama. Annals New York Acad. 1968. and Control. R. Ph. Wright. Wright.F. R. Ann. R. 1976.H.Y. I.H. Woodworth. No. 64-6198. Ann Arbor. Wright. . 1993.. M. Endo. T. Yoshida. 1996. Conv. T. 65. Ambient Air Monitoring in Worcester.J. Assoc. Psychol.A. 140 . MDS Advanced Analytics. Yoshiyuki. T. 1990. Kenny. University of Tokyo Press. Higuchi. Dumdei. K. K. C. Yoshida. 6.. Lancet. Nishida. Japanese Psychological Research. Am. M.” Proc.Yokoyama. Studies in Psychometric Classification of Odors (6). Kurakawa. 14. Zoldak. Ebisawa. H. J. On Measurement of the Sense of Smell in Clinical Examination.J. 1972. Japanese Psychological Research. Psychol. Analysis of the Compararibilty of German and Dutch-Belgian Odour Annoyance Survey Results. K. 1966. 46. Res. 1964. 1964. Studies of Psychometric Classification of Odors (4).F. In Search of the Scheme of Olfaction. Incorporated. 1986. Yoshida. Andover.. In: Food Intake and the Chemical Senses.. B. University of Leiden. “Comparison of Olfactory Thresholds Obtained on Trained and Untrained Subjects. Code A. Tokyo. 1889. M. Studies of Psychometric Classification of Odors (5). M. and J. Leiden. Adams.V. 74th Annu. Yoshida. Massachusetts..E. Higuchi.. and F. Two Dundee Park. 1. Young. Research and Development of Odor Measurement Using a Semiconductor Gas Sensor. Jap. Massachusetts. Zalm. 6. Zwaardemaker. van der. and D. Detection and Evaluation of Human Reactions Using a Chemical Sensor Based on Adsorbate Detection. 1977.A. Commonwealth of Massachusetts Department of Environmental Quality engineering. & D. Analytical Chemistry. F. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association. 6. Before any action can be undertaken against the odour. process modifications.1 BACKGROUND Controlling offensive odours requires more consideration than simply installing a prescribed control method. The preliminary visit is a walk through inspection of the process to determine areas of immediate concern and possibly experience the odour first hand.2. a systematic approach should be undertaken to develop an odour control program. Phase 1 of an odour control program uses conceptual engineering to identify the problem and outline possible solutions. A review of operations may offer cheaper alternatives such as the substitution of less odourous chemicals for presently used materials.0 CONTROL 6. Engineering design involves gathering all relevant information required to select the eventual control technique. it must be identified. they may still reduce the required size of the control device to be installed. “Add-on” control devices are expensive. or even process elimination. Every control method has its advantages and 141 . Even if these measures cannot solve the problem completely. Source testing accomplishes this task as well as provides the concentrations and emission rates which help to define the magnitude of the problem.1 PHASE 1 OF AN ODOUR CONTROL PROGRAM.6.2 ODOUR CONTROL PROGRAM. 6. Instead. Phase 2 of an odour control program involves taking the actual engineering design from the blueprint to full scale operation. The initial costs of a control device would include construction. Simultaneously. and foundations. the process of reviewing bids will eventually lead to the selection of a contractor capable of doing the job. construction inspections should be undertaken during and after assembly to guarantee specifications were met by the builder. The final concept report from Phase 1 is used to prepare plans and specifications necessary to construct the apparatus. utilities. installation. approval from the appropriate control agencies is sought to actually implement the measures. Most control techniques are fairly maintenance intensive and depending on the operation they can require a variety of fuel sources. 142 . reliability and the potential for other pollution problems or health and safety concerns. Full time operation of the control plant can begin once approval agencies are satisfied that the measures undertaken will prevent any further instances involving offensive odours. The final concept report should include the recommended control techniques and all relevant information that will be required to make the decision to employ a particular odour control program. and extra features such as fans. Finally. Upon finalizing the plans and receiving control agency approval. Control agencies usually require a trial period with frequent source testing to demonstrate the effectiveness of the in-place control device. chemicals and catalysts.2.disadvantages which must be considered along with the required control capacity. pumps. 6.2 PHASE 2 OF AN ODOUR CONTROL PROGRAM. Some simple examples include changing the type and size of seals and gaskets. This method can be very effective in reducing potential odour complaints by diminishing the emission of odourous compounds at the source. This process is very effective when high efficiencies are required and the odourous compounds are combustible hydrocarbons. The process efficiency decrease with time as the adsorbent binds more and more of the adsorbed compounds. 6.6.2 INCINERATION. Other modifications can be as extreme as substituting alternative materials in the manufacturing process.3. Incineration is one of the most commonly used odour control technologies today.3 ADSORPTION.1 PROCESS MODIFICATION.3. Process modification involves altering the manufacturing process to reduce the production of odourous compounds.3 ODOUR CONTROL TECHNIQUES 6. 143 . Incineration involves the oxidation of the hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water vapour. This typically requires the control technology to incorporate some means of regenerating the adsorbent without interruption of the ongoing process. 6. Adsorption is an effective technology when the concentration of the odourous compound is high and can possibly be recycled for reuse by the source.3. The microorganisms living within the bed metabolize the pollutants through aerobic degradation to produce carbon dioxide.6. 6.5 ODOUR MASKING. Odour masking involves the addition of a single or two or more compounds to an odourous pollutant to produce a cancellation of the odourous impact. this technology is not considered as an environmentally ethical solution in today’s society.4 BIOFILTRATION. the less likely odour masking will be an effective solution.3. The farther from the source the complaint is. The process involves the use of a bed of biologically activated material through which the exhaust stream is fed. 144 . Bioifiltration can be successfully employed as an odour control technology for exhaust streams which contain volatile organic compounds. The principle behind this process is based on the principle that ‘the solution to pollution is dilution’.3. water and microbial biomass.6 IMPROVED DISPERSION. However. This process is limited by geography.3. 6. Civil Engineering (Journal of the American Society of Civil Engineers). Gainesville. Wood. Detroit. Michigan. American Hygiene Association. Aldi. and A. A. 1967.C. 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