Train Your BrainBuild a Framework for Clear Thinking Take Full Advantage of Your Brain’s Exceptional Powers B !r" #illiam #" !odd Copyright 2012 William Dodd Smashwords Edition License Notes Thank you or downloading this ree e!ook" #ou are welcome to share it with your riends" This !ook may !e reproduced$ copied and distri!uted or non%commercial purposes pro&ided the !ook remains it its complete original orm" 'ermission is granted to teachers to reproduce shorter segments o this pu!lication or classroom use" " ( you en)oyed this !ook$ please encourage your riends to download their own copy at Smashwords"com" Ta$le of Contents Chapter 1* #our Neurons at Work Chapter 2* +raming #our Thoughts Chapter ,* 'utting #our -rain to Work Chapter .* Tools or Clear Thinking Chapter /* +ood or Thought Chapter 0* The Conscious 1ind Chapter 2* 3 1odel o the 1ind Chapter 4* Sol&ing 'ro!lems Chapter 5* 6etting it 7ight Chapter 10* 1anaging #our 7esources Chapter 11* Clear Thinking and #ou 3!out the 3uthor Introduction Clear thinking in&ol&es learning more$ remem!ering more$ making !etter decisions$ inding more satis actory solutions to a &ariety o pro!lems$ and impro&ing relations with others" The most important concept in Train Your Brain is that thinking skills can !e de&eloped and enhanced through directed e ort and practice" #ou can train your !rain to think !etter$ )ust as you can train your muscles to per orm speci ic tasks$ such as playing a sa8ophone or swimming the !ackstroke" 3 clear thinker systematically collects data$ analy9es in ormation$ and makes considered decisions" 3 clear thinker also communicates e ecti&ely and stri&es to work e ecti&ely with others" Thinking clearly on a regular !asis is an achie&a!le o!)ecti&e" (t does not re:uire a re&olutionary approach" E&ery attempt at clear thinking leads to increased knowledge and impro&ed skills" Each success lays the oundation or more success in the uture" 3s you learn more and start to think more clearly$ additional learning !ecomes easier" With more knowledge$ clear thinking !ecomes a ha!it rather than a challenge" ;&er time$ the cumulati&e e ect o increased knowledge and clear thinking will lead to systematic impro&ements in your own health$ wealth$ satis action$ and happiness" %%% Chapter 1: Your Neurons at Work &"& &"' &") Basic Anatom of Your Brain Your Bod ’s Communication ( stems Your (enses Thinking is a wondrously complicated !iological process" The !asic anatomy o your !rain and input rom your senses operate together to determine how your mind percei&es the uni&erse$ and how you think" &"& Basic Anatom of Your Brain #our !rain is where all your thinking takes place" So learning a little a!out the structure and operation o your !rain is an appropriate !eginning or a !ook on training your !rain to think clearly" The !rain is a comple8 organic system or processing in ormation ed to it !y your senses" The structures o the !rain contain se&eral !illion neurons with a total weight o a!out 1". kilograms <, pounds=" Those neurons re:uire a!out twenty percent o the !lood low rom your heart to keep them supplied with o8ygen and nourishment" The !rain loats in a cere!rospinal luid that helps to support its spongy structure and protect it rom mechanical shocks" -ased on knowledge deri&ed rom anatomy$ e&olutionary theories$ and unctional characteristics$ the !rain can !e regarded as a composite o three !asic su!structures" 3ccording to 'aul 1acLean <La!oratory o -rain E&olution and -eha&iour o the National (nstitute o 1ental >ealth=$ as the human !rain e&ol&ed primiti&e structures were successi&ely surrounded !y more ad&anced neural structures" The hind!rain$ located at the !ase o the !rain$ is its most primiti&e part and is associated with autonomic unctions" The mid!rain comple8 lies a!o&e the hind!rain$ is more sophisticated$ and is associated with our emotions and the ormation o memories" The le t and right hemispheres o the ore!rain orm a cap o&er the mid!rain" The ore!rain is the most highly e&ol&ed component o the !rain and is associated with awareness and thinking" <See +igure ?1 or a sketch o the !asic !rain structures"= (t is 1acLean@s contention that$ “We are obliged to look at ourselves and the world through the eyes of three quite different mentalities.” [The human brain] “amounts to three interconnected biological computers [each with] its own sense of time and space its own memory [muscle] motor control and other functions”. Carl Sagan adds$ “!ach [of these three] brain[s] corresponds to a separate ma"or evolutionary step. The three brains are distinguished neuro#anatomically and functionally and contain strikingly different distributions of the neurochemicals dopamine and cholinesterase.” Figure %&* A sketch of the $asic structures of the $rain We also know that the !rain has conscious and su!conscious modes" While you are reading this sentence part o your !rain keeps your heart !eating$ part keeps your eyes mo&ing across the page$ and another part wonders what is or supper tonight" #our !rain also has a sleep mode that can create dreams$ and it has an unconscious mode to which it can retreat when your !rain is in)ured" #our rational thoughts can !e disrupted !y emotional concerns$ and your emotional concerns can !e o&erridden !y your !asic needs to !reathe$ drink$ and eat" (t is no wonder that it is sometimes a challenge to think clearly" With se&eral le&els o unctioning$ each with conscious and su!conscious modes$ it is a great ad&antage to !e a!le to shi t mental gears at%will to meet daily demands" &"&"& +earning a$out the Brain There are a num!er o sources o in ormation a!out the structure and operation o . the !rain" -rain in)uries Whene&er someone e8periences a damaging head wound and sur&i&es$ there is an opportunity to compare any resulting disa!ility with the damaged region o the !rain" >istorically$ the ad&ent o high%speed !ullets in the 15th century led to many non% atal head wounds" Sur&i&ors had characteristic impairments when speci ic parts o the !rain were in)ured" 3nimal e8periments While there are recogni9ed ethical constraints that limit neural e8periments on humans$ there are as yet ew constraints limiting e8periments on animals" 3nd since there are many parallels !etween the structures o human and animal !rains$ much has !een learned rom animal studies a!out how our !rains unction" Continued e8periments on animals re lect our !asic ignorance o su!tle !iological processes" -rain surgery The techni:ues and procedures or per orming success ul operations on human !rains e&ol&ed rapidly during the 20th century" There are no pain sensors in the !rain itsel and patients are normally restrained !ut awake during !rain surgery" Surgeons can then talk to patients during an operation to con irm that incisions are ha&ing the intended e ect" During operations to treat patients with se&ere epilepsy$ Wilder 'en ield disco&ered that stimulating speci ic regions o the !rain produced physical sensations" During the early 15/0@s$ he demonstrated that the sense o touch or each part o the !ody@s sur ace is represented on the parietal lo!e <see section 1"1".=$ and that ad)acent parts o the !ody are represented on ad)acent parts o the !rain" 'en ield also ound that the more important and sensiti&e !ody regions ha&e proportionally greater parts o the !rain assigned to them" >e disco&ered$ as well$ that stimulation o other regions could elicit particular memories in a patient" (n the 1500@s$ a new operation was designed to ease the symptoms o se&ere epilepsy" (n this operation the main connection <corpus callosum= !etween the le t and right cere!ral hemispheres o the ore!rain is se&ered to pre&ent uture epileptic sei9ures rom spreading across the whole !rain" While the operation limited the damage o epileptic sei9ures$ it also led to characteristic de iciencies" 7oger Sperry won the No!el 'ri9e in 1541 or his studies o the su!se:uent !eha&ioural characteristics o these patients" -rain scans Non%in&asi&e scanning techni:ues allow the human !rain to !e studied in action" 3 &ariety o scanning techni:ues ha&e !een de&eloped since 1520$ when the 6erman physiologist$ >ans -erger$ irst used electroencephalography to study the human !rain" Newer techni:ues can detect acti&ity in smaller regions o the !rain o&er shorter time periods" . " CT A Computeri9ed Tomography <or C3T A Computeri9ed 38ial Tomography= A con&erts the in ormation rom a 17( into a three dimensional image" /" 17( A unctional 17( A a newer &ersion o 17( that is much aster <and much more e8pensi&e=" 0" 'ET A 'ositron Emission Topography A re:uires the in)ection o a radioacti&e su!stance into a patient@s !loodstream" The patient is gi&en a speci ic mental task to per orm and the most acti&e areas o the !rain then a!sor! the most radioacti&e material" 2" N(7S A Near%(n ra%7ed Spectroscopy A can !e used to assess !rain unction !y detecting changes in !lood hemoglo!in concentrations that are associated with neural acti&ity" &"&"' The .ind$rain The hind!rain is considered the most primiti&e component o the !rain" (t is located at the top o the spinal cord$ )ust inside the !ase o the skull" (ts main components are the medulla$ the pons$ and the cere!ellum" The medulla is located )ust at the top o the spinal cord at the lower end o the hind!rain" The medulla controls many autonomic unctions including respiration$ circulation$ and digestion" 3t the top o the medulla$ )ust under the mid!rain$ is a small region called the reticular acti&ating system" The reticular acti&ating system is !elie&ed to har!our our centre o arousal and moti&ation" This system acts as a primary ilter on all incoming neural signals" Signals are orwarded to other parts o the !rain only i the input is deemed signi icant" The reticular acti&ating system is also in&ol&ed in maintaining consciousness and regulating sleep" The cere!ellum is located at the !ack o the hind!rain$ !ehind the medulla" (t is a!out the si9e o a small apple and is di&ided into le t and right hemispheres " (ts compact structure contains a!out i ty percent o the !rain@s neurons in only ten percent o the !rain@s &olume" 3!out 200 million input neurons rom the spinal cord pass through the cere!ellum" The cere!ellum also controls su!conscious mo&ements to maintain posture$ !alance$ and co%ordination" The pons is a swelling around the medulla )ust in ront o the cere!ellum" (t connects the two hal&es o the cere!ellum and manages the switching o signals rom one side o the !ody to the opposite side o the !rain" (t plays a ma)or role in relaying sensory in ormation rom the cere!ellum to the ore!rain" ." 17( A 1agnetic 7esonance (maging A uses strong magnetic ields and radio wa&es to analy9e so t tissue" (t can !e used on any part o the !ody$ including the !rain" .>ere are !rie descriptions o some o the common scanning techni:ues* 1" EE6 A Electroencephalography A measures the electrical acti&ity o the !rain as detected !y electrodes on the sur ace o the head" 2" 1E6 A 1agnetoencephalography A similar to EE6 !ut it measures magnetic signals" . Figure %'* Basic structures of the hind$rain &"&") The -id$rain Complex To simpli y the discussions$ the term Bmid!rain comple8@ has !een coined to include the mid!rain along with the thalamus and the lim!ic system" The mid!rain is cylinder shaped$ a!out 2 centimetres <cm= in height and 2 cm in diameter" (t sits on top o the hind!rain in the middle o the headC appro8imately le&el with the !ridge o your nose" The mid!rain is associated with the pathways or &oluntary muscle control$ &isual system re le8es$ and hearing" The thalamus consists o two plum si9ed lo!es )ust a!o&e the mid!rain" These le t% right lo!es pro&ide a system or relaying neural signals !etween the mid!rain and the hemispheres o the ore!rain$ and act as the !rain@s main ilter o sensory input" The thalamus is also associated with regulating sleep$ wake ulness$ consciousness$ and mental arousal" . = and may !e the source o emotional satis action that can !e deri&ed rom clear thinking" There is no uni&ersal agreement on e8actly which organs should !e listed as part o the lim!ic system$ !ut its main components are the hypothalamus$ the hippocampus$ and the amygdala" The hypothalamus consists o two small le t%right structures$ each a!out the si9e o a !ean" The two parts o the hypothalamus reside under the two parts o the thalamus" The primary unction o the hypothalamus is to maintain the !ody@s status :uo" (t regulates !lood pressure$ temperature$ luid le&els$ electrolyte !alance$ !ody weight$ and appetite" #our hypothalamus sends you a signal to let you know when you are hungry$ thirsty$ tired$ mad$ or sad" The hypothalamus is also connected to the pituitary gland$ the master regulator o the !ody@s endocrine <hormone= system" #our hypothalamus works much like the thermostat on a urnace$ maintaining key !ody parameters at appropriate le&els" (n the short run you may gain or lose a ew pounds$ !ut the setting or !ody weight esta!lished in your hypothalamus will e&entually !ring your !ody weight !ack to its ormer setting" Similar correcti&e measures initiated in your hypothalamus maintain your !ody temperature and !lood pressure" .The lim!ic system is an important series o le t%right ner&e pathways located around the mid!rain and under the ore!rain" The lim!ic system is in&ol&ed in emotional responses such as ear and aggression$ mood in general$ appetite$ and emotional responses to ood" The lim!ic system is also in&ol&ed in the processing and storage o short%term memory" +rom an e&olutionary point o &iew$ the lim!ic system is an old structure that can also !e ound in ish$ amphi!ians$ and reptiles A as well as mammals" The lim!ic system is highly connected with the rontal lo!es <see section 1"1". Figure %)* Basic structures of the mid$rain complex The amygdala has a le t%right structure with almond shaped components residing )ust !elow the hypothalamus" The amygdala is in&ol&ed with the emotions o aggression$ ear$ and pleasure" 'ersons with a large amygdala tend to !e more aggressi&e" 3n8iety$ autism$ depression$ narcolepsy$ pho!ias$ and schi9ophrenia are o ten linked to a mal unctioning amygdala" The hippocampus has a le t%right structure in the shape o elongated !eans cur&ing towards the !ack o the !rain rom the amygdala" The hippocampus plays an essential role in our a!ility to create new memories o daily e&ents and also in luences our a!ility to access old memories" 7esearch also suggests that the hippocampus plays a role in our a!ility to orm mental maps o our surroundings and to per orm spatial tasks" The nucleus accum!ens is sometimes considered part o the !asal ganglia o the ore!rain and sometimes as part o the lim!ic system" (t has sensiti&e dopamine receptors that respond to intense stimuli$ no&el stimuli$ and pheromones" The nucleus accum!ens has !een called the pleasure centre o the !rain" . " -y the time impulses rom neurons in your !ody reach this portion o your !rain$ they ha&e switched sides" Lo!es on the right side control processes on the le t side o the !ody$ and &isa &ersa" 3s the name implies$ the rontal lo!es are located at the ront o the !rain$ )ust !ehind your orehead" #our most ad&anced thinking and decision%making occur in the rontal lo!es" #our personality and intelligence are thought to reside here" The motor corte8 in each rontal lo!e controls all your &oluntary muscular acti&ity" The right motor corte8 lies in a !and rom the top o your head down towards your right temple" The portion near the top controls the mo&ement o your lower le t !ody and the portion near your right temple controls the muscles on the le t side o your ace" The rontal lo!es also contain -roca@s area de&oted to generating speech$ and other regions related to understanding$ learning$ thinking$ and planning" The parietal lo!es lie )ust !ehind the rontal lo!es and e8tend towards the !ack o your head" The parietal lo!es contain the somatosensory corte8$ a region that recei&es sensory input rom all parts o your !ody" 3 map o the sur ace o your !ody can !e traced out on the somatosensory corte8" . The Fore$rain The ore!rain <also known as the cere!rum= is the dominant part o the !rain that you see in most pictures o the !rain" The ore!rain is the most e&ol&ed portion o the !rain and is usually regarded as the seat o conscious thought" (t has two !asic components$ the large cere!ral hemispheres$ and a set o speciali9ed ner&e clusters called the !asal ganglia" The le t%right structures o the cere!ral hemispheres look like the two hal&es o a giant walnut$ and are situated at the top o the !rain" The wrinkled sur ace o the cere!rum is also known as the cere!ral corte8$ or the neural corte8" The word Bcorte8@ simply means outer layer" The corte8 has many olds that increase its sur ace area !y a actor o three and consists o a!out ten !illion neurons arranged in si8 thin layers" This grey matter is supported !y a thicker layer o myelinated a8ons <white matter=" The two cere!ral hemispheres are connected !y a thick !and o cells called the corpus callosum" The cere!ral hemispheres are essential to thought$ memory$ and personality" They recei&e$ store$ and interpret in ormation rom all o&er the !ody$ and initiate &oluntary actions" The cere!ral hemispheres are each di&ided !y larger olds into our distinct lo!es" See +igure ?.1any o the structures in the mid!rain are connected !y an e8tended loop called the orni8" &"&". * Basic structures of the fore$rain The occipital lo!es are located at the &ery !ack o the head and are de&oted to &ision" ( you happen to get hit in the !ack o the head you sometimes Bsee stars@ !ecause the occipital lo!es ha&e !een )arred and spurious neural signals are generated" The temporal lo!es are located at the side o the head$ )ust inside the ears" 3ppropriately$ the temporal lo!es contain the auditory corte8 that is responsi!le or the ears and hearing" The temporal lo!es also contain Wernicke@s areaC a region de&oted to understanding speech" The !asal ganglia are small and speciali9ed clusters o cells in&ol&ed with the control o mo&ement" They are ound inside the white matter !eneath the cere!ral corte8" This introduction to the anatomy o the !rain has touched on the ma)or structures at work in your !rain" There are also se&eral large spaces in the !rain$ called &entricles$ .Figure %. that are illed with cere!ral luid" The cere!ral luid circulates through the &entricles transporting hormones$ remo&ing waste$ and helping to support the structure o the !rain" 3 summary o the !asic structures o the !rain and their main unctions is pro&ided in Ta!le ?1" Ta$le %&* A summar of $asic $rain components The undamental concept to remem!er is that your !rain is a highly comple8 structure deser&ing o your !est e orts to use it e ecti&ely" &"&"/ The +eft Brain and the 0ight Brain 1ost structures on the right side o the !rain are duplicated !y similar structures on the le t$ and most components are designed to control unctions on the opposite side o the !ody" 3 massi&e neural link$ the corpus callosum$ connects the le t and right sides o the !rain" This connection pro&ides a natural !ackup in which most neural control mechanisms are duplicated in the right and le t sides o the !rain" ( one side o the !rain is damaged$ there is still a good chance that an indi&idual can sur&i&e using the !ackup unctionality in the other hal o the !rain" . D can !e di&ided into three groups* 1" 3!out 2D are pure le t%handers and process language in the right cere!ral corte8" Their !rains are le t%right mirror images o right%handed people" 2" 3!out .There are minor di erences !etween the right and le t sides o your !rain" (n a typical right%handed person$ the le t cere!ral corte8 controls language analysis and speech production$ and tends to process in ormation one item at a time in a se:uential manner" (n the same right%handed person$ the right cere!ral corte8 tends to process in ormation holistically to gain an o&erall impression" 1ost humans display a distinct pre erence or using the right hand$ !oth or ine motor acti&ities such as writing$ and or power acti&ities such as swinging a !at or clu! in sports" (n act the whole right side o a right%handed person tends to !e dominant o&er the le t" 'eople tend to ha&e a dominant eye$ a dominant ear$ a dominant arm$ and a dominant leg A all on the same side" Since !ody parts are controlled !y the opposite side o the !rain$ in these people the le t cere!ral corte8 tends to dominate" This arrangement$ with each hal o the !rain managing the opposite side o the !ody$ is common across the animal kingdom" When com!ined with the concept o a dominant side$ the neural crosso&er may pro&ide a distinct sur&i&al ad&antage" ( a creature were in&ol&ed in a li e and death struggle it would tend to turn its strongest side towards the most immediate enemy" With the crosso&er !rain structure$ this posture automatically mo&es the dominant hal %!rain away rom the enemy" The dominant hal %!rain is thus !etter protected and can continue to direct mo&es or attack and de ence e&en i the leading hal %!rain is damaged" 3!out 40D o the population is right%handed$ and these people process language in the le t cere!ral corte8" The remaining 1.D process language in !oth sides o the !rain" These people tend to !e am!ide8trous and can write or play sports e:ually well with either hand" ." 3!out 4D ha&e a mi8ed dominance" These people tend to per orm some tasks with their right hand and some with their le t hand$ and process language on the same side as their dominant hand" Those with mi8ed dominance o ten ha&e di iculty distinguishing right rom le t$ !ut sometimes ind it easier to &iew a situation holistically rather than seeing it as composed o indi&idual components" The tooth1$rush test for handedness ( you !rush all your teeth with your right hand$ your dominant side is pro!a!ly on the right" ( you !rush all your teeth with your le t hand$ your dominant side is pro!a!ly on the le t" ( you can !rush all your teeth with either your right or your le t hand$ you may !e am!ide8trous" ( you !rush some o your teeth with your right hand$ and the rest with your le t$ then you may ha&e a mi8ed dominance" . (n human society$ your handedness can sometimes !e an ad&antage$ and sometimes a disad&antage" 1ost de&ices and structures are designed or the right%handed ma)ority A e&eryday items such as door handles$ stair rails$ and scissors are right%handed" The le t%to%right low or reading and writing a&our right%handers" Le t%handed !ase!all pitchers are in demand !ecause the ma)ority o !atters are right%handed and ind it more di icult to hit pitches deli&ered rom a pitcher@s le t hand" 222 &"' Your Bod ’s Communication ( stems The !ody has two ma)or communication systems* the electro%chemical ner&ous system$ and the !io%chemical endocrine system" These systems gather in ormation a!out your !ody and your en&ironment$ process that in ormation$ and then initiate action that will increase your chances or sur&i&al" Eltimately$ all o your actions are intended to increase your chances or sur&i&al" &"'"& 3eurons 4 Building Blocks of the 3ervous ( stem The ner&ous system consists o !illions o speciali9ed cells called neurons" 3!out one third o your neurons are organi9ed into a comple8 communication network to carry in ormation rom your sense organs to your !rain and rom your !rain !ack to your muscles" The rest o your neurons orm the structures in your !rain" 3 neuron is a speciali9ed and elongated cell that transmits an electro%chemical signal rom one end to the other" 3 neuron recei&es signals through delicate !ranching structures called dendrites located near the cell nucleus" 3 ner&e cell has one longer e8tension$ an a8on" 3nd at the ar end o the a8on$ there are more !ranches" 3 single neuron can recei&e signals though many o its dendrites and can transmit signals to many other neurons through its a8on !ranches" ( a strong ner&e impulse arri&es at a dendrite$ or a weaker signal arri&es at a num!er o dendrites$ then an electro% chemical signal is generated that propagates along the a8on and then o to the dendrites o one or more near!y neurons" There is a tiny !ut important gap$ called a synapse$ !etween the dendrites and a8ons o neigh!ouring neurons" 3 ner&e impulse can only )ump this gap with the assistance o speciali9ed chemicals called neurotransmitters" Neurotransmitters are created and released at a synapse as a ner&e impulse approaches the end o an a8on" ( enough neurotransmitter has !een generated !e ore the ner&e impulse arri&es$ then the impulse can cross the synapse and continue down the dendrite o the ne8t ner&e" 3n impulse has a greater chance o !eing transmitted i the signal in a single a8on is stronger$ or i an impulse has !een duplicated and is tra&elling along se&eral neigh!ouring neurons at the same time" 3 synapse can also act as a ilter !y !locking weaker signals" 3 ter an impulse reaches the end o an a8on$ neurotransmitters are :uickly !roken down so they will not inter ere with the ne8t set o ner&e impulses" . ne set o sensory neurons transmits signals towards the central ner&ous system and then on to your !rain$ and another set o motor neurons transmits signals in the opposite direction to acti&ate !oth the &oluntary and in&oluntary action o muscles" The peripheral system has a right%le t symmetry with orty%three pairs o ma)or ner&e .Neurons outside o the !rain are !undled to orm ner&e i!res that look like white cords or wires" Signals typically tra&el rom dendrites and down the a8on o a ner&e i!re at speeds up to one hundred metres per second$ depending on the o&erall structure o the ner&e !undle" 3lthough neurons are care ully protected and nourished !y support cells$ they are una!le to undergo cell di&ision or to repair any signi icant damage" 3ny neural damage tends to !e permanent" Figure %/* The $asic structure of a neuron &"'"' The Central 3ervous ( stem #our ner&ous system has two main components* the central ner&ous system and the peripheral ner&ous system" The central ner&ous system$ in turn$ has two main components* the !rain and the spinal cord" The spinal cord is the trunk line or transmitting neural signals !ack and orth !etween your !ody and your !rain" The central ner&ous system is protected !y the skull and the spine$ and !y three mem!ranes o i!rous tissues A the meninges" Damage to the spinal cord is &ery serious and can lead to permanent disa!ility or death" &"'") The Peripheral 3ervous ( stem The peripheral ner&ous system is a network o sensory neurons that !ranch out rom the spinal cord to reach e&ery nook and cranny o your !ody" . 8ytocin is in&ol&ed in initiating the !irth process and the production o !reast milk" The other main endocrine glands are the* 1" 3drenal glands <a!o&e each kidney= A produce adrenaline that controls the !ody@s B ight or light@ response" 2" Thyroid gland < ront o the neck= A produces thyro8ine that controls the !ody@s . The Endocrine ( stem The endocrine glands secrete hormones into the !lood stream to maintain chemical !alances in the !ody$ to help prepare your !ody or emergency situations$ and to control longer term processes such as se8ual maturation and !ody growth" Speci ic hormones may start$ stop$ or inhi!it a process and o ten participate in chemical eed!ack loops to help maintain normal !ody conditions" The pituitary is the master endocrine gland" (t is the si9e o a pea and is located )ust under the thalamus$ surrounded !y !one at the !ottom o the skull" The thalamus pro&ides the connection !etween the !rain and the pituitary gland" The ront portion o the pituitary produces growth hormone and other hormones that in luence the thyroid glands$ the adrenal glands$ the gonads$ and the mammary glands" The !ack portion o the pituitary produces a hormone that controls the !ody@s water !alance and o8ytocin" .i!res" Ten o these pairs emerge rom the underside o your skull to ser&e your head$ and the other thirty%three pairs emerge at di erent points along your spine to ser&e the rest o your !ody" The peripheral ner&ous system can !e urther di&ided into the somatic ner&ous system and the autonomic ner&ous system" The somatic ner&es ser&e acti&ities that are under your conscious control" They collect in ormation rom sensory organs and transmit signals to muscles to initiate &oluntary mo&ement" The autonomic ner&ous system controls short%term actions and systems that unction without conscious control" Some autonomic neurons <sympathetic= are dedicated to stimulating organs and muscle action$ and other autonomic neurons <parasympathetic= are dedicated to inhi!iting the action o muscles and organs" The autonomic system can transmit signals to alter the si9e o your pupils in response to light$ change your rate o !reathing$ alter your heart rate$ stimulate muscular contractions in your stomach and intestines$ and cause the hairs on your skin to stand on end" The autonomic system can also transmit signals to generate a co%ordinated set o acti&ities such as a response to percei&ed danger" The danger response includes an increase in respiration and heart rate$ the dilatation o air passages$ the di&ersion o !lood rom the skin and internal organs to muscles$ and the release o e8tra sugar rom the li&er into the !loodstream" &"'". rate o meta!olism" ." 'arathyroid glands <)ust a!o&e the thyroid gland= A modulate the chemical !alance o calcium and phosphorous" ." 'ancreas <in ront o the kidneys= A produces insulin to control the amount o sugar in the !lood" Enlike the other glands$ you only ha&e one pancreas" /" 6onads <testicles in the male$ o&aries in the emale= A modulate se8ual unctions" The in luence o the endocrine system is per&asi&e" (t monitors and controls !asic !ody chemistry" (t also pro&ides the chemical stimulus or &ital sur&i&al acti&ities and all stages o reproduction" 222 &") Your (enses #our sense organs pro&ide your !rain with all o the in ormation it possesses a!out your e8ternal en&ironment" #our sense organs are remarka!le detectors$ !ut they do ha&e physical limitations" #our sense organs also ilter en&ironmental in ormation as it is detected" The resulting in ormation rom your senses is urther iltered as it lows through di&erse parts o your !rain" Then your !rain gets to work$ using the in ormation that it has gathered$ and constructs a model o reality in your mind" When you listen to an orchestra play$ your conscious mind hears music A not a set o &i!rations at di erent re:uencies and intensities" When you look out the window$ you see a tree A not a set o colour intensities across your retina" We normally think o i&e sets o speciali9ed organs <tongue$ nose$ skin$ ears$ and eyes= as pro&iding all the in ormation a!out the en&ironment and the state o our !ody$ to our !rains" The orientation systems in our )oints and our ears should !e counted as an additional sense " (n this section$ the emphasis is on the low o in ormation rom sensory organs to your !rain" &")"& Your Tongue #our tongue is sensiti&e to warmth and cold$ !ut it speciali9es in detecting the taste o li:uids" The tongue is coated with a!out 10 000 taste !uds" Each !ud consists o a little pit lined with a cluster o sensory cells and the sensory cells are in contact with peripheral ner&es" The taste !uds at the tip o the tongue are most sensiti&e to sweetness" 3 little urther !ack$ the taste !uds are most sensiti&e to saltiness" -ehind those are taste !uds sensiti&e to sourness$ and at the !ack are taste !uds sensiti&e to !itterness" 3nother set o taste !uds is responsi&e to umami$ a sa&oury taste" 3ll other taste sensations can !e descri!ed in terms o these !asic tastes" Ender constant stimulation$ the taste !uds lose some sensiti&ity" 3 second chocolate is not as sweet as the irst" . ther pheromones can transmit a su!conscious alarm$ Bdanger is near@ that we sometimes interpret as the Bsmell o ear@" 7esearch has !een conducted to determine i there are ol actory sensors that respond only to speci ic chemicals$ !ut the results are inconclusi&e" >owe&er$ it has !een .0 receptors must !e e8cited to reach the threshold o detection" When these conditions are met$ a ner&e impulse is sent o to your !rain" 3s the intensity o a smell increases <there are more o the associated chemicals in the air you are !reathing= the response also tends to increase$ up to a ma8imum le&el" 3 ter continual e8posure to an odour$ the response tends to decline" When you irst enter a cow !arn the smell o animals tends to !e :uite intense" 3 ter a ew minutes the smell !ecomes much less noticea!le" Smells in orm us a!out our chemical en&ironment" Smells pro&ide clues a!out what materials are sa e to eat$ what is sa e to keep near us$ and what items may !e poisonous or contain harm ul !acteria" Com!ined with taste$ the sense o smell enhances the pleasure o eating" (n the wild$ predators use smell to hunt their prey$ and prey animals use smell to a&oid predators" Smell also plays an important role in mate selection" The emale gypsy moth$ when it is ready to mate$ emits a scent that can attract a male moth rom miles away" 3ll mammals$ including humans$ emit similar chemicals called pheromones to indicate their se8ual status" While pheromones can ha&e a signi icant e ect on our selection o mates$ the process occurs at a su!conscious le&el" We sometimes use per umes and colognes in an e ort to enhance the e ect o pheromones" (n the days !e ore o&ulation$ women are a!out a hundred times more sensiti&e to musk odour than men" .Taste sensations do not always pro&ide an accurate indication o what you are eating !ecause there are chemicals that can alter the sensiti&ity o your taste !uds" +or e8ample$ when monosodium glutamate is mi8ed with ood$ all our types o taste receptors are stimulated" 3n (ndian plant called 6ymnema syl&estre contains gymnemic acid$ which reduces the sensiti&ity o the tongue to sweetness" 3 ruit rom West 3 rica$ Synsepalum dulci icum$ has the e ect o making sour su!stances taste sweet" &")"' Your 3ose #our sense o smell is located in two small patches o speciali9ed cells located high up in each nasal passage$ )ust under the !rain case" The ol actory mucosa each contain a!out 10 million sensory cells" These sensory cells conduct odour signals directly to the side o the !rain a!o&e them" This arrangement re lects the early e&olutionary de&elopment o the sense o smell" <The other senses conduct most signals rom one side o the !ody to the opposite side o the !rain"= The nose speciali9es in detecting air!orne chemicals$ which we interpret as odours" (t is the electron con iguration o a chemical that stimulates a receptor" Chemicals with similar molecular shapes tend to elicit the same odour response" (t takes a!out / molecules o a chemical to e8cite a single receptor$ and a!out . n a &ery hot day$ a cloth dipped in warm water can eel delight ully cool" The skin adapts to a reasona!le range o temperatures within a ew minutes" ( you di&e into a cold lake$ or clim! into a hot !ath$ the thermal sensation soon decreases" . degrees Celsius and is a!le to detect changes as small as a hundredth o a degree" The skin@s sensiti&ity to hot or cold &aries o&er the sur ace o the !ody and also depends on the !ody@s recent heat history" .shown that com!inations o a ew !asic odours can stimulate our interpretation o most other odours" Ta$le %'* A list of primar odours The ol actory sensors seem to !e particularly sensiti&e to these odours" Com!inations o these se&en !asic odours can simulate most other odour responses" &")") Your (ense of Touch The skin is your !ody@s largest organ" The layers o your skin pro&ide a le8i!le shield against physical in)ury$ in ection$ and ultra&iolet radiation" The skin acts as a container to pre&ent the loss o &ital luids" (t also has insulating properties that help to regulate your !ody temperature" #our skin is co&ered with a network o ner&e endings that are sensiti&e to touch$ pressure$ temperature$ and pain" #our sense o touch is most sensiti&e on your hands$ eet$ and aceC and less sensiti&e on your legs$ arms$ and trunk" 'ressure is elt when it causes the skin to de orm$ !ut there is no sensation when pressure is applied e&enly and there is no de ormation" Scu!a di&ers seldom e8perience a sense o pressure in depths less than ..0 metres !ecause the water pushes e&enly on all skin sur aces" Continued touch or pressure tends to !e ignored a ter a ew minutes" When our clothes are com orta!le$ we tend not to notice them wrapped around our !odies shortly a ter dressing" To detect light touches$ hairs on the skin act as tiny le&ers so that an o!)ect weighing )ust a raction o a gram can twist a hair in its ollicle$ cause a local de ormation o the skin$ and signal a touch sensation" The skin has a typical temperature o . Your Auditor ( stem #our ears con&ert &i!rations in the air into ner&e impulses in three stages" #our outer ear unnels sound wa&es to your eardrum and the wa&es cause that delicate layer o skin to &i!rate" Then tiny !one structures in your middle ear ampli y the mechanical &i!rations o the eardrum and pass the ampli ied motion to your inner ear" The cochlea is the main structure in the inner ear" (t is a coil a!out . cm long$ illed with luid and lined with ner&e endings" Fi!rations rom the !ones in your middle ear cause the luid in the cochlea to &i!rate and that motion generates auditory ner&e impulses" 3!out orty percent o the ner&e impulses rom an ear on one side o your head go the same side o the !rain$ and si8ty percent are trans erred to the opposite side o the !rain" With !oth ears operating you are a!le to determine the appro8imate direction o a source o sound" 3nd$ i you are amiliar with a source o sound$ you can also make a reasona!le estimate o the distance to the source" >uman ears are sensiti&e to a wide range o &i!rations$ rom a low hum at 20 >ert9 <cycles per second= to a high s:ueak at 20 000 >ert9" #our ears can also detect a wide range o intensities$ rom a pin dropping on the loor$ to a )et engine" #our ears can also detect more than one re:uency at a timeC when two notes are played on a piano you can detect !oth notes" This a!ility lets you interpret speech and en)oy music" #our a!ility to interpret speech also depends on the social conte8t o a con&ersation$ since you do not always hear e&ery word that is spoken" (n an e8periment to test the a!ility o su!)ects to percei&e spoken language$ portions o the words in a con&ersation were !lanked out at random" 3s long as a con&ersation had a known conte8t$ su!)ects were still a!le to understand a!out 4/D o the words spoken$ e&en when /0D o the sounds were deleted" +or a right%handed person$ the right ear < eeding most o its impulses to the le t hemisphere= dominates in percei&ing speech and language" The le t ear < eeding most o its impulses to the right hemisphere= dominates in percei&ing non%&er!al sounds" #our a!ility to detect high re:uencies declines with age$ at the rate o a!out 1/0 >ert9 per year a ter age .3 sensation o pain is generated i the pressure or temperature sensors on the skin are o&er stimulated" 'ain is a warning to the !rain that action needs to !e taken to a&oid harm or damage" (n the disease o leprosy$ the ner&e endings o the e8tremities are damaged so that pain receptors no longer work" Without pain receptors$ those su ering rom leprosy recei&e no warning pain when ingers and toes are damaged" The result is that the e8tremities are gradually destroyed$ not directly !y the disease !ut !y e8cessi&e wear that is not moderated !y pain" Some types o skin pain$ such as !urns$ tend to persist o&er time with no adaptation" .ther types o skin pain$ such as that in licted !y the sta! o a needle$ tend to decrease rapidly with time" &")".0" . &")"/ Your 5isual ( stem #our &isual system is the most sophisticated and complicated o your senses" Fision supplies in ormation a!out the status o your en&ironment$ what it contains$ and what is mo&ing within it" Fision supplies you with in ormation a!out shape$ si9e$ distance$ !rightness$ and colour" The seemingly simple task o interpreting shape re:uires in ormation a!out &ertical lines$ hori9ontal lines$ diagonal lines$ edges$ and shading" #our sense o colour is restricted to light with wa&elengths !etween red <200 nm = and &iolet <.00 nm=" #our eyes are positioned in the ront o the skull and slightly separated to pro&ide stereoscopic &ision" Each eye pro&ides a slightly di erent &iew o an o!)ect" These di erent &iews pro&ide in ormation a!out the distance and shape o an o!)ect" -oth eyes sur&ey the ield o &iew directly ahead o you$ while o!)ects to each side can !e detected peripherally !y )ust one eye" (t takes a!out 0"1 seconds or your !rain to process a ield o &iew and then get ready to or the ne8t ield o &iew" 3 series o still pictures lashed on a screen at twice that rate is interpreted !y your !rain as continuous action" #our eyes con&ert incoming photons < undamental !its o light energy= into ner&e impulses" Each eye has a num!er o su!structures that contri!ute to your a!ility to see* 1" The upper and lower eyelids regularly sweep the sur ace o your eye and can close rapidly to protect its sur ace" 2" The cornea is a clear protecti&e layer and acts as a preliminary lens" ," The a:ueous humour is the luid% illed ca&ity !etween the cornea and the lens" ." The iris is a coloured disk in ront o the lens" (t has an opening that can &ary in diameter rom 0"/ to 5"0 mm to control the intensity o light that reaches the retina" /" The lens is a le8i!le structure that is normally thick and cur&ed or &iewing o!)ects up close" (t can !e stretched !y ocular muscles to a thinner and less cur&ed shape or &iewing o!)ects in the distance" With age the lens loses some o its elasticity and can no longer return to its highly cur&ed status" That is when you ha&e to start using reading glasses" 0" The &itreous humour is the li:uid% illed region in the centre o the eye" The &itreous humour has to e8ert enough pressure to maintain the shape o the eye$ !ut too much pressure <glaucoma= can damage the retina" 2" The retina is the lining at the !ack o your eye that is coated with light% detecting sensors$ called rods and cones" There are a!out 120 million rods spread o&er most o the retina to pro&ide a !asic !lack and white &iew o the uni&erse" (n addition there are a!out 2 million cones concentrated in the region directly !ehind the lens to pro&ide a high%resolution image$ in li&ing colour$ o the region directly in ront o each eye" The rods are more sensiti&e to aint light than the cones$ so aint scenes are typically percei&ed in !lack and white" The muscles that mo&e your eyes also play a key role in your &ision system" E&ery twentieth o a second your eyes make rapid and a!rupt )umps through a!out 1/ degrees$ as i they are in a constant search mode" This )umping motion$ called a saccade$ occurs when the !ackground remains stationary and you are concentrating on an o!)ect in the oreground$ as when you are reading" The eye muscles can also e8ecute smooth pursuit mo&ements to ollow an o!)ect as it mo&es across your ield o &iew" These two types o mo&ements help to keep an o!)ect o interest ocused on the more sensiti&e cones at the centre o the retina" The neural connections associated with the &isual system are the most complicated o any o our senses" -ehind the eyes$ there is a partial switch%o&er in the optic ner&es <called the chiasm= so that all the in ormation rom the le t hal o the ield o &iew$ rom !oth eyes$ is directed to the right occipital lo!e at the !ack o your !rain" Similarly$ in ormation rom the right ield o &iew$ rom !oth eyes$ is channelled to the le t occipital lo!e" The analysis o &isual in ormation is :uite complicated" So ar neurologists ha&e !een a!le to trace twenty%eight di erent su!%channels in the !rain or analy9ing &isual in ormation" &")"6 Your (ense of 7rientation There are two components to our sense o orientation* kinaesthetic sensors and &esti!ular organs" Ginaesthetic sensors pro&ide in ormation a!out your !ody@s spatial position$ and the mo&ement o your )oints and muscles" Special sensors in the mo!ile )oints o the skeleton pro&ide in ormation on the motion o single )oints$ and the relati&e motion o sets o related )oints" The shoulder is most sensiti&e to detecting small motions" The wrist is ne8t most sensiti&e$ then the knuckle o the inde8 inger" The ankle is the )oint least sensiti&e to detecting small motions" The !rain recei&es in ormation rom these sensors and uses it to determine the direction and the mo&ement o your lim!s in space" +or controlled motion$ you also need in ormation on the position and orientation o your whole !ody in space" (n all mammals$ &esti!ular organs located in the inner ears pro&ide in ormation on position and orientation" 3 &esti!ular organ is a tiny sac illed with luid" (t is lined with cilia < ine sensory hairs=$ and contains small crystals o calcium car!onate" -oth gra&ity and acceleration in a straight line can orce the crystals into the cilia$ causing them to !end and send neural impulses to the cere!ellum and the medulla" The &esti!ular organ also includes two luid% illed loops at appro8imate right angles to each other" ( your head mo&es in a circular motion$ luid in these loops lows and the cilia are !ent$ sending more neural impulses to the !rain that correspond to the rotation o your head" Fisual input pro&ides a !ackup check on the orientation and motion o your !ody" The &esti!ular system can pro&ide signals to help you interpret how your !ody is mo&ing during most e&eryday acti&ities" E&en the repeated action o )ogging presents no di iculty" >owe&er$ large repeated motions$ or motions in which the &isual and &esti!ular systems pro&ide con licting in ormation$ can lead to motion sickness" ;&er time$ most indi&iduals e&entually !ecome ha!ituated to an o&er stimulated &esti!ular system" ( you spend enough time at sea$ your seasickness will gradually disappear" ;ur sense organs are highly speciali9ed organs or collecting in ormation a!out our en&ironment" >owe&er$ they are not mechanical machines that make a!solute measurements$ and they tire under constant stimulation" ;rganic sensors are !est at monitoring changing conditions within their normal range o operation" 7aw input rom your senses is iltered so that irrele&ant data is disregarded" The remaining input is interpreted and constantly analy9ed or danger actors$ or emotional actors$ and or practical in ormation related to your current situation" This iltering and interpretati&e acti&ity occurs in your su!%conscious mind !e ore the results are passed on to your conscious mind or consideration" #our senses pro&ide you with a continuous update on the state o your immediate physical en&ironment" %%% Chapter '* Framing Your Thoughts '"& '"' '") ,uman Thinking The 3ature of the Ph sical 8niverse Approaches to Clear Thinking The model o the uni&erse that you create in your !rain is !ased on a summary o your sensory inputs and physical e8periences" #our past e8periences$ your social setting$ and your knowledge o the world around you all ha&e a pro ound impact on what you think and the conclusions that you reach" '"& ,uman Thinking When you think$ you are acti&ating neural networks in your !rain and searching through all the in ormation that you ha&e !een a!le to gather since you were !orn" #ou tend to consider yoursel as a reethinking !eing$ !ut your !rain works with e&olutionary structures$ cultural rameworks$ and personal traits that set limits on your thought processes" #ou inherited a !rain that is anatomically similar to other human !rains" Some o your particular !eha&iour patterns were also inherited rom your parents along with the colour o your hair and the si9e o your eet" Some o your learned !eha&iour patterns ha&e !een shaped !y the community in which you li&e" Still$ much o your mental uni&erse is uni:ue to yoursel " #our li e@s e8periences are your own" The neural networks that de&elop during your childhood are your own" #our indi&idual memories were shaped in your mind !y e&ents in your li e" #our mind creates a mental model o reality !ased on the in ormation your mind is currently recei&ing rom your senses and the past in ormation you ha&e gathered rom your li e@s e8periences" When you reach out to pick up a co ee mug you are integrating in ormation a!out colour$ shape$ te8ture$ and unction or the mug$ as well as past e8perience in handling hollow o!)ects illed with hot li:uids" #ou ha&e also made a prediction regarding the satis action o drinking the co ee in the mug" '"&"& Basic (ources of Thought ;ur thoughts are stimulated either !y e8ternal or internal sources" Sometimes we ha&e total control o&er the source o our thoughtsC sometimes thoughts are orced upon us" Sensory input While your senses detect a continuous low o stimuli rom your en&ironment only a iltered &ersion o that in ormation actually reaches your conscious !rain" 3 signi icant part o our a!ility to interpret sensory input is learned" With much e ort nce you ha&e reached an emotional conclusion$ it is o ten di icult to re%e&aluate that same in ormation on a rational !asis" 17( scans indicate that once you are emotionally attached to an idea$ you e8hi!it a strong !ias when interpreting any new in ormation" +or e8ample once you ha&e a strong political a iliation any su!se:uent .a new!orn !a!y learns to separate spoken sounds into words and sentences that can !e con&erted into ideas" With practice$ wine connoisseurs can de&elop their a!ilities to detect minor di erences in the taste and aroma <or !ou:uet= o di erent wines" With practice$ radiologists can learn to read su!tle &ariations on 8%ray plates to help them detect and diagnose a &ariety o medical conditions" #ou can also learn to !lock super luous sensory input while you concentrate on a chosen task" 3 soldier can ignore the pain o a wound during the heat o a !attle" 3 N3SC37 dri&er can ignore an itch during a hectic pit stop" With practice you can ignore !ackground noise while alling asleep" With practice you can ignore the orest and ind the tree with the hawk sitting on a !ranch" (t is a source o irritation i you cannot ignore dull and repetiti&e input$ or i you cannot distinguish !etween signi icant and irrele&ant in ormation" E&ery child has to master the task o separating printed letters rom !ackground designs !e ore heHshe can learn to read" 3natomical pathways Some o our !asic thought processes are !uilt into speci ic neural networks" +or e8ample$ our a!ility to recogni9e aces is located in a speci ic region o the !rain" ( that region is damaged$ you may no longer !e a!le to recogni9e people you know !y their acial eatures" The hippocampus$ in the mid!rain comple8$ plays a &ital role in the ormation o new memories" ( your hippocampus is damaged$ then your a!ility to create new memories is correspondingly damaged" Some neural pathways can !e adapted to compensate or damage$ especially in young children" E&ery stroke &ictim e8periences the loss o some neural pathways and corresponding impairment" With the support o physiotherapy$ other neurons in a neigh!ouring region can o ten !e adapted to restore most unctional loss caused !y a stroke" This adapta!ility o the !rain is not always welcome" 'atients$ who ha&e had a lim! amputated$ o ten e8perience sensations rom a phantom lim! " When a lim! is amputated$ the neural circuitry that controlled that lim! is still in place" (t is thought that near!y neural circuits in the !rain start to utili9e these a!andoned circuits$ and in so doing create signals that are detected as coming rom the missing lim!" 'atients can su er rom pain in a phantom lim! long a ter the lim! has !een remo&ed" #our lim!ic system is the source o most o your emotions" (t is also structured to recei&e and act on signi icant in ormation with a minimal time delay" #ou may react emotionally !e ore your ore!rain has had a chance to re&iew and consider that same in ormation" . political criti:ues tend to !e e&aluated in your lim!ic system as positi&e or negati&e according to your esta!lished &iews" #our ore!rain and reasoned analysis is o ten !ypassed !y emotional reactions" +or clear thinking$ you need the a!ility to outmanoeu&re your lim!ic system on important issues" The essential ingredient is time" 3 !asic strategy is to de&elop the ha!it o wondering a!out implications or associations !e ore making that crucial irst )udgement" That way you can pro&ide time or your ore!rain to get in&ol&ed !e ore taking action or making ma)or decisions" The old adage$ BCount to ten !e ore you act@$ is an essential ingredient in clear thinking" ( you want to !e guided !y your ore!rain$ the most power ul part o your !rain$ then you ha&e to !e a!le to delay and o&erride your lim!ic system" 'ersonal characteristics E&ery person !uilds a uni:ue personality !ased on their inherited physical characteristics$ their inherited mental circuits$ and the e8periences they ha&e had during their li&es" #our personal goals$ moti&ation$ attitudes$ sel %image$ and sel % con idence also !ecome key components o your personality" #our personality a ects the in ormation that you gather rom the en&ironment$ and how you percei&e that in ormation" #our personality acts as a master ilter or all o your thought processes" '"&"' The 3ature of .umankind >istorical e&idence pro&ides signi icant clues a!out how humans make use o their neural systems to think$ create$ !uild$ and destroy" +rom the archaeological records o ci&ili9ations o&er the past /000 years we can o!ser&e many !asic characteristics o humans$ some admira!le$ some not" We apparently like to !uild A homes$ &illages$ towns$ cities$ ortresses$ monuments$ palaces$ and temples" We like to decorate and em!ellish A our homes$ our implements$ our pu!lic !uildings$ and oursel&es" We like to in&ent and create A new tools$ new weapons$ and new arming techni:ues" We ear and re&ere the supernatural A we sacri ice plants$ animals$ and people to appease the gods$ we pray to the gods or orgi&eness and or a&ours$ we !ow to priests who may communicate directly with the gods on our !ehal " We like status and power A we are almost always ready to ight to maintain our social status$ we are ready to ight to protect our amilies$ we are ready to ight to take ad&antage o weakness in a neigh!ouring tri!e or town" The general characteristics o humans$ as re&ealed !y history$ still dominate much o human acti&ity today" We need to consider these innate tendencies as we stri&e to impro&e our own thought processes" These tendencies seem to !e em!edded in our societies$ and our societies esta!lish rameworks that shape much o our thinking as indi&iduals" '"&") The 9mpact of Your (ocial Environmental 3t !irth$ your cere!ellum is already a!le to keep you ali&e$ !reathing and eating$ and . / years to o&er 40 years" The world population is estimated to !e a!out 0"/ !illion people and at any gi&en time there are appro8imately 200 million people on the mo&e as re ugees" ( you are !orn in a nation with a large de!t$ ew natural resources$ and a !ankrupt social system$ then you will ha&e di iculty reaching your potential as a clear thinker" ( indi&iduals could choose the circumstances o their !irth$ then the most direct path to clear thinking would include caring$ educated$ and wealthy parents li&ing in a prosperous society" The historical conte8t o your !irth is another important actor in your opportunities to !e a clear thinker" (n the de&eloped world$ the last ew decades ha&e !een the !est time to !e ali&e in the history o human kind" While the ocus o the news media is o ten on negati&e e&ents$ in a relati&e sense$ peace and prosperity ha&e reigned during the past i ty years" (n the western world the general population has !een !etter ed$ !etter educated$ is more secure$ has had access to !etter medical care$ and has had more leisure time and less physically demanding )o!s than at any other time in history" 'hysical com orts and stress We think more clearly when we are healthy$ com orta!le$ well rested$ and ree rom e8cessi&e stress" Ender se&ere and lasting stress your mental e iciency can su er dramatically" Ender stress you tend to lose concentration$ ha&e di iculty assessing new in ormation$ and your short%term memory starts to ail" Ender e8cessi&e stress your a!ility to think clearly can !e seriously impaired" .0 000 ES$ and with a&erage li e e8pectancies ranging rom . ten stress ul situations are o your own making" Step !ack and re%e&aluate your o!)ecti&es" 3re the potential rewards rom your current acti&ities worth the wear% and%tear on your psycheJ 3nother strategy or reducing stress is to anticipate challenging situations and prepare to deal with them ahead o time" 3stronauts spend years practicing the procedures .!asic instincts are operational" #our lim!ic system pro&ides you with !asic emotional dri&es" >owe&er$ much o your mid!rain and ore!rain are waiting to !e sculpted !y e8perience" 3 new!orn has a!out 10 !illion !rain cells and this num!er remains essentially constant through adulthood$ !ut the num!er o supporti&e glia cells increases until a!out age 20" The num!er o a8on%dendrite connections increases continuously with li e@s e8periences" #our social en&ironment continually shapes and re ines your thought processes" The circumstances o your !irth The Enited Nations currently recogni9es 152 di erent countries with a&erage annual incomes ranging rom I/00 ES to o&er I.ne strategy or reducing stress is to remo&e yoursel rom the stress ul situation" . that they will ha&e to carry out a ter they are launched into in or!it" They spend almost as much time again preparing or possi!le emergencies" 'reparation and practice pro&ide the tools and procedures needed to deal with potentially stress ul situations" Social structures #our mental ramework is also shaped !y the social structures in your en&ironment$ and your particular status within that en&ironment" #our mother$ ather$ !rothers$ sisters$ and any other relati&es li&ing in your household ha&e a signi icant role in your care$ nurturing$ and education" The num!er o your si!lings$ your se8$ and your !irth order o ten determine your duties and responsi!ilities within your amily" #our amily instils early lessons a!out loyalty$ mutual support$ the roles o men and women$ and the essential economics o amily li e" (n many societies$ amilies with common grandparents and great grandparents consider themsel&es a clan$ and clan mem!ers are e8pected to work together to oster common social$ territorial$ and economic interests" 1em!ers o a tri!e typically claim a more distant !ut common ancestor" Tri!al mem!ers orm a society with common culture$ customs$ traditions$ and economic interests" 3 tri!al mem!er is e8pected to adhere to tri!al customs and to show pre erence or tri!al mem!ers in any dealings in&ol&ing e8ternal groups" The ounding tri!es o 3thens$ 7ome$ and (sraelC and the tri!es o Nati&e 3mericans and the -edouins o 3ra!ia are e8amples o well%known tri!es" 7eligion 7eligions ha&e their own traditions and rituals" They o ten ha&e special sites or worship and leaders with inspired knowledge" 7eligions impose a mental ramework or dealing with ears$ hopes$ learning$ and your goals in li e" 7eligious traditions o ten re:uire ritual acts and standard approaches or dealing with e&eryday e&ents" 7ules must !e ollowed to a&oid displeasing the gods" 'olytheistic religions tend to !e more accepting o other religions !ut o er a ragmented philosophy" 1onotheistic religions tend to !e less le8i!le !ut o er a more coherent philosophy" En&ironmental changes 1ental challenges arise when the en&ironment changes A a new de&ice is in&ented$ tra&ellers !ring new ideas rom the e8ternal world$ the social and economic oundations are destroyed in war$ or the population is decimated !y a natural disaster or swollen !y immigration" ( you are orced to adapt to changing conditions$ the process is less traumatic i you ha&e de&eloped a le8i!le approach to your social en&ironment" 1ental challenges also arise when an indi&idual is a!le to percei&e a !etter way to do something" >ow can the new approach !e de&eloped and integrated into a static . 0ealit Anchors in Your -ental 8niverse The term reality anchor is used here to descri!e the most !asic knowledge that you can use as a oundation or understanding and interpreting all other knowledge" The .societyJ Suppression o selected groups Throughout human history social en&ironments ha&e o ten discriminated against$ and suppressed$ selected su!groups in the population" War capti&es$ lower classes$ the poor$ women$ children$ people o di erent origin$ and people with a di erent religion were typical targets" Such discrimination and suppression may ha&e !een highly organi9ed and deli!erate$ or hapha9ard in nature" 7egardless$ the e ect on clear thinking is always negati&e" 1em!ers o a suppressed group ha&e ewer opportunities to recei&e care and nurturing$ and ewer resources or education and intellectual de&elopment" 1odes o e8pression #our social en&ironment also determines the modes o e8pression that are a&aila!le or your use" 3 culture with a comple8 language$ a tradition o artistic and political e8pression$ and a ha!it o sel %e8pression osters creati&e and philosophical thinking" 3 culture can also deli!erately limit your modes o e8pression" Early 'uritans and Cal&inists were discouraged rom dancing and singing" 7enaissance scholars were re:uired to carry out their deli!erations in Latin" 1uslims are discouraged rom drawing the orm o any li&ing creature" Since we use words to structure most o our conscious thoughts$ the richness and su!tleties o the language we are using are important actors in determining our clarity o thought" (t has !een proposed !y the 6erman philosopher &on >um!olt and the 3merican linguist E" S" -en)amin$ that all higher le&els o thinking are dependent on language$ and that speakers o di erent languages actually e8perience the world di erently" Dr" 'hilip Dale <$anguage %evelopment & 'tructure and (unction$ 1522= pro&ides a simple !ut illustrati&e e8ample" (n the English language$ the &isi!le spectrum is typically descri!ed !y si8 colours A red$ green$ orange$ yellow$ !lue$ and purple" (n Shona <a language spoken in Kim!a!we and southern 1o9am!i:ue=$ the same spectrum is descri!ed !y )ust our colours$ and in -assa <a language spoken in Nigeria= only two words or colour are used" (t is apparent that your a!ility to descri!e and think a!out colour depends on the language you are using" While we assume that we are looking at the world o!)ecti&ely$ in reality we are looking at the world with a !rain that has !een shaped !y the social world into which we were !orn" (t is di icult to locate an o!)ecti&e reality when the &ery structure o your !rain$ all your o!ser&ations$ and all your thoughts ha&e all !een modi ied !y$ and iltered through$ the elements o a speci ic culture" '"&". analogy is with the anchors that can !e used to hold a ship in place during a storm" ( your reality anchors in your mental uni&erse are well deployed then you can ha&e more con idence in your a!ility to think clearly and make sound decisions" 1ental anchors are not a!solute$ !ut pro&ide the most reasona!le and practical oundation or your thought processes" #our mental anchors should ne&er !e taken or granted" They should !e checked periodically to see i they ha&e ser&ed you well" What !asic knowledge and concepts can you use as anchorsJ Which anchors can you count on in tough times and use with con idence to !uild more ela!orate mental conceptsJ The search or this knowledge and these concepts has !een pursued !y philosophers or thousands o years" Whole li!raries can !e illed with detailed religious and philosophical discussions related to mental anchors" There may not !e any ultimate or inal conclusions to such discussions$ !ut the ollowing paragraphs pro&ide some pragmatic guidelines or esta!lishing your own mental anchors" Anchor %&* You exist >ow do you know that you are not )ust dreamingJ #ou might !e hea&ily sedated and locked in an insane asylum somewhere" .r you might !e a simulated character in some !i9arre alien computer game" To philosophers$ this is the Bpro!lem o e8istence@" 'armenides o Elea <c/00 -CE= claimed that simply to think o a concept ga&e that concept some sem!lance o e8istence" 7enL Descartes <1/50 A 10/0=$ a +rench philosopher and mathematician$ !egan his analysis o e8istence with the phrase$ M( think$ there ore ( am"N 'hilosophers ha&e not yet de&ised any a!solute solution to the pro!lem o e8istence$ !ut you can de&elop a sense o your own !asic mental state and use it as a mental anchor" >a&e con idence that you e8ist as an indi&idual entity" Anchor %'* You can think #ou ha&e the a!ility to consider$ think$ and act as an indi&idual" This is a key idea and the whole ocus o this !ook" +or although you possess these a!ilities$ you may not always use them e ecti&ely" ( B#ou can think@ is to !e one o your mental anchors$ then you need to spend signi icant e ort to train your !rain and utili9e your mind in an o!)ecti&e and analytic ashion" To think clearly you need to !e rested and nourished" #our !rain needs a good supply o !lood and o8ygen" #ou need to ensure that your !rain is not su ering rom a physical in)ury or a psychiatric illness$ and is ree rom drugs that might impair your thought processes" Anchor %)* You can remem$er #ou can remem!er past e&ents$ and your memories are a guide to understanding present and uture e&ents" (n your childhood you learned to walk$ and talk$ and a &ariety o other use ul skills that you still remem!er" #ou can recogni9e people$ places$ and situations" (n act$ you ha&e an ama9ing a!ility to remem!er a tremendous amount o material related to your li e@s e8periences" . * You can test realit #ou are always ree to take in ormation that you ha&e encountered and compare that in ormation with reality" <See section 2"2 or more on reality anchors"= 7eality is not always easy to de ine$ !ut i someone says$ )Take two doses of this magic potion and you will be able to fly*$ a :uick reality check should tell you that something is wrong" When other people descri!e e&ents the way you would ha&e descri!ed them$ then you ha&e reason to !elie&e that your interpretation o the e&ents matches reality" .@$ )What makes the wind blow.ur memories are not the e:ui&alent o &ideo recordings o e&ents" (nstead$ memories are your interpretati&e summaries o the in ormation gathered !y your senses" (t is possi!le to train your memory to record more speci ic in ormation related to e&ents" +or e8ample$ police o icers are trained to o!ser&e and elicit speci ic details o what has happened at a crime scene$ doctors are trained to o!ser&e speci ic physical characteristics o their patients$ and scientists are trained to make precise o!ser&ations and record the results" #ou can support your mental memories !y making e8ternal records o in ormation A writing notes$ taking photographs$ and recording &ideos" #ou can run relia!ility tests on your memory !y comparing your recollections with those o others you trust$ or !y comparing your memories with o icial records" Anchor %.>owe&er$ as a mental anchor your memories ha&e to !e used with some caution" .* re lect the struggle$ e&en at an early age$ o &irtually e&eryone to determine why the world works the way it does" . course you could all !e wrong" . ten the challenge is to separate o!ser&a!le reality rom !elie " (s a typhoid epidemic the result o 6od@s wrath$ or polluted drinking waterJ Sometimes the search or reality is deli!erately o!scured" +or e8ample$ in a tele&ision game show called BThe +amily +eud@$ the audience was polled !e ore the on%air show !egan to determine their &iews on a &ariety o topics" Then the challenge o the contestants was not to pro&ide in ormation !ased on reality$ !ut to determine the audience@s perception o reality" 1any people make claims that are di icult to &eri y or dispro&e$ e8cept !y re erring to what is practical and reasona!le" The more in ormed you are$ the !etter a!le you are to make reality checks$ and the more &alua!le this mental anchor !ecomes" Anchor %/* You can search for cause1and1effect Cause%and%e ect is a philosophical approach to understanding why things happen the way they do" This approach re:uires a undamental assumption that there is a reason$ or an e8planation$ or the occurrence o an e&ent" 3 cause%and%e ect philosophy pro&ides a power ul moti&e to organi9e your o!ser&ations and to search or root causes so that you can !egin to control the e&ents that a ect your li e" Ouestions such as* )+f + do this what will happen.