Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 1
INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION AND OPEN LEARNING HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY SUMMER HILL: 171 005
TRANSLATION STUDIES AND PRINCIPLES OF TRANSLATION UNIT 1 TO VI
Dr Sandeep Sharma Govt College, Rampur Bushahr Himachal Pradesh
[email protected]
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 2
Foreword Good Morning Students! This lesson has covered your syllabus and is written in communicative English. After reading this lesson you will feel confident enough to face your End-Term Semester Exams. Is clearing your End-Term Semester Exam and scoring good marks your main aim as a student? No. It shouldn’t be. As a student, you have a larger responsibility. You are responsible for the nation. You’ve to acquire knowledge so that in coming times you become a responsible citizen of the nation and the world too. After all we are global citizens. If in any case you think that your level of knowledge is not up to the mark then you have to alleviate your level. This is your responsibility as a citizen of this nation. For that matter there is no escape from hard work. Learning environment of a distant student is a bit different from the one who is a regular student attending classes, interacting with teachers and mentors in college every day. In order to fulfill his duty as a teacher, the present author too has tried his level best in writing lesson for you. In this lesson, we have placed grey boxes in which the translation scenario of different countries is given. Otherwise, these text-boxes have no relevance if seen from examination point of view. This is add-on information which will open your eyes to the countries other than European (and India). You’ll have an insight into authors and scholars who have written creative works as also used their native languages. These authors may not have secured an important place in the ‘World Literature’ or academia of India and Europe but they have definitely made significant impressions in their respective countries. When talking of ‘Translation’ and ‘World Literature’ we have to think beyond Europe and India. There is an alphabetical list of these authors and different works in translation. These lists have not been written in a stylistic manner. This list is just to help you revise and check what you have learnt so far. Treat it as a mnemonic, an aid to memory. I acknowledge my debt to Prof V P Sharma, Prof Rekha Sharma, Prof Jaiwanti Dimri, Prof Usha Bande and Prof Sapna Sanjay Pandit for their support and intellectual suggestions.
Thanks and good luck!
(Dr Sandeep Sharma) Asst Prof of English Govt College, Rampur Bushahr
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 3
SECTION I Unit I Introduction to Translation a)
Translating from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL)
b)
Purpose of Translation
c)
Translation as a Literary, Cultural and Knowledge Bridge
d)
Self-Other Interaction in Translation
SECTION II
Unit II Approaches to Translation a)
Domestication: Readability in the Target Text
b)
Foreignization: Faithfulness to the Source Language/Text
SECTION III
Unit III Methods of Translation a)
Meta-phrase: Sense Translation based on difference
b)
Paraphrase: Word-to-Word Translation based on Equivalence
c)
Imitation: Regulated Transformation
d)
Interpretation and Adaptation
SECTION IV
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 4
Unit IV Problems of Translation a)
Cultural Gap
b)
Untranslatability
c)
Translation as Appropriation of Indigenous Languages by English
SECTION V
Unit V Translation in India a)
Definitions: Anuvaad, Bhashantar, Roopantar
b)
Key Terms: Rasa, Dhvani, Auchitya
c)
Reading Translation/Cultural Difference, Contexts and Language
d)
Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s “Garden of Spice.”
c)
Jaiwanti Dimri’s “The Inner Eye.”
SECTION VI Unit VI Translation a) b)
Translating from Hindi to English Translating from English to Hindi
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 5
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE STATUS OF TRANSLATION IN SOME COUNTIRES OF THE WORLD
Name of the Country
Text-Box No
Afghanistan
1
Albania
2
Algeria
3
Andorra
4
Antigua and Barbuda
5
Armenia
6
Azerbaijan
7
Bahamas
8
Bahrain
9
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 6
Bangladesh
10
Barbados
11
Austria
12
Belarus
13
Belgium
14
Belize
15
Benin
16
Bermuda
17
Bhutan
18
Bosnia and Herzegovina
19
Botswana
20
Brazil
21
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 7
Brunei Darussalam
22
Bulgaria
23
Burkina Faso
24
Burma
25
Burundi
26
Cambodia
27
Cameroon
28
Canada
29
Cape Verde
30
Central African Republic
31
Chad
32
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 8
Chile
33
China
34
Colombia
35
Comoros
36
Congo
37
Costa Rica
38
Croatia
39
Cuba
40
Cyprus
41
Czech Republic
42
Republic of the Congo
43
Denmark
44
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 9
Djibouti
45
Dominican Republic
46
Dominica
47
Ecuador
48
Egypt
49
El Salvador
50
France
51
Germany
52
The Great Britain
53
Greece
54
Hungary
55
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 10
Iceland
56
Indonesia
57
Iran
58
Iraq
59
Israel
60
Italy
61
Jamaica
62
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 11
COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS IN TRANSLATION STUDIES
ACPI
Association of Court and Police Interpreters (UK)
AIIC
International Association of Conference Interpreters
AITC
International Association of Conference Translators
AITI
Associate of the Institute of Translation and Interpreting
ATA
American Translators Association
AUSIT
Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators
BDÜ
Bundesverband der Dolmetscher und Übersetzer (German Interpreters and Translators Association)
CAT
Computer-aided Translation
CDI
Certified Deaf Interpreter
CIoL
Chartered Institute of Linguists (UK)
CLIP-R
Conditional Legal Interpreting Permit-Relay
DI
Dialogue Interpreting
DTP
Desktop Publishing
DTS
Descriptive Translation Studies
FIT
International Federation of Translators
FIT
International Federation of Translators
FLA
First Language Acquisition
GIM
Global Information Management
HT
Human Translation
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 12
IAFL
The International Association of Forensic
ITA
Irish Translators’ Association
ITI
Institute of Translation and Interpreting
l10n
Localisation
LISA
Localization Industry Standards Association
LSP
Language Service Provider
MAT
Machine-aided Translation
MIL
Member of the Institute of Linguists
MITI
Member of the Institute of Translation and Interpreting
MT
Machine Translation
NAATI
National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (in Australia).
NWTN
North West Translators Network (UK)
PDF
Portable Document Format
RID
Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, USA
SATI
South African Translators Institute
SCI
Simultaneous Conference Interpreting
SC
Source Culture
SL
Source Language
SLA
Second Language Acquisition
SMT
Statistical Machine Translation
ST
Source text
TA TAUS
Translators Association (a division of the Society of Authors)
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 13
Automation User Society TC
Target Culture
TE
Terminology Extraction
TE
Translation Environment
TEnT
Translation Environment Tool
TET
Terminology Extraction Tool
TL
Target Language
TM
Translation Memory
TMX
Translation Memory Exchange Format
Trans
Translated by
TS
Translation Studies
TT
Target text
TUs
Translation Units
TWB
Translator’s Workbench
WIPO
World Intellectual Property Organization
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 14
1
TRANSLATION IN AFGHANISTAN Official Languages: Pashto, Dari
James Atkinson was an extraordinary combination of scientific temperament and literary creation. He, while working with the military medical service of the East India Company, was the first to translate Ferdowsi’s indispensible poem Shahnama (around 977), now the national epic of Afghanistan, into English (1832). He published it for the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland (1905-1925). Presently, the biggest challenge for the translators, who have set themselves to the task of translating Afghani texts, is that a digital inquiry is yet to unravel the beauty of these texts. Most of these texts are not digitalized and not easily available at the simple click of a mouse. Most of the inhabitants of Afghanistan can speak Dari and Pashto languages. In a Land far From Home – A Bengali in Afghanistan, an English translation of the book by former BBC journalist Nazes Afroz was published by Speaking Tiger Books in April, 2015. Afroz’s work is the first authoritative translation of Mujtaba Ali’s (d. 1974) Deshe Bideshe. A prior translation was done by Sasahbindu Chakraborty in 2005, but this translation was self-published and remains largely unknown. UK based The Guardian criticizes Americans in their documentary for their inability to deal with the Afghan issue in “Afghanistan: Lost in Translation.” Many people lost their lives in Afghanisthan due to wrong interpretations by army interpreters/translators. The translator has to have a great grip on Persian, Dari and Pashto languages before converting this wealth of literature into Target Text. In Afghanistan, there are about 23 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 15
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation Unit I Introduction to Translation
Structure 1. 1
Objectives
1.2
Definition(s) of Translation
1.3
Translating from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL)
1. 4
Purpose of Translation
1.5
Translation as a Literary, Cultural and Knowledge Bridge
1.6
Self-Other Interaction in Translation
1.7
Let us Sum up
1.8
Important Questions
________________________________________________________________________ 1.1 Objectives ________________________________________________________________________ Students! Well, what’s this first letter we’ve written? It’s not a mistype or some software error. It is simplified Chinese. You’ll be curious to know its meaning, aren’t you? We’ll translate it for you. Actually, in Chinese means ‘Good Morning’ in English and Shubh Prabhat in Hindi. So in this introductory part you’ve learnt how to write good morning in Chinese. Hey that’s why we do translation! When we learn the art of translation then we in the real sense become citizen of the world. Translation as it seems is not an easy task to do. We’ve to learn a lot before translating. So in this lesson we’ll unravel some important aspects of translation as an activity. You’ll understand what is the Source Language and Target Language in translation. We’ll read and try to understand different definitions of translation given by scholars. By the end of this lesson, you’ll be able to answer all the questions that have been given in the last section of this lesson.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 16
________________________________________________________________________ 1.2 Definition(s) of Translation ________________________________________________________________________ The word translation has been derived from the Latin words trans and ferre. Trans as a Latin prefix appears in many English words such as transfer, transform, transit and so on. But the real meaning of this Latin root is “to carry across.” The word translation might have emerged from the Latin translatio which means “transportation/transference; transfer to another; change of venue.” Then ‘what’ is to be ‘carried across’ or ‘transported/transferred’ in translation? Defining this ‘what’ is a difficult task. Is the word ‘translation’ itself adequate to explain the entire intellectual process involved? If the word ‘translation’ is sufficient then why did Bakhtin in his works prefer to use the word vyskazyvanie (utterance) to translation (Krebs)? That is why Newmark said once, "A good translation is easy to identify but equally problematic to define." These are some problematic questions which trouble us. But firstly, we’ll go through different definitions of translation given by scholars:
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 17
2
TRANSLATION IN ALBANIA Official Language: Albanian
Fig 1. The Albanian script.
The script of Albanian is a variant of Latin alphabet. Albanian literature should have formed an integral part of European literature. But this is not so. It has seen a long phase of neglect, which perhaps is still on. The 208 page manuscript of Theodor of Shkodra (1210), which came to the knowledge of the world in 1998, unravels some great learning of theology, philosophy and history. Other than this, Pjeter Budi (1618-1621); Pjeter Bogdani; literature of Bejtexhinj; Girdlamo De Rada; Francesco Santori; Gabriele Dara; Giuseppe Serembe; Rilindja literature (which brought national awakening in the 19th Cent); the Frasheri brothers; A Z Cajup(poet); Asdreni(poet); Ndre Mjeda (poet); Migjeni; Lasgush Poradeci; Ernest Koliqi; Mitrush Kuteli are some events and names worth mentioning here. Bogdani ( commonly known as the father of Albanian), Hivzi Sulejmani (1912-1975), Adem Demaci ( political prisoner and writer) who wrote the most controversial novel Gjarpijit e gjakut in 1958 (The Snakes of Blood). Other names worth mentioning are: Rexhep Qosja and his most translated novel Vdekja me vjen prej syve te tille::trembedhjete tregime qe mund te benin nje roman , 1974 (Death Comes from Such Eyes: :Thirteen Tales Which Could Make up a Novel), Ramiz Kelmendi ( he founded the “Faik Koica” School of Journalism) and his work Ahmet Koshutani (1973), Jusuf Buxhovi and his novel Prape vdekja (1991) (Death Again) and Eqrem Basha and his collection of short stories titled Marsh i kermillit (1994) (The Snail's March) and Dyert e heshtjes (2001) (The Gates of Silence). In Albania there are about 04 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary- [Translation is] “to change sth. spoken or esp. written into another language."
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 18
Eugene A. Nida- “Translation consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style."
House- “Translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language.”
Dr. Johnson - "To translate is to change into another language, retaining the sense."
Mednikova- "Translation is a way of commenting."
J.C.Catford- "[Translation is] the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)."
Toury- "[Translation has no] fixed identity because they are always subjected to different socio-literary contextual factors, so they have to be seen as having multiple identities, dependent upon the forces of history and semiotic we called ‘culture."
Susan Bassnett- “The translator is relegated to the position of a technician, neither poet nor commentator, with a clearly defined but severely limited task.” Benjamin- "A real translation is transparent; it doesn’t cover the original, doesn’t block its light, but allows pure language, as though reinforced by its own medium, to shine upon the original all the more fully."
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 19
3
TRANSLATION IN ALGERIA Official Language: Arabic and Berber
The script of Berber is Abjad in which each symbol stands for a consonant. Tifinagh, which is also Abjad script, is used to write Berber languages (its script is substantive variant of Latin alphabet)
Fig 2 : The above script in Tifinagh means: “Province of Tiznit” (Wikipedia).
In wake of classical zeal, this script is/was usually used for decoration, artistic or for private affairs. But presently a lot of efforts are made to make this text alive. Translation scholars have almost failed to translate the Bible into Tifinag. As most of the population is Muslim in Algeria there still is a space for researchers to find the cause and effect of reasons for not up taking this endeavor. In Algeria, are about 13 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Zohn-“[T]ranslation, ironically, transplants the original into a more definitive linguistic realm… In translation the original rises into a higher and purer linguistic air.”
Nair-"The activity of translation between two languages is essential transferring one culture into another through verbal means."
Catford-"[Translation is] an operation performed on languages, a process of substituting text in one language for text in another language."
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 20
Harivansh Rai Bachhan: ‘A successful translation is the mirror of translator’s personality.’
Nadstoga- [Translation is] "a process which is completed when the translator feels she/he has accounted for lexical, idiomatic, and syntactic means of expressions in the target [receptor] language (TL).”
Maithili Sharan Gupt – ‘As far as possible we should try to protect the Source Language.’
Hilaire Belloc-“The art of translation is a subsidiary art and derivative. On this account it has never been granted the dignity of original work and has suffered too much in the general judgment of letters.”
Ramanujan- "A translator is ‘an artist on oath’. He has a double allegiance, indeed, several double allegiances."
J. Hillis Miller-“Translation is the wandering existence of a text in perpetual exile.”
Lefevere- “[Translation is] the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting and it is potentially the most influential because it is able to project the image of an author and /or those works beyond the boundaries of their culture of origin.”
We have given definitions of some great scholars above. But these definitions will never end just like the task of translation. Nida in her “Principles of Correspondence” says, “definitions of proper translating [in the West] are almost as numerous and varied as the persons who have undertaken to discuss the subject” (131). Then what do we actually learn out of these definitions of translations? We can form a broader frame out of these definitions.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 21
4
TRANSLATION IN ANDORRA Official Language: Catalan
The script of Catalan is Latin. Anyway, much translation from Spanish to Catalan has already been done. The possible and perhaps inevitable reason behind the transformation is that most of the Catalan-speaking people are bilingual. This fundamentally adds a Spanish vision to Catalan. Translation of Quizot or Don Quixote was done by Eduard Tamaro in a leaflet form (1992).
We can simply say that translation is an interpretative art, a scientific process, a skill of rewriting in which the contents of Source Language (SL) are reproduced into Target Language (TL). This reproduction should be very close to the meaning of SL where sense is usually maintained. The identities of culture, thematic, metaphoric, pragmatic and linguistic elements of Source Language should preferably be given due importance while recreating it into Target Language (TL).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 22
5
TRANSLATION IN ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA National language: Spanish
Latin is the script of Spanish language. English language, as its historical inclination suggests, enters the translation area of the Source Text with the Bible- a prototype entery of English language. The first translation of The Bible, from Greek into Spanish, was done by Junemann (b 1855). However, this edition was not widely circulated and read. It is more important for a translator to be able to do the cultural interpretations of the values of this country before initiating the process of translation. No matter these cultural areas be devoid of any glory; no matter the powerful class reads it with a sense of disappointment. These are indeed no insurmountable challenges after all. For that matter, one work of the twentieth century A Small Place (2000) by Jamaica Kincaid is worth mentioning here. This novel is banned in Antigua to "avoid distress to the venal politicians and patronizing tourists who draw equal fire from pen” (from the back cover of the novel A Small Place).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 23
________________________________________________________________________ 1.3
Translating from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL)
________________________________________________________________________
Thinking and speaking (verbally and non-verbally) is what we’ve been doing all our lives. When we were young we used to do babbling, kicking our legs and punching at the sky. At that stage there was ‘no need and competence’ of taking decisions before communicating. Then we grew up and started interpreting situations. We started speaking and communicating according to the context. In India and many other countries, most of us are lucky enough to be multilingual. We speak in our native language with our elderly ones in villages (if you don’t then you must). We speak in Hindi as a formal and informal language with our friends, teachers and the society around us. And then from the very Nursery we learn English alphabets as also Hindi alphabets. Almost every one of us knows the English alphabets (A, B, C, D and so on). (See how you are reading this text, the text of current lesson, which is in English!) We read nursery rhymes in English. We sing together with our teachers and classmates:
Jack and Jill Went up to hill To fetch a pail of water Most of us still remember this nursery rhyme, don’t we? We can, to some extent, understand English too. We said ‘to some extent’ as we know that English is a foreign language and it is difficult (but not impossible) to have a firm grip on it. Let us go back to the above nursery rhyme. Do you know the meanings of “fetch” and “pail”? If you already know then we are proceeding further. If you don’t know then you have an option to check its meaning in an authentic dictionary and then we’ll proceed further. Anyway, we have to go on whatsoever you do out of the given two options. So it is quite clear that most of us are multilingual and we should not take this fact as granted. It’s a great achievement indeed and we must everyday hone our skills in languages. If we are, in any case, not multilingual or bilingual and want to learn a foreign language then also it is not too late. We can learn languages at any age, at any stage. That’s the beauty of learning. Just give it a try. There are a lot of educational videos on YouTube which help us learn any foreign language with ease. Why we’ve taken this topic of multilingualism or being bilingual is because for the
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 24
first thing in translation we need to have some authentic holding on two languages. As we said earlier, we think, interpret and speak all the time. In other way, we are always communicating. But what happens when we translate and write it down? When we read a text in Hindi and reproduce it into English we take care of tenses, sense, grammatical pattern and so on. Take for example this text in English: a) Its raining dogs and cats. c) Kutte aur billi barish mai gir rahe hai. ( word-for-word translation, and its wrong way to interpret/translate these lines)
6
TRANSLATION IN ARMENIA Official language: Armenian.
Fig 3. The Armenian Script. The script of Armenian is Pahlavi and Syriac. Mesrop Mashtots, a linguist and also a missionary, worked with the Armenians. He developed Caucasian Albanian and Georgian alphabets. He also created an alphabet (in 405 AD?) so that Armenian language could be written down effectively. For the literature lovers, naturally many promising avenues made their way after this endeavor. Translation of The Bible was done in Armenian. Akabi Hikayesi (1851) by Vartan Pasha was the first novel which was written in Turkish (of Ottoman Empire). This novel was written in distinct Armenian script. In Armenia there are about 2 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Translation in Hindi: b) musladhar barish ho rahi hai.(correct)
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 25
So out of the above given texts, the Source Language (SL) is English. On the other hand, the Target Language (TL) is Hindi. In the preceding paragraphs we will define Source Language and Target Language. Source Language (SL): Dear Students, Source language is that language in which its contents are taken, read and understood and thereafter translated into some other language (Target Language). This language (SL) serves as a source or basis of the original translation. That is why we call it Source Language. We abbreviate it as SL (especially in case of interpreting). Sometimes it is also known as Source Text and is abbreviated as ST or commonly called A Language Source language contains all the codes of culture and thematic background of a given text. That is why it is very important for a translator to have proficiency in SL. Before commencing on the process of translation we must fully understand and interpret the ST of SL. (Hereafter, we’ll use the abbreviations SL/ST and TL/TT).
7
TRANSLATION IN AZERBAIJAN Official Language: Azerbaijani The script of Azerbaijani , which is a Turkish language, is Persian. Azerbaijani is primarily a bilingual language having striking similarity with the tones of Persian and Turkish languages. Azeri literature is rich in folk poetry and folklore. Poetry is full of symbolism. Safavid Divan poetry is one of such form of poetry in Azerbaijani literature. Here we have similitude ( ﻣﺮاﻋﺎت ﻧﻈﯿﺮmura'âti nazîr / ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐtenâsüb) and opposition ( ﺗﻀﺎدtezâd). The Azerbaijani literature encountered a lot of changes during the communist times. We can often see the impact of Russian thought and language in it as Azerbaijanis were struggling to establish power relations with Russians. This tendency of Azerbaijani poses the biggest challenge to the translator of Azerbaijani literature. Seyyed Mohammad Hossein Behjat Tabrizi (1906- 1987) was a famous Azeri poet. In his "Heydar Babaya Salam" (“Greetings to Heydar Baba”) he makes the world aware of the cultural isolation of villages as also narrates his days of childhood in a village Heydar Baba, Iran:”
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 26
(Azerbaijan International)
Heydar Baba, when the thunder resounds across the skies, When floods roar down the mountainsides, And the girls line up to watch it rushing by, Send my greetings to the tribesmen and the village folk And remember me and my name once more. (Azerbaijan International) Subtle thoughts contained in “Greetings to Haydar Baba” by Shahriyar still stimulate imaginative fantasy of readers. Translation of this poem into English has been done by Dr. Hasan Javadi. In Azerbaijan, there are about 11 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Target Language (TL): So after understanding the meaning of SL let us read, dear Students about Target Language. Target language is that language in which the final work of translation appears. The target of translator is to derive meanings out of the SL and convert it into another language (TL). That is why we call it a Target Language (especially in case of interpreting). However, for some critics this word “Target” is derogatory. We abbreviate it as TL or commonly we call it B Language. Sometimes it is also known as Target Text and is abbreviated as TT . The task before a translator is a difficult one as the translator has to truly capture all the codes of culture and thematic background of a Source Text into TL. The flavor, the essence, the meaning should be captured. And that’s important! Commonly, TL is the first language of a translator. In simple words translation is a process of converting SL into TL. We will discuss as to how this can be achieved. Translation is an art, a creative skill but it is also Science. So it is better if we move on with a scientific approach. That is why before translating from SL to TL some points should be kept in mind. We must firstly decide the direction or directionality of languages as also understand translatability (see Glossary) of given text. This directionality is sometimes shown with the greater than sign (>): English>Hindi or Hindi> English. Sometimes A (SL)
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 27
to B (TL) or B (TL) to A(SL) also shows directionality of translation. The second step is about deciding the language pairs we will further work on, like: Source Language (A)
Target Language (B)
English
Hindi
Hindi
English
8
TRANSLATION IN BAHAMAS Official Language: English
In addition to the official language English, Bahamian Creole is frequently used in Bahamas. Bahamian Creole, which is more or less a variety of English, is also a recognized regional language of Bahamas. It won’t be an illogical exaggeration if one suggests that Bahamas carries more essence of the culture and ethnicity of Bahamas. The contemporary Bahamian English has all the traits of British English, English of American settlers, the old varieties of 18th century Bahamian, Creole, Gullah and African American English (Montgomery 47). A linguistic feature of Bahamian dialect is that usually ‘h’ and ‘g’ in Bahamian is dropped than made silent. What da wybe is (What's up?) is a common phrase for addressing in contemporary Bahamian English and the answer will be een nothin (nothing). A mere glance at this and innumerably other phrases in English may startle us but they open our eyes into the other world of variant dialects of ‘English languages.’
Sentences should possibly be short. Longer sentences and frequent use of conjunctions and prepositions lessen the quality of any work. We always write for readers and if for readers your translation is a mind-boggling task then the entire purpose of translation fails its mission. Then a translator has to keep in mind these points: locate the ST, understand the
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 28
natural essence of that text, its cultural hues, understand the author who has produced SL and so on. You must be familiar with TL as well. You must know how to address cultural essences of SL into TL. You have to write Translator’s introduction, plan for the design of cover page, make glossaries of difficult words and so on. And in the process of converting from SL to TL avoid jargons, translationese (see Glossary) or technological terminology. That doesn’t mean that you should not have firm grip on the translation terminology. Without the knowledge of the technical terms used in translation you will be unaware of many tools which may help you in the process of translation from SL to TL. That is why we’ve given some important translation terms at the end of this lesson, please do read it thoroughly. We are have given a list of some approaches which helps a translator in the process of translation (from SL to TL). These are some of many approaches with help of which you can translate from SL. Please read the relevant entry in the “Glossary” given at the end of this lesson:
1. Theory of Dynamic Equivalence. 2. Deconstruction. 3. Chomskyan Nativism. 4. Homogenizing convention 5. Skopos Theory 6. Functionalism 7. Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of 'translatorial action' 8. Localization or L10N 9. Pseudotranslation
10. Transliteration
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 29
11. Domestication 12. Foreignization 13. Semiotics ________________________________________________________________________ 1. 4
Purpose of Translation
________________________________________________________________________ Before knowing about proposes of translation it is important to know types of translation. Why? Obviously because the purpose varies according to the type of translation. For understanding ‘what’ you have to know ‘which.’ Jakobson has written about three kinds of translation methodologies: a) intralingual (rewording); b) interlingual (translation proper) and c) intersemiotic (transmutation) (please see Glossary for a detailed study of these divisions). Various scholars have divided translation mainly into these three types: a) Human Translation (written, oral) b) Mechanical Translation c) Computer Aided Translation Here we are giving a table which depicts types of translation and its purposes (this table is not exhaustive as you should yourself think and make as many points as possible after reading entries of these types of translation/interpreting in the “Glossary” given at the end of this lesson):
Type of Translation / Interpreting
Purpose
Scientific and Technical Translation
To educate professionals in scientific and technical fields.
Interpretative Translation
Explanatory.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 30
Back Translation
Accuracy.
Sight Translation
Communication with the differently abled.
Institutional Translation
Specific to institutional norms.
Relay Translation
When there are more than two languages involved and it is difficult to produce a TT without involvement of another translator.
Linguistic Translation
Broader than textual facts (when there is a necessity of involvement of semiotic reading).(please read entires on Saussure in this lesson)
Retranslation
The retranslated text may be purposeful for a “common culture” (from SL to SL or TL to TL).
Promotional Translation
Market strategy, consumer behavior and financial benefits.
Literary Translation
To establish cannons of literature.
Cultural Translation
To relocate cultural and traditional parameters.
Inter-Disciplinary Translation
To integrate various streams of knowledge.
the
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 31
Committed Translation
Commitment to a specific purpose.
Descriptive Translation
Self introspection.
Self-Translation
Authenticity fidelity.
Remote Translation or Interpreting
To shorten the distance of communication with use of technology like phones, web-conferencing in order to shorten the distance.
Conference Interpreting
To facilitate the Target Audience.
Videophone Interpreting
To shorten the distance or space between the interpreter and Target Audience (as also to facilitate differently abled in some cases).
Broadcast Interpreting
To facilitate the Target Audience and communicate the broadcast.
Dialogue Interpreting
To communicate emotions and thoughts of SL accurately.
Community Interpreting
Cross-cultural communication.
Transliteration
To help reader to speak and read in any language which is not known to him/her.
and
high-
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 32
9
TRANSLATION IN BAHRAIN Official language: Arabic Most of the works of Arabic language of Bahrain can be easily translated into Urdu. Gocul Prasad translated the notable Arabic work Majma-ul-Bahrain and made it a consequential part of Urdu language in the year 1872. The title of this translated work is Nur-i-Ain. This work was lithographed in Lucknow. A lot of work has already been translated from Arabic into English but the major challenge faced by translators is that it is difficult to find lists of Baharain equivalent vocabulary in English or for that matter in any language. The challenge becomes tougher with elements of culture, linguistics and Arabic words (which often have multiple meanings).
________________________________________________________________________ 1.5
Translation as a Literary, Cultural and Knowledge Bridge
________________________________________________________________________ How the World Came Closer Islands and countries were discovered by the great explorers like Vasco de Gama, Marco Polo, Magellan, Captain Cook, Ibn Battuta and so on. They took the very first imitative in
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 33
making the world one big and multi-cultural global village. Businesses were established, colonies were made. People of different countries and cultures started communicating. For this they had to share their ideas through languages. Sometimes theses languages were forced on the colonies. Sometimes, it was a mutual give and take like sharing.
10
TRANSLATION IN BANGLADESH Official language: Bengali
Bangla is a widely spoken language and holds a commanding position in Bangladesh. Bangla ranks at the sixth position amongst the most spoken languages of the world. Dhaka Lit Festival is organized in Bangladesh to uplift the contemporary writers through translations. The author Mohammad Maruof believes, “However, it is true that except Rabindranath, works of other writers have not been adequately translated" [in Bangla] (The Dhaka Tribune). Children literature of Bangladesh is widely known through translation such as : Bijananer Rajya, Abak Prithibi by Abdullah Aalmuti; Sanjher Belar Rupkatha by Ataur Rahman and Bijan Baner Rajyakanya by Habibur Rahman. There is a long list of partition literature, folk poetry, works having Sufi inclinations and so forth which have since time immortal been rendering its great philosophical guidelines to the world. Outstanding and widely read (obviously through translated versions) amongst the contemporary novelists of Bangladesh is Taslima Nasrin. Her splendid book (Lôjja, Lajja also Shame, 1993) was initially published in Bengali. She wrote in her "Preface": "I wrote Lajja when I saw Muslim fundamentalists in Bangladesh attack Hindus. It all happened during December 1992." The book was banned in Bangladesh and still no one in Bangladesh is protesting against this ban till date. Later, it became immediately a world-splendid-bestseller because of its English translation in the year 1997. Almost 50,000 copies after six months of its publication were sold out. This book
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 34
has now been translated into almost every language of the world including Arabic, Assamese, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, Gujarati, German, Hindi, Icelandic, Italian, Malayalam, Nepali, Sinhalese, Spanish, Swedish, Norwegian, Persian, Kannada, Marathi, Punjabi, Oriya, Urdu, Telugu, Tamil and so on. It’s still running editions over editions. In Bangladesh, there are about 05 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
_______________________________________________________________________ The Bridge of Religions _______________________________________________________________________
When two or more than two cultures meet then obviously there will be a great impact on their religions and ideologies as well. This really brings a quick change in thinking patterns of people. That is why religions and sacred texts quickly spread across nations. They managed to spread across multi-lingual regions through translation. The Bible was the fastest to travel in its translated versions. As of now, The Bible is the most translated book of the world. In China, the beginning of the process of translation started with the Buddhist scriptures. The Buddhist scripture Liu Du Ji Jing (Shaiparamita-sannipata Sutra), Xiao Pin Bo Re (Pragnaparamita-sutra of a Small Class) and Juan were translated. Then the Buddhist monks like Dao An (314-385) strongly preferred translation to transliteration. Yoga, t'ai chi, Karma, the Oriental concept of soul, Sufism, mysticism, Yin/Yan and other belief systems quickly merged into the Western world and no matter was duly accepted with enthusiasm there. As Christianity spread in the English colonies in the same way as of now Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam are an integral part of European countries. In every country of the world you will find major population following different religions. Somewhere even after reading teachings of these religions and the sacred text through translated versions, different groups modified these religious concepts and made their own scriptures. Like in Vietnam they made ‘Engaged Buddhism,’ in Sri Lanka they created ‘Protestant Buddhism.’ Neo-Hindu movement, Self-Religion movement, Rastafarian movement and so on have recently emerged and have attracted huge number of followers. Nowadays, in many parts of the world all these emerging religions are followed collectively under one umbrella term.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 35
These are ‘New Religions’ like we have the religious cult named ‘Happy Science’ (founded in 1986, also known as The Institute for Research in Human Happiness) in Japan. This cult follows “spiritual messages” of the God (be it of any religion or cult). This is one example; you can find as many examples, as you like. This is how translation makes bridges across multi-cultural spaces. ________________________________________________________________________ Scientific Movements ___________________________________________________________________
We just talked of the bridge formed by religions and its understanding spread by translations. In scientific fields, the knowledge of psychology also was an instant hit. The works of Sigmund Freud (the father of psychology) was positively received by translators. His approaches reached the world. Now Psycho-therapeutic spiritual movements like Scientology and Gurjieffian groups have entered the world religious scenario grounded in scientific approaches. Otherwise also science and technology has always played a vital role everywhere. No doubt, technical and scientific advancements travel faster. When the first observation of falling apple was made by Newton it was rapidly communicated through translation. Now everyone has tasted Newton’s apple in their matriculation (or even before that) and knows about the gravitation theory. Innovations of the fire (around 400,000 BCE), language, ship, wheel, currency, iron and so on were gradually learnt by our ancestors. No one knows how knowledge of these skills travelled across humanity. But what we know is about the latest updates in the fields of internet, computer science, biocybernetics, aeronautics, nano-technology, neurobiology, nuclear science, neurophysiology, robotics etc but on the other hand we also know about the invention of light by Thomas Edison, artificial heart and dialysis machine by Willem Kolff, audio tape recording by Dr Andy Hildebrand, Braille by Louis Braille, Compact Discs by James Russell, concrete and cement by Joseph Monier, photocopier by Chester Carlson, thermometer by Gabriel Fahrenheit and so on and on. All these inventions done at a specific space and time became universal, beyond spaces and time. Now these inventions are useful for every one of us. This could happen because these discoveries were communicated through translation to the other worlds. We can read
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 36
and use Facebook and Whatsapp because we know English. Science could have not been as useful as it is with translation.
11
TRANSLATION IN BARBADOS
Official language : English
Nevertheless the official language of Barbados is English but Bajan Creole is a recognized regional language. In a broader sense, Bajan Creole is a form of spoken English and has influenced American English a lot. Bruce St John introduced the writing of poetry in Barbadian Creole as he gave the aesthetics of Creole a political edge. Here is an excerpt from his Creole poem which has phonetic similarities with that of African languages: "De 'Holy Ghost' stretch down the wicket/An' 'e jook an' 'e poke like t'ings tight/All of a sudden 'e step back/An' 'e stretch up in de air an' 'e smack!/A fielder pun de boundary pounce/Like a cat! Down han' 'pon de ball/An' de ball twis' out 'e han' an' de man/ eatin' grass an' de ball hit de board/An' bounce back!" (Allsopp 316). Due to profound impact of the culture of Barbados and tonality of African language in Bajan Creole, it is essential for the translator to be familiar with various epochs of Barbados which gradually made an indispensable space in its literature and language.
In the same way, many political, philosophical, linguistic, theoretical and social movements and ideas and many other major path breaking events got communicated in the entire world through translation. In this inter-cultural world translation, opens our intellectual eyes, we understand alien cultures and foreign countries. Translation is a comparative art. When we go back to the 20th Century we recollect with reverence name of the great scholar Buddhadeva Bose who brought the stream of Comparative Literature in India. As of now, Indian scholars are meticulously bridging gaps of cultures with comparative literature. Translation also forms a bridge between the world teachers and the
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 37
learners. It is making us understand ethnic, ideological, racial, and religious diversity. Even in classroom, a teacher has to translate the text in order to make it easier for students. So, in all, translation is inevitable. In the Eight Schedule of Indian Constitution there are 22 Scheduled Languages. But when we visit the Census of India website (2016 data) we read that Hindi is the most spoken Mother Tongue of 422,048,642 people. However, Sanskrit is the least spoken Mother Tongue of around 14,135 people in India. This diversity of India is a challenge for translators and the non-translators as well. We may not be conversant with all the languages and dialects spoken in India. But then how will we understand the beauty and cultural essence of the other parts of India? Obviously, through translation! Translation is a great bridge within and outside India, that’s done, but for translators the task of producing an ‘effective translation’ is a challenging task in itself.
There is a high sense of responsibility attached to the creative science called translation. Maybe that’s why Hung says: Translators know they cross over but do not know by what sort of bridge. They often re-cross by a different bridge to check up again.
________________________________________________________________________ 1.6
Self-Other Interaction in Translation
________________________________________________________________________ Translation is a speech, it’s an act. A translator or an interpreter forms networks of interaction. As we told you earlier, for a translator a lot of responsibility is attached. A translator needs to have a high sense of credibility. For example, if an interpreter does not communicate the real meaning then the whole process of communication becomes futile. That is why a translator with a high sense of responsibility needs to understand his/her role, the expectations of others and proceed with a holistic and systematic approach. The translator or interpreter should be mentally and emotionally sound. Translator has to demarcate his role as I, the self. For example, in consecutive translation if something untoward is communicated in SL then without any reservations the translator has to
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 38
communicate the content in TL. If the translator feels that what is communicated is offending and hides the content of SL then it could be problematic (especially in case of medical or court interpreting). The non-systematic approach could lead to loss of credibility, financial loss or even the loss of life and liberty (as in the Court Interpretation). That is why the inner thoughts or opinions of a translator or an interpreter should not mingle with the outer world while he is in this profession. The translator has to pose these basic questions to himself/herself: Who interacts in translation and what and how is it interacted?
Keeping in view these basic assumptions, Lasswell (1902-1978) American theorist and scholar proposed a model for the communication process. It is also known as The Lasswell’s Model of Communication. Here it is (Wordpress) :
Fig 4: The Lasswell’s Model of Communication
________________________________________________________________________ 1.7
Let us Sum up
________________________________________________________________________ How was your reading students? So in this lesson we have understood these things: ● We have gone through various definitions of translation given by great scholars of translation. After reading these definitions we can make a clear cut picture of translation as an art, a creative skill followed by scientific approach.
● We have understood as to how we can translate from SL to TL and how to tackle the complications involved in it.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 39
● We have also understood various theories and tools which could help us in the process of translation. But for understanding them in the real sense of the word you’ve to read the “Glossary” given at the end of this lesson. ● We knew about the purposes of translation which vary according to its types. ● We came to know that translation brings the world together as also we specifically visited scientific and religious scenarios which were bridged together by the solid concrete of translation. ● In every section we’ve given you some snippets of “Translation” in text boxes. This will enrich you knowledge.
12
TRANSLATION IN AUSTRIA Official language: German
Fig 5: An example of Austrian German indicating the word “Pedestrian.”
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 40
Always known for creativity, Austria has produced the most perfect masters of their fields such as Arthur Schnitzler (1862-1931), a short story writer, a novelist and also known as a dramatist of acclaim. Movies had been made on his novel Fräulein Else (1924) (although he was known as a pornographer due to outward nature of his works); Stefan Zweig(1881-1941) an author, a biographer and a journalist, close friend of Sigmund Freud (the father of Psychology), wrote best novellas of his times such as Der Amokläufer or Amok (a psychological story); Eva Maria Charlotte Michelle Ibbotson; née Wiesner (1925-2010) a famous creator of Children's books; Georg Trakl (1887-1914) a precursor or master of the literature of Expressionism in Austria; Thomas Bernhard (1931-1989) wrote novels and novellas (New York Times book review appreciates him by calling, "the most significant literary achievement since World War II"; Karl Kraus (1874-1936) was also nominated three times for the Nobel prize of literature and the list will never end. Elfriede Jelinek (b. 1946) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature (2004). She writes in German. Her works such as Die Klavierspielerin (The Piano Teacher) (1983), novel on self-mutilation, perversion and about teacher-student, mother-daughter relationship; Die Kinder der Toten (The Children of the Dead) (1995), a postmodern horror novel of the “gothic style” comprising zombies and many more works attracted critical acclaim. Peter Handke (b. 1942) is a novelist, translator and a playwright. The most influencing Austrian-British philosopher who frequently used Austrian German in his work was Ludwig Wittgenstein. His book Tractatus Logico-Philsophicus and Philosophical Investigations was widely distributed and translated into many languages around the world. In Austria, there are about 05 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
________________________________________________________________________ 1.8
Important Questions
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 41
________________________________________________________________________ Ques. 1. Define translation. Support your answer with definitions of translation given by different scholars. Ques 2. What processes are involved in translation of a text from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL)? Ques 3. What is translation? Define its purpose. Ques 4. How translation forms a bridge across nations? Explain. Ques 5. What is role of the self and the other in translation?
13
TRANSLATION IN BELARUS Official Languages: Belarusian and Russiana Belarusian language is also spoken in Russia and Ukraine. That’s why it shares intelligibility with Ukraine and Russian. According to Nigel Roberts," Belarusian deserves to be better known and the kitabs in particular are a remarkable part of the country's cultural heritage" (31). Fleischer discovered a Tatar chamail ("prayer book") written in Belarusian whose initial lines were:"Codex arabicus, tataricus, polonicus." Later, he ascribed these lines to Ukrainian influence (Akiner 03). Zajaczkowski did justice to Belarusian when he took initiative to publish his research paper titled, "Resztki jezykowe Tatarow litewskich" (1948). Rocznik (1932), a journal was started which focused on Tatar affairs. Nasha Niva (Our Field), also called “people’s newspaper,” was a journal-cum-newspaper published between 1906 and 1915. This Belarusian journal helped a lot for the revival of Belarusian.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 42
Fig 6: The first statute of Lithuania (1529), written in Belarusian (Wikipedia). In Belarus there are about 03 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 43
14
TRANSLATION IN BELGIUM Official Languages: Durch, French and German.
Belgium is a multilingual country with shades of many languages spoken and understood there. Belgian literature is “the body of written works produced by Belgians and written in Flemish, which is equivalent to the Standard Dutch (Netherlandic) language of the Netherlands, and in Standard French, which are the two main divisions of literature by language of Belgium” (Britannica). We have more Francophone Belgium writers in Belgium. That’s why it was a common belief that most of the Belarus literature is written in French. Willem Verhoeven and Jan Baptist Verlooy made an effort to revive Belarus literature and fought for upholding the pure Belgian voice in literature and language. They raised their voices against the French influence. Joseph Addison created his first Flemish prose story, Jellen en Mietje (Jellen and Mietje, 1811). Jean Pierre Bertrand edited Historie de la Litterature Belge Francophone (1800-2000); August Vermeylen's De wandelende Jood (1906; The Wandering Jew); Emmanuel de Bom's Wrakken (Wrecks) (the first modern Flemish psychological novel) are some remarkable beginners of Belgian literature. It is believed that from 1830-50 almost 50% of French translations from the Dutch language were done by Francophone Belgians (Delabastita 94). In Belgium there are about 08 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 44
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation Unit II Approaches to Translation Structure 2. 1
Objectives
2.2
Domestication: Readability in the Target Text
2.3
Foreignization: Faithfulness to the Source Language/Text
2. 4
Let us Sum up
2.5
Important Questions
________________________________________________________________________ 2.1 Objectives ________________________________________________________________________ Welcome back Students! Hope you’re enjoying lessons. In the second unit we’ll be reading about some concepts of translation like Domestication and Foreignization. After reading this lesson you’ll be able to understand these translation strategies as also will you surely give a thought over scholars’ point of view to reconsider them as a solution to translation problem(s). So let us proceed…
15
TRANSLATION IN BELIZE
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 45
Official language: English
Although the official language of Belize is English but Spanish, Belizean Creole, Garifuna and Mayan languages are also recognized here. Commonly spoken language or the lingua franca here is Belize Kriol (a language similar to American Miskito) which is mainly derived from English. It is believed that this language was introduced in Belize by slaves. The National Kriol Council through its website gives a lot of information about Belizean Creole. Decker is the grammar of Belizean Kriol written in the year 2006 (Velupillai 230).
Fig7 : Sign board in Belize Kriol.
A framework for standard orthography for Belizean titled How fi Rite Bileez Kriol was written under Belize Creole Orthography Project in 1994 (Ammon, 2092). In Belize, there are about 23 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 46
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2.2
Domestication: Readability in the Target Text
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Some definitions on domestication: Ritva Hartama
:
“Domestication refers to the ‘fluent translation.”
Lawrence Venuti : Domestication is : “an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home.” Lawrence Venuti : "Domestication and Foreignization deal with 'the question of how much a translation assimilates a foreign text to the translating language and culture, and how much it rather signals the differences of that text'". Voltaire : “I am convinced that we have two or three poets in France who would be able to translate Homer very well; but I am equally convinced that nobody will read them unless they soften and embellish almost everything because, Madame, you have to write for your time, not for the past.” Voltaire“...can culture A ever really understand culture B on that culture's (i.e. B's) own terms?” New coinages emerged in the twentieth century. It won’t be a hyperbole if we call this century the century of coinages. There were concepts like Sanskritization given by Indian scholar M. N. Srinivas which were became very popular in academia. This concept truly captured the cultural and religious essence of the century. In the same century the concept of domestication emerged. This coinage in translation seemed at first a great relief to the translators. It was thought of as solution to many problems of translation. Domestication also known as kotoutta (to bring home) is a method or a strategy in translation in which the cultural value(s) of SL are translated flexibly in order to make Target Audience familiar SL through TL and put their reading at ease. Domestication helps minimizing strangeness to the foreign Source Text. After reading Schleiermacher’s (a German scholar, 1768-1834) lecture series on Methods of Translation, Lawrence Venuti (1953), an American scholar, a translation theorist, introduced both these terms in his monograph The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). In Domestication, the unfamiliar aspects of Source Language are made familiar in the Target Language. For this the translator has to be aware that there will be an intercultural communication in translation. This inter-
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 47
cultural communication should not in any way hinder familiarization and cultural values of the Source Text.
16
TRANSLATION IN BENIN Official Language: French
The literature written by authors belonging to Benin is known as Beninese literature. Most of the Beninese writers use French as a language of their expressions. Some of them are: Stanislas Adotevi, Barbara Akplogan, Gisèle Hountondji, Hortense Mayaba, Alidjanatou Saliou-Arekpa, Arnold Sènou and so on. In Benin the language Tchumbuli is critically engendered (UNESCO).
Here we will give you some examples of Domestication to make the above points clear: a)
Source Text
Target Text
Hindi
English
Usne Sidku khaya.
He ate bun.
Here Sidku (a traditional dish of Himachal Pradesh) is an unfamiliar word in English. That is why for the English readers the translator used domesticated word ---‘bun.’ This will
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 48
help the native speaker of English to read the text without any hindrance and will also preserve cultural identity of the English as well that of Hindi. b)
Source Text
Target Text
English
Hindi
He had gone for snorkeling.
Vo pani may khlene ja chuka tha.
Again in the above given example a word from sports terminology, “snorkeling,” is used. This term may be familiar to the Europeans. But in Hindi we perhaps don’t have an equivalent of this term. That is why the translator again domesticated the word “snorkeling” with “pani may khelne.”
Bun TT
Sidk u ST
TRANSLATOR
READER
SL
TL
HINDI
ENGLIS H
Fig. 8 The process of domestication explained
The above figure shows as to how the entire process of Domestication actually is takes place ( from the translator to the reader). Free translation done under the aegis of Domestication strategy makes it readable for the readers of TL. One has to keep in mind that the reader has no excess to or knowledge of SL (but this statement is not absolute). No matter domestication is a great tool in the hands of a translator but too much of Domestication will wither away the real meaning and essence of Source Text.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 49
________________________________________________________________________ 2.3
Foreignization: Faithfulness to the Source Language/Text
________________________________________________________________________ Lawrence Venuti- Domestication “bring(s) Foreignization “send[s] the reader abroad.”
the
author
back
home”
whereas
Lawrence Venuti- Foreignization resists, “ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism.” Lawrence Venuti- “The foreign in foreignizing translation is not a transparent representation of an essence that resides in the foreign text, and is valuable in itself, but a strategic construction whose value is contingent on the current situation in the receiving culture. Foreignizing translation signifies the differences of the foreign text, yet only by disrupting the codes that prevail in the translating language.”
17
TRANSLATION IN BERMUDA
Official language: English
The most commonly used language in Bermuda is Bermudian English which has its own distinct accent pattern exclusively of Bermuda. It has shades of American, British and West Indian English languages. Bermudian English is perhaps the most untouched and less researched upon language of the world. The Department of Community & Cultural Affairs, Bermuda offers various literary
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 50
awards in order to promote and preserve Bermudian literature. In 1774, Nathaniel Tucker wrote a poem titled "The Bermudian" (Allibone 2465). Here is an excerpt from the same: BERMUDA, parent of my early days, To thee belong my tributary lays; In thy blest clime, secur'd from instant harms, A tender mother press'd me in her arms. Presently there are well known writers from Bermuda such as Angela Barry, Rawle Frederick, Rosemary Jones, Janet Wingate and Brian Burland all decorated with awards given by the department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Bermuda.
Kjetil Myskja –“In a foreignising translation the translator intentionally disrupts the linguistic and genre expectations of the target language in order to mark the otherness of the translated texts.” Feng – “Foreignization is a source-culture-oriented translation which strives to translate the source language and culture into the target one in order to keep a kind of exotic flavor.” Shi Dao'an- "[T]ranslators should 'adhere to the original text but not ruin the meaning." After reading all the above definitions of Foreignization by scholars we can conclude that Foreignization is a method, an ethical necessity or a strategy in translation in which the elements of Source Text are intentionally retained in the Target Text as-it-is because they have no equivalent elements in the Target Text (like personal names, cultural dresses, cuisine, historical figures and so on) or they are preserved in order to retain faith in cultural values of SL. In other words, Foreignization is bringing home the cultural values of SL into TL without bringing any changes in cultural identity and cultural differences of SL. Here we will give you some examples of Foreignization to make the definitions clear: a)
Source Text
Target Text
Hindi
English
Usne langoti pehne hue thi.
He was wearing a langoti.
In the example given above, we have not translated langoti (which is in italics) from Hindi (ST) but taken this word as-it-is into English (TT).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 51
Lango tiTT
Lango tiST TRANSLATOR
READER
SL
TL
HINDI
ENGLIS H
Fig. 9 The process of foreignization explained.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 52
18
TRANSLATION IN BHUTAN Official language: Dzongkha
Most of the people of Bhutan speak and write in Nepalese. Bhutan is rich in oral literature which transforms and transmits through memory. The literature produced in Nepalese in Bhutan is known as Bhutanese Nepali literature. India-Bhutan Foundation organizes Mountain Echoes literary festival in Bhutan in order to promote it. Dzongkha, a Sino-Tibetan language, is a tonic language and for representing these tones Chinese alphabet is used. George (Sjors) van Driem (born 1957) was given the task of codifying the grammar of Dzongkha. Even before and after him, a lot of efforts were made to transliterate Dzongkha through Romanization. A book titled Introduction to Dzongkha and Dzongkha Hand Book was published to help the beginners (Ramakant 64). But a special Romanization system known as Roman Dzongkha was devised by Driem which is now considered an authoritative way to understand Dzongkha. Kunzang Choden translated the folklore of Bhutan. By writing The Circle of Karma (2015), which relates to the story of Tsomo, a teenage girl and her tribulations, Kunzang Choden became the first Bhutanese woman to write a novel in English. In Bhutan, there are about 19 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
So after reading all this about Foreignization, what is left with us is the question of faithfulness or fidelity which this section is all about. Can we say that Foreignization is all about showing fidelity to the cultural and ethical values of SL? Perhaps yes. As we know that the process of translation is very slippery. There are many gaps which can never be filled up. In Foreignization, faithfulness to content and form gives the trust, the absolute trust in TL. The translation in Foreignization justifies the SL by including the active words of SL into TL. Somehow, it gives a sense of faith to the Target Reader as well.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 53
Is Foreignization and being faithful to the SL an absolute solution to the problem of translation then? Think about it. What many believe is that it cannot be termed as an absolute strategy in translation. The reason for this is that too much of Foreignization will surely confuse the Target Reader. The Target Reader has to time and again consult glossary to know the meanings. This will hamper reading and fail the real purpose of translation.
19
TRANSLATION IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA National language: Bosnian Croatian Serbian
Ivo Andrić (9 October 1892 – 13 March 1975) from Bosnia and Herzegovina got Nobel prize of literature in 1961. He primarily wrote in Serbo-Croatian. His works translated into other languages of the world are widely received. There are many other renowned authors from this country such as Antun Branko Šimić, Aleksa Šantić, Jovan Dučić and Mak Dizdar, writers such as Zlatko Topčić, Meša Selimović, Semezdin Mehmedinović, Miljenko Jergović, Isak Samokovlija, Safvet beg Bašagić, Abdulah Sidran, Petar Kočić, Aleksandar Hemon, and Nedžad Ibrišimović.
______________________________________________________________________________ 2. 4
Let us Sum up
______________________________________________________________________________ We have understood as to how the processes of Domestication and Foreignization helps in solving many problems encountered during the process of translation. Hope your reading was happy and knowledgeable. ______________________________________________________________________________ 2.5
Important Questions
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 54
______________________________________________________________________________ Question 1. What is Domestication? Describe with examples. Question 2. What is Foreignization? How can the process of Foreignization be related to faithfulness to the Source Text?
20
TRANSLATION IN BOTSWANA Official language: English
The official language of Botswana is English but Setswana, a Bantu language, is also spoken across the country. However naturally without a script nothing is written in Setswana, everything that exists is oral and down the memory lane. Nowadays there is a rallying cry to make Setswana the national language of Botswana. In Botswana, there are about 19 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 55
21
TRANSLATION IN BRAZIL
Official language: Portuguese
Presently other than English translations of Portuguese literature, the plays written in Czech like Listopad's Svejk, 1995 are also well received in Portugal (Spirk 172). In spite of the fact that Czechoslovak government censored Portuguese authors (from 1948 to 17 Nov 1989), Czech translators have translated many works from Czech to Portuguese, more importantly the authors from Brazil. Associação Paulista de Críticos de Arte (the award given for ‘ stage acting, music, literature, film, television, plastic arts and radio’); Camões Prize,( the award given for the best work written in Portuguese); Prêmio Jabuti or the "Tortoise Prize;” Prêmio Machado de Assis ( the award given to commemorate Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis [839–1908]); Oceanos-Prêmio de Literatura em Língua Portuguesa, São Paulo Prize ( for the novels written in Portuguese but published in Brazil) for Literature and many prizes are given away in Brazil to promote literary works written in Portuguese. Following these extraordinary and coveted prizes we have a long list of authors who write in Portuguese. In Brazil, there are alarming number of 190 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation Unit III Methods of Translation
Structure
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 56
3. 1
Objectives
3.2
Meta-phrase: Sense Translation based on difference
3.3
Paraphrase- Word-to-Word Translation based on Equivalence
3.4
Imitation: Regulated Transformation
3.5
Interpretation and Adaptation
3.6
Let us Sum up
3.7
Important Questions
________________________________________________________________________ 1.1 Objectives ________________________________________________________________________
Hello Students! In this lesson you’ll be learning about some important terminologies and concept used in Translation Studies. After reading this lesson you’ll be able to define metaphrase, paraphrase, equivalence, imitation, interpretation and adaptation. Hope this endeavor will help you make a better “Translator” and “Interpreter.”
22
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 57
TRANSLATION IN BRUNEI DARUSSALAM Official language: Malay
Malay is the official language of Brunei but Brunei Malay, Jawi Malay, Tutong dialect, Kedayan dialect, Belait dialect, Chinese (Hokkien, Hakka, Mandarin and Cantonese), Murut, Dusun, Brunei and Bisaya are frequently spoken here. Other than Malay, Jawi alphabet (which is Arabic based script) is also official script of Brunei. "A recently discovered old Malay manuscript, dated as early as 998 AH/1590 AD., entitled Kitab al-Nasafi which is a bilingual book with Arabic text and its interlinear Malay translation (in Jawi script) by an anonymous translator" (Fazi 408). More recently translators have shown much interest in the oldest Malay manuscript, Aqa'id of alNasafai (16th Cent ), which truly captures the religious and intellectual essence of the Malay world.
Fig. 10 'Prioritize the Malay Language.' The message in this sign board in Brunei promotes Jawi script using Roman script with it (" Language in Brunei") _____________________________________________________________________________________
1.2
Meta-phrase: Sense Translation based on difference
________________________________________________________________________ John Dryden (1631-1700), first poet laureate of England (1668), translator, playwright and literary critic from London in his preface to his translated work Ovid's Epistles (1680) used the word ‘metaphrase’. But it was not the first occurrence of this word. Actually, the term for the first time was used by Philo Judaeus in De vita Mosis (20 BC) while discussing the works of Denham and Cowley. According to John Dryden metaphrase is" turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 58
into another.” He marked three categories of translation: 1. Metaphrase or interlinear translation (word for word, sentence-for-sentence formal equivalence in translation); 2. Paraphrase (elaborating or magnifying contents of TT) and 3. Imitation (writing very close to author’s intention and emotions expressed in ST). But for Dryden the use of metaphrase was to be avoided in translation. While talking about ‘poetical translations’ he openly spoke of his disagreements. But why should the translator bluntly disagree with the use of metaphrase in translation? What’s wrong in word-for-word translation? Dear Students, the reason for this is that conceptually there is a lot of difference between “word-meaning” and “sense;” “form” and “content.” Sometimes we understand the form and meaning of a word but it is difficult to understand the real sense or content which that word contains. We’ve to understand many parameters before getting hold of the ‘sense’ in translation. But what are those parameters? Are you getting our point? Are we making a sense here? Here we’ll firstly dwell into an approach to translation based on sense. Actually, sense-for-sense translation also known as free translation is an approach in translation studies which allows the translator to translate TL freely without linguistic and grammatical constraints. However, the cultural and thematic equivalences and sense is preserved in sense-for-sense translation. It is believed that Cicero (in the 1st Cent BCE), Horace (20 BC), Chinese and Indian scholars propagated the sense for sense approach to translation. Coiner of the term "sense-for-sense" was Jerome who in his "Letter to Pammachius", said, "except of course in the case of Holy Scripture, where even the syntax contains a mystery---I render, not word for word, but sense for sense."
23
TRANSLATION IN BULGARIA Official Language: Bulgarian
Bulgarian (български bǎlgarski) is the official language and Cyrillic is the official script of Bulgaria. It was the year 1991 that Cyrillic text was published without any translation and transliteration in Bulgarian. When the nation celebrated its national day Vazov's poem “Де е България” ("Where is Bulgaria") was
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 59
published without any help of translation and transliteration (Guentcheva 55). It seemed like a great effort in establishing national identity through language. Saul Bello, the Nobel prize winner of literature once said,” "France gave us one Proust and only one. There is no Bulgarian Proust. Have I offended the Bulgarians too?” (The New York Times). Zlatko Anguelo (1946), Christopher Buxtonis, Francine Giguere (a Balkan folk dancer), Angela Rodel, Peter Skipp and Lubomir Terziev (b 1962) are some of the many translators who have been working on translating Bulgarian texts. Equally long is the list of authors from Bulgaria writing fiction, drama and other forms of literature. In Bulgaria there are about 06 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Idioms, poetry and the texts containing generalizations are commonly translated sense-for-sense. Here are some examples: Source Text
Target Text
English
Hindi
Egg head
Samajhdaar insaan
Might is right
Jiski lathi uski bhains
Newmark said:
Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.
That is why in court interpretations, in medical interpretations, conference interpretations and so on the Translator has to keep in mind the sense-for-sense interpretation and translate according to the Target Audience. Keeping in view the Target
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 60
Audience, sense-for-sense translation is based on difference. This difference is not primarily and finally grounded on escaping grammatical or lexical functions of the SL but on the clarity of ideas to be communicated in TL.
24
TRANSLATION IN BURKINA FASO Official Language: French
Burkina Faso is a multilingual county with almost sixty nine languages spoken there. However, Mòoré, Fulani and Dioula are its recognized national languages. Moussa Konaté (1951-2013), a Malian writer and his novel Goorgi (1998) written in the darkest phase of his life, truly captures his childhood memories with Mossi or Gur language of Burkina Faso.
In sense-for-sense translation these differences matter a lot. If we incorporate these differences without a change then it will be very difficult to communicate the real sense contained in TL. These examples will help you understand:
Source Text
Target Text
English
Hindi
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 61
A black sheep
Kali bhed (Wrong) Ghar ka bhedi Lanka dhaye (Right)
A fog cannot be dispelled by a fan
Pankhe se kohra nahi hataya ja sakta hai. (wrong) Aous chatne se pyas nahi bujhti. (right)
After death the doctor
Marne ke baad chikatsak. (wrong) Ab pachtaye hot kya jab chidya chug gayi khet (right)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3.3
Paraphrase- Word-to-Word Translation based on Equivalence
______________________________________________________________________________ Paraphrase or "in your own words" is a process of translating the SL into TL or by ‘magnifying’/elaborating the contents of SL by using own words or synonyms in TL. Again this kind of rendering is centered on translational equivalence which is meaning-based.
25
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 62
TRANSLATION IN MYANMAR/BURMA
Fig 11 : Burmese script.
Two monks, Sayadaw Shin Kaweinda and U Awbatha in the mid-eighteenth century produced the first literary translations of the canonical Jatakas into Burmese (Baker 529). Sarpay Beikman ( a “Palace of Literature”) or the Burmese Translation Society, which is a government owned organization, was formed on 26 Aug 1947. They give away Myanmar National Literature Awards to Burmese authors. National sentiments are attached with the Burmese language as we have in the popular song Do Bama Asiayone ("We Burmans"):
bama pyi thi do pyi
“Burma (country) is our country”
Bama sa thi do sa
"Burmese literature is our literature"
Bama saga: thi do saga:
"Burmese is our language"
Do pyi ko chita pa
"Love our country"
Do saga: ko lei sa: pa
"Respect your language" (Sercombe 154)
Burmese fiction was initiated in early 1990s. John Okell believes, “Contemporary Burmese publishing covers much the same range as any modern culture: newspapers and magazines, novels and short stories (historical, thriller, detective, courtroom, propagandist, allegorical, romantic, comical, social, psychological, etc), comic strips, plays, poems, memoirs, travelogues, biographies, autobiographies, essays, educative writing and manuals and studies of literature, history, economics, technology,
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 63
religion, medicine, business, etc. There is also an active film and video industry. All publications in whatever medium are subject to strict state censorship.”
That is why paraphrasing is also translating the ideas. Paraphrasing is different from quoting in many ways. While quoting we use double quotation marks (“ “) but in paraphrasing we have to put the name of the author or work from which TT is derived. For example: Subhash Chander Bose- “Men, money and materials cannot by themselves bring victory of freedom. We must have the motive-power that will inspire us to brave deeds and heroic exploits." Paraphrasing: Materialistic things can never fetch us victory. All we have to do is to motivate ourselves and instigate our heroic skills (Subhash Chander Bose). Here is another example of paraphrasing, taken from WH Longfellow’s poem “A Psalm of Life”: “Tell me not in mournful numbers/Life is but an empty dream.” Paraphrase 1: fullest.
No one should dictate the poet and stop him from living life to the
Paraphrase 2: The poet doesn’t welcome any dictates which drift him away from the real definition of wonderful life.