*$ and )Why is the sky blue. En ortunately$ cause%and%e ect is not always easy to determine" There is a continuing de!ate among economists regarding the economic impact o raising or lowering ta8es" The de&elopment o :uantum mechanics was inspired !y the struggle to esta!lish cause%and%e ect relationships at the atomic and nuclear le&els" Cause%and%e ect can also !e di icult to esta!lish in e&eryday e&ents" Some people seem to !e luckier than others" (s there a reason or that luck$ or is it )ust chanceJ Sports personalities o ten ollow odd routines that supposedly !ring them good luck* they might wear their lucky socks$ or pat a doorway i&e times to increase their chances o winning a competition" ( it is possi!le that mere !elie in a cause%and% e ect connection can alter an athlete@s attitudes and moti&ations$ then wearing a lucky hat could actually make a win more likely" Cause%and%e ect is particularly di icult to esta!lish when there are a num!er o co actors in&ol&ed" +or e8ample$ the success ul !aking o !read depends on the type o lour$ the type and :uantity o yeast$ the amount o li:uid$ rising times$ and !aking time A so it can !e di icult to determine why your !read does not taste the way it should" Anchor %6* You can search for truth #our determination to seek the truth is another &alua!le mental anchor in your :uest or clear thinking" The emphasis here is on e&aluating the correctness o communications directed to you !y others" Storytellers and actors earn their li&ings !y con&incing an audience that they are portraying an alternate reality" Tone o &oice$ acial e8pressions$ and physical gestures are used to con&ey emotions" The literal meaning o words may constitute as little as ten percent o the in ormation recei&ed !y an audience" E&en the supposed actual content o a communication re:uires care ul e&aluation" 3 communication can !e accurate or it can !e e8aggerated$ distorted$ erroneous$ or completely a!ricated" Con&eying disin ormation is a standard techni:ue o espionage$ politics$ and marketing" Some people can lie con&incingly$ complete with appropriate !ody language and emotional e8pressions" 'erhaps the most ruit ul and dependa!le approach or detecting truth is to esta!lish an in ormal tally or the truth%&alue o communications rom a gi&en source" ( $ o&er time$ the communications rom a gi&en source tend to match reality$ then you can ha&e higher con idence in the truth o uture communications rom that same source" The more you already know a!out a topic$ the harder it is or anyone to mislead or misin orm you" 222 '"' The 3ature of the Ph sical 8niverse . 0/"2/ days" 3 human !eing is a!out 2 metres tall$ and can li&e or a!out 100 years" (n 100 years$ a heart !eating once a second !eats a!out ."2 !illion times" We can look out a window and see trees$ grass$ !uildings$ and automo!iles" Some o us can see cities$ arms$ plains$ orests$ mountains$ lakes$ or oceans" We can go outside and touch the groundC we can taste water$ and eat the ood" We can watch the Sun rise in the east and set in the west" We can e8perience the passing o the seasons" These are all aspects o the realm o e&eryday e&ents" We do not inha!it the entire e&eryday 9one" We li&e in only a thin layer on the sur ace o the Earth$ within the !iosphere" ( you used a marker pen to draw the largest circle you could on a large sheet o paper to represent the Earth$ then the thickness o that line would encompass the entire !iosphere$ including the tallest mountains and the deepest trenches in the oceans" >umans actually li&e in only a small portion o the !iosphere" Three :uarters o the Earth@s sur ace is co&ered with water$ and much o the dry land is desert$ rocks$ or ro9en ice" '"'"' The 0ealm of the 5er +arge The realm o the &ery large spans the uni&erse !eyond the Earth" (t includes o!)ects rom the si9e o the Earth to the si9e o the whole uni&erse <se&eral !illion light% years= C and time scales rom 100 years to the age o the uni&erse <a!out 1.ur solar system is centred on the Sun with eight planets in or!it around it* 1ercury$ Fenus$ Earth$ 1ars$ Pupiter$ Saturn$ Eranus$ and Neptune " 1ost o the planets ha&e .%1002=$ descri!ed all o physical space as consisting o two in initiesC the realm o the stars a!o&e him$ and the realm o the things that he could not see$ the realm o the &ery small" 3 complete description o reality should also include the realm o e&eryday e&ents$ as well as 'ascal@s realms o the &ery small and the &ery large" '"'"& The 0ealm of Ever da Events The realm o e&eryday e&ents includes e&erything that can !e detected !y our unaided senses" (t consists o o!)ects with dimensions !etween 1 millimetre <mm= and 10 000 kilometres <km=$ and time scales rom a tenth o a second to 100 years" 3 leg on a ruit ly is a!out 1 mm long" The Earth is a!out 12 400 km in diameter$ rotates on its a8is once e&ery 2.Esta!lishing an in ormed and consistent &iew o reality is a &ital step in laying a oundation or clear thinking" ( you a!sor! a wealth o knowledge a!out the physical uni&erse$ integrate that knowledge into a coherent data!ase$ and interpret that in ormation with a consistent philosophy$ then your a!ility to think clearly can only !e enhanced" The physical uni&erse consists o all we can detect directly with our senses$ and all we can detect indirectly with instruments that e8tend our senses" The +rench mathematician and philosopher$ -laise 'ascal <102."2 !illion years=" . hours$ and re&ol&es a!out the Sun e&ery . million km and contains o&er 55D o the mass o the entire solar system" 1ost o the rest o the solar system lies within a disc a!out 12 light%hours in thickness" -eyond the solar system is a myriad o other stars" Some are 10 times more massi&e and many times !righter than the SunC most are a!out the same si9e$ or smaller and ainter than the Sun" While a ew hundred o the !rightest stars &isi!le in the sky ha&e !een named$ most are )ust gi&en a num!er in one o the many star catalogues" 3ll o the stars in the sky appear much ainter than the Sun !ecause they are so ar away" The nearest star to the Sun is 'ro8ima$ with a distance o ."2 !illion years$ so the radius o the knowa!le uni&erse is )ust the distance that light could tra&el in that time$ or 1.one or more moons" There are also a num!er o dwar planets$ thousands o asteroids$ and thousands o comets" The Sun has a diameter o a!out 1"."2 light%years" 1ost stars ha&e near!y companions$ or occur in clusters with hundreds o mem!ers" The nearest 100 !illion stars are grouped together and or!it around a central !lack hole to orm the 1ilky Way gala8y" The 1ilky Way is disc shaped and a!out .rion arm" -eyond the 1ilky Way$ there are !illions o other gala8ies" The nearest gala8y compara!le to the 1ilky Way is the 3ndromeda gala8y$ with a distance o a!out 2"5 million light%years" E&en though the 3ndromeda gala8y contains !illions o stars$ it is so ar away that it appears as )ust a aint smudge in the night sky" E&en gala8ies tend to occur in clusters" The 1ilky Way and the 3ndromeda gala8ies dominate the Local 6roup$ which consists o .0 gala8ies" The Firgo cluster contains the Local 6roup and a!out 2000 other large gala8ies" (t has a diameter o a!out 00 million light%years" The largest telescopes on Earth$ or in space$ ha&e yet to detect an end to the distri!ution o gala8ies in space" The uni&erse is not static" The Sun ascends and descends in the disc o the 1ilky Way once a!out e&ery /0 million years$ and re&ol&es around the centre o the gala8y e&ery 2/0 million years" (ndi&idual stars are !orn$ e&ol&e through predicta!le stages$ and die" Stars similar to the Sun ha&e an estimated li e span o a!out 10 !illion years !e ore they e8haust all their energy and !ecome !rown dwar s" Stars larger than the Sun age more rapidly" Smaller stars age more slowly" The stars in a region o rich interplanetary clouds can pass through se&eral generations" Whole gala8ies pass through e&olutionary stages as the stars within them consume primordial hydrogen and radiate energy into the surrounding uni&erse" The gala8ies in a cluster mo&e a!out each other$ and a ew gala8ies ha&e !een o!ser&ed in collision with each other" 3 num!er o in&estigations ha&e estimated the age o the uni&erse at 1.00 000 light%years in diameter" The Sun is a!out 2/ 000 light%years rom the centre o the disc$ on the inner edge o the ."2 !illion light%years" '"'") The 0ealm of the 5er (mall The realm o the &ery small consists o o!)ects smaller than 1 mm$ and with interaction times less than a tenth o a second" This is the realm o cells$ !acteria$ &iruses$ atoms$ and su!atomic particles" -acteria can reproduce in a matter o minutes" 3tomic e&ents occur in less than a !illionth o a second" Nuclear e&ents are a . ne immediate implication o a comprehensi&e world &iew is the reali9ation that humans do not represent the ultimate !eings$ and the Earth is not the centre o the uni&erse" We are more like leas adri t on a ra t on a !oundless sea" -ut we are special leas !ecause we can learn$ comprehend$ and create" '"'". set" -y selecting the right atoms and com!ining them in the right way any crystal or chemical can !e ormed$ and rom those A you$ a tree$ an automo!ile$ a mountain or a star can !e constructed" (n practice$ while chemists are e8perts at manipulating chemicals and engineers are e8perts at manipulating materials$ it is unlikely that we will e&er a!ricate e&eryday o!)ects atom%!y%atom" (t would take a!out a thousand%!illion%!illion atoms o hydrogen and o8ygen to create a tiny drop o water" E&ery atom contains a central nucleus made up o smaller particles called neutrons and protons" The nucleus is surrounded !y a group o electrons$ and the num!er o electrons matches the num!er o protons" #ou get di erent atoms !y changing the num!er o protons and electrons" 'article physicists ha&e also determined that protons and neutrons are in turn made out o particles called :uarks" While the cosmos is not actually di&ided into three realms according to time and distance scales$ thinking in terms o these realms may help you to appreciate the narrow con ines o your e8istence within the &ast dimensions o the uni&erse" Constructing a comprehensi&e world &iew that can accommodate most e&ents across each o these scales is a ma)or intellectual hurdle" ( you are a!le to construct such a world &iew$ then it is much easier to deal mentally with the ama9ing &ariety o o!)ects and happenings that comprise the known uni&erse" . 0ealit Anchors in the Ph sical 8niverse >ow do you know that any o the three physical 9ones are realJ +or that matter$ how do you know anything is realJ >ow can you decide !etween two opposing &iews o realityJ 3ccording to the 6erman philosopher$ 6eorge >egel <1220 A 14.1=$ the gradual e&olution o the history o ideas leads to the perception o reality" The 3merican .million times aster than that" +rom an atom@s point o &iew$ humans are colossal giants and human acti&ity takes place at a glacial pace" (t is a undamental theorem in !iology that e&ery li&ing !ody is composed o indi&idual li&ing cells" E&ery human consists o !illions o cells organi9ed into tissues and organs" We are also inha!ited !y a host o mostly riendly !acteria that aid digestion and help to protect our outer layers" E&ery cell li&es its own e8istence$ occasionally responding to e8ternal stimuli$ !ut most o the time working with its comple8 internal structures and chemical processes" We are surrounded !y solids$ li:uids$ and gases A all consisting o atoms" (t is surprising that e&erything in the uni&erse is composed o )ust 102 di erent types o atoms" (n a &ery real sense our uni&erse is like a giant LE6. philosopher$ Pohn Dewey <14/5 A 15/2=$ claimed that truth and reality were !ased on distillations o the rules or action that had pro&ed to !e success ul" 3 more pragmatic approach is that you should !e a!le to detect reality$ directly or indirectly$ through your senses" .n a undamental le&el you can touch reality$ smell it$ and taste it" 1ore precisely$ you can measure the properties o reality and you can measure how those properties &ary o&er time" The use o Breality anchors@$ analogous to mental anchors$ pro&ides a &ery practical means or esta!lishing your model o reality" 3 reality anchor is a particular concept in which you ha&e a high degree o con idence" 3 set o such anchors can help you to maintain a dependa!le interpretation o reality and pro&ide a ramework or reasona!le interpolations and e8trapolations" 7eality anchors in the e&eryday realm The simplest and most relia!le anchors are !ased on direct e8perience" #our kitchen ta!le is real" #ou can touch it" #ou can pile stu on it" #ou can measure it" #ou can lea&e the room$ come !ack ten minutes later$ and there it is again A the same ta!le" The kitchen ta!le may !e one o your irst and !est anchors in reality" #ou can e8pand your realm o reality$ and e8perience your entire home in a similar ashion" .utside o your home$ you can also e8perience your neigh!ourhood as a irsthand reality" >owe&er$ a num!er o practical di iculties soon !ecome apparent" #our neigh!ours may not !e supporti&e o your e orts to e8perience their kitchen ta!les" 3nd &ery soon there would !e too many ta!les$ !uildings$ roads$ !lades o grass$ trees$ and ields or you to e8perience irsthand in a reasona!le amount o time" E&en i you spent your whole li e at it you would ne&er get more than a ew kilometres rom home" There are at least two standard procedures or e8tending a system o reality anchors* 1" The irst is to construct a mental model o an aspect o reality that you can use in lieu o irsthand e8perience" <See section /". or a more complete discussion o models"= 3 ter &isiting a ew !uildings you !egin to ac:uire knowledge o their typical properties such as room si9e$ ceiling height$ stairs$ doors$ windows$ desks$ chairs$ and appliances" Soon you can predict$ with a reasona!le degree o accuracy$ the !asic structure o the inside o a !uilding a ter a !rie &iew o its e8terior and its surroundings" Similarly$ you can soon predict the !asic nature o the soil in a whole ield )ust !y holding a hand ul o dirt <sand$ loam$ pe!!les= and glancing at the plants growing in the ield" 2" The second way to e8tend your reality anchors is to rely on the e8perience o others" Tra&ellers can tell you what they e8perienced in the ne8t town down the road" They might tell you directly$ or you might !e a!le to re&iew recorded &ersions o their o!ser&ations" >ow can you decide i tra&ellers@ accounts are true and accurateJ Continuing the analogy$ you can apply one or more o the ollowing criteria* . " Some o the tra&ellers are recogni9ed !y your neigh!ours as e8perienced and truth ul o!ser&ers and reporters" .1" The accounts are reasona!le e8tensions o your own e8perience in your own neigh!ourhood" 2" #ou know some o the tra&ellers personally and trust their a!ility to o!ser&e and report accurately" ." 3 num!er o tra&ellers$ unknown to each other and coming rom di erent directions$ all report similar o!ser&ations" /" The tra&eller e8plains how to &isit the same places he did$ so i you wanted to de&ote the time and energy to do so you could tra&el down the road to o!ser&e the ne8t town or yoursel " Not all reality anchors are e:ui&alent" 3n anchor that has met se&eral o the a!o&e tests is pro!a!ly more secure than one that has not" ( you spend considera!le time and e ort in e8panding your range o anchors and securing them well$ then you will pro!a!ly ha&e a !etter grip on reality than someone who )ust checks the kitchen ta!le e&ery now and then" 7eality anchors in the realm o the &ery large 3round the world$ thousands o astronomers spend their pro essional li&es collecting and analy9ing astronomical data o!tained with sophisticated telescopes and satellites" 3ll such in ormation gathered during the past three centuries has !een used to !uild a systematic$ and consistent model o the cosmos" With e&er larger and more comple8 astronomical instruments new disco&eries and clari ications are still !eing made on a regular !asis" >ow could you as an indi&idual &eri y the claims a!out the properties o this realmJ #ou could use a clock and a protractor to make systematic o!ser&ations o the positions and apparent motions o the Sun$ 1oon$ and stars" This data could then !e used to &eri y at least a portion o those claims" #ou could check your position on Earth with a 6lo!al%'ositioning%System de&ice and &eri y that all the or!ital theories and instrumentation work as ad&ertised" #ou could read maga9ines$ )ournals$ and te8ts on astronomy" #ou could )oin an association o amateur astronomers" With a ew thousand dollars%worth o e:uipment$ and the determination to de&elop the skills to use that e:uipment properly$ you could o!ser&e the moons o Pupiter$ the rings o Saturn$ comets$ multiple star systems$ glo!ular clusters$ ne!ulae$ and gala8ies" #ou could study astronomy at a uni&ersityC you could !ecome a pro essional astronomer" With accurate and systematic o!ser&ations spanning months$ years$ and decadesC you could determine the or!its o our planets a!out the SunC you could determine the or!its$ si9es$ and masses o !inary starsC you could determine the periods o stars that oscillate in !rightness" With more sophisticated e:uipment and mathematical analy9es you could measure the &elocities o stars and gala8ies$ and determine their distances" None o this in ormation is secret" ( you are willing to spend the time and e ort$ you could make all the o!ser&ations and deductions yoursel " ( you disco&ered something . ne o the !est aids to clear thinking is a consistent world &iew that you can use in all modes o thought$ with all o your worldly knowledge$ and all o your memories" With a consistent world &iew it is easier or the &arious parts o your !rain to unction in unison$ leading to more power ul thinking" 3 consistent world &iew helps you to gather in ormation a!out the world in an o!)ecti&e manner so that all parts o your !rain can utili9e the same input" .su!stantially new or di erent$ the attention o thousands o amateur and pro essional astronomers would !e di&erted to e8plore your claims" 3nd i your disco&ery were con irmed$ e8isting knowledge would !e ad)usted and updated to include it" 7eality anchors in the realm o the &ery small The realm o the &ery small is studied !y micro!iologists$ material scientists$ !iochemists$ organic and physical chemists$ :uantum physicists$ and electronic engineers" (n the past ew centuries they ha&e de&eloped sophisticated instruments to e8plore the properties o microscopic materials" With this knowledge they ha&e de&eloped new materials$ new medicines$ and the whole ield o electronics" The (nternet$ e%mails$ cell phones$ digital TF$ i'ods$ penicillin$ and digital cameras all e8ist !ecause scientists ha&e de&eloped and success ully applied theories o the &ery small" >ow could you &eri y descriptions and claims a!out the properties o the realm o the &ery smallJ 3n ine8pensi&e microscope and some !asic skills in sample preparation would pro&ide the means or you to o!ser&e amoe!ae$ paramecia$ plant cells$ and animal cells" The structures o crystals such as ta!le salt$ ice$ and diamonds are re lections o the properties o their constituent atoms" 3ny working de&ice using transistors supplies a &eri ication o the :uantum properties o material at the &ery small le&el" Turn on your tele&ision set$ or your computer$ and you ha&e e&idence that engineers can manipulate the low o electrons to trans er energy and in ormation" #ou could also read technical )ournals and te8tsC you could study appropriate courses at uni&ersity" #ou could ask e8perts in the ield* a micro!iologist could pro&ide details o li&ing organisms as small as the structures within cells$ a chemist could pro&ide details o atomic structure$ a particle physicist could pro&ide descriptions o su!atomic particles" 3n e8panded world &iew helps you to appreciate that the uni&erse is an integrated system o physical e&ents" E&ery day$ humanity is applying its talent$ tenacity$ and curiosity to e8pand our knowledge o the uni&erse" 222 '") Approaches to Clear Thinking This last section o the chapter presents a ew practical approaches to clear thinking" '")"& Be Consistent . " The concept o an all%power ul and lo&ing god appears to !e inconsistent with the a!undant su ering o innocents that such a god could easily pre&ent" Working with a consistent mental model is analogous to working with a uni&ersal system o measures and weights$ such as the metric system" 3 common set o weights and measures acilitates trade and technical communications !etween countries" Tools manu actured in one country can !e used to repair a machine manu actured in another" 3 consistent world &iew acilitates communication among &arious mental models" Solutions to pro!lems in one realm can !e adapted or use in other realms" 3 consistent world &iew also helps you to understand the past$ predict the uture$ and deal with &arious indi&iduals and groups o people" '")"' Be 7pen1-inded 3nother &alua!le approach to clear thinking is to make systematic e orts to remain open%minded" (t is di icult to think clearly a!out an issue i you ha&e already made up your mind what you are going to do regarding that issue" When you are making an e ort to !e open%minded you tend to* .(n practice we tend to de&elop a &ariety o mental models to cope with particular situations$ as we encounter them" The challenge is then to re&iew the characteristics o those models and try to modi y them so that they are consistent with each other" ( can remem!er as a child struggling with the concepts that anything lighter than water$ such as wood$ will loat and anything hea&ier than water$ such as steel$ will sink A and yet !attleships and ocean liners are made o steel and seem to loat &ery well" These mental models o lotation were inconsistent with each other and inspired a lot o pondering and :uests or more in ormation" 3 &ersion o 3rchimedes@ principle was re:uired to !ring these two models o reality into agreement" Note that inconsistent !eha&iour in&ol&es using one set o guiding principles in one situation$ and a con licting set o principles in a di erent situation$ without you necessarily !eing aware o any contradiction" >ere are a ew e8amples o inconsistent mental models* 1" While the ancient 7omans created disciplined and well%e:uipped armies$ they o ten relied on augury to determine a good day or !attle" Their training and weapons were !ased on logic and pro&en !attle tactics$ !ut e8amining a sheep@s li&er or a&oura!le signs !e ore going to !attle was completely ar!itrary" 2" (n democratic countries$ special interest groups o ten organi9e large pu!lic protests in e orts to in luence go&ernment policy" (n e ect$ such pu!lic protests are intended to su!&ert the acti&ities o elected o icials A and thus make a democratic go&ernment responsi&e to their group rather than to the entire electorate" ." Someone who uses a computer to prepare an essay on the Be&ils o technology@ may not !e thinking in a consistent manner" . " Try to account or your own goals and pre)udices and how they may a ect your )udgement" The e orts o )ury mem!ers in a criminal trial are systematically directed towards an open%minded approach" 3t the !eginning o a trial$ the )udge reminds )urors to e&aluate all the e&idence !e ore !eginning any deli!erations" Purors know that the prosecuting attorney will !ias e&idence to support a con&iction$ and the de ence attorney will !ias e&idence to support an ac:uittal" 3 ter all the e&idence has !een presented and deli!erations ha&e !egun$ )urors are e8pected to re&iew all the e&idence and to listen to each other@s thoughts and :uestions !e ore reaching any &erdict" When the deli!eration process works properly$ it pro&ides an e8cellent e8ample o clear thinking" 3nother approach to open%mindedness in&ol&es seeking a !roader perspecti&e !e ore making any decisions !ased on the immediate acts" -e ore you decide to eat that delicious looking dessert you may want to step !ack to re&iew your nutritional re:uirements or the day" Taking a !roader &iew may also in&ol&e looking at a longer time scale$ considering other similar cases$ or testing possi!le alternate action plans" '")") Be Pragmatic 3 pragmatic approach pro&ides another aid to clear thinking" While your thinking should always !e guided !y your personal philosophy$ principles$ goals$ and am!itionsC it is important to retain a degree o le8i!ility A or two main reasons* 1" #ou are not in alli!le" #our philosophy$ principles$ and goals may contain laws$ errors$ or inconsistencies" #our knowledge can ne&er !e complete" #ou should always !e willing to learn rom others and rom your own e8perience" 2" .ne o the most intriguing applications o clear thinking is to gain a !etter .1" 7e&iew all the a&aila!le e&idence !e ore making a decision" 2" E&aluate all e&idence according to its merits" ." 1odi y your conclusions and practices !ased on new andHor more accurate in ormation" . ten the only way to make progress is to compromise" E&ery other person on Earth also has hisHher own philosophy$ principles$ and goals" Enless you are an a!solute ruler and assume that you are superior to all others$ you should consider the positions o others on issues o concern" Considering the positions o others is o ten the only way to make human progress" #ou currently share the sur ace o the Earth with o&er si8 !illion other humans" They ha&e e8plored$ armed$ and !uilt in e&ery ha!ita!le region on Earth" They all want ood$ shelter$ and clothing" They all want to !e part o a social network" They all want to earn a li&ing$ and li&e with personal pride" They are all curious and artistic" So e&en though you may eel uni:ue$ you are really part o a &ast network o similar !eings" Enderstanding and sharing the Earth with so many others o ten re:uires a pragmatic approach" '")". The 3ature of +ife . = 7i!onucleic acid <7N3= was one o those molecules$ and is thought to !e the undamental !uilding !lock o all li e on Earth" 7N3 is a polymer consisting o ri!ose and phosphate groups" Each o these groups in the 7N3 polymer chain is adorned with one o our side%groups* adenine Q3R$ uracil QER$ cytosine QCR$ or guanine Q6R" The structure o a particular 7N3 molecule can !e descri!ed as a string o letters using 3$ E$ C$ and 6C corresponding to the side%groups along its length" The 3%E%C%6 coding along an 7N3 molecule allows it to unction either as a catalyst to initiate other chemical reactions$ or as a store o in ormation" 7N3 molecules ha&e !een ound to play an essential role in the machinery o e&ery li&ing cell$ and 7N3 has the potential to reproduce itsel A the essence o li e" Collecti&ely$ li&ing organisms on Earth !eha&e like low temperature energy con&erters" 'lant cells a!sor! photons rom the Sun and then use that energy to .understanding o the nature o li e" .ne cannot account or human li e without irst considering all other orms o li e on Earth" 3nd one cannot account or li e on Earth without irst considering what is happening in the rest o the uni&erse" E&erywhere we look in the &ery large realm$ we ind !illions o gala8ies illed with !illions o stars" Each star !egan as a cloud o hydrogen atoms$ and each o those clouds shrank under the orce o gra&ity until a nuclear urnace was ignited at its core" The resulting nuclear reactions systematically !uilt hea&ier atoms out o hydrogen$ and in so doing generated enough energy to temporarily halt the gra&itational contraction" E8cess energy was radiated away as light" That is what starlight tells us is happening across the uni&erse" +or !illions o years$ the orce o gra&ity has led to the ormation o stars with hot coresC nuclear reactions in those cores ha&e con&erted simple hydrogen atoms into hea&ier atoms <ultimately iron and nickel=C and e8cess energy has !een radiated away as starlight" The e8istence o starlight dramatically illustrates the con&ersion o primal energy into starlight" Each photon o starlight then undergoes a systematic change A o&er time it is e&entually con&erted into a set o less energetic photons$ each with a longer wa&elength " This con&ersion occurs in a &ariety o interactions with matter that is scattered through space" 3nd those interactions pro&ide a connection !etween starlight and li e on Earth" +rom the point o &iew o the Eni&erse$ the early Earth was )ust a tiny lump o iron and nickel or!iting an a&erage star" 3 ter comets !om!arded the Earth$ it !ecame a !it more interesting" The comets le t a thin scum o lighter rocks that ormed the continents$ water that ormed the oceans$ and gases that ormed the atmosphere" 'hotons rom the Sun poured down on a &ariety o atoms and molecules on the sur ace o the Earth" Car!on atoms were a!undant$ and easily ormed endless com!inations o molecules" 3 ew o these molecules turned out to !e especially adept at e8tracting and con&erting energy rom the Earth@s en&ironment$ and li e !egan" <The concept o e&olution is treated in more detail in section /". ur !odies still retain that cosmic dri&e to con&ert energy* to reproduce$ to !e acti&e$ to create$ and to destroy" The genes in e&ery cell in your !ody want to !e replicated and to get to work con&erting energy rom high% energy photons to more low%energy photons" +rom the uni&erse@s point o &iew$ you are a tiny$ low%temperature energy%con&erter" +rom the &iewpoint o li e on Earth$ your signi icance is analogous to that o a lea on a tree" The !ranch on which you ha&e grown is more important than you" The trunk is more important than any indi&idual !ranch$ and the orest is more important than any indi&idual tree" #ou are a tiny component in the acti&ities o the uni&erse" 3nd yetS +rom you and your amily@s point o &iew$ you ha&e a &alua!le and uni:ue personality" #ou acti&ely participate in the social li e o humans$ and you ha&e the ama9ing a!ility to !e aware o the grand scheme !eing played out around you" #ou can o!ser&e the uni&erse and try to predict what it will do ne8t" #ou can e&en try to in luence the low o the uni&erse in your immediate &icinity" #ou ha&e the a!ility to ease the !urdens o your ellow humans$ and to make your !rie appearance in the uni&erse a grand occasion" %%% ."0 !illion years$ and at the moment human !eings are at the ape8 o Earthly e&olution" .power their acti&ities" 3s cells$ indi&idually and collecti&ely$ slowly rework the sur ace o the Earth$ they radiate their e8cess energy as heat in the in rared region o the spectrum" Thus$ li&ing cells participate in the uni&ersal con&ersion o higher energy photons to more numerous lower energy photons" The li e orce we know and e8perience can !e traced !ack to cosmic originsS There is a su!tle$ !ut &ery important distinction !etween the energy processes on stars$ like the Sun$ and planets like the Earth" 3 star is essentially a closed system A &irtually all o its energy deri&es rom its own primal gas cloud" (n contrast$ a planet or!iting a!out a star is an open system A the planet@s energy resources are continuously augmented !y photons rom the parent star" Normally$ water runs down hill$ !ut the Sun continuously pumps energy into the Earth@s !iosphere" Water can !e e&aporated$ carried uphill !y winds$ and deposited as snow at the top o mountains$ o&er and o&er again" Pust as solar energy dri&es the water cycle on Earth$ it has also dri&en the e&olution o comple8 li e orms" ( the Earth were dri ting alone in the cold o interstellar space$ it is &ery dou!t ul that any kind o li e would ha&e emerged on it" The Earth has an age o a!out . Chapter )* Putting Your Brain to #ork )"& )"' )") Properties of -emor Thinking and +earning +anguage and Clear Thinking With some speci ic knowledge and a little e8tra practice you can make your learning more e icient and e ecti&e" Then$ e&ery day you will !e ready to learn more$ remem!er more$ and make !etter use o your increased knowledge" 3s you learn more and consolidate that knowledge$ you create a oundation or additional learning" 3s your knowledge o a su!)ect increases$ it is easier to ac:uire additional knowledge and understand more comple8 topics" Thus$ !oth the :uantity and :uality o your new learning will increase" )"& Properties of -emor 1emory is the key to all learning and thinking" Without memory$ e&ery moment is the present$ there is no past$ and there is no learning" The essence o learning is to store new in ormation in your !rain" The essence o thinking is to retrie&e appropriate items o in ormation rom your memory and com!ine them to orm new items" )"&"& Cognitive (cience -e ore del&ing into speci ic properties o memory it is appropriate to introduce the realm o Bcogniti&e science@" Cogniti&e science is a relati&ely new ield o research de&oted to studying neural structures o the !rain$ and de&eloping models o learning and remem!ering" Cogniti&e science integrates research rom applied psychology$ neurology$ and arti icial intelligence" With !asic knowledge rom cogniti&e science you can impro&e your learning and studying skills$ and enhance your cogniti&e a!ilities" The ollowing discussions o memory and learning ha&e their roots in cogniti&e science" )"&"' (ome Basic Properties of -emor No one knows e8actly how the interactions o signals lowing through a network o neurons in your !rain actually lead to the ormation o memories" Still$ daily e8perience and e8periments in psychology do re&eal some o the !asic properties o human memory" (n descri!ing memories the concept o a Bmemory item@ is &ery use ul" 3 memory item is de ined as all the neural in ormation that corresponds to a simple e&ent or a simple description that you might store in memory" With this terminology$ your comple8 memories can !e regarded as collections o items" . 3ccuracy o memories 1emories o an e8perience are not precise records o reality" Eyewitness accounts in criminology suggest that a memory is o ten intuiti&e and incomplete" When a memory is created$ we irst use our e8isting knowledge to esta!lish a reasona!le mental ramework or what is happening$ then we add o!ser&ed details$ and inally we search our memories or related e8periences to ill in the ine !rush strokes" The result o this creati&e process is then stored as a memory item" #our irst encounter with a new phenomenon can only !e interpreted in terms o what you already know" So the more you know$ the easier it is to comprehend new e8periences" #our a!ility to learn new material today is dependent on the in ormation that you stored in your memory yesterday" 7emem!ering and orgetting #ou can make deli!erate mental e orts to remem!er some in ormation" This is what learning and studying is all a!out" (t is di icult to deli!erately orget something that you ha&e already learned$ !ut when a memory is ignored it tends to ade with time" 1emory recall Consider the analogy o your memory as sets o recipe cards suspended in a &ast ishing net" Each card contains a memory item" The strings o the net correspond to links among your memories" .nce you ha&e a starting point you can mo&e rom that point to other memories that are linked to it along any string in the net" #ou can only access a speci ic memory item !y mo&ing along a string that leads to it" +ortunately$ you are a!le to 9ip along the strings$ and can rapidly search through a wide range o memories while seeking a particular memory item" >a&e you e&er wondered$ BWhy did ( think o that )ust nowJ@ 3n e8ternal stimulus A something you saw$ heard$ tasted$ smelled$ or touched caused you to )ump somewhere into your memory network" 'erhaps you saw a popcorn &endor$ and that led you to the memory o a childhood e8perience$ and that led to the last time you talked to your mother$ and that led to your need or a new telephone$ and that led to the act you had !ills to pay$ and that reminded you to check your wallet to make sure you hadn@t lost your credit card" 3s you search through your memories$ it is relati&ely easy to lose track o your initial chain o thought and !ecome side%tracked while e8amining other interesting items" )"&") Classif ing -emor T pes There are three !asic properties that can !e used to classi y types o memory* contents$ duration$ and capacity" Each o these approaches yields important in ormation a!out the challenges o learning and the properties o human memory" .nce a stimulus$ internal or e8ternal$ causes you to )ump into your memory net$ you can start mo&ing along the strings looking at the recipe cards or the in ormation you want" Note that you cannot recall items at random rom your memory" Some stimulus has to pro&ide a starting point or a memory search" . ur emotional memories o ten guide our uture !eha&iours" ( you think o memories as pleasant or unpleasant$ positi&e or negati&e$ then the purpose o emotional memories !ecomes apparent rom an e&olutionary point o &iew" 3 positi&e emotional memory is intended to encourage you to repeat the acti&ity that generated the positi&e emotion in the irst place" 3nd a negati&e emotional memory is intended to discourage you rom repeating the acti&ity that generated the negati&e emotion" 7epeating !eha&iours that !rought success and a&oiding !eha&iours that led to ailures leads to a distinct sur&i&al ad&antage" .Geep in mind that while the classi ication o memories is use ul$ it is somewhat o an ar!itrary procedure" (t is use ul !ecause it allows us to discuss &arious aspects o a &ery comple8 process" (t is ar!itrary !ecause the properties o organic memory are really continuous A one property !lends into$ and o ten o&erlaps another" Classif ing memories $ content The contents o memories can !e separated into our categories* sensory$ emotional$ procedural$ and declarati&e" These categories pro&ide a simple scheme or descri!ing the contents o all your memories" Sensory memory +rom an e&olutionary point o &iew$ sensory memory is pro!a!ly the oldest and most undamental type o memory that humans ha&e" -eing a!le to recall what they had seen$ heard$ smelt$ tasted$ and elt would ha&e !een a &ital sur&i&al skill or early humans" Each o your senses has it@s own speciali9ed memory !ank" +or e8ample$ an old tele&ision game%show called BName That Tune@ illustrates the surprising capa!ilities o auditory memory" The o!)ect o the game was to recall the name o a song a ter listening to )ust a ew !eginning notes" The tune could !e any one o thousands that had !een popular during the pre&ious ew decades" The show was appealing !ecause the contestants$ and a good raction o the audience$ were usually a!le to recogni9e a tune a ter listening to ewer than ten initial notes" (t is unlikely that all sounds and all tunes that you e&er heard are sa&ed in your auditory memory !anks" #ou pro!a!ly listened to popular tunes se&eral times o&er a period o months" Still$ the implication is that sound patterns are recorded rom your daily li e and are sa&ed in a well%stocked auditory memory !ank" Similarly$ all o your senses ha&e speciali9ed memories associated with them$ and special sensory e&ents rom your daily li e are stashed away in your !rain A waiting or a recall stimulus to pro&ide you with a reminder o your past acti&ities" Emotional 1emory We can all recall some emotional e&ents that ha&e occurred in our past" . 5" Eni&ersal education has !een pu!lic policy in Western nations or less than 200 years" There has simply not !een enough time to e&ol&e any speciali9ed neural networks to help us deal with written language" #ou can only store memories related to written language through conscious e ort to adapt other memory types" 3s any student can tell you$ academic learning is typically much more di icult than procedural learning" Classif ing -emories $ 0etention Time #our memory lets you reli&e e&ents in your mind that actually occurred at some time in the past" That is the whole purpose o ha&ing memories" So !y its &ery nature$ memory includes a time actor" .'rocedural memory 'rocedural memory$ sometimes called Bimplicit@ memory$ is de&oted to storing physical skills and learned !eha&iours" 'rocedural memory also includes most aspects o spoken language" 'hysical skills such as walking$ talking$ and playing the piano are essentially co% ordinated sets o muscle contractions and rela8ations" We de&elop these skills with repeated practice until the re:uired se:uences o memory items are irmly entrenched" With practice$ typists !ecome &ery pro icient at pressing indi&idual letter keys to reproduce a te8t message" 'ro essional athletes de&elop super! sets o physical responses and routines that are stored in procedural memory" When you repeat a set o acti&ities o&er and o&er$ the corresponding memory items can !e stored$ and recalled at a later date with little conscious thought" +or e8ample$ you may de&elop the ha!it o !rushing your teeth e&ery e&ening$ or taking the dog or a walk e&ery morning" Learned$ or ha!itual !eha&iours pro&ide your su!conscious mind with routines that can !e ollowed with little or no conscious thought" Declarati&e memory Declarati&e memory$ sometimes called Be8plicit@ memory$ includes most o what we learn at school" Declarati&e memory has two main su!%types* Bepisodic@ and Bsemantic@ memories" Episodic memory items descri!e e&ents and their se:uence" Episodic memories tend to !e actual in nature and answer :uestions such as who$ what$ where$ and when" Episodic memory is related to our concrete personal e8periences" (tems in semantic emphasi9e items related to written language$ word meanings$ and general knowledge" Semantic memories re lect the details o our culture" Semantic memory has s &ery signi icant limitation A our !rains ha&e had little time to e&ol&e any special eatures to deal with written language" Writing was irst used systematically only / 000 years ago in ancient 1esopotamia and Egypt" E&en then$ only highly trained scri!es and a ew o the elite could read or write" 7eading and writing ha&e only !een a&aila!le to most o humanity since Pohannes 6uten!urg@s de&elopment o the printing press in 1.. 0%second limit or immediate%term memories pre&ents your mind rom !eing swamped with tri&ial in ormation" Short%term memory Short%term memory recei&es selecti&e in ormation rom immediate%term memory" Short%term memory is de&oted to storing signi icant e&ents and e8periences that ha&e occurred within the last ew minutes" (tems in short%term memory can normally !e utili9ed or up to a day" Enless the e&ents in this time rame are important$ uni:ue$ or unusual$ your memories o them start to ade in a ew hours" #ou can deli!erately add items to short%term memory !y repeating and emphasi9ng in ormation" +or e8ample$ there is a simple memory game in which a!out our do9en di erent articles are placed on a ta!letop and co&ered o&er !e ore participants enter the room" The co&er is then remo&ed and participants ha&e two minutes to memori9e the names o as many items as possi!le" Then the articles are re%co&ered$ and the challenge is to see who can write out the longest list o items that were on the ta!letop" .ne strategy is to repeat the names o single items se&eral times$ and then recall as many o those names as possi!le rom short%term memory" 3nother strategy is to mentally group items with similar eatures$ then memori9e the group names and hope that the group names will help you remem!er indi&idual items" .0 seconds" We can laugh at the punch line o a )oke !ecause we can still remem!er the !eginning o the )oke$ !ut are o ten una!le to recall the whole )oke a ew moments later A it has already aded rom immediate%term memory" Thirty seconds is still long enough to monitor our surroundings and decide i anything important is happening" (t is long enough to think o something to say$ compose a sentence$ and speak it without orgetting what we are doing" The .The di&ision o memory into Bimmediate%term memory@$ Bshort%term memory@$ Bmedium%term memory@$ and Blong%term memory@ is again somewhat ar!itrary" >owe&er$ e&eryday e8periences and e8periments in applied psychology suggest that at least our time scales are needed to e8plain the many eatures o human memory" The di erent time scales pro!a!ly correspond to speci ic neurological processes$ !ut so ar no one knows e8actly how memories are stored" (mmediate%term memory (mmediate%term memory helps you to keep track o e&erything that is going on around you at this moment" 3lthough sensory input is iltered so that only signi icant in ormation reaches your conscious mind$ e&en most o this iltered sensory input is soon orgotten" We need to know that a car is approaching$ or that there is a !ig puddle o to the right$ and we need to keep track o that in ormation or a ew moments" >owe&er$ a ter a ew seconds our ocus o attention shi ts to other items o concern$ and the car and puddle are orgotten" The contents o immediate%term memory correspond to our stream o consciousness" (mmediate%term memory can store items or up to . ” 1edium%term memory 1aterial that is deemed important$ uni:ue$ or unusual in short%term memory is automatically passed on to medium%term memory and is stored or up to a month" #ou ha&e to resort to more emphasis and repetition to deli!erately store in ormation in medium%term memory" 3 student studying material o&er se&eral days is a!le to store it in medium%term memory and can then make use o that material during tests and e8ams o&er the ne8t ew weeks" Neurologically$ the synapses at dendritic spines are rein orced as we repeatedly reuse the same neural pathways$ and short%term memories tend to !ecome medium%term memories" Enless in ormation stored in medium%term memory is used again within a month$ that in ormation !egins to ade" Studies ha&e shown that during holidays o two or more months$ students typically orget a!out orty percent o the speci ic su!)ect knowledge they had mastered !e ore the holidays !egan" +ortunately$ this does not mean that all the studying e ort !e ore a holiday is wasted" (n ormation that has aded rom your medium%term memory can !e re reshed with only a raction o the original learning e ort" 3 ter a ew days o re&iew$ students are ready to continue their studies where they le t o " Long%term memory Long%term memory contains in ormation that you remem!er or years" (n ormation related to your pro essional e8pertise and your continuing interests in li e tend to !e stored in your long%term memory" . change their number and shape in response to .ne o the !est techni:ues or deli!erately storing in ormation into long%term memory is to use that in ormation in a &ariety o situations o&er se&eral months" >owe&er$ e&en in ormation in long%term memory can !ecome more di icult to recall i it is neglected or a num!er o years" . e-perience and in response to electrical signalling in the brain.Why do we need short%term memoryJ Why don@t we )ust remem!er e&erything we encounterJ E&eryday e&ents present a steady stream o in ormation to our !rains" 3ny e ort to keep track o e&ery single detail would soon o&erwhelm our mental capacity" (nstead$ we ha&e a airly e icient iltering system so that e&ents o little account are soon orgotten" +rom a neurological perspecti&e$ the mechanism that creates memories is associated with the hippocampus in the mid!rain comple8" When this part o the !rain is damaged$ indi&iduals are no longer a!le to create new short%term memories" The creation o longer%term memories seems to in&ol&e the ormation o little !umps along the dendrites o neurons" These Bdendritic spines@ acilitate the ormation o new synapses with near!y a8ons" 3s e8plained !y Dr" 1organ Sheng$ “new synapses can be constructed and e-isting synapses can be eliminated in response to e-perience” and “dendritic spines . 0 seconds" .Classif ing -emories $ Capacit Di erent types o memory also ha&e distinct capacities" Working memory Working memory coincides with immediate%term memory$ and ser&es as your workshop or conscious thought" The inite capacity o working memory is a key actor in your a!ility to ponder e&ents in the world around you" 3 classic study in applied psychology !y 6eorge 1iller demonstrated that the a&erage person is capa!le o keeping track o )ust se&en !its o in ormation at the same time" 3 ew people can regularly keep track o a ew more itemsC some people can only keep track o our or i&e items at a time$ !ut working%memory in the a&erage person is limited to se&en items" This simple property o working%memory puts se&ere constraints on our thinking processes" The limit o se&en working%memory registers is &ery restricti&e$ !ut it is a act o li e" To con&ince yoursel that this is true$ try a ew simple e8periments" Check the license plates o parked cars as you walk down a street" >ow many cars can you pass !e ore you start to orget some o the license plate num!ersJ 7ead the titles o se&eral !ooks in a row on a li!rary shel $ how many can you remem!erJ 7oll a pair o dice a ew times and mentally note the num!ers rolled$ then try to recall the num!ers in se:uence" Working%memory in the conscious mind is analogous to the memory registers in a computer@s central processing unit <C'E= " There are usually )ust a ew do9en memory registers in a C'E" These ew registers are used o&er and o&er again as data is !rought into the C'E$ item !y item$ rom !illions o more permanent memory registers" .ther memory !anks There ha&e !een no de initi&e measures o the capacities o short$ medium$ or long% term memories" 'eople ha&e the a!ility to memori9e long poems$ passages rom se&eral !ooks$ and statistics rom sports leagues and are then a!le to :uote rom their memories at will" We each ha&e a whole li etime o memories that we can call on at any time" 1edium and long%term memory seem to ha&e unlimited capacities" (t may !e more di icult to get items into medium and long%term memories$ !ut once there$ your !rain ser&es as a &ast warehouse to store those memories" )"&". 0oad$locks to Academic +earning +or students$ this section may contain the most important in ormation in the whole !ook$ perhaps e&en the most important in ormation in a whole li e%time o learningS 3s discussed a!o&e$ each o the three classi ications o memory contain eatures that impose ormida!le road!locks to academic learning* 1" #our !rain has no speciali9ed memory !anks or storing written material" 2" #our immediate%term memory tends to orget items a ter . 0 seconds i they are not used producti&ely" +ortunately$ there are strategies or o&ercoming each o these road!locks" Dealing with written material 3s you study written or printed material$ you are stri&ing to create declarati&e <e8plicit= memories with semantic content" >owe&er$ you ha&e no inherent neural networks de&oted to semantic content$ so you ha&e to piggy!ack onto other networks" #our sensory networks or hearing and &ision are among the most highly de&eloped networks a&aila!le or conscious use" Thus you ha&e a choice o two e ecti&e strategies* make use o your hearing networks !y sounding out the written material so your !rain can hear it as well as see it$ or make !etter use o your &isual networks !y &isuali9ing the situations that printed words depict" 3ural learners tend to use phonics when learning to read and are o ten !etter at spelling and learning oreign languages" Fisual learners tend to use the sight method when learning to read and are o ten !etter at spatial tasks and pro!lem sol&ing" The !est strategy is to switch !ack and orth !etween aural and &isual modes to !est suit the material you are studying" Dealing with the ." #our working memory can only keep track o a!out se&en items at a time" No wonder learning rom lectures and studying rom te8t!ooks are challenging tasksS .0 seconds" .0 seconds" >ow can you manage to remem!er the contents o an entire lectureJ The !lunt truth is that you cannot" #ou can only select what you regard as the most important components o a lecture" Then$ one at a time$ you can promote each chosen component to short%term memory !y mentally emphasi9ing and re&iewing it" The challenge is to salt away each important component in short%term memory !e ore you encounter the ne8t nugget o in ormation" When dealing with written material$ you ha&e the lu8ury o !eing a!le to reread important passages as o ten as you like" >owe&er$ it is !est to di&ide long passages into smaller segments that can !e read completely within ..therwise you will tend to orget the !eginning o a passage !y the time you get to the end o it" Dealing with the se&en item limit The limit o se&en items in working memory is a undamental characteristic o the human !rain" +ailure to take this limitation into account underlies much o the rustration associated with learning and thinking tasks" ( you try to keep track o more than se&en data items at a time$ you start to orget some o them" +ortunately$ .ur !rains are not well adapted or dealing with written in ormation" We can deal with a ma8imum o se&en items at the same time in our conscious mind$ and e&en those se&en items will ade rom consciousness in a!out .0 second actor 3nother ma)or challenge or students is to ind ways to o&er%ride the tendency o immediate%term memory to automatically delete items a ter . there are two !asic strategies to compensate or this limitation" +irst$ you must ocus your attention on one task at a time" Di&ersions and idle thoughts can take up &alua!le spaces in your working memory$ and thus limit your a!ility to work on challenging tasks" ( your mind wanders$ you may only ha&e three or our instead o se&en spaces a&aila!le in your working memory" Second$ you need to systematically group similar items together in your mind so that a whole group only takes up only one space in your working memory" The causes o World War (($ the positions o chess pieces a ter the third mo&e in a game$ or the Laws o Thermodynamics should each !e organi9ed and grouped into a single item in working memory" #our capacity to manage in ormation in working memory can thus !e greatly enhanced" )"&"/ +inking -emor 9tems When you store an item o in ormation in your memory$ it is automatically linked to other items already in memory" This is a undamental concept" 1emory items do not e8ist in isolation" New memory items are always linked to older memory items" The links !etween memory items are essential in the remem!ering process" +or e8ample$ when you ha&e di iculty recalling a personTs name$ a common strategy is to recall other items associated with the person" Where and when did you meet this personJ What were you doing at the timeJ Were there other people presentJ 3s you recall these items$ you are searching or a link to the memory item containing the personTs name" When you irst hear the news o a momentous e&ent$ that occasion is strongly linked in your memory with your circumstances at that moment" #ou o ten hear people say$ B( remem!er e8actly where ( was and what ( was doing when ( heard a!out U"@" The constructi&e linking o memory items is &ital to the learning process" ( you systematically categori9e and link new memory items as they are encountered$ then o&er time you will !uild an e icient and e ecti&e li!rary o memory items" Storing new items and retrie&ing items upon demand will then !e a relati&ely simple task" >owe&er$ i you pay little attention to learning and neglect the creation o appropriate links or new in ormation$ then your li!rary o memories will tend to !e chaotic" (n a chaotic memory$ retrie&ing old items upon demand !ecomes a challenging task" The creation o e icient and e ecti&e memories is a cumulati&e process A an ha!itual way o thinking" 3d&ertisers make re:uent use o repetition and association in an e ort to to create links in your memories" 3d&ertisements or a product are deli!erately repeated in the media$ o&er and o&er again" 3nd the product is almost always presented in association with happy$ healthy people ha&ing a good time" Then when consumers think o ha&ing a good time$ memory links o ten lead to memories o the ad&ertisements A leading the consumers to consider !uying those products" <3lso note that most &ideo . 0 seconds long A ad&ertising moguls may$ or may not$ !e up to date with the latest in cogniti&e science !ut they do know what works"= +ortunately$ you can use the techni:ues o ad&ertising to create and design your own sets o memory links" The process in&ol&es three simple steps* emphasis$ association$ and repetition" When you decide that in ormation is important$ it is gi&en emphasis" When you compare$ contrast$ and organi9e in ormation$ you are creating associations" 3nd when you repeat the emphasis and associations$ the links !ecome stronger" )"&"6 External -emor Banks No discussion o memory would !e complete without considering the importance o e8ternal memory !anks that you can add to and recall rom at will" >umans ha&e de&eloped a num!er o technologies to e8tend their a!ilities or storing in ormation" E8ternal memories ha&e the additional ad&antage that they can !e easily shared with others" Written records During the past i&e thousand years$ humans ha&e used the written word to e8tend their memories" Writing in ormation on paper$ papyrus$ &ellum$ clay$ or stone is a great way to remem!er it" Potting down ideas while working on a pro!lem can pro&ide a &alua!le e8tension to your short%term memory" Writing and maintaining a set o notes is an e8cellent method or e8tending your medium%term memory" Te8ts$ no&els$ )ournals$ and re erence works make it possi!le to share long%term memories with other people o&er e8tended periods o time" Digital records During the past i ty years$ another type o memory has !ecome a&aila!le to human !rains A digital memory" Computers and digital memories are rapidly assuming a key role in the storage o in ormation or indi&iduals$ or !usinesses$ or science$ and or go&ernments" 1aking e ecti&e use o digital records is a !ecoming a &ital skill or clear thinkers" 222 )"' Thinking and +earning The oundation or thinking and learning includes caring or and protecting your !rain$ gaining an understanding o !asic learning modes$ classi ying su!)ect matter$ and seeking approaches to make learning more e icient" )"'"& Brain -aintenance The most !asic step you can take to acilitate new learning is to pro&ide regular care and protection or your !rain$ your Blearning machine@" #our !rain is an integral part o your !ody$ so any steps you can take to maintain and protect your !ody will also !ene it your !rain" There are also speci ic actions you can take$ and ha!its you can de&elop$ to help keep your !rain unctioning at optimal le&els" .ad&ertisements are less than . ur !odies are a!out ninety percent water !y weight" -lood$ lymph$ and spinal luid are all !ased on water" E&ery cell in your !ody is illed with a luid that is mostly water" Water pro&ides the principal medium or transporting su!stances around your !ody" 1olecules mo&e across luid illed cells" -lood and lymph circulate around your !ody deli&ering nutrients and collecting waste" 1ost o the !ody@s luids are re% circulated$ !ut a!out two litres are e8creted each day" Thus$ or good health and clear thinking$ you need to drink at least as much as you e8crete" 3 little e8tra water can take some pressure o the iltering systems" #ou should drink a minimum o two litres o clean water$ ree o contaminants and !acteria$ e&ery day" +ood 6ood nutrition is a !asic step towards clear thinking" #our !ody re:uires ood or energy and or the maintenance o cell unctions" Nutritious oods that are relati&ely easy to digest supply that need or energy" (n particular$ ner&e cells and !rain cells need glucose or energy" #our !ody also needs small$ !ut important daily doses o &itamins and minerals" .There are no surprises in this section" (t is mostly common sense" The challenge is to apply that common sense on a regular !asis" Ph sical health To think clearly you need a healthy !rain$ and a healthy !rain works !est in a healthy !ody" 3ir #our !rain needs lots o o8ygen$ so clean air and strong lungs are important or clear thinking" #our !rain consumes a!out twenty percent o the o8ygen that your lungs deli&er to your !lood$ e&en though your !rain represents a much smaller raction o your !ody mass" 3 good o8ygen supply to your !rain starts with deep !reathing in clean resh air" 3&oid polluted air" Take any steps you can to manage asthma as well as any other allergies that a ect your !reathing" The ha!it o smoking cigarettes impedes your !reathing in at least two signi icant ways* it coats the lining o your lungs with soot and tar thus reducing their e iciencyC and it increases the amount o car!on dio8ide and car!on mono8ide in your lungs$ urther reducing their a!ility to a!sor! o8ygen" +or clear thinking$ the ha!it o smoking cigarettes should !e replaced !y deep !reathing in clean air" E&en second hand smoke can !e detrimental to your lung e iciency" Whene&er possi!le$ do your thinking in en&ironments with good air circulation" ( you work in a closed room with poor &entilation$ the amount o o8ygen in the air tends to decrease while the amount o car!on dio8ide increases" +or e8ample$ the traditional !usiness meeting in a closed room with se&eral people e8haling car!on dio8ide and possi!ly smoking$ tends to !ecome less producti&e the longer the meeting lasts" Water . acids ound in ish and la8 seed do support neural acti&ity" E8ercise 7egular e8ercise helps to promote clear thinking" E8ercise helps keep your !ody unctioning properly" E8ercise and muscle action support the action o the digesti&e systemC and help with the circulation o !lood$ !reathing$ and the more sluggish circulation o the lymphatic system" 7est 7est is another actor that a ects health and clear thinking" While the !iology and psychology o sleep are su!)ects o continued research$ ew would disagree that a good night@s sleep helps you eel alert and energi9ed" There are also indications that the regular cycles o sleep and dreaming are a actor in esta!lishing long%term memories" The a&erage adult needs 0 to 4 hours o sleep or optimal unctioning during waking hours" <The properties o sleep are considered in more detail in section 0"."= >ead protection 'rotecting your head seems like an o!&ious thing to do$ !ut according to the -rain (n)ury 3ssociation o 3merica o&er one and a hal million 3mericans su er rom a traumatic !rain in)ury in any gi&en year$ and 40 000 o those people are le t with a long term disa!ility" #our !rain is a delicate structure$ and although it is encased in the !ones o your skull it is still suscepti!le to impact in)uries" When your head suddenly changes direction$ your !rain can slam into the inside o your skull causing a concussion$ and other physical damage" The commonest causes o !rain in)ury are automo!ile collisions$ sports collisions$ tripping and alling$ and !attle in)uries" 3utomo!ile in)uries can !e reduced !y dri&ing de ensi&ely$ dri&ing a car with ront and side impact air !ags$ and wearing seat!elts" >ead in)uries rom sports acti&ity can !e reduced !y ollowing sa ety guidelines and wearing protecti&e headgear" >ead in)uries rom alls around the home can !e reduced !y remo&ing tripping ha9ards$ !y de&eloping the ha!it o checking your ooting as you mo&e a!out$ and !y practising !alance e8ercises with acti&ities such as Tai%Chi" 'ro!a!ly the !est way to minimi9e head in)uries rom com!at is to use clear thinking to reduce the need or using orce to resol&e issues" +irst aid Simple knowledge and skills in irst aid can reduce other risks to your !ody" >and washing is the simplest$ and o ten the most e ecti&e$ way to pre&ent in ections that can damage any part o your !ody including your !rain" 3 &ery high e&er lasting o&er se&eral hours can lead to !rain damage" #our !rain can !e damaged i it is depri&ed o .There is still much de!ate a!out which speci ic oods and supplements may !e most e ecti&e in !oosting !rain de&elopment and per ormance" There is general agreement that omega%. o8ygen or )ust i&e or si8 minutes$ so learning the techni:ues o arti icial respiration might allow you to sa&e someone@s li e and help preser&e their !rain power" Shock and heat stroke are two other relati&ely common conditions that can a ect the !rain$ !ut the e ects can o ten !e mitigated with simple irst aid" (n summary$ taking common sense precautions to care or your !ody$ head$ and !rain are undamental steps towards clear thinking" -ental health E orts to maintain a positi&e attitude$ an optimistic outlook$ and respect or yoursel and others can ha&e a pro ound impact on your sense o well!eing$ and your a!ility to think clearly" There are a num!er o speci ic steps that you can take to promote your own mental health" De&elop constructi&e ha!its We all de&elop ha!itsC we tend to do some things the same way e&ery%day" #ou can take ad&antage o that tendency to deli!erately select and de&elop ha!its that make you eel !etter and enhance your daily e8periences" De&elop ha!its that will assist you in getting ready or the day A e8ercise or ten minutes !e ore your shower$ always put your wallet or purse in the same spot on your dresserC always check the weather !e ore choosing your wardro!e or the day$ and always check or your keys !e ore you lock the car door" Take a ew moments each day to appreciate some aspect o your en&ironment A tend a plant$ o!ser&e the night sky$ wonder at the shapes o clouds$ pat a dog$ or sing a song" +ind something to do each day that is positi&e A pick up some litter$ compliment someone$ encourage someone$ say hello to a neigh!our" Think positi&e thoughts (t is a simple concept$ !ut you can choose what you think a!out" 3lthough days can !e !usy and tasks time consuming$ you can always ind time or some positi&e thoughts" Think a!out cherished amily mem!ers$ your riends$ your pets" Think a!out past e&ents you ha&e en)oyed" Think a!out uture e&ents that you are looking orward to" Think a!out what you accomplished yesterday and what you want to accomplish today" De&elop supporti&e relationships There are o&er si8 !illion people in the world" +ind some riends who share similar interests and ha&e personalities that you en)oy" Take the time and energy to support those around you who are struggling to get ahead in the world" +ind others around you who ha&e strengths that you can draw upon in a time o need" Seek special riendships that will enrich your li e and the li&es o those you care or" De&elop techni:ues or dealing with ad&ersity -ad things happen" No one is success ul at e&ery attempt with e&ery pro)ect" 3d&ersity and set!acks are an integral part o daily li e" De&elop strategies to Bduck and co&er@ when necessary" Geep a B!ag o tricks@ that you can use to restore your normal optimism A listen to your a&ourite music$ walk through your a&ourite park$ . read your a&ourite author$ talk to a riend" Pust knowing that you ha&e strategies or coping with ad&ersity can !e a source o strength when you need it most" 7espect others 1ake systematic e orts to respect the rights and thoughts o others" -e ore )udging others$ try to mentally apply the old adage o Bwalking in another@s shoes@" 3s you try to appreciate the points o &iew o others$ you automatically reassess your own position" 7especting others leads to sel %respect and a positi&e attitude towards li e" De&elop a sense o empathy or the plight o others" (t can !e more rewarding to assist others than it is to clim! one more rung on the ladder towards elitist success" -e realistic Work within your capa!ilities or security and calm$ !ut reach !eyond that occasionally or stimulation and a new sense o accomplishment" Try to de&elop a realistic sense o your own strengths and weaknesses" Then design your daily acti&ities to take ad&antage o your strengths and to strengthen your weaknesses" 6i&e yoursel a daily challenge$ !ut a challenge that is within reasona!le reach" >ang a !anana a ew eet a!o&e a monkey and he will )ump or it" >ang a !anana a hundred eet a!o&e a monkey and he will soon dismiss it" Seek win%win situations A you cannot loseS (n a duel to the death$ someone is going to !e !adly hurt" (n a pumpkin growing contest$ e&ery!ody ends up with a !ig pumpkin" -eware o competiti&e win%lose situations" Sometimes a win%lose competition is in&igorating$ sometimes it is part o a struggle or sur&i&al$ !ut a win%lose competition always produces at least as many losers as winners" Seek assistance Seek the help o a physician or counsellor i negati&e thinking persists" There are a &ariety o resources a&aila!le that can help you deal with negati&e !eha&iours$ gloomy moods$ and depression" 9ntellectual health .ur capacity or ad&anced thought is the characteristic that de ines us as humans and separates us rom all other li e on Earth" (ntellectual health includes an open mind and a )oy or learning" Poy or learning 3 )oy or learning is ostered !y curiosity and a determination to understand why things are the way they are" 3 )oy or learning !rings satis action when a new understanding is reached$ and it initiates a :uest or patterns and answers when a new unknown is encountered" 3 )oy or learning also in&ol&es a lo&e o !ooks" There are millions o !ooks in the great li!raries o the world$ and thousands more are pu!lished e&ery year" -ooks !ring you in contact with the !est minds o the past and contain a detailed record o our . history and culture" -ooks contain a wealth o knowledge o our present world and pro&ide a window on possi!le utures" While not e&ery !ook is a masterpiece$ the creation o !ooks pro&ides one o the !est means or indi&iduals to organi9e and record their own thoughts and ad&entures" 1ost !ooks are only pu!lished a ter an author has spent thousands o hours planning$ writing$ and editing" 3 willingness to change (ntellectual health includes a willingness to adopt new ideas and approaches or dealing with e&eryday e&ents" E&en when your current knowledge has !een hard won$ new in ormation and new theories can add insight and e8plain inconsistencies" (ntellectual health in&ol&es accepting that learning is a challenging !ut worthwhile endea&our$ and that errors and ailure are learning e8periences" To culti&ate intellectual health$ you should de&elop interests and relationships that support$ stimulate$ and challenge your standard thought processes" #ou should acti&ely seek new learning opportunities$ and de&elop ha!its o thought that demand clear thinking and critical )udgement" Learning in early childhood 3dapta!ility is one o the key eatures o a human !a!y@s intellect" The same !a!y can adapt to li e as a 'eru&ian in the 3ndes or as a -edouin in the desert" Without taking any ormal lessons$ a child in China can learn to speak 1andarin while a child in Spain can learn to speak Spanish" 3 child in an ur!an setting learns to negotiate city tra ic$ ride ele&ators$ and manage home security systems" 3 child in a rural setting learns to play in the woods$ distinguish !etween crops and weeds$ and how to care or animals" When younger children su er serious !rain in)uries$ they are o ten a!le to reco&er much aster than older persons with similar in)uries" Early childhood learning in&ol&es esta!lishing the !asic neural pathways that are likely to !e o &alue during the child@s entire li etime" Early physical and social en&ironments determine what those needs are likely to !e" (n his !ook$ +irst Three #ears o Li e <155/=$ -urton White emphasi9es the importance o early childhood learning$ and argues that we should pro&ide an enriched en&ironment or our young children" 3n enriched en&ironment helps to esta!lish a !road collection o neural pathways" 3 !road collection o neural pathways lays the oundation or a li etime o learning and clear thinking" )"'"' A -odel of +earning There has !een a lot o educational research de&oted to impro&ing student learning$ !ut when all is said and done$ there are )ust two main stages in the learning process" The irst stage o the model initiates the learning process and consists o three su!