Paraphrase 3: Mourning is not for life and thinking it to be so is being pessimistic.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 64
26
TRANSLATION IN BURBUNDI
Official language: French and Kirundi
In Burundi French language is used more frequently in the advanced grades, intermediate grades in technical and formal school education. Much translation was needed in the field of French-Kirundi juridical lexicon. For many years Burundi faced problems with orthography. The government of Burundi requested UNESCO to appoint Professor Moni, an Italian expert, from the University of Padua to help the country in translation process (McCormack 512). People of Burundi like watching theatrical plays. As of now, puppet-mask theatre and various other theatres are active in Burundi. But most of them follow the western tradition. In 1993, four troupes were highly active in Burundi: 'Laugh' troupe, the ‘Pili-Pili,’ the ‘Luxa’ and the ‘Ada’ "National Department of Culture-which keeps a catalogue of all publications- had listed 141 Burundian plays written in Kirundi and 127 in French. Of these, 34 (18 in Kirundi and 16 in French) were written by Marie-Louise Sibazuri" (Diakhate 73).
Let us now examine the above versions of paraphrases. Although, the above sentences differ according to their basic grammatical structure but they contain the approximate meaning of poetic lines (under quotation marks). We have done intralingual paraphrasing in which the SL and TL are the same. But this paraphrasing can also be done interlingually in which SL and TL remain different. (for understanding interlingual and intralingual interpretations please see the Glossary).
These points must be taken into the mind before paraphrasing: a) What you write out of the original must be unique and created by your own self without spoiling the sense of ST. b) If you are quoting someone as it is in the TT, you are supposed to write its source. Quoting is not paraphrasing. c) You can write down the main ideas of the ST and then incorporate them into
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 65
TT. But above all while paraphrasing, a lot of care must be given to equivalence of ST and TT. Without equivalence the meaning and soul of ST as also TT will wither away.
27
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 66
TRANSLATION IN CAMBODIA Official Language: Khmer
There are a lot of cultural differences between the French and Kramer (Cohen 99). This is the biggest challenge for the translators of Khmer. Hélène Cixous, a French feminist and deconstructive scholar, wrote an influential work titled The Terrible but Unfinished Story of Norodom Sihanouk, King of Cambodia (1996). This article is densely written, well researched as it throws philosophical and scholarly light on the Khmer Rouge tragedy (a horrible phase of genocide in Cambodia). This work has been translated into many languages. In order to promote and revive Khamer language, the Nou Hach Literary Association gives away literary prizes as also publishes works in Khmer. Khmer language, according to John Weeks, is, “battling against indifference much more than censorship. At our Indonesia exchange, a comic artist tried to talk about the idea of a cultural movement and he just got blank looks. Movement equals politics and here people after many years are quite cautious" (The Guardian). In Cambodia, there are about 19 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
________________________________________________________________________ 3.4
Imitation: Regulated Transformation
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 67
________________________________________________________________________
I take imitation of an author, in their sense, to be an Endeavour of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country. (Dryden) Dictionary meaning of imitation is an: “action of using someone or something as a model” (Cambridge Dictionary). There is also an entry in this dictionary indicating its synonyms: “emulation, copying, following, echoing, parroting.” Actually, the word imitation, or its Greek equivalent mimesis, as a concept is not new for students of literature. We have already read about the theories of imitation given by Plato in his The Republic and Aristotle in his Poetics. But in the literary history of imitative translation Hu Shi’s Life’s Greatest Event, was an imitation of Ibsen’s A Doll’s House; Leonard Forster did imitation of Pierre de Ronsard as he produced Olympia in 1579; Ludvig Holberg’s Peder Paars (1719–20) was an imitative version (especially some quotes) of Boileau’s Le Lutrin and so on. We also have encountered Alexander Pope’s Imitations of Horace (1734–7). We have already discussed above that it was Dryden who divided translation-types into three categories. One of these categories is imitation. But again Dryden warns its use: “Imitation and verbal version are, in my opinion, the two extremes, which ought to be avoided.” What is imitation in translation and what made Dryden to suggest this avoidance? Imitation in translation is actually not what its dictionary or thesaurus synonyms say. Imitation, as a free approach, in translation is about rewriting, manipulating and producing an entirely new and unique version in TT. But there is a danger of imitation. That is it may entirely ignore the ST. We’ll show it with an example: Source Text (English): “The moment you recognize what is beautiful in this world, you stop being a slave” ( White Tiger by Arvind Adiga). Target Text (Intralingual paraphrase, imitation): worldly beauty.
We are slaves until we look at the
Target Text(Intralingual paraphrase, imitation): We remain struck in painful fetters unless we open our eyes to our loved ones and our own selves.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 68
Target Text(Intralingual paraphrase, imitation): There is no hope for us if we don’t take care of our pockets and the money we spend. (this is a more materialistically oriented, distorted version of the TT above). Here in the above imitative translation, we can see that there is a transformation but it completely mars thematic sense of ST. That is why imitation in translation should be regulated in a way not to mar the essence of ST.
28
TRANSLATION IN CAMEROON Official languages: French, English “Cameroon is the only African country with official bilingualism in European languages" (Baker 301). Bilingualism flourished in Cameroon after 1961. Initially, the government of Cameroon had to send their translators for training to Europe and North America. But for now Cameroon has its own scholars and translators. Perspectives on Translation and Interpretation in Cameroon by Emmanuel N Chia is a book series written under the Advanced School of Translators and Interpreters (ASTI) of the University of Buea. The book truly captures the ambience of translation practices in Cameroon. It is believed by some scholars that still much work has yet to be done on translation of theatre in Cameroon which is now gaining popularity there. In Cameroon, there are about 36 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
________________________________________________________________________ 1.5
Interpretation and Adaptation
________________________________________________________________________
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 69
‘Interpreting’ and ‘translation’ are two different terms, yet used interchangeably. In 1968, Otto Kade (1927-1980), a translation scientist, used German term Sprachmittlung ('language mediation') in order to segregate translation and interpreting. Thus interpreting is a kind of mediation which can even be done through machines. Interpretation usually is indispensable where there is an immediate need to communicate. Interpretation is urgently required in courts, police settings, healthcare services, social services, classrooms, workplaces, sign-languages and so on. The ones who interpret are known as Interpreters or Interlocutors. Almost everytime an interpreter has to face challenges in interpretation. Sometimes the Interpreter has to face worst situations while communicating offensive or derogatory messages. But in many cases the interpreter has to communicate the correct codes of TL without any inhibition (like in health services or court interpretation). That is why the interpreter has to be well aware of her/his responsibilities. Lawrence Venuti (born 1953) in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995) proposed a concept "invisibility of translator" against the presupposed 'fluency of translator.' Where there is too much adherence to traditional values of interpreting (which he calls "domesticating practices"), this invisibility is rampant. It is expected the interpreter to strictly follow ethical standards. Some of these standards are: protection of confidentiality, avoidance of conflict of interest, professionalism, respecting cultural contexts, impartiality, fidelity, accuracy, understanding role-boundaries and so on. Interpreting as it seems is not an easy task. NAATI has published a guide titled The Ethics of Translating and Interpreting: A Guide to Obtaining NAATI Credentials (2016). Not only NAATI but most of the organizations involved in interpreting have their own code of conduct for interpreters.
29
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 70
TRANSLATION IN CANADA Official languages: French, English In 1534, translation emerged as a profession in Canada. The process of translation helped Canada establish contact with North America as also mentioned by Richard Haklyut in Principall Navigations (Classe 477). After the formation of Canada Council in 1957, many grants were given for initiating translation process. Governor General's awards for translation, the John Glassco prize of the ATL/LTA (1982-) and many more prizes are given away for motivating translation studies in Canada. Alice Ann Munro (born 1931), a Canadian author, received the Nobel Prize of Literature in 2013. She also received Man Booker International Prize in 2009. Philippe Aubert de Gaspe's Les Anciens Canadiens (1863), which is a historical novel, is the most translated work of Canada till date. In Canada there are about 36 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
The trainers of T & I schools, the ESIT, in Paris, for the first time pondered on the concept of Conference Interpreting. The movement was launched with the phrase ‘ Théorie du sens’ ( Interpretative Theory). Their interest was on understanding the message, the code contained in it, ignoring vocabulary of the Source Text and focusing on individual elements like grammatical or linguistic ones. An ancillary to any conference, court proceedings, business negotiations, diplomatic meetings or political meetings, Conference Interpreter is a language expert who works in multilingual environment. While maintaining professional ethics and managing own immediate memory skills, the Conference Interpreter has to covey and convert orally, concepts and ideas, interpret consecutively or simultaneously to the listener or audience, in Target Language. That is why to be an expert in voice modulation, note taking and team-work is the prerequisite of a Conference Interpreter. A Conference Interpreter can convey through the modes of chuchotage (whispering), simultaneous interpreting (interpreters works as a team, sometimes in a sound-proof booth or box) and consecutive interpreting (conveying ideas directly into Target Language). That is why Conference Interpreter is supposed to be an expert in A-language (native language), B-language (active foreign language) and C-language (passive foreign language). In conference interpreting
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 71
the terms SL (Source Language) and TL ( Target Language) are used. But in translation we use ST ( Source Text) and TT ( Target Text).
30
TRANSLATION IN CAPE VERDE Official language: Portuguese
Portuguese is the official language of Carpe Verdi but Cape Verdean Creole (the oldest spoken Creole) is a recognized national language there. Cape Verdean Creole is spoken by almost every native. It comprises of more words from Portuguese and African than any other language. This language has frequently been used by its Diaspora, the Diaspora of Cape Verdean. A fascinating history of languages and attempts to tarnish its culture by colonizers and much more is latent in the literature of Cape Verdean Creole. Cape Verdean Creole is rich in folklore and oral literature. It is believed that the first work in Cape Verde was by André Álvares de Almada in 16th Century. Some scholars upheld their biased view as they believed that because Cape Verdean Creole was a simple language that is why the black slave used it. They also believed that they were "uncivilized" and "uncultured" that is why they could not speak the elite Portuguese (Bataha 01). But as of now, many scholars are fighting for a cause to make Cape Verdean Creole the national language of Carpe Verdi. Manuel Lopes, Tavares, Eugénio de Paulo, Romano, António Aurélio Gonçalves, Fausto Duarte, José Lopes, Pedro Cardoso, Eugenio Tavares, Antonio Januario Leite, Corsino Pedro de Azevedo are some famous writers writing in Cape Verde.
In Remote Interpreting the interpreter uses technological tools such as telephone to convert Source language into the Target Language. In Videophone Interpreting the interpreter uses video conferencing as a tool to convey message to deaf and dumb audience. In this process, sometimes it is expected from the interpreter to be an expert in sign language. Broadcast Interpreting requires one to read the matter, make notes and broadcast online from the Source Language to the Target Language. Sometimes, the terms
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 72
broadcasting translator and broadcasting interpreter are used synonymously. Although a laborious activity, interpreting requires one to proceed without shouldering immediate responsibility (although the far reaching aftereffects of irresponsible behavior is threatening to the Target Reader in many ways) to convey the message. That’s why this lacl of immediate responsibility cannot be taken casually. Translation requires a lot of written work, editing and proof-reading before the final draft is materialized. But interpreting is an exercise which requires immediate verbal action. Interpreter has to be an active participant in the process. 31
TRANSLATION IN CENTRAL AFRICA REPUBLIC Sango is an indigenous language and also official language of the Central African Republic. All Africa: All its Political Entities of Independent or other Status (1970) by Elisa Daggs is a very controversial book which records biased information about the language Sango and African pride itself. Daggs not only uses objectionable words like “black racism” but also believes that there is lack of "abstract words" or "thought" in Sango language (318). This is how the language has undergone a biased approach through centuries, during colonial period. As of now, almost an estimated 400,000 people speak Sango. Many attempts have been made to translate Sango into English but to find equivalents of Sango is a challenging task in the real sense. The basic grammar of Sango is similar to English but on the other hand Sango is a tonal language and therefore quite different from English. William J Samarin’s A Grammar of Sango (1967) beautifully narrates sociolinguistic and linguistic aspects of Sango. .
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 73
There are interpreters who communicate in a community setting. That is why in interpreting there is requirement to communicate within a community in a crosscultural setting (say within some minority, health care, elderly care, social or educational services) is known as Community Interpreting. Community Interpreters have to interpret within multi-cultural and multi-lingual ambiance. They have to interpret from bi-directional discourses to one directional language. Keeping in mind the cultural and ethical values of an interpreter, for a Community Interpreter, it is essential to make up the linguistic and cultural gaps, which originate due to linguistic and cultural differences. Community Interpreters are catalyst to organizations as they help communicate their stories to the receivers as we have in the case of health services and so on. There are lot of jokes on communication gap in interpretation based on embarrassing situation faced by doctor and patient in the process of communication. Here is an example where intervention of community interpreter is essential: When a doctor throws a parting-shot to a patient, “You will have to go.” A scary or hypochondriac patient may interpret “have to go” as an indication of serious illness. There is another type of interpreting also known as Dialogue Interpreting. Dialogue Interpreting is the most commonly used interpreting in visuals texts such as movies, theatre, story-telling or where dialogues are to be interpreted. Cecilia Wadensjö, a semantic and interpreting scholar, proposed the term Dialogue Interpreting in 1992. In her "Dialogue Interpreting and the Distribution of Responsibility" (1992) she proposed two models of dialogue interpreting: a) Transfer Model or Conduit Model and b) Interactionistic Model. Keeping in mind the unidirectional structure of dialogue, in Transfer Model, the interpreter is supposed to understand the codes of language, including sign language, before interpreting. In Conduit Model, which was actually proposed by Reddy, any dialogue is “monological” in which the strategies and intention of speaker has more importance (Reddy). That is why the interpreter will be able to communicate the emotions as also remain accurate while deciding to avoid or include double meaning and symbols of dialogue. For example, if this dialogue from a movie is given to a dialogue interpret,” I hate you.” Then it is up to the dialogue interpreter to instill the feelings of love, hate or anger in this dialogue. “I hate you” as a dialogue can be delievered with a tone indicating love, anger, compassion and so on. On the other hand, in Interactionistic Model, there are dialogical factors such as historical, literal, genres and son on are to be kept in mind. That is why the intention of speaker does not carry much weight age in Interactionistic Model .
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 74
32
TRANSLATION IN CHAD Official languages: Arabic and French
Almost one hundred indigenous languages are spoken in Chad. A variety of Chad also known as Chadian Arabic is spoken here. This language has variety of rich oral and spoken literature (Walske 52). Although Chad is a primarily a Muslim country still many missionary activities were active in Chad. Due to which we can see two missionary autobiographies which tell a lot about their musical aspects of missions in Chad. March had translated missionary works into Chadian Arabic (Reily). There is also a Chadian Arabic Christian radio which broadcasts chronological Bible in Arabic Chad (Mandryk 206). In contemporary times, we have Chadian authors who prefer to write both in Arabic Chad and French some of them are : Joseph Brahim and his famous novels like Au Tchad sous les etoiles (in Chad under the Stars) and Un enfant du Tchad ( A Child of Chad); Mahamet Baba Mustapha, a playwright, who wrote Le Commandant Chaka (Commander Chaka); Antonie Bangui-Rombaye who wrote Prisonnier de Tombalbaye (Prisoner of Tombalbaye) and Koulsy Lamko who wrote La phalene des collines (1994) (The Butterfly of the Hills).
As we have already discussed above that interpreting requires commitment from interpreters. An error in interpreting can even lead to the loss of life and liberty as in Court Interpreting and Helath Services Interpreting. Court interpreting is a process of interpreting the legal language in a court. The court, of any country, usually, maintains its record in one language. This language is also known as Court language or the Target Language of the Court. The interpreter has to interpret the Source language of the plaintiff/respondent/witness/client and so on into the Target Language of the court in order to facilitate the judge, jury and participants in a court. This does not in any way mean that the task of Court Interpreter is limited to the court room. The Court Interpreter is an integral part of the entire case. That’s why Court Interpreter has to show her/his presence in Police Station and post and pre court odd hours. Interpretation may be done simultaneously (also shadowing or repeating the words of Source Language into the same Source Language. This is an intralingual translation), with sight or consecutive methods of interpreting. It also upholds
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 75
human rights in which the linguistic presence or the legal presence of an interpreter is fundamentally claimed.
33
TRANSLATION IN CHILE National language: Spanish
After the invasion of Spain and the struggle with Araucanian or Mapuche ( the original inhabitants of Chile) and its aftereffects, in Chile other indigenous languages have almost reached a point of extinction. Huilliche language is still spoken in some islands of Chile (Moseley 93). Kawesqar (or Alacalul) and Yahgan are endangered as of now. Although Qawasqar, Huilliche and Atacameno are completely extinct languages. Isabel Allende, Raul Ruiz, Isable Allende, Roberto Balano, Gabriela Mistral, Jose Donoso, Augusto Pinochet, Nicanor Parra, Vicente Huidobro, Alberto Fuguet, Ariel Dorfman, Diamela Eltit, Pedro Lemebel are some famous writers of Chile. Pablo Neruda of Chile got the Nobel Prize of literature in 1971 and his works are translated in almost every language of the world.
Adaptation Adaptation, appropriation or rewriting is a strategy in translation in which the translator has to decide and write according to the Target Audience before creating the final TT. Then the ST is adapted or reproduced with elimination, expansion, exoticism and recreation of the context. The final version of TT, in adaptation, can transform the entire genre. For example if the Target Reader of ST are children then the translator through adaptation may recreate, modify or change the text so that it is for the adult readers of TT. There are many authors and scholars who call this process censorship and even intervention to some extent. In this list Nord, Delisle, Gambier, Bastin, Sperber, Wilson and many others are the ones who disapprove of adaptation. Tradaptation or transcreation is another variant of adaptation. Both these concepts can be used interchangeably. Translators when use these processes of adaptation or trapadation, usually create sequels, prequels and even entirely
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 76
reestablish the identity and cultural parameters of the ST. Trapadation is done for the contemporary audience. That is why the Target Audience is always kept in mind before creating the TT. The word tradaptation was coined by Michel Garneau (b. 1939), FrenchCanadian poet, theatre director and translator. He defined the term while translating Shakespeare's plays The Tempest/La tempete (1973); Macbeth (1978) and Coriloanus/Coriolan (1989). These translations are commonly known as his three ‘Shakespeare tradaptations.’ So much was the influence of his Québécois version that now Shakespeare is regarded by many as "Québécois nationalist poet" (Brisset 109).
34
TRANSLATION IN CHINA Official language: Standard Chinese (also known as Modern Standard Mandarin)
In China the important process of translation begins with the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, a pictorial and sound based language. Buddhist scriptures were introduced in China by Zhang Qian who was also a minister of the Emperor Wudi. An Qing (pen name Shigao) and others in 147 had put in a lot of efforts in translating the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese language. Buddhist scriptures such as Liu Du Ji Jing (Shaiparamita-sannipata Sutra) Xiao Pin Bo Re (Pragnaparamita-sutra of a Small Class) and Juan were translated. Out of these translators the most famous is the name of Dao An (314-385), who was a Buddhist monk. Dao suggested list of five kinds of errors while translating from Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. Here he gave a logical theory of translation indeed. But in his many works he suggested us to avoid transliteration. Jue Xian, a translator and author, went to India and stayed there for fourteen years. He brought with him a large number of Buddhist scriptures (Chan 38). In modern times, the scenario of translation completely changed with the onset of postcolonial era. 红高 家 Hong Gao Liang Jia Zu (Red Sorghum: A Novel of China or Red Sorghum
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 77
Clan) (1986) by the Nobel laureate from China, Mo Yan, received a lot of acclaim as this book has been translated into many languages. As of now, Chinese remains the toughest language to translate. But there are scholars who still believe that "Chinese translation...is a unique system which must be protected from outside influences" (Tan 295). Contrary to this belief there is a boom in the translation industry of China: "It should be noted that in China, 96% of its annual translation output is in the area of practical translation, while only 4% is in the field of literature (09 Chan). In China there are about 144 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
________________________________________________________________________ 1.6
Let us Sum up
________________________________________________________________________
So how was your reading? In this lesson we understood some major concepts which have been used by John Dryden and other scholars. We understood as to how interpretation and translation are seemingly one concept but their execution is entirely different. We got to know about various terminologies involved in translation process. Now let us see how much you’ve understood these lessons. Try to solve these exercises to check your progress:
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 78
35
TRANSLATION IN COLOMBIA Official Language: Spanish
There are almost
68 ethnic languages and dialects in Colombia. The nineteenth century
Colombia witnessed Christianizing of foreign texts, which was brushed up with orthodoxy (García xxiii). José María Vergara y Vergara (1831-1872) a journalist, diplomat, historian, the founding member of Colombian Academy, wrote the literary history of Colombia. Caro was also another text-editor from Colombia who supplemented 1886 Constitution. Vásquez Perdomo had put her remarkable observations on the 19th April Colombia guerilla movement (mid 1990s) in colloquial Spanish. She painted walls during this movement as she would write ideological "slogans such as 'ELN EPL FARC=VICTORY" (Perdomo xxv). The author also puts forwards her theoretical approach to translation in her autobiography My Life as a Colombian Revolutionary: Reflections of a Former Guerillera (2005). This book has shades of colloquial Spanish. Gabriel García Márquez (1927-2014), a Colombian author who composed his works in Spanish, received the Nobel Prize in Literature in the year 1982. As of now, in Colombia there are about 68 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 79
______________________________________________________________________________
1.7
Important Questions
______________________________________________________________________________
Ques 1. What is meta-phrase? How is sense translation based on difference? Ques 2. What is paraphrasing? How the problem of equivalence is resolved in paraphrase? Ques 3. What is imitation in translation? Ques4. What is difference between interpretation and adaptation?
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 80
36
TRANSLATION IN COMOROS Official language: Comorian, Arabic and French
Comorian language is a variety of Sabaki Languages spoken in Comoros having four distant dialects. Guthrie (1967-71) classified Bantu languages as "he placed Comorian into the class G-40 'Swahili' group” (Alnet 06). There were numerous scholars of Comoros linguistics and grammar who had put forward their observations on the cultural treasures of this language such as Saleh (1971), Ottenheimer (1976), Sibertin Blanc (1980), Mohlig (1980), Rombi and Alexandre (1982) and so on. Mohamed Toihiri, Said Mohamed Djohar, Ahmed Abdallah and Mohamed Ahmed-Chamanga are some of the prominent writers from Comoro. Mohamed Toihiri (1955) is also acclaimed as the first published author of Comoros. In 1985, he wrote his Comorian fiction in French titled Republique des Imberbes Roman Comorien.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 81
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation Unit IV Problems of Translation
Structure 4. 1
Objectives
4.2
Cultural Gap
4.3
Untranslatability
4.4
Translation as Appropriation of Indigenous Languages by English
4.5
Let us Sum up
4.6
Important Questions
___________________________________________________________________________ 1.1 Objectives __________________________________________________________________________ Hello Students! We’re back again with our objectives of learning the very important concept of Cultural Gap. untranslatability and translation as appropriation of indigenous languages by English. It will be a great and fascinating journey…
37
TRANSLATION IN CONGO
Official language: French
Kikongo, Swahili and Tshiluba are recognized languages of Congo. Jean Malonga (b. 1907) is known to be the first and the senior most writer of modern Congolese literature.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 82
In 1954, he wrote a novel titled Coeur d'Aryenne (Heart of Aryenne). This novel has been widely translated into English and other languages with many editions. It gives an insight into the cultural aspects of Congo. The journal Liaison (1950-1960) also gave acceleration to Congolese literature. For their contribution to the Congolese literature many creative writers and scholars from Congo must be remembered here, such as: Guy Menga, Emmanuel Dongala, Makouta-Mboukou, Henri Lopès, Alain Mabanckou, Paule Etoumba, Cécile-Ivelyse Diamoneka, Noëlle Bizi Bazouma, Aleth FelixTchicaya, Marie-Louise Abia, Flore and Flore Hazoumé. Women Congo writers who are still active in their creative pursuits are Sylvie Bokoko, Binéka Danièle Lissouba, Marie-Louise ABIA, Adèle Caby-Livannah, Mambou Aimée Gnali and so on. From 1990 onwards Prix International Kadima (International Kadima Prize), named after Kadima, a linguist from Congo, is given away to authors who promote "multilingual creative writing and cultural diversity" through language, literature and translation.
______________________________________________________________________________
1.2
Cultural Gap
______________________________________________________________________________
When a baby is born in India, it becomes the cultural being of India. It learns the ways of culture within no time. How? Let us see with an example. Let us assume that if an owl enters an Indian home people will perhaps definitely relate negative associations of death and bad omen with it (except for the white owl which is considered to be a vehicle of the goddess Laxmi, the goddess of prosperity). But a child who is born in European countries will be taught that owl is the symbol of knowledge and wisdom. In this scenario, when these two children are exposed to the opposite cultures it will give them a ‘cultural shock.’ They will look for cultural references within their own cultures because they are already ingrained in their sub consciousness with the notion of this word ‘owl.’ This is what we call ‘institutive competence.’ When the word ‘owl’ is translated from Hindi (SL) into English (TL) it will be very difficult to communicate the idea of good and bad related to it if the translator does not know these differences. In India, a person may say,” I love cats” because that person likes cat as domesticated animal. But in some other part of the world (say in China) a person may say “I love cats” for its meat. This is actually the cultural gap. It does not mean that every culture has altogether major differences alone. There are similarities too.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 83
38
TRANSLATION IN COSTA RICA Official language: Spanish
Mekatelyu,
Bribri and Patois are recognized regional languages of Costa Rica. Bribri is an
engendered language. As of now almost six thousand people speak Bribri in Costa Rica. Bribri sign language is also used by the natives. It is also a very important ritual language. A scholarly journal titled Kañina ("the arrival of the dawn by the side of the sea") is published in Bribri language. It covers all aspects of Bribri community such as anthropological, linguistic and social. Now it is run by the University of Costa Rica. One can never forget to mention the efforts of Prof Ginette Sánchez Gutiérrez of University of Costa Rica in rejuvenating Bribri. There are authors whose works have been received with acclaim, some of them are: Carlos Luis Fallas (1909-1966), Fabian Dobles (1918-1997), Carmen Naranjo (1928-2012), Joaquin Gutierrez (1918-2000), Carmen Lyra(1888-1949), Joaquin Garcia Monge (1881-1958) and Carlos Gagini (1865-1925). There are authors from Costa Rica whose works have been appreciated and translated widely into other languages. Joaquín Gutiérrez (1918-2000) wrote children's book Cocorí which has now been translated into ten languages; Quince Duncan(b1940), the first Afro-Caribbean writer in Spanish; Fernando Contreras Castro (b 1963), recipient of many national and international awards for his novels; Julieta Dobles Yzaguirre (b 1943), won the National Prize Aquileo J. Echeverría (five times) and the National Prize of Culture Magón 2013 are some contemporary authors out of a long list of talented writers from Costa Rica. As of now, in Costa Rica there are about 08 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
Now here we are talking of the cultural ‘gap’ which hinders communication with an outsider, with the donor and receiving citizens. This gap is in ideas, community, eating habits, etiquettes, cultural symbols, behavior, education, customs and beliefs, value system, social norms, gender roles, legal culture, unique way of communicating and above all
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 84
‘language’ which comprises of all the former elements of a particular culture in one or the other way. I recollect my times as a student. It was very hard for me to grasp the idea contained in these animal idioms “it’s raining cats and dogs” and “it's raining pitchforks. ‘How could cats and dogs be related to rain and tools?’ I used to think. It’s silly. But I had to read and cram it for the sake of examination. Later, I read somewhere that the origins of these idioms are grounded in medieval superstitions of Norse mythology. We’ll give another example to clarify the idea of cultural gap. In India, most of us prefer to eat rice with hands. But in formal setting and following etiquettes of the West, we eat with spoons. Imagine that in a restaurant you are eating rice with hands and others are using spoons. Nothing is bad in it. Nothing at all! But the only thing which will make the people around you wonder will be the aftereffect of cultural differences or cultural shock per se. You might have heard this: Do as the Romans do in Rome.
39
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 85
TRANSLATION IN CROATIA Official Language: Croatian
The major problem with the translation from Croatian to English is that the grammatical gender of English does not match Croatian. Perloff cites an example as he quotes," the word ‘death’ (smrt) is a feminine noun in Croatian, so a translation could not preserve the masculine gender of Death” (79). Even the verb itself is the marker of noun in Croatian. These are some of many challenges faced by a translator, if her/her Target Language is English. Marko Marulić (1450–1524); Marin Držić (1508–67), a skilled playwright; Ivan Gundulić (1589–1638); Antun Gustav Matoš (1873– 1914), a great poet and travel writer; Vojnović (1857–1929), writer of The Dubrovnik Trilogy; Janko Polić Kamov (1886–1910), an avant-garde novelist were some of many genius authors from Croatia who attracted readers, scholars and translators from around the world. After 1990s, the exiled authors of Croatia such as Dubravka Ugrešić, a prose writer; Slavenka Drakulić, a feminist novelist; Slobodan Šnajder, a playwright, have not only become world famous authors but also attracted translators across languages. Recently in 2016, Miro Gavran (1962), Croatian writer of children literature, short stories and dramas was nominated for the world's most prestigious award, the Hans Christian Andersen Award, for children literature. His books have already been translated into 28 languages. As of now, in Croatia there are about 08 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO),
As a teacher, I always was interrupted by the late coming students who would enter the class in the mid of lecture and say, “May I come in Sir.” “Sorry Sir, I was late because of so and so.” They would continue with a polite tone till I ask them to take seat. Whole of the class would start talking before the late comer gets settled in the classroom. Then I requested everyone, “Whenever you are late. Just get in. There is no need to ask for permissions…no excuses ‘please’…And if someone wants to go out they can leave when they feel like without uttering a word. Again there is no need for permissions.” It took quite a long time to settle this idea in our classroom and establish this “new custom.” Somehow they got rid of “cultural sophistication.”
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 86
That is why we have given a glimpse of different countries inside text-boxes so that you get unawareness of different languages of the world and its literature too. This will for sure widen you horizon, your perception. It is very important for a translator to understand these cultural gaps and translate them accordingly. All said and told about cultural gap, it is important to note that these cultural gaps sometimes give rise to untranslatability . But what is untranslatability? This we’ll explain in the next section.
40
TRANSLATION IN CUBA Official languages: Spanish or Cuban Spanish
There are a lot of authors from Cuba who have not yet been translated. Still we have a number of authors whose works have reached the global citizens through translation. Many authors from Cuba got acclaim when they got translated abroad. Of these authors there are writers in exile too. Writers from Cuba in exile have often been using Spanish as their language of expression. These works have been translated into English and other languages. The writers of exile have attracted translators, scholars and readers across the world. They have written highly creative works such as Lino Novas Calvos' Maneras de contar (1970); Guillermo Cabrera’s Infante's View of Dawn in the Tropics (1974); Reinaldo Arenas' The Doorman (1989); Palbi Medina's Exiled Memories (1990); Gustav Perez Firmat's Next Year in Cuba (1995); Virgil Suarez's Spared Angola (1997); J.Joaquin Fraxedas' The Lonely Crossing of Juan Cabrera (1993); Cristina Garcia's The Aguero Sisters (1997) and so on. Most of the exiled authors from Cuba are Cuban-American writers.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
1.3
Untranslatability
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 87
___________________________________________________________________________
According to Sapir/Whorf Hypothesis language is the result of perception of culture or the world around us. Thus as per this theory, the world is formed by the language. But this is not always the case. Many times, the culture determines our language. Every language has a feature called non-lexicalization ( inability of language to be translated into another language). That is why it won’t be wrong to say that language is the result of our society (we can read it both ways). Culture, thought and language are inseparable. Culture forms the thematic and grammatical patterns of language. To resolve this issue sometimes loanwords are taken from other languages. Like we have computer, hard-disk, bus which have become an integral part of Hindi language but are actually loanwords from English. In the same way, in English language loanwords like pajama, chapatti and many other words have been taken. Not only that in English and Hindi many loanwords from other languages like Spanish (Kamra, कमरा, in Hindi), French (Café in English) are derived. That is why when we read an entry in a dictionary a good student always looks for the origin of words. Still there are words or grammatical and linguistic patterns in every language which are always and already inseparable from it. They are, as of now, untranslatable, see for example like in English language we don’t treat time as a commodity so often we say in Hindi: Samay kat raha houn….Time pass kar raha hun.. But in English we say: I’m killing time. Let us take some other words in Hindi to understand their untranslatability: Shubharambh : Shubh is the word we use to indicate auspiciousness. In English we use beginning as a synonym of this word. But beginning can never be an equivalent of shubharambh. Karma and Moksha: Karma and Moksha are loaded with cultural and religious significance. In English, we can use the word action or ultimate freedom for it. But again they will be inappropriate. Because of its untranslatable nature the word Karma and Moksha are now loanwords in English.