% components* tell me$ show me$ and let me disco&er" The second stage consolidates learning and includes* practice$ making associations$ and applying what has !een learned" . nce initial learning has taken place$ the new in ormation has to !e consolidated$ or most o it will soon !e orgotten" The three main acti&ities or consolidating new learning are* practice$ associate$ and apply" .(tage %& 4 9nitiate +earning There are three !asic paths to initiate the learning process* tell me$ show me$ and let me disco&er" Tell me A is the dominant learning path o a lecture" Teachers and parents tend to a&our this path in order to con&ey lots o in ormation in a relati&ely short period o time" (n a sta!le society$ the eatures o ci&ili9ation are passed rom generation to generation &ia the tell me path" We want our children to assimilate our laws and customs$ not disco&er their own" We want our children to learn e iciently rom talented teachers$ not struggle to disco&er e&ery concept on their own" Show me A is the dominant learning path o demonstrations$ coaching$ and much in ormal learning" (n the past twenty years researchers ha&e disco&ered that our !rains possess special Bmirror neurons@ that are dedicated to show me learning" Speci ic mirror neurons ire when we o!ser&e someone else per orming a task$ when we per orm that task oursel&es$ or e&en when we )ust think a!out per orming that task" (t is thought that mirror neurons are the keys to learning language and understanding the actions o others" The e8istence o mirror neurons may also e8plain why some tasks are relati&ely easy to learn$ while others tend to !e much more di icult" When a learning task has physical mani estations$ our mirror neurons can help us to copy and reproduce those mani estations" We can learn to speak a language and use new &oca!ulary !y listening to a luent speaker" (t is more di icult to learn to write a story !y watching an author at work !ecause the key steps occur inside the author@s !rain" 1irror neurons are designed to help us learn how to skip rope$ !ut are not designed to help us learn history" Let me disco&er A is the dominant path or learning rom personal in&estigations and trial%and%error e8periences" This learning path is relati&ely slow !ut thorough" When you work hard to disco&er something or yoursel $ you ha&e also completed most o the work re:uired to consolidate and remem!er that learning" Disco&ery learning is relati&ely rare" E&en most disco&ery lessons at school are really show me lessons in disguise$ since the re:uired !ackground in ormation has !een pro&ided and the e:uipment has !een arranged so that students tend to disco&er the o!)ect o the lesson !y alling into it" True disco&ery learning occurs only when we in&ent new in ormation or oursel&es !y com!ining old in ormation in a no&el and use ul way" 3s any struggling in&entor will tell you$ most o the time the disco&ery learning approach does not lead to a practical result" Still$ e&ery now and then$ disco&ery learning can lead to something &ery interesting" (tage %' 4 Consolidate +earning . " Concept systems <e"g" the precepts o democracy$ and the structure o Euclidean geometry= /" 7ule systems <e"g" the tra ic laws o Gentucky$ and Latin grammar=" 3 key eature o these categories is that they are open%ended" There is no limit to new knowledge" No matter how much you know there is always more to learn" .nowledge Eltimately all knowledge can !e regarded as in ormation a!out speci ic items$ or sets o items" 3ll knowledge can !e sorted into i&e !asic categories* 1" +acts <e"g" World War ( ended on No&em!er 11$ 1514= 2" Systems o acts <e"g" columns o stock prices in the !usiness section o a newspaper= ." 3lgorithms <e"g" the recipe or !aking a cake= .'ractice A is the most !asic and undamental approach or consolidating new learning" 'ractice helps you to con irm that you ha&e mastered the details o new learning$ and pro&ides the repetition that is necessary to esta!lish that in ormation irmly in your memory" To !e most e ecti&e$ practice should !e conducted as soon as possi!le a ter the initial learning$ then again a ter a day$ a ter a week$ and a ter a month" 1ake 3ssociations A is the key to helping you recall what you ha&e learned with appropriate memory cues" There is little use in learning something i you cannot recall it in the uture" Creating associations or learning is analogous to adding colour ul tags to your luggage so you can easily ind your !ags amongst hundreds o similar !ags at a !usy airport" 3ssociations or learning are mental in nature" 3s you analy9e new learning and decide which eatures are important$ which eatures are similar to what you already know$ which eatures are uni:ue$ and which eatures are am!iguousC you are creating associations that will link your memories and make that new learning easier to recall" Sometimes inding use ul associations is the most challenging part o the learning process" ( what you are trying to learn appears to !e a hodgepodge o unrelated in ormation$ then it is di icult to create use ul associations" #ou may ha&e to go !ack and reorgani9e your learning task so that it makes sense to you" Then it is easier to make meaning ul associations" 3pply A means you should make use o your new learning to make it more rele&ant" #ou can apply new learning to simpli y tasks that you ha&e already !een working on$ or you can tackle new tasks" 3pplications o new learning automatically include elements o practice and the creation o associations" 3pplications also add an important moti&ational component to your learning A your learning has &alue" )"'") Classif ing (u$:ect -atter (n analy9ing the learning process$ researchers and educators o ten group e&erything that can !e learned into )ust three categories* knowledge$ skills$ and attitudes" . (kills Skills can !e di&ided into two main categories* psychomotor skills$ and cogniti&e skills" 'sychomotor skills in&ol&e the co%ordinated mo&ements o muscles and lim!s to achie&e speci ic results such as swimming or playing a trom!one" 'sychomotor skills are mastered through repeated trial%and%error e orts$ and e orts to imitate others who ha&e already mastered the desired skill" The irst tentati&e steps o a !a!y learning to walk pro&ide a classic e8ample o psychomotor learning" 'sychomotor skills are stored in procedural memory" Cogniti&e skills in&ol&e the co%ordinated thought processes re:uired or pro!lem sol&ing$ such as how to descri!e an emotion in a poem you are writing$ or how to analy9e a logical pu99le" Cogniti&e skills in&ol&e your a!ility to apply a &ariety o strategies such as sorting$ comparing$ classi ying$ and decision%makingC and are used !y your conscious mind to deal with no&el situations that you encounter in your daily li e" Cogniti&e skills are stored in declarati&e memory" The essential message o this !ook is that cogniti&e skills and clear thinking can !e learned and practiced$ )ust like any other skill" 1any tasks$ such as deli&ering a speech$ re:uire the simultaneous application o !oth psychomotor and cogniti&e skills" Attitudes Esta!lishing attitudes in&ol&es your &alues and your mental approach to &arious su!)ects and situations" #our attitudes are an essential component o your learning e orts" With a positi&e attitude your chances o success are optimi9ed" (t is important to reali9e that your attitudes are learned" #ou are not !orn with a set o attitudes a!out the world" #our current attitudes ha&e !een ac:uired as a result o your e8periences in li e and your mental ha!its in dealing with those e8periences" 1uch o your success as a learner will depend on your a!ility to !uild positi&e attitudes towards the material that you are studying" )"'". Efficient +earning #ou know you are learning more e iciently when you are a!le to learn more in less time and with less e ort" Past learning #our a!ility to learn new material today depends to a large e8tent on the learning you did yesterday" (t is easier to ind patterns to descri!e new material when you already ha&e a large$ well organi9ed$ collection o learned items" ( you do not know anything a!out engines$ then it will !e di icult to appreciate the unction o &al&es and camsha ts" ( you do not know anything a!out complementary colours$ then decorating an apartment will !e an e8tra challenge" #our a!ility to learn new . 7 SS WWC then there would !e only ele&en groups o letters to learn" >owe&er$ i the letters are rearranged into words to orm a little message* 73(N +3LLS W(NDS -L.D + (( LLL NN .W$ then the learning task is much simpler" When new material is organi9ed into meaning ul patterns$ learning can !e much more e icient" Finding patterns >ow do you ind patternsJ (n general$ the search or use ul patterns is a time% consuming task that depends on persistence and chance" +ortunately or students$ the search or patterns in most ields o knowledge has already !een done or you" 1uch time and energy has already !een spent to organi9e any material you might want to learn" #our task is then to make use o an e8isting pattern" ( a pattern is not o!&ious then instructors$ te8ts$ other students$ and your own growing e8perience all pro&ide inspirations or inding and creating patterns or organi9ing new in ormation" The task o inding a pattern and organi9ing in ormation in&ol&es repeated e8aminations o that in ormation along with repeated searches or the most e ecti&e associations" This is e8actly what is re:uired to store that in ormation as a linked network in your memory" 3 ter organi9ing in ormation$ the only learning tasks remaining are more repetition$ and practice with applications" -emori<ation When you want to memori9e in ormation$ there is no su!stitute or repetition" Neural connections in the !rain seem to get stronger and last longer when the same signals are repeated se&eral times$ and repeated again o&er a &ariety o time%scales" #ou should go o&er any material you want to memori9e se&eral times$ then again the ne8t day$ then again the ne8t week$ then again the ne8t month" 6oing o&er material may in&ol&e reading it to yoursel $ reciting it out loud$ or writing it down on paper" Active learning 3cti&e learning in&ol&es taking your material and applying it in a &ariety o situations" #ou may attempt to answer related :uestions$ work on sample applications$ or e8plore &ariations !y asking yoursel Bwhat i @ :uestions" BWhat i @ :uestions are o .material tomorrow depends to a large e8tent on how much and how well you learn today" (t is ne&er too late to start e icient learning$ !ut the earlier you start the !etter" E8perts in a su!)ect area ha&e accumulated and organi9ed their skills and knowledge o&er an e8tended period o time" ( you want to !ecome an e8pert$ start todayS 7rgani<ation of material (t is important to put e ort into preparing and packaging material that you want to learn" Suppose you had the task o memori9ing the letters* N3LSL (+73 .WWL(SND" (t could !e done$ !ut it would !e di icult" There is no apparent pattern to the eighteen letters" They could !e alpha!eti9ed* 33 . " #ou cannot &isuali9e what you are supposed to learn$ or how to !egin the learning task" ." #ou can &isuali9e the inal goal and can plan a path towards that goal" ." The learning task re:uires many separate steps$ and you ha&e to manipulate more than se&en items at a time in your immediate%term memory" /" 7e:uired e:uipment and materials are not readily a&aila!le" 0" There is a large &olume o material to learn and your time is limited" 2" The task in&ol&es comple8 logical structures" 4" The task re:uires long hours o ocused work$ and e&en minor errors can lead to ailure" 1any games and toys present easy learning tasks and are thus &ery popular" Learning to !ake an apple pie may !e )ust on the !order !etween easy and di icult" There is a &ision o a steaming apple pie resh rom the o&enC the steps are laid out in a recipeC !ut se&eral steps are re:uired$ and making edi!le pastry is a prere:uisite skill that may !e lacking" Learning to repair your tele&ision set would pro!a!ly !e in the di icult category since there are a num!er o per:uisites in digital electronics and communications theory that would !e re:uired" (t is also unlikely that you would ha&e access to the needed materials and test e:uipment" Start today to learn as much as you can$ a!out as many topics as you can" 3ny learning task that you master today will simpli y all your learning in the uture" .the type* BWhat i ( dou!led this :uantity and then ran the e8perimentJ@$ BWhat i Napoleon had won the !attle o WaterlooJ@$ BWhat i 'icasso had !een &isually impairedJ@" Trying to answer BWhat i J@ :uestions e8tends your understanding and helps you to connect new items to other rele&ant material you ha&e already learned" Eas learning Some material is easy to learn$ while other material seems to !e much more di icult" >ere are some conditions that can make learning easy* 1" #our learning task is )ust a step or two !eyond your current knowledge and skill le&els" 2" #ou ha&e a positi&e attitude towards the learning task" (t is something you want to do" (t is un" #ou can see that it will !e o &alue to you in the uture" ." The learning task re:uires you to deal with only se&en or ewer items at a time$ so that your immediate%term memory is not o&ere8tended" /" 3ny re:uired e:uipment and materials are readily a&aila!le" !ifficult learning The conditions that correspond to di icult learning tasks are the opposites o the conditions that lead to easy learning tasks" 3 learning task !ecomes di icult when one or more o the ollowing situations e8ist* 1" The learning task re:uires prere:uisite knowledge and skills that you do not ha&e" The more prere:uisites you are missing$ the more challenging the task" 2" #ou ha&e a negati&e attitude towards the task" #ou ha&e already ailed at similar tasks" #ou can see no uture &alue or the task" . ” (n a similar manner$ their e orts to !e a!solutely clear$ modern lawyers tend to compose statements that can only !e understood !y other lawyers" Sometimes the meaning o a statement is deli!erately made o!scure" 7oger -acon <c1220= e8pressed the sentiment that knowledge in the hands o the common person .222 )") +anguage and Clear Thinking Language is a power ul tool or organi9ing and summari9ing your thinking$ and or con&eying your thoughts to others" Spoken language is used to communicate in ormation$ to in luence others$ and to entertain" Written language is used to store the sentiments o spoken language" Skills in !oth spoken and written language are essential aspects o clear thinking" We need language skills to help us ormulate our own thoughts and to ena!le us to communicate with$ and in luence others" We also need language skills so that we can analy9e what others are saying to us and to read what they ha&e written" )")"& +anguage as a Code 3t the !eginning or the 20th century$ there were still o&er si8 thousand distinct languages in the world$ although the growth o modern communications is gradually reducing that num!er" 3 language !egins as a set o &er!al codes or descri!ing what we ind important in the world around us" (t is possi!le to code anything that can !e e8perienced$ !ut the design o the code &aries rom culture to culture" 3 message is !uilt !y selecting words rom a common &oca!ulary$ and then arranging those words using rules o grammar" The (nuit ha&e se&eral do9en words to descri!e di erent types o snow and ice" The distinctions among shades o !lue and green can &ary in di erent cultures" Num!er systems can &ary rom culture to culture" The terms one$ two$ and many were su icient or descri!ing :uantities in many early languages C the 7omans used a system o letter codes to num!er o!)ects <E8ample* 11(V W 2005=C the 1aya de&eloped a num!er system with !ase 20 that could easily descri!e any num!er into the millions" E&en when a common language is used$ communication is not always clear and straight orward" +or e8ample$ English authors o the 14th century tended to make use o run%on sentences and an e8tensi&e &oca!ulary" Now in the 21st century their works are sometimes di icult to comprehend" Consider the ollowing e8tract rom . the Standard o Taste !y Da&id >ume$ 12/2* “ +t is evident that none of the rules of composition are fi-ed by reasonings )a priori* or can be esteemed abstract conclusions of the understanding from comparing those habitudes and relations of ideas which are eternal and immutable. $ Pohn Wycli e translated the Latin -i!le into the English language$ howe&er the clergy were reluctant to put the word o 6od into the hands o peasants and la!ourers" Twenty% our years a ter his death$ Wycli e was declared a heretic$ his !ody was e8humed and !urned$ and his English translation was suppressed or o&er 100 years" The science o cryptology is de&oted to coding in ormation so that only those with a secret key are a!le to decode it" Encoding in ormation has !ecome a standard practice in computeri9ed record keeping" The e ecti&e use o language is not a simple matter" Designing a clear and concise message is a comple8 task that is part art and part science" (t is an additional challenge to include emotional o&ertones that will attract an audience and still support the main message" )")"' Elements for Emphasis Languages also contain a &ariety o mechanisms or emphasis such as rhythm$ rhyme$ alliteration$ and repetition" 1any words and phrases are speci ically included in a message or their emotional impact" 3 spoken message can !e urther strengthened with the )udicious use o tone and !ody language" Emotional words and phrases Words and phrases with emotional connotations are re:uently used to acti&ate emotional thinking in an audience$ and at the same time !lock rational analysis" The use o emotional words and phrases ha&e two common applications* to communicate that the author$ or speaker is a Bgood guy@ and what heHshe says should !e supported$ or that the target o criticism is a B!ad guy@ and what that target says should !e sco ed at and considered untrue" >ere are a ew common e8amples o the use o emotional words and phrases* 1" The repeated use o religious phrases such as B6od !less you@$ Blet us pray@$ or B6od is great@ is designed to initiate ritual !eha&iour$ sti le independent thought$ and engender anger towards anyone who does not partake in the ritual" 2" The use o curses is designed to signal that the author$ or speaker$ is emotionally in&ol&ed !ut con&eys little rational in ormation" .was dangerous$ and descri!ed se&en classical techni:ues or o!scuring the truth in written statements rom the uninitiated" (n 1.4.ur minds are keyed to respond to emotional appeals" .ur !est de ence against ha&ing our thought processes deli!erately manipulated is to watch or emotional words and phrases$ and to then consider the situation rationally ." (n&oking the image o desira!le !ut de enceless persons such as !a!ies$ children$ or maidens in distress is intended to e&oke sympathy or the &ulnera!le$ and anger towards anyone who might in)ure them" Ci&ic leaders o ten use positi&e emotional words to descri!e their own policies$ and negati&e emotional words to descri!e the policies o opponents" Clear thinkers take note" . " 3 hesitant &oice suggests that the speaker is lacking con idence" -ody positioning and acial e8pressions add to the &ersatility o language" The e8amples speak or themsel&es* a smile$ a rown$ a shrug o the shoulders$ a nod o the head$ a shake o the head$ a shake o the inde8 inger$ a gesture with a raised middle inger$ a wink$ a slouch$ a )utting chin$ eyes wide and pupils dilated$ eyes hal closed and pupils contracted$ an erect posture$ arms crossed$ leaning towards someone$ and a ga9e turned away" )")") Comparisons Comparisons are more than entertaining di&ersionsC they are power ul techni:ues or e8tending our e8isting knowledge to new situations" Comparisons help us to decide among alternati&es$ aid in clari ying our own thoughts$ and pro&ide an e ecti&e means or con&eying new in ormation to others" While there are literary uses or similes$ metaphors$ and allegories$ the two most &alua!le comparisons or clear thinking are the simple comparison and the analogy" Simple comparison 3 simple comparison is used to make a direct list o similarities and di erences among selected o!)ects or systems" The structures$ properties$ and characteristics o the o!)ects are e8amined or close matches$ and large de&iations" The process o inding and comparing eatures among o!)ects is an e8ercise in clear thinking" Which eatures are similarJ Which eatures are signi icantly di erentJ Do the characteristics o one system pro&ide clues to the characteristics o another systemJ +or e8ample$ suppose you compared an apple tree with a sugar maple tree" -oth are deciduous trees that lower in the spring" -oth are hardwoods" 3 mature apple tree has a height o a!out 4 metres$ is pollinated !y !ees$ and produces a tasty ruit that ripens in the all" (n contrast$ a mature sugar maple tree has a height o a!out ." 3 sharp and commanding tone implies that the speaker is in charge o the situation" .0 metres$ is wind pollinated$ produces its seeds in the orm o keys$ and can !e tapped or sap to make maple syrup in the spring" -oth trees produce &alua!le crops" 3pple trees re:uire more pruning and an apple crop is suscepti!le to insect in estations" 1ature maple trees can !e har&ested to produce lum!er or ine urniture" 3nalogy 3n analogy is an e8tended comparison !etween distinct systems that are unrelated$ .!e ore deciding to participate emotionally" Tone and !ody language Speakers use more than words to communicate" They use &ariations in tone and !ody language to emphasi9e their message" >ere are )ust a ew e8amples o using tone or emphasis* 1" 3 loud &oice implies that the speaker is !ecoming emotional" 2" 3 so t &oice suggests that the message is con idential" . course$ ew i any analogies are per ect" While you and your audience may appreciate the e8planatory aspects o an analogy$ discrepancies soon !ecome apparent in the range o parallel relationships" +inding the use ul limits o an analogy re:uires comparisons and e&aluations A !oth e ecti&e learning processes" )")".!ut ha&e similar relationships among their components" #our knowledge$ amiliarity$ and understanding o one system can then !e used to gain insights into the operation o the less amiliar second system" 3n analogy is a power ul tool or e8tending your e8isting knowledge and understandings to new and un amiliar conte8ts" 3n analogy is a &alua!le educational tool$ as well as a tool or clear thinking" 3s you search or an appropriate analogy to e8plain a concept to someone else$ you ha&e to analy9e the initial system to esta!lish its key eatures and relationships A a &alua!le step in impro&ing your own understanding o the irst system" Then you ha&e to search your memory to ind a second system with similar relationships that will !e more amiliar to your audience A a process that will help you to link your memories together in an organi9ed manner" Then when you ind a good analogy$ it will help your audience to impro&e their understanding o the relationships in the irst system" E8amples* 3 shepherd caring or his sheep$ in some ways$ is analogous to a preacher caring or his parishioners" The motions o the gears in a machine are$ in some ways$ analogous to the operations o a large !ureaucracy" The e8pansion o the sur ace o a !alloon is analogous to the e8pansion o the uni&erse" . 0hetoric 1odern rhetoric is the study o techni:ues or e ecti&e speaking and writing" The oundations o rhetoric as a ield o study lie in the classical past and rhetoric was still regarded as a standard part o a knowledgea!le person@s education well into the 15th century" (n rhetoric the use o language has two aspects* orm A how something is e8pressedC and content A what is e8pressed" 3 communication can !e designed to appeal to reason <logos=$ to emotion <pathos=$ or to the characteristics o the audience <ethos=" 7hetoric has i&e accepted skill areas* 1" (n&ention A strategies or raming content such as cause and e ect$ comparison$ speciali9ed topics$ and relations" 2" 3rrangement A the elements o the structure o a presentation such as the introduction$ statement o acts$ arguments in support$ re utation o counter arguments$ and conclusion" ." Style A the art ul e8pression o ideas to co%ordinate the use o language with the topic$ and the characteristics o audience" Pulius Caesar@s phrase$ M( came$ ( saw$ ( con:ueredN$ <Feni$ &idi$ &ici= is a classic e8ample" ." 1emory A includes memory aids or a particular presentationC the creation o a store o general knowledge that can !e used e8temporaneously to supplement a presentationC and techni:ues to assist the audience in remem!ering the key . points in a presentation" /" Deli&ery A usually re ers to oral presentations and includes &olume$ tone$ pitch$ speed$ gestures$ pronunciation$ acial e8pressions$ and emphasis" Traditionally$ rhetoric is applied in three principal !ranches o oratory* 1" Pudicial oratory deals with e&ents rom the past and is used to accuse or de end in the pursuit o )ustice" 2" Deli!erati&e oratory deals with the uture and is used to e8hort or dissuade the listeners in support o a cause" ." Epideictic oratory deals with the present and is used to praise or critici9e someone@s &irtue or &ice" The a!ility to speak well is still highly &alued$ !ut in the early 21st century we tend to regard it as a natural talent rather than a learned skill" 3s a conse:uence$ we also tend to succum! to the persuasi&e power o an e ecti&e speaker without making a critical analysis o content" The mo&ie$ Thank /ou for 'moking <2000= pro&ides an interesting demonstration o the potential or the misuse o rhetoric" (n this mo&ie$ the principle character is a lo!!yist or the to!acco industry who uses his skill in rhetoric to con ound his critics" )")"/ !e$ates 3 ormal de!ate is an organi9ed discussion o a well%de ined topic$ and as such pro&ides a orum or applied clear thinking" The topic o a de!ate is o ten e8pressed in terms o a :uestion that can !e answered as either yes or no" Speakers take turns deli&ering prepared statements and then making impromptu responses to each other@s arguments" 3 de!ate is designed to encourage participants to !e thorough and accurate$ and to support claims with e&idence" Speakers use their skills in rhetoric to attempt to persuade mem!ers o an audience to accept the arguments that they present" +ormal de!ates are go&erned !y rules designed to lead to a de ined conclusion" Discussions in legislatures$ courtrooms$ and political campaigns o ten assume the style o a ormal de!ate" 3 de!ate is typically ollowed !y some procedure to indicate the audience@s pre erence or the &arious arguments* mem!ers o a legislature cast their &otes$ a )ury deli!erates$ an audience may &ote or cheer$ an academic community may decide to accept or re)ect a line o research" Note that the decision o the audience in a de!ate does not necessarily correspond to the truth$ or to the most logical argument$ or to the !est%researched argument" While the &ote o an audience may !e in luenced !y the presentations in a de!ate$ it also depends on the pre%e8isting interests and pre)udices o the audience" (n ormal de!ates can also !e stimulating$ in ormati&e$ and entertaining as long as the participants eel emotionally secure and retain a sense o humour" 3t times$ in ormal de!ates can degenerate into disagreements o&er poorly de ined concepts" (n such . disagreements$ limited in ormation is pro&ided and limited logic is used" Conditions can deteriorate urther into &er!al !attles in which statements are made to intimidate and humiliate an opponent" Then the cle&er use o language !ecomes a weapon rather than a means o communication and the goal is not clarity$ !ut &ictory in a struggle or status" Clear thinkers need to recogni9e and then a&oid wasting energy in &oci erous in ormal de!ates" (n summary$ the a!ility to speak and write is one o the most dominant eatures o human culture$ and mastery o language is one o the greatest aids to clear thinking" Clear thinking is imperilled when we spice our language with lots o emotion$ emphasis$ suggestion$ and innuendo" We need to determine the essential arguments !eing presented$ and the relia!ility o in ormation used as supporting e&idence" While entertaining and emotional language can add er&our to e&eryday li e$ it does little to enhance clear thinking and &alid reasoning" %%% . "&"& !eductive 0easoning Processes Deducti&e processes are !ased on the precise use o language" The standard approach is to !egin with a set o de initions and assumptions$ and then to systematically ollow the associated logical implications" Deducti&e reasoning is an essential ingredient in the ields o logic$ mathematics$ and computer programming" Logic Logic is a power ul tool or !uilding comple8 arguments rom !asic concepts$ and or the re&erse process o taking a comple8 argument apart to e8amine its essential components" 3 logical argument !egins with a ew initial assumptions and de initions" Then more comple8 ideas can !e ormed !y com!ining these simple asserti&e statements using the standard con)unctions o and$ or$ not$ and i "A" then" ( you !egin with care ully cra ted assumptions and de initions$ your su!se:uent logical deductions can o ten lead to insights that were not initially apparent" <Note that interrogati&es and emotional statements ha&e no status within logical arguments"= . 0easoning Processes An 9ntroduction to Pro$a$ilit The 3ature of (cientific 9nvestigations Building a Personal Philosoph 3nother o the goals o clear thinking is to impro&e your a!ility to reason e ecti&ely with whate&er in ormation is a&aila!le to you" #ou can train your !rain to take ad&antage o our !asic reasoning strategies and the undamentals o pro!a!ility theory to help you assess in ormation and !uild a dura!le personal philosophy" ."."& 0easoning Processes 7easoning processes are the means that we use to analy9e in ormation$ and make )udgements and decisions A what to do ne8t$ when to act$ when to pause" 1ost o our reasoning processes are &ariations and com!inations o )ust our approaches to thinking* deducti&e thought$ inducti&e thought$ emotional thought$ and dealing with authoritarian edicts" The conclusions that you reach using these processes will &ary with the knowledge that you ha&e accumulated and the world &iew that you ha&e esta!lished" .Chapter ."& .") ."' .* Tools for Clear Thinking . The simple%to%comple8 application o logic can !e used to construct a philosophical argument or a mathematical theory" The truth o such an argument$ or theory$ is !ased on the truth o the original assumptions and the accuracy o the logical constructions" The con&erse approach is to start with a comple8 argument and then work !ackwards towards the essential de initions and assumptions that orm the underpinnings o the argument" Strictly speaking$ logic e8ists only in the minds o humans and is independent o reality" (n practice$ the assumptions and de initions used in logic o ten re lect the !est a&aila!le interpretations o reality A an inducti&e approach" The a!stract methods o logic can lead to &ery practical results" 6eorge -oole <141/ A 140.= used a logical process to de&elop a system o mathematics using )ust two num!ers$ 0 and 1" >e was a!le to show that all o our mathematics using !ase%ten could !e reduced to e:ui&alent statements in !ase%two" Se&eral decades a ter his death$ -oole@s !inary alge!ra was used to create electronic logic gates that now orm the core o e&ery digital computer in the world" Figure %6* Four t pes of reasoning Deducti&e geometry 6eometry is a ield o mathematics that deals with shapes and !oundaries" The origin o geometry is lost in the mists o time$ !ut !y 2000 -CE geometry played a key role in the allocations o agricultural land a ter annual loods o the Euphrates and Tigris . 8 A 2 W / can !e logically re%arranged to yield 8 W .ri&ers in 1esopotamia$ and the Nile 7i&er in Egypt" 6eometric properties were also used in the design and construction o ortresses$ temples$ and pyramids" 3!out .&er the past thousand years$ the su!)ect has grown and !een re ined so that alge!ra is now !ased on de initions$ postulates$ and rules o logic" Esing alge!raic techni:ues$ a mathematical statement can !e rearranged into an in inite num!er o e:ui&alent statements" 6i&en a comple8 statement$ a typical goal is to ind the simplest possi!le representation that still contains all the in ormation o the original statement" +or e8ample$ the concept o e:uality can !e used in com!ination with the operations o addition$ su!traction$ multiplication$ and di&ision to con&ert a linear e:uation into a &ariety o alternate orms" Thus$ the e:uation ." When similar mathematical pro!lems reoccur in a num!er o situations$ it is practical to de&ise a streamlined approach" 3n alge!raic theorem can !e created that reduces a whole se:uence o logical steps to )ust one line" Ouoting the theorem and skipping all the associated details then simpli ies sol&ing similar pro!lems in the uture" 1athematicians like to use theorems so they can work more e iciently" En ortunately$ these shortcuts can make ormal solutions di icult or non% mathematicians to ollow" 3lge!ra is not the only ield o mathematics that utili9es proo s and theorems" Currently$ there are o&er two hundred recogni9ed ields o mathematical research" (n act$ you can create your own ield o mathematics with )ust a ew de initions and postulates" The challenge is to create a system that has interesting and possi!ly use ul eatures" Computer programming 'rogramming a computer is a challenging task in deducti&e reasoning" 3 computer language is highly structured$ all the terms are care ully de ined$ and all processes .00 -CE$ the 6reek mathematician Euclid$ summari9ed and organi9ed all that was known a!out geometry in a !ook called The Elements" This work was so thorough and complete that it was used as a standard geometry te8t or the ne8t two thousand years" The Elements is more than a collection o geometric properties" 3s students study Euclidian geometry$ they are also studying the process o deducti&e reasoning" The si8 &olumes on plane geometry !egin with a set o )ust three postulates and two de initions$ and then all the other geometric properties o plane igures are deri&ed using deducti&e logic" 3lge!ra 3!out 42/ CE$ an 3ra!ian mathematician in -aghdad summari9ed all the known techni:ues or sol&ing e:uations in a !ook entitled 3l%)a!r wa@l mu:a!alah" 3l% Ghowari9mi@s work was so success ul that a !ranch o mathematics is named a ter his !ook" (nitially$ alge!ra consisted o detailed instructions$ or algorithms$ or sol&ing di erent types o e:uations" . nce a pattern is ound$ a statistical analysis can !e used to predict <See section /"2"= the chances o a similar e&ent occurring in the uture" We use in ormal inducti&e reasoning e&ery day in almost e&ery action we take" 3 more ormal approach to inducti&e reasoning pro&ides the !asis or the scienti ic method" The search or patterns The search or a pattern among o!ser&ations is the central component o inducti&e reasoning" Sometimes a pattern is simple and clearC B(t hurts e&ery time ( poke mysel with a ork@" Sometimes patterns are di icult to ind and it re:uires care ul o!ser&ations o&er an e8tended period o time" The ancient 1esopotamians and 1ayans made e8tended o!ser&ations o the E&ening Star and the 1orning Star !e ore ."&"' 9nductive 0easoning Processes (nducti&e reasoning is !ased on disco&ering patterns in repeated e8periences" .are completely logical in nature" When you create a computer program A e&ery word$ e&ery num!er$ e&ery comma$ and e&ery !racket must !e used in accordance with the rules o the computer language you are using" 3 program will not run on a computer until e&ery synta8 error is corrected" E&en when all the synta8 errors are eliminated$ a computer program may still contain errors in logic that produce alse results in une8pected situations" Students new to computer programming o ten ind the cold logic o a machine &ery rustrating" When results do not turn out as e8pected$ one o ten hears the comment$ B0ut + meant to instruct the computer to do this1@ 3 computer pays no attention to emotion or intention A it uses pure logic to do precisely what you tell it to do" Deducti&e proo Deducti&e reasoning lows rom precise de initions or classes o o!)ects$ and to the operations that can !e per ormed on those o!)ects" There are only three !asic strategies that lead to a deducti&e proo * 1" Direct proo A you create a step%!y%step logical path rom your starting in ormation to a inal statement" Then i your assumptions and starting in ormation were correct$ you ha&e pro&en that your inal statement must also !e correct" 2" (ndirect proo A in a limited num!er o cases$ you can list all the possi!le outcomes$ and then show that all !ut one o the outcomes leads to a logical contradiction" The one remaining outcome must then !e true" (t is like sol&ing a murder mystery !y pro&ing all the possi!le suspects$ e8cept 6eorge$ must !e innocent" There ore 6eorge must !e guilty" ." 1athematical induction A in a &ery limited num!er o cases in&ol&ing patterns with natural num!ers$ this deducti&e techni:ue can !e used to pro&e that a numerical pattern must hold true within a gi&en range o natural num!ers" The term Bmathematical induction@ is somewhat misleading" While inding the pattern in the irst place is an inducti&e process$ pro&ing that the pattern holds true is actually a deducti&e process" . " Would it make a di erence i the e8periment was conducted at di erent times o the dayJ /" Would it make a di erence i salt water was usedJ 0" Would it make a di erence i it was raining$ or i the Sun was shiningJ 2" Would it make a di erence i the e8periment was conducted at a di erent ele&ationJ 4" Would it make a di erence i a di erent thermometer was usedJ .they reali9ed that these o!ser&ations were o )ust one o!)ect$ the planet Fenus$ as it mo&ed in its or!it a!out the Sun" (n ormal inducti&e reasoning We all use knowledge gained rom past e8periences to guide our current actions$ so we all use inducti&e reasoning" +or e8ample$ suppose you see a )ug o water on the ta!le and note its shape and distance" Then !ased on past e8periences you decide whether you can e8tend your arm and pick up the )ug without o ending anyone else at the ta!le and without dumping water all o&er the place" 'hysical processes can in&ol&e se&eral actors$ so simple o!ser&ations do not always pro&ide clear insights" >istorically$ many processes seemed either random <day%to%day weather= or mystical <the transmission o disease= in character" +or e8ample$ malachite is a green mineral that crum!les easily$ !ut when heated !y an intense ire it is somehow trans ormed into copper" Without any knowledge o chemistry such a trans ormation would remain a mystery o nature" To accommodate such magical properties and random e&ents$ rituals were o ten de&ised to accompany !est practices in an e ort to appeal to di&ine powers or assistance" When a procedure worked$ apparently the rituals were e ecti&e and the gods were co%operati&e$ when a ritual did not work either the gods were angry or there was some error in the rituals" +or e8ample$ at the esti&al o -eltane$ Celtic peoples cele!rated a num!er o spring rituals to re)u&enate the land and ensure ertility" +armers leaped o&er !on ires and arm animals were dri&en !etween ires as they were trans erred rom winter pens to summer pastures" 1ost years the land and the people were ertileC sometimes they were not" +ormal inducti&e reasoning +ormal inducti&e reasoning is commonly known as the scienti ic method" The scienti ic method in&ol&es making systematic o!ser&ations$ and searching or patterns in a physical process" Typically$ a speci ic :uestion is asked$ a series o e8periments is conducted$ care ul o!ser&ations are made$ the results are analy9ed$ and a concluding statement is made" E8ample* (t seems that water always !oils at the same temperature" (s that actually the caseJ 3pplying the scienti ic method might in&ol&e the ollowing actions and guiding :uestions* 1" -oil a pot o water and measure the temperature o the water" 2" 7epeat the process se&eral times" (s the temperature always the sameJ ." Would it make a di erence i a di erent type o pot was usedJ . &er time$ data are collected rom se&eral similar e&ents" The collected data can then !e used to construct models to account or the o!ser&ations$ and to predict uture !eha&iour" .Each o those :uestions in&ol&es a actor that might in luence the measured !oiling point o water" Which actors to in&estigate is determined !y the need or accuracy" ( you )ust want to !oil an egg$ then accuracy within a degree or two is pro!a!ly su icient" ( you are studying a comple8 chemical reaction$ then accuracy within a hundredth o a degree may !e re:uired" The Bofficial result@ is that distilled water$ at a pressure o one atmosphere$ !oils at 100"0 XC" 3dding impurities to water$ or changing the atmospheric pressure does change the !oiling point" Not all e&ents lend themsel&es to scienti ic in&estigation in the la!oratory" Some e&ents such as continental dri t$ earth:uakes$ &olcanoes$ and galactic superno&ae are &ery slow$ random$ or in re:uent e&ents" There are no means to control any &aria!les that might !e in&ol&ed" >owe&er$ scientists can still study these e&ents !y designing$ testing$ and deploying suita!le instruments or collecting data" Then when an e&ent does occur$ scientists can gather as much data as possi!le" ."&") 0easoning and Authoritarian Edicts 3n edict is a pu!lic statement$ or command$ deli&ered !y some authority" The nature o an edict allows little room or reasoning" #ou either accept an edict$ or you do not" 3nd that is the key to reasoning and authoritarian edicts" Clear thinking can help you analy9e the nature o the authorities that go&ern your li e and the nature o speci ic edicts that those authorities deli&er" 3utomatically ollowing an edict is the simplest course o action" 7e using to ollow an edict may in&ol&e a reasoned decision to not ollow that speci ic edict$ or a reasoned decision to not acknowledge the power o the issuing authority" (n either case$ a decision to diso!ey o ten represents an ethical choice and includes an element o personal risk" 7e usal to o!ey is usually taken as a challenge to the power o the issuing authority$ and authorities are seldom pleased when they are diso!eyed" 3 child who diso!eys a parent might !e scolded" 3 student who diso!eys a teacher might !e sent home" 3 citi9en who diso!eys the law might !e imprisoned" 3 Catholic who diso!eys the 'ope might !e e8communicated" 3 soldier who re uses to ollow an order might !e shot" Not all authorities and their edicts ha&e the same scope and power" +or con&enience$ authorities can !e di&ided into le&els in order to simpli y any analysis o the edicts that they may issue" 3uthorities at Le&el 3 Le&el 3 authorities are respected mem!ers o your amily and your community" This includes parents$ other amily mem!ers$ teachers$ coaches$ leaders o local ser&ice organi9ations$ and community religious leaders" These authorities are known personally and they rely largely on the powers o their personalities to en orce their edicts" When all goes well$ edicts issued !y these authorities are or your personal de&elopment and guidance" . "&". 0easoning with Emotions 3ccording to the dictionary$ emotions are Mfeelings as opposed to reason2 a strong feeling2 a sub"ective reaction involving psychological and physical changesN" There is no reasoning in&ol&ed in the generation o an emotion$ so Breasoning with emotions@ may seem to !e a contradiction o terms" Emotions initiate rapid%response acti&ities that ha&e !een pre%programmed in your !rain" (n a simple hunter%gatherer society$ emotions would ha&e pro&ided stimulii to help your ancestors a&oid dangers and sei9e opportunities that would enhance their chances o sur&i&al" >owe&er$ in the comple8 social settings in which we now ind oursel&es$ an emotional .authorities are mem!ers o go&ernment !odies" Their edicts are laws intended to manage the social acti&ities under their )urisdiction" They can le&y inancial penalties or use the physical orce o the )ustice system to en orce their edicts" 3 simple test to e8amine the &alidity o a law is to ask the :uestion$ BWhat would happen if everyone obeyed that law and what would happen if everyone disobeyed that law.3uthorities at Le&el Le&el .@ +or e8ample$ i no one e&er assaulted another person$ then your community would !e much sa erC howe&er$ i e&eryone regularly attacked one another$ then your community would !e in chaos" So a law prohi!iting assault seems to !e a reasona!le and &alid edict" 3uthorities at Le&el C Le&el C authorities possess e8pert knowledge and skills needed !y society" Scientists$ engineers$ medical doctors$ and religious leaders all all into this category" Scientists$ engineers$ and medical doctors ac:uire their knowledge &ia induction and deduction" 7eligious leaders ac:uire their knowledge &ia re&elations rom select prophets" Through research and analysis$ scientists determine theorems and Blaws of nature@ that can !e used to predict the results o uture e8periments" 3 key eature o scienti ic predictions is that they can !e &eri ied !y direct e8perimentation" 3s new knowledge and skills are ac:uired$ theorems and laws o nature are modi ied and updated" Through study and re&elation$ religious leaders predict which !eha&iours in this world will lead to pri&ileged positions in the ne8t world" >owe&er$ religious predictions a!out the ne8t world can only !e taken on aith" 7eligious leaders seldom e8hi!it le8i!ility regarding their edicts" +or e8ample the +irst Fatican Council in 1420 ormali9ed the doctrine o 'apal (n alli!ility$ to match the doctrine o (n alli!ility o the Church" Essentially these edicts say that 6od will not allow the 7oman Catholic Church to err in its !elie or teaching" Still$ as new knowledge and skills are ac:uired and social conditions change$ religious edicts and recommended !eha&iours can and do change$ although at a slower pace than scienti ic edicts" . ur emotional responses need to !e moderated according to the norms and morals o society" Emotions generated in the hind!rain These emotions are triggered !y the immediate urge or sur&i&al" There is little conscious control o&er these emotions" Pust try holding your !reath or two minutes" The urges to !reathe$ satis y thirst$ satis y hunger$ and ind shelter are emotions that dri&e us to take the actions that are re:uired to stay ali&e" Emotions generated in the mid!rain comple8 Emotions o this type are triggered !y e&ents in a social setting" These emotions are !ased on competitions with other humans or security and limited resources" Lust$ lo&e$ greed$ anger$ hate$ camaraderie$ and the pleasure o winning are typical o emotions generated in the mid!rain" Emotions generated in the ore!rain Emotions o this type are triggered during intellectual participation in society" Satis action at completing a task$ intellectual pleasure at disco&ering a new connection$ riendships !ased on common interests$ the en)oyment o humour$ and the en)oyment o art are typical o emotions generated in the ore!rain" 222 .response may not always !e appropriate" The process o reasoning with your emotions in&ol&es the ollowing steps* 1" 7ecogni9e that a stimulus that has produced the emotions that you eel" 2" 7ecogni9e the su!se:uent actions that your emotions are trying to inspire" ." 'ause to assess the situation" ( someone yells at you$ your emotional response might !e to throw rocks and run" ( your neigh!ours are attacking a wrongdoer$ your emotional response might !e to )oin in" ( you ind a !ag o candy$ your emotional response might !e to eat it all" ( you meet an attracti&e person$ your emotional response might !e to instigate mating !eha&iour" These are the primiti&e responses that you might e8pect to see in a chimpan9ee e8hi!it at a 9oo" ."' An 9ntroduction to Pro$a$ilit 'ro!a!ility is a !ranch o mathematics that pro&ides methods or calculating the chances that speci ic e&ents will occur when random selection is in&ol&ed" 1any tend to shy away rom using the methods o pro!a!ility !ecause it in&ol&es computations" >owe&er$ a !asic knowledge o pro!a!ility and statistics <pro!a!ility@s close relati&e= is essential or ollowing the de&elopments in all !ranches o economics$ science$ and medicine$ and or understanding many natural phenomena and games o chance" Clear thinkers need to grapple with the mechanics o pro!a!ility" 3&oiding pro!a!ility is like a&oiding &itamins" 3s more and more o the . $ or 0"2/" De ined this way$ the pro!a!ility o an e&ent is always a num!er !etween 9ero and one" 3 pro!a!ility o 9ero or an e&ent means that the e&ent will ne&er occur" 3 pro!a!ility o 0". means the e&ent will occur a!out one third o the time" 3 . out o /2$ which reduces to 1 out o .$ ..$ while in&estigating pro!lems related to gam!ling" >is work !egan the de&elopment o this power ul new !ranch o mathematics" 'ro!a!ility pro&ides a !ridge !etween the a!stract approach o deducti&e reasoning and the practical approach o inducti&e reasoning" With pro!a!ility theory you can systematically assess :uantitati&e data rom the real world" The results are not a!solute truths$ !ut the most reasona!le interpretations o the a&aila!le in ormation" ."'"& Basic !efinitions 3n Boutcome@ is the speci ic e&ent that occurs as the result o a process with an aspect o randomness" When tossing a coin$ the possi!le outcomes are a >E3D or a T3(L" When rolling a die$ the possi!le outcomes are 1$ 2$ .$ /$ or 0" ( there is no random aspect in&ol&ed$ then there is no need to use pro!a!ility" The term Brandom@ is used here to imply that all o the possi!le outcomes are e:ually likely" There is no !ias or e8ternal in luence that would compel one outcome to occur more o ten than another" (n a random process there is no way to predict a speci ic outcome or )ust one trial" ( you cannot predict an outcome$ what is the point o pro!a!ilityJ While you cannot predict the outcome or a single trial$ you can predict the pattern o outcomes or a large num!er o trials$ and you can predict the chance o o!taining a particular outcome or a single trial" +or e8ample$ suppose that a !o8 contains three red !alls and se&en green !alls" ( you were !lind olded and selected )ust one !all A what colour would it !eJ #ou cannot guarantee the colour o the selected !all$ !ut the chances are that se&en times out o ten the !all would !e green" The Bprobability@ o an e&ent occurring is )ust the ratio o the num!er o ways that e&ent can occur$ to the total num!er o possi!le outcomes" The pro!a!ility o tossing a coin and getting a >E3D is 1 out o 2$ or 0"/" The pro!a!ility o drawing a >E37T rom a deck o shu led !ridge cards is 1.world@s knowledge is digiti9ed and analy9ed$ the need or a !asic understanding o pro!a!ility !ecomes more pro ound" 3lmost e&ery action you take has a chance o success and a risk o ailure" 'ausing to consider the total num!er o possi!le outcomes$ and making a realistic estimate o the num!er o success ul outcomes can help you to make intuiti&e estimates o pro!a!ility" #ou can then use those estimates to guide any decisions related your possi!le actions" -laise 'ascal$ a +rench mathematician$ de&eloped the irst theory o pro!a!ility in 10/. $ while the odds o selecting a red !all are .93?> would change &ery little a ter each additional trial" The !eauty o the system is that i your analysis o the situation is correct$ and i your e8periments are carried out correctly$ then as you conduct more trials the &alue o .nce you can descri!e all o the possi!le outcomes$ then you can state the theoretical pro!a!ility o an Bevent 3@ as* P=A> W Num!er o ways Bevent 3@ can occur H Total num!er o outcomes" With this de inition you can calculate the theoretical pro!a!ility o drawing a G(N6 rom the top o a deck o shu led cards as P=.pro!a!ility o 1"0 means the e&ent will occur e&ery time" 'ro!a!ilities can !e e8pressed either as ractions or as decimal num!ers" The decimal ormat is usually easier to deal with when se&eral calculations are in&ol&ed$ or a num!er o pro!a!ilities are to !e compared" The Bodds@ o an e&ent occurring is )ust the ratio o the num!er o ways the e&ent can occur$ to the num!er o other possi!le outcomes" (n the e8ample with the three red !alls and the se&en green !alls$ the pro!a!ility o selecting a red !all is . to 2" The odds notation is o ten used when making wagers" The pro!a!ility and odds notations emphasi9e di erent aspects o the same in ormation" The pro!a!ility notation has a greater range o application" . out o 10 or 0".93?> W . H /2$ or 0"0205" The e8perimental method The e8perimental method re:uires a large num!er o trials" Esing the same e8ample$ in order to ind the e8perimental pro!a!ility o drawing a G(N6 you would shu le a deck o cards$ turn o&er the top card and note whether it was a G(N6 or not" Then you would repeat the e8periment a large num!er o times" +inally you would calculate the pro!a!ility as* P=.93?> W Num!er o times a G(N6 was drawn H Total num!er o draws" What constitutes a Blarge number of times@J #ou can calculate the e8perimental pro!a!ility a ter each trial$ and continue making additional trials until the pro!a!ility settles down to a relati&ely constant num!er" +or e8ample$ a ter )ust 10 trials you may ha&e ound no G(N6s$ or se&eral G(N6s$ and the e8perimental &alue would &ary considera!ly rom one trial to the ne8t" -ut a ter a ew hundred trials$ the &alue o P=."'"' Two T pes of Pro$a$ilit The pro!a!ility o an e&ent can !e determined using either a theoretical method or an e8perimental method" The theoretical method The theoretical method re:uires a detailed analysis o all the possi!le outcomes o an e8periment" . 5" (t turns out that there are a!out 1. Expectations The Be-pectation@ related to the outcome o an e8periment is ound !y multiplying the pro!a!ility o an e&ent times its potential reward$ or cost" (nsurance 'ro!a!ilities and e8pectations are undamental concepts in the insurance industry" +or e8ample$ suppose the pro!a!ility o a particular type o house !urning down in any gi&en year is one in a thousand$ and the owner wants insurance against such a loss" >ow much should the insurance costJ +or an insurance company to !reak e&en$ the insurance ee should !e e:ui&alent to the e8pected loss$ or one%thousandth o the &alue o the house" ( the pro!a!ility o a house !urning down is lower$ the ee should !e lower" The system works !ecause an insurance company has many customers$ all paying ees matched to the &alue o their houses and the pro!a!ility o that type o house !urning down" Some years there may !e lots o rain$ ew ires$ and ewer insurance claims" During other years there may !e an a!o&e a&erage num!er o ires" (nsurance companies ha&e to gather accurate data on the &alue o homes and the risk o house ires$ and then use that data to calculate e8pectations" Similar actors apply ."'") Applications of Pro$a$ilit 3 ew o the many applications o pro!a!ility are descri!ed !elow" Science (n the mid%15th century$ Ludwig -olt9mann made use o pro!a!ility theory in his study o the thermodynamics o gases" -olt9mann assumed that a gas was composed o molecules that !ounced around in a container like tiny !illiard !alls" -y calculating the pro!a!ility o collisions o molecules$ he was a!le to predict the pressure o a gas in a container as a unction o temperature" 3ccording to his model$ the pressure in a gas was result o !illions o molecules !ouncing o the walls o a container" The agreement !etween e8perimental and theoretical pro!a!ilities lent great weight to -olt9mann@s theory" 6am!ling 'ascal@s original inspiration had !een a pro!lem in&ol&ing gam!ling" 'ro!a!ility theory is still a cornerstone o the gam!ling industry" (n casinos$ the rules o all games o chance are !iased so that the house wins a!out /1D o the time" Sometimes a customer wins and sometimes a customer loses$ !ut in the long run the house makes a 2D pro it on all !ets" Lotteries are another popular game o chance$ re:uently used in charity und raising" (n one popular lottery$ a player selects si8 num!ers rom the num!ers 1%through%. million ways to do that$ so the pro!a!ility o selecting a single winning ticket is 1 out o 1."'".the e8perimental pro!a!ility approaches the &alue o the theoretical pro!a!ility" The system is sel %checking" . million" +or comparison$ the chance o !eing killed !y lightning in any year is a!out 1 in 0 million" . &er many lottery draws$ you can e8pect to spend I2"00 in order to win I1"..")"& A Closer +ook at the (cientific -ethod The scienti ic method has !een re ined o&er the past our centuries and now represents an e8cellent model or clear thinking" The scienti ic method is a set o acti&ities and strategies" (t is a method o thinking and communicating" (t is a procedure or systematically increasing our knowledge and re&ising our &iew o reality" 1odern scienti ic research includes the elements descri!ed !elow" 3ccumulation o knowledge and skills Science students spend three or our years at uni&ersity as undergraduates and study su!)ects such as anatomy$ astronomy$ !iology$ chemistry$ earth sciences$ mathematics$ physics$ and 9oology" Their studies include scienti ic theory and e8perimental techni:ues" 3 ter graduation those students with the interest and aptitude compete or positions at graduate school" Success ul applicants then !egin a multi%year program leading to a doctoral degree in a speci ic ield" 3 ter another .. million" Then the e8pectation or success is I1". million 8 I20 million=$ while the e8pectation or ailure is I2"00 <to the nearest cent=" . <one%in%1.") The 3ature of (cientific 9nvestigations 3 scienti ic in&estigation in&ol&es a !lend o inducti&e and deducti&e reasoning" (n e8perimental science the emphasis is on the design o procedures and instruments$ ollowed !y systematic o!ser&ations" (n theoretical science the emphasis is on the deducti&e process o inding e:uations that produce the same patterns as the o!ser&ations ound in e8perimental science" ." 'erhaps there is I0"/2 worth o entertainment in participating" 3t any rate$ the lottery pro its usually go to a good cause" (n summary$ e&ery decision in&ol&es choices$ e&ery choice has a pro!a!ility o !eing success ul$ and e&ery choice has conse:uences" With a !asic knowledge o pro!a!ility$ you are more likely to pause and make an e ort to analy9e these actors in an o!)ecti&e manner" 222 .to li e insurance$ and car insurance" Estimating e8pectations The ultimate contri!ution o pro!a!ility to clear thinking occurs when you systematically make estimates o the e8pectations related to decisions that you are a!out to make" +or e8ample$ should you !uy that lottery ticketJ Suppose a lottery ticket costs I2$ the grand pri9e is I20 million$ and the pro!a!ility o winning is one%in%1. ten the success o an e8periment depends on an ingenious new techni:ue or the use o new technology" New telescopes$ new microscopes$ new particle accelerators$ new detectors$ new satellites$ and aster computers all pro&ide new ways or e8amining the properties o nature" .round o competition$ success ul applicants are employed in research settings in go&ernment or industry$ or go on to teach and conduct research at a uni&ersity" Literature re&iews New indings are pu!lished regularly in scienti ic )ournals around the world" Scientists de&elop skills in reading and searching this low o in ormation or new concepts and approaches that apply to their ield o interest" When a scientist !egins research on a new topic$ the irst step is a thorough search and re&iew o all the rele&ant pu!lications to determine what other researchers ha&e already accomplished" +ocus on a speci ic topic .nce a topic has !een selected$ an e8periment is designed that will allow the re:uired data to !e collected" The e8periment may re:uire new e:uipment andHor new procedures" .!ser&ational data is o ten re erred to as raw data A the data actually collected !y reading the scales on instruments" 7aw data needs to !e interpreted" 3 &oltage may represent the intensity o light" The motion o an o!)ect may !e an indication o an applied orce" (nterpreted data is then analy9ed statistically" The data is summari9ed in ta!les and graphs" Correlations and &alues o statistical signi icance are calculated and e8amined" There is a search or patterns in the data <an inducti&e process=$ and more o!ser&ations are made to test the persistence o any patterns that are ound" Theoretical analysis (n a theoretical analysis$ the data rom an e8periment is used to construct a model" These models are usually mathematical relationships that can reproduce the known o!ser&ations and make predictions a!out uture o!ser&ations" Constructing a scienti ic .nce a re&iew o the literature has !een completed$ scientists narrow their attention to a more speci ic topic" 3 particular :uestion is identi ied that needs to !e answered or a particular property is identi ied that needs to !e e8plored urther" E8perimental design .!ser&ations The cornerstone o the scienti ic method is the systematic o!ser&ation o phenomena" Systematic o!ser&ations ocus on one property at a time$ under care ully controlled conditions" 3ll o!ser&ations are recorded" 3nomalies are noted" The goal is to make o!)ecti&e and :uanti ia!le o!ser&ations$ i"e" o!ser&ations that are numerical readouts on instrument scales" (nstruments are care ully cali!rated and ha&e known precisions" Whene&er possi!le$ e8periments$ and o!ser&ations are repeated many times$ on di erent occasions$ and at di erent locations with di erent o!ser&ers" . 0 A 1210= to in&ent calculus in the 12th century$ and that same calculus was a!le to descri!e the motion o moon rockets in the twentieth centuryJ The answer lies in the eed!ack that occurs !etween deducti&e and inducti&e thinking$ and !etween mathematics and science" No humans$ including mathematicians$ are isolated rom the real physical world" E&eryday e8perience !ecomes an integral part o e&en the most a!stract thinker@s mental processes" . A 1222= and 6ott ried Lei!ni9 <10.model in&ol&es searching or the simplest set o de initions and assumptions that are needed to produce the desired results" While de initions and assumptions can !e ar!itrary$ they are most use ul when they accurately descri!e aspects o physical reality$ such as the ormation and shape o molecular !onds !etween atoms" 'u!lication -oth o!ser&ational and theoretical scientists stri&e to pu!lish the results o their research" 'u!lication !rings them recognition rom their peers and urthers the cause o science" 'u!lished results !ecome the grist or the ne8t round o research" 1ost scienti ic progress ollows rom re inements and e8tensions o accepted data and theories" 3s research !ecomes more complicated and more e8pensi&e$ there is a trend or scienti ic in&estigations to !e made !y teams o scientists rather than indi&iduals" 3s more research is carried out at more institutions around the world$ it is not unusual or se&eral teams to !e working on related eatures o the same pro!lem at the same time" Disputed scienti ic results When the scienti ic method is so ela!orate$ why is there sometimes contro&ersy o&er the results o a scienti ic in&estigationJ There may !e too ew o!ser&ations$ disagreement o&er the accuracy o the raw data$ disagreement o&er the interpretation o the data$ or disagreement o&er the assumptions used to construct a model" 1ost disagreements among scientists are o&er details$ not the !road sweep o an in&estigation" Sometimes the contro&ersy o&er a scienti ic in&estigation is political in nature" ( the results o a scienti ic in&estigation are accepted$ then a change in go&ernment policy may !e necessaryC or an e8pensi&e pro)ect will ha&e to !e started$ stopped$ or altered" The arguments a!out the e&idence or human impact on climate change tend to all in this category" ..")"' -athematics and (cience The rules and procedures o mathematics are !ased on logical deduction$ a process that occurs totally in the minds o humans" 3t the same time$ the procedures o science are !ased on systematic o!ser&ations o the e8ternal world" ( that is the case$ how is it possi!le or mathematics to !e so use ul in descri!ing the !eha&iour o the uni&erse as disco&ered !y scienceJ +or instance$ how was it possi!le or (saac Newton <10. "& A (ampling of Philosophers through the Ages The ollowing samples pro&ide )ust a glimpse o the work !y some o the world@s greatest thinkers" While a sentence or two cannot possi!ly con&ey the e8tent and depth o a philosophy$ it is hoped that these glimpses will inspire you to del&e urther into topics o special interest$ and to contemplate the de&elopment o your own personal philosophy" 1" Thales o 1iletus <6reece$ c000 -CE= A sought a naturalistic e8planation or o!ser&a!le phenomena rather than attri!uting e&ents and o!ser&ed properties to the whims o gods" 2" Car&aka <(ndia$ c000 -CE= A de&eloped a rationalist and skeptical philosophy that emphasi9ed the material world o the present" >e re)ected the Fedas <roughly the e:ui&alent o the >indu !i!le=$ denied the e8istence o an a terli e$ the supernatural$ and knowledge gained through e8perience" >e proposed that the only purpose o li e was to a&oid pain and attain sensual pleasure" ." Lau T9u <China$ c000 -CE= A the ounder o Taosim" The indi&idual should seek . Building a Personal Philosoph 'hilosophy is the study o the principles underlying all knowledge" 'hilosophers ask undamental :uestions a!out our e8istence and seek uni&ersal answers" 'hilosophers study ields o knowledge$ contemplate the implications o that knowledge$ and ha&e re ined clear thinking to an art orm" To the ancient 6reeks$ philosophy was the lo&e o practical and theoretical wisdom" The thoughts and writings o the greatest philosophers ha&e mirrored their own societies$ and ha&e helped to shape the su!se:uent thought processes o all humanity" Not e&eryone has the opportunity to !ecome a pro essional philosopher" >istorically$ philosophers were either independently wealthy or had wealthy patrons" Since the 1iddle%3ges$ most philosophers ha&e ound employment within religious or educational institutions" 3 philosopher needs to ha&e a sharp mind$ a keen memory$ and an insatia!le curiosity" .".".Newton created his methods or dealing with in initesimals and anti%di erentiation speci ically to deal with calculations related to the motions o planets" 3n essential part o his genius was his skill in selecting the most appropriate de initions and postulates rom which the rest o calculus could !e deri&ed" When searching or the !est mathematical e:uations to represent scienti ic o!ser&ations$ there are always many possi!ilities" 1aking the !est choice in&ol&es a com!ination o Bcurve fitting@$ and selecting the simplest e:uations that work o&er the widest range" (t also helps i the selected e:uations ha&e interesting eatures with implications or additional research" 222 . = A e8plicitly reconciled the philosophy .2 -CE= A was a student o Socrates" There is a realm o eternal orms that pro&ides the patterns that we e8perience through our senses" This uni&ersal orm o man was later adapted !y Christianity to represent the image o 6od" 4" 3ristotle <6reece$ .4." 