41
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 88
TRANSLATION IN CYPRUS Official languages: Greek and Turkish
Armenian and Cypriot Arabic are minority languages here. However, Cypriot Greek and Cypriot Turkish are vernaculars in Cyprus. The history of Cyprus has witnessed isolation from the rest of the world due to constant attacks from colonizers. From the 7th to the 10th Century AD Arab attacked Cyprus. In 1911, The Kings' Crusade again took over Cyprus. Due to this, Cyprus has a distinct dialect rather amalgam of dialects. As of now Cypriot is being given preference as it was ignored in the past. The government has introduced this dialect in schools. There is an unlimited list of contemporary brilliant authors from Cyprus: Antonis Georgiou; Emilios Solomou; Myrto Azina Chronides and so on. On 20 July 1974, the Turkish military invaded Cyprus. Due to this invasion the inhabitants of Cyprus got displaced. Not alone this but inhabitants of Cyprus in search of jobs and better education left Cyprus. This led to a large number of diaspora from Cyprus which is also known as the Greek-Cypriot diasporas. It is estimated that around 200,000 Greek Cypriots live in London (Tamis, 2006b; Gal 155). The contemporary novels like Andreas Koumi's The Cyproit (2006) and Andriana Ieridiakonou's Margarita's Husband (2007) have their plots set in Cyprus. The book Eat, Drink and be Married (2011), a black comic story, by Eve Makis, on Cyprus diaspora, got Young Booksellers International Book of the Year Award. This book has now been published and translated into five languages. For the reasons unknown, this work unfortunately has not been appreciated in the academia. As per UNESCO’s Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger Cypriot Arabic is severely endangered language of Congo.
Rakhi, Mangalsutra of Hindi and innumerable other words are still untranslatable in any language because of their cultural connotations. Sometimes untranslatability is seen from a different dimension too. This dimension lets us think beyond the meanings of words in cross-cultural contexts. We can ask a question before understanding this
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 89
aspect of untranslatability: whether we can translate ideologies, cultures and emotions. This is the question which still needs a relevant answer, hence is debatable. If we simplify this question further we can say which texts should be translated or what should not be. Do we have an open choice to translate? Is there some translation vigilance going on? In one sense, the sacred texts like The Bible, The Quran, were not allowed to be translated. During Fascism many translated books, like George Bernanos' Les grands cimetieres sous la lune, were banned in its French version. Some divide this translatability debate into two directions: universal approach (which holds that the linguistic elements are sufficient for translation) and the monadist approach (according to this approach the linguistic ability of a culture hinders the process of translation). Saussure and Pierce proposed a triangular structure of thought patterns which could be understood through semiotic analysis. Noam Chomsky proposed Transformative Generative Grammar which sought to find out the deeper layers of human languages. Sigmund Freud gave different dimensions of the patterns of dreams in his The Interpretation of Dreams. Was he translating dreams then? Walter Benjamin in his essay ‘The Task of the Translator’ (1923) “posits translatability as that which resides in the original as mere potential and which translation will adumbrate more fully.” A. N. Kolmogorov in 1925 proposed that there is always a possibility to derive the classical logic out of the ‘intuitionistic’. Aleksandr Smirnov (1934), the Russian author, maintained that after capturing the адекватность (adequacy) as also adekvatnyni perevod (adequate translation) through “ideological, emotional and aesthetic effect” translation is possible. Then in order to surmount this major query of untranslatability we have to understand psychology, sociology, anthropology and other aspects of human sciences.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 90
42
TRANSLATION IN CZECH REPUBLIC Official language: Czech
The Prague University was founded in the year 1348; with this the Bible was translated from Latin to Czech. Written in Czech, the novel The Good Soldier Svejk (also spelled Schweik ) (1921) by Jaroslav Hašek, is marked as the first anti-war novel of Czech. This novel was translated into many languages including Portuguese and French (with censorship). The significance of this novel could be understood from the fact that the name of protagonist has been taken as it is in the Czech dictionary to refer to a subverted human being. The word Schweik has also been recorded in the dictionary of English language as a loanword. There are well known authors from Czech about whom we know through translation such as Franz Kafka; Max Brod, Franz Werfel, Rainer Maria Rilke, Karl Kraus, Egon Erwin Kisch and so on. Jaroslav Seifert was the only recipient of Nobel Prize of Literature (1984) from Czech. As per UNESCO’s Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger there are 04 languages which have almost reached the point of extinction.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 91
1.4
Translation as Appropriation of Indigenous Languages by English
_____________________________________________________________________________
Indigenous peoples have the right to revitalize, use, develop and transmit to future generations their histories, languages, oral traditions, philosophies, writing systems and literatures, and to designate and retain their own names for communities, places and persons. (The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, UNDRIP , Article 13)
Indigenous peoples have the right to establish and control their educational systems and institutions providing education in their own languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning. (UNDRIP , Article 14).
43
TRANSLATION IN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
Official Language: French
Recognized languages in Congo are Lingala, Kikongo, Swahili and Tshiluba. After years of exploitation, psychological and economic destruction by the colonizers, the writers of Republic of the Congo, have marked themselves in the list of literary canons. Mukala Kadima-Nzuji and Georges Ngal, literary critics and Désiré-Joseph Basembe, Albert Mongita and Kashi M'Bika
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 92
Katende the playwrights are some important authors of Congo. It is pertinent to note here that literature and culture of Congo mirrors the real state of sociological and cultural patterns of Congo. That is why the language used by Congo writers truly captures their identity as a citizen of Congo. Congolese writer, Henri Lopes, while translating from European works gives more weight-age to the native language (Vakunta 20). We can easily understand this when we read his novel Le Pleurer-Rite (1982) which gives more importance to his native language than the French language. Through translation we can read and understand the history of Congo. Ntumb Diur, a woman writer from Congo, wrote Zaïna qui hurle dans la nuit (Zaïna who Screams in the Night) which also got first prize at the 1983 RFI Concours Théâtral Inter-Africain. Prix International. As per UNESCO’s Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger Bwisi is "definitely endangered" and Bonjo is "severely endangered" language of Congo.
I consider English as a language for international trade and commerce and therefore it is necessary that a few people learn it… and I would like to encourage those to be well versed (in English) and expect them to translate the masterpieces of English into the vernaculars. (Mahatma Gandhi)
Heritage language, ethnic language, minority language, autochthonous language or indigenous language is the language spoken by the indigenous people of a nation. Indigenous languages are less academic and more realistic that is why most of them don't even have their own orthography. The Constitution of India officially recognizes 17 indigenous languages (Encyclopedia of Literary Translation into English by Classe). These languages are indigenous because there is no writing system, no systematic or grammatical studies and are just used to communicate within a culture and community. If we call India a land of translators it won’t be a hyperbole. Indians are bilingual and even trilingual. We have already told you that English is the lingua franca of India. We need English language not for seeking attention of the English speaking world but for communicating within geographically and culturally vast India. English helps crosscultural communication within India. But speaking in English is a trend in post colonial countries like India. Even parents prefer their children to speak in English than in native languages. Have you seen this latest movie Hindi Medium? This movie truly captures the current scenario about the craze of English language in India. This craze mingled with other innumerable drawbacks is creating “linguicide” of minority or indigenous languages. There is a need to inculcate indigenous languages in school. That’s why the important role
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 93
of schools can never be undermined. But there is no need to discard learning of English language. In schools, we have to promote these indigenous languages and bilingualism through translation. The indigenous languages need digital makeover which cannot be done without the use of English language. In language democracy, legal status should be given to these languages. Native languages are to be promoted through media, songs, literature and so on. But above all the denial of native language in education will lead to detachment from own culture in many ways. That is why a systematic and scientific approach is needed for their revival. We must learn to respect our own language. But English will prove to be a catalyst in this case. For that matter, ‘The Indian English’ belongs to us (Indians). Raja Rammohan Roy translated Vedic scriptures into English. Thereafter, many translations of Hindi and Sanskrit texts like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Panchatantra, Ashtangahridaya, Arthshastra, Hitopdesa, Yogsutra, Rig-Veda, BhagavadGita, Kalidasa’s Shakuntalam were done into English language. We cannot forget Tagore's translation of Gitanjali (1913) Now the trend is so that whatsoever is written in English is immediately translated into Indian languages liks Bangla, Urdu, Pubjabi, Drivian and so on. We have Shakespearean tragedies (as one famous translation of ,The Hamlet, by Harivansh Rai Bachhan), poems of the scholars from the West and so on which gradually were transformed from English into regional languages of India and Hindi language. For that matter, we have to visit the History of Indian Translation Literature, especially of the 20th Century. The government-owned publication houses like the Sahitya Academy and the National Book Trust publishes creative works in indeginous languages which are translated into English.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 94
44
TRANSLATION IN DENMARK Official language: Danish
Faroese, Greenlandic and German are some recognized regional languages of Denmark. The real spirit of Danish literature is in myths and folklore. Henrik Pontoppidan (1857-1943), a realist author from Denmark got the Nobel Prize of Literature (1917). Later , Johannes Vilhelm Jensen (1873-1950) was also awarded the Nobel Prize of Literature (1944). Gustav Johannes Wied (1858 –1914) and Peter Høeg (1957) are also great Danish authors whose works are known to the world through translation. Thorkild Bjørnvig got Aristeion Prize (2006) for his Udsat på hjertets bjerge (Selected Poems). To promote art and drama of Denmark the Danish Arts Foundation gives away award to the translators who publish Danish translation.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
1.5
Let us Sum up
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 95
____________________________________________________________________________
So dear Students how was your reading? You must visit Youtube and watch videos and lectures (specifically of Prof Anthony Pym) to enrich your knowledge and have a real time classroom experience. ___________________________________________________________________________
1.6
Important Questions
___________________________________________________________________________
Q1. What is untranslatability? Explain with examples. Q2. What do you understand by ‘Cultural Gap’? How to fill it up? Q3. How English through translation is transforming Indigenous languages of India?
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 96
45
TRANSLATION IN DJIBOUTI Official languages: Arabic and French
Somali and Afar are recognized national languages of Djibouti. In the literary works of Djibouti we can succinctly observe the influence of Somali, Afar, French, Arab, and Ottoman arts and cultures. Djibouti is rich in oral literature and folklore. Many forms of poetry is written in Djibouti. The most famous form is Gabay (an epic poem) which is very complex having alliterative schemes and long narratives. "The status of a good gabay poet is extremely high, but he is expected to produce something worth listening to" (Laurence 62). Abdourahman A. Waberi (b 1965), a writer from Djibouti, writes in Somali language. The French literary magazine Lire included his name in the "50 Writers of Future." His works have been translated into many languages. His novel Transit (2012) was chosen finalist for the Best Translated Book Award (2013). The narratives contained in Transit "reveal parallel stories of war, child soldiers, arms trafficking, drugs, and hunger" (back cover of Transit).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation Unit V Translation in India
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 97
Structure 5. 1
Objectives
5.2
Definitions: Anuvaad, Bhashantar, Roopantar
5.3
Key Terms: Rasa, Dhvani, Auchitya
5.4
Reading Translation/Cultural Difference, Contexts and Language
5.5
Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s “Garden of Spice.” 5.5.1 About the Author 5.5.2 Complete text of “Garden of Spice” 5.5.3 Marathi: The Source Text and Hindi: The Intermediate Text 5.5.4 English: The Target Text
5.6
Jaywanti Dimri’s “The Inner Eye.” 5.6.1 About the Author 5.6.2 Complete text of “The Inner Eye” 5.6.3 Source Text: Hindi 5.6.4 Target Text: English
5.7
Let us Sum up
5.8
Important Questions
______________________________________________________________________________
5. 1
Objectives
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 98
_____________________________________________________________________________
Here in this lesson we’ll understand the key terms such as Anuvaad, Bhashantar, Roopanta, Rasa, Dhvani and Auchitya. We’ll also read Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s “Garden of Spice and Jaiwanti Dimri’s “The Inner Eye.” There’s a lot to learn dear Students…So let us move on…
46
TRANSLATION IN DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Official language: Spanish
The Dominican Republic has seen long years of dictatorship and political disturbances ever since 1492. These disturbances are truly recorded by 19th Cent Dominican priest: "Spanish I was born yesterday/in the afternoon I became French/Ethiopian I was in the night/today English I am, they say/My Lord what in the end will I be?" The first literary creation was perhaps poetry in the Dominican Republic (Smith 263). Leonor de Ovando (died 1610) is "one of the first if not the very first poet of America" (Smith 263). In the present age, the literature here is blossoming with its varied colors and creative scriptors such as Pedro Paix (1952), a novelist; Manuel de Jesus Galvan (1834-1910), a sociological novelist; Aida cartagena Portalatin and Hilma Contreras, women novelists and short story writers; Pedro Mir, a prose writer and March Veloz Maggiolo are some of the large number of brilliant authors and thinkers of the Dominican Republic. Viriato Sencion wrote Los que falsigicaron la firma de Dios (They Forged the Signature of God) in Spanish, about the period of Rafael Trujillo from 1930 to 1961 and church-state oppression. Later it was translated by Asa Zata in 1995. This is as of now the bestselling book in the history of the Dominican Republic. Marisela Rizik who is an author, filmmaker and scrip writer wrote El Tiempo del Olvido (Of Forgotten Times, 1996) in Spanish, a story about Dominican ruler and dictator Rafael Trujillo. This work was translated by Isabel Zakrzewski Brown into English. Manlio Arugueta's Little Red Riding Hood in the Red Light District, written in Spanish, is a love story in the state of political turmoil. This book was translated by Edward Waters Hood into English.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 99
____________________________________________________________________________
1.2
Definitions: Anuvaad, Bhashantar, Roopantar
____________________________________________________________________________
The meaning of anuvaad in Hindi is to repeat what has already been said. Of this compound word the prefix anu means to repeat and the suffix vaad means the sound. According to Ramchandra Shukla, in his Hindi Sahitya ka Itihaaas, around 1343 the first recorded process of anuvaad was in Brajbasha. In 1798 (?), Ram Prasad Niranjana wrote his Bhasha Yogvashisht which was translated by Pt. Daulatram in his Jain Padmpurana. In Hindi translation studies, Source Language is known as Stortr Bhasha), Target language is known as Lakshya Bhasha (लय भाषा) whereas Translation Equivalence is known as Anuvad Samaanarthatka (अनुवाद समानाथाकता). For fulfilling Anuvad Samaanarthatka in Hindi we usually call Aristotle as Arastu (अरतु), Plato as Platoni (लाटोन or लेटो), French as Fransisi (ां ससी) and so on. In Hindi translation studies, primarily these kinds of anuvaads are in vogue:
1. Shabdash Anuvaad (श.दश: अनुवाद)
:
Word
for
word
translation. 2. Shabdashrayi Anuvaad (श.दा;यी अनुवाद)
: Translation of one sentence
of Source Text at a time. 3. Bhavanuvaad (भावानुवाद)
:
Sense
for
:
Free translation.
(contextual translation). 4.Chaayanuvaad (छायानव ु ाद)
sense
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 100
5. Saranuvaad (सारानव ु ाद)
:
Translation
of
the
essence or the gist translation. 6.Tikanuvaad/Bhashanuvaad/Vyakhyanuvaad(Lटकानव ु ाद/ भाषानव ु ाद/MयाNयानव ु ाद)
7.Rupantar (Tपांतरण)
:
Paraphrasing.
:
Adaptation
8.Vartanusar/Ashu-Anuvaad (वतानुसार/आशु-अनुवाद)
:
Interpretation.
Let us now look at different definitions given by the scholars of Hindi: Mahadevi Verma: अनुवाद अनंत: अपूणत ा क^ अनुभूत ह` दे ता है . भाषा, bवचारd और मनोभावd का पfरधान है और इसी iिkट से एक bवचारक या कवी mक उपलि.धयां िजस भाषा मp Mयqत हुई हp, उससे उsहt दस ू ा मt लाना संभव नह`ं तो दkु कर अवuय ू र` वेशभष रहता हp. Translation: Translation always gives us the feeling of incompleteness. It is not possible to transform languge, thoughts and emotions of a poet or a thinker/author from SL to TL. Dharmvir Bharti: जब कह`ं mकसी दस ू र` भाषा मt ... mकसी कृतव क^ उपलि.ध नये कbव को होती है तो उसका सहज उसाह उस कृतव को अपनी भाषा मt पुनः yतुत करना चाहता है । उसको सहसा यह लगता है mक ‘अरे सचमच ु }बलकुल यह` बात तो वह कहना चाहता था पर कहने का इतना सट`क ढं ग उसे नह`ं आ पा रहा था।’ और वह काMयकृत वयं उसमt एक रचनामक उसाह जगा दे ती है और अनुवाद उसी का पfरणाम होता है । लेmकन यह`ं पर एक कLठनाई भी आ खड़ी होती है । मूल कृत मt और उसके अनुवाद के बीच मt द`वारt बहुत बड़ी रहती हp।
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 101
Translation:
After
reading
brilliant
and
exceptional
work
a
great
scholar,/translator cannot stop himself/herself from rewriting it into another language. The scholar feels that what has been written truly represents his/her thoughts. This curiosity leads to translation. But the translator/scholar has to face lot of difficulties and problems before translating from Source Language to Target Language.
Bholanath Tiwari : भाषा वsयामक yतीकd क^ Mयवथा है और अनव ु ाद है उsह` yतकd का yतथापन, अथात एक भाषा के थान पर दस ू र` भाषा के नकटतम ( कथनत:और कयत:) समतु
य और सहज yतीकd का yयोग। इस yकार अनुवाद नकटतम, समतु
य और सहज yतyतीकन है । Translation: Language is a system of sounds. Translation is transformation of these sounds from SL to TL with equivalent symbols. Translation is the use of equivalent and close to the meaning, words or sense, essence contained in TL.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 102
47
TRANSLATION IN DOMINICA
Official language: English
Dominican Creole, Kwéyòl and French are vernacular languages spoken and understood in Dominica. As of now the literature of Dominica is known to the world more for its postcolonial leanings. One such example is the world famous Jean Rhys' Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) which was almost a retort to Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre (1847) and poor representation of colonial women in it. Phyllis Shand Allfrey (1908-1986) is also a distinguished name in the colonial literature of Dominica. In order to protect, Kwéyòl, the Creole language spoken in Dominica, a Creole movement was started in early 1950s. As per UNESCO’s Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger the language Carib is and extinct language of Dominica
Bhasantar means "another language," the difference between two or more languages, within language. According to Ed. Mohit K. Ray Bhasantar "stresses on change in the language of the text and thus it focuses on external reality" (33). In the process of bhasantar one has to translate SL according to its word formation. This becomes mechanical sometimes. As we have already seen that word-for-word translation or bhasantar can never be called an appropriate translation exercise. For the works of prose, bhasantar can be helpful to some extent but for capturing the real essence of poetry, it can never be sufficient. Rupantar or “change in the form”: The origin of rupantar dates back to the era when Sanskrit texts were translated into other vernacular languages. It is a kind of free translation based on adaption (please see the entry of adaption in Glossary). _____________________________________________________________________________________
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 103
5.3
Key Terms: Rasa, Dhvani, Auchitya
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Rasa theory is one of the most prominent theories of literary criticism. As it is based upon the ten human sentiments which are common to every human being. These emotions are love, humour, pity, anger, heroism, fear, disgust, amazement, parental love and peace. (Rama Kant Sharma 34)
48
TRANSLATION IN ECUADOR Offician language: Spanish
Most of the writers in Ecuador write in Spanish. The graffiti is the most powerful form of expression. When someone takes a leisurely round of Ecuador one cannot miss to read the history of this glorious country depicted with the street signs. Most of the streets and towns are named after national heroes of the country. It is believed that the literature of Ecuador is less known to the world. Jorge Icaza initiated the process of creating indigenous literature of Ecuador. His novel Huasipungo (1934) projected the brutal realism which the inhabitants of Ecuador had to suffer and the innocent naturalistic life style with which they actually lived. This novel has now been published into may editions (of the original) as also innumerable translations (in almost 40 languages). We can get a copy of this translated novel titled The Villagers online. Here are some lines from translated version of this novel: “by the slowness of the suffering Indians, cried out, raising the whip which hung from his right hand:"You'll have to run until you swear." Ay!" "Run, goddamit! Run..." (115). There are other brilliant authors from Ecuador whose name could be mentioned here. Although there is a long list of great authors from Ecuador, they are: Juan Leon
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 104
Mera, Luis A. Martinez, Gonzalo Zaldumbide, Juan Montalvo (wrote most of his work in exile), Abdon Ubidia, Juan Andrade Heyman, Francisco Proano Arandi, Raul Perez Torres, Adalberto Ortiz, Benjamin Carrion and Nelson Estupinan Bass. According to the list of endangered languages produced by UNESCO there are 14 languages which are reaching the point of extinction
There are many references to the word Rasa in The Vedas and The Upnishads which primarily mean juice (of plant, taste, flavour, bliss and so on). The Rasa Siddhanta (Rasa theory) was given by the great Indian scholar Bharat Muni, a theatrologist and musicologist, in his Natya Shashtra (Chapter 6). For him Rasa was for drama (natya rasa). That is why to be applied to the Indian dramaturgy. These rasas indicate bhaava (the mental state) which are actually of forty-nine types. They activate human vaasna (the inborn cultural instinct). With the passage of time, the concept of rasa was applied to other streams such as anthropology, psychology, dance, poetry, painting, music, dresses and every form of art. A later developer, a Kashmiri Shaivite named Abhinava Gupta (c. 1000 CE), a polymath, developed this Rasa Siddhanta and derived a poetic theory out of it. According to the Rasa Sutras of Bharat Muni rasas are nispati (having no knowledge element but for sure have emotive inclinations). According to Abhinava Gupta, "The realization of rasa depends on the comprehension of vibhaava, anubhaava and vyabhicaari bhaavas. This lasts only so long as cognition of these factors lasts and ceases to exist when these factors vanish." Bharat Muni mentioned eight types of rasas: i) Shringra rasa (related to love); ii) Hasya Rasa (related to humour), iii) Bibhtasa Rasa (related to disgust), iv) Rudra Rasa (related to anger), v) Karun Rasa (related to compassion) vi) Vir Rasa (related to heroic deeds), vii) Bhayanaka Rasa (related to horror) and viii) Adbutha Rasa (related to the amazing). Out of these, an add-on, Staayibhauva (primary emotion) is excluded from rasas as it is no more an emotion which affects the bhava. It is believed by some that Bharat Muni also included one more Rasa known as Santh Rasa (related to peace and detachment, as we can see in a drama representing Lord Buddha after getting enlightenment). ‘This one (shanta) is the most controversial of all rasas. It is believed by many that in fact Bharata Muni has enumerated only eight rasas and shanta (tranquil) is not one of them. However in some editions of the Natyashastra, including the Nirnayasagar edition, the shanta rasa is discussed.’ Later, Vatsalya Rasa (love of parents for their children) was included in the list by Vishvanath. According to Hrsikesa:
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 105
Rasa is a fusion of word and meaning, that bathes the minds of readers, with savor of bliss. It is the truth of poetry, shining without cessation. Clear to the heart, it is yet beyond the words.
49
TRANSLATION IN EGYPT Egyptian Arabic is the national language of Egypt. Egypt has always been rich in literature and philosophy. Writings from Egypt have variedly been translated into European and other languages. Discovered in 1880, translated versions of Ancient Pyramid texts of Egypt such as Mouth-Opening Ritual, Book of the Dead and innumerable coded texts which are inscribed on sarcophagi, chests, papyri, tombs and so on have remained an area of interest for anthropologists and linguists. The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in Egyptian vernacular. Egyptian authors usually use vernacular poetry to express themselves. We can have a glance at their creativity by reading poets such as Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi. Naguib Mahfouz (1911-2006) received the Nobel Prize of Literature in the year 1988. His novel Children of Gebelawi was not well received by different religious groups. It was controversial in nature for which Mahfouz was stabbed in 1994. However, he survived the attack. One must read these Egyptian works for gaining more knowledge about its value system and cultural ambience, they are Vertigo by Ahmed Mourad; Woman at Point Zero by Nawal El Saadawi; Maryam's Maze by Mansoura Ez-Eldin; Beirut 39 collectively written by six Egyptian writers; A Daughter of ISIS by Nawal El Saadawi; Black Magic by Hamdy El-Gazzar; Revolution 2.0 by Wael Ghoniem and so on. General Revolution: On the Front Line Between Tradition and Change in the Middle East (2003) by Rachel Aspden is reviewed positively by the
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 106
academia. According to UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are three languages which have reached the level of extinction
Dhvani: Anandavardhana is credited for giving the theory of Dhvani. Anandavardhana in Dhvanyaok worked on Rasa-Dhvani which he considered inseparable entities that create visible and audible affects. Later, Abhinava Gupta developed it. In ancient poetics, scholars stressed that Rasa and Dhvani are imperative elements for writing and teaching drama and poetry. That is why Anundavardhann said, "The soul of poetry is dhvani as the wise have said." There are two kinds of meanings in a sentence: one is literal and the other is suggested. We can understand the suggested meaning if we understand Sphota (the burst out of air, the energy, from a word which actually is the result of our conscious and unconscious thoughts). In drama, Dhvani (as resonance) is generated in response to emotions evoked by string instruments such as the Sitar, the Vichtra Vina or the Sarangi. In Dhvanyalokunl, Anundavardhann opines: According to the wise, dhvani is that specific qua1ity of words and meanings which elucidates the explicit meaning overshadowing the implicit meaning. Again in the same book Anandavardhana differentiates three types of Dhvanis: 'vastu dhvani (carries a rare idea), 'alankaara dhvani' (contains a figure of speech), and 'rasa dhvani.'(contains one or many rasas). However, Abhinava Gupta has divided Dhavni into thirty five categories. Dhvani is the prime force in poetic composition. It is not an easy task to make out the meaning of rasa dhvani as it contains the Bhava (the feelings) which is communicated with 'vyanjaka’ which further carries suggestive meaning(s). Broadly there are three aspects of Dhvani: a) Abhida ( it carries the literal meaning); b) Laksana (it carries a deeper meaning); c) Vyanjana (it carries suggestive meaning). Vaiyaakaranaa opines that Sphota is Vyanjana (suggested meaning). In other words, Dhavni is Sphota. That is why the word Dhvani or Sphota usually refers to suggestive meaning which carries a suggestive word. Dhvani communicates conventional meaning and symbol, suggestive word and suggestive meaning. According to Anandavnrdhana the Rasa Dhvani differentiates itself through Asumlakshyn Krama Dhvani ( which resides in syllable), word
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 107
(shabda) and the phonetic content of a word (shabda), sentence, Bhaava Dhvani, Sabha Dhvani and Bhaavoodaya Dhvani. The krama (order) for gathering or knowing the meaning from a word has a directional force which goes through three processes: from sound to word (Sound>Word), from Word to Sphota (Word>Sphota) and from Sphota to Meaning (Sphota >Meaning). That is why Dhvani and Sphota are two integral elements of poetry. Sphota is the sound and significance of a word, especially of "antima buddhi graahya" (the last word) or
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 108
"antima
varna
graahya"
(
the
last
syllable).
Fig. Bhavas in Bharatnatyam. The first picture shows Shrigara rasa (Romance), the second represents Hasya rasa (Humour), the third Karuna rasa (Sorrow), the fourth is Adhbuta rasa (Wonder), the fifth is Bibhatsa (Heroic), the sixth is Veera rasa (Heroic), the seventh is again Veera rasa (heroic), the eighth is Adhbuta rasa (Wonder) and the final ninth is Shantha rasa (Calm). (Shwetha Vipin)
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 109
50
TRANSLATION IN EL SALVADOR
Official language: Spanish
Works written by the authors of El Salvador forms important part of the world literature in Spanish. Spanish speaking countries are known as Hispanic countries. Inhabitants of El Salvador have great interest in poetry. El Salvador has suffered a long phase of political disturbances and dictatorship because of which much creative Hispanic literature from this country is produced in other world. There is a long list of Salvadoran poets and authors such as : Juan José Cañas (1826-1918), who also wrote National Anthem of El Salvador, mostly wrote nostalgic poems about El Salvador; Luis Salvador Efraín Salazar Arrué (1899-1975), a painter and author, is also known as the father of short story in the modern Central America; David Escobar Galindo (1943), a doctor and poet; Jorge Galán who wrote most of his works in exile as he had written against "feudal concentration of wealth in the hands of small circles of Salvadorans" (New York Times); Sandra Benitez (1941), who writes mostly on civil war in El Salvador; Mario Bencastro (1949-), a painter and writer in exile, wrote Disparo en la catedral ( A Shot in the Cathedral, originally in Spanish) was also in the final wait list of the Novedaddes-Diana International Literary Prize; Claribel Alegri, a writer in exile, writes poetry whereas Manlio Argueta, a novelist and poet who wrote his famous One Day Life (originally written in Spanish), disturbing story of a peasant’s family and its confrontation with violence and fear in El Salvador. Lenca is an extinct language of El Salvador. Pipil is critically endangered language (UNSECO).