'ythagoras <6reece$ /20 A .1 A 220 -CE= A supported the atomic theory o Democritus and added the concept that the o!ser&a!le uni&erse was due to collisions among atoms" The pursuit o happiness was the elimination o pain$ there was no a terli e$ and there were no a&enging gods" >e ormulated the pro!lem o e&il associated with the concept o an all%lo&ing$ all%knowing$ all%power ul god" >ow can e&il e8ist in the presence o such a !eingJ 10"1arcus 3urelius <7ome$ 121 A 140 CE= A e8pressed concern or sla&es$ the poor$ and the imprisoned" Di&ine will had gi&en man the a!ility to reason$ and it was within the grasp o man to !e in concert with the rational purpose o the uni&erse" >e was a stoic and !elie&ed that the only in alli!le good is &irtue as e8pressed in wisdom$ )ustice$ courage$ and moderation" 11"3l%Suhrawardi <(ran$ 11/.to a&oid materialism$ act spontaneously$ achie&e inner peace$ and commune with nature" 'eople should turn away rom the olly o human pursuits and instead discern and ollow the natural low o li e" .22 -CE= A was a student o 'lato and a tutor o 3le8ander the 6reat" The concept o purpose could !e used to e8plain all phenomena$ and the purpose o man is to reason well in accordance with &irtue" >e emphasi9ed the interpretation o nature !ased on o!ser&ation and classi ication" 3ristotle@s reputation was such that many o his conclusions were treated as a!solute truths and much o his interpretation o nature was incorporated into Christian theology" +or e8ample$ placing the Earth at the centre o the uni&erse was espoused !y 3ristotle$ and was ad&ocated !y Christian doctrine until the Copernican re&olution in the 1000@s" 5" Epicurus <6reece$ .20 % .55 -CE= A was concerned with practical :uestions o how we ought to conduct our li&es" >e asked pro!ing :uestions to analy9e what others claimed to know" >e proposed that the greatest danger to society was the suspension o critical thought" 2" 'lato <6reece$ .40 -CE= A de&eloped a theory o music !ased on simple ratios and attempted to e8tend the use o ratios to e8plain the ultimate nature o reality" /" Gung +u%T9u <China$ c//0 -CE= A also known as Con ucius" >e composed The Way o 6oodness that ocused on the attri!utes one should stri&e or in order to stay on the path towards good conduct within a ci&il society" Society works !est under the guidance o a good ruler" (ndi&iduals should e&aluate potential actions to decide i those actions can !e completed without &iolating what is right" 0" Socrates <6reece$ .. A .. A 1151= A de&eloped the (lluminationist philosophy$ an e8tended analogy !etween the low o light and the comple8ities o li e" E8perience was gained through the senses and through mystical thought" To achie&e sel %awareness one must engage in a &ariety o ascetic acti&ities such as orty%day retreats and &egetarianism" 12"St" Thomas 3:uinas <Sicily$ 122/ A 122.22 A . A 1250= % pu!lished The Theory o 1oral Sentiments and The Wealth o Nations" (n a ree market economy$ i e&ery indi&idual works solely or his own !ene it$ then there will !e unintended conse:uences to the !ene it o society at large" 12"1ary Wollstonecra t <England$ 12/5 A 1252= A was the irst prominent eminist" (n her !ook$ Findication o the 7ights o Women$ she states that women@s natural a!ilities are suppressed in a male%dominated society" She called or !etter education or women$ the a!olition o the monarchy$ and reduction in the powers o the Church" She declared that sla&ery and the ill treatment o the poor were immoral" 14"Pohn Stuart 1ill <England$ 1400 A 142.= A pu!lished 3 System o Logic and Etilitarianism" >e claimed that the undamental guide to moral action is the principal o greatest happiness" (ndi&iduals should stri&e to increase pleasure and reduce pain" 1orality is sometimes re:uired to deter speci ic kinds o conduct" What is right is good$ and what is good promotes the greatest happiness or all" 15"3l red North Whitehead <England$ 1401 A 15.2= A co%author with 7ussell o 'rincipia 1athematica" >e re)ected materialism" The study o science cannot !e separated rom its cultural$ social$ and political en&ironment" Nature is simply that which is percei&ed" Science should address the relations !etween .= A had a passion or mathematics$ logic$ and science" >e pu!lished Criti:ue o 'ure 7eason <1241= in which he discussed the principles underlying o!)ecti&e )udgements o reality" (n Criti:ue o 'ractical 7eason <1244= he pro&ided a rational )usti ication or ethical )udgements" (n order or humans to interpret the world$ the human mind has to impose structures on the stream o sensory data reaching the mind" Su!stance and causeHe ect could only !e applied within a spatial and temporal ramework" 10"3dam Smith <Scotland$ 122.o 3ristotle with that o the Catholic Church" >e de&ised i&e proo s or the e8istence o 6od* there must !e something that is the ultimate cause o all changeC there must !e a irst causeC something cannot arise rom nothing so there must ha&e always !een an original somethingC there must !e some original good rom which all other good is deri&edC and all things aims towards some ultimate goal implying that there is a guiding in luence" 1."Da&id >ume <England$ 1211 A 1220= A proposed that knowledge is !ased on relationships among sensory inputs" The e8istence o 6od$ the sel $ and logical necessity are man%made creations to pro&ide models or e8plaining sensory perceptions" (nducti&e reasoning is the process that leads us to make generali9ations rom o!ser&ing a num!er o similar cases$ !ut inducti&e reasoning does not necessarily lead us to the truth" 1."Pean%Pac:ues 7ousseau <+rance$ 1212 A 1224= A was the leading philosopher o the enlightenment$ the age o reason$ and the 7omantic 1o&ement" The general will is the composite will o all citi9ens$ with each citi9en pursuing hisH her own interests" >e was an ad&ocate o direct democracy to ormulate the pu!lic will$ and stated that indi&iduals in a democracy had the responsi!ility to ollow the general will" >e la!elled this concept the social contract" 1/"(mmanuel Gant <6ermany$ 1224 A 140. perceptual e&ents$ rather that a!stract aspects o matter" 20"Pohn Dewey <3merica$ 14/5 A 15/2= A was a pragmatist" Truth corresponds to success ul rules or action" Gnowledge is a state that occurs when humans de&elop ha!its o !eha&iour that ha&e pro&en success ul" >e di&ided the reasoning process into i&e steps* de&ote e ort to resol&e a distur!anceC e8tract signi icant elementsC construct competing hypothesesC rank the hypothesesC and use e8periments to weed out unaccepta!le hypotheses" 21"Ludwig Wittgenstein <Fienna$ 1445 A 15/1= A wrote Tractatus Logico% 'hilosophicus" >e e8amined the connections among language$ thought$ and reality" The meaning o linguistic statements must !e determined !y the nature o the world" Words are tools that we employ to descri!e reality" 3 conte8t is also re:uired to con&ey the meaning o words" 22"Pohn%'aul Sartre <+rance$ 150/ A 1540= A wrote -eing and Nothingness" >e was an e8istentialist A e8istence precedes essence" 1an e8ists irst and then struggles to de ine the meaning o li e" There is no 6od to pro&ide purposeC indi&iduals ha&e to choose the li e they think !est" ."."' Your Personal Philosoph We are all philosophers to some degree" We all speculate a!out the nature o li e$ the orces that go&ern our world$ and the mysteries o the uni&erse" +or a !alanced li e with minimal internal con licts$ it is important to de&elop a personal philosophy that is consistent with your e&eryday acti&ities and with your interpretation o the meaning o li e" 3naly9ing$ organi9ing$ and integrating your own thoughts into a philosophy o li e is a &ery producti&e processes" 3 personal philosophy pro&ides you with a ramework or thinking a!out the human condition$ )ust as a topographical map pro&ides a cross% country hiker with in ormation a!out the location o hills$ waterways$ roadways$ !ridges$ orests$ and swamps" There is no standard tool!o8 or !uilding a philosophy$ !ut the ollowing eatures pro&ide a !asic oundation" Gnowledge 3 philosophy o li e re:uires knowledge" 3 !road knowledge o the cosmos$ the world$ the properties o li e$ and the human condition are re:uired" Without knowledge there is no !asis or understanding" Gnowledge o other e8isting philosophies is a key component in !uilding your own philosophy" There is no need to Bre#invent the wheel@ and you pro!a!ly do not want to repeat the mistakes o others" Skills 3 &ariety o thinking skills$ as outlined in this chapter$ is also re:uired in the de&elopment o a personal philosophy" Without thinking skills$ your knowledge is o little &alue" 3n Enderstanding o cause and e ect . 3 !asic understanding o the relationships among e&ents allows you to e8amine the implications o your o!ser&ations" Does the appearance o a comet in the sky oretell ominous e&ents in the a airs o men$ or does it re lect on the structure o the solar systemJ Was there a drought last year !ecause the rain god was displeased$ or !ecause the ocean currents had shi tedJ Did 3unt 1artha die !ecause someone had put a curse on her$ or !ecause her parachute ailed to openJ Falues #our personal &alues underlie all your decisions" What is important in li eJ Which human !eha&iours are to !e emulatedJ Which are merely accepta!le$ and which are to !e shunnedJ Eltimate 6oals What are the ultimate goals or your li e$ your community$ and all humanityJ Eltimate goals pro&ide distant targets or you to work towards" These goals may ne&er !e reached$ !ut they determine the direction o your e orts" 'ractical properties ( your philosophy is going to ser&e as a guide to daily li&ing then it should also include some &ery practical eatures" 'ragmatism While your li e@s am!ition is to achie&e your ultimate goals$ you also need more speci ic goals that are attaina!le today under your current circumstances" #ou ha&e to sur&i&e today !e ore you can meet the challenges o tomorrow" Consistency 3 philosophy should !e consistent in the sense that all the parts work together" When you !uild an engine you don@t want any parts missing$ le t o&er$ or put in !ackwards" -uilding a consistent and integrated philosophy is a challenging process !ecause your thought patterns tend to !e stored separately in your !rain !y categories !ased on your physical capa!ilities and your past e8periences" (t is not a simple matter to !ring all your memories$ !elie s$ and e8pectations under a single mental um!rella" >owe&er$ it is worth the e ort$ or with a consistent &iew o what li e is all a!out$ you can ace a &ariety o intellectual and social challenges with no internal con licts" With no internal con licts$ your mind is ree to concentrate its ull power on the tasks at hand" +le8i!ility While a personal philosophy should !e !ased on undamental principles$ it should also !e le8i!le enough to accommodate new knowledge and new skills" 3ssuming that your philosophy is complete and without any laws$ is e:ui&alent to assuming that you know e&erything and that you are always right" 'ositi&ism 1aintaining a positi&e attitude encourages you to work towards your goals" 'ositi&e . ".") The @uest for Truth >ow is inding the ultimate truth related to the our !asic modes o reasoning that were re&iewed at the !eginning o this chapterJ (n the deducti&e process$ your conclusions ollow directly rom your initial de initions and assumptions" #ou may o!tain a !etter understanding o the implications o those de initions and assumptions" >owe&er$ since your de initions and assumptions are ar!itrary$ the associated deducti&e reasoning cannot lead to any ultimate truth" (nducti&e reasoning is !ased on o!ser&ations and pro!a!ility theory" (t is a pragmatic process or predicting uture e&ents$ not or disco&ering ultimate truths" 3uthoritarian edicts rom this world are o the orm$ BThe boss says that*s the way it is@" 3nd since Bthe boss@ has coerci&e power$ that is indeed the way it is A or now" 3uthoritarian edicts rom on high are o the orm$ B4od told (red and (red told me@" Those sources o in ormation are not always relia!le" Emotional reasoning has the orm Bthat*s "ust the way + feel about it@" The :uest or the ultimate truth continues" %%% .attitudes are !ased on optimism and respect* respect or yoursel $ or society$ and or the en&ironment" 3 personal philosophy should also include a sense o humour so you can laugh at your own oi!les and occasionally the whims o the uni&erse" 3 personal philosophy does not ha&e to emerge ully grownC it can !e constructed !it !y !it and at le&els that are successi&ely more a!stract" . n occasion$ the con&ersion o data can e&en result in in ormation that is in con lict with .Chapter /* Food for Thought /"& /"' /") /". Evaluation of 9nformation Basic (tatistics -odelsA TheoriesA and +aws The Theor of Evolution ( in ormation is ood or thought$ then in ormation that has !een organi9ed$ analy9ed$ and e&aluated pro&ides ine cuisine" Statistical analysis is an e ecti&e approach or organi9ing and e&aluating in ormation" 1odels$ theories and laws pro&ide use ul rameworks or organi9ing and clari ying re:uently used in ormation" /"& Evaluation of 9nformation There is a saying in the computer !usiness* B4arbage in leads to garbage out@ <6(6. ten this process works so well that you are not aware that in ormation may ha&e !een su!tly modi ied to meet your e8pectations" .=" No matter how good your computer hardware and so tware$ i the starting data is meaningless$ then any resultant output is also going to !e useless" (n a similar manner$ no matter how !rilliantly you analy9e a situation$ i you start with aulty in ormation then any conclusions will also !e aulty" +or clear thinking$ it is essential to make e&ery e ort to ensure the :uality o the in ormation that you are dealing with" /"&"& T pes of 9nformation +irst you ha&e to decide what type o in ormation you are dealing with" Data &ersus in ormation Data is collected rom !asic o!ser&ationsC typically personal accounts or readings rom instruments such as a thermometer$ a ruler$ or a weigh scale" 7aw data does not !ecome in ormation until it has !een iltered$ processed$ and interpreted" +iltering data in&ol&es remo&ing o!&ious errors <someone recorded the data in re&erse order$ or used the +ahrenheit rather than the Celsius scale=" 'rocessing data in&ol&es sorting data into categories$ making tallies in those categories$ and making preliminary calculations" (n preparing your ta8es you ha&e to sort all your slips or income and all your receipts or e8penditures into categories and add them up" (nterpreting data in&ol&es comparing o!ser&ed data &alues with e8pected &alues !ased on past e8perience" Then you can make statements such as Bserious crime is down@$ Bpoverty is up@$ or Bthe volcano is about to erupt@" -y the time raw data has !een con&erted into in ormation$ it has usually !een massaged into a amiliar ormat" . reality" #ou need to !e aware o this possi!ility and should always !e prepared to dou!le check data$ procedures$ and assumptions" Sources o in ormation (n ormation can come rom a &ariety o sources$ and each source can ha&e its own strengths and weaknesses" +irst hand &ersus indirect (n ormation can !e deri&ed rom irst%hand sources* people who were actually present when an e&ent occurred$ or rom others who ha&e already gathered accounts o e&ents rom a &ariety o sources" (n history te8ts$ most accounts are !ased on second or third hand descriptions$ and pre&iously pu!lished summaries" Trained o!ser&er &ersus casual o!ser&er E&en a irst%hand account is not necessarily a good source o in ormation" ( you ha&e e&er watched tele&ision inter&iews with witnesses to an e&ent$ you know that their responses tend to emphasi9e their own emotions and o!ser&ations rom a narrow point o &iew" (n contrast$ trained o!ser&ers look or signi icant actors in the e&ents taking place around them" Suppose a meteor has )ust crashed into a parking lot" 3 casual o!ser&er might say$ B+ was "ust coming out of the laundromat when there was this bright flash of light over that way and then there was a loud crash and dirt was flying everywhere. The ground was so hot the asphalt was melted for another three metres around the crater.@ 1easured &ersus estimated (n ormation !ased on measurements is generally more accurate than personal estimates" 3n instrument simply pro&ides num!ers on a standard scale$ without any emotional content" 7ecords o instrument readings tend to remain constant o&er time$ whereas mental estimates tend to &ary in the direction o the more dramatic o&er time" The in ormation in the meteor impact e8ample would ha&e !een e&en more relia!le i an o!ser&er had used instruments to measure the path o the meteor$ the si9e o the crater$ and the temperature o the surroundings" Eni:ue &ersus repeata!le (n ormation can !e !ased on uni:ue one%time e&ents such as an artistic per ormance$ or the de&astation o an earth:uake" ( you were not there at that time$ you missed the e&ent and ha&e to rely on the accounts o others" 1ost o our in ormation a!out the world around us is deri&ed rom continuous or . The dog ne-t door started to howl"@ 3 trained o!ser&er might !e a!le to add$ BThere was a flash of light in the north#east brighter than the 'un accompanied by a roar like a freight train followed by an impact in the parking lot that left a hole about two metres deep and twice as wide. !ser&ations that can !e repeated and measured with instruments are generally more relia!le" Eltimately the interpretation o data in&ol&es assumptions$ analysis$ e8perience$ and )udgement" (t is still possi!le or di erent people to reach di&erse conclusions !ased on the same original data" /"&"' @uantit and @ualit of 9nformation The :uantity and :uality o data a&aila!le ha&e a direct impact on your a!ility to sol&e any related pro!lems" +ans o the old tele&ision series$ 'tar Trek$ will recall that the computer on the star%ship Enterprise o ten responded to :ueries with the phrase Binsufficient data@ when asked to interpret a perple8ing e&ent" ( you were a tra&el agent$ your a!ility to ser&e your customers would depend on the range$ depth$ and accuracy o your knowledge o holiday possi!ilities" 7ecommending a !each resort that turned out to !e a motel on a rocky shore !etween two parking lots would not generate many repeat customers" Sources The source o new in ormation should !e one o your irst concerns" Where did the in ormation come romJ Can that in ormation !e &eri ied !y other sourcesJ Where did those sources get their in ormationJ 3re the sources distinct$ or do they all ultimately deri&e rom one sourceJ ( so$ can that one source !e trustedJ 3s a particular item !ecomes more pi&otal in your thinking$ it !ecomes more important or you to con irm that its sources are relia!le and independent" The most relia!le in ormation that you can work with is in ormation that you can personally &eri y" #ou can talk to the people in&ol&ed$ you can repeat the e8periments$ you can e8amine the instruments$ and you can test the techni:ues used to analy9e the data" 3ccuracy and errors When the term Baccurate@ is used to descri!e in ormation$ the implication is that the in ormation is essentially correct" .!ser&ations o physical e&ents always include a &ariety o possi!le errors" Errors can !e random" +or e8ample$ i part o an instrument is loose or !roken$ e&ery measurement can lead to a slightly di erent result" Errors can !e systematic" +or e8ample$ the end o a ruler may!e worn and then e&ery measurement indicates a length that is slightly too short" Errors can !e due to carelessness" +or e8ample$ a worker may !e tired and simply orget to complete one se&eral steps in a procedure" 3 gol er estimates the distance to a green$ wind speed$ and wind direction !e ore selecting a clu!$ lining up the shot$ and swinging the clu! with the re:uired &elocity" Each o those estimates and actions ha&e associated errors" The resulting distance .re:uent e&ents$ such as the height o tides or the magnitude o the electric charge on an electron" . ther in ormation may re:uire se&eral o!ser&ations$ assumptions$ calculations$ andHor indirect measurements" (n ormation deri&ed rom comple8 processes can also !e su!tle and re:uire se&eral le&els o interpretation" +or e8ample$ !e ore a chemist can descri!e the a&erage &elocity o the atoms in a gas he irst has to identi y the types o atoms in the gas$ measure the temperature and pressure o the gas$ and then calculate the a&erage &elocity predicted !y the Bspeed distribution law for gases@" -ias 3ll in ormation has a !ias o some kind" 3ll humans generate their own !iased &iew o the world and$ intentionally or not$ add some o that !ias to in ormation that passes through their hands" #our neigh!our to the south adds a personal slant when talking a!out your neigh!our to the north" 3 !roadcaster adds !ias to the news when selecting which items to include in the e&ening news" 'oliticians add !ias to in ormation in order to impro&e their chances o re%election" Theologians !ias in ormation to support their &iews o redemption" Scientists pro ess to !e o!)ecti&e$ !ut on occasion still add su!tle !ias to in ormation so that it supports their own hard won &iews o the uni&erse" E&en the reading on your outdoor thermometer on the !ack porch is !iased" (s the thermometer in the shade or in sunlightJ (s it near the ground or up near the ra tersJ >ow :uickly does it ad)ust to changes in temperatureJ >ow accurately does the reading on the thermometer represent the temperature o the air on the other side o the porch$ or across the lawnJ #our challenge is to attain a reasona!le assessment o the !ias or any particular source o in ormation$ and to estimate how that !ias may a ect your sense o )udgement" #ou should a&oid making ar%reaching decisions without irst taking the !ias in your in ormation into account" .!etween the !all and the pin pro&ides a concrete measurement o the accuracy or the whole procedure" Consistency 3 procedure is consistent when the same results are o!tained o&er se&eral trials" 3t a dri&ing range$ a gol er@s dri&es are consistent i they all land relati&ely close to each other" +or e8ample$ i nine out o ten dri&es landed to the le t and in ront o a target$ one could say the gol er@s shots were &ery consistent$ not necessarily accurate$ !ut consistent" Consistency is generally good$ !ecause then you can make systematic corrections to impro&e accuracy" The gol er can ad)ust her direction o swing towards the right and increase the clu! &elocity slightly" The results should then !e !oth consistent and accurate" Le&el o comple8ity Some in ormation can !e o!tained !y a simple o!ser&ation" #ou can stick your hand out the window to determine i it is raining right now" . 00 million years ago the continents o Earth had all once !een part o a super%continent that he called 'angaea" >is e&idence included the shapes o today@s continents that it together like a giant )ig%saw pu99le$ and matching rock ormations$ ossils and plants at corresponding points on the !oundaries o the present continents" Wegener@s e&idence was interesting !ut it was not con&incing" >is contemporaries ridiculed his theory !ecause he was una!le to e8plain how the continents could mo&e o&er the sur ace o the Earth" Then in the 15/0@s$ e8plorations in the deep 3tlantic .cean pro&ided e&idence that the ocean loor was spreading outwards rom a mid%3tlantic ridge A causing North and South 3merica to separate rom Europe and 3 rica" -y the 1500@s this new e&idence led to the general acceptance o Wegener@s theory o continental dri t" 222 /"' Basic (tatistics When data is systematically sorted$ arranged$ and analy9ed its general character !ecomes more apparent and any patterns within it !ecome more o!&ious" Statistics is the !ranch o mathematics concerned with the collection and analysis o numerical in ormation" Statistical analysis proceeds through three stages* 1" Sorting and organi9ing data 2" 'reparing summaries o trends in the data ./"&") A (keptical Approach (t is o ten use ul to retain a skeptical approach to in ormation" 3ny new in ormation may in act !e correct$ it may !e close to correct$ or it may !e totally incorrect" >ow can you distinguish !etween a new concept that has great potential$ and a raudulent or oolish conceptJ 3 skeptical e&aluation is !ased on e8amining the authority o the source$ the :uantity$ :uality$ accuracy$ and consistency o the in ormationC and whether the proposed interpretation alls within the !ounds o accepted theories" When new in ormation is contro&ersial then higher standards o skepticism should !e met !e ore it is accepted" (t is not always an easy task to separate un!elie&a!le claims rom !i9arre$ !ut possi!ly correct assertions" The Skeptics Society <www"skeptic"com= has taken that task as its primary unction and pro&ides a &alua!le resource or anyone wondering a!out a scheme or theory that sounds too ama9ing to !e true" 1ost no&el theories are ultimately pro&en to !e un ounded" >owe&er$ e&ery now and then a new theory is initially re)ected or lack o con&incing e&idence$ !ut is ultimately pro&ed correct" +or e8ample$ in 151/ 3l red Wegener$ a Swedish geologist$ pu!lished The 5rigin of 6ontinents and 5ceans in which he proposed the theory o continental dri t" Wegener had collected e&idence showing that a!out ." Searching or correlations and making predictions" . Each successi&e stage !ecomes a little more complicated !ut pro&ides additional in ormation" Statistical in ormation is used e8tensi&ely in the realms o inance$ go&ernment$ industry$ science$ meteorology$ and sports" Statistical in ormation is o ten used to clari y and support e8planations and arguments in e&eryday e&ents" Clear thinkers need to ha&e a !asic understanding o statistical concepts so that they are !etter a!le to e&aluate the signi icance o such e8planations and arguments" /"'"& (orting and 7rgani<ing Sorting and organi9ing are the most !asic statistical operations" +olding laundry and putting away the dinner dishes are simple e8amples o sorting and organi9ing" ." (n 1405 Dimitri 1endelee&$ a 7ussian chemist$ pu!lished his scheme or organi9ing the known elements according to their atomic weight and their chemical properties" >e demonstrated that when the elements were arranged !y atomic mass$ their !asic chemical properties tended to repeat with a regular pattern" >e accurately predicted that new elements would !e disco&ered with speci ic weights and properties$ to ill gaps in his scheme" The arrangement o elements in the ta!le pro&ided &ital clues to understanding the electron shell structure o atoms" E&ery chemistry student still studies the periodic ta!le as a !asic guide to the properties o the elements" ." (n 12.ther simple procedures such as alpha!eti9ing$ and arranging rom smallest to largest$ rom earliest to latest$ or rom most e8pensi&e to least e8pensi&e can also achie&e use ul results" When there is a lot o data to organi9e and sort$ the actual procedures may !e dull$ !ut the results can !e signi icant" >ere are a ew e8amples* 1" Collectors o all types organi9e their collections" 'hilatelists <stamp collectors= organi9e their stamps !y country$ !y year$ !y su!)ect matter$ !y :uality$ andHor !y &alue so they can show o their collections$ locate speci ic stamps already in their collections$ and know which stamps are still needed to complete portions o their collections" 2" During e&ery !usiness day at any ma)or stock e8change$ millions o shares in thousands o corporations are traded" Summari9ing and organi9ing all that in ormation is completed daily and the results are pu!lished in the !usiness sections o newspapers" 'otential in&estors can then check the newspaper listings or any stocks o interest and ind the highest and lowest prices or the year$ the highest and lowest prices or the pre&ious !usiness day$ and the total num!er o shares traded in any listed stock on the pre&ious day" ./ Carl Linnaeus$ a Swedish !iologist$ irst pu!lished his 'ystema 7aturae" Through se&eral editions$ he de&eloped a system or classi ying and naming all li&ing things that is still used today" >is naming con&entions were eagerly adopted and !iologists around the world were a!le to use the same name to descri!e the same li&ing organisms" Esing Linnaeus@ system$ the similarities and di erences o o&er 2"/ million species !ecame more apparent$ laying the oundation or Darwin@s theory o e&olution" . (n many areas specialists ha&e already organi9ed and pu!lished standard knowledge" +or clear thinkers$ there are great !ene its to !e gained in mastering these systems" There are still other situations in which creating your own system or sorting and organi9ing data can pro&ide signi icant !ene its" /"'"' !escriptive (tatistics Descripti&e statistics in&ol&es preparing graphs$ calculating representati&e num!ers$ and calculating measures o consistency" The methods o descripti&e statistics are designed to summari9e collections o num!ers so that any key patterns$ or trends$ !ecome more o!&ious" E&en i you ne&er create your own descripti&e statistics$ !eing a!le to understand a&erages and charts$ and their limitations$ is an essential skill in the modern world" Charts Charts and graphs are constructed to summari9e and illustrate the essence o collected data" -ar graphs are use ul or illustrating changes in data rom one period to the ne8t" 'ie charts are use ul or emphasi9ing how a total :uantity is di&ided up % such as an annual !udget$ &oter pre erences$ or the contents o the uni&erse" Line graphs are used to illustrate trends that occur as &aria!les are changed" Line graphs are typically used to show the price &ariations o a company@s stock o&er time" The type o graph and the range o the graph@s scales are normally chosen to !est illustrate the key eatures o the data" 3 note o caution A )ust as a digital photograph can !e compressed or stretched to make the same person look skinny or at$ the scales on a graph can !e selected to make trends in the same data look large or small" 3 re:uency distri!ution graph is particularly use ul in descripti&e statistics" The &arious possi!le &alues o a parameter are di&ided into categories and are shown on the hori9ontal a8is" The re:uency with which items are ound in each category is shown on the &ertical a8is" +or e8ample$ the manager o a ast ood restaurant might make a re:uency distri!ution graph or the a&erage num!er o donuts sold on each weekday" >e could then use that in ormation to decide how many donuts to !ake or +riday@s customers" ( he !akes too many there will !e le to&ers$ i he does not !ake enough he may lose customers" When there are many categories$ a re:uency distri!ution graph typically takes the orm o a hill" The highest point on the hill represents the most re:uent &alue" 3 tall narrow hill indicates a strong central tendency in the data" 3 low !road hill indicates that the data is more e&enly distri!uted" 3 normal distri!ution is a symmetrical re:uency distri!ution graph and has many applications in statistics" 7epresentati&e num!ers Sometimes you want to reduce a whole set o data to a single num!er A the a&erage annual income$ the a&erage temperature in Puly$ or the percent o the population that is o&er age si8ty% i&e" . 5 per hour and Natasha earns I/1 per hour" Their a&erage wage is also I/0 per hour$ !ut the range is )ust I2" 3 simple techni:ue or indicating the spread o the original &alues in&ol&es listing the di erences !etween the original &alues and the a&erage$ and then a&eraging those .2" When a set o data is arranged in order$ it is easy to see i some &alues are repeated" ( there is a most re:uent &alue$ it is called the Bmode@" The mode corresponds to the most pro!a!le result i one data item is selected at random rom a whole set o &alues" 3&erage &alues are used in a &ariety o applications" (nsurance companies use data on the a&erage ages o death to construct mortality ta!les and set appropriate insurance rates" Clothing designers use data on a&erage !ody dimensions to determine the range o clothing si9es to manu acture" Chemists use a&erage &alues to descri!e the properties o chemical compounds" Statistical consistency The spread o &alues in a set o data is an important property o that data" ( the &alues are airly close together$ then the data can !e thought o as consistent" ( the &alues are scattered o&er a wide range$ then the data can !e thought o as inconsistent" Consider the ollowing two cases* 1" +red earns I10 per hour and 1artha earns I50 per hour" Their a&erage wage is I/0 per hour$ with a wide range o I40" 2" -o! earns I.+inding the a&erage &alue$ or mean$ is the simplest and most re:uently used computation in descripti&e statistics" #ou )ust add up all the indi&idual &alues and then di&ide !y the num!er o &alues" ( three di erent workers earn I10$ I12 and I12 per hour$ then their a&erage wage is I1..$ .$ ..2$ 22$ 41 is .H/0 on three math tests" What is your a&erage math scoreJ ( you assume the tests ha&e e:ual &alue$ then you could con&ert each score to a percent* 2/D$ . per hour" Sometimes not e&ery &alue has the same importance and a Bweighted mean@ is more appropriate" Suppose you scored 1/H20$ ./D$ and 00D$ and then a&erage those scores to o!tain 02D" ( you assume that the tests should !e weighted according to the num!er o marks a&aila!le$ i"e" a Bbig test@ should !e worth more than a Bqui8@$ then you could add up all the marks earned and di&ide !y the total marks a&aila!le to o!tain a weighted a&erage o //D" There are two other approaches that can !e used to represent a whole set o data with a single num!er" When all your data is arranged in order$ rom the smallest to the largest$ the num!er in the middle o the list is the Bmedian@" There are as many num!ers smaller than the median as there are larger num!ers" The median o the num!ers* 2./H100$ and . di erences to ind the Bmean deviation@" The a&erage wage in the irst case is then I/0 Y I. chance of rain by the end of the week"@ 7andom samples (n many situations it is di icult$ or impossi!le$ to gather in ormation rom e&ery mem!er o a population" (n a pre%election poll it would !e &ery e8pensi&e and time consuming to ask e&ery &oter in the country or his or her political pre erences$ and then repeat the sur&ey e&ery week during an election campaign" ( you were testing the crash worthiness o automo!iles$ it would !e pointless to crash%test e&ery car to make sure it was sa e" The concept o a sample is undamental to in erential statistics" 3 sample is a collection o items that is selected at random to represent a whole population" (n a pre%election poll$ perhaps 1000 &oters rom across the country are asked or their political pre erences" 'erhaps ewer than ten cars o a production model are crash tested each year to demonstrate the sa ety eatures o that model" The notion o random selection is a key eature o a sample" 3 Brandom sample@ implies that there is no !ias in the selection o the sample itemsC e&ery mem!er o the population has an e:ual chance o !eing selected" ( you asked people applying or hunting licenses or their &iews on gun control$ their replies would pro!a!ly not !e representati&e o the whole population" Limits on predictions When in erential statistics are used to make a prediction or an estimate$ the results are likely to !e more accurate when they are !ased on a larger random sample and when the data collected is more consistent" Calculating the limits on the accuracy o a prediction or estimate can !e a !it complicated" +or e8ample$ a poll o the Canadian electorate in 1arch 2002 ound that the Conser&ati&e 'arty had the support o .0=$ and in the second case is I/0 Y I1" /"'") 9nferential (tatistics The methods o in erential statistics are used to make predictions and estimates* 1" 'redictions a!out uture trends$ assuming that current trends continue 2" Estimates o the characteristics o a whole population$ !ased on data collected rom a representati&e sample" 'ro!a!ility theory is used along with in erential statistics to set limits on the accuracy o any predictions or estimates" The irst part o a weather report is typically de&oted to descri!ing the weather e&ents that ha&e already occurred today A sunshine$ rain$ winds$ or storms <descripti&e statistics=" The second part o a weather report is typically de&oted to predicting the weather or tomorrow$ and perhaps the rest o the week <in erential statistics=" +or e8ample$ Bthere is a 9:.4D o the &oters" This num!er was ollowed !y the phrase Mwithin < percent nineteen times out of twentyN" 'erhaps only 1000 out o twenty million potential &oters were sampled" Data rom the 1000 .0 <I/0 plus%or%minus I. responses would then ha&e !een used to construct a model o the whole population" +inally$ with the aid o pro!a!ility theory$ it was estimated that i the same poll were repeated twenty times$ only once would the result indicate that support or the Conser&ati&e 'arty was outside the range ,4D Y ,D$ or rom ,/D to .1D" 3 !asic understanding o statistical methods has at least two distinct ad&antages" +irst$ it is &ery use ul to !e a!le to grasp and e&aluate what others are descri!ing with statistics" Second$ when used properly$ statistical methods pro&ide clear in ormation$ with known ranges o errors$ a!out the world we li&e in" Statistical results should !e cherished when they are !ased on o!)ecti&e data gathering and analysis" /"'". 9nterpreting the 5alidit of (tatistical Arguments MThere are three kinds of lies= lies damned lies and statisticsN <a remark o ten attri!uted to 1ark Twain= Numerical data and statistics are generally regarded as relia!le in ormation" En ortunately$ &ested interests o ten make deli!erate e orts to distort statistical in ormation in order to support their own causes" >ere are a ew e8amples" Emphasi9e and omit The simplest techni:ue or distorting statistical results is to emphasi9e particular aspects o a wider statistical study$ while omitting other aspects" +or e8ample$ on 12 +e!ruary 2000$ 'resident -ush <ES3= announced$ M3bout twenty#five million seniors have signed up for this new plan since >anuary ?stN$ re erring to a new 1edicare prescription drug plan" The intent was to emphasi9e that large num!ers o seniors had signed up or the plan at that time" >owe&er$ the -oston 6lo!e reported that the Mactual number of volunteer enrollees is much smaller about five millionN <http*HHthinkprogress"org =" The other twenty million seniors had !een automatically enrolled$ or already had drug co&erage rom their ormer company@s health plan" The igure o twenty% i&e million was not incorrect$ !ut was misleading in the way it was used" Select a !iased sample 3nother techni:ue is to deli!erately select !iased samples" +or e8ample$ in 200. the 1otion 'icture 3ssociation o 3merica <1'33= conducted a sur&ey o (nternet users and pu!lished the result that M@9; of +nternet users download pirated moviesN" 3 criticism o this 1'33 inding was later pu!lished at a num!er o we!sites" The 1'33 implied that their inding applied to all (nternet users while their sur&ey sample included only users with !road!and access <less than /0D o all users at that time=" The 1'33 also characteri9ed all downloads o &ideo material as pirated$ whether it was or not" The sample was deli!erately !iased so that the result would lead to a percei&ed higher percentage o pirated downloads" Create your own data (n some cases outright raud is used to produce aulty statistical results" +or e8ample$ on 11 Panuary 2000$ the scienti ic )ournal Nature reported a story rom South Gorea" The renowned scientist Woo%Suk >wang had !een charged with a!ricating data to support his work in&ol&ing the cloning o em!ryos and stem cells" 3pparently$ in two ma)or studies >wang@s data had !een deli!erately raudulent" There is some com ort to !e deri&ed rom the act that all o the a!o&e e8amples were detected !ecause o the inherent nature o statistical in ormation" ( anyone carries out a statistical in&estigation or :uotes statistical results o any signi icance$ that in ormation can !e checked and &eri ied" The !ottom line is that statistics pro&ides the !est%known set o tools or garnering e&idence a!out the state o the human condition and the state o the uni&erse" >owe&er$ we still need to use caution when we are presented with statistical results" There are some who would misuse statistics to distort in ormation" Those same people attempt to hide their distortions !ehind the prestige generally associated with statistical methods" 222 /") -odelsA TheoriesA and +aws 1odels$ theories$ and laws are designed to make things clear and simple" They are used in all !ranches o science and technology to e8plain and summari9e patterns that ha&e !een o!ser&ed in nature" 3s simpli ying concepts models$ theories$ and laws are undamental aids to clear thinking" /")"& -odels 3 model is )ust an e8tended analogy !etween a real world system and a simpler system" The simpler system has !een chosen$ or designed$ so that it still has many o the essential aspects o the real world &ersion" There are three general types o models* 1" The real world is reduced to a simpler model" +or e8ample$ toy trains and airplanes are smaller and simpler &ersions o real world trains and airplanes" 2" 3 model is irst created and then used to !uild something in the real world" 3rchitects o ten create a model o a new !uilding$ then draw plans that can !e used to construct the actual !uilding" >istorically$ designers o sailing ships car&ed a small model o a hull with a pleasing and e ecti&e shape" Then they drew lines on the model to simulate the location o ri!s$ took measurements along those lines$ multiplied !y a suita!le scale actor$ and created patterns or the actual ri!s that would orm the ramework o a working ship" ," 3 model is designed using all the rele&ant in ormation$ and then studied to gain additional insights a!out the real world" 3n astrophysicist starts with o!ser&ations o a &aria!le star$ and then com!ines that in ormation with knowledge o gra&itational ields$ nuclear reactions$ magnetic ields$ and energy trans er to !uild a mathematical model o the star@s interior structure" ( the mathematical !eha&iour o the model can !e ad)usted to match the o!ser&ed !eha&iour o the star$ then the astrophysicist gains a greater understanding o why and how the !rightness o a star &aries o&er time" 1odels o the third can !e physical* M$et this basketball be the !arth and this baseball be the AoonN" ;r models o the third thype can !e a!stract* M$et B be profit ' be the selling price and 6 be the cost then B C ' & 6N" These models can also !e :uite complicated" 3n ur!an designer can prepare a model o an entire city" 3 physicist can de&elop a set o comple8 e:uations to descri!e the electron structure o an atom" Constructing a model is a power ul techni:ue or understanding and e8plaining sets o relationships$ !ut a model is not an a!solute description o reality" (t is an organi9ing principle that includes all the a&aila!le in ormation" The success o a model depends on your knowledge o the real world and your skills at model !uilding" The scale%o %application or a model is another important actor that is not always appreciated" +or e8ample$ &iewed rom across the room you can see the !eauti ul patterns in a 'ersian carpet$ !ut rom right in ront o your nose you may only detect a random collection o coloured knots o wool" 3 model o a crystal cannot !e scaled down to e8plain the structure o :uarks in the nucleus o an atom$ nor scaled up to e8plain the structure o the solar system" Success ul models o ten go through systematic re&isions as technology allows more accurate$ more e8tensi&e$ and su!tler o!ser&ations to !e made" +or e8ample$ the model o the Earth as a lat sur ace is a good appro8imation or most daily e&ents" We plant gardens$ !uild !uildings$ dri&e to work$ and construct maps co&ering hundreds o s:uare miles A !ased on the assumption that the world is lat" 3lthough we know there are hills and &alleys$ the mental model o our local en&ironment as a lat plane is simple and e ecti&e" >owe&er$ when larger distances are in&ol&ed and more accurate o!ser&ations are made$ a sphere is a !etter model o the Earth" Ships sailing out to sea disappear o&er the hori9on$ and tele&ision signals tra&elling in a straight line can only !e detected or a!out 100 km !e ore they are lost !ehind the cur&ature o the Earth" The location o 'olaris <the North Star= shi ts higher in the sky as you tra&el along the cur&ed sur ace o the Earth towards the North 'ole" E&en more precise measurements are re:uired or studying the geophysics o the Earth and or planning the or!its o near%Earth satellites" Then the world is re&ealed to !e not a sphere$ !ut an o!late spheroid" (t is slightly s:uashed at the poles with a ew lumps here and there" Chapters 0 and 2 are de&oted to !uilding a model o the mind that is o the third type" /")"' Theories 3 theory presents a simpli ied pattern that connects a wide range o o!ser&ations" The pattern o a theory makes related in ormation easier to understand and pro&ides a means to make predictions a!out uture o!ser&ations" 3 new o!ser&ation can !e used either to check an old o!ser&ation$ or to test the theory in a range where no other o!ser&ations ha&e !een made" 3 model o a theory Poining the dots on a page to create a line drawing is an interesting child@s game" B+s it a dog or a canary,@ When there are only a ew dots$ you can draw )ust a!out any igure" The outcome !ecomes more o!&ious as the num!er o dots increases" The process o )oining%the%dots pro&ides a good model or the irst stages in constructing a theory" (nstead o drawing a line igure to connect dots$ a theory !uilder looks or a mathematical relationship that will connect all the known in ormation" 'ro&ing a theory 3 theory is only use ul !ecause it helps us to make sense out o a collection o in ormation$ or a &ariety o o!ser&ations" The !est demonstration or the &alidity o a theory occurs when the theory is used to make predictions that are &eri ied !y later o!ser&ations" >owe&er$ a theory cannot !e pro&ed true or all cases simply !ecause you can ne&er test all possi!le cases" 'ro&ing that a theory is always true is like pro&ing your great% grandmother was always honest" #ou can pro&ide e&idence or hundreds o situations in which your great%grandmother was per ectly honest$ and reasona!ly conclude that she was a model citi9en$ !ut you cannot pro&e that she ne&er$ e&er$ told a white lie or !orrowed a turnip rom her neigh!our@s garden without authori9ation" (n contrast$ a theory can !e dispro&ed with a single counter e8ample" There are at least two styles o theories* in ormal and ormal" (n ormal theories (n ormal theories are !ased on casual o!ser&ations and intuiti&e analysis" We create and use in ormal theories all the time" +or e8ample$ you might theori9e that the loor in ront o you will remain solid and your ne8t ootstep will not pass through it" #ou might theori9e that since it is 4 o@clock on Tuesday night$ your a&ourite tele&ision show should !e on Channel 0 right now" 1ost in ormal theories are su!)ect to re&ision when contrary e&idence is encountered" 1any ancient religions em!raced in ormal theories a!out the workings o the world" The capricious natures o storms$ earth:uakes$ and &olcanoes were o ten attri!uted to the ickle !eha&iour o human%like gods" 1any ancient religions also supported the concept that a king had !een chosen !y the local god to rule the land as the god@s representati&e" The king thus assumed di&ine powers" 7eligious theories$ howe&er$ were seldom open to re&iew e&en when they ran into disagreement with more accurate o!ser&ations o nature" +ormal theories +ormal theories are !ased on care ul o!ser&ations that ha&e !een repeated o&er time$ and patterns are o ten e8pressed using mathematics" 3 ormal theory is only use ul !ecause it pro&ides a consistent structure or a growing array o o!ser&ations" 3 ormal theory is o ten widely pu!lished to deli!erately in&ite criticism$ testing with new o!ser&ations$ and additional re inements" 1aking precise o!ser&ations$ then creating and testing theories sounds like a lot o work" (t isS That is how scientists earn their li&ing" Scientists spend years learning the appropriate !ackground material" They design speciali9ed e:uipment to make accurate and precise measurements" They e8pend great e orts in si ting and analy9ing data in search o new patterns" The creation o a new theory can !e the culmination o a li etime@s work" (t is most satis ying when a new theory unites disparate concepts$ stands up to intense scrutiny$ and makes predictions that are &eri ied !y new o!ser&ations" 3nother important property o theories (n order or a particular theory to ac:uire general use ulness it has to ha&e another important property A it has to mesh with other accepted concepts$ acts$ and theories" Success ul theories are not created in isolation" Success ul theories it into a set o mutually supporti&e theories$ each !ased on the !est o!ser&ational e&idence a&aila!le" 3 success ul theory o nutrition has to e8plain which oods are !est to eat$ and also has to mesh with what we know a!out the human digesti&e system$ the !iology o li&ing things$ organic chemistry$ and ecosystems on Earth" When a theory o nutrition pro&ides a concise summary o e&erything we know a!out ood$ and is also consistent with related o!ser&ations and concepts$ then we can ha&e con idence in the conclusions and predictions !ased on that theory" The &alue o theories Theories pro&ide a ramework or relating a large num!er o otherwise isolated acts" Theories pro&ide a systematic approach or summari9ing e8isting knowledge$ thus making it easier to learn$ understand$ and apply that knowledge" E8isting theories pro&ide challenging opportunities or other in&estigators to seek new in ormation that will con irm those theories$ lead to re&isions$ or lead to whole new theories" 3 well%tested theory may !e one o the ultimate products o clear thinking" /")") +aws of 3ature B$aw of nature@ is a term sometimes used to descri!e !asic properties that are easily stated$ or can !e e8pressed !y a simple e:uation" Scienti ically$ there is no distinction !etween the authority o a theory and a law o nature" 3 law o nature can also descri!e a single aspect o a more general theory" +or . course$ one has to !e aware that no law o nature has e&er !een tested or all time and in all places" (n act$ a ter .00 years o success ul applications$ Newton@s uni&ersal law o gra&itation was rewritten to !ecome a component o Einstein@s theory o general relati&ity" Despite the sometimes%con using use o terminology$ the concepts descri!ed !y models$ theories$ and laws are &ery e icient approaches or organi9ing and summari9ing large amounts o data" 3 success ul model$ theory$ or law helps you to make sense out o a collection o indi&idual cases$ and pro&ides direction in e8ploring untested !ut related cases" /")".e8ample BDooke*s $aw@ is a simple e:uation descri!ing the orce re:uired to e8tend a spring$ and is part o a larger theory o material science" Similarly$ B'nell*s $aw of Eefraction@ can !e descri!ed !y a simple e:uation$ and is one part o a larger theory o optics" Snell@s Law has a wide range o applications$ rom the design o lenses in reading glasses$ to the cut that will gi&e a diamond ma8imum sparkle" 3 law o nature may !e so per&asi&e that it !ecomes an um!rella structure or a whole theory" +or e8ample$ although B7ewton*s law of universal gravitation@ can !e e8pressed !y a simple e:uation$ it also de ines the undamental notion o Newtonian gra&ity A that e&ery mass in the uni&erse is attracted to e&ery other mass in a &ery predicta!le manner" The term Blaw of nature@ also implies that a relationship applies or all time$ and in all places" . Paradigms 3 Bparadigm@ can !e de ined as a system o related assumptions and &alues that determine your outlook or approach to associated matters" The paradigm o modern pu!lic education in the western world includes the concepts o a classroom ull o students with a teacher standing at the ront$ with daily lessons$ and with tests that measure the learning progress o the students" When assumptions or &alues replace old ones$ the phrase Bparadigm shift@ is sometimes used" . ten we are not aware that we are operating within a paradigm" We o ten assume that our e8isting situation and &iew o the world represent the natural order o things" Some paradigms can !e :uite constructi&e" The concept o the rule o law and the concept o inaliena!le human rights are &alua!le paradigms ostered !y the Enited Nations" Some paradigms can ha&e :uite negati&e conse:uences" +or thousands o years* 1" The economic paradigm o sla&ery was accepted world wide" 2" -eating children and wi&es was accepted as a natural part o a man@s !eha&iour" ." Social classes were <and o ten still are= used to determine a person@s social worth" . nce a paradigm is per&asi&e in your en&ironment$ it is &ery di icult to reali9e when and how your thinking is !eing !iased !y that paradigm" . The Theor of Evolution The theory o e&olution is one o the ultimate scienti ic theories and is the cornerstone o our understanding o li e processes on Earth" 3s such$ it is worth special consideration in the inal section o this chapter" During the age o European e8ploration$ !iological specimens were collected rom all o&er the world" .nce the specimens arri&ed in Europe$ naturalists !egan the systematic classi ication o these plants and animals using the naming scheme proposed !y Carl Linnaeus" The su!tle di erences !etween related species were the cause o much speculation" 3pparently conditions in nature could lead to selecti&e !reeding o plants and animals" The creation o whole new species &ia e&olution was considered !y a num!er o !iologists$ !ut initially there was no agreement as to a possi!le mechanism" Then in 14/5$ Charles Darwin pu!lished The 5rigin of 'pecies" Darwin summari9ed the e8isting e&idence or the e&olution o li e and proposed Bnatural selection@ as the mechanism that made it work" Since that time$ the theory o e&olution has !een re ined to include data and theories rom a wide range o scienti ic in&estigations" We know that species can !ecome e8tinct" (n act$ during the past ew centuries humans ha&e !een the acti&e agents in killing o all the mem!ers o se&eral species such as the dodos !irds$ carrier pigeons$ and moa !irds" We know that selecti&e reproduction can alter the a&erage characteristics o a species" +or thousands o years armers ha&e applied selecti&e !reeding to o!tain more producti&e plants and animals" We also know that species can e&ol&e without human inter&ention" .nce such a paradigm is recogni9ed$ you can make appropriate corrections to your own thought processes$ and o&er time you can try to clari y the perceptions o society at large" 222 /"..ne approach to detecting paradigms is to read !roadly rom authors in di erent settings" . ten you will !e surprised to see that it is possi!le to take a completely di erent approach to the same situation" .ne o the reasons that the 3(DS &irus is so di icult to treat is !ecause it e&ol&es so rapidly in a patient@s !ody that today@s treatment may not work tomorrow" (n 2000 there was great concern that a new &irus attacking the !ird populations o the world would e&ol&e into a contagious human orm" .ne o the goals o clear thinking is to identi y$ and counter$ the e ects o !aseless and negati&e paradigms" .ne or more new &ersions o the in luen9a &irus e&ol&e each year re:uiring the creation o new &accines or immuni9ations" . "& Pre1conditions for Evolution The e&olution o li&ing things re:uires a num!er o pre%conditions" These pre% conditions are not causes o e&olution$ !ut set the stage and allow the actual mechanisms o e&olution to operate" 're%condition ?1* 7eproduction o cells 7o!ert >ooke irst detected cells in a thin slice o cork in 100/ using a microscope o his own construction" (n&estigations o&er the ne8t two hundred years yielded more knowledge a!out the !asic structure o all li&ing things$ and in 14." 3ll cells share undamental chemical compounds and meta!olic acti&ities .$ Pames Watson and +rancis Crick determined that DN3 molecules consist o two long chains held together in a dou!le spiral structure$ and that the chains are ormed rom )ust our simple organic compounds" The arrangements o these compounds along the dou!le heli8 o DN3 contain the code o li e" (n cell di&ision$ each DN3 structure unwinds into two long chains" Each chain then re!uilds the missing hal rom e8tra material in the cell$ to orm a new dou!le heli8 o DN3" Then the two sets o DN3 mo&e to opposite ends o the cell$ the middle o the cell contracts and the parent cell di&ides into two daughter cells" Each new daughter cell has a complete set o DN3" 3ny minor alteration in the replication o a cell@s DN3 that is not atal$ is a mutation that is passed on to all uture generations o that cell" 're%condition ?2* Capacity or rapid population growth 'lants and animals ha&e a tremendous capacity or reproduction" E&ery tree has the reproducti&e potential to co&er the entire Earth in )ust a ew generations" +or e8ample$ each year a single apple tree produces o&er a thousand apples" 3nd each o these apples is capa!le o producing a whole new apple tree$ i it happens to all on ertile ground" (t takes a!out i teen years or an apple tree to reach maturity$ so in i teen years the irst year@s apples could create a thousand .E&olution is more complicated than Bsurvival of the fittest@$ !ut once the necessary ingredients are understood$ e&olution loses much o its mystery and can !e regarded as a natural part o li e" /". pairs in humans=" Ender a microscope a chromosome appears as a short lumpy string o material" -iologists ha&e determined that chromosomes contain thousands o su!structures called genes made o deo8yri!onucleic acid <DN3=$ and that the genes control inherited traits" (n 15/.4$ Schleiden and Schwann pu!lished the cell theory " (n modern terms$ the cell theory states that* 1" 3ll li&ing things are composed o cells 2" New cells are ormed !y the di&ision o pre%e8isting cells ." The acti&ity o an organism is the sum o the acti&ities o its indi&idual cells" The mechanisms o cell di&ision are o particular importance or understanding the theory o e&olution" E&ery cell contains a structure called the nucleus" Within the nucleus$ all the instructions to control the acti&ity o the cell are contained in a ew do9en pairs o chromosomes <2. more mature second%generation trees" Those trees could produce a million new trees a yearC and so on" Pust counting the newly matured trees at 1/ year inter&als$ in 00 years a single apple tree could produce enough new trees to co&er all the land on Earth" (n the animal kingdom$ consider the racoon" 3 emale racoon reaches maturity in two years$ and a ter that can produce si8 kits a year" Suppose we started with i&e pairs o racoons and they produced si8 kits a year or ten years$ then we would ha&e o&er two thousand !a!y racoons" (n thirty%eight years we would ha&e o&er se&en !illion !a!y racoons" That@s more than enough or e&ery person on Earth to ha&e a pet racoon" ( all li e has such a antastic potential or growth why aren@t we up to our eye!alls in apple trees and racoonsJ Not all o spring sur&i&e" Disease$ star&ation$ accidents$ and !attles o&er territory de&astate the num!ers in each new generation o e&ery organism$ rom earthworms to humans" >owe&er$ gi&en a chance$ any organism is ready to !urst out rom these restrictions and to populate the Earth with its descendants" 're%condition ?.00 l!=$ with most indi&iduals in the 20 kg <1/.0= ways to achie&e this" 3 single couple has the theoretical capa!ility to produce !illions o uni:ue children" 're%condition ?. pairs o chromosomes in e&ery cell in their !odiesC one o each pair comes rom the ather and one rom the mother" When an egg cell is created in the o&aries o a emale it includes )ust element rom each pair o chromosomes" Since the selection rom each pair is random$ there are o&er 4 million <2 to the power o 2./ kg <100 l!= to more than 140 kg <.2 l!= range" #ou could conduct similar studies o any characteristic$ such as the strength o inde8 ingers or the a!ility to hear so t sounds$ and you would o!tain similarly shaped distri!ution graphs" 're%condition ?/* Time and the age o the Earth E&olution re:uires e8tended periods o time$ corresponding to thousands o generations" . l!= to 110 kg <2.* Fariations o characteristics in a amily Within e&ery one o us resides the potential to produce o spring with a wide range o characteristics" >umans ha&e 2.* Fariations o characteristics in a population (n a large population composed o many amilies$ any measura!le characteristic is ound to &ary o&er a wide range o &alues" +or e8ample$ suppose you measured the weight o a million adult European males and constructed a re:uency graph o the results" #ou might ind that weights ranged rom less than .= possi!le com!inations or creating an egg cell" 3 similar process occurs in the production o sperm cells in the testicles o a man" When a sperm ertili9es an egg$ the corresponding chromosomes re orm as DN3 pairs" There are an ama9ing 20 000 !illion <2 to the power o . 00. -CE" The work o Essher was a &alid interpretation o the a&aila!le historical data" >is notion$ that a rational process could !e used to determine the age o the Earth$ inspired many uture in&estigations o the same :uestion" (n 1225 the +rench naturalist Comte du -u on estimated the age o the Earth to !e 2/ 000 years" This age was !ased on e8periments e8ploring the cooling o the Earth rom an original molten state" (n 1402$ the physicist William Thomson re ined this method and ound an age or the Earth !etween 20 and ."// !illion years old" Esing models o stellar e&olution$ astrophysicists estimate the age o the Sun at / .00 million years" (n 1455$ Pohn Poly estimated the age o the Earth to !e 50 million years !ased on the rate at which salt accumulated in the oceans" 7adioacti&ity was disco&ered in 1450" When an atom decays !y emitting radiation$ it is trans ormed into another type o atom$ and the rate at which this happens can !e measured in the la!oratory" Gnowledge o the rates o decay or radioacti&e material can !e used to determine how much time has elapsed since a rock was in the molten state" +or radiometric dating o rocks the most use ul reactions in&ol&e the trans ormation o uranium into lead" The age o a rock sample can !e determined !y comparing the relati&e amounts o lead and uranium that the rock contains" The oldest rocks on Earth ound with this method are a!out .The order o signi icant e&ents in the geological history o the Earth is recorded in layers o rock" #ou can see these layers in any cli or eroded !lu " 1ore impressi&e layers can !e seen across larger eatures such as the 3lps in Swit9erland or along the walls o the 6rand Canyon in 3ri9ona" Layers are &isi!le !ecause they ha&e di erent te8tures and contain di erent types o minerals" 6eologists ha&e de&eloped a classi ication system to descri!e the relati&e ages in Earth@s history !ased on the structure o these layers in the Earth@s crust" This system descri!es the Earth@s history in eons$ eras$ periods$ and epochs" Eons are the largest chunks o timeC periods are the shortest" 6eologists and prospectors ha&e used their knowledge o rock layers to disco&er and trace the seams and &eins o &alua!le mineral deposits" Some layers o rock contain ossils" 3 ossil is the minerali9ed remains o an ancient plant or animal" Speci ic types o ossils tend to occur in speci ic layers$ and the layers can co&er e8tensi&e regions" +or e8ample$ the -urgess Shale in #oho National 'ark in -ritish Colum!ia has !een declared a World >eritage Site !ecause it contains a wide range o ossil in&erte!rate animals rom the 1iddle Cam!rian age" Layers o sedimentary rock rom the Purassic and Cretaceous periods are amous or the ossili9ed dinosaur !ones they contain" >ow can the actual age o these layers and the Earth !e estimatedJ Se&eral approaches ha&e !een tried" (n 10/0 3rch!ishop Pames Essher o 3rmagh pu!lished the results o his analysis o the -i!le$ correlated with -a!ylonian history$ in which he determined that the world was created in . "/ !illion years old" The oldest creatures such as worms and trilo!ites are a!out //0 million years old" The dinosaurs roamed Earth during the period rom 2/0 to 0/ million years ago" The oldest hominoid ossils ha&e !een ound in Early 1iocene deposits <22 million years old= in Genya" ( an a&erage human generation spans 22 years$ then there ha&e !een a!out a million generations or human e&olution to take place" 're%Condition ?0* Energy (t takes energy to power li e" 'lants gather their energy rom sunlight$ her!i&ores har&est the sun%energy stored in plants$ and carni&ores har&est the sun%plant%energy collected !y her!i&ores" Li&ing orms are more success ul when they are more e ecti&e in gathering and con&erting the a&aila!le energy to grow and reproduce" With an understanding o the si8 pre%conditions descri!ed a!o&e$ we are ready to del&e into the actual mechanisms o e&olution" /"."// !illion years or the Earth is consistent with !asic astronomical data" This age or the Earth can then !e used to date the geological periods !ased on rock layers$ and the ossils in the corresponding layers can also !e dated" The oldest ossils o !acteria are thus estimated to !e a!out . !illion years" So an age o ."' Evolution at #ork There are our acti&e mechanisms that lead to the e&olution o species" 1echanism ?1* Competition The mechanism o competition corresponds to Darwin@s Bsurvival of the fittest@" 'lants compete or water$ sunlight$ and the attention o insects to pollinate them" 3nimals compete or ood$ territory$ and mates" (ndi&iduals ha&e to compete with mem!ers o their own species$ as well as other species or the limited li e%gi&ing resources they can ind" (n sta!le conditions$ the growth potential o e&ery species ensures that there are always more o spring produced than can possi!ly sur&i&e" .!illion years" 3nd !ased on additional astronomical o!ser&ations$ cosmologists estimate the age o the whole uni&erse to !e a!out 1.nly the toughest$ luckiest$ and most adapta!le indi&iduals make it to adulthood" The a&erage characteristics o a species !ecome precisely the characteristics that ma8imi9e an indi&idual@s chances o sur&i&al under the pre&ailing conditions" (n many species$ it has !een o!ser&ed that indi&iduals sometimes sacri ice themsel&es to protect others in their amily$ or social group" >ow can such altruistic !eha&iour e8ist i e&olution is !ased on competition or sur&i&al among indi&idualsJ (n the latter part o the 20th century the competition mechanism was modi ied to read Bsurvival of the fittest genes@" (n most cases$ sur&i&al o the ittest genes still corresponds to sur&i&al o the ittest indi&idual" -ut in a amilial group$ all the indi&iduals share common genes" So i the sur&i&al o the whole group is threatened$ it is an e ecti&e strategy or a ew indi&iduals to sacri ice themsel&es in an e ort to protect the whole group" 3 mother may gi&e her last morsel o ood to sa&e her children" 3 soldier may . n a rare occasion <perhaps one in a million$ or one in a !illion=$ a mutation leads to a modi ied characteristic that enhances an indi&idual@s chance o sur&i&al" .ccasionally during the di&ision o a cell$ an error occurs in the duplication o DN3 and a mutated gene is created" ( the mutation is not atal$ it is passed on in the altered DN3 to all uture generations o that cell" 1utations can !e caused !y radiation passing through a cell$ !y the cell a!sor!ing no&el chemicals$ or !y a random error in the comple8 process o cell di&ision" When a mutation occurs in an egg or sperm cell$ the mutation is passed onto uture generations o that indi&idual" 3n organism can cope with some minor genetic errors" There are two copies o each DN3 strandC when one DN3 strand is altered there is a !ackup DN3 strand rom the other parent that can sometimes !e used to correct aulty coding" The impact o dominant &ersus recessi&e genes and the speci ic location o a genetic mutation can also a ect a cell@s a!ility to sur&i&e" The process o li e is e8tremely complicated and one would e8pect most ma)or genetic errors to produce atal results" >owe&er$ the growth potential o e&ery species ensures that there are always more o spring produced than can possi!ly sur&i&e" .ccasionally$ ma)or e&ents such as &olcanic eruptions or asteroid impacts produce rapid changes in climate" E&ery change in climate pro&ides plants and animals li&ing in those regions with undamental challenges" Will they still !e a!le to compete success ully or ood and waterJ Will they still !e a!le to reproduceJ Will they still !e a!le to sur&i&eJ 3s the en&ironment changes$ the old a&erage characteristics are no longer the optimal &alues" (ndi&iduals with some e8treme characteristics are now more suited or sur&i&al" The gira e with a longer neck will !e a!le to reach the higher lea&es on a tree" (t will tend to sur&i&e and produce o spring with longer necks" The camel that can walk arther a ter drinking less water will ha&e a greater chance o sur&i&ing when the water supply is dwindling" The o spring o such a camel will tend to inherit this same characteristic" The a&erage &alue o inherited characteristics in a population will gradually shi t as climate change continues" Note that the characteristics o indi&iduals do not change$ !ut indi&iduals that already ha&e ad&antageous characteristics in the new climate are more likely to sur&i&e and produce o spring" E&en indi&iduals with e8treme characteristics may not !e a!le to sur&i&e i climatic conditions change too :uickly" The species may !ecome e8tinct" 1echanism ?.* 1utations .ace an in&ading army to protect his city" (ndi&iduals can gi&e their li&es to help to ensure the sur&i&al o their own genes" 1echanism ?2* En&ironmental changes 3ccording to geological e&idence$ the climate on Earth changes o&er time" 1ost o the changes are cyclic and occur gradually o&er thousands o years" 3t any location on Earth there ha&e !een periods o drought$ periods o hea&y precipitation$ periods o relati&e cold$ and periods o relati&e warmth" . &er se&eral generations$ that modi ied characteristic could !ecome the new normal characteristic or the whole species population" Note that mutations lead to modi ications o e8isting characteristics$ or the addition o new eatures" No single mutation can replace a complicated organic structure with a di erent complicated structure" E&olutionary changes due to mutations occur a !it at a time$ and tend to !e add%ons rather than replacements" 1echanism ?.") Cultural Evolution (n human e&olution$ cultural traits can !e deli!erately passed on to ollowing generations and produce ad&antageous results" When resources are scarce$ any cultural ad&antage can make the di erence !etween sur&i&al and e8tinction" (n anti:uity$ techni:ues or producing dura!le sharp stone points and !lades were passed on rom generation to generation" .Pust a small change A such as slightly impro&ed night &ision A could lead to the di erence !etween sur&i&ing$ or !eing eaten !y a predator" (ndi&iduals with impro&ed night &ision would then ha&e a greater pro!a!ility o producing o spring$ and those o spring would also inherit that impro&ed night &ision" .nce an e ecti&e design was attained$ stone tools or the same purpose tended to retain the same orm in a culture or thousands o years" The technical ad&antage o e ecti&e tools a&oured the sur&i&al o that culture" .* Co%e&olution and punctuated sta!ility E&ery species is part o a larger ecosystem" The li&es o many species are linked together in an en&ironmental niche" When the climate is sta!le$ the characteristics o all the species tend to e&ol&e towards sta!le &alues that ma8imi9e each species opportunities or sur&i&al in that niche" 3s long as the conditions remain sta!le$ the characteristics o these linked species tend to remain relati&ely sta!le as well" Such a period o sta!ility may last or se&eral million years" >owe&er$ i the sta!ility o the en&ironmental niche is altered then a rapid spurt in e&olution tends to occur in all the related species at the same time" The sta!ility o an en&ironmental niche can !e altered !y changes in the climate$ !y a mutation that alters an important characteristic o )ust one o the species$ or !y the introduction o a new species rom outside the system" 3ll the species in the niche will then e&ol&e until a new e:uili!rium is reached" (n summary$ there are at least si8 preconditions necessary or e&olution to occur* the role o DN3 in the reproduction o cells$ the capacity or rapid population growth$ genetic &ariations within a amily$ genetic &ariations across a population$ a period o time spanning at least hundreds o generations$ and the input o energy rom an e8ternal source" There are our main mechanisms that actually dri&e the process o e&olution* competition or resources$ changes in the en&ironment$ mutations$ and the co%e&olution o species" /". (ome Final Thoughts During the last hundred and i ty years the theory o e&olution has !een re ined and e8tended to mesh with many other !ranches o science including* archaeology$ astronomy$ !iology$ !iochemistry$ chemistry$ genetics$ geology$ palaeontology$ and physics" The theory o e&olution is not !eyond criticism" The )o! o a scientist is always to re ine$ e8tend$ and test current theories" >owe&er$ critics o ten ail to recogni9e the !road !ase o human knowledge that is incorporated in the modern &ersion o e&olutionary theory" The theory o e&olution is not )ust the work o Charles DarwinC it is the culmination o the work o thousands o scientists in many ields o study" The theory o e&olution is a uni ying concept in a tidal wa&e o new human knowledge" With this knowledge we are orging a new understanding o the uni&erse" This understanding does not diminish$ !ut increases our awe at the &arious le&els o order and comple8ity in the uni&erse" %%% .".Consider the irst hunter to raise an orphaned wol cu! as a hunting dog" That hunter would pro!a!ly !e more success ul in catching game and eeding his amily" (n tough times$ a hunting dog could !e the di erence !etween sur&i&ing and star&ing" That cultural ad&antage could !e passed on to uture generations" (t is pure speculation$ !ut it is possi!le that Cro%1agnons learned to use hunting dogs and Neanderthals did not" 'erhaps that is why Neanderthals !ecame e8tinct and we sur&i&ed" During the reign o >enry F((($ -ritish oundry workers de&eloped a techni:ue or casting ine8pensi&e iron cannons that could replace costly !ron9e cannons" -ritish warships were then de&eloped as e icient loating gun plat orms$ and soon B0ritannia ruled the waves@" 3s a conse:uence$ many cultures were Bdiscovered@ and con:uered !y the -ritish$ and !y 1500 the -ritish Empire spanned the glo!e" The technical%and% social skills o the -ritish certainly a ected the e&olution o many other cultures on Earth" /". N 6"&"& The Concept of -ind De ining the human mind can !e a philosophical challenge$ a mystical e&ent$ or the prosaic task o itting most o what we know a!out our mental acti&ities into a descripti&e chart" 'rimal processes 3 single%celled paramecium can swim through its en&ironment !y co%ordinating the sweeping motion o thousands o tiny cilia on its outer layer" (t can capture prey$ digest ood$ and e8crete waste" (t can reproduce" Thus$ a single%celled animal can participate in all the !asic processes o li e$ e&en though it has no neurons$ and is thus incapa!le o any thought processes" The B!eha&iours@ o a paramecium are strictly electro%chemical reactions to stimuli recei&ed rom its en&ironment" Each o us is composed o !illions o indi&idual cells$ and each o those cells li&es out its li e much as a paramecium would" Each o us is really an integrated collection o the cell colonies that make up our &arious structures and organs" 'erhaps many o our !eha&iours are simple responses to e8ternal stimuli$ like a paramecium$ rather than the result o conscious or su!conscious thought" . 3ll its other tricks & the ability to appreciate music to fall in love to create a unified theory of the Fniverse & arise out of that single overriding ambition.&er time$ a series o random acts can !e shaped into a se:uence o planned !eha&iours" .Chapter 6* The Conscious -ind 6"& 6"' 6") Basic Elements of the -ind A -odel of the Conscious -ind 5ariations in Consciousness To many the mind is like a magic !o8" #ou !rain gathers in ormation and somehow thoughts are generated" (n this chapter$ a simple model o the mind is constructed that utili9es the in ormation descri!ed in earlier chapters" 3lthough the model is !asic$ it is hoped that it will help you gain a !etter understanding o your thought processes" 6"& Basic Elements of the -ind MThe brain*s main function is to keep the organism of which it is part alive and reproducing.r$ perhaps the collecti&e urges o the indi&idual cells in our !odies are re lected in the o&erall acti&ity o our minds" 3 model o human !eha&iour The !iological purpose o the mind A to keep us ali&e and reproducing A is em!edded in our &ery !eing" (n the stimulus%response model de&eloped !y -" +" Skinner$ a su!)ect is pro&ided with a physical reward when a target acti&ity is per ormed$ and is ignored otherwise" . " 3 se:uence o actions is then initiated to satis y that urge" ." When the urge is satis ied$ your pleasure centre is stimulated" /" #ou attain a sense o contentment" 1any o your thoughts and actions are generated in this manner" The reward or completing an intended acti&ity is typically the release o suita!le neurotransmitters in your !rain such as dopamine$ serotonin$ or endorphins that pro&ide a neural sense o pleasure and contentment" There is an important di erence !etween the stimulus%response model and the i&e% step model o human !eha&iour" (n the stimulus%response model$ a controlling e8ternal agent <the e8perimenter= pro&ides !oth the target acti&ity and the rewards" (n the i&e%step model$ the su!)ect@s own mind generates the target acti&ity and creates the urge to complete that acti&ity" Philosophical ideas The nature o the mind has long !een the su!)ect o philosophical speculation" BDualism@ and Bmonism@ ha&e emerged as two o the main schools o thought on the su!)ect" Dualism Dualism is the position that the mind and !ody are in some way separate rom each other" The ancient Egyptians !elie&ed that each person possessed a BGa@ <roughly e:ui&alent to the mind= and a B-a@ <roughly e:ui&alent to the soul=" The -a was thought to lea&e the !ody at the moment o death$ !ut i the !ody was properly preser&ed the -a was a!le to return to its tom! each night" >indu philosophers$ 3ristotle$ and 'lato also adopted the dualist position" (n the 12th century$ Descartes emphasi9ed that the mind was associated with consciousness and sel %awareness !ut was distinct rom the !rain" The Christian church preaches that the soul e8ists as an entity distinct rom the !ody" 3ccording to the 3postles@ Creed$ at resurrection <during the time o inal )udgement= the souls o the dead will proceed to either >ea&en or >ell" The 7oman Catholic Church urther speci ies that at resurrection$ the soul will !e reunited with the !ody$ and the whole reconstituted person will !e )udged" 1onism 1onism is the position that the mind is an integral part o the !ody$ and that all .+or e8ample$ a pigeon can !e taught to play a simple tune on a key!oard" 3 more ela!orate model o !eha&iour re:uires a i&e%step se:uence* 1" #our !rain recei&es a stimulus rom your sensory organs" 2" (n response$ your !rain creates an urge that demands to !e satis ied" . ur mental processes are ar more comple8 than those that we speci ically direct with our conscious mind" The su!conscious is the main topic o Chapter 2$ !ut is introduced here to help clari y the roles o the conscious mind" 3n e8ample o su!conscious acti&ity E&en while your mind is engrossed with conscious acti&ity$ your su!conscious is !usy playing a ma)or role in the !ackground" +or e8ample$ suppose that you decide to read a no&el" -e ore you can consciously ponder the meaning o sentences$ your su!conscious mind irst has to ad)ust the muscular tension on the lenses in your eyes so you can ocus on the page$ ad)ust the diameter o your iris@ to match lighting conditions$ and prepare to track your eyes !ack and orth across the page" Then as you !egin reading$ your su!conscious percei&es the patterns o light and dark marks on the page$ con&erts those patterns into letters$ then into words$ and then assigns meanings to the words" ( you ind the reading material particularly interesting$ your su!conscious e&en takes o&er control o your arms and hands to hold the !ook and turn the pages and somehow creates an inner picture corresponding to the action portrayed in the no&el" E8changes !etween the conscious and the su!conscious #ou routinely pass messages !ack and orth !etween your conscious and su!conscious minds" 3ll learning o acts and skills can !e regarded as a process in which in ormation is stored in your su!conscious or uture use" +or e8ample$ as a youngster you pro!a!ly spent a num!er o hours learning how to tie your shoelaces and that process took conscious e ort with lots o repetition" Now as an adult$ you can normally tie your shoes with &ery little attention !ecause the process is managed !y your su!conscious" The continuous input rom your senses is iltered and edited in your su!conscious mind" .nly sensations regarded as signi icant are allowed to intrude on your consciousness" +or e8ample$ you may !e working away at a task outdoors A washing windows$ painting a picture$ picking apples$ or )ust lost in thought when conditions !egin to change" 'erhaps there is a change in the intensity o sunlight$ the !irds are suddenly :uiet$ or the lea&es !egin to rustle in the wind" 3t some point this input is orwarded rom your su!conscious to your conscious mindC you stop what you are doing and check your en&ironment* B(s something upJ@C BDo ( need to take actionJ@ .mental acti&ity can$ or e&entually will !e$ descri!ed !y physiological processes that take place within the !rain" -uddhism and Transcendentalism ad&ocate that mind and !ody are !oth part o a larger phenomenon that is not easily percei&ed" Two other noted monists were 'armenides in the /th century -CE and Spino9a in the 12th century CE" 6"&"' 9ntroduction to the (u$conscious . 6"&") Fundamental Components The conscious mind$ the su!conscious mind$ and the physical !rain are !asic components o your mind" Some would also add a dash o spirituality$ !ut or our model that would only add complications without pro&iding any compensating clari ications" 3 de inition o the mind The human mind can !e de ined simply as the com!ination o the conscious and su!conscious acti&ities o the !rain$ along with the physical structure o the !rain itsel " 3dding the physical !rain to that de inition o the mind lets us include the networks o neurons and synapses in the !rain as well as the impulses tra&elling along those networks$ and the neurotransmitters in the synaptic gaps at any gi&en time" (ncluding neural impulses and neurotransmitters in the de inition o mind may help to capture some o the ephemeral nature o the mind that is o ten associated with dualism" Three components o your mind The anatomy o the physical !rain has !een the su!)ect o many in&estigations$ !ut its structure is so comple8 and su!tle that much still remains to !e learned" Despite the comple8ity and the unknowns$ a three le&el model o the physical !rain was presented in section1"1 that consists o the hind!rain$ the mid!rain comple8$ and the ore!rain" These three main components o the physical !rain play a signi icant role in the models to !e de&eloped o the conscious mind <!elow= and the su!conscious mind <Chapter 2=" We all e8perience conscious and su!conscious thoughts e&ery day$ yet in&estigations into the !asic natures o the conscious and su!conscious minds tend to !e comple8 and contro&ersial" The am!itious goal in this chapter is to ollow a num!er o threads o thought that can !e used to construct a model o the conscious mind" Whate&er the mind is$ or does$ there is little dou!t that such acti&ity occurs within the con ines o the skull" Studies o !rain in)uries con irm that speci ic mental unctions are lost when particular regions o the !rain are damaged" Studies o !rain unctioning with 17( scans con irm that speci ic mental tasks result in more acti&ity in particular regions o the !rain" 3s long as you li&e$ your !rain is !usy thinking and maintaining !odily unctions" The pro ound implication is that when we die$ our !rains cease to unction$ neural impulses grind to a halt" .ur personal minds cease to e8ist$ )ust as a computer program ades away when the power is switched o " 222 6"' A -odel of the Conscious -ind . Through the ages$ there has !een much philosophical de!ate a!out the nature o consciousness and its relation to the mind$ and the mind@s relation to the !rain" (t is generally agreed that consciousness is the property o the mind that gi&es us a sense o oursel&es as indi&iduals$ and o oursel&es as participants in the acti&ities that occur around us" 3n understanding o the conscious mind is also central to an understanding o the su!conscious mind" #ou can use one to de ine the other$ and you can gain an appreciation o their separate properties !y comparing and contrasting the typical acti&ities o these two domains" 6"'"& Cognitive Archeolog Pulian Paynes <1520 A 1552=$ a pro essor o psychology at 'rinceton Eni&ersity$ was one o the irst to propose that human consciousness has e&ol&ed o&er time" While many o the speci ic arguments in his !ook The ." Technically enhanced consciousness <starting 2/ 000 years ago= as e&idenced !y notched !ones and &arious other systems or recording in ormation" Ste&en 1ithen$ in The Brehistory of the Aind <1550=$ proposed an alternate interpretation o the archaeological e&idence" (n his model$ the ancient human mind had our isolated domains o intelligence* linguistic$ social$ technical$ and theoreticalC and o&er time these domains !egan to interact with each other to generate an integrated response to the en&ironment" There is a growing acceptance that the human intellect has e&ol&ed$ is still e&ol&ing$ and can !e urther enhanced !y directed personal e ort" 6"'"' .rigin o Consciousness in the -reakdown o the -icameral 1ind <1522= ha&e !een re uted$ his !asic proposal has spawned the new ield o cogniti&e archeology" 1erlin Donald$ in .istorical 5iews of Consciousness (n the western world$ !e ore the 12th century$ there was no distinction !etween the concepts o Bconscience@ and Bconsciousness@" #our conscience was your inner control o&er the commission o sin" The connection !etween consciousness$ moral decisions$ and )ust punishment has persisted o&er time and is now em!edded in the legal principle that you can only !e criminally guilty or acts that you were conscious o committing at the time" (n 1045$ Pohn Locke pu!lished his Essay Concerning >uman Enderstanding$ in which he de&eloped the concept o psychological awareness as a !asis or personality and sel % .rigins o the 1odern 1ind <1551=$ proposed that social and cultural needs com!ined with e&olutionary changes in the !rain$ and led to three distinct stages in the de&elopment o the human intellect* 1" 1imetic consciousness <starting 1"/ million years ago= as e&idenced !y the production o sophisticated stone tools" 2" 1ythic consciousness <starting 1/0 000 years ago= as e&idenced !y the use o sym!olic representations and ca&e paintings" . @ This limitation is e8empli ied !y the di iculties you would e8perience i you tried to !ounce a !all$ recite the alpha!et$ and su!tract two ractions all at the same time" We also know that it is challenging to re lect on your pro!lem sol&ing techni:ues$ .identi ication" 1any philosophers make a distinction !etween Bphenomenal consciousness@ A !eing aware o sensory input$ and Baccess consciousness@ A !eing aware that in ormation is !eing processed internally" The e&olutionary ad&antages o consciousness would pro!a!ly include the a!ilities to e&aluate alternati&es$ to sol&e pro!lems$ to detect errors in procedures$ to plan$ to learn$ and to create mental constructs" 6"'") A (imple -odel of Consciousness -y ocusing on )ust the o!ser&a!le properties associated with consciousness$ it is possi!le to generate a &ery simple model o consciousness" -asic properties o consciousness F"S" 7amachandran $ a neuroscientist at the Eni&ersity o Cali ornia$ lists three conditions or consciousness to e8ist* 1" #ou are a!le to recei&e a neurological sensation and are a!le to interpret what it means to you" 2" #ou are a!le to store that sensation$ at least temporarily in memory" ." #ou are aware o wide range o possi!le responses" +or e8ample$ suppose you stu! your toe on a ta!le leg" The ollowing elements imply that you are conscious o the e&ent* irst$ you e8perience a sensation o pain and you reali9e that you ha&e in)ured your toeC second$ the pain lingers in memory or a moment in timeC and third$ you can consider a &ariety o possi!le reactions rom crying in pain to mo&ing the ta!le to a new location" 3 limit on consciousness The derogatory phrase$ BDe can*t walk and chew gum at the same time@$ is used to suggest that someone has a limited mental capacity" The phrase also underlines the act that$ e&en when ully alert$ our conscious !rains can only keep track o a ew distinct tasks at the same time" We o ten ha&e the impression that we are doing three or our things at the same time" +or e8ample$ you may !e watching tele&ision$ taking part in a con&ersation$ and eating a snack at the same time" >owe&er$ a care ul analysis o the situation would pro!a!ly show that your attention is switching !ack and orth !etween these tasks rather than monitoring them all simultaneously" When something interesting occurs on tele&ision$ that is where your attention will pro!a!ly !e ocused" 3t the same time you may continue to eat the snack and$ somewhere at the !ack o your mind$ you may monitor what your spouse is saying or key words or emotional content" 3 ter a ew minutes$ when there is a pause in the action on tele&ision you may disco&er that your snack has disappeared and your spouse is saying$ BDave you listened to a word + said. "1 that your immediate%term memory contains an a&erage o )ust se&en in ormation items rom your senses and your memories$ and is a!le to hold that in ormation or only a!out thirty seconds" These properties o immediate%term memory e8plain why there appears to !e a stream o consciousness" New in ormation items are continually !eing added to immediate%term memory$ decisions are !eing made$ and old items are either !eing shi ted into longer%term memory or dropped rom memory all together" When a particular item is o interest it can !e re reshed and kept in immediate%term memory or another thirty seconds$ or it can !e mo&ed on to your short%term memory" .while actually trying to sol&e a pro!lem" The !est we seem a!le to do is to rapidly switch !ack and orth !etween one task and another" (n computer parlance$ the a!ility to rapidly switch !ack and orth !etween tasks is called multi%tasking" The C'E in a simple computer can e8ecute )ust one step at a time$ in )ust one program at a time$ yet !ecause it has a high operating speed and can rapidly switch !ack and orth among &arious programs$ it gi&es the appearance o dealing with se&eral tasks simultaneously" Talking on a cell phone$ while dri&ing a car seems to push the a!ility o our conscious minds to multi%task !etween two demanding processes at the same time" (n some situations$ the a!ility o the conscious mind to !lock out other thoughts and ocus on )ust one task at a time can !e an asset" 3n aircra t controller is more e ecti&e when ull attention is de&oted to directing airplanes" 3 student is more e ecti&e when ull attention is de&oted to a single learning task" ( you can do only one thing at a time$ how in act do you manage to walk and chew gum at the same timeJ #our su!conscious comes to the rescue" Walking is a skill that you ha&e practiced or years" When you ocus on the skills o walking$ you can consciously mo&e each leg and watch were you put each oot$ always !eing care ul to keep your !alance" -ut when your attention is di&erted to another acti&ity$ such as unwrapping a stick o gum$ your su!conscious is ready to take o&er the walking task and you do not miss a step" (n a simple analogy$ your conscious mind is in the dri&er@s seat as you tra&el along the road o li e$ while your su!conscious is a collection o passengers in the !ack seat who at times can reach orward and step on the accelerator$ apply the !rakes$ or turn the steering wheel" 3 model o the conscious mind #our immediate%term memory contains the latest signi icant data related to your local en&ironment as well as in ormation a!out decisions that need to !e made in the ne8t ew moments" #ou may need to decide whether to turn le t or right$ whether to continue hunting or return to camp$ whether to eat the last a&aila!le ood or share it$ or whether to )udge a person guilty or innocent" 7ecall rom section . Consciousness in Animals This simple model o consciousness has the implication that consciousness is a natural property o any animal with an ad&anced neural system" To sort out which animals might possess a suita!ly ad&anced neural system$ and thus a degree o consciousness$ a simple system or classi ying mental systems has !een de&ised" (n reality$ the range o mental systems in animals is continuous and there are pro!a!ly many species with properties that o&erlap the proposed le&els" .(n this model o the conscious mind <See +igure ?2=$ consciousness is simply the in ormation !eing processed in your immediate%term memory at any gi&en moment <while you are awake=" #our ocus o attention is )ust the scope o that in ormation" Figure %B* A model of the conscious mind This simple model o consciousness satis ies 7amachandran@s three criteria" Signi icant neurological sensations are part o the normal content o immediate%term memory$ so the irst two criteria are satis ied as an e&ent is interpreted and stored in memory" 3nd according to the model$ the primary unction o immediate%term memory is to consider alternati&es$ so 7amachandran@s third criteria is also satis ied" With this model$ consciousness is not a mysterious property o the human spiritC it is )ust a continuously updated set o data items in immediate%term memory that may re:uire a choice rom among alternati&es" 6"'". " .Simple systems 3 simple animal system contains no neurons$ although it may consist o up to a ew thousand cells" Such an animal can participate in all the !asic processes o li e$ e&en though it is incapa!le o any thought processes" 'roto9oa$ sponges$ and hydra are e8amples o simple systems" Em!ryos o higher animals pass through a !lastula stage$ which is a simple system o se&eral hundred cells arranged in the orm o a hollow sphere" 3t that stage o de&elopment there is no cell di erentiation in the em!ryo$ thus no neurons$ no thinking$ and no consciousness" Simple systems co%ordinate the acti&ities o cells !y sending electro%chemical signals across neigh!ouring cell !oundaries" Non%conscious systems 3s animals with simple systems get !igger and !igger$ the e orts to co%ordinate cellular acti&ity !y sending electro%chemical signals rom cell%to%cell !egin to ail" 3 larger animal with millions o cells utili9es neurons to carry communication signals :uickly and e iciently to and rom all parts o its !ody" 7ather than connecting indi&idual cells to each other$ neurons transmit signals rom cells to a central point$ where the signals are processed$ and then responses are orwarded to appropriate cells" That central processing and switching organ is the animal@s !rain" 3nimals with simple !rains are capa!le o responding to en&ironmental stimuli with actions that ha&e !een genetically encoded <instincts=" They are animals with !rains$ !ut are non%conscious" (nsects and mollusks pro&ide good e8amples o non%conscious mental systems" Conscious systems Still larger animals$ in comple8 physical and social en&ironments$ re:uire a more rapid and adapti&e approach or dealing with li e%threatening situations" They ha&e to !e a!le to consider alternati&es and make choices" These animals are conscious" 3pplying the model o consciousness proposed in the pre&ious section$ it is reasona!le to assume that the conscious part o an animal@s !rain is associated with its immediate%term memory" 3 !asic classi ication scheme or mental systems is pro&ided in Ta!le ?. Ta$le %)* A classification of mental s stems While one aspect o an animal@s !rain works at the conscious le&el$ the rest o the !rain@s acti&ity is said to occur at the su!conscious le&el" With the proposed de initions o consciousness and su!%consciousness$ it is apparent that conscious acti&ity is a re inement o an animal@s mental acti&ity while the !ulk o neural signal processing still occurs at the su!conscious le&el" >umans are conscious and sel %aware" ( ( were not conscious ( would not ha&e !een a!le to write this !ook$ and i you were not conscious you would not !e a!le to read it" >owe&er$ the classi ication system outlined in Ta!le ?.rangutans can learn !y imitation" Elephants ha&e !een . suggests that many other animals are also conscious !eings" (s that notion plausi!leJ 3nyone who has interacted with chimpan9ees$ orangutans$ elephants$ dogs$ or dolphins would pro!a!ly agree that they possess a degree o consciousness" Chimpan9ees e8hi!it simple pro!lem sol&ing skills and the a!ility to use a!stract sym!ols to communicate" . ne would also e8pect to ind &arying mental capa!ilities among the !illions o humans on Earth" .known to e8hi!it signs o grie o&er the death o a amily mem!er and can retain memories o&er decades" Dogs de&elop distinct personalities and can make their emotions &ery clear with acial e8pressions and wagging tails" Dolphins are riendly$ curious$ and :uick to learn rom human trainers" (t is apparent that many animals$ in addition to humans$ are conscious !eings" 6"'"/ 8niCue Features of .uman Consciousness +rom an e&olutionary perspecti&e$ one would e8pect di erent species in the animal kingdom to possess &arying degrees o consciousness A rom the non%conscious state o a slug to the conscious state o modern humans" .ne would e&en e8pect that indi&iduals would display &arying degrees o consciousness$ rom time to time" While it is apparent that many animals possess a degree o consciousness$ it is also o!&ious that human consciousness and mental capa!ilities are ar superior to any other animal on Earth" Chimpan9ees can master up to a ew hundred sym!ols or simple communications such as BWhere is SamJ@ or B( want a !anana"@ >umans ha&e &oca!ularies with thousands o words ena!ling them to pu!lish daily newspapers$ write !ooks$ and launch communication satellites" >uman consciousness is di erent in :uality rom that o other animals !ecause we ha&e more in ormation to work with$ and ha&e a greater range o social and technical issues to deal with" We are skilled at rapidly shi ting items in and out o immediate% term memory so that we can remain alert to what is happening around us and$ at the same time$ are a!le to assem!le the !est in ormation a&aila!le or making decisions" With practice and e ort we are e&en a!le to multi%task and make decisions regarding di&erse issues at &irtually the same time" >umans ha&e highly de&eloped capacities or processing in ormation$ applying learned !eha&iours$ and de&eloping no&el solutions to pro!lems" >umans ha&e the a!ility to contemplate the implications o past and uture e&ents" There is another interesting :uestion in&ol&ing consciousness" Will it e&er !e possi!le or a computer <or a ro!ot= to de&elop a state o consciousnessJ Some ha&e argued that it is not possi!le to create true arti icial intelligence and consciousness$ !ut those arguments might )ust !e criti:ues o our own lack o knowledge rather than proo s that arti icial intelligence and consciousness are impossi!le" 3nimal e&olution towards consciousness has !een energi9ed !y the Sun and moti&ated !y the release o endorphins in the !rain to stimulate sur&i&al and reproduction" 'erhaps a computer could !e gi&en the a!ility to o!tain its own power$ and a suita!le reward system could !e de&ised to moti&ate one computer to !uild a !etter computer" Such an e&olutionary approach to arti icial intelligence might !e more producti&e than any attempt to sit down and deli!erately design a machine with arti icial intelligence" (n act$ the world@s largest manu acturers o computer chips already use ela!orate computer programs to design successi&e generations o C'Es . that are so comple8 that no single human can comprehend all the intricacies o the designs" 'erhaps se&eral steps ha&e already !een taken along the e&olutionary path to arti icial intelligence" 222 6") 5ariations in Consciousness We sometimes take our consciousness or granted" Since you are conscious at this moment$ you might assume that you are always conscious$ and that your le&el o consciousness is constant" >owe&er$ there are a &ariety o conditions that can a ect your state o mind" #our consciousness can &ary rom ully alert to comatose" 6")"& Towards 8nconsciousness 3n e8amination o unconscious states can help to pro&ide a clearer understanding o consciousness" To !e conscious is to !e aware o your surroundings$ capa!le o thought$ a!le to e8ert your reasoning powers$ and capa!le o e8periencing physical and emotional sensations" (n contrast$ when you are ully unconscious you are no longer aware o yoursel or your surroundings$ and you are una!le to respond to en&ironmental stimuli" 3 loss o consciousness is o ten a symptom o a serious condition such as restricted low o !lood to the !rain$ or physical !rain damage" Some common causes o unconsciousness include poisoning$ hypothermia <too cold=$ hyperthermia <too hot=$ stroke$ shock$ epilepsy$ electric shock$ dia!etic coma$ drug o&erdose$ heart pro!lems$ and a !low to the head" 3 period o unconsciousness can &ary rom )ust a ew seconds a ter a ainting spell$ to a permanent coma a ter a traumatic head in)ury" ." Con usion A 3 person is awake !ut disoriented" 7esponses to en&ironmental stimuli are inappropriate" The person is !ewildered$ perple8ed$ and disoriented" .n arousal$ an unconscious person passes through a period o con usion !e ore !ecoming ully conscious" The longer a &ictim has !een unconscious$ the longer the period o con usion tends to last" States o reduced consciousness There are a num!er o intermediate conditions in which a person$ while not unconscious$ is in a reduced state o consciousness" >ere is a list o some conditions that are associated with a state o reduced consciousness* 1" Drowsiness A 3 person is awake !ut has lost any sense o ocus and is a!out to all asleep" 2" 1editation A 3 person deli!erately puts hisHher !rain in a state somewhere !etween consciousness and sleep" The !rain is trained to ignore normal sensations rom the en&ironment" . ." Stupor A Someone in a stupor is e8periencing a &ery deep sleep and can only !e temporarily aroused !y energetic stimulation" When in a stupor$ you are still ." 3mnesia A 3 person is una!le to recall$ part or all$ o past e8periences" 3mnesia can result rom a physical !rain in)ury$ emotional shock$ or chemical damage to the !rain" /" Delirium A 3 person has diminished a!ility to pay attentionC is con used$ disoriented$ and una!le to think clearly" Delirium is not a disease !ut a set o symptoms that can result rom a myriad o causes" The condition typically lasts rom a ew days to a ew weeks" 0" Shock A 3 person e8periences pro ound mental and physical depression resulting rom a se&ere physical in)ury or emotional distur!ance" Shock can reduce the low o !lood to the !rain and cause ainting or prolonged unconsciousness" 2" Concussion A 3 concussion results rom a minor !low to the head" The person may su er a !rie loss o consciousness$ may !e con used$ headachy$ a!normally sleepy$ and orget ul" 3 concussion can a ect memory$ )udgement$ re le8es$ speech$ !alance and co%ordination" These symptoms can last rom a ew hours to se&eral days" 4" Dementia A 3 person e8periences a gradual decline in mental a!ility in which memory$ )udgement$ attention$ and the a!ility to learn are impaired" 5" 3mentia A 3 person is semi%conscious$ disorientated$ una!le to speak$ una!le to mo&e$ and emotionally indi erent" 3mentia is typically associated with reduced mental capacity" 10"Schi9ophrenia A 'ersons su ering rom this disease o ten hear internal &oices$ are con&inced that their opinions and !elie s are true despite e&idence to the contrary$ are easily distracted$ and are una!le to think in a logical ashion" They are conscious !ut in many ways are disconnected rom reality" 11"Drug o&erdose A 3 person can e8perience reduced consciousness due to an o&erdose o drugs or into8icants" 3 &ariety o drugs can interrupt normal !rain unction and produce altered mental states" The e ects may !e temporary or permanent" States o unconsciousness There are also a &ariety o states in which a person is actually unconscious$ or at least a !rie period o time" 'ersons are unconscious when their consciousness is completely disa!led" 3t least enough o their su!conscious mind has to remain unctioning in order to keep their !odies ali&e <managing !lood circulation$ !reathing$ and digestion= !ut they are not responsi&e to e8ternal stimuli" >ere is a list o some conditions that are associated with a state o unconsciousness* 1" Sleep A During normal sleep the !ody and mind are without ordinary consciousness" Sleeping indi&iduals either awake spontaneously a ter a ew hours$ or can !e aroused !y physical stimulation" <Sleep will !e considered in more detail in the ne8t section"= 2" >ypersomnia A This is an e8cessi&ely long or deep sleep" 3wakening a person in hypersomnia re:uires energetic stimulation$ !ut the person can still unction normally when awake" . .ur li&es are di&ided into periods o wake ulness and periods o sleep" While we are awake$ input rom our senses is orwarded to our !rains and is acti&ely processed to guide our acti&ities and thinking" While we are asleep$ input rom our senses to our !rains is dramatically reduced$ our physical acti&ity is curtailed$ and our thinking processes are directed internally" 1uch o our daily acti&ity is planned around our need or a regular sleep period" We each ha&e a !iological clock attuned to a 2."= 6")"' (leep .%hour cycle o day and night" 3 healthy adult human typically re:uires / to 5 hours o sleep during e&ery 2." /" 0" 2" sensiti&e to pain" Catatonia A Catatonia is a syndrome characteri9ed !y periods o physical rigidity$ negati&ism$ and e8citement$ ollowed !y stupor" 3nesthesia A Drugs$ neurological disease$ or paralysis can produce a state o anesthesia" While anestheti9ed$ an indi&idual is unresponsi&e to touch$ cold$ or pain" Ender general anesthesia$ there is a loss o eeling in the whole !ody and the person is unconscious" Cere!ral contusions <!rain !ruises= and lacerations <!rain tearing= A 3 serious head in)ury has rendered the indi&idual unconscious" This type o damage can !e permanent and the &ictim may remain in a comatose state" Coma A 3 person in a coma appears to !e in a deep sleep" >owe&er$ the person is completely unconscious$ cannot !e aroused$ and is not sensiti&e to pain" 3 coma is usually associated with a serious medical condition" There is a range o states !etween ull consciousness and complete unconsciousness" To !e ully conscious you need to !e healthy$ wide%awake$ attuned to your en&ironment$ and ully ocused" +or clear thinking$ ull consciousness is your o!&ious irst choice$ although there are some who ad&ocate using meditation to assist with clear thinking under some conditions" <1editation will !e addressed again in section 2".n a&erage$ a !a!y sleeps a!out 1/ hours per day$ while a senior sleeps a!out 2 hours per day" (n aggregate$ we spend a!out one third o our time on Earth asleep" 'ioneering research conducted !y Seymour -en9er and 7on Gonopka led to the disco&ery o a gene on the V%chromosome o Drosophila < ruit lies= that controlled their circadian rhythm" -y causing mutations in this gene they were a!le to produce lies that had 15%hour days$ 25%hour days$ or random length days" The implication is that whate&er the reasons or sleep$ those reasons are !uilt into e&ery cell in the !odies o ruit lies" 3nd since the cells in our !odies contain similar genes$ our need or sleep is pro!a!ly !uilt in at the cellular le&el as well" When you eel tired at the end o the day$ there are !illions o cells in your !ody all asking or a nap at the same time" Sleep seems to !e necessary or sur&i&al and good health$ !ut e8actly why is not well .%hour cycle" The need or sleep gradually changes with age" . " Sleep depri&ation will lead to mental insta!ility" With sleep depri&ation$ the urge to sleep increases$ your a!ility to complete physical tasks is impaired$ and your a!ility to make sound )udgements is impaired" >owe&er$ one or two periods o sleep will restore normal unctions" What is sleepJ 3lthough the acti&ity o sleeping is still somewhat o a mystery$ it does ha&e typical o!ser&a!le characteristics" 3 person who is sleeping* Lies down$ or slumps in place without any muscle e ort to maintain an upright position" 1" (s :uiet and still" 2" >as a low response to stimulation o the senses" .%hour circadian rhythm throughout the whole !ody$ the thalamus sends out the signals that determine your le&el o wake ulness$ and the !rain stem controls the cycles rom light sleep$ to deep sleep$ to rapid eye mo&ement <7E1= sleep" Sleep is an acti&e mode with its own set o acti&ities" Sleep myths 3ll parts o the !ody slow down during sleep" (n act$ parts o the !rain are more acti&e during sleep" 1" We sleep to rest" Sleep may pro&ide an opportunity or the !ody to restore itsel a ter a period o wake ul acti&ity" (nterestingly$ it and acti&e people actually sleep less than those who are more sedentary" 2" When we sleep$ our !odies simply grind to a halt" Sleep and wake ulness are states that are !oth acti&ely controlled !y the !rain" ." 3wakens spontaneously or with gentle stimulation" Sleep cycles and !rain wa&es (n 1525 a Swiss psychiatrist$ >ans -erger$ irst used an electroencephalogram <EE6= to measure !rain acti&ity during sleep" 3n EE6 measures the o&erall electrical acti&ity o the !rain at di erent re:uencies and displays the results as wa&y lines on a strip chart recorder" EE6 measurements show that each night during sleep our !rain acti&ity passes through a num!er o well%de ined cycles" The most common EE6 re:uencies o!ser&ed during sleep are named a ter letters o the 6reek alpha!et so you may hear re erences to alpha$ !eta$ gamma$ delta$ or theta wa&es in discussions o sleep cycles" .understood" The urge to sleep typically grows near the end o a day$ until we satis y that urge" ( someone is depri&ed o the opportunity to sleep or more than a day$ the urge to sleep !ecomes more dominant and )udgement !ecomes impaired" Soldiers on watch$ operators o machinery$ truck dri&ers$ and pilots will e&entually all asleep e&en i it is o!&ious to the indi&iduals that their li&es will then !e in peril" >ow does your !rain put you to sleepJ Latest research suggests that there are three components to sleeping that are controlled !y three regions o the !rain" The hypothalamus synchroni9es our 2. ur !rains are acti&e all night long" 1ost dreaming occurs during Stage . or Stage . and Stage / sleep" 1ost sleep%talking$ sleep%walking$ and nightmares occur during Stage ." Why do we sleepJ 3ll mammals$ !irds$ and most other creatures sleep during some part o each day$ and it is generally agreed that sleep must ser&e some !asic !iological unction that enhances sur&i&al" The nature o that unction remains poorly understood" Sleep may !e a process to conser&e energy" When an animal alls asleep its meta!olic rate decreases !y a!out 10D and its !ody temperature alls !y a!out 2ZC" >i!ernation is an e8tension o sleep and has an o!&ious energy conser&ation unction" 'eriods o sleep might help to keep an animal sa e rom predators" ( you can o!tain enough ood and drink in hal a day$ and are tucked up co9y$ sa e$ asleep$ and out o harm@s way or the rest o the day then there is less chance that you will stum!le into some other hungry creature and !e eaten" 'erhaps we sleep so that we can dream" Dreams (t used to !e thought that dreams were in re:uent$ unpredicta!le$ and o &ery short duration" Dreams were thought to !e !i9arre$ unrealistic and emotionally charged" >owe&er$ research o&er the past /0 years has led to a !etter understanding o the dream process" The !asic techni:ue o dream research in&ol&es monitoring the EE6s o sleeping research su!)ects" Changes in the EE6s suggest when su!)ects are dreaming" -ased on many studies$ it is apparent that dreams occur during all stages o sleep and a!out one :uarter o our sleep%time in&ol&es dreaming" When awakened$ and asked a!out .3 typical night@s sleep acti&ity passes through the ollowing phases* you eel drowsy and alpha wa&es dominate while you all asleepC your sleep then passes through / or 0 cycles o a!out 50 minutes each" Each cycle passes systematically !ack and orth through i&e stages* 'tage ?* Light sleep A When :uestioned a person may claim to ha&e still !een awake" 'tage @* 1edium sleep A 3 person is de initely asleep$ !ut may react to loud noises" 'tage <* Deep sleep A ( awakened a person is con used and disoriented" 'tage 9* 7ela8ed sleep A 1uscles are rela8edC !lood pressure is lower$ heart rate and !reathing rates are lowered" 'tage G* 7E1 sleep A 1uscles are still rela8ed !ut a person@s eyes can !e seen to mo&e rapidly !ack and orth under the eyelids$ as i ollowing an acti&e &isual ield" -lood low to the !rain increases" . their dreams$ the accounts o su!)ects indicate that the contents o most dreams are mundane$ realistic$ and ha&e a thematic structure" 7E1 sleep e&okes the most predicta!le$ re:uent$ and prolonged dream e8periences" The :uality o a dream is related to the mental state o the dreamer" Talented &isual thinkers tend to ha&e more &isual dream content" Depressed patients tend to gi&e dream reports with a depressi&e tone" Schi9ophrenic patients tend to gi&e dream reports that are disorgani9ed and incoherent" Dreams seem to !e remarka!ly independent o speci ic stimuli !e ore$ or during sleep" When su!)ects watched ilms that were &iolent$ sad$ or pornographic !e ore sleeping$ there was no measura!le e ect on su!se:uent dream content" When sleeping su!)ects were su!)ected to sounds$ light lashes$ cold water$ or mild electrical shocks a dreamer might add the input as a temporary e&ent$ !ut the theme o a dream tended to remain una ected" Some indi&iduals ha&e dreams that are repeated o&er se&eral nights$ and some dreams do in&ol&e emotional e&ents" 1any nightmares ha&e some sort o chase se:uence in which the dreamer struggles to a&oid a dangerous peril" #our conscious knowledge o a dream@s content dissipates rapidly on awakening" ( you want to remem!er the contents o a dream you were e8periencing$ you ha&e to repeat the story se&eral times or write it down as soon as you wake up" This rapid dissipation o dream content could !e e8plained i the e8perience o dreaming is actually the low o in ormation through your immediate%term memory while you are asleep" 7ecall that immediate%term memory can only hold a!out se&en in ormation items or up to thirty seconds" 3nd while you are asleep immediate%term memory would recei&e little input rom the senses$ so most o its contents would ha&e to come rom your su!conscious mind" Thus the model o the conscious mind can !e e8tended to pro&ide a simple description o dreaming" Consciousness is the low o in ormation through your immediate%term memory while you are awake" This input can come rom your senses or your su!conscious mind" Dreams are the low o in ormation through your immediate%term memory while you are asleep" Since e8ternal stimuli are largely ignored during sleep$ &irtually all o your dream content must come rom your su!conscious mind" What are dreams orJ 3lthough the unctions o sleep and dreaming are not well understood$ dreams seem to ha&e at least three practical unctions* 1" Dreams seem to !e in&ol&ed in sorting in ormation collected during the day$ and perhaps dreaming assists in iling that in ormation away in memory" This unction would account or the mundane themes yet unusual com!inations o topics in most dreams" #ou ha&e to !rowse through e8isting memories to ind the !est location or a new memory$ and you want to cross%re erence a new memory to other topics to increase its use ulness" There is some research that suggests a session o sleep with regular dreaming helps to entrench memories" . 2" Dreams may !e in&ol&ed in rehearsing possi!le real li e scenarios" (n dreams you can work through a wide &ariety o possi!le actions and conse:uences" Dreaming may !e analogous to security training when you contemplate$ plan$ and practice or all kinds o possi!le scenarios" The security comparison is apt !ecause at a undamental le&el our daily actions are all designed to enhance our chances o sur&i&al" 1any nightmares are pro!a!ly rehearsals or a&oiding danger" ." Dreams wake us up in the middle o the night so we can a&oid wetting the !ed" That may seem like a tri&ial purpose or dreaming$ !ut a&oiding !edwetting is a !asic social need and humans are social animals" -e ore proceeding to Chapter 2 and a model o the Su!conscious$ let@s take a moment to summari9e and clari y the meanings o a ew key terms* 1" B7on#conscious@ is a term used to descri!e the neural systems o simple animals" 2" (n animals with more comple8 neural systems$ mental acti&ity is di&ided into two realms$ Bconscious@ and Bsubconscious@" ." Trauma can render a conscious animal Bunconscious@$ a state in which all conscious and some su!conscious acti&ities are curtailed" /" B'leep@ represents a period o reduced consciousness" While you sleep$ your su!conscious mind keeps your !ody unctioning" During a :uarter o the time you are asleep$ your su!conscious channels in ormation through your immediate%term memory that then !ecomes the su!)ects o your dreams" %%% ." There are a &ariety o conditions that can reduce an animal@s le&el o consciousness" . arnessing Your (u$conscious With a !etter understanding o your su!conscious mind you will !e !etter prepared to direct its potential in completing your daily tasks" ( it were possi!le to master e&en a raction o the power o your su!conscious mind then you could reduce inner con licts$ !ecome more adapta!le and tolerant$ and lead a happier more producti&e li e" B"& 9nitial Explorations of the (u$conscious Studying the su!conscious mind is a di icult task$ since !y de inition su!conscious acti&ity is !eyond the reach o consciousness" 3ccording to the model o consciousness de&eloped in Chapter 0$ your conscious mind is limited to processing the in ormation that lows through your immediate%term memory" -y implication$ all your other mental acti&ities must occur in the realm o the su!conscious" #our su!conscious mind maintains your autonomic systems that keep you ali&e" #our su!conscious monitors input rom the en&ironment and draws anything unusual to the attention o your conscious mind" #our su!conscious also keeps many o your &oluntary acti&ities running on autopilot until your conscious mind decides to take control or a ew moments" #our su!conscious manages most o your learning and memory updates" B"&"& Analogies for (u$conscious Activit #our mental processes and routines are encapsulated in neural networks$ and signals passing through these networks correspond to your thoughts" When your mind is stimulated !y$ and then engaged in analy9ing new input$ all the rele&ant pathways are acti&ated" >owe&er$ in your conscious mind you are only aware o acti&ity in the particular pathways that comprise the ocus o your attention <the items in your in immediate%term memory=" 3n operating%system analogy (n the operating system analogy$ your conscious thoughts correspond to the current program displayed on the monitor$ and your su!conscious thoughts correspond to all the other !ackground programs that are running at the same time" #our inherited and learned mental !eha&iours are stored in neural networks$ analogous to the computer programs in an operating system" (nitiating and e8ecuting a mental !eha&iour is e:ui&alent to calling up a program and ollowing its instructions" The orest%pathway analogy . 9nitial Explorations of the (u$conscious A -odel of the (u$conscious Putting it all Together .Chapter B* A -odel of the -ind B"& B"' B") B". ther pathways are created as you deli!erately construct and rehearse new thoughts" 3s you tra&el along any gi&en pathway$ en&ironmental stimuli are constantly suggesting alternate paths to ollow" E&ery moment o thinking presents a &ariety o new pathways to choose rom" #ou can take a well%worn pathway$ a path that detours around a rugged hill$ a pathway that passes !y a re reshing spring$ or you can set o on a new route through the trees" The path that you do choose !ecomes the ocus o your attention and thus !ecomes your conscious thoughts" 3ll the other pathways that you happen to cross along the way$ and near!y pathways that you can glimpse through the trees correspond to your su!conscious thoughts" 3s you di&ert your thinking rom one pathway to another$ the new pathway !ecomes your new centre o consciousness" The orest%pathway analogy re:uires one e8tra eature A i you recei&e an e8ternal stimulus$ you are a!le to )ump across the orest to a new pathway related to that stimulus" ( someone asks you a!out your 12th !irthday$ i you hear something on the news$ or i you detect a long orgotten sound A your conscious mind can )ump to any pathways linked to those stimuli" The orest%pathway analogy has some &ery interesting implications or clear thinking" 1" -uilding neural pathways$ through e8perience and with training$ increases the capa!ilities o !oth your conscious and su!conscious minds" 2" While the general process o !uilding pathways occurs o&er a li etime o learning and thinking$ speci ic new pathways can !e !uilt through repetition and rehearsal" .(n this analogy$ your neural networks correspond to pathways through a orest" #our conscious mind corresponds to the pathway that you are currently tra&elling$ while your su!conscious mind corresponds to all the other paths around you" 3 single pathway might correspond to a concept$ a relationship$ or a !eha&iour pattern" Some primal pathways ha&e e8isted rom the day you were !orn$ and are well%tra&elled" .ther primal pathways are hard to reachC they are o&ergrown and hidden !y !ram!les" 1any new pathways are created as you encounter li e@s e8periences during your ormati&e years" ." #ou can access some o your su!conscious thoughts !y altering your ocus o attention" Then your new ocus o attention enters your conscious mind and your old thoughts ade into your su!conscious" >ow can this analogy o a ew pathways through some trees capture the intricacies and comple8ity o all your thoughtsJ The analogy !ecomes more realistic i you en&isage a orest the si9e o the 3ma9on )ungle and you ha&e the a!ility to 9ip along trails o any length in the !link o an eye" B"&"' Freudian Basics 1any o the concepts in psychiatry and psychotherapy are !ased on ideas irst de&eloped !y Sigmund +reud in the early 1500@s" +reud proposed that the . " B"&") The Brain as a Three1+evel (tructure 'aul 1acLean de&eloped a three%le&el model o !rain structure and unction " >is model was !ased on an e&olutionary approach to human de&elopment" >is three%le&el model <triune !rain= consists o the reptilian comple8$ the lim!ic system$ and the neocorte8" The !iological aspects o this model were outlined in section 1"1$ and the corresponding components were la!elled the hind!rain$ the mid%!rain comple8$ and the ore!rain" (n this su!%section$ we would like to consider the psychological properties o this model" 7eptilian comple8 <hind!rain= .su!conscious mind has three components* the Bid@$ the Bsuper ego@$ and the Bego@" >e proposed that unresol&ed con licts among these three mental components were the main source o mental stress and insta!ility" The id +reud@s id represents our most primiti&e needs" The id has instinctual urges o se8uality$ aggression$ and the need or instant grati ication" When you sense urges such as B( need itC ( want it$ nowS@ +reud would say you are !eing prompted !y your id" The superego 3ccording to +reud$ the superego pro&ides your !asic sense o morality to counteract the impulsi&e id" The superego de&elops during early childhood encounters with moral and ethical e8pectations" (n adults$ the superego acts as the moral agent that links your conscious and unconscious minds" The ego The ego utili9es su!conscious personality traits to represent your conscious sel $ and acts as a !alance !etween the id and superego" The ego pro&ides your a!ility to adapt to reality and helps you to interact success ully with the e8terior world" #our ego has much to do with the mental image you ha&e o yoursel and how you think others percei&e you" E orts to protect one@s ego and preser&e B ace@ dominate much o human social acti&ity" The details o +reud@s structural model o personality ha&e !een challenged$ de!ated$ discredited$ resurrected$ and modi ied or se&eral decades" The model o mental stress created !y internal con licts is still generally accepted and is o ten used as a !asis or correcti&e psychoanalysis" +reud@s work has two important implications or clear thinking" +irst$ he pioneered the concept o a three%le&el su!conscious mind" The concept o a three%le&el su!conscious mind will !e utili9ed in section 2"2" Second$ +reud emphasi9ed that con licts in the su!conscious can lead to internal stress and poor thinking" 3 summary o techni:ues to reduce internal con licts and make !etter use o the su!conscious is presented in section 2". 1acLean descri!es the reptilian comple8 as rigid$ o!sessi&e$ compulsi&e$ ritualistic$ and paranoid" Lim!ic system <mid%!rain comple8= The lim!ic system de&otes much o its energy to emotions$ especially the M our +@sN o psychology A eeding$ ighting$ leeing$ and se8ual !eha&iour" Neocorte8 < ore!rain= The neocorte8 makes up a!out two%thirds o the mass o the human !rain" The neocorte8 manages considered thought$ ine motor control$ planning or uture e&ents$ spatial interpretations o the en&ironment$ language$ and artistic endea&ours" 222 B"' A -odel of the (u$conscious (t is assumed that the hind!rain$ the mid%!rain comple8$ and the ore!rain arose in an e&olutionary ashion$ and that at each stage o this e&olution the mind re:uired a su!conscious component" These components are closely associated with* the three% le&el model o the physical !rain adopted in section 1"1C +reud@s id$ ego$ and super egoC and 1acLean@s triune model o the !rain" When making additions to a country armhouse$ all modi ications always ha&e to occur in con)unction with a ully unctioning system" .n a working arm$ the amily has to continue li&ing in its house while any reno&ations are made" ( a new kitchen is added$ the old kitchen is still used all during construction" (n a similar manner$ as the human !rain e&ol&ed$ the old &ersion had to remain ully unctional e&en as new eatures were added" This implies that the old su!conscious mind at Le&el ( had to remain unctional e&en as more sophisticated components at Le&el (($ and then Le&el ((($ e&ol&ed" 'resuma!ly each le&el o the su!conscious recei&es input rom the senses$ has control o some physical acti&ities$ manages some memory unctions$ and pro&ides moti&ating output <emotions= to direct !eha&iours or sur&i&al" Each le&el also has its own uni:ue characteristics$ otherwise it would not stand out as distinct rom the other le&els" 3 three%le&el model o the su!conscious has the ad&antage o pro&iding a simple !ut power ul concept or e8plaining a wide &ariety o human !eha&iour" . n occasion and with ocused e ort you can modi y these acti&ities to some e8tent" +or e8ample$ you can slow down your rate o !reathing !ut you cannot stop it" #ou can rela8 and !reathe deeply to acilitate sleep$ !ut ew o us can consciously decide to all asleep at a gi&en moment" #ou might !e a!le to ocus on tightening muscles near a minor laceration to reduce !leeding$ !ut you cannot consciously will all !leeding to stop" -asic physical skills (n addition$ any !asic physical skills that you ha&e practiced and mastered such as crawling$ walking$ running$ and keeping your !alance$ are under the control o your su!conscious at Le&el ( most o the time" 1astery means you can utili9e that skill without ha&ing to consciously think a!out the details" The su!conscious mind at Le&el ( also controls and acti&ates a num!er o more su!tle e&eryday acti&ities" .Figure %D* A three1level model of the su$conscious B"'"& The (u$conscious -ind at +evel 9 Su!conscious acti&ity at Le&el ( is associated with unctions typical o the hind!rain$ +reud@s id$ and 1acLean@s reptilian comple8" These include the sur&i&al unctions needed to keep the !ody ali&e and unctioning" 1aintaining the !ody #our su!conscious at Le&el ( maintains !reathing and heart rate$ digestion$ normal sleep$ response to minor in ections$ response to minor damage$ and monitoring o the en&ironment or unusual e&ents" 3ll this acti&ity normally takes place without any conscious control" . #ou are typically using Le&el ( skills when you turn your head to locate source o a soundC sni the air to seek the source o an unusual odourC or !link to lu!ricate and clean your eyes" Le&el ( skills help you use the relati&e angles o your eyes to estimate the distance to o!)ects" ( you happen to detect the !ending o indi&idual hairs on your arm$ you interpret those signals as a small creature mo&ing o&er your arm" #our su!conscious skills at Le&el ( are also e8pert at detecting and interpreting su!tle &ariations in acial e8pressions and !ody language" #ou can usually interpret a person@s mood with a :uick glance at their posture and e8pression" The angle o a person@s head indicates where they are looking" #ou know people are !ecoming more interested as the pupils o their eyes dilate" #our su!conscious skills at Le&el ( can also detect pheromones that indicate the se8ual energy o a person" Those skills also !ring up your arms :uickly to shelter your ace and head rom any percei&ed !low$ and to pull !ack your hand rom an o!)ect that is too hot$ too cold$ or electrically energi9ed" B"'"' The (u$conscious -ind at +evel 99 Su!conscious acti&ity at Le&el (( is associated with unctions typical o the mid!rain$ +reud@s ego$ and the lim!ic system in 1acLean@s triune !rain model" These unctions supply emotions and memories to help keep us unctioning in a dynamic en&ironment" 7apid emotional response (nput rom the senses passes through the thalamus in the mid%!rain comple8$ and then ollows a &ariety o routes" .ne route or any potentially dangerous or emotional in ormation leads directly to the amygdala or an immediate response such as a smile$ a )ump !ack$ or a lunge orward" The three !asic sur&i&al strategies o ight$ light$ or appeasement are undamental components o your !rain@s sur&i&al system in the amygdala" (nstincts Studies o !a!y animal responses show that they ha&e a !uilt%in tendency to shrink rom )ust a ew speci ic stimuli" 1ost instinctual ears appear to !e acti&ated only when e8posure to a potential danger includes some kind o negati&e eed!ack" +or e8ample a !a!y monkey does not ha&e an initial ear o snakes" >owe&er$ i on irst seeing a snake a !a!y monkey also sees a ear response in another monkey$ then the instinctual ear o snakes is permanently acti&ated rom that moment on" The young human mind is also sensiti9ed to react to the ear o others or a range o potential dangers" We seem to ha&e proto ears o reptiles$ spiders$ large swooping !irds$ and heights" En ortunately there is no indication o instinctual ear or the greater dangers o disease$ automo!iles$ and human &iolence" 1odels o reality The su!conscious mind at Le&el (( sorts through sensory input and past e8perience to . " The hero lies through the air$ sur&i&es &icious attacks unscathed$ always de eats the orces o e&il A this must !e a antasy" B"'") The (u$conscious -ind at +evel 999 Su!conscious acti&ity at Le&el ((( is associated with !asic unctions typical o the ore!rain$ +reud@s super ego$ and the neocorte8 o 1acLean@s triune" These unctions help humans to unction in a social setting" Language #ou su!conscious at Le&el ((( is distinguished !y its ad&anced language capa!ilities or listening$ interpreting$ composing and speaking$ and composing and writing" #our listening skills depend not only on what you hear$ !ut also on your knowledge o the language !eing used$ and your a!ility to interpret &olume$ tone$ conte8t and social setting" #ou ha&e to !e a!le to separate words rom !ackground noise and o ten ha&e to ill in missing sylla!les and words" .n top o all that you ha&e to gauge the social setting and your audience to estimate whether your remarks are going to !e appropriate and e ecti&e" Writing skills are similar to speaking skills with the added tasks o imagining the audience" #ou also ha&e to adhere to stricter re:uirements or grammar and spelling$ and you need to master the demands o ine motor control re:uired to utili9e the medium you ha&e chosen or recording your words" 'ro!lem sol&ing 'ro!lem sol&ing skills are another hallmark o your su!conscious at Le&el (((" >uman acti&ity re:uires a continuous stream o pro!lem sol&ing$ rom dealing with social issues such as BWhat do ( wearJ@ to more technical issues such as BDow can + do thisJ@ Chapter 4 is de&oted to pro!lem sol&ing" Social awareness .nce a string o words is constructed$ you still ha&e to interpret the intention o the speaker" Communications &ia telephone or radio re:uire e8tra interpretati&e e ort !y a listener since the &isual and social clues are missing" #our speaking skills are )ust as demanding" +irst you ha&e to con&ert an idea into a string o words" Then you ha&e to manage your !reathing and speaking mechanisms to create a series o intelligi!le sounds" #ou can also &ary &olume and tone$ and add !ody language or emphasis" .help you construct a model o reality" >ere are a ew e8amples* 1" Since those are trees$ this is dirt$ and there are !irds and !ugs litting around A this is pro!a!ly a orest" 2" >ere is a walkway crowded with people$ there are stores on !oth sides$ there is a distant roo o&erhead$ and signs are pointing to a ood alley A this must !e a shopping mall" . 