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 110
Auchitya : Kshemendra, an 11th Century Sanskrit poet from Kashmir in his Aucityavicaracarca gave his concept of Aucitya (propriety). He took his education under the great scholar Abhinavagupta. He stated: “the propriety (aucitya) is the soul of poetry, and when any description, alamkara, rasa etc. oversteps its proper bounds it hurts the rasa and mars the poetry.” The cardinal element of rasa according to him is auchitya as it is an important ingredient which could derive rasa. The only obstacle to rasa is anauchitya (impropriety). Even Abhinava Gupta frequently and collectively uses Rasa, Dhwani and Auchitya in his works. In poetry, it is very relevant to mark the proper or improper (Rajasekhara in his Kavya-mimamsa). For Anandavardhana Auchitya is also a kind of rasa, which is the most essential one. Auchitya gives harmony to rasas. According to Raghavan: When we see Kuntaka equating pada-aucitya with pada-vakrata, we may well exclaim that his vakroti is only another name for Aucitya…Kuntaka’s vakrokti and Ksemendra’s Aucitya are identical. According to Kshemendra twenty categories represent Auchitya. Some of these categories of language are: Bhasha aucitya, (propriety of language), Saundaryaucitya (propriety of aesthetics), Vyakaranaucitya (propriety of grammar and linguistics), Samskriti aucitya (propriety of culture), Pratibha aucitya (propriety of creativity) and so on. 51
TRANSLATION IN FRANCE
Official language: French
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 111
It won’t be a hyperbole if we say that France has almost dominated the philosophical scene of European countries. France produced brilliant philosopher in all ages such as René Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Nicolas Malebranche, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Victtor Cousin, Auguste Comte, Jean-Paul Sartre, François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and so on. The most recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature are from France. That’s why here is a ‘long list’ of recipients of the Nobel Prize of Literature: Ivan Bunin (born in Russia), 1933; Roger Martin du Gard, 1937; André Gide, 1947; François Mauriac, 1952; Albert Camus, 1957;Saint-John Perse, 1960; Sully Prudhomme, 1901; Frédéric Mistral, 1904; Romain Rolland, 1915; Anatole France, 1921;Henri Bergson, 1927; Claude Simon,1985; Claude Cohen-Tannoudji ; J. M. G. Le Clézio, 2008 and Patrick Modiano, 2014. These canonized authors and philosophers are now the part of syllabus in many universities and are understood through translation around the world. Although, translating from French into any other language is a challenging task. The philosopher Jacques Derrida in many works claimed that French works have often been misunderstood by the world because of faulty/slippery process of translation (see Deconstruction). In France, there are about 26 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5.4
Reading Translation/Cultural Difference, Contexts and Language
_____________________________________________________________________________________
There are many problems when we talk of inter-cultural communication and reading cultural differences in translation. As I have earlier pointed out it is important to have knowledge of the cultures of SL and TL. Let us look at the way scholars find solutions to these problems: Newmark: Culture is "the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression." Bassnett: "[T]he translator must tackle the SL text in such a way that the TL version will correspond to the SL version... To attempt to impose the value system of the SL culture onto the TL culture is dangerous ground."
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 112
Nida: “The Target Reader should be able to: “understand as much as he can of the customs, manner of thought, and means of expression of the SL context.” Venuti: "[T]ranslation is a process that involves looking for similarities between language and culture – particularly similar messages and formal techniques – but it does this because it is constantly confronting dissimilarities. It can never and should never aim to remove these dissimilarities entirely. A translated text should be the site at which a different culture emerges, where a reader gets a glimpse of a cultural other and resistency. A translation strategy based on an aesthetic of discontinuity can best preserve that difference, that otherness, by reminding the reader of the gains and losses in the translation process and the unbridgeable gaps between cultures."
52
TRANSLATION IN GERMANY Official Language: German
In
Germany, since time immemorial philosophers, writers and geniuses in every field
produced insightful, original and brilliant works. One of such geniuses was Johannes Gutenberg. After borrowing money from Fust and his twenty years of hard work, in November 6, 1455, in Mainz, Germany, Gutenberg took the first ever print outs of The Bible (Rees 09). He is also known as the first printer of the world who introduced printing. Germanic works got translated into many languages; although "its reception and translation in Australia and Spain was quite remarkable, and very up to date" (Broome 25). Efforts were made to popularize German poetry by Graham Chesters who wrote the textbook The Appreciation of French Poetry 1850-1950. The ATA Ungar German Translation Award is given biennially for literary translation from German into English. But there are some challenges which a translator has to encounter while translating from German: "German texts, use more rare words, are significantly longer, contain more difficult grammar and more sentences containing subordinate clauses" (Desai 66). The second most recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 113
are from Germany, they are: Theodor Mommsen (1902); Rudolf Christoph Eucken (1908); Paul von Heyse (1910); Gerhart Hauptmann (1912); Carl Spitteler (he used German language in his works) (1919); Thomas Mann (1929); Hermann Hesse (Born in Germany) (1946); Nelly Sachs (born in Germany) (1966); Heinrich Böll (1972); Elias Canetti (born in Ruse, Bulgaria but wrote in German) (1981); Günter Grass (1999); Elfriede Jelinek (2004) and Herta Müller (born in Romania; although her native language was German) (2009). Other than this long list of Nobel Prize winners in Literature, there are Nobel Laureates in other streams too. Many philosophers from Germany are recognized for their meticulous works; some of them are Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900); Karl Marx (1818-1883); Martin Heideffer (1889-1976); Jurgen Habermas (born 18 June 1929); Hans-Georg Gadmer (1900-2002); Albert Einstein (1979-1955) and so on. Adolf Hitler's controversial autobiographical work Mein Kampf (My Struggle) (1925) is known to be one of the bestsellers in Germany. Translation of this book invited controversies in almost every language of the world. We have a long list of holocaust literature which is/was the aftereffect of Hitler’s political regime in Germany. The Diary of a Young Girl (1942-44) (originally Het Achterhuis; English: The Secret Annex) a memoir in the form of diary by Anne Frank (a young victim of holocaust) is widely translated and read.
Coulthard :"The translator's first and major difficulty ... is the construction of a new ideal reader who, even if he has the same academic, professional and intellectual level as the original reader, will have significantly different textual expectations and cultural knowledge."
Newmark: "Food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of national culture; food terms are subjected to the widest variety of translation procedures." After reading and understanding the view-points of these scholars we will dwell into various aspects of translation problems encountered in the entire creative process. We will explain these problems with examples which will futher clarify your opinions and insights on it: Actually culture of a region comprises of life-style of the people, language they speak, their eating habits, language, dance forms, kind of clothes they wear and so on. Culture is an inseparable identity of human being. We have already given an example as to how the word ‘owl’ and ‘cat’ can be placed with different meaning in a same sentence (due to its shifted cultural location). If you can recollect we have also told you as to how
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 114
the word ‘Sidku’ contains cultural elements in it and how to translated theses differences. Take for example the Hindi language (SL) and the English language (TL). In Hindi, we use aap to show respect to the elders whereas in English no such word is used.
Hindi: App mere adhyapak ho. English: You are my teacher. For the second person singular above there is no equivalent pronoun which actually suggests respect in English language. But if we use Tum mere adyapak ho then it will be considered derogatory. Sometimes to show respect in Hindi people nowadays used the suffix ji after the proper name which is ungrammatical and improper in English language. But still it is used like: Sandeep Sharma ji, Gandhi ji and so on. In the same way, the plural ‘personal pronoun’ is used in Hindi to respect one’s own reference (which is no where in the lexicon of English language): Hindi
:
Hum ye kitab pad rahe hai.
English
:
We are reading this book (wrong).
For all these, we need to have strong holding on the cultural roots, language and context of communication in Hindi and English. That is what all translators do.
________________________________________________________________________
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 115
5.5
Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s “Garden of Spice”
________________________________________________________________________ Dear Students, for your convenience we have divided the Section 1.5 into three parts. Here they are: ________________________________________________________________________ 1.5.1 About the Author ________________________________________________________________________
Fig. Dr Usha Bande
Dr Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s also commonly called as Dr Usha Bande by her students and collegues is a translator, a polymath, academician, critic and author who lives in Shimla. She is a multilingual author. Her works have been written in English, Marathi and Hindi. Her story was published in Navbharat Times when she was a college student. Her first story in English was "Painter Sahib" (which is now in a collection titled Box of Stolen Moments). She actually started writing short stories in early 1970s. She has written Folk Traditions and Ecology in Himachal Pradesh (2008), The Novels of Anita Desai: A Study in Character and Conflicts (2000), Gita Mehta: Writing Home / Creating Homeland (Writers of the Indian Diaspora) (2009), Forts and Palaces of Himachal Pradesh (2013), Writing Resistance: A Comparative Study Of The Selected Novels by Women Writers (2006), Culture, Nature and Literature (2012) and so on. Other than this she has a long list
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 116
of research papers published in national and international journals. But for now she believes, “Academic writing satisfies your ego, creativity satisfies your urge to craft something original." _____________________________________________________________________________________
5.5.1 Complete text of “Garden of Spice” : Target Text, English ________________________________________________________________________ "Sing, Sayali! Come on! One, two three! There you go! Sing, Sayali, start."
Jaidev motivated and Sayali sat rearranging herself once more. She had started with the first note when the hall echoed with a resounding applause. And then, there was no stopping her. The smiling eyes, smiling lips and that young countenance.....! The whole song became vibrant. It filled her with the cheer and laughter of her being. Two tightly tied plaits, two large eyes and smiling lips...the little girl enchanted the listeners! When the program was over the audience gave a standing ovation and the auditorium reverberated with the sound of En core! En core! Sayali's song had cast a magic spell, and the evening was a great success. The curtains came down and the connoisseurs moved towards the stage to congratulate the young singer. Sayali got nervous, she became uneasy. Gauging the situation, Jaidev jumped with agility and picked her up to dash back stage but those scrawny and inert legs popped out, dangling visibly as if teasing the audience out of their euphoria. Jaidev stepped down the back steps; the people standing there made way for him almost reverentially, as if to alleviate his pain. Rupa too scurried after him. As they were waiting for the taxi, Rupa mused, looking at her husband, “so impatient to come and equally jittery to
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 117
leave,"Aloud she said,"Listen, Desai was looking for you.”
the
program
organizer,
Mr
"Hmm," Jaidev uttered absentmindedly. He stacked Sayali in the taxi and sat beside her. Rupa had no choice but to enter quietly. The taxi whirred. Rupa turned to Jaidev petulantly,"You could have at least thanked Desai. After all, it is he who organized the program. Put in so much effort." Jaidev did not respond. "Aai, how was my song?" "Ask your Baba!" she snapped. Turning to Jaidev she murmured, “How very moody of you! One can never be sure what may upset you. At least tell her how her performance was." "It was good, Sayali," Jaidev said looking remote. "Aai, I know they applauded the songs. But Aai, my legs! What would they have thought about them!" "What's there to think about, Sayali, besides pain? Truth can't be ignored, darling," Rupa sighed. "Yes Aai, they must have thought what a girl who cannot even stand." "Oh, shut up, Sayali. Will you." Jaidev snapped. Sayali fell silent. Thereafter no one talked. On reaching home, Sayali went to her corner by the window and sat quietly, as always. "Sayali, it's already late. Come and have your dinner and go to bed." Moving her legs with her hand, she dragged herself on to the stool. "Dinner is ready," Rupa called out, Jaidev was starting at his piece of the sky through the window of his room.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 118
"Come on. Sayali is already here on her stool," Rupa called out again. Jaidev came and sat down. "Baba, my legs, did they embarrass you today? But Baba, you are fit; Aai is also fit than me..." Rupa was moved. She said tenderly, "because you are beautiful like a star, you are out fairy. You are an artist, aren't you, Sayali. Nothing matters to an artist besides art. How beautifully you sang today! God! It was divine. The audience was so moved. They showed so much respect. They applauded whole-heartedly, didn't they? We are proud of you, dear, very proud." As always in such situations, Jaidev kept quiet. Before going to bed, Sayali broached the subject again, "Aai, Baba is annoyed with my legs, isn't he? Aai, why doesn't God create girls with whole legs?" "Everyone doesn’t get everything, Beta!" “Then God is not good. He doesn't give everything good to good people. Raghu is blind and mini is always ill. Why is it thus, Aai?" "Come on, Sayali. Sleep now. We'll talk about it tomorrow." Sayali slept restlessly that night. It was midnight. Gazing at the star-studded sky; Jaidev lay quietly reclining on his arms. "Is Sayali asleep?" “Yes. But she is upset. What had come over you?" "I don't know. I felt humiliated; no I felt infuriated at the pity and sympathy in people's eyes. What was my fault Rupa that this girl was born like this? Why did this have to happen to us? Tell me, why?" Jaidev went on breathlessly. He paused a while and started again, "We rationalize such ill-luck and put the blame on "destiny." We say we are reaping
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 119
the fruit of our Karma. You know me since the time we have been married. Tell me, have I ever harmed anybody? Ever robbed or cheated anybody? A simple man like me...all dreams are shattered, Rupa, all dreams..." Obviously, Jaidev was upset but what could Rupa do or say? Wherefrom could she bring words to console him. Rupa had always seen him jovial. It was difficult now to imagine a sad man. Her image of him has been of a happy-go-lucky man. He would head straight home after an eight-hour job. The moment he stepped in, he was his cheerful self- laughing, talking, humming. There was a little disappointment in their life as they did not have children but he would cleverly sublimate this gap by immersing himself whole-heartedly in music. Besides there was his friend circle and many other activities to keep him busy. He was so jovial and cheerful that nothing could dampen his spirit. Rupa always thought of his as her lion-hearted Jaidev. Sayali entered their lives a little late but she filled their home with joy. Baby Sayali always had a chuckle for everybody. With the chubby cherubim face and a healthy body she was an attractive child but only as long as her two sticks of legs were not visible. Then there surged a wave of pity at those lifeless pieces of wood. Below the waist Sayali was just lifeless, dead. The parents tried every remedy, doctors consulted, vaids and hakims visited; then there was a series of vows and fasts, charms and quacks and amulets and many other things. Nothing helped. Rupa's eyes, tired of shedding tears, dried ultimately and she decided to face the reality. Jaidev would often get irritated at his hard luck; sometimes he would be emotional and at times just bewildered. "Who cursed this little star, Rupa? And why should she become our destiny?' "We have to accept it, Jaidev as it is. No point grieving or cursing. When we accept things with all our heart, the pain becomes lighter, “Rupa would say calmly.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 120
"I can do without your philosophy, Rupa. Keep it with you," Jaidev said decisively making it clear that he would have no nonsense. "For me, it is just unbearable to see her sitting at the window clapping while children of her age dance and jump and frolic." "It’s ok, Jaidev. She has accepted her lot. She is just a child but she seems wise for her age. I think it is time we take her outdoors in the evenings." "Outdoors! A show-piece like this?" Jaidev scorned. Rupa felt a surge of anger bloating her throat. She swallowed her bitterness but her distorted face mirrored her feelings. There was a kind of revulsion there, revulsion for the heartless man who was the child's father. Jaidev was quick to note her reaction and compromisingly, "OK, we'll take her outdoors, but..."
added
"But...what!" "The outside world is cruel, Rupa, heartless! Don't you understand how other children might make fun of her. Can we tolerate that? Besides, if we meet someone from my office or may be some acquaintance..." "So what? Shall we confine her to this window for fear of what people might say? Let them say what they wish, Jaidev. I never thought you were so weal." Rupa exclaimed breathlessly. She did not know what she said. But she saw Jaidev's face contorting. "I cannot bear this any longer, Rupa. This futile wait! It's been five years now and I am still waiting for our second child to come. You seem to have lost all your emotions, desires, feelings. Your feminity. Where are these? Why, you've even forgotten the need to dress up! You have become lifeless like her legs, frigid. No seed can sprout you. Give her away to an orphanage. I don't want this girl."
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 121
Rupa swallowed a lump in her throat. Next day, when Jaidev had left for office, she took Sayali with her, leaving a letter for Jaidev. "I have given birth to Sayali. I'm her mother. I will not let her be an orphan. I am not annoyed with you nor do I deny your passion. My Sayali is like a cankerous vine-green at the top but lifeless below. She is just fine as she is. I shall tend her, nurse her myself, if you can't." Four days later Jaidev reached Rupa's parents' home and brought back his wife and daughter. Things changed since then. He was no longer the old vivacious Jaidev, but nor was he the irritable and self-pitying Jaidev. He had got hold on himself and was making efforts to accept the reality of Sayali's existence. Every evening he would take her to the nearby playground. Once a week Rupa took her to school, rest of the days she taught her at home. Rupa's mind was focused on one thing only- to educate Sayali, to make her self-dependent and confident so that the world looked at her with admiration and respect, not with pity. Sayali reached her fourth grade. It was then that Jaidev realized that the child had talent for music which could be channelized. "Rupa, I have decided to teach her music. From now on, Sayali will practice music with me every evening." It was a bold decision. The training and Sayali seemed to pick up the enough. Jaidev was filled with melodious voice reverberated in the
started in right earnest tunes and strains fast happiness whenever her air.
Rupa was content; her anger had vanished. Sayali seemed poised for a bright future with the glow of music around her. One day, Rupa said casually, "Jaidev, my only dream now is to see her shine. Her deformity doesn't hurt as she has the strength of music as a prop.”
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 122
"That’s right, Rupa. But can't we have a baby boy with strong feet to stand on. Our child fit like other children," Jaidev pleaded.\ Rupa shuddered. It had come back again full circle- the craving for a son. She did not wish to annoy Jaidev but she did not want another pregnancy. "Let's just forget what is not to be. Let us try to live with the present, Jaidev." "Sayali is quite self-dependent now. Maybe you can arouse your passion." said Jaidev with tenderness. "Sayali is in the 10th standard. Would it look good to have a baby at this stage," Rupa pleaded to dodge his demand. Jaidev trained Sayali with care putting his heart in his training sessions and the day came when they decided to organize the concert. That was the day Sayali's art reached its peak with public applause certifying her talent. Jaidev's heart was torn apart. There was success and yet there was defeat. That night he sat in his bed. “Rupa.” “Hmm.” "With this moonlight as our witness let's start our new life today." "What do you mean?" "You have understood haven't you? When words fall silent, life opens up its secrets. Let's tread that beautiful path." Rupa feigned ignorance, “What will become of Sayali?" "Silly, this is our journey. Ours together. As for Sayali, I have already decided. We shall organize more programs like this one; accumulate money to make her stand on her feet. Today's success has given me confidence, we can achieve it."
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 123
"Yes, if God has denied her feet to stand on, we shall five her the feet of education to stand on." "Well, Rupa, fulfill my desire. Bloom, Rupa! Bloom! Blossom like jasmine. Days are spent worrying about Sayali, at least let the nights be pleasant. Let our nights pay for the day's labour." Soon days turned dreamy. Nights filled with fragrance. One morning Rupa slept late, Jaidev queried tenderly, “Why Rupa, don't you feel like getting up, today?" I'm exhausted. I was sick all through the night." Jaidev was excited at the news but he said with concern, "You should have woken me up." This is the only time you get for rest. It's always a long day for you office and then reaching practice to Sayali. It's exhausting." "Shall we go to the doctor?" "No. I'll be fine. Why waste money!" "Waste! Why, by that standard then even our daily Dal Roti is also a waste, isn't it? Why survive at all, then?" "For Sayali." Rupa was happy at the turn of events in her life but the thought of Sayali always felt a gnawing feeling. One may try to be rational but sometimes guilt nibbles at your inner being even though it is none of your fault. The baby taking shape in her womb will be born one day, what will become of Sayali then? Jaidev left for the office. Rupa was unwell the whole day. Sayali was all by herself in the room. Sitting by the window, she was studying. Rupa entered the room to see Sayali. She was looking out intently and did not hear her mother enter the room. Her books were still in the bag. Rupa went near her
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 124
and stood close by her. Sayali was so engrossed that she did not notice her presence. Rupa looked out with curiosity to see Sayali's object of interest. What she saw shocked her beyond words. At the public tap below, a young man was bathing. On noticing Sayali he made some obscene gesture and Sayali laughed and her face flushed. Probably, the young man had spotted Rupa. He turned hurriedly, wrapped a towel around him and fled. Pretending not to have noticed anything objectionable, Rupa withdrew from the window and asked simple," Sayali, you were studying, weren't you?" Sayali was startled. "What were you looking at so fixedly, child?" Nothing, Aai! The same everyday things." "Like?" She said as if to change the subject,"Aai. I must stand first this time. My tests are to begin soon." Salyali dexterously collected herself and began taking out books from the bag. Rupa wondered if her daughter was really sensible or just clever. yet she could not bring about herself to scold her for erring. "Sayali, you don't curse your fate watching these children going to school, do you?" "No, Aai. Why crave for the forbidden fruit,"Sayali counterquestioned like a philosopher. "My smarty," Rupa fondled her head with affection. "Sayali, it would be better if you sit in the gallery now. The window here is not wide enough." "But, I like it here, Aai." Rupa was quick to guess. At the public tap outside, many halfnaked boys, children, men and women from the slum nearby the
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 125
bungalow came to take bath and sitting by the window Sayali watched the scenes-god knows what! Next day, Jaidev too noticed Sayali looking out intently. He saw the view outside and his temper rose. "Move her away from this window," he shouted. After Jaidev had left for the office, Rupa tried to make Sayali understand, Child, you should not watch such filthiness. It distracts the mind from studies. It's not healthy. The mind starts wandering." "Alright, Aai," Sayali said casually, "As you wish. But my life is shackled here. Can I ever go out anywhere?" "You are still small. When you grow up to be a beautiful princess, a prince will certainly come to take you with him," Rupa said in placating tone to her but somewhere deep down her motherly instinct told her that her daughter had grown up in mind. "Aai, everyday some dogs come here to drink water. There is a dog with legs broken. When he limps near, the others just drive him away. Aai he too sits like me in a corner alone. Looking wistfully at others." Rupa saw pain in her eyes. She covered her mouth with her palm. "Don't, Sayali, don't ever let such thoughts come to you. Don't be weak, my child. We have to accept what is ordained. Music and studies, aim for them and rise high." Rupa was in tears. Sayali dragged her bag and moved away from the window. A fortnight passed by in silence. Sayali was down and low all this while. Seeing her so morose, Jaidev said," Sayali, keep in mind one principle. Even if the song is sad, it is to be sung with a happy heart so that we put feeling in it." And Sayali obeyed. Slowly, invitations for performances started pouring in, but Jaidev accepted only a few, choosing discretely. After all
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 126
Sayali's 10th grade exams were round the corner and it was no use burdening or distracting her. The rehearsals, however, continued in right earnest. Pathak Master came dily for her table practice. One day he sent his son who had just appeared for his engineering examination and was free. The young man was taken aback to see Sayali, then he made a few polite queries. Rupa went in to prepare coffee. Jaidev was not yet back from office. Suddenly Rupa heard the hurrying steps of someone leaving in haste and ascending the steps. She peeped in, Sayali was alone in the room,”Arre, where did Pathakji's boy go?" "Left! Don't know why, just got up and nearly ran out!" answered Sayali. "Didn't he say anything?" "No." "That's strange," Rupa shrugged. Sayali seemed nonchalant. Later, despite Jaidev's repeated requests the boy wouldn't agree to come. This set Rupa thinking. Jaidev was also perturbed. The practice session came to a sudden halt. Jaidev rationalized, maybe he was disturbed seeing Sayali's condition. Then he sent for Raghunath and the regular session started. Raghunath would strike the table and Sayali's melodious voice would fill the air. Everything was going just fine; and then one day Raghunath decided to leave for his village and he never returned. Jaidev was angry. Rupa was upset; but strangely Sayali was normal. It was evening; Sayali was sitting in front of the mirror, combing her hair. From across the street, their neighbor Chandu's image was reflected in the clear glass. Chandu was busy studying. He had not seen Sayali but Sayali was intently staring at his image. Suddenly, she bent forward and started kissing it. Just then, Rupa detected her action. "Sayali!," she shouted. Sayali withdrew, startled.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 127
Rupa's expressions became fierce. Suddenly, many things that had appeared enigmatic made sense now. "Tell me," she nearly screamed. "Tell me why did Raghunath leave for his village; why did Pathakji's son run away that day? Tell me...tell, or I'll..." and she came back with a hot pair of tongs. "Speak. Until now I thought you were innocent. But I see now that you are not smart but lecherous. We gave up all our joys, all our life, every desire for your sake. There was one goal before us to make Sayali's life a success. And here you are..." "Forgive me, Aai," Sayali whined. But Rupa was furious. Sayali was sitting close to the wall. Rupa caught hold of her cheeks in a helpless anger as if to tear her apart. Her nails dug into the fair skin and drew blood. "Speak! Why don't you speak?" Sayali's lips were sealed tight. Rupa flew into a rage, "Go, go, get out of here." She caught hold of her arm and dragged her out shutting the door on her. Sayali was crying outside; Rupa was sobbing inside. Sayali tapped and her cries,"Aai, Aai" ripped through Rupa's heart. She regained her poise. A thought flashed across her: "Why am I over- reacting? Is youth Sayali's fault? Well, it had to come sooner or longer and it came." How much can the poor child take in? Viewing the world through the window was all right till now; it was a handicapped child's innocuous entertainment. But how can one push down the newly sprouting emotions? How can one suppress them? Isn't it too much to expect? How can laws of nature be changed? Sita may have picked up Shiva's bow, but she too needed a man to string it. Rupa sat down perplexed-then what? Operation? Can it be the answer?
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 128
She trembled. They had Lucy operated so that the house may not get dirty. But Luck is their pet bitch and Sayali their daughter- is there any parallel? Well, what about Mandakini, their neighbor’s daughter? Her parents too got her operated. But again where is the comparison between demented Mandakini and their brainy Sayali? Sayali's garden was blossoming. Should she, a mother, destroy it with her own hands? Could she deny their own passions-hers and Jaidev's? Though passed their prime, she and Jaidev are still unable to look beyond the call of flesh. How naive to expect her fast growing daughterto curb her blooming passions. She was in dilemma. Suddenly, with decisive steps she moved towards the door. It was a strange situation- she was feeling nausea, and her daughter, whom she had shunted out for an imaginary act, was tapping on the door. Gathering herself, she opened the door and clung to Sayali. But Sayali was looking at the floor. She seemed bewildered and scared. Rupa too saw it. flowing down Sayali's legs, drops of blood had stained the floor. Rupa understood. She took her in her arms and whispered,"This is how it is darling!" Just then she saw Jaidev coming up the stairs. I'll not let this garden he ruined!" she muttered. Jaidev was on the last step and Rupa was helping Sayali in.
* * *
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 129
Trans. from Marathi original "Phulrani" into Hindi by Usha bande. Trans from Hindi into English by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal.
53
TRANSLATION IN THE GREAT BRITAIN
Official language: British English
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 130
Other than British English, Scots, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Cornish is also spoken in the Great Britain. Drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Magna Carta Libertatum (The Great Charter of the Liberties) was written on 15 June 1215. After going through three transformations of revisions or revised editions of 1216, 1217 and 1225 Magna Carta finally became a law (Holt 01). It was a necessary document that’s why it was translated and circulated more than any literary or scientific book of that era. Even in the thirteenth century the manuscript of Magna Carta found its way into different nations through translation. French translation of Magna Carta was found in St Giles' hospital in Pont-Audemer, Normandy (Brownlie 93). In 1473, with Colard Mansion, an associate, Caxton published the first printed book of the Great Britain, a translation from French titled Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (originally written by Raoul Lefèvre of 15th Cent). Thereafter, there was a continuous flow of printed books which were made available to the elite class of society. It is pertinent to mention these two events when we have to understand the origin of translations in the Great Britain. Otherwise, it is not only difficult but also impossible to frame intellectual fire of the Great Britain in any work. There is a long list of Nobel Laureates of Literature from the Great Britain: Rudyard Kipling (1907); John Galsworthy (1932); T. S. Eliot (born in United States) (1948); Bertrand Russell (1950): Winston Churchill (1953); Elias Canetti (1981) ( he was born in Bulgaria); William Golding (1983); Seamus Heaney (1995); V. S. Naipaul (2001) (born in Trinidad and Tabago); Harold Pinter (2005); Doris Lessing (2007) (she was born in Iran) and Kazuo Ishiguro (2017) (born in Japan). Guernésiais and Jèrriais (spoken by around 1000 people), Cornish and Manx are endangered languages of the Great Britain (Telegraph). Surprising enough, no language in the Great Britain, is reflected as extinct or endangered in the UNESCO’s website for extinct and endangered languages till date.
__________________________________________________________________________
5.5.2 Marathi: The Source Text/ Hindi: The Intermediate Text __________________________________________________________________________
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 131
This story was originally written in Marathi language by Dr Usha Bande. So lets have a glimpse at some important features of Marathi language. Marathi Language Day (Marathi Dina, Marathi Diwasa : मराठ Lदन/मराठ Lदवस) is celebrated on 27 Feb every year. Marathi, a language of Indo-Aryan language family, scheduled language of India, is spoken by about 71 million people in India by Marathi people in Maharashtra and its neighboring states. Actually Maharashtra, on 01 May 1960, was established on linguistic basis. There are 42 dialects of Marathi. Some commonly used dialects of Marathi are Varhadi, Koli, Malvani and Konkani. Also an official language/co-official language of Maharashtra, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Goa (here it is Konkani, the dialect of Marathi is the only official language). If you read Balbodh version of Marathi it won't look unfamiliar to you because it is very similar to Devnagari. Both the languages, Hindi and Marathi, as we told you earlier, belong to Indo-Aryan language family. That’s why there are a lot of grammatical and phonetic similarities in them. In Marathi a lot of words have been derived from Sanskrit and even gender formation is similar in both ways (masculine, feminine and neuter). But in some cases it resembles Dravidian languages too. According to Narke," A shilalekh (stone carving) discovered in Jumnnar taluka of Pune talks about Maharathi language (2,000 years ago)" (Indian Express). The Government of India constituted a committee comprising the author Ranganath Pathare and historian-sociologist Hari Narke to recommended Marathi as the sixth classical language of India. Here is the alphabet of Marathi (taken from Omniglot), you’ll be enchanted to see its similarity with Devnagari of Hindi:
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 132
Fig. Alphabets of Marathi.
________________________________________________________________________ 5.5.4 English: The Target Text ________________________________________________________________________
Dear Students, we are analyzing the story according to TT given above. In “Garden of Spice” we can notice many cultural essences. We could easily figure out the guilt of father which is attached to the birth of a handicapped child when he says,” We say we are reaping the fruit of our Karma. You know me since the time we have married. Tell me, have I ever harmed anybody? A simple man like me…all dreams are shattered, Rupa, all dreams.” For a western reader, this guilt with Karma will be a bit difficult to understand unless he/she has firm grip on Indian mythology. The word “Aai” has been used to address mother in TT. This word is derived from Marathi language and has been domesticated in ST and TT. “Aai” is actually of Dravidian origin. Even in Tamil Nadu mother is addressed as Aai. Later the Hindi word “Beta” is also assimilated into TT. But when we read the TT and come across the line “Raghu is blind and Mini is always ill” we have to keep ourselves guessing the real status of these children in TT. We can see the Indian father contradicting
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 133
himself. At one point of time, the father seems to be broken down after the performance of his daughter. But later he says that her “success has given me confidence.” The part of story narrating the pregnancy of Rupa is in a hush-hush manner. She just says,”I’m exhausted” and then immediately in the next sentence Jaidev gets “excited at the news.” This explication also throws light on the Indian culture and the way they receive the news of pregnancy. In TT the translator translates,” Slowly invitations for performances started pouring in.” Usually, the word “slowly” is used for speed in the Western countries. They rather prefer to use “gradually” for the same occasion. But the translator has beautifully used this word in order to retain the essence of ST in TT. In TT Rupa asked Sayali,” Arre, where did Pathakji’s boy go?” In these lines the translator has again lexicalized the word Arre. But instead of using the word “son” the translator uses the third person singular word “boy” which actually means some boy (could even be an employee). But in Indian context or from the point of view of ST, we always call someone’s son as ladka (लड़का).
____________________________________________________________________________________________
5.5.5 Critical Analysis: “Garden of Spice” (Source Text: Hindi, Target Text: English) ______________________________________________________________________________
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 134
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया "गाओ सायल`. शाबाश करो शुT." जयदे व ने कहा और सायल` सधकर बैठ गई. अभी पहला अलाप ह` लया था mक हॉल ता लयd से गूंज उठा सायल` ने
अपना चेहरा हथे लयd मt छपा लया उसक^
हं सती आँखे, हँसते हdठ सारा गाना ह` हँसता
हुआ और yफुि
लत हो उठा. कसकर बँधी दो चोLटयाँ दो बड़ी बड़ी आँखt ;ोताओं mक ओर आमुख होकर हँसते हdठ, Lदल खोलकर ता लयां बजा कर
र सकd ने 'वाह वाह ' mक ,
जाद-ू सा }बखेर गया सायल` का गाना.