1aintaining a sense o social awareness is another important acti&ity o your su!conscious at Le&el (((" This part o your !rain seems to !e in perpetual action$ scanning the social en&ironment to determine the relati&e social status o others" B3re they male or femaleJ@ B3re they leaders or followersJ@ B%o + owe them respect or do they owe meJ@ 3 key part o your social awareness is your own sel %image" #our su!conscious at Le&el ((( systematically generates a sel %image that you use in making daily decisions a!out what you are capa!le o accomplishing" >owe&er$ in constructing our sel %images$ research has shown that we tend to o&erestimate our skills and o&erlook our laws" When our actual skills and a!ilities are compared with our own estimates$ the correlation actor is only a!out 0"2 <an accuracy o a!out 20D=" 3n in lated sel %image is good or the ego$ !ut not &ery good or clear thinking" 222 B") Putting it all Together ( we take the model o the conscious mind$ de&eloped in Chapter 0$ and add it on top o the three%le&el model o the su!conscious mind de&eloped in the pre&ious section$ then we create a simple our%part model o the whole mind" See +igure ?5 !elow" . ne route leads directly to the mid%!rain comple8 or a rapid response$ while a second route reaches the ore!rain a!out 0"2/ seconds later or a more detailed e&aluation" So you might )ump up when you see a !ig spider$ !ut then reali9e that it is harmless as it goes a!out its !usiness" The our%part model o the mind pro&ides a ramework that can lead to a !etter understanding o your conscious and su!conscious capa!ilities" B")"& Applications of the Four1Part -odel 3s with any model$ the only &alue o the our%part model o the mind is in helping to organi9e the known acts and properties$ and helping to e8plain the operation o a comple8 system" Di&iding su!conscious acti&ity into three le&els is a somewhat ar!itrary procedure$ perhaps analogous to classi ying the lowers in a garden into three height categories" >owe&er$ there does seem to !e a correspondence among the su!conscious acti&ities and the physical structures o the hind!rain$ mid!rain$ and ore!rain" Similar comments could !e made regarding the assignment o distinct memories$ skills$ emotions$ and sensory input to each le&el o the su!conscious" The three le&els o the su!conscious$ each with our su!sections <memories$ skills$ emotions$ sensory input= lead to a total o twel&e su!sections" The ocus o attention o your conscious mind changes constantly during the course o a day as the twel&e su!sections o your su!conscious compete or its attention" Typical unctions o the su!sections o the su!conscious are summari9ed in Ta!le ?." .Figure %E* A four1part model of the mind 3 key eature o this model is that the su!conscious mind and the physical !rain are integrated" Each le&el o the su!conscious is directly associated with a physical part o the !rain and each le&el o the su!conscious has its own memory$ skills$ emotions$ and sensory input" 3nother eature o this model is the implication that much o the neural acti&ity in our !rains occurs at the su!conscious le&el" 7esearch !y Poseph Le Dou8 <The !motional 0rain$ 1550= pro&ides supporting physical e&idence or a model o the mind with more than one le&el o su!conscious" >e ound that there are at least two channels or the low o sensory input" . * T pical functions of the su$conscious levels 'riority o interrupts 3ccording to our model o the mind$ there are at least twel&e sources o in ormation continually competing or the se&en in ormation slots a&aila!le in your immediate% term memory" >ow can the model deal with such competitionJ 3n analogous situation occurs in the operation o computers" The C'E in a computer hums along at se&eral million cycles per second while it switches !ack and orth among se&eral su!programs running at the same time" Computers can also !e connected to a &ariety o other de&ices such as printers$ scanners$ key!oards$ the (nternet$ and e8tra memory de&ices" . ten more than one program or de&ice wants the attention o the C'E at the same time" To handle this type o situation$ a system o priorities is !uilt into programs and de&ices$ and the C'E is programmed to deal with the highest priority items irst" The mind seems to ha&e an analogous set o priorities* potential ha9ards are dealt with irst$ then emotional reactions$ and inally analytical thought" When we are in a calm and sa e en&ironment$ our mental acti&ity lows along in a semi%automatic mode" We are ree to analy9e and daydream to our heart@s content" -ut i we step on a sharp o!)ect or sni a oul chemical in the air$ those sensations take priority and our attention is snapped !ack to our immediate en&ironment" B")"' Conscious 4 (u$conscious 9nteractions #our su!conscious mind can interact with your conscious mind to produce a range o positi&e or negati&e in luences" Support or conscious acti&ity .Ta$le %. While you walk down the street talking to a riend$ your conscious thoughts may keep you on the sidewalk and guide your discussion" 3t the same time$ your su!conscious mind is helping you to keep your !alance$ co%ordinate your leg mo&ements$ co% ordinate your speaking with your !reathing$ and helping you to control the ine muscle mo&ements o your tongue and lips to produce words" #our su!conscious mind is working to support your conscious acti&ity" 1onitoring o the en&ironment 3t a sports e&ent you can !e surrounded !y thousands o cheering ans$ !ut your conscious mind is occupied with the tasks o ollowing the action on the playing ield" 3t the same time your su!conscious mind keeps track o what is going on around you$ especially unusual e&ents" ( the person in ront o you spills a !o8 o popcorn and cries out$ your ocus o attention is lia!le to !e di&erted to that situation or at least a ew moments" #our su!conscious mind continuously monitors your en&ironment and noti ies your conscious mind o signi icant changes" Distraction Some people ha&e di iculty staying on topic while recounting a recent e&ent" 3s they talk$ one topic seems to lead to a related !ut irrele&ant topic" Their su!conscious minds seem to !e ollowing sets o linked memories and eeding that in ormation to their conscious minds$ without any relation to the original topic" 3 similar type o thinking sometimes occurs when you want to ocus on a challenging task !ut ind that your mind keeps sliding o towards less onerous and more attracti&e contemplations" #ou may intend to spend the ne8t hour studying Latin or a test on +riday$ !ut ind yoursel daydreaming a!out your date or Saturday night" Con lict with conscious thought Sometimes your conscious and su!conscious minds can !e in con lict" #our conscious mind has decided that you need to diet and that you ha&e already had ade:uate nutrition or the day" Somewhere rom the depths o your su!conscious mind the thought persists that you deser&e to eat one more little snack$ and that doing so will !ring you great pleasure and satis action" (n such a con lict$ your su!conscious is relentless" Signi icant conscious e ort is re:uired to alter a pre&iously esta!lished !eha&iour pattern" (ntuition #our intuition is a re lection o your su!conscious mind at work" #our su!conscious mind is continually monitoring sensory input$ and comparing your current situation with similar past e8periences" Conclusions and recommendations rom your su!conscious mind are o ten passed on to your conscious mind in the orm o intuiti&e insights" #our conscious mind is aware that a )udgement has !een made$ !ut is unaware o the reasons or that )udgement" While interacting with others we can su!consciously detect minor muscle twitches and shi ts in !ody position that may pro&ide clues a!out what a person is a!out to do$ or the truth ulness o what they are saying" . During a !usy day you may su!consciously detect su!tle changes in your en&ironment such as a change in air pressure$ a change in temperature$ a change in humidity$ or a change in an animal@s !eha&iour" 3 com!ination o these su!liminal changes may lead to an intuiti&e thought in your conscious mind" #our intuition is not always right" (t is )ust a proposal rom your su!conscious mind" When you !uy a lottery ticket !ecause your intuition tells you that today is your lucky day$ that pro!a!ly )ust means your su!conscious mind wants to win the lottery as much as your conscious mind" 1orality$ guilt$ and other social imperati&es 1orality is shaped !y the general rules or accepta!le !eha&iour in a gi&en society" Some would claim that moral !eha&iour is uni&ersal in nature$ !ut a :uick sur&ey o history suggests that almost any !eha&iour has !een accepta!le at some time$ in some society" Tying heretics to a stake and !urning them ali&e$ nominally to sa&e their souls$ was an accepted practice o the Christian church well into the 14th century" The ensla&ement and reduction o humans to the status o property was generally accepted around the world until the 15th century" Scattering cluster !om!s across a landscape to render the land uninha!ita!le is still a standard military practice in the 21st century" 1oral considerations are only a pro!lem or indi&iduals when con licts arise !etween intuiti&e moti&ations and social guidelines" 6uilt is associated with past e&ents" +eelings o guilt are o ten supplied to your conscious mind !y your su!conscious mind as part o a routine to keep your uture actions in line with moral concepts" When you ha&e a nagging eeling that you should not ha&e done something that you did$ you know one part o your su!conscious is chastising another part or a :uestiona!le moral decision" +or e8ample$ i hit a loyal riend !ecause you are angry o&er an unrelated incident$ there is a good chance you will soon eel guilty a!out your !eha&iour towards your riend" +eelings o guilt$ generated !y your su!conscious$ can !e help ul i they guide you toward more constructi&e !eha&iour in the uture" +eelings o guilt can !e destructi&e i they !ecome too per&asi&e and inhi!it your a!ility to think clearly" Consciousness and ree will #our !eha&ioural patterns are em!edded in neural networks that you ha&e inherited or de&eloped during your li etime" En&ironmental stimuli are continually interrupting your current train o thought and starting you down alternate neural pathways" When your !ody runs low on energy$ you are stimulated to eat" When a !ug lies towards your eye$ you are stimulated to !link" When you eel cold you are stimulated to seek warmth" >ow does ree will enter into this processJ . $ 1540 Qa collection o science iction storiesR= 3s early as 1400 the 6erman physician and physicist$ >ermann &on >elmtolt9$ proposed that we are unaware o the ma)ority o our mental acti&ity" 3ccording to the our%part model o the mind de&eloped a!o&e$ the ma)ority o your mental acti&ity occurs in your su!conscious" 3nd your su!conscious mind o!&iously per orms &aried and &ital unctions$ otherwise you could ne&er sur&i&e" >ow much in luence can your conscious mind e8ert o&er your su!conscious mindJ Can you ind ways to enhance the direct e8change o in ormation !etween your conscious and your su!consciousJ Can you make !etter use o your power ul su!conscious mind in your conscious deli!erationsJ 3n impro&ed low o in ormation would pro&ide the potential or !etter conscious control o your neural processes$ and the a!ility to modi y your ha!its and to think more clearly" There are ew studies that directly measure the properties o the su!conscious" Thus$ attempts to harness the su!conscious are o ten speculati&e in nature and much o the discussion in this section is !ased on anecdotal accounts" Without reali9ing that you are doing it you already use a &ariety o strategies$ approaches$ and practices to harness your su!conscious" #our su!conscious monitors all sensory and memory input$ monitors your conscious thoughts$ and o!ser&es the resultant signals sent out to your !ody" ( you had the a!ility to deli!erately lag conscious thoughts as important or your su!conscious to analy9e$ then that would impro&e communications in that direction" 3nd i you could enhance your a!ility to detect messages rom your su!conscious$ then communications in the other direction would also !e impro&ed" B".arnessing Your (u$conscious M5ver the years + have evolved methods to force my subconscious to do all this & the really hard work & so + sitting up here in the conscious sunlit penthouse en"oy the benefits of the labors done in the dank moist basement.N <6regory -en ord$ +n 3lien (lesh$ p5.>ow much control do you really ha&e o&er your thoughts and the actions that you takeJ #ou o ten ace decisions that will a ect the physical and social standing o yoursel and others" What is the mental !asis or your decisionsJ (n the same circumstances$ why do some people do Bgood@ things while others do Bbad@ thingsJ Numerous actors pro!a!ly a ect your decisions as you choose which mental pathways to ollow" +ree will in&ol&es moment%to%moment decision%making$ !ut inherited pathways and a li etime o e8perience also in luence each decision that you make" 222 B"."& TechniCues for . .arnessing Your (u$conscious . 3 num!er o techni:ues ha&e already !een de&eloped to help indi&iduals reach their Binner sel @ that are e:ui&alent to harnessing their su!conscious minds" 1editation During meditation you are ully conscious$ !ut stri&e to contemplate your inner thoughts without interruptions rom the en&ironment" ( you are success ul at reaching a meditati&e state$ e8ternal stimuli are suppressed and there is )ust you$ your thoughts$ your !reathing$ and your heart !eating" Some claim that meditation is use ul or marshalling the !ody@s de ences to relie&e pain$ heal in)uries$ ight in ections and disease$ and control addictions" 3 meditati&e state can !e reached through rela8ation and the reduction o en&ironmental stimuli" Some practices include per orming a simple repetiti&e task$ saying a simple phrase repeatedly <a mantra=$ rela8ing and contemplating a peace ul setting$ or using hypnosis" 7esearchers at the Eni&ersity o Cali ornia at Los 3ngeles Department o 'sychiatry are studying the e ects o meditation on the well%!eing o teens and adults with attention de icitHhyperacti&ity <3D>= disorder" 'reliminary results suggest that a ew training sessions in meditation can Breduce stress and improve attention emotional balance and self#awareness@" The use o sensory depri&ation was originally in&estigated !y the military in the 15/0@s as a techni:ue to desta!ili9e candidates or interrogation" >owe&er$ !y the 1500@s it was reali9ed that the irst ew hours o sensory depri&ation had signi icant positi&e e ects" The lack o e8ternal stimulation triggers a rela8ation response" 1uscle tension$ !lood pressure$ heart rate$ and o8ygen consumption are reduced" -lood &essels dilate and cardio%&ascular e iciency is impro&ed" Chemicals associated with stress such as epinephrine and cortisol all to lower le&els in the !lood while more endorphins are released in the !rain" #ou remain awake !ut your !rain wa&es slow down to a!out 0 >9$ characteristic o the theta%state that you reach )ust !e ore alling asleep" This state o !ody%and%mind is similar to the meditati&e state reached !y e8perienced #ogi and -uddhists" There is now a growing mo&ement to use 7estricted En&ironmental Stimulation Techni:ue <7"E"S"T"= lotation cham!ers to assist indi&iduals in reaching a pro ound meditati&e state" 3 loat tank is a light%proo $ sound%insulated cham!er illed with a!out .ther e8periments ha&e shown that while in a rela8ed meditati&e state$ your !rain is a!le to learn :uickly and e iciently rom audio and &ideo messages" +or e8ample$ .0 cm o water and Epsom salts" The water%salt solution is kept at skin temperature and pro&ides enough !uoyancy to keep you loating with your ace out o the water" 3s you lie in a lotation cham!er most e8ternal stimuli are !locked$ and you loat with a sense o weightlessness" The e ects o 7"E"S"T" lotation ha&e !een in&estigated at a num!er o uni&ersities including Stan ord$ >ar&ard$ and #ale" Se&eral commercial organi9ations now pro&ide 7"E"S"T" lotation e8periences" . ne racers can reduce actual lap times a ter imagining themsel&es accelerating$ !raking$ turning$ and shi ting gears as they complete a mental lap around a race course" With enough practice and rehearsal$ you can o ten lea&e control o comple8 actions to your su!conscious" #our su!conscious mind has more speed and mental power$ and can o ten outper orm your conscious e orts" 7ecitation The simple process o e8pressing your own thoughts aloud utili9es a &ariety o neural pathways and has a num!er o !ene its or clear thinking" (t orces you to put your ideas through a linear analysis so they can !e con&erted into a string o words" (t orces you to search through your &oca!ulary !ank to ind the most appropriate words to descri!e your thoughts$ ideas$ and pro!lems" (t allows your ears to hear your thoughts$ and then your own words are processed as input through your ears and another important part o your !rain is !rought into play to analy9e what you are hearing" #our su!conscious mind is acti&ated to deal with all o these processes" 1usic and art 1usic has patterns in rhythm and tones that can stimulate or rela8 your mental acti&ity" Stimulating music increases your sense o energy and the urge to !e acti&e" 7ela8ing music can lull your senses and make it easier to sharpen the ocus o your attention" Fisual art presents colour$ shape$ te8ture$ images$ and sym!ols that can inspire creati&ity and stimulate your memory" (magination Enleashing your imagination allows your thoughts to proceed without inhi!itions$ restrictions$ or assumptions" #our su!conscious is then gi&en ree rein to present unusual com!inations o ideas to your conscious mind" Composing new com!inations o ideas is the essence o creati&ity" Daydreaming Daydreaming in&ol&es a state o rest and semi%meditation" #ou may !e watching wa&es roll on to a !each or rela8ing in a shower$ and dri t into a semi%conscious state" (n such a state you tend to lose touch with en&ironmental stimuli and let your .loat tanks are used !y a num!er o top athletes to enhance their training or mental and physical challenges" 1ental rehearsals 3thletes ha&e also learned that mental rehearsals or challenging maneu&ers are almost as e ecti&e as actual physical practice" 3 !asket!all player can impro&e success in scoring !askets through repetiti&e mental rehearsals o shooting the same shots" Downhill skiers can enhance their per ormances !y imagining themsel&es making all the !est mo&es that they want to repeat in an actual competition" +ormula . thoughts dri t" While in this rela8ed state your su!conscious can sometimes work through pro!lems or analy9e situations more e iciently than your conscious mind" 3ny ideas that come to you while daydreaming are usually soon orgotten <like dreams=$ so i you think o something creati&e and you want to sa&e that idea$ you should record it as soon as possi!le" B"."' -anaging Your Focus of Attention William Pames$ the early 3merican philosopher and psychologist$ concluded in The Brinciples of Bsychology <1450= that the capacity o consciousness is limited and selecti&e" This conclusion is consistent with the de inition o the conscious mind as the contents o immediate%term memory" 7esearch in neuro!iology has also ound that ocused mental acti&ity is accompanied !y acti&ity in speci ic neural networks$ which implies that there is a physical !asis or the concept o ocused attention" #our attention can !e directed to analy9ing stimuli rom your en&ironment$ or rom su!conscious signals" Continuously selecting the ocus o your attention is one o the most important unctions o your conscious mind" The !um!le!ee pro!lem Consider the pro!lem o recogni9ing a !um!le!ee" The colour$ the si9e$ the shape$ the !u99ing sound$ and the acti&ity o the insect are all detected separately and ha&e to !e integrated in your su!conscious mind into the concept o Bbumblebee@ !e ore that message can !e orwarded to your conscious mind" Then your conscious mind has the choice o ocusing its attention on the !ee and ollowing it as it lits rom lower to lower$ or it can ignore the !ee and continue with what it was doing !e ore" 3nother interesting eature o the !um!le!ee pro!lem is that it con irms that the senses ha&e Bbuffers@$ or short%term memories or storing input" #our senses recei&e a continuous stream o new in ormation that is analy9ed and integrated with other input and scanned or interesting eatures" >owe&er$ your !rain does not know what is interesting until it has had enough time to integrate all the in ormation gathered !y the senses" That in ormation has to !e stored in the meantime so that it is a&aila!le or re erence" 3ll o this processing and decision%making occurs so :uickly that most o the time your conscious mind is unaware that it is happening" The unction o ocus #our conscious mind is designed to keep you aware o your changing en&ironment" 1ost o the time$ you want your conscious attention to shi t rom item to item as you monitor your surroundings" >owe&er$ on occasion it is highly ad&antageous to !e a!le to ignore most en&ironmental stimuli and ocus your attention on one speci ic task" The a!ility to ocus your attention means that you are a!le to de&ote all the resources o your conscious mind and your immediate%term memory to a single task o your choice" (t takes practice and determination to ocus your attention on a single topic !ecause other items rom your en&ironment and your su!conscious are continually clamouring . nce a state o ocus is achie&ed$ your conscious mind is a!le to de&ote its ma8imum power to dealing with your chosen topic" Students o ten like to do their homework while listening to music" Does music help or hinder their study e ortsJ (t depends on !oth the assignment and the style o music" ( an assignment is dull and repetiti&e$ then en)oya!le music may lighten the mood and add a dash o inspiration" ( a task is challenging$ then :uiet !ackground music may help to !lock out other en&ironmental distractions until they ade rom consciousness$ lea&ing the mind ocused on the task" ( a task is rustratingly di icult$ then total silence may !e necessary !e ore the mind is a!le to ocus on such a task" Concentrated pro!lem sol&ing The conscious mind is well suited or dealing with most o li e@s challenges" >owe&er$ when you ace a di icult pro!lem with many components$ your ull mental concentration is re:uired" When you are success ul in ocusing your attention$ the rest o the uni&erse seems to disappear$ e&en you disappear$ and only the topic o interest e8ists" +or e8ample$ when you read a good story you are o ten completely engaged in the plot" (n your mind$ you are right there !y the shoulder o the main character$ ollowing the action and encouraging the characters to !eha&e as you would wish" #our mind has !een completely ocused !y the skil ul writing o the author" Similarly when you are working on a challenging task such as painting a portrait$ hitting a !ase!all$ or sol&ing an e:uation$ your conscious mind can !e completely ocused on that one task to the e8clusion o all others A at least or a ew moments" 3s you !ecome more skilled at achie&ing ull ocus$ you are !etter a!le to achie&e success with your chosen tasks and acti&ities" Di use ocus 3lternati&ely$ when you are seeking inspiration rom your su!conscious$ a state o di use ocus can !e desira!le" 3 state o di use ocus is the opposite o ocused attention and is related to !oth a meditati&e state and daydreaming" 3s you mo&e towards a state o di use ocus your conscious mind is deli!erately emptied o signi icant in ormation and you eel as i you are in a warm and com orting og" 3 state o di use ocus can help you sol&e comple8 pro!lems that ha&e resisted your conscious e orts" Sometimes the aspects o a pro!lem can o&erload your conscious mind making it di icult to ind a solution" (n such a situation$ switching to a state o di use ocus can pro&ide an opportunity or your su!conscious mind to contri!ute no&el ideas that your conscious mind may ha&e o&erlooked" #ou can practice reaching a state o di use ocus !y rela8ing$ closing your eyes$ !reathing deeply$ and pushing e8traneous thoughts out o your conscious mind" (n a state o di use ocus$ e8ternal stimuli are suppressed while your conscious mind is ree to ponder thoughts su!mitted !y your su!conscious" .or your attention" . ") Better Communication with Your (u$conscious The more you learn and the more you organi9e your memories$ the more power ul your thinking !ecomes" 3s the :uantity and :uality o your neural pathways increase$ the potential or making more e ecti&e use o your su!conscious increases" #our su!conscious then !ecomes a li!rary o neural networks that you can learn to access more e ecti&ely" 1odi ying su!conscious su!programs #our su!conscious normally runs a num!er o su!programs to keep you ali&e and unctioning" (n addition to its standard maintenance unctions$ your su!conscious occasionally in)ects emotional input and sur&i&al urges into your consciousness" (t also monitors what your conscious mind is up to$ so it can retrie&e needed in ormation rom memory and add intuiti&e conclusions" This acti&ity o your su!conscious leads to a &ital :uestion" What impact can your conscious mind ha&e on what your su!conscious doesJ 3utonomic su!programs We know the su!conscious runs a num!er o su!programs that control unctions such as !reathing$ digestion$ heart rate$ !lood pressure$ and !linking$ and coughing re le8es" Do you ha&e any conscious control o&er these su!programsJ 1ost o the time$ you !reathe without any conscious thought" While you cannot consciously decide to cease !reathing$ you can alter your !reathing patterns" #ou can choose to take deep !reaths or shallow" #ou can choose to !reathe slowly or rapidly" #ou can e&en choose to hold your !reath or a!out a minute" #our eyelids !link e&ery ew seconds to clean and moisturi9e the sur ace o your eyes" #ou can choose to !link more rapidly$ to wink !y !linking )ust one eye$ and with e ort can stop your eyes rom !linking or a ew minutes at a time" To some e8tent you can e&en consciously alter your heart rate and !lood pressure" Figorous acti&ity and threatening situations will cause your pulse and !lood pressure to rise" (t is also possi!le to practice rela8ation techni:ues to reduce your heart rate and lower your !lood pressure" The key point is that e&en unctions that are normally considered !eyond conscious control can !e modi ied to some e8tent !y conscious e ort" Emotions as su!programs #our lim!ic system pro&ides you with primiti&e and high%speed emotional responses to li e@s challenges and opportunities" #our lim!ic system can !ypass reason$ logic$ and normal morality" (n social settings your lim!ic system can$ and sometimes does$ get you into hot water" ( $ a ter an emotional out!urst or inappropriate !eha&iour$ you ask yoursel $ BWhy did + do thatJ@ or BWhy did + react that wayJ@ chances are you are .B". reco&ering rom a lim!ic system out!urst" #ou do not want to suppress all o your emotions" #ou want to !e a!le to encourage and prolong positi&e emotions" E&en some negati&e emotions pro&ide moti&ation to alter your !eha&iour in a positi&e direction" +or e8ample$ at times eelings o shame or guilt can help to steer your !eha&iour in a more constructi&e direction" >owe&er$ i not )usti ied$ those same emotions can inhi!it your normal !eha&iours" Negati&e emotions such as anger$ hate$ and &engeance are emotions that are !est managed as e ecti&ely as possi!le" There are a ew simple approaches to managing your emotions* 1" Do all you can to insert a time delay !etween a stimulus and an emotional reaction" 3 time delay o )ust a ew moments gi&es your conscious mind and your su!conscious at Le&el ((( an opportunity to assess the situation in a more logical and rational manner" #our initial emotional reaction may pro&e to !e )usti ied$ or it may not" 2" De&elop the ha!it o analy9ing your emotions" 3sk yoursel $ BWhy am + feeling this wayJ@$ BWhat stimulus has evoked this emotionJ@ and B'hould + pause and e-tend this sensation or should + squelch this sensationJ@ ." 'ractice creating your own emotions in controlled situations" +ind acti&ities that make you happy$ situations that make you sad$ conditions that arouse your anger$ images that righten you" The key is to !ecome aware o the stimuli that trigger your emotions" Then you will !e !etter a!le to manage emotions that are generated !y e8ternal stimuli" The more important a decision is to you$ the more important it is to separate the logical and the emotional components" #ou will pro!a!ly e8perience strong emotions when you are a!out to marry someone$ start a !usiness$ !uy a house$ enlist in the army$ or )oin a mo!" Those are precisely the situations that re:uire a care ul analysis !e ore you act" There is one more important point to make regarding your emotional su!programs" #ou should always keep in mind that there are people out there in your social en&ironment who are e8pert at manipulating your emotional responses or their own !ene it" Some may !e well%intentioned$ !ut most are deli!erately short%circuiting your rational thinking to achie&e their own ends" Skill su!programs E&ery time you master a skill through practice and repetition you ha&e trained your su!conscious mind so that it is a!le to take o&er !asic tasks related to that skill" While your su!conscious handles the !asics$ your conscious mind is ree to ocus on more challenging aspects o your day" Gnitting pro&ides a simple e8ample" When you are irst learning to knit$ you ha&e to pay close attention to the mo&ement o the needles and the position o the wool" Skilled knitters can engage in con&ersation while their knitting needles are clicking . nce these !asic skills ha&e !een mastered$ a guitar player can ocus more on the low o the music and the de&elopment o musical style" .away so ast that an o!ser&er can hardly ollow them" 'laying a musical instrument pro&ides another good e8ample o a skill su!program that$ once mastered$ is managed !y the su!conscious" 3 !eginning guitar player has to pay close attention to the ingering or chords$ notes$ and the &arious scales" .ur a!ility to de&elop physical skills demonstrates that we are a!le to deli!erately create new neural networks in our su!conscious" We can also practice and de&elop skills !ased on a!stract thought processes" We can !ecome skilled at making comparisons$ analy9ing in ormation$ writing speeches$ inding patterns$ and e&aluating real estate or a country@s potential or war" 3s our conscious skills get !etter in these areas$ so do our su!conscious skills" -io eed!ack (n the ield o system analysis$ Bfeedback@ occurs when part o a system@s output is di&erted and added to the input stream" Normally$ eed!ack is used to regulate a system to keep it per orming within accepta!le limits" 3 room thermostat monitors part o the output rom a urnace and sends a signal !ack to the urnace controls$ which then switch the urnace on%and%o as re:uired to maintain a steady temperature" When riding a !icycle$ i we start to tip o to one side our internal sense o !alance is alerted and signals are sent to turn the handle!ars to correct the situation" B0iofeedback@ is a term that was coined in the 1500@s to descri!e a techni:ue in which people could !e trained to control certain internal processes$ when gi&en the a!ility to monitor su!tle physical responses" These eed!ack signals may !e as simple as a lashing light or as ela!orate as a multi%dimensional &ideo display" -io eed!ack !ecame a more practical techni:ue as ad&ances in electronics led to more sensiti&e and less e8pensi&e detectors" The three main types o detectors are* 1" Electromyography$ which measures muscle contraction 2" Thermal !io eed!ack$ which measures skin temperature ." Neuro% eed!ack$ which measures !rain wa&e acti&ity" With !io eed!ack$ you can !e trained to lower your !lood pressure$ slow your heart rate$ and rela8 your muscles" -io eed!ack is now used to help patients cope with a whole range o conditions rom attention de icit disorder$ to muscle spasms <3ssociation or 3pplied 'sychology and -io eed!ack$ www"aap!"org=" Tthere are many accepted applications o !io eed!ack$ and the ield is still under acti&e de&elopment" -io eed!ack is another means or the conscious mind to communicate with the su!conscious mind" The success o !io eed!ack is another clear indication that such communication is possi!le" . n occasion it would !e help ul i you could communicate directly with your su!conscious and thus ha&e more direct access to some o its capa!ilities" (magine the possi!ilities i you could talk directly to your su!conscious and make re:uests such as* BAy lower back on the right is aching please rela. + was introduced to him last week.those muscles"@$ BThe cut on my foot seems to be infected send more white blood cells to that location.@$ B+ remember that man*s surname is >ones.Direct communication (n order or you to sur&i&e$ communications !etween your conscious and su!conscious minds must proceed e iciently and e ecti&ely e&ery day o your li e" #ou can acilitate those communications !y organi9ation$ !y training$ !y managing your emotions$ !y de&eloping speci ic skills$ and through the use o !io eed!ack" . 6heck my memories for his first name@$ or B'earch my memories for everything + know about the connection between 6hristopher Aarlowe and William 'hakespeare.@ When people talk to themsel&es$ they are &oicing their thoughts$ raming :uestions$ and testing their ideas" E8pressing your thoughts aloud can !e an e ecti&e way to organi9e your conscious thinking" 3ccording to the model o the mind de&eloped a!o&e$ your su!conscious is always monitoring your en&ironment like a NS3 satellite$ so e&ery word you e8press is analy9ed or signi icance" <The National Security 3gency monitors world communications or in ormation related to the interests and security o the ES3$ www"nas"go& = ( you can talk directly to your su!conscious$ )ust !y shaping the words or creating a &ision in your conscious mind$ is it reasona!le to e8pect a responseJ ( it was easy to conduct that kind o communication$ we would all !e doing it and the :uestion would !e irrele&ant" While you consciously work on a pro!lem$ your su!conscious mind o ten seems to !e looking o&er your shoulder and working on the pro!lem as well" Now and then ideas and insights )ust pop into your conscious mind" >ere are two amous e8amples rom the history o science* 1" 3rchimedes <c242 A 212 -CE= is o ten remem!ered or his disco&ery o the principle o lotation" 3s the story goes$ while taking a !ath in ancient Syracuse one day$ he noticed that the water le&el in the tu! rose and ell as more or less o him was su!merged" 2" 3ugust GekulL <1425 A 1451= was a noted 6erman chemist who did pioneering work on the structure o molecules" 3mong his disco&eries was the ring structure o the chemical$ !en9ene" >e claimed that the idea or the ring structure came to him in a daydream in which a snake sei9ed its own tail" Note that great ideas cannot materiali9e out o the !lue" #ou ha&e to !e seriously working on a pro!lem !e ore your su!conscious can help you out" The o&erall conclusion is that while part o your su!conscious is inherited$ other aspects are ormed during your daily e8periences as you de&elop new skills and . knowledge" With practice and organi9ed e ort you can !egin to make more e icient use o your su!conscious capa!ilities" %%% . Chapter D* (olving Pro$lems D"& D"' D") D".ne thing is certain$ we all ace pro!lems on a daily !asis" >ow we handle those pro!lems has a direct !earing on our :uality o li e" Dealing with pro!lems is not always a simple matter o inding solutions" 1any pro!lems are !est a&oided in the irst place" Some pro!lems are !est managed rather than sol&ed" 3 challenging pro!lem or one person may !e o no signi icance to another" Some make it their pro ession to seek interesting pro!lems" D"& T pes of Pro$lems 'ro!lems can &ary in importance$ in degree o di iculty$ and in degree o urgency" 'ro!lems can !e mechanical$ !iological$ or logical in nature" 'ro!lems can in&ol&e a single person$ a group o people$ or a whole nation" When you are aced with an urgent pro!lem$ your irst instinct is o ten to dig in and start working on it" >owe&er$ it is prudent to take a ew moments to analy9e and classi y a pro!lem !e ore trying to sol&e it" D"&"& #hat is a Pro$lemF 3 pro!lem e8ists when you ace a challenge and you are not sure how to proceed" #ou may not know what action to take" #ou may know what action is re:uired$ !ut not how to e8ecute the re:uired steps" #ou may !e all set to take action$ !ut !e uncertain when to act" 3 task may !e !eyond your current a!ilities or resources" #ou may not ha&e enough in ormation$ or your in ormation may not !e o high enough :uality" #ou may not ha&e enough time to complete a solution" Note that pro!lems are not always onerous o!stacles to !e a&oided or o&ercome" Sometimes pro!lems can !e positi&e and enriching challenges that make li e more interesting" D"&"' The 3ature of a (olution 3n essential aspect o dealing with a pro!lem is determining the characteristics o the solution that are looking or" ( you do not know what a solution looks like$ how will you know when you are making progress towards itJ >ow will you know when your pro!lem is sol&edJ . D"/ T pes of Pro$lems Pro$lem (olving TechniCues Avoiding Pro$lems +ooking for Pro$lems Two Applications 7eal world pro!lems encompass a !road spectrum o challenges" 'ro!lems can !e !ig or small$ easy or di icult$ interesting or dull" . Note that a solution or one person can create a pro!lem or another" #ou can irrigate your ields !y damming a stream that crosses your property$ !ut then armers downstream may su er rom a lack o water" The de&elopment o electronic calculators led to accurate and ine8pensi&e de&ices or routine calculations$ !ut made it necessary or educators to re%e8amine the mathematics curriculum" Not all pro!lems can !e sol&ed" ( you want to lap your arms and ly to the 1oon$ you are !ound to !e disappointed" Not all pro!lems are within your control" ( you want the stock market to go up 1000 points ne8t week$ it could happen$ !ut your in luence would pro!a!ly ha&e little e ect" The range o pro!lems that you can success ully tackle also depends on the priorities that you assign to &arious pro!lems$ and your skills in managing your time and resources" #ou could de&ote your time and energy to sol&ing a thousand calculus pro!lems ne8t week$ !ut that would detract rom your e orts to complete a !est% selling no&el" Sol&ing a pro!lem can !e !eyond the capa!ilities o your current resources" Coping with an in&asion o locusts is !eyond the resources o any indi&idual armer" The task o !uilding a ro!ot to per orm !rain surgery is !eyond the current capa!ilities o doctors and engineers" The solution to a pro!lem can change with time" The goals o war are used to !e simple* Bcrush your enemy and steal all you can@" (n the 20th century the goals o war are !ecame more comple8* Bcrush your enemy$ steal all you can$ and then con&ert your de eated oe into a sta!le riend that will support your own go&ernment@s uture policies@" That third component o modern war are was neglected at the end o World War ($ and that neglect led directly to World War ((" 3 solution to a pro!lem may in&ol&e de&eloping a procedure such as how to repair a leaky aucet or how to land a damaged airplane" 3 solution may in&ol&e containing a situation such as pre&enting the spread o spilt milk$ or stopping the spread o a new disease" 3 solution may in&ol&e )ust working towards a goal$ such as reducing the num!er o weeds in your lawn" D"&") Classif ing Pro$lems The process o classi ying a pro!lem is in itsel a !asic pro!lem sol&ing strategy" Pudging the relati&e signi icance o pro!lems is an important component o the classi ying process" BWhat do + do first plug the leak in the forward hold or put out the fire in the engine roomJ@ Small$ medium$ and large Not all pro!lems ha&e the same signi icance" -reaking a shoelace !e ore lea&ing or work is a minor pro!lemC losing your )o! is a ma)or pro!lem" Not all pro!lems ha&e the same signi icance to all persons" ( you sprain your ankle$ you are con ronted with a num!er o pro!lems* how to ease the pain$ how to manage the in)ury so that it will heal :uickly$ and how to reduce the amount o walking you ha&e to do" To a ellow citi9en across town$ your in)ured ankle is o little concern" E&en the same pro!lem can ha&e a di erent signi icance depending on the circumstances" ( your car runs out o gas as you pull into a ser&ice station that is a much smaller pro!lem than i it runs out o gas on a ma)or highway in the middle o rush hour" Timing can also a ect the signi icance o a pro!lem" 3 large payment that is due this a ternoon is lia!le to !e more signi icant than i the same payment is due in ten years" Degree o di iculty 'ro!lems can come in &arious degrees o di iculty$ rom &ery simple pro!lems that you can sol&e in a ew minutes$ to &ery comple8 pro!lems that may ne&er !e sol&ed" 3 pro!lem is more di icult when the situation is more comple8$ the num!er o steps needed or a solution is large$ or the re:uired resources are scarce" 1ost Sudoku pu99les can !e sol&ed in less than a hal %hour o cure or cancer is a much more di icult pro!lem" ocused e ort" +inding a #ou may ha&e to seek additional instruction !e ore you are :uali ied to tackle a pro!lem" +or e8ample$ it would !e much easier to sew a dress a ter you had learned how use a sewing machine" (t would !e much easier to shoe a horse a ter you had apprenticed as a rural !lacksmith" #ou may need to assem!le a team !e ore attempting a pro!lem that cannot !e completed !y one person" +or e8ample$ a politician has to de&elop a !road !ase o support !e ore introducing new legislation" #ou would need a crew o construction workers to !uild a new hospital" #ou would need an army to in&ade another country" #ou may need to sol&e a series o precursor pro!lems !e ore you can attempt your primary pro!lem" +or e8ample$ !e ore you could start a colony on the 1oon you would ha&e to de&elop a capa!le space ship$ a launching acility$ communication acilities$ an astronaut%training program$ a design or the colony$ and ha&e appropriate supplies deli&ered to the site" >ow important is the pro!lemJ Estimating the importance o a pro!lem is a key actor in deciding how much time$ energy$ and resources you are willing to spend in sol&ing it" Estimating the importance o a pro!lem helps to esta!lish priorities so you can answer :uestions such as* BWhich problem has to be dealt with firstJ@ and BWhat portion of my limited resources should be devoted to dealing with this problemJ@ Estimating the importance o a pro!lem is a su!)ecti&e process" ( you earn I.0 000 a year and lose I20 000 on the stock market$ it is pro!a!ly a signi icant pro!lem" ( you earn o&er I. 000 000 a year$ then a I20 000 loss on the stock market is pro!a!ly a less serious pro!lem" Suppose that a ter se&eral years o e ort$ there is one law remaining in an e8perimental process or con&erting wood chips into diesel uel" Eliminating that last law would !e a high priority pro!lem$ since once it was resol&ed the whole process could !e patented$ the in&estors could !e repaid$ and society could make use o a new uel source" 1echanical$ organic$ or logical 3 pro!lem can also !e classi ied as mechanical$ organic$ or logical" 1echanical pro!lems ha&e some physical phenomenon at their root" Typically$ such pro!lems can !e sol&ed !y e orts such as gluing it !ack together$ changing the gear ratios$ transporting it rom here to there$ or !uilding a !etter mousetrap" ;rganic pro!lems ha&e their roots in !iological systems" They may !e !ased on human railties or en&ironmental concerns" There may !e an out!reak o a new disease or an oil spill in the arctic" Logical pro!lems are !ased on cogniti&e processes" Can you de!ug the program$ sol&e the e:uation$ write the essay$ translate the speech$ sol&e the pu99le$ or determine the most likely outcomeJ (gnore$ manage$ or sol&e 1any pro!lems present you with options* you can ignore them$ you can contain and manage them$ or you can choose to sol&e them outright" 3 noisy mu ler on your car pro&ides a good e8ample" The car still works$ so you might choose to ignore the e8tra engine roar and the possi!ility o asphy8iating yoursel with e8haust umes" #ou might choose to make a temporary repair and asten part o a soup can o&er the hole in your mu ler with a twisted length o coat hanger wire" ;r you might choose to sol&e the pro!lem !y &isiting your local car repair shop and ha&ing a new mu ler installed" Some o the pro!lems that we choose to ignore e8hi!it minor symptoms that slowly gain in importance such as* weight gain$ peeling paint$ and the national de!t" We hope that i we ignore the symptoms$ the pro!lem will magically go away or that there will !e a much more suita!le time in the uture to deal with the pro!lem" The pro!lems that we tend to manage$ rather than actually sol&e are o ten e8tended in time and scope" Not enough storage space$ an irritating neigh!our$ youth crime$ and en&ironmental damage are e8amples o pro!lems that would pro!a!ly all into this category" 'ro!lems that are o immediate concern and that can !e sol&ed with speci ic action tend to !e dealt with more promptly" Ouestions on a physics test are dealt with energetically in the time a&aila!le" Purors in a criminal trial deli!erate until a decision is reached" 3 mo&e to a new home is managed in accordance with closing dates" While a leaky roo may !e tolerated$ a creaking roo that is a!out to collapse cannot" 222 D"' Pro$lem (olving TechniCues ( there was a guaranteed procedure or sol&ing any pro!lem$ then you would not ha&e any pro!lems$ )ust some e8tra work" 3 num!er o techni:ues that can !e used to tackle challenging pro!lems are descri!ed !elow" +or con&enience$ these pro!lem%sol&ing strategies are summari9ed at the end o the section in Ta!le ?/" D"'"& (ummari<e and 0esearch Summari9ing the a&aila!le data helps to clari y the scope and magnitude o a pro!lem$ and helps you to ocus your attention on speci ic aspects" #ou need to !ecome amiliar with all the rele&ant in ormation$ and to present that in ormation to yoursel as clearly as possi!le" 3 ter the standard techni:ues o sorting and classi ying in ormation ha&e !een applied$ decisions can !e made regarding what is signi icant and what is e8traneous" The :uality o the data and the relia!ility o the sources should also !e considered" #ou can take !etter ad&antage o your sophisticated neural pathways or processing &isual images !y summari9ing key in ormation in a ta!le or a la!elled sketch" -ackground research should !e regarded as an essential step in your e orts to sol&e signi icant pro!lems" +ew pro!lems are uni:ue" There is a high pro!a!ility that someone else has already worked on a pro!lem similar to yours" With a !it o research on the (nternet or in a li!rary you can o ten o!tain an o&er&iew o such e orts" 'u!lished results o ten include descriptions o what worked$ what did not work$ the most promising a&enues or ollow%up studies$ and the characteristics o ma)or impediments to success" When appropriate$ consult one or more e8perts in your pro!lem area" E8pert ad&ice at the !eginning o a ma)or pro!lem%sol&ing pro)ect can sa&e you much time and anguish" Consider stakeholders ( your pro!lem$ or its solution$ will a ect others it is highly recommended that those people !e consulted on a regular !asis" The Bstakeholders@ can o ten pro&ide &alua!le insights that will help you ind a !etter solution and a&oid uture pro!lems" 3 solution is only o use i it is success ully implemented" (mplementation that a ects people normally re:uires their co%operation$ and their co%operation is more likely when they eel that they ha&e !een in&ol&ed in the process" 3 solution that is imposed on an unsuspecting population is o ten resisted or re)ected" D"'"' Allocate Your 0esources 7esource allocation is a signi icant aspect o pro!lem sol&ing" While the pro!lems in li e are without end$ your resources are limited so choices ha&e to !e made" #our limited resources include your time$ money$ physical resources$ skills$ e8pert knowledge$ and good will" Consider the classic case o writing a uni&ersity e8am" >ow much time should you allocate to answering any gi&en :uestion$ and which :uestions should you attempt irstJ (t is always reasona!le to take a ew minutes to read o&er all the :uestions at the !eginning o an e8am and rate their degree o di iculty" Then you should always answer the easy :uestions irst" 3nd you should allocate your time or each :uestion according to a minutes%per%mark ratio" Suppose that you ha&e 120 minutes to earn 100 marksC the implication is that a :uestion worth 10 marks should !e answered in appro8imately 12 minutes" 7ating :uestions and esta!lishing a marks%per%minute ratio pro&ide use ul guides or allocating your resources during an academic e8am" >ome reno&ations pro&ide another e8ample o resource allocation and pro!lem sol&ing" While you may wish to totally reno&ate your home$ your inancial resources are pro!a!ly limited and your patience in tolerating disruptions may also !e limited" #ou ha&e to choose with care the e8tent o the changes that you can a ord and the scheduling o reno&ation acti&ities" E&ery attempt at pro!lem sol&ing in&ol&es making choices and allocating resources" The allocation o your resources should !e !ased on o!taining a reasona!le chance o success while still holding some resources in reser&e or dealing with any potential complications and une8pected emergency situations" D"'") Basic (trategies There are a num!er o !asic pro!lem%sol&ing strategies that can !e applied to most pro!lems" Top%down With a top%down strategy$ you !egin with general principles and work towards speci ic e8amples that ultimately include the pro!lem situation" The direction o general%to% speci ic gi&es the strategy its name" ( you planned a meal using a top%down strategy$ you might start with the nutritional re:uirements o an a&erage adult and the nutritional &alues or a &ariety o oods$ and e&entually arri&e at an appropriate shopping list$ and inally a recipe or tonight@s supper" The creation o legislation and go&ernmental institutions in the Enited States o 3merica has ollowed a top%down process" The Declaration o (ndependence was issued in Pune 1220" The new Constitution was written in 1242 and appro&ed !y congress in 1arch 1245" This was ollowed in the same year !y the passage o the -ill o 7ights containing the irst ten amendments to the constitution" Since that time$ all other laws and go&ernmental !odies o the Enited States ha&e had to it within the ramework o the amended Constitution" 1ost large computer programs are designed top%down$ !eginning with a detailed set o per ormance speci ications" Then the primary and secondary eatures o the program are designed and speci ications are created or e8changing in ormation !etween parts o the program" The actual writing o computer code does not !egin until the top%down design has !een completed" -ottom%up 3s the name suggests$ the !ottom%up strategy is the opposite o the top%down" When using a !ottom%up strategy or pro!lem sol&ing$ you start with a speci ic aspect o a pro!lem and then work towards a general solution" ( you want to impro&e your physical itness$ a top%down approach might include !uying a new )ogging suit and a !ook on weight li ting" 3 !ottom%up approach might !egin with skipping dessert and walking to work" 3 !ottom%up approach to home%!uilding would !egin with digging oundations and hammering nails" 3 top%down approach to home%!uilding would !egin with a site plan and an architectural design" 3 trip to your amily doctor or a yearly check%up would !e part o a top%down approach to your health" 3 trip to the emergency department at your local hospital is usually a !ottom%up strategy" Le t%right The top%down and !ottom%up approaches !oth imply that sol&ing a pro!lem in&ol&es an ordered se:uence o e&ents" The term Bleft#right@ is used here to imply that a pro!lem can !e approached rom a num!er o di erent directions at the same time" The le t%right approach is commonly used in pro!lem sol&ing when you ha&e a de inite starting point and a de inite goal" +or instance$ i you want to unra&el a tangled !all o string$ you o ten ha&e to work alternately with one loose end$ and then the other" ( you want to !uild a !ridge across a ri&er$ it is o ten easi!le to start construction rom !oth !anks with the goal o meeting in the middle" 'ro!lems in deducti&e geometry o ten re:uire a le t%right approach" (n these pro!lems you typically !egin with a gi&en set o in ormation and are seeking a particular conclusion" 3 le t%right approach in&ol&es starting with the gi&en in ormation to see what other conclusions can !e reached" Then you contemplate the Banswer@ and work !ackwardsC B+f this statement is true then what else must also be trueJ@ #ou work alternately rom the Bbeginning@ and then the Bend@ with the goal o inding a se:uence o logical statements that will meet somewhere in the middle" <1athematicians$ and wise students$ then rewrite their solutions to make it seem as i there was a smooth and o!&ious deducti&e path rom the gi&en in ormation to the desired conclusion"= Trial%and%error The trial%and%error approach in&ol&es making a reasona!le estimate o what is re:uired and then attempting to sol&e the pro!lem using that estimate" The trial%and% error approach is most e ecti&e when your pro!lem is part o a well%!eha&ed system" Then the results tend to impro&e systematically as your estimates get closer to some optimum &alue" The key to success with a trial%and%error approach is to pause and analy9e the results a ter each attempt at a solution" Then you can make systematic impro&ements in your estimates" 7andom guessing is generally a waste o time" +or e:uation sol&ing$ there are a &ariety o numerical techni:ues that make the trial% and%error process as e icient as possi!le and ensure that no potential solutions are missed" The essential eature o Bnumerical methods@ is that successi&e trials are not random$ !ut are !ased on computations that systematically lead towards a solution" The a!ility o computers to rapidly carry out e8tensi&e and repeated computations makes them an ideal aid when using numerical methods or pro!lem sol&ing" Trail%and%error methods should !e a&oided when dealing with delicate situations such as !rain surgery$ and when dealing with systems with critical &alues such as e8plosi&e de&ices" D"'". (ome Advanced (trategies ( the !asic strategies are ine ecti&e$ there are a &ariety o other approaches that can !e applied to pro!lem sol&ing" These strategies in&ol&e models and analogies$ logical analysis$ and statistical analysis" 1odels and analogies The use o models and analogies allows you to create and e8amine a similar$ !ut simpler pro!lem" 3naly9ing the simpler pro!lem o ten pro&ides insights into the !eha&iour o the original and more comple8 system" +or e8ample$ predicting the motion o a tornado in a tur!ulent atmosphere may !e a daunting task !eyond the power o a supercomputer" >owe&er$ analy9ing the motion o a rotating cone mo&ing through a smoothly lowing luid is a much simpler task and might pro&ide use ul insights and clues or predicting the motions real%world tornados" Logical analysis (n a situation with clear de initions and rules go&erning relationships$ it is possi!le to make use o logical analysis in pro!lem sol&ing" 3lge!ra$ geometry$ calculus A in act all !ranches o mathematics A are su!)ect to logical analysis" Situations that com!ine human interactions with logical analysis are Bfu88y@ in nature and re:uire approaches that are more le8i!le" B4ame theory@ has e&ol&ed as a !ranch o applied mathematics that deals with strategic interactions !etween humans$ when the optimal choice o one person depends on the choices made !y other participants" The underlying assumption is that all participants will make rational decisions !ased on their own pre erences" Statistical analysis (n some situations there are no precise rules to go&ern interactions$ !ut many o!ser&ations ha&e !een made and lots o data is a&aila!le" (n those situations$ a statistical analysis can re&eal patterns in the data$ and the patterns can !e used or making predictions" Weather orecasts are !ased on statistical analy9es" No one knows e8actly how wind$ sun and rain are going to interact o&er hours and days$ !ut power ul computer analy9es o data collected rom thousands o weather stations and weather satellites can !e used to make reasona!le orecasts o national and local weather patterns or the near uture" (n modern cryptography$ the !reaking o secret codes in&ol&es statistical analy9es and power ul computers to e8amine millions o possi!le coding schemes" 3lan Turing pioneered this approach at -letchley 'ark$ in -ritain$ during World War ((" With the help o irst%generation electric computers designed !y Turing$ the code !reaking team at -letchley 'ark was a!le to decipher many o the intercepted 6erman communications" That in ormation played a signi icant role in shortening the duration o the war" 1ost studies o the sa ety and e ecti&eness o new medicines are !ased on statistical analysis" -iological systems are so comple8 that no one knows e8actly what is happening at the molecular le&el in your !ody when you take a medicine" So$ large groups o &olunteers are re:uired to test a new drug" Statistical analy9es are used to esta!lish that most o the time when you take a particular drug$ you can e8pect these !ene its and occasionally those side e ects" D"'"/ (till -ore (trategies Despite your !est e orts you will always encounter pro!lems that seem unsol&a!le" What do you do thenJ 7e%e&aluation Sometimes it is wise to stop and re%e&aluate your pro!lem sol&ing e orts" (s this pro!lem that importantJ (s it worth more o your time$ energy$ and resourcesJ 3re . there more producti&e &entures you could work onJ #ou may want to upgrade the signi icance o a pro!lem and !ring in more resourcesC you may want to downgrade the signi icance o a pro!lem and withdraw some o your resources" #ou may want to a!andon a pro!lem altogether" While re%e&aluating the need to sol&e a di icult pro!lem you should clari y your own moti&es and prepare a plan o action that will ma8imi9e your chances o success" Luck We are all ready to accept a :uick solution to a pro!lem that occurs !y happenstance" Why work hard when you can get luckyJ That is why gam!ling and the sale o lottery tickets are so popular" Some pro!lems$ such as sol&ing a )igsaw pu99le$ do in&ol&e an element o chance" The irst piece you pick up may complete a challenging part o the pu99le$ or you may ha&e to search through pieces or se&eral hours to accomplish the same task" 1ore o ten$ e8perience and a systematic method lead to a simple solution that makes it appear that luck played a role" Luck can play a role in situations that re:uire )ust one positi&e e&ent to greatly simpli y your pro!lem" 1ost real world pro!lems in&ol&e many steps and re:uire a systematic approach in which luck has no potential role" Luck may play a role in your taking a di erent road home and a&oiding a tra ic )am$ !ut luck will not help you paint the garage" >ard work 1ost challenging pro!lems are ultimately sol&ed with hard work o&er an e8tended period o time" ( you ace a di icult pro!lem and are moti&ated to sol&e it$ then !e prepared to spend a lot o time and e ort" Suppose that one o your children is mis!eha&ing on a regular !asis" This is a ma)or pro!lem that can re:uire years o e ort$ much patience$ consultation with e8perts$ trial%and%error$ and lots o luck" ( you want to start your own !usiness$ you ace a host o pro!lems that ha&e to !e sol&ed" (t is not enough to ha&e a good idea and a grand opening ceremony" >ard work o&er an e8tended period o time will !e re:uired to make your !usiness a success" No&el point o &iew There is a tendency to stick with your initial approach and assumptions when working on a gi&en pro!lem" This tendency can lock you into a limited range o thought patterns that can$ in turn$ limit your a!ility to sol&e that pro!lem" We are creatures o ha!it and tend to reuse recently acti&ated neural pathways when we repeat similar actions" ( you sit in the same position$ with the same in ormation spread in ront o you$ as you repeatedly go o&er aspects o a di icult pro!lem$ there is a tendency to repeat e8actly the same line o reasoning" When you get stuck on a pro!lem and seem to !e repeating the same steps o&er and o&er$ a new approach can . lead to a wider range o thought and action that may lead to !etter results" +inding a no&el approach may !e as simple as sitting in a di erent chair$ asking a di erent :uestion$ or changing an assumption" (n a procedure called Bbrainstorming@ you are encouraged to speculate$ without restriction$ and to write down all the ideas that come to mind" While a list o unrestricted speculations typically contains mostly irrele&ant material$ it can also include an idea that stimulates urther thought in a new and use ul direction" -rainstorming can work with an indi&idual$ !ut it is more e ecti&e with a small group" -rainstorming with a group adds the possi!ility that one person@s wild speculation will stimulate no&el thoughts in another person$ and those no&el thoughts may lead to a more practical pro!lem sol&ing approach" Closest similar pro!lem 3 particular pro!lem may pro&e &ery di icult to sol&e$ !ut has eatures similar to other pro!lems that ha&e already !een sol&ed" (t is possi!le to gain insights into your current pro!lem !y studying the solutions to these related pro!lems" ( your pro!lem ollows the pattern o the most closely related cases$ then perhaps your pro!lem will ha&e a similar solution" 3 Fiking$ lost at sea$ could utili9e sailing lore and conclude that a stationary smudge o clouds on the hori9on might !e surrounding the mountains o a distant island" >is knowledge o similar situations could thus pro&ide him with the a!ility to ind land when none was in sight" 1edical diagnosis o ten employs similar%case analysis" When you &isit a doctor with your own personal set o lu symptoms$ your doctor may ha&e already seen se&eral patients with similar symptoms" Those other similar cases could then orm the !asis or an initial diagnosis o your particular situation" Change a pro!lem to make it simpler Sometimes a pro!lem$ as you ind it$ is simply too di icult to sol&e" >owe&er$ i you make one or two simpli ying assumptions$ then sol&ing the pro!lem may !ecome a realistic task" This techni:ue is o ten used in mathematics$ science$ and engineering" The key to this techni:ue is the )udicious choice o simpli ying assumptions" There is little point in sol&ing your inancial pro!lems !y assuming you are a millionaire$ or sol&ing a pro!lem in rocket science !y assuming you ha&e in&ented an anti%gra&ity de&ice" 3 good assumption eliminates awkward details while ha&ing minimal e ect on the o&erall situation" When estimating the amount o material re:uired or a )o!$ carpenters typically calculate the amount o wood in the inished product$ and then increase that amount !y ten percent to allow or waste <splits$ knots$ and short pieces that cannot !e used=" E8perience has shown that e8pecting ten percent waste is a reasona!le . assumption in carpentry" (t is not necessary to e8amine e&ery piece o wood and pre% plan e&ery cut !e ore ordering material" Einstein@s e:uations o general relati&ity are &ery di icult to sol&e or the real uni&erse$ so cosmologists usually !egin !y making a undamental assumption" 3lthough the uni&erse o!&iously contains planets$ stars$ and gala8ies$ on a &ery large scale it is use ul to assume that the mass o the uni&erse is e&enly distri!uted in all directions" This !asic assumption allows the e:uations o general relati&ity to !e sol&ed or a num!er o interesting cases and allows cosmologists to make predictions a!out the !eha&iour o the uni&erse or !illions o years into the uture$ and !ackward into the past" 3sk or assistance When you are ha&ing serious di iculty with an important pro!lem$ ask or assistance" 3lmost always$ there are others with e8pertise and e8perience who can help you with particular aspects o a pro!lem" . ten there are co%workers or riends who are pleased to !e asked or help" (n helping you they are a!le to make good use o their own skills$ are a!le to eel a sense o satis action in pro&iding assistance$ and are helping to create a pro!lem%sol&ing network that they may someday need to access themsel&es" Time or re lection Compared to the speed o a computer$ the human !rain works at a snail@s pace" ( possi!le gi&e yoursel time to mull o&er the di erent aspects o a pro!lem" #our conscious mind has to work with the limitations o immediate%term memory$ !ut your su!conscious mind can si t through thousands o your memories" 6i&e your su!conscious mind time to do its work" We ha&e all had the e8perience o re lecting on a past con&ersation and thinking o more e ecti&e things that we could ha&e said$ i only we had thought o them at the time" 6i&en time$ your su!conscious mind can o ten come up with !etter ideas" Time or re lection is most !ene icial when you ha&e already organi9ed$ analy9ed$ and attempted to sol&e a pro!lem" 3 ter that$ your su!conscious has all the pertinent in ormation laid out !e ore it and can peace ully chug away through your stored memories looking or items that might pro&ide use ul clues the ne8t time you consciously consider the pro!lem" 6i&en more time$ there is a !etter chance that you will ind a !etter solution" The &arious pro!lem%sol&ing strategies are summari9ed in Ta!le ?/" . " (t pro&ides an opportunity to recei&e comments and suggestions or making .Ta$le %/* A summar of pro$lem solving strategies D"'"6 5erif Your (olution No solution is complete until you ha&e checked that it contains no o!&ious errorsC it satis ies the parameters o the original pro!lemC and ield%testing has shown that it works under realistic conditions" +irst organi9e$ rethink and rewrite your inal solution" The process o organi9ing and simpli ying o ten unco&ers a &ariety o minor errors" Second$ apply your solution to a ew &ery simple cases or which you already know the results" ( your solution does not work or simple cases$ it pro!a!ly will not work in more realistic situations" 3lways dou!le%check your solution against the re:uirements o the original pro!lem" #ou may ha&e ound a magni icent solution$ !ut or a di erent pro!lem" (t is always reassuring to con irm that the original re:uirements ha&e !een met" +ield%testing is recommended whene&er others are e8pected to apply your solution to a &ariety o new cases" +ield%testing a solution ser&es three &ital roles* 1" (t demonstrates that others can understand your solution" #ou may ha&e produced a !rilliant solution$ !ut i no one else can understand it$ it is o little &alue" 2" (t demonstrates that your solution is worka!le and can !e e ecti&ely used !y those or whom it was intended" . ten a solution !y itsel is not su icient" #ou may also ha&e to con&ince others that your solution actually works and that it is the !est$ astest$ most practical$ most economical$ or most en&ironmentally riendly approach" #ou may ha&e to de end your solution and demonstrate that any unds were spent properly$ that it represents your own work$ that sa ety rules were ollowed$ or that the laws o the land were not !roken" #ou may also want to e8amine your solution to determine i it pro&ides any new insights$ or a !etter understanding o the general situation" #ou should also consider the implications and rami ications o your solution" Sometimes a solution to one pro!lem can create other pro!lems that are more serious than the original" #ou can !uy the !iggest$ most com orta!le so a in the store !ut i you do not ha&e enough space or it in your current home$ you ha&e created another pro!lem" #ou can kill all the weeds and then ind that nothing else will grow either" #ou can !uild an e8pressway to relie&e tra ic and end up acilitating the a!andonment o the city core as more people mo&e to the su!ur!s" Starting a!out 1540 and continuing or most o a decade$ the Central (ntelligence 3gency <C(3= o the Enited States supplied unding$ training$ and weapons to 1uslim e8tremists in 3 ghanistan and 'akistan" The o!)ecti&e was assist in the o&erthrow o the So&iet%!acked go&ernment in 3 ghanistan" The strategy worked A !ut it also led to the creation o the Tali!an and 3l Oueda mo&ements$ which soon !ecame enemies o the Enited States" 222 D") Avoiding Pro$lems #our knowledge o any working system can allow you to make reasona!le predictions a!out how it will react to &arious inputs" 3t work and at play$ your a!ility to think clearly and anticipate what might happen$ can help you a&oid a range o pro!lems !e ore they occur" .urther impro&ements to your solution" D"'"B 0eview and Consolidate Your #ork +inally$ it is important to document the methods you used$ and the solution that you o!tained" When your pro!lem sol&ing e orts are well documented$ you are prepared to apply what you ha&e learned to uture e orts" This is particularly true or students" (t is not enough to sol&e a pro!lem and o!tain the Bright answer@" #ou also need to think a!out how you sol&ed that pro!lem and how you might use those same methods on similar pro!lems in the uture" Without this type o consolidation$ little learning takes place and e&ery new pro!lem has to !e sol&ed again rom scratch" . The !asic strategies or a&oiding pro!lems are to anticipate$ plan ahead$ and shape the appropriate en&ironment" D")"& Anticipate Gnowledge o speci ic situations and the e8pectations$ skills$ and limitations o yoursel and others o ten allows you to manage e&ents in order to reduce the potential or encountering related pro!lems" 3nticipate social needs ( you know that a person is lia!le to !e cranky on 1onday morning$ why not arrange or low demand acti&ities on 1onday and wait until Tuesday to announce a new pro)ectJ ( you can predict that a teenager will ask to use the amily car on the weekend$ why not ask himHher to take it in or a tune%up and a sa ety check earlier in the weekJ That way you ha&e some assurance that the car is in good working order$ and the teenager has a &ested interest in keeping it that way" ( your spouse likes to go out or dinner on special occasions and an anni&ersary is approaching$ why not make reser&ations at a a&ourite restaurantJ 3nticipate physical re:uirements The last time you went or a hike you ended up with eet that were wet and soreC why not shop or !etter hiking !oots and socks !e ore you &enture orth againJ There is always a possi!ility that your computer will crash with the loss o important computer ilesC why not get into the ha!it o creating !ack%up ilesJ The last time the power went out you had di iculty inding a working lashlight$ why not purchase a hand% cranked lashlight and store it in a con&enient location in your homeJ (n engineering$ it is standard practice to calculate the re:uired strength o elements in a structure and then to !uild components with dou!le or :uadruple those strengths" The e8tra strength pro&ides a B actor o sa ety@ to allow or une8pected stress and loading" 1ost ma)or systems on the 3merican space shuttle are !uilt in triplicate so that the ship can continue to unction e&en i a main system and its irst !ackup ha&e ailed" 3nticipate the reactions o others Dri&ing a car pro&ides lots o opportunities to a&oid pro!lems through clear thinking" E&en though other dri&ers are supposed to ollow the rules o the road and make reasona!le decisions$ they o ten do not" They may !e orget ul$ distracted$ unskilled$ or simply discourteous A !ut in many situations$ a ter o!ser&ing the !eha&iour o the dri&ers around you or a ew seconds$ you can predict that they are going to change lanes$ turn$ stop$ or make some unusual manoeu&re" This type o anticipation and planning can help you a&oid pro!lems on the road !e ore they occur" D")"' Advanced Planning and Preparation When dealing with large and comple8 systems$ ad&anced planning and preparation can also help you a&oid$ or at least reduce the impact o potential pro!lems" . n a personal le&el$ two e8amples o endea&ours that can !ene it rom care ul planning are your educational career and your &acations" (n education you should look ahead se&eral years to ind a direction that will !est satis y your needs$ am!itions$ interests$ and a!ilities" .nce you ha&e decided on an educational goal$ you should work !ackwards rom that goal to your present situation and make lists o courses you need and standards that you ha&e to meet$ since most ad&anced programs re:uire prere:uisite courses with minimum academic standards" Without ade:uate planning$ you can end up spending an e8tra year or two at school making up or missing prere:uisites" When going on &acation$ you o ten ha&e to plan se&eral months in ad&ance in order to get the lights and accommodations that you want" Tourism is one o the world@s largest industries$ and chances are that thousands o other tra&ellers want to &isit the same places that you do" #ou can also enhance your &acation e8perience !y learning more a!out your tra&el destination" Carpenters ha&e a saying that sums up the essence o this section$ Bmeasure twice and cut once@" (n other words$ plan care ully and you will not ha&e to repeat your e orts or waste material" Contingency plans Contingency plans are plans that you make or situations that are unlikely to occur$ !ut are &ery serious i they do" When making a contingency plan you can care ully consider alternati&es and identi y the essential steps o the !est plans" +ire drills at home$ at school$ and in industryC li e%!oat drills on cruise shipsC and the pre% light re&iew o emergency procedures on airplanes are common e8amples o contingency planning" Note that contingency planning re:uires the de&elopment o procedures$ the design and pro&ision o e:uipment$ and step%!y%step rehearsals" Then i an emergency situation does arise$ people can :uickly react !y ollowing the .Dealing with comple8ity When you are dealing with any pro)ect that is large$ comple8$ andHor e8pensi&e then care ul planning is the !est way to a&oid signi icant pro!lems" Care ul planning should include a detailed written plan$ consultation with e8perts$ and the creation o step% !y%step procedures" (t is ar easier to deal with a potential pro!lem at the !eginning o a pro)ect than it is to make ma)or modi ications a ter the pro)ect has !een partially completed" (t is ar easier to conduct a care ul sur&ey and then !uild a wall in its correct location$ than it is to try to mo&e the wall a ter it has !een !uilt" Timing and scheduling o ten play a role in ma)or pro)ects" 'ro)ects grind to a halt i supplies$ e:uipment$ andHor workers are not a&aila!le when needed" Costs mount rapidly i supplies$ e:uipment$ andHor workers are sitting around !e ore they are needed" . +ooking for Pro$lems 7ather than a&oiding pro!lems$ some indi&iduals$ pro essions$ and industries thri&e on pro!lems" 1any pro essions are !ased on dealing with pro!lems that are !eyond the capacities o lay people" 1any recreational acti&ities are !ased on inding and working with entertaining pro!lems" >umans like challenges" Detecti&es need crimes to sol&e" Surgeons need damaged !odies to repair" 1athematicians need e:uations to sol&e" 'lum!ers need leaks to i8" Teachers need children to teach" .ne last approach to a&oiding pro!lems is to shape your en&ironment so that e&ents and acti&ities lead naturally to the intended result with minimal inter&ention" 3s a &ery simple e8ample$ the drain in any !athtu! is located at the lowest point so that water will drain completely when the plug is pulled" ( the drain were located anywhere else in the tu!$ there would always !e e8tra work re:uired to remo&e all the water a ter a !ath" The 1ontessori method o education makes re:uent use o e:uipment that is sel % e&aluating" ( children can place sets o geometric shapes in the corresponding recessed places on a !oard$ then they can see or themsel&es that the task has !een completed correctly" ( a child can prepare ruit and pour )uice without an accident$ then they ha&e o!&iously succeeded in ser&ing a snack" 3 proper ence around a yard can pro&ide a sa e place or children to play with minimal super&ision" (n industry it is easier to operate in a neat control room with clearly la!elled dials and colour coded switches than it is i all the switches and dials look alike and are distri!uted across a control panel at random" -uilding a canal can simpli y the transport o goods !y water" -uilding a !ridge across a &alley can simpli y tra&el" 7educing air pollution can ease su ering due to asthma and allergies" Shaping your en&ironment using elements o design$ engineering$ and creati&ity can eliminate a host o potential pro!lems !e ore they occur" 222 D".recommended procedures" 3 clear thinker should anticipate$ make contingency plans$ and !e ready to act in response to situations with high stakes and limited response times" D")") (haping the Environment . ") 0ecreational Pro$lems 1any o us en)oy working on pro!lems as a orm o recreation" Pigsaw pu99les$ Sudoku pu99les$ crosswords$ ta!le games$ and &ideo games are all designed to pro&ide in&igorating challenges or the human mind" The only reward in these acti&ities is the satis action o sol&ing the pu99le" 1any o our creati&e ho!!ies in&ol&e signi icant pro!lem sol&ing" What are the !est materials to useJ >ow can certain e ects !e achie&edJ (s there a more interesting way to achie&e a similar resultJ 3 partial list o creati&e ho!!ies includes amateur astronomy$ carpentry$ collecting$ painting$ photography$ sewing$ sculpting$ and writing" The products o these ho!!ies can o ten !e purchased elsewhere ready% made$ !ut there is a great source o satis action in creating something yoursel and !eing a!le to sol&e all the attendant pro!lems" 222 ."& Pro$lems for (tudents 'ro!lems constructed speci ically or students pro&ide !oth learning challenges and a means or e&aluating student per ormances" (n most student assignments$ tests$ e8ams$ and contests A pro!lems are pro&ided in written orm along with rules restricting time and the resources that can !e used" 1ost student pro!lems are intended to help students learn and consolidate the material !eing studied" Students can usually assume that any assigned pro!lems can actually !e sol&ed" Lots o practice in sol&ing pro!lems in a gi&en su!)ect area is the &ery !est strategy or de&eloping pro!lem%sol&ing skills in that su!)ect area" 7elati&e% student%skills in pro!lem sol&ing are o ten used to grade and rank students" D".D"."' Professional Pro$lem (olvers E8perts and pro essionals in any ield ha&e speciali9ed knowledge and e8perience that allow them to deal e iciently with pro!lems that a lay person would ind &ery challenging" E8perts and pro essionals like to deal with these pro!lemsC their li&elihoods depend on !eing presented with pro!lems that re:uire their knowledge and e8pertise" 'ro essional pro!lem sol&ers include medical doctors$ dentists$ lawyers$ architects$ engineers$ computer programmers$ auto mechanics$ and police detecti&es" There are others$ including uni&ersity pro essors$ go&ernment and industrial researchers$ and in&entors who deli!erately seek out pro!lems that no one else has !een a!le to sol&e" Their pro essional success is !ased on their a!ility to ind and sol&e uni:ue pro!lems" Their work contri!utes to humanity@s li!rary o knowledge and pro!lem%sol&ing techni:ues" D". " There appears to !e no o!&ious ad&antage to switching your choiceC there are still two doors with a !ig pri9e !ehind only one door" (n reality$ participants who switched doors won a!out two times out o three" That is the parado8" >ow could switching doors !e an ad&antageJ ( you search the (nternet using the key words BAonty Dall parado-@ you will ind hundreds o sites that e8plore this pro!lem" To simpli y the discussion$ let@s assume that the pri9e is !ehind Door ?1$ !ut as a contestant you do not know that" #ou still ha&e a random choice o one o the three doors" 3s 1onty takes his turn he will always open one o the two remaining doors to re&eal a consolation pri9e$ ne&er the door to the grand pri9e" Working through the possi!ilities* 1" ( you picked Door ?1 A then 1onty will open either Door ?2 or Door ?.$ hoping the pri9e was !ehind that door" The door was not opened at this stage o the game" 2" 1onty then opened one o the other two doors to re&eal a consolation pri9e" .all Paradox There was a popular tele&ision game show in the 1520@s called B$et*s Aake a %eal@ with host 1onty >all" (n a regular segment o the show$ a contestant was shown three doors and was gi&en the details o a really good pri9e that was !ehind one door$ and poor consolation pri9es !ehind the other two" With a lot o showmanship$ the typical game then proceeded as ollows* 1" The contestant selected Door ?1$ Door ?2$ or Door ?. re&ealing a consolation pri9e" (n this case i you switch to Door ?1 .D"/ Two Applications 3s you read through the ollowing descriptions o pro!lems$ try to identi y the &arious pro!lem%sol&ing strategies that are !eing used" #ou can pro!a!ly de&ise alternate strategies that would work )ust as well" D"/"& The -ont ." (n this case$ i you switch rom Door ?1 you lose" 2" ( you picked Door ?2 A since 1onty knows the pri9e is !ehind Door ?1$ he has to open Door ?." The contestant was then gi&en the opportunity to switch rom the original selection to the third and last door" The pro!lem is to determine whether or not switching doors would ha&e !een a good strategy" This is a pro!lem in deduction" The key to its solution is to ind a way to e8press the components o the pro!lem so that the implications are more o!&ious" 3t a irst glance$ the ollowing statements seem to !e correct* 1" Since there are three doors and your selection is essentially random$ the pro!a!ility o winning the grand pri9e a ter your irst selection should !e one in three" 2" 3 ter 1onty re&eals a consolation pri9e$ there are only two doors le t$ so your chances o winning should increase to one in two" . is the only choice a&aila!le or 1onty to open without spoiling the game" (n two cases out o three$ your initial choice plus 1onty@s orced choice direct you to the winning door" D"/"' !ealing with Emplo ee Theft Suppose that you own a small retail store with a do9en employees" #our sales ha&e remained steady$ !ut your pro its ha&e dropped and you suspect that the cause may !e employee the t" What can you do to deal with this pro!lemJ +irst you should remind yoursel that relia!le and e icient employees are a !usiness@s greatest asset" #ou want to take all reasona!le steps to encourage and reward your good employees" 3ny action taken against an employee needs !e )udicious and planned to cause minimum disruption to your !usiness" Second$ you should conduct some !ackground research and reassess the general situation" B'hrinkage@$ as it is o ten called$ is a common pro!lem in any !usiness" Somehow$ the re&enues at the end o the week are less than they should !e" There are a num!er o potential causes$ including* 1" 'oor in&entory control A sometimes you do not recei&e all the in&entory that you ha&e paid or$ some in&entory may !e damaged and has to !e written o $ some sold items are returned$ some items are discounted$ or some items are gi&en away or ad&ertising" 2" 'oor accounting A through poor !ookkeeping you may not really know how much in&entory was sold at what prices$ you may not know the true total o your e8penses$ or you may not know how much you owe others$ or others owe you" ." The t A items may !e stolen !y shoppers$ !y employees$ or !y third parties a ter your !usiness is closed or the day" The t may !e descri!ed as pil ering A a little here$ a little there A or the t may !e descri!ed as a money%making operation or a pro essional thie " 're&ention is a ma)or component in controlling shrinkage" #ou may need to update and de&elop !etter procedures or in&entory control and accounting" #ou may need to do a !etter )o! o selecting employees in the irst place" ." The key to the parado8 is the phrase 1onty Bhas to open@ in the second and third possi!ilities" +or e8ample$ i the pri9e is !ehind Door ?1 and you ha&e selected Door ?2$ then Door ?.you win" ." ( you picked Door ?. A then similarly 1onty has to open Door ?2 re&ealing another consolation pri9e" 3gain$ in this case i you switch to Door ?1 you win" The net result is that i the pri9e is !ehind Door ?1 and your irst choice is random$ then two times out o three$ you will win the grand pri9e i you switch doors a ter 1onty re&eals a consolation pri9e" The same pattern applies i the pri9e is !ehind Door ?2 or Door ?. #ou may need to hire a security e8pert to re&iew your procedures or dealing with customers$ handling cash$ and securing in&entory" #ou may need to organi9e a pro essional de&elopment program or your employees outlining any new procedures and emphasi9ing the !ene its o !eing part o a prosperous !usiness" ( an employee is caught with incriminating e&idence$ you may call the police and press charges$ you may ire the employee$ or i the o ence was minor you might !e a!le to work out an ad hoc reha!ilitation program" (n all such cases it is essential to care ully document your e&idence and your actions" (n general$ pro!lems in&ol&ing people need to !e dealt with care ully and according to esta!lished procedures" %%% . corresponds to the colour o the sweaters in stock" Then a segment o a computer program might look something like this* <:: +f 3 C 0 then "ump to line 9::. 9:: Brint “We have your sweater in stock. <The sym!ol [\ is o ten used in computer programs to mean Bnot equal to@"= The rest o this is section is de&oted to e8amining strategies or making the !est .Chapter E* ?etting it 0ight E"& E"' E") E".” H:: !lse +f 3 IJ 0 then "ump to line K:: K:: Brint “'orry we do not have that colour at the moment.ne has to !e &ery care ul not to let ha!its$ rituals$ and !elie s replace reasoned thought in crucial situations" E"& !ecision1-aking E&ery action we take is the result o a decision" Do we take our co ee with milk or creamJ Do we wear the red out it or the !lue out itJ Do we turn le t or right to go around that treeJ Do we sa&e or spendJ Do we apply or that )o! or notJ Which o the political candidates should we &ote orJ Decision%making can in&ol&e a choice !etween two alternati&es$ the ranking o alternati&es$ the elimination o the worst alternati&es$ or the selection o the !est alternati&es" The simple Bif & then &"ump@ construct is one o most use ul processes controlling all the computers in the world" This simple line o code pro&ides a computer program with the a!ility to compare two num!ers$ decide i they are e:ual or not$ and then )ump to other corresponding lines in the program" This &ery !asic decision%making process underlies the a!ility o computer programs to sol&e comple8 pro!lems and appear to mimic some aspects o human thinking" The ollowing e8ample illustrates this important concept" Pust a!out any :uality can !e e8pressed as a num!er$ or e8ample the colour green could !e B0@ and red could !e B2@" 3t some point in a computer program$ suppose the &aria!le 3 corresponds to the colour o a sweater that you want to order o&er the (nternet$ and . !ecision1-aking !ispute 0esolution !ealing with Errors Patterned Behaviour #ou ace decisions and disputes$ and make errors on a daily !asis" With ocused e ort you can make !etter decisions$ do a !etter )o! o managing disputes$ and reduce the impact o your errors" >umans also tend to adopt patterned !eha&iours to reduce their thinking o&erhead" . decisions in challenging situations" E"&"& Clarif Your Choices The irst step in the decision%making process is to clari y what your choices are" This in&ol&es gathering the pertinent in ormation$ arranging that in ormation so that similar eatures in the choices can !e easily compared$ and then summari9ing the options that are a&aila!le with each choice" The ne8t step is to analy9e each choice to consider all the potential conse:uences" .nce the costs and !ene its o each a&aila!le choice are clearly de ined$ the decision% making process is greatly simpli ied" -ene its What is a !ene itJ 3 !ene it could !e a gain in physical resources$ inancial resources$ social status$ or uture opportunities" 3 !ene it could represent enhanced chances o sur&i&al or yoursel $ your amily$ or your nation" 3 !ene it could !e enhanced com ort$ increased personal power$ or decreased workload" (n most situations$ each o the possi!le choices that you can make has some associated !ene itsC otherwise there is no point in making it a choice" Some !ene its associated with a choice are o!&iousC some are more o!scureC some may re:uire reasona!le predictions o e&ents in the uture" Some !ene its occur almost immediatelyC some may not occur unless other a&oura!le e&ents also occur" There can !e ma)or !ene its$ secondary !ene its$ and de erred !ene its associated with any choice The !ene it o a choice may !e that it has the least negati&e conse:uences" Costs (n most situations$ each o your possi!le choices also has some associated costs" Some costs are o!&iousC some are hiddenC some may re:uire reasona!le predictions o e&ents in the uture" Some costs may occur almost immediatelyC some may ne&er occur unless other un a&oura!le e&ents occur as well" There can !e ma)or costs$ secondary costs$ and de erred costs associated with any choice" The ailure to recogni9e all the costs$ especially Bhidden@ costs is one o the commonest sources o di iculty in decision%making" Sometimes hidden costs are simply o&erlookedC sometimes they are ignored or deli!erately hidden to !ias the decision%making process" 1oney$ time$ and physical energy are o!&ious costs" Lost purchasing power$ psychic wear and tear$ damage to the en&ironment$ and social repercussions are some o the costs that tend to !e ignored" .ther actors There are a ew other actors that should also !e considered !e ore making a choice" . Can a decision !e re&ersedJ ( it could !e re&ersed$ what would !e the costJ What would !e the cost o not making a particular decisionJ What is the cost o not making any decisionJ What is the cost o delaying a decisionJ (s a particular choice guaranteedJ 3re any o the choices Bwin#win@J 3re there other choices that ha&e yet to !e consideredJ Suppose you plan to purchase a new car this year" There are literally thousands o makes$ models$ and options to choose rom" (t is a challenging task to collect and compare all the a&aila!le in ormation" The Canadian 3utomo!ile 3ssociation <www"caa"ca= pro&ides some in ormation on costs that allows you to !egin comparing the e8penses associated with di erent &ehicles" The sa ety ratings o automo!iles can !e checked at www"sa ecar"go&" 3s you gather more speci ic in ormation or side%!y% side comparisons$ it !ecomes easier to make a reasoned decision" E"&"' Choose a (trateg Seeking the Bbest choice@ is the most o!&ious strategy in decision%making situations" >owe&er$ other strategies o ten play a role in decision%making" Eliminate the worst* Sometimes it is more important to a&oid making a poor choice than it is to make the !est choice" This strategy is o ten used during the irst &isit to a new restaurant" When there are many menu selections and you are not sure what you might en)oy most$ a common strategy is to narrow the range o choices !y eliminating the choices that de initely do not appeal" 3 &egetarian might irst mentally delete all the meat dishes" Someone on a irst date might irst delete all the dishes with garlic" Someone on a diet might irst delete all the dishes with rich creams and sauces" During World War (($ the psychologist P" '" 6uild ord de&ised aptitude tests that were used !y the ES 3rmy 3ir +orce to help in screening candidates or pilot school " 3 ter implementing these tests the ailure rate in pilot training was reduced !y o&er 00D" 6uil ord@s psychological tests were not designed to select the !est pilots$ !ut to help identi y and eliminate the candidates who were unlikely to !ecome pilots" Some employers use a similar strategy when hiring and promoting A especially when union rules andHor ci&il laws make it &ery di icult to dismiss an employee or incompetence" (n such a situation$ an employer@s irst concern is to ensure that they do not hire an unsuita!le candidate" 3 ter unsuita!le candidates ha&e !een eliminated rom the process$ the employer cannot go too ar wrong in hiring any o the remaining applicants" 'ick the lowest !id (n the lowest !id strategy$ you create a set o speci ications descri!ing what you are looking or and then allow :uali ied suppliers to su!mit their o ers" 1any contracts . or pu!lic works are awarded this way" The lowest !id process has two main o!)ecti&es" +irst$ the process is intended to !e open and air so that all suppliers ha&e an e:ual opportunity to make their !ids" Second$ the process is intended to reduce costs" ( a !id is in lated then it pro!a!ly will not !e lowest and thus will not !e accepted" (t might !e un to !uy a new car using a lowest !id process" #ou would descri!e the car that you want and then all the auto dealerships in town would ha&e until the end o the week to su!mit their !ids" 3ll you would ha&e to do is open the en&elopes and call the winning dealer to get the car you want at the lowest price in town" 7ank the choices 3nother decision%making strategy is to rank all your choices$ rom highest to lowest$ and then select the top ranked choice" (n order to rank choices$ you ha&e to irst esta!lish a set o criteria to rate &arious aspects o each choice" Then you apply those criteria and construct a inal ranking or all your choices" Suppose that you are trying to decide among ten possi!le destinations or your ne8t &acation" Esing a scale o one%to% i&e$ you could rate cost$ accommodation$ tra&el time$ local attractions$ and sa ety or each possi!le destination" Then all you would ha&e to do is add the scores to determine where you are going or your &acation" E"&") Evaluate Your !ecisions (t is always worth the time to look !ack on your decisions$ to re lect on the processes that you used$ and the actors that in luenced your choices" Contemplating past decisions can help you to make !etter decisions in the uture" 6ood decisions 3 good decision occurs when the results are positi&e and conditions are impro&ed" E&eryone is happyC resources ha&e !een used e icientlyC and the re:uirements o the situation ha&e !een satis ied" (n the !est possi!le scenario$ e&ery!ody !ene its A you$ your associates$ society$ and the en&ironment" #ou are a!le to attain a ma8imum !ene it at minimum cost" 3 decision to reduce waste and clean up litter around your home would pro!a!ly it into this category" Stupid decisions 3 stupid decision is typically made when you are rushed and you )ust did not !other to properly assess the conse:uences o your choices" #ou may ha&e started with poor in ormation$ you may ha&e acted too :uickly$ possi!ly you were duped$ or you were )ust not thinking clearly" Consuming alcohol or drugs$ and then dri&ing a car or operating machinery is a common stupid decision" . -ad decisions 3 !ad decision typically occurs when you put too much emphasis on immediate conse:uences and ignore long%term conse:uences" The long%term conse:uences turn out to !e more negati&e than you e8pectedC or somewhere in your decision%making process you ha&e made an error and o&erlooked a serious de ect" +or e8ample$ a common practice in espionage is to entrap a person who may !e a source o &alua!le in ormation" Such entrapment is o ten !ased on e&idence o a minor !etrayal$ or o a se8ual e8ploit" .nce you make a !ad decision and are compromised in this way$ you and your social position are no longer under your control$ !ut are in the control o your Bhandler@" 'ressured decisions Sometimes$ under duress o some kind$ you may make decisions that you normally would not" 3 person$ agency$ or situation has acti&ated your emotional Bhot buttons@ and thus in luenced your actions" 1any economic and en&ironmental decisions are made under pressure to pro&ide short%term gain with little regard or long%term pain" Local &oters pressure politicians to reduce ta8es$ cut social programs$ and create )o!s today$ o ten at the cost o the en&ironment and )o!s tomorrow" The shareholders o corporations may push or larger pro its today$ o ten at the cost o the en&ironment and pro its tomorrow" 1any salespersons operate in the realm o pressured decisions" They know how to appeal to your sense o pride$ your sense o greed$ your ears$ and your desires" They stri&e to make an item appear irresisti!le and o ten add comments such as$ BThe offer is only good for a limited time@$ and B'omeone else has also e-pressed interest so you need to decide right now@" Whene&er you eel that you are !eing pressured to make a decision that you are not com orta!le with$ you need to remo&e yoursel rom the situation as soon as possi!le" Then$ in a calm and deli!erate manner$ re&iew your choices" #ou should also re lect on your own weaknesses that others were trying to e8ploit$ and try to assess the true moti&es o those who are doing the e8ploiting" 222 E"' !ispute 0esolution Disputes are people pro!lems$ as opposed to logic$ resource$ or supply pro!lems" 7esol&ing a dispute in&ol&es dealing with competing claims among the &arious protagonists" The claims may in&ol&e real property$ personal rights and powers$ or social rights and powers" #ou generally know e8actly what actions you would like to take !ut are una!le to do so !ecause someone else claims that your actions would in ringe on their rights" . The resolution o disputes is not a minor issue" 3n (nternet search with the term Bdispute resolution@ :uickly demonstrates that there are !ooks$ )ournals$ uni&ersity programs$ and a &ariety o institutes all de&oted to the su!)ect" Ci&il law and amily law pro&ide legal rameworks or dispute resolution in our society" (nternational agreements and treaties are rameworks or dispute resolution on a grand scale" E"'"& T pes of !isputes The se&erity o disputes can range rom mild disagreements to &oci erous arguments$ legal sanctions$ or acts o &iolence A including war" Short descriptions o our common types o disputes are discussed here" (t is sometimes awkward keeping track o who is who in a dispute$ so let us use the la!els B(red@ and BAac@ to distinguish the two main protagonists in a generic dispute" 1isunderstanding .nce their descriptions o the con licting situation are e8pressed in common terms they o ten disco&er that they are in agreement on most points and are prepared to negotiate a air and )ust solution on any remaining issues" +air share +red and 1ac !oth want to claim their air share o a particular resource" 3 dispute arises when their claims o&erlap" 3 dispute can also erupt when either +red or 1ac wants to change the status :uo and increase their share o a resource" Children o ten argue o&er the di&ision o ood$ or toys$ or space" 3 simple procedure to manage these situations is to ask one child to make the di&ision o the disputed resource$ and then let the others ha&e irst choice in picking their portions" 3 ter a ew practice runs$ the irst child learns to make the di&ision as e&en as possi!le" 3 la!our union may stake a claim to higher wages as the workers@ air share o higher corporate pro its$ while the shareholders want to keep the higher pro its" Such a dispute is irst dealt with in la!our%management negotiations" ( those negotiations ail to produce an agreement the union may initiate a la!our strike" (n negotiated settlements$ supporters o either side are o ten satis ied only i the process has !een long and di icult" ( it appears that a settlement was easy to reach$ then mem!ers o each side assume that they could ha&e increased their share with more e ort" 'ower play +red has more power than 1ac$ and uses that power to claim a !igger share o 1ac@s resources" 3 dispute arises only i 1ac ights !ack" Sometimes$ 1ac ails to see +red@s clear ad&antage and unwisely resists" Sometimes$ +red ails to see that 1ac is stronger than he looks and is de eated in a showdown" 3 !ully in the schoolyard$ on the actory loor$ or in the !oardroom uses the power . ten +red and 1ac are in dispute only !ecause they ha&e e8pressed their positions poorly" . " Fictory comes rom taking ad&antage o your opponents@ actions" .nly attack when you ha&e superior orces" .2= pro&ides another classic analysis o power play strategies" Sources such as these pro&ide &alua!le and cautionary ad&ice i you are contemplating in&ol&ement in a power play at any le&el" 7e&enge (n the past$ +red has taken ad&antage o 1ac$ or at least 1ac thinks so" Now 1ac wants redress in the orm o re&enge" 7e&enge is a primiti&e emotional response$ a desire to get e&en with someone" The !asic philosophy o re&enge is e8pressed !y the -i!lical phrase$ B3n eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth"@ 7e&enge is associated with anger and the urge to !ecome &iolent" 3s a conse:uence$ disputes !ased on re&enge are &ery di icult to deal with in a rational manner" (n a !lood eud$ i a amily mem!er is slain it is the sworn duty o the nearest male relati&e to a&enge that death !y killing the o ender$ or another mem!er o the o ending amily$ clan$ or tri!e" En ortunately$ one re&enge killing automatically leads to e orts at counter%re&enge" (n 10th century Papan$ re&enge killings were called Bkatakiuchi@" (n 12th century Corsica$ amily honour was preser&ed through a &endetta" (n 15th century Gentucky$ these patterns o &iolence were called amily euds" Ouest or power Disputes can arise !etween competitors or power" 3 dispute may !e o&er who gets to use the school yard swings at recess$ whose ideas are accepted at a meeting$ which candidate can con&ince enough &oters to get elected$ or who gets to rule the kingdom" When +red and 1ac !oth want to !e chie o the tri!e$ a dispute ensues" ( +red and .n War <14." 3 con lict is !ad$ !ut a long con lict is disastrous e&en i you are ultimately &ictorious" Carl &on Clausewit9@s .play strategy to dominate others" While a direct con rontation can sometimes !e e ecti&e$ it is o ten more producti&e to de lect$ accommodate$ andHor re orm the e orts o a !ully" The stakes are higher when a power play is well pu!lici9ed" Then the protagonists are not only disputing a speci ic issue$ !ut can gain or lose signi icant prestige among their peers" 1ilitary strategy is de&oted to designing success ul power plays" Sen Tsu@s 3rt o War <c/00 -CE= pro&ides ad&ice that has pro&ed &alua!le through the ages" >ere are a ew nuggets rom the 3rt o War* 1" Gnowledge o your potential enemies is &ital" 2" Ne&er attack when you are outnum!ered" . 4 that e&entually included 3ustria$ 6ermany$ +rance$ England$ Spain$ Sweden$ 7ussia$ and the .0@s$ a dispute !etween the English parliament and Ging Charles ($ o&er who had the authority to collect ta8es$ erupted into ci&il war" E&entually$ the 'arliamentarians won under the leadership o .0 the emperor o 3ustria$ Charles F($ died with no male heir" >e had tried to arrange his a airs so that his daughter$ 1aria Theresia would inherit his crown !ut leaders in neigh!ouring states also laid claim to the title$ and the war o 3ustrian Succession was instigated" This de&eloped into a comple8 series o wars spanning the years 12.1ac are skilled at arousing the support o others$ the dispute can grow into a physical contest in which the most &iolent and ruthless will dominate" (n the 10.ttoman Empire" 1aria Theresa and her hus!and$ +rancis ($ pre&ailed in this &ast power struggle" The ates o the populations in hal o Europe were imperilled !y this :uest or personal power" Sa&ing ace 1any disputes are !ased on e orts to Bsa&e ace@" >umans ha&e a strong inner sense o )ustice according to their position in the social order" We may e8cuse an insult rom higher up in the pecking order$ !ut are :uick to take o ence at any actions o others that will diminish our social status" 1aintaining$ or regaining$ social status can ha&e a signi icant impact on all o our dealings in our communities$ and are o ten the source o disputes" E"'"' (tages in !ispute 0esolution While not all disputes can !e resol&ed$ most can !e guided through a num!er o stages towards an accepta!le solution" 7ecognition o the pro!lem (t is di icult to make any progress towards resol&ing a dispute i one o the parties re uses to admit that there is a pro!lem$ or insists that any pro!lem is entirely the responsi!ility o others" The irst step is or all parties to recogni9e and accept that indeed there is a dispute" Then the parties can !egin to assess each other@s positions$ and esta!lish the !oundaries o the dispute and the main points o contention" The parties want a solution .1 to 12.li&er Cromwell" Charles was e8ecuted$ the monarchy a!olished$ and Cromwell was declared 'rotectorate or li e" >owe&er$ soon a ter Cromwell@s own death in 10/4$ Charles (( <the son o Charles (= was installed as the new king o England" 'arliament did manage to retain many o its new%won powers" (n 12.nce it is accepted that there is a pro!lem$ the ne8t step is or all the parties in&ol&ed to acknowledge that they want a solution" ( +red is determined to e8act re&enge$ or inds the dispute more entertaining than harm ul$ then there is little chance o resol&ing the dispute" . nce it has !een accepted that there is a pro!lem and that a solution is desira!le$ it is essential to engage Le&el ((( reasoning powers" Emotional actions to resol&e a dispute are seldom as constructi&e as actions designed with rational thought and consideration" 3ccept that some resolution is ine&ita!le Some resolution to e&ery dispute will !e reached one way or another$ sooner or later$ and with or without the co%operation o the parties in&ol&ed" .n a hot summer a ternoon +red and 1ac ha&e a dispute o&er who has the !igger !owl o ice cream" 3 ter hal an hour$ their dispute will !e irrele&ant" (n a la!our strike$ the situation will !e resol&ed agreea!ly$ or the workers will lose their )o!s$ andHor the company will go out o !usiness" (n the meantime$ !oth the workers and the !usiness su er inancially" (n a prolonged custody dispute either one parent$ or !oth$ will participate in raising their children" (n the meantime$ their children are growing up in a !roken home and in a ew years they will !e independent adults" Cost H !ene it analysis .Lower the emotional content .nce the parties in a dispute are thinking rationally$ it is time to look at all the a&aila!le options and to construct an e8tensi&e costH!ene it analysis or each option" (t is important to include all possi!le options$ and all current and uture costs" .nce the in ormation in a costH!ene it analysis is agreed upon$ it is a relati&ely simple matter to e8amine the implications o each option$ to eliminate the worst choices$ and to ind the options that produce the !est results or$ at least$ cause the minimum damage" 6i&e and take (n making a inal choice o options it may !e necessary to compromise$ you may win on some points while conceding on other points" Compromise includes a clear thinking component in which you attempt to ma8imi9e !ene its and minimi9e costs" Compromise also includes a positi&e emotional component as you work towards air treatment or all parties and !uild a consensus or uture interactions" (n a well%sol&ed dispute there is a sense o satis action and accomplishment at ha&ing met and mastered a real%li e challenge" E"'") !ispute 0esolution at #ork Dispute resolution has !een ormali9ed in a num!er o social settings" >ere are a ew e8amples" . nly the legal authority o a country@s central go&ernment can !ind that state in a treaty" +amily counselling +amilies orm the !asic social and economic unit in society" 3 amily can consist o mem!ers rom se&eral generations including parents$ children$ and elder parents" Sometimes aunts$ uncles$ and cousins are also included in the amily unit" +amily mem!ers are e8pected to contri!ute to the smooth running o the amily unit$ while still e8ercising a degree o autonomy in managing their own li&es" When all goes well$ amily mem!ers show a ection$ communicate well$ share e8periences$ and pro&ide support and constructi&e ad&ice to each other" The amily group also has to manage a wide range o pro!lems a ecting its mem!ers such as physical health$ mental health$ the challenges o youth$ the challenges o the elderly$ .Sports 3thletic competitions are usually conducted according to an agreed set o rules" The rules descri!e the ield o play$ allowa!le e:uipment$ and the characteristics o accepta!le play" The rules o almost e&ery sport also include mechanisms or dispute resolution" Empires$ re erees$ and )udges are appointed to manage the conduct o a competition and to assign penalties or minor &iolations during a competition" (n less organi9ed sports$ the players themsel&es create the rules$ manage the game$ and en orce the rules" 6enerally in such sports$ participation is more important than winning$ !ut talent and good play are still recogni9ed" The undamental$ yet unwritten$ rule is that a player can !e ostraci9ed rom the game i heHshe is unwilling to co%operate and repeatedly cheats$ dominates$ or hurts other players" (nternational diplomacy (nternational diplomacy is intended to impro&e communications and trade$ and to sol&e disputes that might hinder relations among states" When communications$ trade$ tourism$ economic co%operation$ and security impro&e !etween nations A then diplomacy is working well" When nations e8pel each other@s diplomats$ set up trade !arriers$ !lock communications$ and declare war A then diplomacy has ailed" The Fienna Con&ention on Diplomatic 7elations <1501= esta!lished the international laws and procedures or dealing with diplomats$ am!assadors$ and high commissioners" The appointment o a diplomat is initiated !y the sending country$ !ut must !e appro&ed !y the recei&ing country" The physical premises o an em!assy and its diplomats are not su!)ect to the laws o the host country" The am!assadors and diplomats act as pu!lic relations o icers or the home country$ pro&ide in ormation to the home country a!out a airs in the host state$ conduct negotiations as re:uired$ and represent the persons and property o home citi9ens who may ha&e !een mistreated in the host state" Treaties are negotiated !y independent states and are go&erned !y the Fienna Con&ention o the Law o Treaties <1505=" . educational and pro essional careers$ maintenance o the home$ and maintenance o personal relationships" Disputes o ten arise among amily mem!ers o&er how to manage these di erent pro!lems" Success ul amilies de&elop a range o strategies or coping with such disputes$ !ut when disputes are persistent and threaten the &ery structure o the amily$ a &ariety o community resources should !e consulted or assistance" 1ost communities pro&ide a range o amily counselling ser&ices" (n addition there are many pri&ate organi9ations that pro&ide an e&en wider range o ser&ices" These ser&ices all e8ist !ecause amily disputes are relati&ely common and o ten di icult to resol&e without e8pert mediation and ad&ice" 222 E") !ealing with Errors The !est approach or dealing with errors is to systematically minimi9e the num!er o and impact o your errors$ and then to use the errors you still make as opportunities or learning" (mpro&ing your analyses$ your procedures$ and your decision%making can reduce the re:uency and se&erity o your errors" E")"& Common (ources of Errors The ollowing su!%sections descri!e the typical sources and characteristics o errors" ( stem Errors 1any errors occur simply !ecause a system is poorly designed" System errors typically all into three categories* aulty physical design$ aulty communication$ and aulty procedures" +aulty physical design Some pro!lems are due to errors in design" The nature o the system then leads to errors in per ormance" #ou put the new rug !y the door so e&eryone will see it$ !ut &isitors keep tripping o&er it" The latch on the gate is awkwardly placed so you o ten lea&e the gate open" #our hand%held calculator has so many mathematical unctions associated with each key that you o ten get them mi8ed up" The wiring in a machine was not properly shielded rom mo&ing parts" The design o physical systems should always !e ield tested to ensure that they can !e e ecti&ely used as intended" +aulty communication Errors due to aulty communication can occur when you do not understand e8actly what you are doing$ when you didn@t read the directions$ or when you didn@t clearly . e8plain what you wanted" +or e8ample* you put up the wallpaper in the wrong roomC you take the wrong medicineC you tell the wrong personC or you answer the wrong :uestion" Clari ying &er!al instructions$ designing !etter la!els$ and ield%testing written instructions could ha&e a&oided these errors" +aulty procedures Whene&er we per orm comple8 procedures$ there is a possi!ility that one or more o the steps has !een poorly designed will lead to an error in the inal results" Cooking recipes !orrowed rom riends or clipped rom a maga9ine o ten contain aulty procedures" #ou add a cup o water$ as per the recipe$ and disco&er later that it should ha&e !een only hal a cup" #ou stir in the sugar at the !eginning as instructed and disco&er later that the sugar should ha&e !een sprinkled on the inal result" When an acti&ity will lead to signi icant results$ take the time to dou!le%check your instructions and your procedures" When possi!le$ simulate your acti&ity and practice it until you can consistently produce the results that you e8pect" Take note o the old adage* B3n ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure@" 3ccidents 3n accident occurs when a random e&ent produces an unintended negati&e result" The wind suddenly changes directionC a car turns le t when you e8pected it to turn rightC a mouse chews through some wires and shorts an electric circuit" 1a)or accidents o ten result rom the accumulation o se&eral less signi icant errors" 3 tra ic accident may !e due to a com!ination o poor &ehicle maintenance$ poor road design$ poor dri&ing skills$ and poor weather" When a signi icant action is contemplated and there is the potential or a serious accident$ a systematic re&iew o standard procedures is recommended" 'oor >ealth #our a!ility to think clearly is degraded when you are ill$ tired$ or su ering rom pain" (n these circumstances$ your attention is di&ided and it is di icult to ocus on a single task" 3s a result errors can occur" ( you are hal %asleep and let your toast !urn$ that may not !e too much o a pro!lem" -ut i you are an airline pilot and are su ering rom )et lag a ter a long light$ you may miss important details in your landing procedures" When you are acing important situations that re:uire your ull attention$ you should do e&erything in your power to !e in top physical shape at that time" ( you know you are not in top physical orm$ it is ad&isa!le to delay any signi icant pro!lem sol&ing e8ercises until you are eeling !etter" . Carelessness 3 careless error occurs when someone neglects to do something that should ha&e !een done" 3 dri&er orgets to asten his seat!elt$ a homeowner orgets to change the urnace ilter$ a surgeon orgets to count all the sponges a ter an operation" Sometimes you know e8actly what you should !e doing$ !ut during a moment@s inattention you do something else that leads to an error" Careless errors tend to occur when a task in&ol&es se&eral steps and the ocus o your attention dri ts to another topic" 3s a conse:uence your working memory is o&erloaded and one or more steps o your task are dropped rom your immediate%term memory" The result is a careless error" +ocus on any important task until it is completed" ( the need to recall other in ormation is distracting you$ pause or a moment and write your ideas down$ then proceed with your ull attention on the task at hand" E")"' Contri$uting Factors There are o ten a &ariety o related actors that contri!ute to errors" Lack o E8perience Errors o ten result when you attempt a challenging task with minimal preparation" Limited knowledge #our chances or making an error are greatly enhanced i you are lacking knowledge andHor e8perience in a ield o interest" (t is important or you to recogni9e when you are !eyond your le&el o e8pertise" #ou should know that it would !e dangerous to try to i8 your toaster with a ork" #ou should know that it would !e a rustrating e8perience to de!ate economic issues with a pro essor o economics" Lack o knowledge and e8perience can !e cured with directed e ort" #ou can take a course in appliance repair" #ou can read !ooks and attend courses on economics" 'oor )udgement 'oor )udgement occurs when you take action !e ore considering all the rele&ant in ormation" 1ost other people$ in similar circumstances$ would ha&e acted more prudently" 3 recreational skier may decide not to wear a helmet" 3 cook may decide to turn o an irritating smoke alarm" 3 dri&er may decide to o&ertake a slower car when the &iew o oncoming tra ic is o!scured" 3 shopper may decide to make an e8pensi&e purchase on impulse" Stupidity Stupidity occurs when you should know !etter$ !ut you do not take the time to think . clearly" +or e8ample$ you might dig a hole or a ence post in your !ackyard without irst consulting the utilities to ind out where the telephone$ water$ and gas lines are !uriedC or you might ail to properly tighten the !lade on your new power saw" The results o this type o stupidity may !e minor or ma)or$ depending on your luck" (n lated Sel (mage E&eryone has at least one area o e8pertise o which they can !e )usti ia!ly proud" (t may !e skill at a handicra t$ it may !e knowledge o wild lowers$ or it may !e knowledge o commercial real estate" #ou should !e con ident in your area o e8pertise and !e prepared to discuss it as an e:ual with anyone else similarly :uali ied" >owe&er$ it is not always a simple task to measure your e8pertise against the current standards in that ield" .&erestimating your e8pertise can impede your a!ility to think clearly" Within your area o e8pertise$ i you o&erestimate your a!ilities you may ail to pay proper attention to the ad&ice o others who are !etter :uali ied" 3nd it is not unusual or indi&iduals to assume that their e8pertise in one ield automatically applies to any other ield o interest" (n such a situation the ailure to pay proper attention to the ad&ice o others can handicap your a!ility to think clearly on any num!er o topics" Conceit Conceit is de ined as ha&ing too high an opinion o onesel or o one@s a!ility" ( you are conceited you tend to assume that your skills and knowledge are more e8tensi&e than is )usti ied !y o!)ecti&e measures" 3s you o&erestimate your own knowledge and a!ilities$ you tend to underestimate those same :ualities in others" Thus$ the !asis or your )udgements and decisions is easily warped away rom reality and towards your own interpretation o the world" 3rrogance 3rrogance can generate similar impediments that lead to unnecessary errors" 3n arrogant person assumes that they ha&e inherent :ualities that make them superior to others" Such a person may indeed ha&e more than their share o social rank$ power$ money$ or popularity" >owe&er$ such :ualities o ten result rom ortuitous circumstances rather than innate a!ility" They happened to inherit wealthC they happened to li&e during a time o peace and prosperityC they happened to !e at the right place at the right time and were o ered an e8ceptional opportunity" The handicap o arrogance is to assume that i you are rich$ amous$ titled$ a chess master$ or a gi ted cricket playerC then you are automatically superior in all areas o human endea&our" The actions o 6eneral Douglas >aig$ in planning and conducting a series o attacks know as the -attle o the Somme$ during the World War ( pro&ide a prime e8ample" The -ritish !egan the !attle with an eight%day artillery !om!ardment o 6erman positions to de&astate the enemy and cut though the ields o !ar!ed wire !etween . 0 am on Puly 1st$ 1510" Since the -ritish troops were ine8perienced and might panic or retreat in disorder$ the troops were ordered to walk <not run= side%!y%side towards the 6erman lines" -ritish o icers ollowed with drawn pistols to shoot any deserters" The soldiers walked right into 6erman machine gun ire" 7eports o the disaster that were sent !ack to head:uarters were dis!elie&ed and similar attacks continued all day" -y the end o the irst day$ the -ritish had su ered a!out 20 000 killed and . 400 pupils$ 1/ died" The police may ha&e considered their actions to !e righteous$ !ut they certainly were not thinking clearly" -e proud o what you accomplish" -e con ident in your a!ilities" -ut when e&idence warrants$ always !e prepared to re%e8amine your assumptions$ your data$ and your conclusions" There are a lot o hardworking$ skilled$ and intelligent people who should not !e dismissed )ust !ecause you ha&e already made up your mind" Enchecked Emotions Enchecked emotions can lead to a &ariety o errors" Emotions ha&e e&ol&ed to pro&ide rapid and direct responses in a non%&er!al world" Emotions direct you to ad&ance$ retreat$ start$ stop$ slow down$ or speed up" (n a simple world$ your emotionally triggered actions may routinely determine whether or not you sur&i&e" (n a comple8 social setting your emotions can urge you towards inappropriate !eha&iour" #ou cannot always rely on your emotions to pro&ide an accurate interpretation o the world" .the two orces" >owe&er$ a!out a third o the shells did not e8plode" The 6ermans were well dug in and su ered relati&ely minor damage and the !ar!ed wire was mostly still intact" 7egardless$ the -ritish soldiers were ordered to attack as planned at 2*.0 000 wounded" The o ensi&e on the Somme continued or months until stopped !y ree9ing weather on the 14th o No&em!er" Si8 miles o ground had !een taken" The inal casualties were estimated to !e* .1/ 000 -ritish$ 15/ 000 +rench$ and 000 000 6erman" The leadership decisions o 6eneral >aig at the -attle o the Somme could !e used as an e8ample under e&ery category in this section$ !ut arrogance seems most appropriate" 7ighteousness 7ighteousness is a orm o arrogance in which people ha&e positions o authority that ha&e !een con erred !y a religious organi9ation" 6i&en the cloak o righteousness$ their pronouncements are then a!o&e the criticism o mere mortals" 'erhaps the most notorious e8ample o righteousness is the dogma o the Bdivine right of kings@ practiced in Europe or a!out a thousand years" 3 king who was !lessed !y the 'ope$ and thus con erred !y 6od$ had a!solute power to rule his kingdom" ( you assume you ha&e di&ine power$ then you are lia!le to commit more than your share o errors" (n 1arch 2002$ the religious police <the Commission or 'romotion o Firtue and 're&ention o Fice= o Saudi 3ra!ia stopped schoolgirls rom leeing a !urning !uilding !ecause the girls were not wearing the correct (slamic dress" . E")") -anaging Errors #ou can work to systematically reduce the :uantity and seriousness o any errors you might commit" The !asic strategies are* 1" 3&oid as many errors as possi!le !e ore they occur" 2" 7educe the impact o any errors that are made" . $ike everything else Eaborn reasoned firefighting was a matter of preparation equipment and teamwork.$ p220"= 7a!orn had planned or the possi!ility o a ma)or ire and was thus a!le to minimi9e the damage to the ESS .N" <Thomas 'arrish$ The 'ubmarine & 3 Distory$ 200./" The ship was hit !y a kamika9e plane that caused a tremendous e8plosion on deck$ killing 02 sailors and wounding another 21" E8ecuti&e o icer William 7a!orn led the emergency crews* MThough the bomb had blown a large hole in the deck and fires threatened to do in the ship Eaborn and his crews in the midst of blinding smoke so effectively suppressed the flames and patched up the deck that the Dancock was able to land her planes returning from a mission.kinawa in 3pril 15." Learn rom your errors so the chances o repeating them can !e reduced" 3&oiding Errors 'lanning ahead is the simplest and most e ecti&e approach or a&oiding errors !e ore they can occur" Simple planning or minor pro)ects has two ad&antages" +irst it gi&es you time to consider what you are a!out to do$ and second it encourages you mentally rehearse the steps in&ol&ed" -oth o these mental processes help you to a&oid accidents and careless errors" -e ore you lea&e home$ run a :uick security check A the canary has !een ed$ the windows are closed$ the appliances are switched o $ the alarm system is on" 3s you lea&e home or school or work$ you are entering a new en&ironment" Take a moment to check that you ha&e e&erything you will need or the day A your wallet$ your keys$ appropriate outer wear$ and any notes or e:uipment that you intended take with you" Large pro)ects re:uire a written plan including a list o all the steps in&ol&ed along with corresponding deadlines and a description o the inished product" 'oor planning or a comple8 pro)ect is a recipe or ailure" 'lanning is a!solutely &ital when a large pro)ect is di&ided into su!%tasks to !e completed !y independent groups" Consider the task o digging a tunnel through a mountain !y two teams starting on opposite sides o the mountain" (t takes care ul planning to ensure that the two tunnels will meet as intended" Consider the construction o a modern automo!ile" Thousands o parts are manu actured in actories around the world and are then !rought together at )ust the right time to !e assem!led into a complete &ehicle" Consider the production o a comple8 computer program" Farious su!%teams create thousands o lines o programming code that all ha&e to !e integrated and work together without a hitch to orm the inal product" Consider the ate o the aircra t carrier ESS >ancock during the !attle or . >ancock" 7educing the (mpact o Errors While it is impossi!le to plan or e&ery possi!le error that may occur in li e$ there are reasona!le steps that you can take to reduce the potential harm rom errors that you do make" The irst step is to admit when you ha&e made an error" The most ethical$ and usually most practical approach is to admit to all concerned that you ha&e erred" #ou need to admit to yoursel $ at least$ that you ha&e committed an error and that conditions would !e !etter i you had acted di erently" (t is unproducti&e to insist that you acted wisely when you did not" When possi!le$ do what you can to limit the scope o any damage" ( you knock o&er a )ug o milk$ try to stand the )ug up again !e ore all the milk runs out" ( you shipped the wrong product !ecause it was la!elled improperly$ delay any more shipments until all the remaining la!els can !e checked" -egin the repair process as soon as you are a!le" Direct the spilt milk away rom other items and start mopping up" Contact your customers$ and make arrangements to ship the correct product and retrie&e the erroneous deli&ery" . ten$ the longer you wait to take action the worse the pro!lem !ecomes" Looking to the immediate uture$ decide what other actions can !e taken to minimi9e the damageJ #ou may ha&e to go to the store or another )ug o milk" #ou may ha&e to o er your customer an incenti&e to compensate or any costs related to the mi8 up" +earning from Your Errors E&eryone makes errors" Learning rom your errors is a undamental sur&i&al skill" +ind out what went wrong Take the time to re&iew the steps that led up to an error" Where did you make your mistakeJ Were your assumptions wrongJ Were you misin ormedJ Did you orget to do somethingJ Were you unpreparedJ 3t what points could you ha&e done something di erent that would ha&e pre&ented the errorJ 'lan to a&oid similar errors in the uture What procedures should you esta!lish to a&oid similar errors in the utureJ ( you can a&oid repeating your mistakes then you are automatically making progress" The National Transportation Sa ety -oard <www"nts!"go&= is an independent agency o the Enited States go&ernment that is charged with in&estigating e&ery ci&il a&iation accident and any other signi icant transportation accident$ and then issuing sa ety recommendations aimed at pre&enting similar accidents in the uture" Errors made today tend to limit your opportunities tomorrow" ( you can reduce the . Patterned Behaviour 1any o our !eha&iours are essentially programmed responses to sets o stimuli rom the en&ironment" (n particular$ ha!its$ rituals$ and !elie s can e&oke patterns o !eha&iour without any conscious thought or guidance" #ou create$ adopt$ or adapt ha!its$ rituals$ and !elie s to help you cope with a &ariety o situations" >owe&er$ you should !e cautious when surrendering your conscious decision%making to patterned !eha&iour" E"."& .a$its 3 ha!it is a personal routine that you ollow on a regular !asis$ o ten without conscious thought" Some ha!its are deli!erately created to make li e simpler" +or e8ample you may de&elop the ha!it o always taking your shoes o !e ore entering your home" Some ha!its may con er no real ad&antage$ !ut !ecome part o your routine" #ou may always put on your le t sock irst$ or you may always take the same route to work and always park in the same spot" Some ha!its can lead to negati&e results !ut we ne&er stop to e8amine them" +or e8ample you may ha&e the ha!it o watching the e&ening news on tele&ision while you eat your e&ening meal" This ha!it may lead you share in the angst o tele&ision%news without taking the time to rela8 and en)oy the ood you are eating" (n dealing with ha!its$ the irst challenge is to select and de&elop ha!its that will assist you with routine tasks" The second challenge is to identi y and eliminate ha!its that tend to hamper your en)oyment o li e" E".scope o today@s errors$ then you are automatically in a !etter position to !egin tomorrow" Encontrolled and uncorrected errors ro! you o energy and resources" The impact o your errors tends to mount up like a !ad de!t" 3ny success you ha&e at reducing errors will produce returns like an in&estment with compound interest" 222 E"."' 0ituals and traditions 7ituals and traditions are patterns o !eha&iour that are generally accepted within a group and are preser&ed rom generation to generation" 7ituals and traditions are intended to pro&ide guidance or standard acti&ities and to generate a common !ond among the participants" 7ituals such as weddings and religious ser&ices tend to !e more ormal" Traditions such as launching a ship with a !ottle o wine$ or making New #ear@s resolutions tend to !e less ormal" 7ituals and traditions can !e positi&e$ neutral$ or negati&e" -y their nature$ all rituals and traditions are carried out with little critical thought$ and thus represent action in the a!sence o clear thinking" The ancient ritual o sacri icing animals to a god was a &ariation o normal animal . 000 -CE$ the Sumerians had !egun using horses to pull ploughs and wagons$ and they made use o the same yoke%harness that had pre&iously !een de&eloped or o8en" . e:uals 0$ . Why am + doing it. and that 282 also e:uals .8. +s there a better wayJ@ E".ld 6eorge says a !lack cat crossed in ront o him and two days later he ell and !roke his legC !eware when a !lack cat crosses your path" #oung students o ten notice that 2]2 e:uals ." (t then !ecomes a challenge to con&ince students that although .!utchery" (t de initely !ecame a negati&e ritual when it included human &ictims" 1any ancient ci&ili9ations are reputed to ha&e per ormed human sacri ices to appease the gods" 3ccording to legend$ 3gamemnon sacri iced his daughter (phigena to the goddess 3rtemis" 3ccording to 7oman records$ the Celts sacri iced prisoners to war gods and new !orn !a!ies to har&est gods" (n the 3mericas$ the 39tecs$ 1ayans$ and (ncas all included human sacri ices in their religious rituals" (n 3sia$ sacri ices were routinely made to the goddess Gali" (n the Christian aith$ the cruci i8ion o Pesus is regarded as the inal sacri ice to 6od$ putting an end to that ritual" Still$ the cele!ration o the Eucharist in which Christians sym!olically consume the lesh and !lood o the sacri iced Pesus reminds us o a darker and more ancient ritual" The design o the harness or workhorses pro&ides an e8ample o a negati&e tradition" -y .") Beliefs We create our own mental models or &arious aspects o reality$ or we are pro&ided with them !y an authority igure such as a parent$ a teacher$ or a religious person" The key di erence !etween a mental model and a !elie is the emotional attachment we ha&e or a !elie " We want the !elie to represent reality$ e&en when it is at odds with o!)ecti&e in ormation" -elie s ha&e a &ariety o characteristics that can !e untangled using the three le&el model o the human !rain de&eloped earlier in Chapters 0 and 2" 3t Le&el ($ !elie s tend to !e !ased on models o reality that we ha&e constructed with e&idence rom )ust one or two e8periences" .].8en ha&e wide shoulders$ so a yoke o&er the shoulders with a strap across the chest worked well with them" En ortunately$ horses ha&e relati&ely narrow shoulders and the yoke%harness tended to choke them as they pulled a load" Still$ the use o the yoke%harness with horses !ecame a tradition that was passed rom generation to generation or a!out our thousand years" 3n impro&ed harness with a padded horse% collar was inally accepted in medie&al Europe" Workhorses su ered and were used ine iciently or our millennia simply !ecause a aulty tradition was passed on without any clear thinking" Negati&e rituals and traditions are not always easy to identi y$ nor are they easy to change once they are disco&ered" Still$ indi&iduals should routinely ask$ BWhat am + doing. e:uals 5 rather than 0" 3t Le&el (($ !elie s ha&e a higher emotional content and we tend to mentally isolate some !elie s to a&oid potential con licts with reality" 3 gam!ling addict may !elie&e that he can gi&e up the ha!it any time and that selling the amily car to inance one . nce you make a mental decision that is a!solute$ you ha&e created a new !elie A you ha&e decided that no new in ormation can !e rele&ant and you ha&e made an emotional commitment to perpetuating your decision" The strong emotional component o a !elie renders !elie&ers suscepti!le to manipulation !y others" 1any crimes against humanity ha&e !een committed o&er the centuries !y !elie&ers who thought that they were protecting ideals or glori ying a god$ when in act they were !eing used to en orce the will o a dia!olical leader" 3s a clear%thinker you should always !ase your actions on your !est interpretation o reality" 3lways consider your options and try to a&oid a Bsteel#trap mentality@" -e wary o others who claim to ha&e disco&ered the a!solute truth a!out anything" %%% .more trip to the casino is a good in&estment" 3 religious con&ert may !elie&e that a death%!ed con ession will atone or a li etime o a!using others" 3t Le&el ((($ !elie s tend to !e !ased on models that ha&e !een good predictors o properties in some aspects o the real world" Such a model !ecomes a !elie when we !ecome emotionally attached to it and start to ignore contradictory in ormation" The 3ustrian physicist$ Ernst 1ach <14.4%1510=$ spent his li e studying and teaching a!out the undamental properties o matter" >e came to !elie&e that anything that could not !e directly percei&ed !y our senses should not !e regarded as a real entity" This !elie led 1ach to re)ect the atomic model o matter during the same decade that his scienti ic colleagues were making great ad&ances in atomic theory" We all ha&e !elie s o one kind or another$ !ut we must recogni9e that a !elie is only a !elie !ecause we are determined to work with limited in ormation" ( 1ach had said B-ased on the a&aila!le e&idence it is my conclusion that there are no such entities as atoms@ that would ha&e !een a statement in accordance with clear thinking" >owe&er$ the lat denial o the e8istence o atoms took 1ach into the realm o !elie " . ealth Your (ecurit Your Time Your #ealth Your -aterial ?oods Your +eisure #our health$ your security$ your time$ your wealth$ and your material possessions are limited resources" #ou can learn to !etter manage these resources and a&oid many o li e@s common hassles" When your personal resources are well managed you ha&e more time and energy to de&ote to other constructi&e e orts" &G"& Your . &G"/ &G"6 Your .Chapter &G* -anaging Your 0esources &G"& &G"' &G") &G"."2"1$ the emphasis here is more on your general health" 3&erage li e e8pectancy in the industriali9ed world is a!out 40 years at !irth$ a!out 4/ years i you make it to age 00 in good health" #ou can e8tend your li e e8pectancy !y taking reasona!le steps to a&oid accidents and maintain your physical and mental health" &G"&"& Basic .ealth Since many diseases ha&e a li estyle component$ there are a num!er o practical steps you can take to enhance your physical health" 6i&ing up smoking$ restricting the use o alcohol and other recreational drugs$ eating a !alanced diet$ and getting regular e8ercise can pro&ide some protection against cancer$ heart attacks$ stroke$ and lung diseases" #ou should also monitor your !lood pressure and weight$ and seek medical attention i you detect any unusual symptoms" Eat well Eating well ensures that your !ody is supplied with the energy it needs to get you through e&ery day$ and the raw materials it needs to repair normal wear and tear" When you eat well$ your !rain releases endorphins to reward you or your e orts$ thus pro&iding one o the !asic pleasures in li e" The challenge is to eat su icient good stu without o&erindulging in the !ad stu " Eating well can !e enhanced with speci ic knowledge and skills" #ou can learn the !asics o nutrition" #ou can search your neigh!ourhood shops or the !est sources o wholesome ingredients" #ou can de&elop your skills as a cook so you can economically .ealth 3 healthy !ody is your most &alua!le resource" #our physical health and mental health are the oundation o your e8istence" Without them your whole !eing is in )eopardy" While aspects o !rain maintenance were discussed in section . prepare those ingredients to produce tasty meals" (t would also !e use ul to enhance your understanding o digesti&e processes$ agricultural methods$ and the !est techni:ues or storing oods" Sleep well No one knows :uite why$ !ut a good night@s sleep is rest ul and in&igorating" There is no simple procedure that will guarantee a good night@s sleep$ !ut there are a ew simple steps that can only help* 1" Set aside su icient time or sleep each day" 2" Esta!lish a calm e&ening routine" ." Ensure a low o resh air" Naps and power naps can also !e re reshing" 3 nap is a short sleep o a!out hal an hour sometime during the middle o the day" 3 power nap is a ew minutes o complete rela8ation during a period o otherwise intense mental acti&ity" E8ercise regularly #our !ody is an organic system that sur&i&es !y pumping luids through your !lood &essels and around your lymphatic system" #our heart and !ody muscles pro&ide the pumping action or these systems$ so a strong heart and regular e8ercise are what keep you unctioning properly" #our cardio&ascular system pro&ides your cells with glucose < rom your digesti&e system= and o8ygen < rom your lungs=" #our cells com!ine these raw materials to produce energy to dri&e your muscles" #our muscles are connected to your !ones !y tendons" When your mind acti&ates your muscles to mo&e your !ones$ you are on your way" There are all kinds o acti&ities and games to choose rom at all skill le&elsC consult your community resources" 3&oid common in ections #our good health is a precious commodity so you should take prudent actions to a&oid common in ections and diseases" The simplest measures to a&oid common diseases are to reduce the tendency to touch your eyes and mouth during the day$ and to wash your hands regularly" ( an ac:uaintance has a contagious illness$ limit contact with that person until the in ectious phase has passed" Geep a personal record o any illnesses$ allergies$ inoculations$ and treatments" When you interact with the medical system$ !e prepared to descri!e any symptoms as clearly as possi!le" -e aware that or e&ery test$ o&er%the%counter medication$ and prescription drug there are side e ects and risks as well as potential !ene its" When and i you e&er ha&e to make a li e altering medical decision$ do not hesitate to get a ." 7est on a com orta!le !ed" . second opinion$ and do some !ackground reading on your own" De&elop reasona!le procedures to control !acterial growth when storing$ cleaning$ and cooking ood" 1anage stress Dealing with stress is a uni&ersal concern" Some stress can !e !ene icial" Stress helps you to ocus your attention and it tests your a!ility to deal with emergencies" Too much stress$ o&er too much time$ can !e harm ul" ( possi!le$ ad)ust your attitudes so that ewer situations cause you to eel stressed" #ou can only do your !est to deal with a situationC anything else is !eyond your control" ( necessary$ modi y your en&ironment at home or at work to reduce the le&el o stress that you eel" 7ela8 When you rela8$ you want to slow down and relie&e stressC you want to gi&e your !ody and your mind a chance to rest and reco&er" The irst step in rela8ing is to recogni9e that you are o ten stressed !eyond your normal tolerance le&el" Ne8t you ha&e to decide that you need to$ and want to$ rela8" #ou might consider the ollowing steps or some immediate relie * 1" Stop whate&er you are doing" 2" 6et com orta!le" ." Take a ew deep !reaths" ." 7elease the tension in your muscles" /" Close your eyes and imagine a calm setting 0" 'ush any thoughts a!out urgent concerns into your mental !ackground" 2" 'ut your head down and take a i&e%minute Bpower nap@" Pust a ew minutes o rela8ation can re resh you or se&eral more hours o hard work" 1anage pain Some pain is good" 'ain tells you that part o your !ody is damaged" 'ain also pro&ides a negati&e e8perience so you will take !etter care to a&oid situations that might cause you pain" Too much pain or too long is not good" 'ain receptors are the only sense organs that continue to issue signals at ull strength as long as the stimulus lasts" 'ain rom an in)ury does not diminish until the damaged tissue is repaired" 3cute and de!ilitating pain can !e alle&iated with drugs$ and that is a good thing" 'ersistent pain can o ten !e managed with drugs as well$ !ut there is a danger o !ecoming addicted to those drugs" There are some indications that pain can !e partially managed !y the mind itsel " ( you ha&e a minor ache and then ocus your attention on that ache$ you can end up in great discom ort" >owe&er$ i you can di&ert your attention to some other interesting acti&ity$ you may not e&en notice that same ache" During com!at$ or intense sports . ccasional depression is part o our emotional repertoire and helps us to deal with e&ents that produce pro ound sadness" #ou can speed your return to a normal outlook !y thinking positi&e thoughts$ switching to acti&ities that you en)oy$ and a&oiding tragic stories and ilms" . ten these pro!lems can !e managed with social support and the help o psychoanalysis" Depression .competitions$ the pain rom an in)ury is sometimes de lected rom the conscious mind until the action is o&er and the person has time to re lect on any in)uries" ( pain can !e de lected !y your su!conscious$ the implication is that it is also possi!le or your conscious mind to e8ert a measure o control o&er pain" (t may !e easi!le to reduce the intensity o a pain !y reassuring yoursel that you are sa e$ that the situation is !eing reasona!ly managed$ and !y deciding that there are other important matters that need your attention" &G"&"' -ental .ealth 1ental health is the second &ital component o your o&erall health" There is much you can do to help esta!lish and maintain a healthy state o mind" -uild some leisure$ rela8ation$ and routine into your days to !alance high priority tasks and challenges" Challenges keep your mind alert$ routine tasks pro&ide guaranteed success$ leisure and rela8ation allow or down time and enrichment" When you do run into mental snags$ it is important to reali9e that you are not alone in the world" When you need assistance$ seek ad&ice and help rom amily$ riends$ co% workers$ and pro essional ser&ices" Supporti&e ha!its De&eloping supporti&e ha!its is the most undamental action you can take to enhance your mental health" #ou ha&e to work at esta!lishing and maintaining positi&e relationships with amily mem!ers$ co%workers$ and riends" #ou need to de&elop a&enues or your creati&e talents and sources o satis action at home$ at work$ and during your leisure acti&ities" Sources o mental illness 1ental illness can !e short term or long termC simple to deal with or de!ilitating" There are three general sources o mental illness* 1" 3 person may su er rom a physical a!normality in their !rain such as a tumour$ a genetic mal unction$ or a de ecti&e !lood supply" 3s medical skills increase$ more o these pro!lems can !e managed with surgical treatment" 2" 3 person may su er rom a chemical a!normality in which their !rain produces too much$ or too little$ o particular !io%chemicals that are re:uired or normal mental processes" . ten these pro!lems can !e managed with medications" ." 