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice "Sing, Sayali! Come on! One, two three! There you go! Sing, Sayali, start." Jaidev motivated and Sayali sat rearranging herself once more. She had started with the first note when the hall echoed with a resounding applause. And then, there was no stopping her. The smiling eyes, smiling lips and that young countenance.....! The whole song became vibrant. It filled her with the cheer and laughter of her being. Two tightly tied plaits, two large eyes and smiling lips...the little girl enchanted the listeners! When the program was over the audience gave a standing ovation and the auditorium reverberated with the sound of En core! En core! Sayali's song had cast a magic spell, and the evening was a great success.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. In the IT above, the lines " अपना चेहरा हथे लयd मt छपा लया" shows the response of an Indian girl. That is why in TT, the author has excluded these lines. This is the technique of exclusion used in translation. If there is exculsion, the transaltor balances it with inculsion. The translator included" And then, there
was no stopping her” which is not present in IT. In IT, the translator uses the word " र सकd' which is beautifully translated as "audience." “वाह-वाह” in IT is loaded with cultural essence
and expression of bhavas of Indian audience. The translator has translated it into “En Core! En Core!”
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 135
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया परदा गरा और
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
र सकd mक भीड़ मंच mक ओर बढ़`, The
सायल` घबरा गयी, अवथ हुई, जयदे व ने दे खा और लपक कर उसे दोनd हाथd पर उठा लया, mफर भी उसक^ कमजोर व नजव टाँगे र सकd को Lदखाई द`ं. जयदे व मंच mक सीLढ़यां उतरकर नचे आये तो भीड़ ने उsहt सहज ह` राता Lदया. मानो उनका दद सब एकबारगी समझ गए हd. Tपा भी पीछे भागी.
curtains
came down and the connoisseurs moved towards the stage to congratulate the young singer. Sayali got nervous, she became uneasy. Gauging the situation, Jaidev jumped with agility and picked her up to dash backstage but those scrawny and inert legs popped out, dangling visibly as if teasing the audience out of their euphoria. Jaidev stepped down the back steps; the people standing there made way for him almost reverentially, as if to alleviate his pain. Rupa too scurried after him.
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers, In IT, the translator uses the word " र सकd" which has been translated into "connoisseurs” which actually means “an expert
judge in matters of taste/” Due to the cultural layers attached to the word " र सकd" it was not possible to translate it. But the word “रसक” could have been translated into ‘fans,’
‘art-lovers’ but the translator chooses the word “audience.” It is a right choice as the readers of TT will better relate to this word. The translator uses the technique of paraphrasing in translation when she explains about audience in her own words: “as if teasing the audience out of their euphoria.”
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 136
टै qसी तक आते-आते Tपा मन-ह`-मन बोल`, “आने mक भी
ज
द` और जाने mक भी ज
द`." mफर जयदे व mक
ओर दे ख कर उसने कहा, "सुनो ! yोाम आयोजक
दे साई आपको बल ु ा रहे हp." जयदे व ने सुनी-अनसुनी कर द`. सायल` को टै qसी मt ठूंसा और वयं भी बैठ गए. बेबस सी Tपा भी बैठ गई. टै qसी चल पड़ी. " दे साई से मल तो लेत,े आखर आयोजक है . " जयदे व चुप. "माँ ,मेरा गाना कैसा रहा ?" " पूछो अपने bपता से. आप भी कमाल करते हp, न जाने कब, mकस बात से मूड }बगड़ जाये आपका , बताओ तो उसे, कैसा रहा उसका गाना ?" " अछा रहा ! " जयदे व बाहर दे ख कर बोले.
As they were waiting for the taxi, Rupa mused, looking at her husband, “so impatient to come and equally jittery to leave,"Aloud she said,"Listen, the program organizer, Mr Desai was looking for you.” "Hmm," Jaidev uttered absentmindedly. He stacked Sayali in the taxi and sat beside her. Rupa had no choice but to enter quietly. The taxi whirred. Rupa turned to Jaidev petulantly,"You could have at least thanked Desai. After all, it is he who organized the program. Put in so much effort." Jaidev did not respond. "Aai, how was my song?" "Ask your Baba!" she snapped. Turning to Jaidev she murmured, “How very moody of you! One can never be sure what may upset you. At least tell her how her performance was." "It was good, Sayali," Jaidev said looking
remote.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers, In IT the word ‘ज द!’ has been repeated twice just to show the haste: "ज द! और जाने mक भी ज द!." But in TT the translator uses two words in lieu of one: “impatient” and “jittery.” “जयदे व ने सुनी अनसुनी कर द!” in IT has been translated into “hmm.” Here the translator is being very precise, without losing the meaning of IT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 137
महकती बगया
Garden of Spice
"माँ, लोगd ने गाने पर तो ता लयां बजाई पर मेर` टाँगे
"Aai, I know they applauded the songs. But Aai, my legs! What would they have thought about them!" "What's there to think about, Sayali, besides pain? Truth can't be ignored, darling," Rupa sighed. "Yes Aai, they must have thought what a girl who cannot even stand." "Oh, shut up, Sayali. Will you." Jaidev snapped. Sayali fell silent. Thereafter no one talked. On reaching home, Sayali went to her corner by the window and sat quietly, as always.
दे ख कर qया लगा होगा उsहt ?" " लगना qया है , बेट`. जो Lदखा, वह` लगा होगा, जो सच है वह झठ ु लाया जायगा qया ? Tपा ने न:uवास लेते हुए कहा, "हाँ माँ, उsहt लगा होगा mक यह कैसी लड़क^ है ,जो खड़ी तक नह`ं हो सकती न ?" "चुप भी रहो, सायल`, बोलती ह` रहे गी," जयदे व का वर कुछ कड़ा था, सायल` चप ु हो गई, घर आते ह` }बना बोले हमेशा mक भांत खड़क^ के पास जाकर बैठ गयी.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers The word “माँ” of the IT has been translated into “Aai” in TT. We are not aware of the Marathi source text as of now. But in the last section of this lesson we have discussed as to how in Marathi the Mother is also known as Aai. Perhaps, the translator has domesticated the word Aai in TT from ST. By refereeing to the condition of Rupa, the translator adds“besides pain” in TT. The sentence “Thereafter no one talked” (of TT) is absent in IT. This addition by translator shows the tense ambiance which three of them might have created in the car. Here the translator of IT also becomes a creative writer.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 138
महकती
बगया
"सायल`, रात बहुत हो चुक^ है , चलो खाना खाओ और सो जाओ," सायल` अपनी नजव टp गो को हांथो से आगे-पीछे करती, घसीटती-घसीटती चौक^ पर आकर बैठ गई, "आओ, खाना खाने," Tपा ने पुकारा, जयदे व अपने कमरे क^ खड़क^ से आसमान का टुकड़ा एकटक दे ख रहे थे, "चलो, " Tपा ने mफर पक ु ारा, "सायल` को चौक^ पर }बठा Lदया है ." जयदे व आकर बैठ गए, "bपताजी, मेर` नजव टांगो पर ग ु सा आया न आपको ? पर bपताजी, आप अछे हp, माँ अछ हp, mफर मै qयd..." Tपा क^ आँखे भर आई, सायल` क^ माथे पर हाँथ फेरते हुए उसने कहा, "बेट`, तू न जैसी सुsदर है , तू कलाकार है , qया बLढ़या गाना गाय आज, लोगd ने भी mकतना समान Lदया, ता लयाँ बजायीं! हमt गव है तुम पर, सायल`, नाज़ है तुम
"Sayali, it's already late. Come and have your dinner and go to bed." Moving her legs with her hand, she dragged herself on to the stool. "Dinner is ready," Rupa called out, Jaidev was starting at his piece of the sky through the window of his room. "Come on. Sayali is already here on her stool," Rupa called out again. Jaidev came and sat down. "Baba, my legs, did they embarrass you today? But Baba, you are fit; Aai is also fit than me..." Rupa was moved. She said tenderly, "because you are beautiful like a star, you are our fairy. You are an artist, aren't you, Sayali. Nothing matters to an artist besides art. How beautifully you sang today! God! It was divine. The audience was so moved. They showed so much respect. They applauded wholeheartedly, didn't they? We are proud of you, dear, very proud."
पर ! "
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The words " खाना खाओ" has been translated into"dinner" in (TT). This is a creative rendereing of words according the the respective cultures of both the texts. But the word " गुसा" (IT) has been translated as " embarrass” in TT.
However, according to the context and the situation of this passage, both words seem relevant. “bपताजी" or Father (IT) has been transated as " Baba” (TT). This is perhaps for the reason we have already explained above. The word Baba for sure carries Marathi essence. The translator (of TT) adds the sentence “you are our fairy.” This sentence does not exist in IT. Here again the translator has taken her liberty and role of a creative writer.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 139
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
बगया
हमेशा क^ तरह जयदे व ने खुल कर बात नह`ं क^, सोते समय सायल` बोल`, "bपता जी, नाराज हp न मेर` टांगो पर, मुझ पर ? "माँ, भगवान अछ टांगो वाल` लड़mकयां qयd
नह`ं
बनाता ?" "सभी को कुछ नह`ं मलता, बेट` !" " mफर भगवान अछा नह`ं है , अछे लोगd को सब कुछ नह`ं दे ता, रघु को अँधा बनाया, मनी बीमार रहती है , ऐसा qयd, माँ ?" "चल, सो जा अब सायल`, कल बताउं गी, सायल` अवथ-सी, बेचैनी- सी हो गई, आधी रात हो चक ु ^ थी. सर से नीचे हाँथ रखे हुए खड़क^ से आकाश क^ ओर दे खते हुए जयदे व शांत पड़े थे,
As always in such situations, Jaidev kept quiet. Before going to bed, Sayali broached the subject again, "Aai, Baba is annoyed with my legs, isn't he? Aai, why doesn't God create girls with whole legs?" "Everyone doesn’t get everything, Beta!" “Then God is not good. He doesn't give everything good to good people. Raghu is blind and Mini is always ill. Why is it thus, Aai?" "Come on, Sayali. Sleep now. We'll talk about it tomorrow." Sayali slept restlessly that night. It was midnight. Gazing at the star-studded sky; Jaidev lay quietly reclining on his arms. "Is Sayali asleep?"
"सायल` सो गई?" उsहdने पूछा,
CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The word " बेट`" (IT)has been translated as " Beta” (TT).
The word Beta or Beti has not yet been adopted into English language. This is yet another example of domestication as also adaptation.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 140
"हां, पर अचानक आपको qया हो गया था?" "पता नह`ं qया हुआ, लोगd क^ आखो मे दया, सहानुभूत दे ख मेरा खून खौल गया, qया गुनाह था मेरा Tपा, जो सायल` ऐसी पैदा हुई ? हमारे साथ ह` सब होना था ! qयd, आखर qयd?”जयदे व एक सांस मे बोल गए,. कुछ दे र चुप बैठे, mफर बोल पड़े, "हम कहते हp- कम का फल है , हम कहते हp-इस जनम का Lहसाब यह` चुकाना पड़ता है , तुम याद करो, जब मेरा bववाह हुआ है , तुमने मुछे परखा है . qया मpने mकसी का अLहत mकया है ? mकसी के पैसे खाये हp? सीधे माग पर चलने वाला मp सारे वपन चूर-चूर हो गए."
“Yes. But she is upset. What had come over you?" "I don't know. I felt humiliated; no I felt infuriated at the pity and sympathy in people's eyes. What was my fault Rupa that this girl was born like this? Why did this have to happen to us? Tell me, why?" Jaidev went on breathlessly. He paused a while and started again, "We rationalize such ill-luck and put the blame on "destiny." We say we are reaping the fruit of our Karma. You know me since the time we have been married. Tell me, have I ever harmed anybody? Ever robbed or cheated anybody? A simple man like me...all dreams are shattered, Rupa, all dreams..."
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The statement of Sayali's father "मेरा खन ू खौल गया" (IT) has been transalted into " I felt humiliated” (TT). Both these covey
different meanings. The first one, means that Father (Jaidev) was angry. But the other one indicates humilation and embarassment which he had to face. But both the words suit the entire ambiance of the respective texts/ paragraphs.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 141
Obviously, Jaidev was upset but what could लए श.द कहाँ थे. Tपा ने जयदे व को हमेशा हँसता हुआ Rupa do or say? जयदे व उLदन थे, पर Tपा के पास उsहt सांवना दे ने क^ दे खा था- आठ घंटे क^ नौकर` के बाद सीधे घर आना, खूब हं सने-बोलने वाले, बचा न होने क^ कमी को दोतd, गीत संगीत क^ महmफलd मे भल ू ने वाले जयदे व-आनंद` जयदे व, Lदल ख़ोल कर खाने- खलने वाले जयदे व. सायल` आई Tपा-जयदे व के जीवन मt , पर दे र से आई. घर मt आनंद आ गया. कोई भी सामने आ जाये, शशु सायल` खलखलाती. उसका चेहरा आकषक था शर`र भी हkट-पुkट था पर…पर टाँगे ? मानो दो लड़mकयाँ थी, बे ज़बान. कमर से नीचे सायल` नजव थी. सारे उपचार हुए डॉqटर को Lदखाया गया, वैद भी दे ख गए; मनौतयां, त, टोटके सब कुछ mकया, पर सायल` पर कुछ भी असर नह`ं हुआ.
Wherefrom could she bring words to console him. Rupa had always seen him jovial. It was difficult now to imagine a sad man. Her image of him has been of a
happy-go-lucky man. He would head straight home after an eight-hour job. The moment he stepped in, he was his cheerful self- laughing, talking, humming. There was a little disappointment in their life as they did not have children but he would cleverly sublimate this gap by immersing himself wholeheartedly in music. Besides there was his friend circle and many other activities to keep him busy. He was so jovial and cheerful that nothing could dampen his spirit. Rupa always thought of his as her lion-hearted Jaidev. Sayali entered their lives a little late but she filled their home with joy. Baby Sayali always had a chuckle for everybody. With the chubby cherubim face and a healthy body she was an attractive child but only as long as her two sticks of legs were not visible. Then there surged a wave of pity at those lifeless pieces of wood. Below the waist Sayali was just lifeless, dead. The parents tried every remedy, doctors consulted, vaids and hakims visited; then there was a series of vows and fasts, charms and quacks and amulets and many other things. Nothing helped.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translators start paraphrasing the entire situation from the IT. She creates a beautiful sentence :"Wherefrom could she bring words to console him”, “It was difficult now to imagine a sad man “ as she also calls
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 142
Jaidev “lion-hearted.” Here the translator paraphrased but on the other hand she excludes “मानोदो लड़mकयाँ थी" from the IT. But hardly any meaning is changed due to this exclusion.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Tपा क^ आँखे रो-रो कर सूख गई. उसने वािवकता से
Rupa's eyes, tired of shedding tears, dried ultimately and she decided to face the reality. Jaidev would often get irritated at his hard luck; sometimes he would be emotional and at times just bewildered. "Who cursed this little star, Rupa? And why should she become our destiny?' "We have to accept it, Jaidev as it is. No point grieving or cursing. When we accept things with all our heart, the pain becomes lighter, “Rupa would say calmly. "I can do without your philosophy, Rupa. Keep it with you," Jaidev said decisively
सामना करने क^ ठान न ल`. जयदे व कभी भी चढ जाते, कभी भावना मt बह जाते और बेट` को दे ख कर मसोसकर रह जाते. "इस न को mकसने ;ाप Lदया होगा? Tपा, यह ;ाbपत बाला हमारे भाय मे ह` qयd आई." " जो है उसे वीकारना पड़ेगा, जयदे व ! इस बात का शोक अब मत क^िजए. मन से वीकार करने से भार ह
का हो जाता हो," Tपा ने शांत वर मt कहा . " तुम अपना तव ¢ान और उपदे श अपने पास ह` रखो, मुझे अस£य हो जाता हp "
making it clear that he would have no nonsense.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translator again paraphrases. She includes bhavas of Jaidev in TT: "Jaidev said decisively making it clear that he would have no nonsense.”
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 143
"यह सब बचे बाहर खेलते हp, नाचते फुदकते हp और यह
"For me, it is just unbearable to see her sitting at the window clapping while खड़क^ मt बैठ ता लयां बजाती हp." "तो qया हुआ ? उसने वीकार लया है यह सय. बची children of her age dance and jump and frolic." "It’s ok, Jaidev. She has accepted her lot. She है , पर समझदार है . मुझे लगता है , is just a child but she seems wise for her age. अब हमे इसे बाहर ले जाना चाLहए." I think it is time we take her outdoors in the "बाहर. ऐसे नमूने को ?" जयदे व तरकार से बोले . evenings." "Outdoors! A show-piece like this?" Jaidev Tपा को गुसा आया - एक असहाय गुसा scorned. नगल गयी ज़हर, पर चेहरे पर भाव गहरा गया. Rupa felt a surge of anger bloating her throat. She swallowed her bitterness but her distorted face mirrored her feelings. There was a kind
of revulsion there, revulsion for the heartless man who was the child's father.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here the translators are successful in bringing out the Vatslaya Bhava:" it is just unbearable to see her sitting at the
window.” But this sentence is absent in IT. Thereafter, the translator includes “There was a kind of revulsion there, revulsion for the heartless man who was the child's father” (TT). This inclusion throws light on the inner thoughts of Rupa and seem necessary here.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 144
जयदे व के yत मन मt घण ृ ा सी छु गयी. जयदे व ने Tपा क^ yतm¤या भांप ल` और झट से बोले,"ले जाएंगे
भई ,बहार भी ले जाएंगे पर..." " पर qया?" " बाहर क^ दु नया mकतनी ¤ूर होती है Tपा! बचे चड़ाएंगे, हं सी करt गे mफर ऑmफस के लोग मले या कोई पfरचत मले तो ...." " तो qया? बोलो! लोग qया कहt गे, इस डर से उसे अंदर ह` बंद रखt? उसका जीवन बस खड़क^ तक ह` स मत रहे ? जयदे व, आप इतने कमज़ोर हdगे ,सोचा न था !" Tपा एक सांस मt बोल गयी,qया बोल`, उसे वयंम नह`ं पता.
Jaidev was quick to note her reaction and added compromisingly, "OK, we'll take her outdoors, but..." "But...what!" "The outside world is cruel, Rupa, heartless! Don't you understand how other children might make fun of her. Can we tolerate that? Besides, if we meet someone from my office or may be some acquaintance..." "So what? Shall we confine her to this window for fear of what people might say? Let them say what they wish, Jaidev. I never thought you were so weak." Rupa exclaimed breathlessly. She did not know what she said.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which have more sense when placed within their respective cultures like: घण ृ ा, भई, OK and breathlessly. These words have got their due
treatment in IT and TT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
जयदे व भी चीड़ गए, " मp यह सहन नह`ं कर सकता ,
But she saw Jaidev's face contorting. "I cannot bear this any longer, Rupa. This futile wait! It's been five years now and I am still waiting for our second child to come. You seem to have lost all your emotions, desires, feelings. Your femininity. Where are these? Why, you've even forgotten the need to dress up! You have become lifeless like her legs, frigid. No seed can sprout you. Give her away to an orphanage. I don't want this girl."
दस ू रे बचे के इंतज़ार मt पांच वष बीत गए. इस टांगd क^ भांत तुम वयं नजव हो गयी हो , ;ंग ृ ार जैसे तुहे
,ंग ृ ार जैसे तुहे वजय हो गया है , तुहारा मन डू ब गया है , भावनाएं संकुचत हो गयी है , और गभ मt अंकुर भी नह`ं फुट रहा है ,दे दो इसे mकसी अनाथालय मt ! नह`ं चाLहए मुझे यह लड़क^. "
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 145
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which have more sense when placed within their respective cultures like: चीड़, ,ंग ृ ार and femininity. These words have
got their due treatment in IT and TT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Tपा खून का घट ूँ पी कर रह गयी ,दस ू रे Lदन जयदे व के
Rupa swallowed a lump in her throat. Next day, when Jaidev had left for office, she took Sayali with her, leaving a letter for Jaidev. "I have given birth to Sayali. I'm her mother. I will not let her be an orphan. I am not annoyed with you nor do I deny your passion. My Sayali is like a cankerous vine-green at the top but lifeless below. She is just fine as she is. I shall tend her, nurse her myself, if you can't."
ऑmफस जाने के बाद वह सायल` को लेकर चल` गयी,एक च¦ठ छोड़ गयी,िजसमे इतना भर लखा था 'सायल` को मpने जनम Lदया है , माँ हूँ मp! मp उसे अनाथ नह` होने दं ग ू ी, मt बड़ा क§ँ गी. मझ ु े आपसे नाराज़गी नह`ं है और न ह` आपक^ सs ु दर र सक भावनाओं से. मेर` सायल` कुी हुई बेल है - ऊपर से हर`, नचे से सूखी. ठक है . जैसे भी है . मp उसे सभालूंगी ,संवाTंगी.”
CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translator in TT includes the words " if you
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 146
can't." These words not only show the internal frustration of Rupa but suits the ambiance of this paragraph.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
चार Lदन बाद जयदे व Tपा के मायके पहुंच गए और
Four days later Jaidev reached Rupa's parents' home and brought back his wife and daughter. Things changed since then. He was no longer the old vivacious Jaidev, but nor was he the irritable and self-pitying Jaidev. He had got hold on himself and was making efforts to accept the reality of Sayali's existence. Every evening he would take her to the nearby playground. Once a week Rupa took her to school, rest of the days she taught her at home.
पनी बेट` को घर वापस ले आये , जयदे व अब पहले जैसे िज़ंदाLदल जयदे व नह`ं थे, पर चड़चड़े और आमuलाघवाले जयदे व भी नह`ं थे, संभल गए थे और सयाल` को सवीकार करने क^ को शश मt थे. उसे शाम खेल के मैदान मt ले जाते , ह©ते मt एक Lदन Tपा उसे कूल ले जाती, बाक^ पढ़ाई घर पर ह` करवाती.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which convey sense when placed within their respective cultures like: मायके, hold on and existence. These words have
got their due treatment in IT and TT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 147
महकती बगया
Garden of Spice
Tपा के मन मt एक ह` धुन थी-सायल` को पढ़ा लखा
Rupa's mind was focused on one thing only- to educate Sayali, to make her self-dependent and confident so that the world looked at her with admiration and respect, not with pity. Sayali reached her fourth grade. It was then that Jaidev realized that the child had talent for music which could be channelized. "Rupa, I have decided to teach her music. From now on, Sayali will practice music with me every evening." It was a bold decision. The training started in right earnest and Sayali seemed to pick up the tunes and strains fast enough. Jaidev was filled with happiness whenever her melodious voice reverberated in the air. Rupa was content; her anger had vanished. Sayali seemed poised for a bright future with the glow of music around her.
कर वावलबी बनाये, ताmक लोग उसक^ ओर दया से नह`ं आदर से दे खt. सायल` ने चौथी का मt yवेश mकया और जयदे व के मन मt आया के qयd न इसे संगीत क^ ओर yेfरत करt , "Tपा ! अब से सायल` रोज़ सब ु ह शाम मेरे साथ संगीत सीखोगे !" fरयाज़ शुT हुआ और दे खते - दे खते सायल` ने सहजता से वर पकड़ना शुT mकया ! जयदे व का मन yफु लत हो उठता जब सायल` का मधुर वर वातावरण मt गँज ू उठता ! Tपा का तनाव अब कुछ कम हो गया. बेट` का भbवkय अब अंधकार मt नह`ं होगा, उसमे संगीत का yकाश जो था !
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translators also become creative commentators as we can see their involvement in the IT when they declare the action taken by Jaidev as bold: "It was a bold decision.” This declaration is absent in IT. But it
suits the thematic essence of the story.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 148
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
एक Lदन सहज ह` अपनी ख़ुशी Mयqत कर गयी -"बस
One day, Rupa said casually, "Jaidev, my only dream now is to see her shine. Her deformity doesn't hurt as she has the strength of music as a prop.” "That’s right, Rupa. But can't we have a baby boy with strong feet to stand on. Our child fit like other children," Jaidev pleaded.\ Rupa shuddered. It had come back again full circle- the craving for a son. She did not wish to annoy Jaidev but she did not want another pregnancy. "Let's just forget what is not to be. Let us try to live with the present, Jaidev." "Sayali is quite self-dependent now. Maybe you can arouse your passion." said Jaidev with tenderness. "Sayali is in the 10th standard. Would it look good to have a baby at this stage," Rupa pleaded to dodge his demand.
जयदे व,यह` तमsना है mक सायल` संगीत को जीत ले. पैर नह`ं है , न सह`, संगीत का सबल तो है ." " हाँ, सो तो है पर Tपा, एक मजबूत पैरd वाला बेटा हमt मल जाए तो वो मेरे मन का आधार होगा."जयदे व बोले. Tपा
सLहर गयी. बात mफर वह` आ कर §ख गयी -
बेटे क^ चाहा. डर था mक कह`ं भड़क न उठे . "जो नह`ं हो सकता,उसे छोªड़ए. वतमान मt जीना सीखए, जयदे व." " सायल` अब काफ^ वावलबी हो गयी है .
अब तो
तुहार` भावनाए जागत ु ता ृ हो सकती है . "जय दे व कामक
से कहते है . "सयाल` दसवीं मt चल` गयी है . अब qया अछा लगेगा नया मेहमान." Tपा टाल जाती.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. " अपनी ख़ुशी Mयqत कर गयी" (IT) has been transalted as "said casually" (TT). Both don't seem to be complimentary to each other. The transaltor has avoided to translate the sexual connotations in the phrase ' कामुकता से कहते है " of TT. It is also a very important feature of translation, most of translators avoid transalting sexual contents. We can call it Boulderization (see Glosssary).
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 149
जयदे व ने सायल` को जी-जान से संगीत सखाया और उस शाम वो काय¤म आयोिजत mकया िजसमे सायल` mक कला को सराहा गया और जयदे व के घावd को कुरे द Lदयाएक तरफ 0शंशक क^ yशंशा दस ू र` ओर दया! उस रात जयदे व एकाएक पलंग पर उठ बैठे ! "Tपा." " हूँ." "आज चाँद को सा2ी मान कर हम अपना सह-yवास नए सरे से शुT करे ,चलो." "मतलब ? " "श.द जहाँ मौन हो जाए, जीवन
का अथ जहाँ सहज हो
जाए, वहाँ सुsदर माग पर चलtगे!"
Jaidev trained Sayali with care putting his heart in his training sessions and the day came when they decided to organize the concert. That was the day Sayali's art reached its peak with public applause certifying her talent. Jaidev's heart was torn apart. There was success and yet there was defeat. That night he sat in his bed. “Rupa.” “Hmm.” "With this moonlight as our witness let's start our new life today." "What do you mean?" "You have understood haven't you? When words fall silent, life opens up its secrets. Let's tread that beautiful path."
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which have more sense when placed within their respective cultures like: जी-जान, 0शंशक and public applause. These words have got their due
treatment in IT and TT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Rupa feigned ignorance, “What will become of Sayali?" होगा?" "Silly, this is our journey. Ours together. As "पगल` ,यह याा हमार`, हमदोनो क^ है . सायल` के बारे for Sayali, I have already decided. We shall मt मpने सोच लया है .! अब हम गाने के और काय¤म organize more programs like this one; करt गे! उसके लए पैसे जुटाएंगे ! आज के काय¤म ने accumulate money to make her stand on her
Tपा समझते हुए भी नासमझ बनी रह` -"सायल` का qया
मुझे काफ^ आमbवuवाश Lदया है ."
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 150
"ठक है . खूब पढ़ाएंगे उसे. आपने अपने पॉव पर खड़ा करt गे- चाहे भगवन ने उसे पैर नह`ं Lदए है !"Tपा ने
उसाLहत
हो कर कहा. "Tपा,अब एक इछा पूर` करो. खल जाओ,Tपा ! मोगरे mक तरह खल जाओ! Lदन तो सायल` क^ mफ़¤ मt }बताते है ,रात तो सुखी होने दो. Lदन का Lहसाब रात को पूरा करो." Lदन वपsमय मt हो गए. राते सुगिsधत हो उठं. "अभी तक उठ नह`ं,Tपा ?"एक सुबह जयदे व Tपा को जगाते हुए बोले. "सार`
रात उ
ट` होती रह`."
जयदे व रोमांचत हो उठे . पर चंतत वर मt बोले ,"मझ ु े जगा दे ती." "आप कौन से खाल` होते हp. Lदन भर द©तर ,mफर सायल` को पढ़ाना , उसका fरयाज !"
"चलो ,डॉकटर के पास!"
feet. Today's success has given me confidence, we can achieve it." "Yes, if God has denied her feet to stand on, we shall give her the feet of education to stand on." "Well, Rupa, fulfill my desire. Bloom, Rupa! Bloom! Blossom like jasmine. Days are spent worrying about Sayali, at least let the nights be pleasant. Let our nights pay for the day's labour." Soon days turned dreamy. Nights filled with fragrance. One morning Rupa slept late, Jaidev queried tenderly, “Why Rupa, don't you feel like getting up, today?" I'm exhausted. I was sick all through the night."
Jaidev was excited at the news but he said with concern, "You should have woken me up." “This is the only time you get for rest. It's always a long day for you office and then reaching practice to Sayali. It's exhausting." "Shall we go to the doctor?"
CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The bahvas which these lines communicate " उसाLहत हो कर कहा" (IT) have not been included/translated in TT. "सार` रात उ
ट` होती रह`" in IT opens up the meaning of the illness of Rupa. But the traslators of TT have avoided the use of words " उ
ट`" or vomitting. They preferably use " I was sick.” This exclusion creates a kind of confusion for the reader. This is why it becomes very difficult to gather the idea behind the happiness and excitement of Jaidev in TT. The narrative "चलो ,डॉकटर के पास!" (IT) has been translated as "Shall we go to the doctor?" (TT). The first one (IT) is a command but the second one (TT) seems be a request with mild tones of suggestion.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 151
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
"नह`ं , ठक हो जाउं गी मp , कल तो खरच qयd करना ?"
"No. I'll be fine. Why waste money!" "Waste! Why, by that standard then even our daily Dal Roti is also a waste, isn't it? Why survive at all, then?" "For Sayali." Rupa was happy at the turn of events in her life but the thought of Sayali always felt a gnawing feeling. One may try to be rational but sometimes guilt nibbles at your inner being even though it is none of your fault. The baby taking shape in her womb will be born one day, what will become of Sayali then?
"ऐसा
मत सोचो, Tपा.
mफर
तो
खाना-पीना
सभी
अनावशयक है ! mफर जीना ह` qयd ?" "सायल` के लए !" Tपा सोचने लगी ,mकतना भी yसन रहने का bवचार करे , सायल` का Nयाल आ कर मन को कचोट जाता है ! अपनी गलती न होने पर भी गलती का ऐसास ! अगर सच मt बचा गभ मt पल रहा है ओर वह पैदा हो जाए तो सायल` का qया होगा ?
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translator uses
Dal Roti as it is in TT. But these words are not present in IT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
जयदे व द©तर चले गए. Tपा अवथ थी. खड़क^ के
Jaidev left for the office. Rupa was unwell the whole day. Sayali was all by herself in the room. Sitting by the window, she was studying. Rupa entered the room to see Sayali. She was looking out intently and did not hear her mother enter the room. Her books were still in the bag. Rupa went near her and stood close
पास बैठ कर सायल` पढ़ रह` थी. अब तो वह घर मt पढ़ती है . पर`ा के समय जयदे व ले जाते है . Tपा बाहर के कमरे मt आयी. आज सायल`
एकाचत होकर बहार
दे ख रह` थी. mकताबे बैग मt ह` पढ़` थी. Tपा }बलकुल
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 152
by her. Sayali was so engrossed that she did टूटा नह`ं. Tपा ने खड़क^ से बाहर नज़र दौड़ाई - आखर not notice her presence. Rupa looked out with curiosity to see Sayali's object of interest. सायल` इतने धयान से qया दे ख रह` थी ? What she saw shocked her beyond words. At बाहर दे खा तो Tपा दं ग. गल` के सरकार` नल पर एक the public tap below, a young man was नौजवान नहा रहा था. उसने सायल` क^ ओर दे खकर कुछ bathing. On noticing Sayali he made some इशारा mकया ओर सायल` हस पड़ी. चेहरा लाल हो गया. obscene gesture and Sayali laughed and her face flushed. नकट आ कर खड़ी हो गयी , mफर भी सायल` का धयान
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which have more sense when placed within their respective cultures like: एकाचत,
intently and public obscene. These
words have got their due treatment in IT and TT. INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Probably, the young man had spotted Rupa. He turned hurriedly, wrapped a towel around him था. झट से तौ लया लपेटकर भाग गया !Tपा अनजान and fled. Pretending not to have noticed anything objectionable, Rupa withdrew from बनती हुई पीछे हट गयी ,मनो उसने कुछ दे खा ह` नह`ं the window and asked simple," Sayali, you हो. सहज भाव से बोल` were studying, weren't you?" "सायल` ,पढ़ रह` थी न तुम ?" Sayali was startled. "What were you looking at so fixedly, child?" सायल` च¬क गयी ! Nothing, Aai! The same everyday things." " बाहर एक टक qया ढक रह` थी ?" "Like?" "कुछ नह`ं माँ !वो ह` हमेशा के नज़ारे ." She said as if to change the subject,"Aai. I "मतलब ?" must stand first this time. My tests are to "कूल जाते बचd क^ भीड़ शोर माँ , टे 4ट अब शुT begin soon." Salyali dexterously collected herself and began taking out books from the होने वाले है .मुझे इस बार फट आना है ,"कहते हुए bag. नौजवान ने शायद Tपा को खड़क^ के पास दे ख लया
सायल` सधकर बैठ
गयी और mकताबे नकलने लगी.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 153
CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. The words of IT such as टे 4ट and फट have been taken from English. This is an example of foreignization in translation. These words have got their due treatment in IT and TT. They have been translated as it is.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Tपा को लगा ,यो लड़क^ इतनी समझदार है ,अब इसे
Rupa wondered if her daughter was really sensible or just clever yet she could not bring about herself to scold her for erring. "Sayali, you don't curse your fate watching these children going to school, do you?" "No, Aai. Why crave for the forbidden fruit,"Sayali counter-questioned like a philosopher. "My smarty," Rupa fondled her head with affection. "Sayali, it would be better if you sit in the gallery now. The window here is not wide enough." "But, I like it here, Aai."
qया कहा जाए. "Tपा बेट`, कूल जा रहे इन बचd को ढक कर आपने भाय पर ोब तो नह`ं करते हो न ?" "नह`ं माँ !जो हमt कभी नह`ं मलेगा, उसक^ चाह कैसी ?"बड़े दाशनक अंदाज़ से बोल` सायल` . "मेर` सयानी बेट`,"कहते हुए Tपा ने उसके सर पर हाथ फेरा ! "सायल` बेट` ,अब तू गैलर` मt बैठा कर , खड़क^ छोट` है ." "मुझे यह` अछा लगता है ,माँ !"
CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Rupa in IT avoids to give any judgement :" अब इसे
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 154
qया कहा जाए." But in TT Rupa calls her, " just clever.” Translators use a phrase from the Bible “forbidden fruit.” This phrase can’t be understood unless one has gone through the Bible. However, the phrase is missing in IT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Tपा समझ गयी. बाहर के सरकार` नल पर बंगले के
Rupa was quick to guess. At the public tap outside, many half-naked boys, children, men and women from the slum nearby the bungalow came to take bath and sitting by the window Sayali watched the scenes-god knows what! Next day, Jaidev too noticed Sayali looking out intently. He saw the view outside and his temper rose. "Move her away from this window," he shouted. After Jaidev had left for the office, Rupa tried to make Sayali understand, “Child, you should not watch such filthiness. It distracts the mind from studies. It's not healthy. The mind starts wandering." "Alright, Aai," Sayali said casually, "As you wish. But my life is shackled here. Can I ever go out anywhere?" "You are still small. When you grow up to be a beautiful princess, a prince will certainly come to take you with him," Rupa said in placating tone to her but somewhere deep down her motherly instinct told her that her daughter had grown up in mind.
bपछवाड़े क^ झोपड़ प¦ट`
से mकतने ह` अधनन बचे
ीया , पु§ष नहाने आते थे ओर खड़क^ सायल` न जाने qया qया दे खती दस ू रे
मt बैठ
थी.
Lदन जयदे व ने भी सायल` को एक टक दे खते
पाया ओर बाहर का नज़ारा दे ख कर उनका पारा चढ़ गया. "हटाओ इसे इस खड़क^ से,"जयदे व लगभग चीखे. जयदे व के द©तर चले जाने के बाद Tपा ने समझाया , "बचे,ऐसी गsद` हरकते नह`ं दे खनी चाइये. इससे पढाई से मन उचट जाता है ओर भटकने लगता है ." "ठक है ,माँ पर मt qया कTँ?मेरा जीवन तो यह` बंधा है , qया मt कह`ं जा सकंु गी ?" "अभी तू छोट` है . जब बड़ी हो जाएगी न , तब कोई राजकुमार अवuय आएगा , "Tपा ने सहे ज समझाया. वह जान गयी mक बेट` मन से बड़ी हो गयी है !
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Transators introduce a new sentence in TT " It's not healthy." This sentence truly captures the ambiance of the situation
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 155
presented. Rupa in IT thinks " मन से बड़ी." But in TT she knows about her daughter that she has "
grown up in mind” (TT).
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
"माँ , यहाँ रोज़ ह` पांच छह कुे पानी पीने आते हp.
"Aai, everyday some dogs come here to drink water. There is a dog with legs broken. When he limps near, the others just drive him away. Aai he too sits like me in a corner alone. Looking wistfully at others." Rupa saw pain in her eyes. She covered her mouth with her palm. "Don't, Sayali, don't ever let such thoughts come to you. Don't be weak, my child. We have to accept what is ordained. Music and studies, aim for them and rise high." Rupa was in tears. Sayali dragged her bag and moved away from the window.
उनमे से एक mक bपछल` दोनd टाँगे टूट! ह6. जब वो पानी bपने आता है तो बाक^ के कुे उसे भगा दे ते हp. माँ, वह भी मेर` तरह अकेला बैठा रहता है ." Tपा ने उसके मँुह पर हथेल` रख द`, "ऐसा न सोच ,सायल`. जो bवध का लखा है , हमt वीकारना है . कमज़ोर मत बनो ,बेट`. संगीत एवं पढ़ाई -यह` येय रखो और ऊंचा उठो." Tपा रो पड़ी. सायल` ने बैग घसीटा और खड़क^ से परे हट गयी.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. In IT it is made clear that the hind legs of dog were broken " bपछल` दोनd टाँगे टूट! ह6.” But the Translators translate
it as “dog with legs broken.” Whether they are hind or front, is not made clear in TT. But for a Target Reader with common sense, it is not a problem at all. In IT the translator uses “बेट`" while talking to Sayali. But in TT, the translator changes the word बेट` into "my child." The reader actually expects from the transaltor to take the word as it is. Because in the previous section we have seen that Aai and Baba have been taken as it is in TT. The reason for the same could be that Aai and Baba carry the cultural essence of Marathi text. However, maybe the word बेट` does not.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 156
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
दस पं®ह Lदन चु पी मt बीते. सायल` भझ ु ी -सी थी. उसे
A fortnight passed by in silence. Sayali was down and low all this while. Seeing her so morose, Jaidev said," Sayali, keep in mind one principle. Even if the song is sad, it is to be sung with a happy heart so that we put feeling in it." And Sayali obeyed. Slowly, invitations for performances started pouring in, but Jaidev accepted only a few, choosing discreetly. After all Sayali's 10th grade exams were round the corner and it was no use burdening or distracting her.
इस yकार चुप दे ककर जयदे व बोलt , " सायल`, गाना mकतना भी दद भरा हो,वो yसsन मन से गाना चाइये !" ओर सायल` संभल गयी. काय¤मd के लए आमंण पर
आमंण आने लगे,पर जयदे व ने सोच-समझकर बहुत थोड़े काय¤मd को वीकारा सायल` क^ दसवीं mक पर`ा जो नकट थी.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. In both the texts there are some words which have meanings not unrelated to the cultural significance such as: भझ ु ी -सी थी, आमंण, down and low and morose. That is why some of these can’t be translated accurately. The translator uses word “Slowly” in order to communicate the flow of invitations. But the word slowly actually refers to speed. The word “gradually” would have been better placed. Again in TT the translators paraphrase the entire situation and add a new sentence (which is actually not there in IT):” and it was no use burdening or distracting her.” This shows creativity of translators.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 157
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
fरयाज़ तो रोज़ चलता ह` था. तबलची पाठक हमेशा क^
The rehearsals, however, continued in right earnest. Pathak Master came daily for her tabla practice. One day he sent his son who had just appeared for his engineering examination and was free. The young man was taken aback to see Sayali, then he made a few polite queries. Rupa went in to prepare coffee. Jaidev was not yet back from office. Suddenly Rupa heard the hurrying steps of someone leaving in haste and ascending the steps. She peeped in, Sayali was alone in the room,”Arre, where did Pathakji's boy go?" "Left! Don't know why, just got up and nearly ran out!" answered Sayali. "Didn't he say anything?" "No." "That's strange," Rupa shrugged. Sayali seemed nonchalant.
तरह fरयाज़ के लए आते थे. एक Lदन उनका बेटा आया
इंजीनयfरंग क^ पर`ा दे कर आया था. सायल` को दे ख कर पहले तो भौचqका रह गया, mफर पूछताछ करने लगा. Tपा कॉफ^ बनाने चल` गयी. जयदे व द©तर से अभी आए नह`ं थे. तभी Tपा को लगा mक कोई ज
द`ज
द` कमरे से नकलकर सीLढ़यां उतर रहा है . कमरे मt झाँक कर दे खा, सायल` अकेल` थी -"अरे का
,पाठक जी
बेटा कहा गया ?"
"चला गया. पता नह`ं, उठा और लगभग भाग गया ,"सायल` बोल`. "कुछ बोला नह`ं ?" "नह`ं." "अजीब बात है ." Tपा ने कंधे उचका Lदए ! सायल` कुछ बेmफ¤ सी, अनजान सी लगी !
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers.
The word इंजीनयfरंग (IT) has been taken as it is in IT. This is
foreignization. " अरे ,पाठक जी" of IT has its cultural shades. The words have been transalted as it is. In Hindi we use ji in order to show respect. But a reader without this knowledge may take it as a complete name. The word " बेटा" (IT) has been transalted as "boy" (TT). Both have differnt meanings. Actually the third person word boy can mean some young male, perhaps a 'chela,' murshid or servant of Mr Pathak.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 158
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Later, despite Jaidev's repeated requests the boy wouldn't agree to come. This set Rupa पड़ गयी. जयदे व ने सोचा शायद mक सायल` क^ ऐसी हालत दे ककर पसीज गया था. mफर उsहdने रघुनाथ को बुलाया. वो thinking. Jaidev was also perturbed. The जयदे व ने बुलावा भेजा, mफर भी वो नह`ं आया. Tपा सोच मt
आ गया . 9रयाज़ शुT हुआ. रघुनाथ तबले पर ताल दे ता और सायल` का मधरु सवर गंज ू उठता. सबकुछ ठक चल रहा था
practice session came to a sudden halt. Jaidev rationalized, maybe he was
disturbed seeing Sayali's condition. Then he काय;क प हले रघुनाथ गांव sent for Raghunath and the regular session चला गया तो लौटा ह` नह`ं. जयदे व ¤ोधत हुए. Tपा बेचैन started. Raghunath would strike the Tabla and Sayali's melodious voice would fill the air. थी. पर सायल` सहज थी. Everything was going just fine; and then one day Raghunath decided to leave for his village and he never returned. Jaidev was angry. Rupa was upset; but strangely Sayali was normal. ,पर आuचय mक
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The word 9रयाज़ is actually difficult to translate with its culturally located rich meaning. The translator have clarified the entire situation with addition of this “The practice session came to a sudden halt” (TT). In IT the translator says that Mr Raghunath had left just before the program “ काय;क पहले.” But after reading the TT it is not clear, rather not mentioned, whether he dodged his presence or left ‘before the program’ / ‘after the program.’
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 159
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
शाम का समय था. सायल` शीशे के सामने बैठ बाल सँवार
It was evening; Sayali was sitting in front of the mirror, combing her hair. From across the street, their neighbor Chandu's image was reflected in the clear glass. Chandu was busy studying. He had not seen Sayali but Sayali was intently staring at his image. Suddenly, she bent forward and started kissing it. Just then, Rupa detected her action. "Sayali!" she shouted. Sayali withdrew, startled. Rupa's expressions became fierce. Suddenly, many things that had appeared enigmatic made sense now.
रहे थी. शीशे मt सामने के पड़ो सयो के चंद ू का yत}बम पड़ रहा था . चंद ू एकाचतपढ़ रहा था. वह बेखबर था पर सायल` बेखबर नह`ं थी. सायल` झुक^ और
चंद ू के
yत}ब£म को चूमने लगी . तभी Tपा ने दे ख लया. "सायल` !" Tपा च
लाई . सकपकाई. सायल` पीछे हट गयी . Tपा ने
उघेड़ Dप
धारण कर लया. कई बातt अब उसक^
समझ मt आ रह` थी .
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translators (TT) use adjective "clear” with glass but the same is missing in IT. Even translating the expression “उघेड़ Dप” is not easy as it contains cultural and metaphoric references. Perhaps that’s why translators beautifully translate it as “expressions became fierce.”
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
"Tell me," she nearly screamed. "Tell me why बेटा उस Lदन qयd भाग गया ? बता ,बता ...वाना ...," और did Raghunath leave for his village; why did Pathakji's son run away that day? Tell me...tell, "बता , रघुनाथ qयd गांव चला गया ? बता , पाठक जी का
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 160
or I'll..." and she came back with a hot pair of tongs. "Speak. Until now I thought you were कहती थी. तेरे लआ जीवन क^ हर ख़ुशी , हर चाह हमने innocent. But I see now that you are not sयोछावर ¤ द` . बस, एक ह` लय था हमारे सामने -सायल` smart but lecherous. We gave up all our joys, का जीवन ,और तू..." all our life, every desire for your sake. There was one goal before us to make Sayali's life a सायल` गड़गड़रई," माँ ," माँ ,माफ़ ¤ दो मुझे ." success. And here you are..." "Forgive me, Aai," Sayali whined. चमटा गरम करके लाई,"बता , अब तक मp तुझे समझदार
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The word “समझदार” of IT has been translated as “innocent” in TT. This is for sure variation but this variation adds to the meaning of TT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
पर Tपा का ¤ोध कहाँ उतरने वाला था. सायल` Lदवार से
But Rupa was furious. Sayali was sitting close to the wall. Rupa caught hold of her cheeks in a helpless anger as if to tear her apart. Her nails dug into the fair skin and drew blood. "Speak! Why don't you speak?" Sayali's lips were sealed tight. Rupa flew into a rage, "Go, go, get out of here." She caught hold of her arm and dragged her out shutting the door on her. Sayali was crying outside; Rupa was sobbing inside. Sayali tapped and her cries,"Aai, Aai" ripped through Rupa's heart. She regained her poise. A thought flashed across her: "Why am I over- reacting? Is youth Sayali's fault? Well, it had to come sooner or longer and it came."
सटकर बैठ थी. Tपा ने उसका गाल कसकर पकड़ा. गोरे गालd पर उसके नाखुनो से खून छलछा आया. "बोल ! बोलती qयd नह`ं ?" सायल` के हdठ मानd सीले थे . Tपा का ग़ ु सा चरम सीमा तक पहुंच गया -"जा , नकल जा यहाँ से," और Tपा ने उसे पकड़कर दरवाजे से बहार नकाल Lदया , दरवाजा बंद कर Lदया. उधर बाहर सायल` रो रह` थी ,इधर अंदर Tपा फफक रह` थी! सायल` का थपथपाना और 'माँ -माँ ' क^ पक ु ार Tपा के सीने को चीर गई. वह संभल गई . सोचने लगी ,”यौवन qया सायल` क^ भूल है . अरे , वह तो आना ह` था. “
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 161
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi
Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The words such as चरम सीमा, फफक, यौवन, furious and over- reacting (which carries more of psychological strains) have deep meanings within the cultures of IT and TT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
qया -qया पचा पाएगी यह लड़क^ ? खड़क^ से दु नया दे खना
How much can the poor child take in? Viewing the world through the window was all right till now; it was a handicapped child's innocuous entertainment. But how can one push down the newly sprouting emotions? How can one suppress them? Isn't it too much to expect? How can laws of nature be changed? Sita may have picked up Shiva's bow, but she too needed a man to string it. Rupa sat down perplexed-then what? Operation? Can it be the answer? She trembled. They had Lucy operated so that the house may not get dirty. But Lucy is their pet bitch and Sayali their daughter- is there any parallel? Well, what about Mandakini, their neighbor’s daughter? Her parents too got her operated. But again where is the comparison between demented Mandakini and their brainy Sayali?
अब तक ठक था , सहज था ; पर उसक^ खलती भावनाओ को कैसे दबाया जा सकता है ?आखर 0कृIत के Iनयम को कैसे बदला जा सकता है ?यौवन के इस शव-धनुष को उठा लेगी ,पर yयंचा छड़ाएगा कौन? Tपा घबराकर उठ बैठ -'तो qया ऑपरे शन.' वह काँप उठ. घर मt गंद न फैले, इस लए उsहdने अपनी लस ू ी का भी तो ऑपरे शन करवाया था. पर लूसी उनक^ पालतू कुतया और सायल` उनक^ बेट` -qया सॅय है कोई ? mफर पड़ोस क^ मंदाmकनी का भी तो उसके माता -bपता ने ऑपरे शन ¤ Lदए था . पर कहाँ पगल` मंदा , कहाँ सायल`.
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT)
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 162
titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The words such as “0कृIत के Iनयम,” handicapped and pet bitch have deep meanings within the cultures and life style of the readers of IT and TT.
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
Sayali's garden was blossoming. Should she, a सवयं Tपा और जयदे व इछाओं से परे नह`ं थे. उसके अपने mother, destroy it with her own hands? Could she deny their own passions-hers and Jaidev's? गभ मt हलचल है . तो जवान होती बेट` के सारे अरमानो को Though passed their prime, she and Jaidev are कैसे कुचले ? bवकत समया थी . कुछ सोचकर Dपा उठ> still unable to look beyond the call of flesh. How naive to expect her fast growing daughter और दरवाजे क^ ओर बढ़`. to curb her blooming passions. She was in dilemma. Suddenly, with decisive steps she moved towards the door. qया वह सायल` का खलता बाग नkट कर दे गी ? अब तक
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The vagueness of Rupa’s mind as reflected in IT “कुछ सोचकर Dपा उठ>” has been further clarified and paraphrased in TT with “decisive steps.”
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 163
INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI) महकती बगया
TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) Garden of Spice
It was a strange situation- she was feeling nausea, and her daughter, whom she had थी. shunted out for an imaginary act, was tapping अपने को संभालकर Tपा ने दरवाजा खोला ओर सायल` on the door. Gathering herself, she opened the सी लपट गई. सायल` घबराई -सी जमीन पर दे ख रह` थी. door and clung to Sayali. But Sayali was Tपा ने भी दे खा , सायल` क^ टाँगd पर से बहते खून क^ कुछ looking at the floor. She seemed bewildered and scared. Rupa too saw it flowing down बँद ु े जमीन पर गर` थी. वह समझ गई , बहुत कुछ. सायल` Sayali's legs, drops of blood had stained the को बाहd मt भर लया,"यह सब ऐसा ह` होता है ,बेट` !"वह floor. Rupa understood. बोल` तभी जयदे व सीढ`या चढ़ते नज़र आए . She took her in her arms and whispered,"This "यह बगया नkट नह`ं होने दग ू ी !"Tपा बुदबुदाई . जयदे व is how it is darling!" आखर` सीढ़` पर थे ओर Tपा सायल` को ले जा रह` थी . Just then she saw Jaidev coming up the stairs. I'll not let this garden he ruined!" she muttered. Jaidev was on the last step and Rupa was helping Sayali in.
इधर जी मचल रहा था ,उधर सायल` दरवाजा थपथपा रह`
CRITICAL ANALYSIS
These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ महकती बगया" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English
readers. The translators of TT, add a new sentence in it “drops of blood had stained the floor.” This new sentence wakens the Target Reader with the brush of realism. *** Trans. from Marathi original "Phulrani" into Hindi by Usha bande. Trans from Hindi into English by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal.
______________________________________________________________________________
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 164
5.6 Jaiwanti Dimri’s “The Inner Eye” ______________________________________________________________________________ We have divided this section 5.6 into three sections: 5.6.1 About the Author 5.6.2 Complete text of “The Inner Eye” (Source Text: Hindi) 5.6.3 Complete text of “The Inner Eye” (Target Text: English) 5.6.4 Some notes on Translation Strategy in “The Inner Eye”
So let us start with the first part:
______________________________________________________________________________ 5.6.1 About the Author ______________________________________________________________________________
Fig. Dr Jaiwanti Dimri
Jaiwanti Dimri is a critic, academician, bilingual author and former Professor of English (Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla). He has published her works in national and international journals. She has written anthologies and also translated works in English, Telugu and Marathi. She was a fellow of Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla. She also taught in Nigeria, Bhutan and US. She is also recipient of Arya Smriti Samman in the year 2002 for her excellent work in Hindi short story. Other than her innumerable works she has written The Images and Representation of the
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 165
Rural Woman; The Drukpa Mystique: Bhutan in 21st Century; A Critical Study of Ernest Hemingway's Short Stories and Non-Fiction; The Inner Eye and Other Stories; two novellas in Hindi, Surju Ke Naam and Pinddaan; two short story collections Gagar Bhar Paani and Dusra Narak Kund and a translated work Sahastra Netradhari Nayak. ______________________________________________________________________________ Complete Text: Source Text of “अंतL;िNट” _________________________________________________________________
उसका कसा हुआ जूड़ा दे खकर वो उsहt पीछे से ह` पहचान गयी थी. उनके बाल अवuय ह` सफेद हो गए थे. उsहt दे खते ह` गौर` mक भक ृ ु Lट तन गयी. उसे आuचय भी हुआ. यह इस ओ
डहोम मt कैसे पुहंच गयी? मन ह` मन उसे 0सQनता भी हुई. ये थी ह` ओ
डहोम मt पहुँचने लायक. उसक^ इछा हुई mक उनसे बात mकये }बना ह` लौट जाये पर इतनी दरू आकर लौटना सभव नह`ं था. मसेज साइमन से मलने ह` तो वो दो सौ असी Rकलोमीटर का पहाड़ी सफर तय करके आयी है . एक yवासी भारतीय mक अपनी बहन के लए bवदे श से भेजी हुई उसका कसा हुआ जूड़ा दे खकर वो उsहt पीछे से ह` पहचान गयी थी. उनके बाल अवuय ह` सफेद हो गए थे. उsहt दे खते ह` गौर` mक भक ृ ु Lट तन गयी. उसे आuचय भी हुआ. यह इस ओ
डहोम मt कैसे पुहंच गयी? मन ह` मन उसे 0सQनता भी हुई. ये थी ह` ओ
डहोम मt पहुँचने लायक. उसक^ इछा हुई mक उनसे बात mकये }बना ह` लौट जाये पर इतनी दरू आकर लौटना सभव नह`ं था. मसेज साइमन से मलने ह` तो वो दो सौ असी Rकलोमीटर का पहाड़ी सफर तय करके आयी है . एक yवासी भारतीय mक अपनी बहन के लए bवदे श से भेजी हुई सौगात को IनSद; Nट पाT के हाथ स¬पने का उरदायव न होता तो वह मसेज साइमन से मले }बना ह` लौट जाती. अब मसेज साइमन के आने तक उसे yतीा तो करनी होगी. "मैडम नम4ते. आपने मुझे पहचाना नह`ं होगा. मp..." "पहचाना कैसे नह`ं. तुम गौर` हो न," वे उसे बीच मt ह` टोककर बोल`ं. आवाज़ क^ कड़क पहले जैसे ह` थी. एक ण Tककर वह उसक^ आ ँख मY नज़रY गड़ाते हुए बोल`ं," और तुहारे शंकर कहाँ हp?"
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 166
तब भी गौर`शंकर, राधाकृkण और सीताराम के अतfरqत उsहt कुछ और नह`ं सझ ू ता था. एक bववाह समारोह मt गौर` ने उsहt दे खा था. मुँह खोल, अपनी दsत-पंिqतया दशाती वह द
ु हन पर आशीवचनd क^ झड़ी लगा रह` थी. बहुत वष के बाद गौर` को ¢ात हुआ mक वो बालbवधवा थीं. लेmकन अपने नाम के आगे वह ' मस' का yयोग करती रह`ं. मस नागर. लेmकन कूल मt छााएं उsहt
'नागर! 0चारणी' के नाम से ह` जानती थीं. एक बार एक नयी छाा टाफ-Tम मt 'नागर! 0चारणी मस' से मलने पुहंच गयी थी. तभी असYबल! मt byं सपल ने गु§- शkय सबंधो पर एक लबा भाषण Lदया था. अsय छाd क^ भांत गद न नीचे mकये उसने भी [0ंसपल मैडम का भाषण सुना अवuय था, लेmकन मस नागर के yत गु§ भिqत उपज ह` न पायी. गु§ क^ गfरमा न मस नागर रख पायी और “ शkयतवIमहं शाघमाम ् वां yपsनम” भाव न कभी गौर` के मन मt जागे. य²यbप अधकाँश छााओं मt मस नागर अलोकbyय थीं, mकsतु गौर` के पीछे तो वह न जाने qयd परखने बैल जैसी पड़ गयी थी . "गौर` आजकल कहाँ हो?” मस नागर ने उसक^ bवचारतं®ा तोड़ी. "मैड म mफलहाल तो कसौल` से आ रह`ं हूँ. " "कसौल` मp qया कर रह`ं हो? पढ़ा रह`ं होगी. mकसी प ि\लक 4कूल मp हdगी."
उर क^
yतीा mकये }बना वे अनुमानd के गोले दागे जा रह`ं थीं. नuतर चुभाने क^ उनक^ पुरानी आदत छूट` नह`ं थी. पि.लक कूल मt पढ़ा रह`ं हdगी. इससे अधक वो सोच भी नह`ं सकती थीं. अपना जीवन पि.लक कूल mक नौकर` मt गवां Lदया तो सोचती हdगी वो भी पि.लक कूल mक नौकर` मp Lदन काट रह` है . परू ` िज़ंदगी mक नौकर` मt इतना भी नह`ं बचाया mक बढ़ ु ापे मt सर छपाने के लए एक कमरा ह` बना लेती. इस वीरान ओ
डएज होम मt Lदन काट रह` है . उन Lदनd तो कूल के ट!चस; ]लै^स मt रहती थीं. सात साल गौर` ने उनके कारण बहुत घुटन और ोभ सहा है . आज उsहt परा4त करने का कोई भी अवसर वह हाथ से नह`ं जाने दे गी.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 167
इस लए गौर` ने रौब से कहा," नह`ं मैड म, मp कसौल` मt नह`ं, अमेfरका मt यू नव सट` ऑफ़ bवकां सन मt पढ़ा रह` हूँ. मसेज सायमन के भाई डॉ 9रचड;सन मेरे सहयोगी हp. उsहdने मसेज सायमन के लए कुछ सामन भेजा है , वह` सामान यहाँ दे ने आयी हूँ." यूनव सट` ऑफ़ bवकां सन. श.द नसंदेह वज़नी था. उसका वज़न सँभालने मt असमथ, मस नागर न मषमा के लए अyाकृतथ हुई, mकsतु अगले ह` ण सामाsय हो, वो अपनी तीखी आवाज़ मt बोल`ं," तुम bवकां सन कब पॅहुच गयी! bपछले साल मुझे तुहार` `लास क^ अलका मल` थी. अलका तुहे याद है न? आजकल वो Lद
ल` मt है . उसके हबpड हे
थ मन´` मt ªडट` सेकेटर` हp. बड़े यारे दो बेटे हp उसके. हाँ, तो अलका से पता चला mक तुम Lद
ल` मt हो. " "मैड म, अलका आपको तीन साल पहले मल` होगी. मp तीन साल से अमेfरका मt हूँ. अलका का पत, अलका के बेटे. प a ु ष वग; के लए ऐसा समोहन! कूल के वाbषक समारोहd के अवसर पर सब लड़mकयाँ अपने छोटे भाई-बहनd को 4कूल लाती तो मस नागर का लड़mकयd के भाइयd पर उमड़ता यार दे खने लायक होता. अपनी छाTओं का नाम भले ह` वो भूल जाएं, पर उनके भाइयd का नाम भल ू ना असंभव था. अगले वाbषक सामारोह तक वे लड़mकयd के छोटे भाइयd क^ कुशलेम पूछना न भूलतीं.
गौर` iढ yत¢ा थी mक जवाब पdथर से दे गी. गु§- शkय क^ मयादा जब उsहdने ह` नह`ं नभाई तो गौर` तो गु§- शkय क^ पfरध से दरू ऐसे दे श मp अयापन कर रह` है , जहाँ शkय को गु§ से समानता धरातल पर Mयहवार क^ वंता है . "मैड म, सुना तो आपने ठक ह` है . अमेfरका मt लोग बुढ़ापे तक शाद` करते हp. अमेfरका मt ह` qयd अब तो Sहंद4 ु तान मt भी आयु bववाह मt बाधा नह`ं बनती. " उसने 'बुढ़ापे' श.द पर bवशेष बल दे ते
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 168
हुए उर Lदया. मस नागर के कुछ कहने पव ू ह` मसेज साइमन आ गयीं. मस नागर ने गौर` का पfरचय Lदया," मसेज साइमन ये हp गौर` yभा. आजकल अमेfरका मt पढ़ा रह` है .
4कूल मt मpने इसे पढ़ाया हp.शी वास ्ऐ वैर! hाइट 4टूडYट."
गौर` को इस yशित से लेशमा भी yसsता न हुई. yशंसा के यह श.द उसके लए बेमानी हp. इस
0शि4तपT के }बना ह` उसने कूल से अमेfरका तक का सफर तय mकया है . जब उसे इस yशित mक आवuयकता थी तब मस नागर कृपण बनी रह`. द`हाड़ी के मज़दरू d mक भांत उसके नंबर का रे ट भी निuचत था. गौर` का रे ट दस मt से साढ़े पांच. पूरे सात साल वो रे ट सूचकांक मt µयd-का-यd बना रहा. न कभी घटा, न बढ़ा. म सज़ साइमन bवदे श मt बसे भाई का उपहार पाकर खल उठं. गौर` के बहुत मना करने पर भी उsहdने उसे दस ू रे Lदन भोजन के लए आमं}त mकया और गौर` mक श¶का होने के नाते वे मस नागर को भी आमं}त करना न भूल`. ओ
ड ऐज होम से लौटते समय मस नागर से जुडी यादY गौर` के मित मt घूमती रह`ं. अपनी जानकार` और समझ से गौर` ने मस नागर का कभी भी नरादर नह`ं mकया, mकsतु मस नागर ने उसे दि·डत और अपमानत करने का कोई मौका हाथ से नह`ं जाने Lदया. उसे याद आया मस नागर mक चहे ती, चुलबुल` नी लमा, उनक^ कुस के पीछे खड़ी उनक^ नक़ल उतार रह`ं थी और पूर` का mक लड़mकयाँ मुँह थामे, पेट पकडे अपनी हसीं रोकने का असफल yयन कर रह`ं थीं. गौर` के चेहरे पर भी कदाचत हाय mक रे खाएं उभर` हdगी तभी मस नागर ने अपनी पैनी आवाज़ मt उसे सबोधत करते हुए जवाब तलब mकया था: "गौर` qया बात है ?" "मैड म मझ ु े मालुम नह`ं. मp तो नह`ं हसीं."
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 169
"हसीं नह`ं तो qया रो रह` हो? जाओ qलास से बाहर जाओ और जब हसीं थम जाएं तो qलास मt आना." गौर` ोभ और अपमान से bपल` पड़ गयी थी. इस अपमान और अsयाय के yतकार का गौर` के अजीब तर`का नकला था. वो उनक^ का मt पूर` तरह तथ4ट हो गई थी. गांधीजी के असहयोग आंदोलन के सम मस नागर धराशायी हो गई थीं. mकसी अनिछत Mयिqत mक iिkट \लॉSटंग पेप र के सiश कैसे चेहरे क^ समत लाल` को सोख सकती है , ये गौर` ने अपने अनुभव से जाना है .
अगले Lदन म सज़ साइमन के घर काफ^ समय लग गया. bवदे श मt बसे भाई के bवषय मt म सज़ साइमन अjधकाjधक जानकार! लेती रह`ं. पांच वष पूव वो अपने भाई से मल` थीं. म सज़ साइमन mक उपिथत मt मस नागर को Mयिqतगत आेप अथवा कटा करने का अवसर नह`ं मला या कदाचत ओ
डहोम क^ सेA).
Lingua Franca: It is an intermediate language or a bridge language which smoothes communication between two or more than two persons whose SL is not the same. English is commonly known as lingua franca of the world.
Translatability: Are all texts, ideologies, cultures and emotions translatable? This is the question which still needs a relevant answer, hence is debatable. If we simplify this question we can further ask two questions: what should be translated or what should not be? That means what is actually translatable? Do we have an open choice to translate? Is there some translation vigilance going on? In one sense, the sacred texts like The Bible, The Quran, were not allowed to be translated. During Fascism many translated books, like George Bernanos' Les grands cimetieres sous la lune, were banned in its French version (but shall we understand it under the entry censorship or untranslatability?). Some divide this translatability debate into two directions: universal approach (which holds that the linguistic elements are sufficient for translation) and the monadist approach (according to this approach the linguistic ability of a culture hinders the process of translation). Ferdinand de Saussure and Pierce proposed a triangular structure of thought patterns which could be understood through semiotic analysis. Noam Chomsky proposed Transformative Generative Grammar which sought to find out the deeper layers of human languages. Sigmund Freud gave different dimensions of the patterns of dreams in his The Interpretation of Dreams. Was he translating dreams then? Walter Benjamin in his essay ‘The Task of the
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 218
effect” translation is possible. For the Deconstructive approach to translatability see the entry in this glossary.
Hindi: Photo Khincho Translationese: Drag the photograph Correct: Click the photograph
Translationese: (Pronunciation: translationease) (Sometimes also known Correct: I’m killing time. as awkwardness or ungrammaticality of translation): Translationese is a futile attempt or possible inability of a translator, to Translator’ (1923) “posits translatability translate word for word from the source as that which resides in the original as language. This may also be an error due mere potential and which translation will to unawareness of the Target Language. adumbrate more fully.” A. N. Many jokes are created after Kolmogorov in 1925 proposed a Translationese. possibility to derive the classical logic out of the ‘intuitionistic’. Aleksandr Smirnov (1934), the Russian author, maintained that after capturing the адекватность (adequacy) as also adekvatnyni perevod (adequate translation) through “ideological, emotional and aesthetic Translationese: This is a time pass.
Deconstruction: The term was coined by the French author and philosopher Jacques Derrida in 1960s. Deconstruction
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 219
challenges the authenticity of every text. With the goggles of deconstruction when we read a text we understand that there are multiple meanings visible bust also hidden in every work. That is why no work can be complete or without bias. Yes it is the prime task of Deconstruction to read the biased ideology in every work. Deconstruction translates as well as criticizes the text. The concept of différance (which means to differ and to postpone or defer) is in integral part of Deconstruction. Many scholars have appreciated différance as a concept ancillary to translation. When you try to look for meaning of a word in a dictionary you often find its multiple meanings. Here you cannot stop. You have to again find the meanings of those multiple meanings in the dictionary. You’ll have to turn over and over pages in order to find meanings. This search will never end. This is one very famous example in order to understand différance. Moreover, every text, every thought and every language is iterable or repeatable for example in English language we have to compose everything out of twenty six letters of alphabets (A to Z). This is the iteration of language and thought.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 220
AN EXAMPLE OF DECONSTRUCTIVE APPROACH TO TRANSLATION
Translate: I love cats. Translation: Cats!!! Dictionary shows multiple meanings of the word cat. Is this sentence about ‘cats’ the animals or something else? We also call women models cats. You might have heard of the cat-walk on the ramp. Does the author then loves women who do modeling? Then which cat the author is referring to in ST? In the same way ‘love’ can be interpreted. Maybe the writer eats flesh of cats. That’s why the author said, “I love cats.” Here the love is parasitical in deconstructive sense. This is not all, there are, many, innumerable ways this text can be translated and understood. But firstly we have to understand its context. Context is also a kind in Deconstruction.
Explicitation: The concept of explicitation was introduced by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958). In translation, explicitation is the process of making clear what was left unclear in the Target Language. Explicitation is different from adding up something to the Target Text. Explication can be obligatory, pragmatic or translation-inherent. But some scholars like Englund Dimitrova (1993) simultaneously use addition, transformation, omissions and alterations with the terms ‘addition-explicitation’ and ‘omission-implication’. The Russian writer Barkhudarov (1975) divided transformations, in translation, into four types: a) perestanovka (‘transposition’), b) zamena (‘substitution’), c) dobavleniye (‘addition’) and d) opushcheniye (‘omission’). Blum-Kulka studied explication hypothesis for the first time in which she systematically unraveled various shifts involved in the process of translation and explication.
EXAMPLE OF EXPLICITATION Source Text :
English wale Teacher
The confusion: In Hindi we usually use wala after nouns such as Tonga wala, Akhbaar Wala and so on. Otherwise, the direct translation of the word wale is “belonging to.” If we translate the above sentence this way it will come up odd. Thus that will create confusions for the reader.
Explicitation (Target Text): The person who teaches English language.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 221
Chomskyan Nativism: Noam Chomsky, an American Linguist and Political thinker holds that children already have certain skills at the time of their birth. These skills, such as language learning, are already present in their genes. This view goes against the theory of Tabula Rasa which holds that the brain of human beings is empty (blank state) at the time of birth. Language organs are already functional after the birth. That is why children learn to speak and understand the structure of language. This view is just opposite to the Functionalists view we have already discussed earlier. Homogenizing convention: Meir Sternberg (1981) coined the term homogenizing convention. The linguistic differences of the Source Text are actually merged while representing them into the target Text. For example in the television series The Discovery of India, originally written by Pt Jawaharlal Nehru. Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveler who visited India spoke in Hindi than in Chinese. This is homogenizing.
Functionalism: Martinet, the father of Functionalist view, primarily of the Prague School (1920s), believed that the structure (in a very wider sense) and linguistic elements are the most important content for any piece of translation or for that matter language learning. That is why Functionalists lay more stress on
intercultural translation (which actually creates a huge structure around texts). Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of 'translatorial action': Holz (1936), a Finnish scholar, a follower of the Functionalist-view-point proposed the model of translatorial action (1984). She held that translation does not belong to language, for her the message is more important than language or linguistic elements. The text possesses messageconveyor compounds bearing with it various contents. For her the language is just an instrument not an end. Translation for her is a professional act which produces message transmitter. She believes, "Translatorial action is integrated into a system of other actions and is controlled by factors lying outside it." These factors controlling the text from outside and require product specification (describing properties of the Target Text and the Target Influence). Skopos Theory: Hans J Vermeer (19302010), a German scholar, propounded the Skopos (which is a Greek word for purpose) theory of translation in his lecture series "General Theory of Translation” (1976-1977). This lecture was later developed into a path-breaking book titled A Framework for General Theory of Translation (1978). From this book the Functionalist Skopos Theory was fully developed. Although, this theory was developed in late 1970s. The main of this theory was to help German students to learn the process of
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 222
translation. The theory stressed a "release" from "faithfulness to the original." On the other hand, it also views the text as an “offer of information.” Translation according to this theory has to be bilingual and bicultural. Hans gave two basic rules to understand the process of translation they are: coherence rule and the fidelity rule. This approach identifies five kinds of translations: a) interlinear version ( word to word translation), b) agrammar translation ( the syntax and rules of grammar are observed but not given too much importance), c) adocumentary translation( the reader is rather informed about the language of Source Text), d) acommunicative translation (the Target Culture is followed along with translation process) and e) adapting translation (here also the Target Culture is fully followed but this time with a specific purpose). For all these acts dethronement (denying equivalence, loyalty, responsibility or fidelity of translators) of the Source text is necessary for Meer. However, Meer’s theory can’t be wholly applicable to the Literary Translation. Literary texts are highly aesthetic; they have heteroglossia (Bakhtin)
Localization or L10N: This word has been derived from the English word
locale meaning location, place of happening. In translation, the word localization is the process that is involved in adopting a “product” and making it local (for a particular locale, a specific country, region or place). The product is made local but this process makes the product global. Localization then is also a kind of globalization in one sense (for more on globalization please do read lessons). Localization is done keeping in mind expectations, cultural values and the law of that particular locale. This ‘product’ may have already been translated into other languages. In general terms, localization considers non-textual works, particularly digital works (like video games, software, web pages and so on) that’s why some call these non-textual works ‘products.’ That is why while talking of localization, the German Chancellor Willy Brandt’s famous quote is often mentioned: ‘If I’m selling to you, I speak your language. If I’m buying, dann müssen Sie Deutsch sprechen!’ (then you must speak German). Anyone can translate information contained in the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. What will you call this then? We will give you a hint: The terms wikifization proposed by Jeff Howe and crowdsourcing given by Alain Désilets, is associated with localization.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 223
Fig 18. When the above cigarette is produced in United Kingdom, the warning, “Smoking clogs the arteries and causes heart attacks and strokes” is inscribed. But when the same cigarette reaches India this warning has to be changed according to the rule of the land (that is India). In simple terms this is localization of the product, through language.
Machine-aided Translation (MAT) or Machine Translation (MT): Machine Translation is a translation carried out by computer software. Sometimes structural or lexical mismatches occur in the final versions of translation. There is also a possibility of error in translating polysemic or homonymic words. Translation service, Google Translate, offered by Google is highly visited online by users around the world.
Pseudotranslation, fictitious translation, supposed translation, and pseudotranslators: The prefix pseudo in Greek means false. For the first time this term was used in a review of Alexis’s Walladmor for the British journal The Literary Gazette and Journal of the BelleLettres, Arts, Sciences, for ‘free translation.’ Anton Popovič calls it fictitious translation as also quasimetatext. The concept is quite different from pseudoauthorship, pseudonym or polypseudonymity. In these concepts
mainly the hypotext and paratext (front cover, opening information, back matter and so on) are taken from some other source of text (of some author other than the translator). But actually, pseudotranslation is an imagined translation produced without a Source Text/Foreign Language. Actually, the translated work mimics some Source Text/Foreign Language in this case. Thus it gives an impression to the reader as if it was translated from some Source Text/Foreign Language because it may have inherent ambiance, stylistic features and cultural values of some pseudo Source Text. The translators who do pseudotranslations are known as pseudotranslators. You must read Thomas Carlyle’s pseudotranslation Sartor Resartus and the works of Domingues. In Germany, Holz und Schlaf ’s Papa Hamlet (1889, a pseudotranslation) was one of the most important forerunners of the so-called ‘konsequenter Naturalismus.’
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 224
theology by Thomas Aquinas and other philosophers. Think Aloud Protocols or talk-aloud protocol: Call it an experiment! This experiment was developed by Clayton Lewis while he was an employer of IBM. His paper “Task-Centered User Interface Design: A Practical Introduction" (1994) which was collectively written with John Rieman introduced a creative method of data collection. Actually, this concept has its roots in behaviorist psychology. That is why it is quite close to stream-ofconsciousness technique in fiction writing or cognitive sciences. In a novel of stream-of-consciousness, other than narrative, the thought process of a character is written down on the pages. In the same way, Think Aloud Protocol allows a Translator to verbalize her/his thoughts during the entire process of translation from Source Text to Target Text. This verbalization is recorded in an electronic device (audio-video or audio alone). Later the recorded file is transferred into a text. These recorded files provide a data for further research. This text is known as Think Aloud Protocols( TAP). Understanding this protocol or process of translation helps to know the process of explication in translation. Isn’t it interdisciplinary? Univocity: It is one-to-one or transparent relationship between a term and a concept. This concept of univocity is applied to Machine Translations, in general. Otherwise, the idea ‘Univocity of being’ has frequently been used in
Interlocutors: Interlocutors, are the persons who ‘take part in dialogue or conversation’ (Word Origin).
Ambiguity: Ambiguity is multiplicity of meanings or openness of a text to invariably numerous interpretations.
Transliteration: Transliteration is a method in which the sound patterns or phonetic sounds of ST is represented in TT. In transliteration, commonly the pattern of spellings is not followed. That is why it is possible for a person to speak in Hindi or any language without knowing Hindi (or any language). For example: a) Main ICDEOL ka vidyarthi hu. (Transliteration also romanization) b) I am a (Translation)
student
of
ICDEOL.
Domestication (kotoutta)(to bring home) and Foreignization: Domestication is a method or a strategy in translation in which the cultural value(s) are translated flexibly in order to make the Target Text familiar with its reader. This strategy helps minimizing strangeness to
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 225
the foreign Source Text. Lawrence Venuti (1953), an American scholar, introduced both the terms in his monograph The
Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Also see adoption and localization.
Fig 19 The front cover of book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation by Lawrence Venuti.
On the other hand, Foreignization, is a method or a strategy in translation in which the elements of Target Text which are preserved in the Source Text have no equivalent elements in the Target Text. Please see ostranenie or defamiliarization.(Please read lessons and elaborated discussions on this topic). Rewriting: The concept of “translation as rewriting” was propounded by Belgian scholar André Lefevere (1945-96) who was also the Professor of Germanic studies in the University of Texas. He wrote the essay, "Why Waste our Time in Rewrites? The Trouble with the Role of Rewriting in an Alternative Paradigm."
This essay introduced the concept of rewriting into the world of translation studies. For him rewriting is a genre of translation which, other than translation, includes interpreting, editing, criticizing, anthologizing and so on. Rewriting is not immune to ideological beliefs. He also introduced refraction or refracted text in translation studies. For him refracted texts were, “texts that have been processed for a certain audience (children, for example)”, He suggested that there is a "grid" (a culturally constructed concept) which unconsciously or consciously guides us when we are translating from some Source Text.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 226
Fig 20 André Lefevere (1945-96), the one who introduced the concept of rewriting in translation (Source : alchetron.com) The only hindrance to rewriting is the patronage. Patronage is visible or invisible force, of human beings or of institutions, which hinder reading, rewriting or translation of a text.
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 227
ALPHABETICALLY ORGANIZED LIST OF TRANSLATION TERMINOLOGY USED IN THIS LESSON A language Accredited translator acommunicative translation Ad hoc interpreting adapting translation adocumentary translation Adoption advertising agrammar translation Amplification Anime and manga fandom anuvad Approproation Architranseme Audience audio description Audio-Video Translation audiovisual translation B language Back translation Background information Background text bilingual Bilingual or multilingual corpora Bowdlerization C language calligraphy capitulador Censorship Certified translation Chomskyan Nativism chongyi
chuchotage coherence rule coinage Commercial Translation Committed Translation Community interpreting Comprehension concrete poetry Connotation consecutive interpreting Consecutive interpreting Contextual knowledge Controlled language Copywriting court interpreting critical discourse analysis critical linguistics crowdsourcing Cultural Translation Cultural Translation culturemes Deconstruction Denotation Descriptive Translation dethronement diasemiotic différance DIN 2345 Direct Method Direct Translation Directionality
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 228
dobavleniye Domestication Domestication Dominant language Dynamic Equivalence EN 15038 enmendador Explicitation Expurgation fan yi fictitious translation fidelity rule fig-leave editions film-dubbing Foreignization Free translation Freelance translator Functionalism Functionalists Approach to Translation Gisting Glocalization glosador Grammatical Translation habitus heteroglossia Hieroglyphic forms Homogenizing convention hypotext Imitation Inbound text inter- semiotic reading Inter-Discipline Translation interlinear version interlingual Interlocutors intermodal Interpretative Translation
Invariance Inverse Translation iterable Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of 'translatorial action' Keystroke kotoutta Language Engineering Language of habitual use; similar: dominant language Language pairing, language combination Language service provider (LSP) legal presence liaison Liaison interpreter Lingua Franca linguistic presence Linguistic Translation Lip-synchronized dubbing Literal Translation or Formal Correspondence Translation Literary Translation Literary translator message transmitter message-conveyor compounds modulation Monolingual corpora monomodal Mother Tongue or language of habitual use multilingual filming multimedia translation Multimodality Native speaker Native-speaker competence Natural translators neologism offer of information
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 229
ÖNORM 1200, ÖNORM 1201 ÖNORM 1202, ÖNORM 1203 opushcheniye Orthographic Words Otaku Parallel corpora or translation corpus Paralleltext Outboundtext Plain English paratext perestanovka phonogism polypseudonymity Prague School product specification Promotional translation Proofreading , proofreading pseudoauthorship pseudonym Pseudotranslation pseudotranslators quasi-metatext Readership Referential restriction, 19 Reformulation refracted text refraction Rewriting rupantar Scientific and Technical Translation screen translation script Selective Reproduction sense grammar shifts, category shifts, constitutive shifts, individual
shifts, level shifts, optional Shifts,Obligatory Sight Translation signed language Simplified English (SE) Simultaneous interpreting Skopos Theory Specialized language competence Standard line Standard page , calibrated page Subtitling supposed translation Sworn translator Target Influence Target readership tarjama Terminology extraction (TE) Text type Think Aloud Protocols totems Transemes Translatability Translationese Translator’s agenda or Translator’s Ideology Transposition Types of Interpreting Unicode Untranslatability Vehicular Matching Vehicular promiscuity visual grammar voice-over vouloir dire Web Page Translation Tools
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 230
Whispering, whispered interpreting wikifization
Word count zamena
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 231
LIST OF AUTHORS WHOSE REFERENCES HAVE BEEN MADE IN THIS LESSON
A Z Cajup A. N. Kolmogorov Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi Abdon Ubidia Abdourahman A. Waberi Abdul Muis Abdulah Sidran Abdullah Aalmuti Adab Adalberto Ortiz Adèle Caby-Livannah Adem Demaci Adolf Hitler Aharon Megged Ahmed Abdallah Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi) Ahmed Mourad Ahmed Saadawi Aida cartagena Portalatin Alain Désilets Alain Mabanckou Albert Camus Albert Camus Albert Einstein Albert Mongita
Albert Tezla Alberto Fuguet Aleksa Šantić Aleksandar Hemon Aleksandr Smirnov Aleth Felix-Tchicaya Alexander Pope Alexandre Alexis Ali-AShraf Darvishian Alice Ann Munro Alidjanatou Saliou-Arekpa Alistair Nobel Allsopp Amal al-Zahawi Amarah Amin Faqiri Amy Chan An Qing Anatole France André Álvares de Almada André Gide André Lefevere Andreas Koumi Andriana Ieridiakonou
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 232
Angela Barry Angela Rodel Anne Frank Antal Szerb Anthony Pym A N Kdmogrov Anton Popovič Antonie Bangui-Rombaye António Aurélio Gonçalves Antonio Januario Leite Antonis Georgiou Antun Branko Šimić Antun Gustav Matoš Ariel Dorfman Aristotle Arnold Sènou Arthur Schnitzler Arvind Adiga Asa Zata Asad Asdreni Ataur Rahman August Vermeylen Auguste Comte Augusto Pinochet Badr Shakir al-Sayyab Baker Bakhtin Barbara Akplogan Barkhudarov
Bastin Bataha Bejtexhinj Benjamin Benjamin Carrion Benjamin Tammuz Bertrand Russell Binéka Danièle Lissouba Björk Guðmundsdóttir Blaise Pascal Blum-Kulka Bob Marley, Robert Nesta "Bob" Marley Bogdani Boileau Borders Brian Burland Brian Mossop Brisset Brisset Broome Bruce St John Buddhadeva Bose Bushra al-Bustani C Jewitt Carl Spitteler Carlos Gagini Carlos Luis Fallas Carmen Lyra
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 233
Carmen Naranjo Caro Catford Cécile-Ivelyse Diamoneka Cecilia Wadensjö
Désiré-Joseph Basembe Diakhate Diamela Eltit Domingues Doris Lessing
Chan Charlotte Bronte Chekhov Chester Carlson Christopher Buxtonis Christopher Columbus Cicero Claribel Alegri Classe Claude Cohen-Tannoudji Claude Simon Clayton Lewis Corsino Pedro de Azevedo Cristina Garcia Danica Seleskovitch Dante Alighieri Dao An Darbelnet Dario Fo David Escobar Galindo Delabastita Delisle Denise Merkle Desai
Dowlatabadi Dr Andy Hildebrand Dr Israel Zonberg Dr Thomas Bowlder Dr. Hasan Javadi Dr. Johnson Driem Dubravka Ugrešić Dunya Mikhail Ebrahim Yunesi Eduard Tamaro Edward Said Egon Erwin Kisch Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin Elfriede Jelinek Elias Canetti Elisa Daggs Émile Zola Emilios Solomou Emmanuel de Bom Emmanuel Dongala Emmanuel N Chia
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 234
Englund Dimitrova Eqrem Basha Ernest Koliqi Eugene A. Nida Eugene Chen Eoyang Eugene Nida Eugénio de Paulo Eugenio Montale Eugenio Tavares Eva Maria Charlotte Michelle Ibbotson Eve Makis Fabian Dobles Fadhil al-Azzawi Fasti Fausto Duarte Fazi Feng Ferdinand de Saussure Ferdowsi Fernando Contreras Fleischer Flore Flore Hazoumé Francesco Petrarca Francesco Santori Francine Giguere Francisco Proano Arandi François Lyotard François Mauriac
Franz Kafka Franz Werfel Frasheri brothers Frederic Gomes Cassidy Frédéric Mistral Friedrich Nietzsche Gabriel Fahrenheit Gabriel García Márquez Gabriela Mistral Gabriele Dara Gal Galileo Galilei Gambier García Geoffrey Chaucer Georg Trakl George (Sjors) van Driem George Bernanos George Ritzer Georges Ngal Gerhart Hauptmann Gibson R. Ferguson Giorgos Seferis Giosuè Carducci Giovanni Boccaccio Giovanni da Verrazzano Girdlamo De Rada Gisèle Hountondji Giuseppe Serembe
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 235
Gocul Prasad Goffman Gonzalo Zaldumbide Graham Chesters Grazia Deledda Guillermo Cabrera Günter Grass Gustav Johannes Wied Gustav Perez Firmat Guthrie Guy Menga György Köves Gyula Krúdy Habibur Rahman Haim Gouri Halldór Laxness Halotti Hamdy El-Gazzar Hans J Vermeer Hans Overbeck Hans-Georg Gadmer Harivansh Rai Bachhan Harold Pinter Harris Hedayat Heinrich Böll Hélène Cixous Henri Bergson Henri Lopes Henrik Pontoppidan
Henry Vizetelly Hermann Hesse Herodotus Herta Müller Hesiod Hilaire Belloc Hilma Contreras Hitoshi Igarashi Hivzi Sulejmani Holmes Holt Holz Homer Horace Horace and Quintus Horatius Flaccus Hortense Mayaba House Hu Shi Hung Ibsen Imre Kertész Imre Kertész Isabel Allende Isabel Zakrzewski Brown Isak Samokovlija Ivan Bunin Ivan Gundulić Ivan Sanders Jaiwanti Dimri
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 236
J. Hillis Miller J. M. G. Le Clézio J.C.Catford J.Joaquin Fraxedas Jacques Derrida Jamaica Kincaid James Atkinson James Russell Jamil Sidqu al-Zahawi Jan Baptist Verlooy Janet Wingate Janko Polić Kamov Jaroslav Hašek Jaroslav Seifert Jean Baudrillard Jean Malonga Jean Pierre Bertrand Jean Rhys Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Paul Sartre Jeff Howe Jerome Jaiwanti Dimri Joaquin Garcia Monge Joaquín Gutiérrez Johannes Gutenberg Johannes Vilhelm Jensen John Batki John Catford John Galsworthy
John Okell John Week Jorge Díaz Cintas Jorge Galán Jorge Icaza Jose Donoso José Lopes José María Vergara y Vergara Joseph Addison Joseph Brahim Joseph Monier Jovan Dučić JRR Tolkien Juan Andrade Heyman Juan José Cañas Juan Leon Mera Juan Montalvo Judith Sollosy Jue Xian Julie Sanders Julieta Dobles Yzaguirre Junemann Jurgen Habermas Justa Holz-Manttari Jusuf Buxhovi Kadima Kafka Karl Kraus
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 237
Karl Marx Kashi M'Bika Katende Kazuo Ishiguro Kitty van Leuven-Zwart Kjetil Myskja Koulsy Lamko Kunzang Choden Lasgush Poradeci Lasswell László Krasznahorkai Laurence Laurence Raw Lawrence Venuti Le Lutrin Lee Lefevere Leila Azam Zangeneh Leonardo da Vinci Leonor de Ovando Lewis Carroll Lino Novas Calvos Listopad Louis Braille Lubomir Terziev Ludovico Ariosto Ludvig Holberg Ludwig Wittgenstein Luigi Pirandello Luis A. Martinez
Luis Salvador Efraín Salazar Arrué Machali Magda Szabó Mahamet Baba Mustapha Mahmud Dowlatabadi Maithili Sharan Gupt Mak Dizdar Makouta-Mboukou Mambou Aimée Gnali Mandryk Manlio Argueta Manlio Arugueta Mansoura Ez-Eldin Manuel de Jesus Galvan Manuel Lopes Marah Rusli March Veloz Maggiolo Marie-Louise Abia Marie-Louise Sibazuri Marin Držić Mario Bencastro Marisela Rizik Marko Marulić Marlon James Martin Heidegger Martinet Mary Shelley Max Brod Mednikova
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 238
Meer Meir Sternberg Merari Siergar Meša Selimović Mesrop Mashtots Michel Foucault Michel Garneau Michel Garneau Michelle Woods Migjeni Miljenko Jergović Miro Gavran Mitrush Kuteli Mo Yan Mohamed Ahmed-Chamanga Mohamed Toihiri Mohammad Baharlu Mohammad Maruof Mohlig Moniru Ravanipur Montgomery Moseley Moshe Shamir Moussa Konaté Muhammad Husayn Haykal Muhammad Mahdi al-Basir Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri Muhammad rida al-Shabibi Mukala Kadima-Nzuji Myrto Azina Chronides
Nader Ebrahimi Nadstoga Naguib Mahfouz Nair Nathaniel Tucker Nawal El Saadawi Nazik al-Mala'ikah Ndre Mjeda Nedžad Ibrišimović née Wiesner Neijmann Nelly Sachs Nelson Estupinan Bass Newmark Nicanor Parra Niccolò di Bernardo Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli Nicolas Malebranche Nigel Roberts Nike K. Pokorn Nima Yushij Niranjana Noam Chomsky Noëlle Bizi Bazouma Nord Ntumb Diur Odysseas Elytis
dei
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 239
Ottenheimer Otto Kade Ovid, Publius Ovidius Naso Pablo Neruda Palbi Medina Patrick Modiano Paul von Heyse Paule Etoumba Peder Paars Pedro Cardoso Pedro Lemebel Pedro Mir Pedro Paix Perdomo Perloff Petar Kočić Péter Esterházy Peter Handke Peter Høeg Péter Nádas Peter Newmark Peter Skipp Philippe Aubert de Gaspe Philo Judaeus Phyllis Shand Allfrey Pindar Pjeter Bogdani Pjeter Budi Plato
Pliny the Elder Plutarch Pramoedya Ananta Toer Prof Ginette Sánchez Gutiérrez Professor Moni Propertius, Sextus Propertius Proust Pt Jawaharlal Nehru Publius Vergilius Maro Quince Duncan Rabindranath Tagore Rachel Aspden Rainer Maria Rilke Ramakant Ramiz Kelmendi Raoul Lefèvre Raul Perez Torres Raul Ruiz Rawle Frederick Reddy Rees Reily Reinaldo Arenas Rekha Sharma René Descartes Rexhep Qosja Richard Haklyut Riitta Oittinen Ritva Hartama Robert Brock
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 240
Roberto Balano Roger Martin du Gard Romain Rolland Roman Jakobson Romano Rombi Rosemary Jones Roudometof Rudolf Christoph Eucken Rudyard Kipling Sadegh Hedayat Safvet beg Bašagić Said Mohamed Djohar Saint-John Perse Salah Jaheen Saleh Salih J. Altoma Salih J. Altoma Iraq Salman Rushdie Salvatore Quasimodo Sándor Márai Sandra Benitez Sappho Sargon Boulus Saul Bello Sayadaw Shin Kaweinda Schlaf Seamus Heaney Seamus Justin Heaney Semezdin Mehmedinović
Seyyed Mohammad Hossein Behjat Tabrizi Sharon Deane-Cox Shi Dao'an Shigao Shmuel Yosef Agnon Sibertin Blanc Sigmund Freud Slavenka Drakulić Slobodan Šnajder Smith S. N. Snehi Socrates Sophocles Sperber Sperber Wilson Stanislas Adotevi Stefan Zweig Subhash Chander Bose Sully Prudhomme Susam-Sarajeva Susan Bassnett Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana Sylvie Bokoko T. S. Eliot Tamis Tan Taslima Nasrin Tavares Theodor Mommsen
Translation Studies and Principles of Translation 241
Theodor of Shkodra Thomas Aquinas Thomas Bernhard Thomas Carlyle Thomas Edison Thomas Leitch Thomas Mann Thorkild Bjørnvig Torquato Tasso Toury
Walter Benjamin illem Kolff Willem Verhoeven illiam Empson William Golding William J Samarin Wilson Winston Churchill Yusuf al-Sayigh Zajaczkowski Zhang Qian
U Awbatha Usha Bande V. S. Naipaul Vakunta Vartan Pasha Vásquez Perdomo Velupillai Vicente Huidobro Victor Roudometof Victtor Cousin Vinay Virgil Suarez Viriato Sencion Vojnović Voltaire W B Yeats Wael Ghoniem Walske
Zlatko Anguelo Zlatko Topčić Zohn -