3 person may su er rom aulty neural networks that ha&e de&eloped a ter prolonged e8posure to inappropriate !eha&iour" +aulty neural networks can lead to !eha&iours that cause long%term di iculties" . 0 000 deaths are o icially attri!uted to suicide each year in the ES3" Since the details o many accidents are undetermined$ the actual num!er o suicides is pro!a!ly greater$ and may e&en approach the num!er o deaths in&ol&ing motor &ehicle accidents" Thus$ monitoring the mental health o yoursel and your amily mem!ers$ and seeking early treatment or depression should !e an important component o home sa ety" (n contrast$ the num!er o deaths rom homicide$ e&en in the ES3$ are only a!out hal o the deaths rom suicide" #ou are twice as likely to kill yoursel as to !e killed !y someone else" 222 &G"' Your (ecurit There are no guarantees in this world$ !ut there are steps you can take to pre&ent and a&oid a num!er o pro!lems related to the security o yoursel and your amily" The commons sources o potential pro!lems include accidents$ the acti&ities o other humans$ and the orces o nature" ." Low sel esteem /" (na!ility to concentrate 0" 3gitation$ restlessness$ and irrita!ility 2" (nacti&ity and withdrawal rom usual acti&ities 4" +eelings o hopelessness and helplessness 5" (na!ility to deri&e pleasure rom normally pleasura!le acti&ities 10"7ecurring thoughts o death or suicide" 'ersistent or re:uent depression is indicati&e o a pro!lem that must !e treated seriouslyC consult your doctor or e8pert assistance" There are e ecti&e treatments that can help you !reak out o a cycle o negati&e eed!ack$ and thus relie&e most !outs o depression" There are also se&eral common addictions in&ol&ing drugs$ alcohol$ smoking$ and gam!ling that can !e a&oided or treated in their early stages A especially when you are a!le to keep the rest o your li e in order" +i8ing one !roken system is enough o a challengeC i8ing a num!er o !roken and interrelated systems is a much more di icult task" 7egarding suicide and homicide 3!out .Sometimes a person eels depressed when there is no o!&ious source o sadness" Symptoms o this type o depression include* 1" 3 disrupti&e change in sleeping patterns 2" +eeling dull and listless ." Change in appetite$ o ten with weight gain or loss . " (n addition$ males are twice as likely as emales to die rom an accident" -y de inition$ an accident in&ol&es human error$ so the risk o !eing in)ured or killed in an accident can !e reduced !y prudent !eha&iour" The main causes o accidental death in the ES3 are summari9ed in Ta!le ?2" The data or 2002 are typical or any year in the past decade" Ta$le %B* Five leading causes of accidental death .&G"'"& Accident Prevention Sa ety awareness can help you a&oid accidents at home$ at play$ and at work" 1ost dangerous accidents are due to carelessness andHor poor planning" Learning to recogni9e potential ha9ards and using appropriate caution to then a&oid them can help to keep your !ody and !rain in proper working order" 3&oiding accidents 3s can !e seen in Ta!le ?0 accidents are the i th leading cause o death$ and each year account or o&er 100 000 deaths in the ES3" Ta$le %6* +eading causes of death for all ages 3lthough accidents are only the i th leading cause o death or all ages$ accidents are the leading cause o death rom !irth to age .. There are more deaths each year rom motor &ehicle accidents than the ne8t our leading causes com!ined" 3ccording to data rom the National Center or Statistics and 3nalysis <www"nhtsa"go& =$ a!out .0D o all atal car crashes in&ol&e mo&ing out o the proper lane$ dri&ing too ast$ or ailing to yield the right o way" 3!out .0D o dri&er atalities in&ol&e the use o alcoholC single &ehicle accidents are )ust as deadly as multiple &ehicle crashesC and +riday$ Saturday$ and Sunday e&enings are 20D more lethal than any other times on the road" There are a ew !asic steps can you take to a&oid in)ury in a motor &ehicle accident* dri&e with care$ do up your seat!elt$ do not drink and dri&e$ and keep your car in proper repair" 3 course in de ensi&e dri&ing would also !e a wise in&estment" 3round the home$ poisonous su!stances and drugs should !e identi ied$ la!elled and sa ely stored" 3ny irst aid courses that you take should include in ormation on how to help poison &ictims$ how to pro&ide arti icial respiration$ and how to assist choking &ictims" Surprisingly$ a large proportion o the atal alls occur on one le&el" Each year thousands o people die !y slipping$ tripping$ and stum!lingC so a home sa ety check to impro&e ooting and handholds is well warranted$ especially or the elderly" &G"'"' Personal and Famil (ecurit 'ersonal and amily security co&ers a lot o ground$ !ut the o&er%riding concept is to contemplate a wide range o possi!le negati&e e&ents and then apply reasona!le care and caution" 3 moment@s orethought can orestall a li etime o su ering" (mpro&ing home security 7o!!ery and ire are the two most common !reaches o home security" There are simple steps you can take to reduce these threats" 1ost ro!!ers only e&er intend to !reak into an empty residence" When away or the day$ or on holidays$ make your home look li&ed%in" ( necessary$ ha&e someone pick up the mail$ cut the grass$ and water the garden" Lea&e !linds and curtains partially open and use timers to switch lights on and o " >a&e :uality locks installed on doors and windows" Lea&e an e8tra key with a neigh!our rather than under the ront doormat" -e reluctant to !rag a!out newly ac:uired wealth or an e8pensi&e possession" +riends%o % riends o riends may not !e your riends$ and may !e tempted !y tales o your porta!le wealth" Common sources o home ires include kitchen ires$ aulty wiring$ careless use o candles$ and children playing with matches or lighters" 3ny appliance that produces enough heat to ignite cloth or paper should !e used with care" 3ll amily mem!ers need to !e &ery care ul with any open lame" 3 ire e8tinguisher in a prominent location pro&ides a reminder or e&eryone to !e cautious$ and pro&ides a handy means or e8tinguishing a small ire" There are a ew other essential steps you should take to protect your possessions in case your home is e&er !urgled or damaged !y ire" 'ersonal and amily documents . should !e stored in a ireproo !o8 and tucked away in a secure corner" Falua!le original documents should !e stored in a sa ety deposit !o8" #our home insurance policy should ha&e separate riders or any indi&idual items with unusually high &alue" Falua!le computer iles should !e !acked up and copies should !e stored in a separate location" 3&oid putting all your eggs in one !asket and then lea&ing that !asket on the dining room ta!le while you go on a si8%month &acation" Think twice !e ore setting o ireworks in the !asement" 'ersonal and amily (D Li e in a comple8 and technological culture re:uires systematic organi9ation o your personal a airs" 3ny neglect in this area can lead to signi icant pro!lems or you and your amily" .ne o the most important tasks in the modern world is !eing a!le to pro&e who you are" 3uthori9ed identity documents <(D= are needed when dealing with any go&ernment agency A rom paying your ta8es$ to o!taining a passport" #ou need (D to get a mortgage or a dri&er@s license" #ou need (D to get on an airplane or a cruise ship" #ou e&en need (D to enrol at a school or take a uni&ersity e8am" So it is important to o!tain and organi9e your own (D papers$ and that o your amily mem!ers" The two most !asic (D items are your social insurance <or social security= card and your !irth certi icate" #ou must apply or !oth o these items rom go&ernment agencies" ( you are a parent you should apply or these (D papers on !ehal o each o your children$ soon a ter they are !orn" 3 dri&er@s license is the ne8t most common orm o (D" To o!tain a dri&er@s license you ha&e to irst pro&ide some other orm o identi ication$ and then pass a skills test on the operation o a motor &ehicle" ( you are married$ then you should ha&e a copy o your marriage certi icate" #ou will need this i there are any legal changes in your relationship" 3 copy o your marriage certi icate will pro!a!ly !e re:uired when applying or any pension !ene its" ( you ha&e !een a mem!er o the armed orces$ then copies o the appropriate documentation will !e needed to apply or any !ene its" 3t each stage o your educational career$ you should o!tain copies o any certi icates$ degrees$ and transcripts" These are o ten re:uired when applying or ad&anced studies$ or your irst )o!" 3t &arious times you will own credit cards$ !ank accounts$ and insurance policies" Geep track o these propertiesC record their descriptions and keep this in ormation in a sa e place" . " ( you are sued$ lia!ility insurance can o er a degree o inancial protection" The purpose o insurance is to protect you and your amily rom inancial disaster due to speci ic causes" While insurance premiums can !e e8pensi&e A !asic li e$ home$ and car insurance should !e regarded as essential" 3 note o caution A insurance companies can increase their pro its !y charging higher .-iometric identi ication is now technically easi!le and is something e&ery amily mem!er should consider" #ou can easily sa&e a ew locks o hair and the ingerprints o each amily mem!er as an emergency reser&e or !iometric (D" ( no other (D is a&aila!le$ then this in ormation can help to con irm who is who" Wills$ powers o attorney$ and insurance Wills$ powers o attorney$ and insurance can protect yoursel $ and those you care or$ rom unnecessary inancial harm" 3 will is an essential document in estate planning" While we all hope to li&e long and prosperous li&es A accidents$ disease$ and assaults do occur" Creating a will is a simple procedure that will help to ensure that your estate is distri!uted the way you want it to !e distri!uted" 3 will can also speed up the distri!ution process$ and a&oid a host o legal pro!lems or your heirs" 3 power o attorney is a legal document intended to protect you and your inancial resources i you should e&er !ecome incapa!le o managing your own a airs" (n a power o attorney or property you legally declare that a person o your choice has the authority to manage your property and inances on your !ehal i you are incapacitated" #ou can also pro&ide guidelines and speci ic instructions in your power o attorney" (n a power o attorney or personal care you can legally declare who will make medical decisions on your !ehal i you are incapacitated" 3gain$ you can pro&ide guidelines and speci ic instructions" Esually all you ha&e to do is ill in some standard orms and ha&e your signature witnessed" With these powers o attorney your spouse$ or trustee$ can pay your !ills and make timely decisions regarding your medical treatment" Without these powers o attorney$ your spouse or chosen trustee would ha&e to sit on the sidelines while a go&ernment !ureaucracy slowly turned its attention towards your a airs" 3n insurance policy is a legal de&ice or sharing inancial risk" (n the long run$ the a&erage person spends a!out the same amount to ac:uire insurance$ as they will e&er recei&e in !ene its" Se&eral types o insurance are appropriate to pro&ide a range o protection or you and your amily* 1" ( you die$ then li e insurance can pro&ide an income or your sur&i&ors" 2" ( your home is damaged or destroyed !y natural causes$ then home insurance can pro&ide some unds or repairs or replacement" ." ( you are in)ured in an automo!ile accident$ or your car is damaged or stolen$ automo!ile insurance can pro&ide some monetary compensation" . " >a&e a list o emergency phone num!ers readily a&aila!le" ." ( amily mem!ers are separated$ what distant assem!ly points should they head orJ ." Who is responsi!le or whom$ at any gi&en timeJ +or e8ample$ who picks up Pimmy rom school when !oth the parents are at workJ /" 1ake sure you know how to shut o the water supply$ electrical power$ and gas supply to your home" .premiums and settling as ew claims as possi!le" 7ead your insurance policies &ery care ully to ensure that you ha&e the co&erage that you think you ha&e" &G"'") The Forces of 3ature >urricanes$ tornados$ loods$ !li99ards$ earth :uakes$ wind storms$ and other orces o nature can cause a lot o damage in a short period o time" Despite the power o 1other Nature$ there are reasona!le and prudent steps that you can take to a&oid or minimi9e the impact o such a disaster" 3&oiding disasters The !asic strategy or a&oiding natural disasters is to keep in ormed and make reasona!le decisions" ( a hurricane is approaching$ delay that ishing trip" ( a&alanche warnings ha&e !een issued$ keep o the mountain slopes" ( you ha&e the choice$ esta!lish your home in a reasona!ly secure location" 3&oid the lood plain in a ri&er &alley$ mountain slopes$ and seaside cli s" Do not mo&e in ne8t door to a munitions actory" ( you !uild a house in a orest$ use ire resistant roo ing and siding materials$ and clear the !rush rom around your home" 7educing the impact o disasters 3lthough no one likes to think o a disaster occurring in their own neigh!ourhood A nasty e&ents do occur" While you cannot pre&ent a disaster$ you can take a ew moments to prepare or a &ariety o negati&e e&ents" (ndi&idual amilies should de&elop !asic plans or handling emergencies at home" The ollowing contingency plans are recommended* 1" Geep a irst aid kit up%do%date$ and learn how to use it" 2" 'ractice amily ire drills so that e&eryone knows the !est and astest way to e8it the amily home" ." ( you ha&e a serious medical condition$ wear a medic alert !racelet or necklace" /" Discuss and re&iew !asic child sa ety at home and in your community" 0" Geep a three%day supply o ood and drinking water on hand" 1ake a preliminary disaster plan* 1" Where would you ind shelter outside our community rom an e8ceptional ire or stormJ 2" What would you need to collect and take i you had to e&acuate with one hour@s warningJ . >umans do not think well under stress$ so a little ad&ance planning can !e o great &alue i the worst should e&er occur" 222 &G") Your Time 3 ter your health$ your time is your most &alua!le resource" 7egardless o your material wealth or social position$ your time in the uni&erse is limited" The world is a ascinating place and there are enough things to do$ see$ and learn to occupy do9ens o li etimes" En ortunately you get only one shot at it" 3nd during your inite li e span$ your physical and mental energy are also limited" The wise use o your time and energy determines the richness o your li e@s e8periences" &G")"& The Time in Your +ife Each day has 2. hours to spend today and it will all !e spent$ one%way or another" ( you are eeling out o sorts today$ you can postpone a task until tomorrow !ut you cannot sa&e any e8tra time rom today to accomplish that task" #ou can work e8tra hard today$ !ut tomorrow you still ha&e only 2. hours$ each week 104 hours$ and each year 4200 hours" With reasona!le estimates or the time you will spend sleeping$ getting dressed$ eating$ doing chores$ and routine work you would !e ortunate to ha&e 2000 waking hours each year or tra&elling$ ho!!ies$ entertainment$ and personal :uests" The essential point is that anyone@s time or li e@s ad&entures is inite" No amount o wealth can !uy you more time" Time has another important property A you cannot sa&e it" #ou ha&e 2. hours to spend" #ou should &alue e&ery hour you ha&e and !e reluctant to waste any o your time" #ou should !e reluctant to let others waste your time either through their incompetence or lack o respect" #ou are always doing something$ e&en i it is )ust sitting and staring at a !lank wall" The challenge or a clear thinker is to ind acti&ities that are interesting and rewarding at the current moment$ without restricting the potential or uture ad&entures" #our uture potential can !e curtailed !y taking unnecessary risks such as skydi&ing without a !ackup parachute" #our uture potential can !e restricted !y wasting opportunities or personal growth such as playing tri&ial games all day rather than working andHor studying" &G")"' Plan to 8se Your Time #isel With a little planning you can a&oid common di iculties$ ma8imi9e the use o your a&aila!le time$ and seek opportunities to reach your goals* 1" Short%term planning helps you ocus on today and tomorrow" What must !e . "' 9nvesting When you sa&e some o your earnings$ you are storing current purchasing power or uture use" There are three standard approaches or increasing the &alue o your sa&ings* 1" #ou can loan your money to someone else$ <deposit it in a !ank= and earn ."& Famil Finances 3 ew o us will !ecome company e8ecuti&es$ run our own success ul !usinesses$ inherit a ortune$ win a lottery$ or !ecome amous athletes$ musicians$ or mo&ie stars" 1ost o us are limited to our wages and the !est we can do is to stretch our earnings" The total amount o purchasing power that most o us will e&er ha&e is limited" ( you work or the e:ui&alent o I00 000 a year$ or ." Long%term planning helps you to look past this year into the ne8t decade and the rest o your li e" What are your long%term goalsJ Should you !e laying the oundations or a new career$ or marriage$ or a new home$ or starting a new !usiness$ or raising children$ or retirement$ or or parental careJ The com!ination o daily To%Do lists and a monthly plan pro&ide a simple and e ecti&e means or organi9ing your time to achie&e more success and greater satis action" 'ausing or thought$ rela8ing !etween !outs o acti&ity$ and sa&ouring the delights o the moment are positi&e and producti&e uses o your time" Falue e&ery day as i it is your last$ !ut hedge your !ets !y preparing or tomorrow as well" 222 &G". million" That may sound like a lot o money until you reali9e that a!out hal will go to paying ta8es at one le&el or another" Some o your remaining earnings should !e put aside to help pro&ide or your years o retirement" There are only two !asic ways to stretch your earnings* in&est your sa&ings$ and shop smart" &G".0 years$ then your total li etime earnings will !e I2". Your #ealth The goal o inancial management is to make good use o your limited purchasing power so you can o!tain all o your !asic needs$ most o your com ort needs$ and some o your lu8ury needs" &G".dealt with$ what should !e dealt with$ and how do you really want to spend your timeJ 2" 1edium%term planning helps you look ahead a ew weeks or months" (n what order should tasks !e scheduledJ What appointments and meetings are scheduled$ or need to !e scheduledJ . ") -ake #ise Purchases Smart shopping has two !asic components* spend wisely$ and a&oid unnecessary de!t" When you spend wisely$ you purchase only what you really need or want$ a&oid !eing o&ercharged$ and seek out true &alue while a&oiding unnecessary !ells and whistles" ( you o&er spend and accumulate de!ts$ you end up ha&ing to make interest payments that are typically e:ual to in lation plus at least ten percent" Without due diligence$ you can easily end up paying a signi icant portion your purchasing power )ust to co&er the interest on past de!ts" 6o&ernments o ten spend now and pay later$ accumulating huge de!ts in the process" The go&ernment o Canada spends appro8imately one out o e&ery our ta8%dollars that it collects )ust paying interest on its national de!t" The ES3 spends a!out one ta8 dollar in si8 ser&icing its de!t" Sound management o your inancial resources can help make your li e more com orta!le$ and remo&e one o the commonest sources o aggra&ation in amily li e" 222 &G"/ Your -aterial ?oods #our material goods should add to your en)oyment o li e and assist in achie&ing your li e@s goals" With a little organi9ation your material goods can !e used more e ecti&ely$ and pro&ide more satis action$ at lower costs and with less waste" When less e ort is spent in managing your material goods you ha&e more time and energy or other tasks$ including clear thinking" 1aterial o!)ects can !e classi ied according to their e8pected li etimes as consuma!le$ semi%consuma!le$ or non%consuma!le" &G"/"& Consuma$le 9tems Consuma!le items include ood$ toiletries$ and communication ser&ices" #ou purchase these items$ use them$ and then they are gone" 3ny !ene it or en)oyment is deri&ed rom the process o consuming them" Facations may !e your largest annual consuma!le item" ." #ou can !uy a &alua!le item$ such as real estate or art$ and hope that the &alue o the item will increase o&er time" When you resale the item you make a capital gain" En ortunately$ all orms o in&estment come with associated risks" #ou would !e wise to seek e8pert ad&ice !e ore making any ma)or in&estment" &G".interest" 3s a general rule$ !anks will pay a ew percent o&er the rate o in lation" 2" #ou can in&est in a !usiness and share in the pro its" -uying shares in a corporation that issues di&idends is a common way o doing this" . &G"/"' (emi1Consuma$le 9tems Semi%consuma!le items can !e used se&eral times and may endure or a num!er o years" Still$ you still e8pect to replace them on a regular !asis" Semi%consuma!le items include clothing$ electronics$ small appliances$ most tools$ toys$ !ooks$ and recorded entertainment" Semi%consuma!le items ha&e little or no resale &alue" The irst task in managing semi%consuma!le items is to make wise purchases" Select items that will meet your needs$ are dura!le$ and are easily ser&iced" The other essential tasks in managing semi%consuma!le items are maintenance and storage" Some special collections such as sports e:uipment$ coins$ and !ooks may re:uire e8tra maintenance and organi9ation" &G"/") 3on1Consuma$le 9tems Non%consuma!le items represent ma)or purchases" #ou e8pect non%consuma!le items to last many years and to maintain at least a portion o their &alue" (n !usiness$ non% consuma!le items are called capital goods" Non%consuma!le items include inancial holdings$ real estate$ urniture$ automo!iles$ )ewellery$ and other possessions that you e8pect to ha&e a signi icant resale &alue" #our home is usually the !iggest non%consuma!le inancial in&estment you will e&er make" Geeping your home clean$ neat$ and organi9ed will enhance your daily en)oyment o it and simpli y many regular maintenance tasks" The !asic components o the structural$ power$ heating$ cooling$ and plum!ing systems should !e inspected regularly and repaired as necessary" 3n automo!ile is typically the second largest purchase in your li e" 7egular maintenance including oil changes and sa ety inspections can do much to prolong your years o trou!le ree dri&ing" &G"/". 7wnership 1aterial goods are integral components o ci&ili9ation" They can help to keep you ali&e$ ampli y your physical a!ilities$ and contri!ute to your en)oyment o li e" Still$ it is worth looking or the !alance point !etween the e ort spent accumulating material goods$ the e ort spent organi9ing and maintaining your material goods$ and the !ene its deri&ed rom possessing and using material goods" The undamental concept o ownership raises another interesting practical and philosophical point" We assume that when we own something that it is ours ore&er$ !ut ore&er is a long time" (n reality when you own something$ such as a new car or a diamond necklace$ you only possess it temporarily" (n twenty years your car will pro!a!ly !e on a scrap heap" (n a hundred years$ your diamond necklace will !elong to someone else" (n the long run$ we do not own anythingC we only ha&e temporary control o some things" The implication is that e8cessi&e e ort de&oted towards the accumulation o material goods may !e misdirected" #our most &alua!le collections are your e8periences in li e$ not the physical o!)ects . " #ou gain a &ariety o skills and a range o knowledge that will help to prepare you or any une8pected challenges in li e" While an interest may !e pursued indi&idually$ or with a group$ almost all interests ultimately in&ol&e social interaction with ellow enthusiasts" Staring into space or watching tele&ision$ <conditions that are o ten con used= should not !e e:uated with :uality leisure time" #our leisure acti&ities should rela8$ in&igorate$ and inspire you A not num! your mind and kill time until you ha&e to return to work" &G"6"& Time for Active En:o ment #ou should !uild time or acti&e en)oyment into each day" 3cti&e en)oyment in&ol&es using your muscles to do something that is un" 1any people en)oy indi&idual sports such as )ogging$ skating$ weight li ting$ or swimming" 1any en)oy team sports such as !asket!all$ &olley!all$ or tennis" Singing$ dancing$ or playing a musical instrument also pro&ide many with acti&e en)oyment" 3cti&e en)oyment pro&ides relie rom other mundane acti&ities$ stimulates the low o luids and nutrients around your !ody$ and stimulates the release o endorphins in your !rain to impro&e your emotional state" &G"6"' Time for Passive En:o ment Some o your time should also !e set aside e&ery day or passi&e en)oyment" 'assi&e en)oyment occurs when we sense the !eauty o nature and the results o human creati&ity" 'assi&e en)oyment pro&ides opportunities or appreciating the good things in li e$ helps us to rela8$ and helps pro&ide moti&ation or coping with daily routines" There are many orms o passi&e en)oyment or us to choose rom" We can en)oy a !eauti ul sunset$ the pounding o the sur $ or contemplate other wonders o nature" We can listen to music" We can attend concerts$ plays$ opera$ !allets$ plays$ and sports e&ents" We can &isit an art gallery or a museum" We can read a good !ook" .that you control" 222 &G"6 Your +eisure There are important ad&antages in de&eloping and pursuing a &ariety o interests !eyond your daily routines* 1" #ou !ecome a more interesting person" 3s you de&elop knowledge and e8pertise in a &ariety o ields$ you are a!le to communicate with$ and empathi9e with a greater range o people" 2" #ou can switch !etween interests to stimulate di erent parts o your !rain and e8plore di erent a&enues or success" . %%% . Chapter &&* Clear Thinking and You &&"& &&"' &&") &&".uman Condition Building (kills for Clear Thinking Philosophical 9ssues Applied Clear Thinking The most sophisticated$ adapta!le$ and capa!le creature that has e&er roamed the sur ace o Earth is powered !y the human !rain" #ou are one o those creatures" #ou can enhance your nati&e thinking a!ilities !y increasing your use o rational thought processes and stri&ing to think clearly" #ou know you are thinking clearly when you are a!le to learn more with less e ortC you do a !etter )o! o organi9ing new knowledgeC you are a!le to deal with more pro!lems and make !etter decisionsC and you are a!le to a&oid serious errors" &&"& The .000 calories o ood energy A e&ery day" Water acts as a uni&ersal sol&ent and transport medium in your !ody" 1uch o the ood you eat is con&erted to glucose in your digesti&e tract" 6lucose is transported to e&ery cell in your !ody$ and when com!ined with o8ygen pro&ides the energy or your cells@ acti&ities" -rain cells are una!le to store glucose or o8ygen$ so i they are depri&ed o either o these raw materials$ they are una!le to unction normally and your !rain can su er permanent damage within minutes" #ou need to !e aware o the strengths and limitations o your senses" When accurate and precise interpretation o your sensory input is &ital to an important decision$ that in ormation should !e dou!le%checked !e ore you act" #our memories record your interpretations o the inputs and e&ents that you regarded as important or unusual" 7epetition and practice with in ormation are the !asic strategies or storing that in ormation in your memory" #our memories o signi icant e&ents are o ten rehearsed in your su!conscious until the key elements can !e . The .uman Condition E&ery human possesses uni:ue characteristics$ strengths and weaknesses" These are the eatures that make you who you are" With directed e ort you can adapt some o these characteristics$ take ad&antage o your strengths$ and manage your weaknesses" &&"&"& A Touch of Biolog The in ormation processing capa!ilities o your !rain set you ar apart rom all other air%!reathing$ omni&orous mammals" The neural acti&ity in your !rain orms your personality and makes you human" #ou reside inside your !rain as a set o !eha&iours and memories stored in your neural networks" 3s a li&ing creature$ you re:uire a steady supply o air$ a!out our litres o water$ and . ccasionally$ the process is more complicated and cell di&ision is preceded !y the )oining o two separate cells to e8change or com!ine genetic material" This con)unction o cells con ers sur&i&al ad&antages !y pro&iding an opportunity to repair any damaged genes in an indi&idual cell$ and !y allowing positi&e mutations to !e spread across an entire population" While a human !ody consists o trillions o cells$ con)ugation is in&ol&ed only in the ertili9ation o a single egg cell !y a sperm to initiate the growth o an em!ryo" +rom that instant onwards$ e&ery cell in your !ody is created !y simple cell di&ision" .recalled at will" &&"&"' The +ife Force Li&ing organisms are !ursting with energy to reproduce" 3 single maple tree produces enough seeds each year to populate a whole orest" 3 single pair o salmon can produce up to ten thousand ertili9ed eggs in one spawning" >umans are not as proli ic$ !ut they do de&ote much o their energy dealing with the reproducti&e process and raising children" 3t the cellular le&el$ reproduction in&ol&es either simple cell di&ision$ or con)ugation ollowed !y cell di&ision" (n simple cell di&ision$ en&ironmental conditions stimulate a mother cell to di&ide into two identical daughter cells" The &ast ma)ority o cell di&ision ollows this route" .ne con)ugation is ollowed !y trillions o simple di&isions" -arring errors in the process$ e&ery cell in your !ody contains e8actly the same genetic in ormation" Still$ you do possess li&er cells$ muscle cells$ ner&e cells and so on" This di erentiation occurs !ecause the !io%chemical en&ironment created !y surrounding cells acti&ates di erent genes on the chromosomes o your cells" 3s di erent chromosomes are acti&ated$ groups o cells produce the &ariety o organs and tissues needed to create your !ody" Thus$ you end up as an interesting person rather than a giant !lo! o identical cells" &&"&") Clear Thinking and (exualit Since our species de&otes much o its time and energy to reproduction and raising children$ it is instructi&e to use the three%le&el model o the mind to interpret human se8uality and its social implications" Le&el ( acti&ity in your hind!rain spurs your instinctual urge or procreation and dri&es you to seek ertile partners" Su!consciously you can also !e energi9ed !y se8ual pheromones emitted !y a potential mate$ and are consciously stimulated !y images o se8ual acti&ity" Le&el ( se8uality also contains elements o dominance$ power$ and sadism" Le&el (( acti&ity in your mid!rain comple8 is more ocused on emotional in&ol&ement$ romance$ and lo&e$ !ut also contains the elements o )ealousy" Le&el ((( acti&ity in your ore!rain is associated with seeking e8tended relationships$ li e partners$ amily li e$ !onding$ and shared e8periences" . 1uch o human social acti&ity$ especially among adolescents and young adults$ is de&oted to mate selection and the attainment o se8ual satis action" Enderstanding and managing your se8ual emotions in tumultuous conditions is an important application o clear thinking$ and a irst step in dealing with human relationships" (n addition to the three internal le&els o se8uality$ there are wide%ranging societal &alues and restrictions that impinge on se8ual acti&ity" There are at least our domains o social li e that esta!lish !eha&ioural patterns or human se8uality" (nheritance When parents attain wealth and power$ they want to pass on those ad&antages to their children" 3ncient inscriptions and documents illustrate that rules o inheritance ha&e !een a concern in all ci&ili9ations" The ancient law code o >ammura!i <c12/0 -CE= and the law codes o the ancient 6reeks <c.00 -CE= !oth emphasi9ed the rules or inheritance" 3s inheritance !ecame more important in society$ more restrictions were placed on se8ual acti&ity$ especially or women" To ensure the paternity o children$ women were o ten physically separated rom all males !eyond their immediate amily" This practice$ that tends to reduce women to the status o chattels$ still persists in many societies e&en in the 21st century" 7eligion Farious religious practices and !elie s pro&ide other sources o se8ual mores" 'olytheistic religions pay homage to a &ariety o deities possessing a wide range o human traits" Since these deities tend to cele!rate human se8uality and ertility$ the related mores tend to pro&ide guidance or producti&e se8ual acti&ity" (n contrast$ monotheistic religions ocus on a supreme !eing with sweeping powers" +ollowers commonly seek to restrict their own se8uality as a sign o sacri ice and de&otion" There is a corresponding tendency to de&elop mores that impose limitations on se8ual acti&ity and to regard the se8uality o women as sin ul" 'ower Se8ual dominance o the strong o&er the weak$ and o men o&er women has also !een e8pressed throughout history in the institutions and practices o sla&ery$ harems$ concu!ines$ and mistresses" 'illage and rape were standard rewards or participating in war are" 1ores esta!lished !y the power ul tend to a&our their own se8ual acti&ities and suppress those o others" 1edia (n materialistic societies$ our natural se8uality is regularly su!sumed or commercial purposes" 1odern ad&ertising commonly utili9es se8ual associations to enhance the appeal o consumer products" Selling erotic images$ pornography$ and se8ual ser&ices are ma)or world%wide industries" The o&erall impact o the commerciali9ation o se8 is to tri&iali9e actual human interactions and relationships$ and to engender more . language religion political or other opinion national or social origin property birth or other status. The -ale1Female Continuum There are numerous physical and mental traits that$ taken together$ constitute our se8ual nature" Each o these traits$ like all human traits$ can !e e8pressed o&er a range o &alues" While the se8ual nature o most humans alls into either typical male or typical emale categories$ appro8imately ten percent o the population possesses traits that place them along the continuum !etween these categories" (n some societies$ as in ancient 6reece$ a &aried approach to se8uality was accepta!le and e&en cele!rated !y the gods" >owe&er$ at most times$ in most ci&ili9ations there has !een widespread legal and religious persecution o se8ual !eha&iour !eyond male% emale interactions" (n the 20th century there was a growing recognition o the undamental rights o all humans$ regardless o their se8ual orientation" The second article o the Enited Nations@ EN(FE7S3L DECL373T(.N .discrimination against women" &&"&". 7aising children 3 !iological de inition o sur&i&al is to Blive long enough to reproduce@" Selecting a partner and deciding to ha&e children is a ma)or decision in li e that has ar reaching conse:uences$ !oth or your personal satis action and the utili9ation o your personal resources" 1any actors impinge on such a decision* !iological urges$ personal pride$ societal needs$ personal inances$ religious dogma$ the :uest or an heir$ the challenge and satis action o creating a new human !eing$ and your philosophy o li e" ( you decide to ha&e children$ the importance o the irst ew years in the de&elopment o the young mind and !ody cannot !e o&er emphasi9ed" 1a)or !iological$ mental$ and social e&ents occur during the irst thirty%si8 months o li e" With care and guidance a young child can attain a irm oundation in health and reasoning that will last a li etime" What greater satis action can there !e than the creation and education o a new human !eingJ #ou need &alued$ strong$ healthy$ intelligent$ and educated women to produce &alued$ strong$ healthy$ and intelligent children" #oung women$ mothers%to%!e$ and parents o young children should !e granted special support and protection in a society that &alues its own uture" &&"&"/ A Touch of Ps cholog 'sychology is a !ranch o science that deals with indi&idual human !eha&iours" 3 !eha&iour pattern is a co%ordinated set o muscular contractions accompanied !y a .+ >E13N 7(6>TS is particularly rele&ant to this topic* 3rticle @= !veryone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this %eclaration without distinction of any kind such as race colour se. ptimism 1ost o us are optimists most o the time" We look orward to uture e&ents and situations" This optimism is re lected in the other positi&e characteristics o humanity" We work hard$ create and !uild$ make the e ort to adapt to changing conditions$ and e8press our caring or each other A all !ecause we !elie&e that the uture is ull o hope and ad&enture" >ard Work >umans work hard tilling the land$ looking a ter children$ constructing !uildings$ and conducting !usiness" Where&er you go you can always ind people putting orth concerted e orts and working long hours while attempting to reach their goals" Creati&ity 1useums and art galleries are stocked with magni icent artistic creations" >umans ha&e learned to work with all sorts o materials and media including ceramics$ stone$ metals$ cloth$ paints$ ilm$ and graphics to create &isual art" Li!raries are illed with millions o &olumes o literature$ science$ and history" Theatre guilds$ !ands$ orchestras$ and opera companies a!ound to represent the per orming arts" Engineers$ architects$ trades people$ technicians$ and ho!!yists e8hi!it their skills in !uilding$ shaping$ and creating" We like to !uildC we like to createC we like to create art and per orm" .uman strengths The greatest strengths o humanity would ha&e to include optimism$ hard work$ creati&ity$ adapta!ility$ and a caring nature" .low o corresponding thoughts$ and on occasion !y glandular secretions" Suppose you were a recent arri&al rom outer space$ what typical human !eha&iours and acti&ities would you o!ser&eJ Daily acti&ities such as working$ playing$ eating$ lo&ing$ and sleeping would !e most easily detected" .&er time you would notice a ondness or entertainment$ storytelling$ singing$ dancing$ esti&als$ and wearing costumes" #ou would also notice that while humans like to rest and conser&e energy$ there is o ten an underlying restlessness and a desire to accomplish and !uild" #ou would o!ser&e that humans are moderate risk takers$ and that they tend to seek to situations that will generate satis action$ pleasure$ and delight while a&oiding situations that pro&oke disappointment$ sadness$ and depression" The 7ussian scientist$ (&an 'a&lo& <14.0= was a!le to condition dogs so that they sali&ated at the sound o a !ell" The implication is that e&en &ery !asic !eha&iours can !e modi ied" Why not modi y your own !eha&iours to !etter ser&e your own interestsJ .5%15. 3dapta!ility >umans are adapta!le" E&ery child has the in!orn a!ility to thri&e in any culture$ in any climate on Earth" 3dults are a!le to sur&i&e most natural and man%made disasters" >umans can migrate rom one country to another$ and are then a!le to adapt to wide ranges o social conditions and li&ing standards" We ha&e inha!ited )ust a!out e&ery corner o Earth that is capa!le o sustaining li e" When our plans go awry$ more o ten than not$ we re&ise our strategy and try again" Caring Nature >umans are social animalsC they want to !elong to social groups$ they want others to )oin with themC they want to protect and lo&e their amily mem!ers and their ellow humans" .uman Frailties 1ost human railties are related to the e8pression o negati&e emotions* anger$ hate$ greed$ pre)udice$ and the urge to use &iolence" 3nger #ou eel angry when the results o an incident do not meet your e8pectations" There is an urge to take aggressi&e action to chastise someone" The eeling o anger is o ten accompanied !y a physical display such as a raised &oice$ staring eyes$ raised hands$ and a turning motion o the whole !ody" 3nger may !e directed at onesel or an inanimate o!)ect$ !ut is usually directed outwards towards an indi&idual or a group" The irst step in dealing with anger is to recogni9e that the eeling is internally generated as a Le&el ( or Le&el (( emotion" #ou are the creator o your own anger$ so you ha&e the power to e8tinguish it" .nce you accept that your eelings o anger come rom within$ you can ask yoursel whether you want to continue eeling angry" Pust asking that :uestion engages Le&el ((( thinking processes and gi&es you the opportunity to switch o your anger" (nstead o eeling angry$ e&aluate the situation and think a!out the !est action you can take to alle&iate the pro!lem" >atred >atred is a strong eeling o intense dislike or another indi&idual that persists o&er time" >atred is o ten the result o eeling that someone has deli!erately harmed you$ or someone you care or" >atred is re:uently accompanied !y an urge or re&enge and the eeling that the o!)ects o your hate should su er or their actions" >atred$ like anger$ is a power ul negati&e emotion that is generated internally" (t is di icult to think clearly when your mind is dominated !y hatred" This emotion tends to !lock Le&el ((( thinking$ and acilitates additional negati&e thoughts and actions" The rest o the world will roll along regardless o your internal turmoil" To think clearly$ you ha&e to switch to Le&el ((( thinking and de&ise the !est possi!le strategies or relie&ing your negati&e emotions" 6reed . (n order to sur&i&e$ people naturally want their air share o a&aila!le resources" (n a competiti&e en&ironment$ people o ten want more than their air share" Working or your share !ecomes greed when you seek to ac:uire ar more o a resource than you need or sur&i&al$ and ar more than others ha&e" When you seek to earn ten times the a&erage income o your ellow citi9ens that could !e descri!ed as am!itious" When you seek to earn a thousand times the a&erage income that is greed" ." Fiolence$ or the threat o &iolence$ can !e a systematic tool or a physically strong person to intimidate a weaker indi&idual" Dictators$ a!usi&e persons$ and !ullies use &iolence in this way" Fiolent acts can take you !eyond moral and legal !oundaries$ and can cause long% lasting harm to others$ and demean your own inner sel " . ten the urge to ac:uire e8cessi&e resources can lead to addicti&e !eha&iour and poor decision%making" 're)udice 're)udice is a )udgement or opinion !ased solely on whether someone does$ or does not !elong to a speci ic group" 're)udice can result in unsound positi&e$ or negati&e$ )udgements regarding indi&iduals or groups" 're)udice can !e e8pressed !y one person or !y groups in a society" We ha&e a natural tendency to categori9e" When we meet someone or the irst time we automatically !egin placing that person in a num!er o categories such as* male or emale$ young or old$ rich or poor$ attracti&e or not$ a mem!er o our community or not" 3nd as we place a person in a category we also assign the attri!utes o that group to the indi&idual" Normally any initial categori9ation is re ined as we learn more a!out the traits and capa!ilities o the indi&idual" 're)udice arises when we neglect to$ or re use to$ reassess our initial )udgements" Common pre)udices are !ased on se8$ race$ religion$ caste$ occupation$ social status$ and appearance" Fiolence Fiolence in&ol&es in licting deli!erate damage on persons or property" There are at least three !asic components to personal &iolence* 1" 3 &iolent act can !e stimulated !y an emotional response to a percei&ed in)ury" This type o response has a primiti&e aspect in which the goal is to in lict su icient damage to pre&ent urther in)ury$ and perhaps to gain a measure o re&enge" 2" 3 &iolent act can !e associated with the !reakdown o normal mental controls due to stress or physical !rain damage" +or e8ample$ there is growing e&idence or a link !etween &iolent !eha&iour and a poor diet" ( you e8perience &iolent episodes with no apparent cause you should seek medical ad&ice" . We all ha&e our personal strengths and weaknesses" Clear thinking can help you make the most o your strengths and minimi9e your railties$ especially in the realm o negati&e emotions" 3n e8tra caution There are unscrupulous$ morally corrupt$ and opportunistic indi&iduals who will prey on your railties or their own !ene it" They may tempt you with o ers too good to !e true$ they may righten you with tales o !oogie men$ they may tell you what you want to hear to gain your con idence and then take ad&antage o your natural weaknesses" (t does not matter how !ad people get to !e that way" What does matter is that they represent a small !ut persistent threat to your happiness and contentment" #ou need to !e prudent where you go$ what you do$ and how you display your wealth" 1ake it a ha!it to use Le&el ((( thinking to go&ern your !eha&iour with all !ut your most trusted riends" -eware o tempting deals and o ers rom une8pected sources" &&"&"6 A Touch of (ociolog Sociology is a !ranch o science that deals with group !eha&iours" Sociology is the study o the de&elopment and structure o human societies$ and the !eha&iour o indi&idual people and groups within a society" . the many aspects o sociology that can impinge on clear thinking$ two ha&e !een selected here or comment* maintaining social status$ and competition" 1aintaining social status >umans are social animals and ha&e a need to protect their status within their groups" The urge to maintain your status and impress others can ha&e sur&i&al &alue or !oth the indi&idual and the group" 1aintaining status means you keep up with current trends$ while gaining status demonstrates leadership in creating new trends" 1aintaining and gaining status has two main components$ keeping up appearances and preser&ing honour" Geeping up appearances Geeping up appearances in&ol&es super icial aspects o physical appearance$ style o dress$ and style o con&ersation" ( you do not stand out in a group then you ha&e managed to keep up appearances" ( you set a new trend in appearance$ dress$ or con&ersation that is adopted !y others then you may !e regarded as a leader in style" The super icial aspect o keeping up appearances is readily apparent in a cursory re&iew o the history o ashion" -ig hats or little hatsC lowing ro!es$ short pants and stockings$ or long pantsC clothes in red$ green$ white$ or !lackC long hair$ short hair$ or no hairC and reciting poems$ speaking in para!les$ or telling )okes ha&e all !een the ultimate in ashion at one time or another" The ancient 1aya esteemed a long pointed skull so they !ound the heads o their . new!orn children with !oards to de orm their skulls and attain that shape" (n the 1ing dynasty o China$ small eet were deemed to !e a mark o !eauty$ so aristocratic women !ound their eetC they were crippled !ut deemed !eauti ul" There were also more anci ul attempts to impress others" (n Eli9a!ethan England it was ashiona!le or gentlemen o the court attach codpieces to the ront o their trousers to emphasi9e their masculinity" (n Fictorian times$ women o society wore !ustles o&er their !uttocks to emphasi9e their emininity" (n recent decades$ the Bbeauty@ o e8tremely thin ashion models has !een much admired !y the media$ and a wai %like appearance with silicone%enhanced !reasts has !ecome the desired pro ile or emales" This trend has created much personal anguish o&er sel %image and resulted in poor physical health or many young women" 1inimal e ort should !e de&oted to the super icial task o keeping up appearances to maintain status" Eltimately it is the :uality o one@s mind$ not correspondence with an arti icial standard o appearance that is o signi icance in human interactions" Sa&ing >onour Sa&ing honour is associated with taking re&enge or a social attack on someone@s reputation" The process o sa&ing honour tends to !e highly emotional$ destructi&e$ and in the inal analysis$ is ine ecti&e" No amount o &iolent acti&ity on your part can restore honour$ unless you claim the honour o !eing stupid and aggressi&e" >onour is also !ased on an ar!itrary standard o accepta!le conduct" B3nyone who says these words takes that action or crosses that line will sully my honour and + will be required to take violent action to restore it1@ Entil the mid 15th century$ duelling was an accepted means or upper class males in the western world to deal with :uestions o honour amongst themsel&es" Duels ollowed ela!orate rules and thousands o supposedly intelligent men were killed in styli9ed com!at to settle points o honour" >ere are a ew amous e8amples" 3le8ander >amilton$ eatured on the 3merican ten% dollar !ill$ was killed in a duel in 140.2 the young +rench mathematician$ E&ariste 6alois$ died in a duel !e ore he could inish his ground%!reaking work on num!er theory" 6un ights in the old 3merican west o the 1420@s were the last &estiges o duelling" Common sense inally pre&ailed o&er the urge to risk li e and lim! in dealing with insults" 3nother group o Bhonour@ crimes are committed !y males against emale amily mem!ers" (n a misogynistic culture$ a emale is o ten deemed to ha&e !rought dishonour upon a amily !y re using to enter into an arranged marriage$ !eing the &ictim o a se8ual assault$ seeking a di&orce$ or committing adultery" The mere ." The uture ES president 3ndrew Packson sur&i&ed a duel in 1400 !y killing his opponent" (n 1420$ Commodore Pames -arron o the ES Na&y sur&i&ed a duel !y killing Stephen Decatur$ another commodore in the na&y" (n 14. perception that a woman has !eha&ed in a speci ic way to Bdishonour@ her amily is su icient to trigger a puniti&e attack" Such honour crimes are not )ust nightmares rom twisted minds in primiti&e societies" (n 1522$ 'rincess 1isha@al o Saudi 3ra!ia made an unsuita!le marriage" >er grand ather was adamant a!out restoring the honour that he !elie&ed she had tarnished$ so she was charged with adultery and pu!licly e8ecuted" (n 200/$ the Enited Nations 'opulation +und estimated that the num!er o honour%killing &ictims around the world approached /000 women" (t is tragic and ironic that !rutali9ing the weak and de enceless is admired !y some as a source o honour" The concept o honour has to !e dealt with &ery care ully" (t is laden with deep emotional and cultural connotations that ha&e a!solutely no connection with rational thought" Competition Competition is a common element in social e&ents" +riendly competition occurs in designed settings with rules and pri9es" Serious competition occurs when demand or a resource e8ceeds the a&aila!le supply$ or when one group decides to gather more than its air share o resources unto itsel " +riendly competition pro&ides entertainment or participants and o!ser&ers$ and helps prepare participants or any serious competition that may !e looming o&er the hori9on" 1ost riendly competition ollows simple rules and is en)oyed !y all" >owe&er$ e&en riendly competition can lead to serious incidents" Crippling in)uries are relati&ely common in action sports" 3ccidents in competitions such as automo!ile racing$ !o8ing$ and sailing are sometimes atal" Serious competition can result in general mayhem$ war$ and class struggles" 6eneral mayhem comes irst$ when power is up or gra!s and e&eryone is scram!ling or resources" .ut o mayhem comes war" Smaller groups o competitors coalesce into more organi9ed and power ul groups$ and conduct their operations on a correspondingly grander scale" +inally$ class structures are created as the &ictors create social conditions that will entrench their new status as the masters o the spoils o war" Competition always leads to the creation o winners and losers" The corollary is that there are almost always more losers than winners" Consistent winners can de&elop an in lated opinion o themsel&es" Consistent losers can de&elop an undeser&ed low sense o sel %esteem" 3 controlled le&el o competition can pro&ide entertainment$ constructi&e social interaction$ and help indi&iduals to sharpen particular skills" Turning e&ery aspect o li e into a competition with winners and losers em!odies a negati&e philosophy that is destructi&e$ !oth or the psyche o indi&iduals and or society" The ultimate competition can !e imagined with the last human$ standing on a &ast pile o the corpses$ raising his arms in &ictory" . nowledge and (kills Learning is a cumulati&e process" 3s we learn more$ we !ecome more pro icient at learning" 3nd the more we know$ the !etter prepared we are to en)oy the richness o li e and to cope with any pro!lems that we may encounter" The sooner you start e icient learning the sooner you can start to accumulate well% linked knowledge" 7ecall that learning e iciently means that you take the time and e ort to integrate new in ormation with old in ormation A to orm a consistent mental data!ase rather than a disorgani9ed collection o odd acts" 3s your knowledge !ase grows$ additional learning !ecomes easier and you !egin to de&elop a sound oundation or clear thinking" &&"'"' 7rgani<e 9nformation for Clear Thinking The organi9ation o in ormation is the di erence !etween a pile o recipes and a cook!ook$ !etween a room ull o !ooks and a li!rary$ !etween a stack o satellite photos and a photographic atlas o the world" When in ormation is systematically classi ied$ grouped$ cross%re erenced$ and iled$ you are a!le to e&aluate the :uality o your in ormation and to search or patterns" 3t irst glance the !la9e o stars in the night sky seems un athoma!le$ !ut the systematic collection and organi9ation o !asic stellar in ormation pro&ided the oundation or astronomy" The ancient &isual systems ha&e !een e8tended with the use o telescopes to re&eal much a!out the structure o the physical uni&erse" (t takes time and e ort to esta!lish a scheme or organi9ing in ormation$ and it takes more time and e ort to place items o in ormation within that scheme" (s organi9ing in ormation worth the e ortJ ( a collection o in ormation represents an ongoing interest and you want to !e a!le to work e iciently with that material$ then any initial in&estment in organi9ing that material is time and e ort well spent" Decide what needs organi9ing in your li e and then go to it" (n ormation is not static" -e prepared to reorgani9e$ to add more categories$ to search or patterns$ to look or .222 &&"' Building (kills for Clear Thinking The !asic skills needed or clear thinking are analogous to the unctional components o an intelligence ser&ice" 3n intelligence ser&ice gathers in ormation rom a wide range o sources" That in ormation is sorted$ organi9ed$ and cross%re erenced" Then the in ormation is searched or patterns and relationships$ which are then analy9ed and used to make pro)ections" With !etter data and more e8pertise the pro)ections !ecome more accurate" +inally$ any signi icant indings ha&e to !e e ecti&ely communicated to those in management and leadership roles or any appropriate action" (n e ect$ we each run a one%person intelligence ser&ice" &&"'"& Accumulate . trends$ and to look or applications" Note that there are many computer%!ased programs designed to help you organi9e in ormation" 3n appropriate program can !e used to organi9e your mailing list$ your !usiness contacts$ your amily tree$ or the contents o a collection" &&"'") Build Your (kills in 0ational Thinking Skills in rational thinking are key components o clear thinking$ or two &ery important reasons" +irst$ rational thought engages Le&el ((( thinking and pro&ides a means or dou!le% checking your instincti&e and emotional thought processes" (nstincti&e and emotional thinking ha&e the ad&antage o !eing aster than rational thinkingC and emotional thinking can !e a great moti&ator" >owe&er$ you need to engage your ore!rain and rational thinking when instincti&e or emotional thoughts urge you to take serious action$ such as in&esting all your sa&ings in a du!ious inancial scheme" E&en with rational reconsideration you may still decide to make the same in&estment$ !ut i you do so$ you will ha&e a !etter understanding o the risks in&ol&ed" Second$ rational thinking is !ased on power ul processes that ha&e !een de&ised !y some to the !rightest minds in human history" 7ational thinking helps you to take ad&antage o these processes" 7ational thought and a consistent philosophical ramework are &ery e ecti&e in helping you decide upon the most producti&e course o action in any gi&en situation" (n particular$ you are encouraged to master !asic computational skills to deal with :uantitati&e in ormation" . Build Your Expertise We all possess knowledge and e8pertise in some ields" We may !e a!le to knit sweaters$ !ake !read$ play a musical instrument$ construct !uildings$ diagnose illnesses$ ly a plane$ or di&e to the depths o the oceans" 3ll such a!ilities re:uire related e8pert knowledge" Three le&els o e8pertise .nce you are a!le to make reasona!le mental appro8imations$ you should then learn to make e ecti&e use o an electronic calculator" +or a ew dollars you can purchase a calculator with a wide range o computational unctions that would ha&e !een a Bdream machine@ or any mathematician in history$ prior to 1520" Clear thinkers should also make a concerted e ort to understand and utili9e the !asic concepts o pro!a!ility and statistics" 1ore and more o our world is !eing digiti9ed$ and then analy9ed in terms o num!ers" Statistics is the natural tool or descri!ing what all this data means" 'ro!a!ility is the !asic tool or using that data to predict uture trends" &&"'". " 3 Bworld#e-pert@ is a truly e8ceptional person with skills and knowledge that can !e matched !y only a ew persons on the entire Earth" The world@s top researchers and No!el 'ri9e winners would it in this category" With diligence and e ort we can all increase and e8pand our range o e8pertise" With increased e8pertise in a &ariety o ields$ we are !etter prepared to think clearly regarding matters in those ields" Select areas o interest (t is physically impossi!le to learn all there is to know a!out the uni&erse and its contents$ so you ha&e to narrow your range o interests" The irst step in e8panding your e8pertise is to select a limited num!er o ields that are o interest to you" Learn all you can Set a!out learning all you can a!out the standard knowledge and skills in your chosen ields" 7ead !ooks$ take courses$ work on pro)ects$ and consult with e8perts" Challenge yoursel When you deli!erately tackle pro!lems that are )ust !eyond your current a!ilities$ you can stretch your knowledge and skills" ( you want to !e a !etter carpenter !ut always !uild copies o the same !irdhouse$ your e8pertise as a carpenter has ew a&enues or growth" &&"'"6 Build Your Communication (kills With e ecti&e communication skills it is easier or you to e8change in ormation with others" The &ery process o arranging your own thoughts or sharing with others leads you to collect$ analy9e$ summari9e$ and render your internal deli!erations into a coherent ormat" There are !illions o humans on Earth$ and at any gi&en moment thousands o them are pro!a!ly thinking a!out the same things that you are" .E8pertise comes in three !asic categories* 1" 3 Bpractitioner@ possesses the skills and knowledge needed to work success ully in a gi&en ield" 3 practitioner can earn a li&ing in hisHher ield a ter a standard program o education and training" E8amples include trades with apprenticeships$ and pro essions with educational re:uirements" (ndi&iduals can also de&elop practitioner skills through sel %learning and diligent practice" 2" 3n Be-pert@ is a &ery knowledgea!le and skilled person" 3n e8pert has ac:uired e8ceptiona!le mastery a ter years o challenging e8perience" 'erhaps only one% in%a%thousand practitioners in a ield e&er achie&e the le&el o an e8pert" 7ecogni9ed e8perts in go&ernment$ industry$ the military$ or education would per orm at this le&el" .n any particular topic$ it is highly likely that someone out there has ar greater knowledge and e8perience than you$ or has a point o &iew that you ha&e ne&er considered" Communicating with these people to e8change ideas can greatly enhance your own thinking" The !est way to esta!lish contact with these people is to impro&e your mastery o &arious . communications media" Listening and talking Enless it is your intention to dominate a con&ersation$ you will always learn more !y listening than talking" While in the presence o someone who shares your interests it is to your ad&antage to do more than )ust sit and listen" Stri&e to !e an empathetic and an acti&e listener" During a con&ersation or discourse ask yoursel :uestions$ contemplate the implications o statements$ and try to predict the ne8t logical component o an argument" Think care ully and compose good :uestions that show you ha&e !een paying attention and want to know more" 3 ter listening to a knowledgea!le speaker you may want to share your own point o &iew in order to clari y any points o di erence !etween your thoughts and theirs" +or such occasions$ practice speaking distinctly$ and with limited !ut appropriate gestures" (t is also use ul to practice !uilding &er!al arguments with an introduction$ main points$ and a conclusion" Writing Writing is a process that lets you con&ert neural stimuli in your !rain into sym!ols on a page" 3nother person can then recon&ert those sym!ols into neural stimuli and gain some insight into what you were thinking" During normal thought$ your mind tends to )ump rom topic to topic !uilding up a spider%we! o ideas" (t takes diligence and patience to untangle such we!s and produce a step%!y%step ramework or written thoughts" 3s you put your thoughts on paper you are orced to re%e8amine all your arguments$ acts$ and conclusions" 3s you write out your thoughts you are also rearranging$ simpli ying$ and strengthening your neural networks" Writing something down helps to clari y your thought processesC helps you classi y and organi9e your memoriesC and pro&ides an e8ternal record o your thoughts" Writing or others re:uires some artistry" 3 simple list o thoughts can !e as dull as a grey sky in No&em!er and no one will e&er read them$ let alone spend time contemplating their signi icance" 3rtistry in writing in&ol&es engaging your audience with attracti&e &oca!ulary$ amiliar allusions$ and a com orta!le low o ideas" 3rtistry in writing also in&ol&es a num!er o practical skills such as spelling and grammar" Written work is almost always impro&ed with thorough editing and polishing" What are you really trying to sayJ (s there a simpler or a more attracti&e way to say itJ What do you e8pect the reader to gain rom each sentenceJ Does your writing make sense when you read it aloud to yoursel J 7eading The a!ility to read pro&ides access to the storehouse o human knowledge and is undamental to a clear thinker" 7eading is the most e icient means to a!sor! material prepared !y others to in orm you" (t is a wise in&estment to put aside an . nce a topic has !een chosen$ you ha&e to !e a!le to restrict all your conscious thoughts to that one topic and !lock out any distractions" .hour or two each day or serious reading$ and another hour or casual reading" (t is also worth your time and e ort to impro&e your reading skills so that you can read aster" #ou should also !e a!le to alter your reading style to match the style o the material you are reading" .ur daily li&es are conducted in the realm o human !eings so an important part o your philosophy should also include the !est and latest analysis o human capa!ilities and moti&ations" 3 philosophy should also include a practical scepticism and a pragmatic outlook$ rather than a collection o statements o purported a!solute truths" &&")"& Personal Philosoph 3c:uiring !asic knowledge a!out yoursel $ your society$ and the world at large is a irst step towards creating$ or adopting$ a philosophy o li e" With a personal ." #ou ha&e to maintain that centre o attention o&er time$ hope ully until your analysis is complete" Note that a ter i teen or twenty minutes o ocused attention$ the glucose supply in the associated neural networks is depleted and continuing similar thoughts !ecomes more di icult" (t is then time to shi t your attention to another topic or a ew minutes while your neurons are resupplied" 222 &&") Philosophical 9ssues Constructing a reasona!le and consistent philosophical approach to li e can reduce li e@s angst$ pro&ide a oundation or action that is consistent with your philosophy$ and ree you to think more clearly" While clear thinking !y itsel cannot pro&ide answers to philosophical :uestions$ clear thinking can help you to esta!lish realistic perspecti&es$ rame !etter :uestions$ and clari y alternati&es" 3 philosophy is most e ecti&e when it is ounded on the !est a&aila!le data and models o the uni&erse$ rom the &ery small realm o atoms to the &ery large realm o clusters o gala8ies" .ther means o communication 1usic$ poetry$ &isual arts$ simulations$ plays$ mo&ies$ and dance can also communicate in ormation and human emotion" &&"'"B !evelop Your A$ilit to Focus To !e a clear thinker$ you ha&e to !e a!le to ocus all o your mental energy at a gi&en time on a chosen task" There are three aspects to ocusing your attention* 1" #ou need general knowledge to help select signi icant topics o special interest" 2" . n a large scale$ acti&ity in the uni&erse ollows undamental patterns" Within those patterns are random &ariations that may a ect li e on Earth" Li e on Earth is also a ected !y competitions among creatures or sur&i&al A rom in&ading !acteria to in&ading human armies" The pro!lem o ree will &ersus determinism 3re we ree to determine our actions$ or is the uture already mapped out or us and we ha&e to ollow the scriptJ 3ccording to Christian philosophy$ while 6od is all%power ul$ >e has created man with ree will$ so man can choose !etween righteous actions and sin ul actions" To think other%wise is considered heretical" Some might argue that your genetic makeup determines your actions and$ indeed$ many o our !eha&iours do seem to !e genetic in nature" >owe&er$ a key sur&i&al .philosophy$ you are !etter a!le to ormulate your !asic goals" With !asic goals you ha&e channels to guide your thoughts and your energy" What is the purpose o li eJ 3t some time or another e&eryone asks themsel&es* BWhat is the purpose of any living thingJ@$ BWhat is the purpose of humanityJ@$ and BWhat is the purpose of my lifeJ@ 3 more !asic :uestion is BWhat is lifeJ@ What distinguishes li&ing$ rom non%li&ing matterJ (n e&eryday terms$ answering that :uestion is easy A li&ing things grow and reproduce" 'lants are i8ed to the ground$ or loat in water$ and o!tain their energy rom sunlight" 3nimals mo&e around and eat plants or other animals to o!tain their energy" (n the micro%world the di erences !etween li&ing and non%li&ing can !ecome more su!tle" 3 &irus can e8ist as an inert crystal structure or many years$ then it can spring to li e when conditions are ripe$ attack a near!y cell$ and reproduce hundreds o copies o itsel " (n the !roader uni&erse the :uestion o what is ali&e can !e more interesting as well" (n a no&el called The %osadi !-periment <1522=$ the science iction writer +rank >er!ert postulated that stars are ali&e" 3stronomers ha&e learned that stars consume nuclear and gra&itational energy$ they pass through li e cycles$ and their remains are e)ected into space and thus seed the ne8t generation o stars" 3t all scales$ li e seems to create some sort o order$ process energy$ and produce successi&e generations o similar indi&iduals" >uman li e is also part o the cosmos" 'erhaps the key :uestions should !e* B3re humans specialJ@ and i so BWhat are our special propertiesJ@ and BWhy do we have these special propertiesJ@ There are at least two undamental &iews on the purpose o li e* 1" >uman li e is the creation o a Supreme 6od and all acti&ities in the uni&erse are designed to produce trials and tri!ulations this creation" These trials and tri!ulations ser&e as ilters to help 6od select the most deser&ing humans to share the a terli e" 2" . " 3 pragmatic philosophy tells us that li e is a )ourney" We should en)oy this )ourney !y o!ser&ing$ participating$ and sharing our e8periences" We should act to protect each other rom the harm o random e&ents and the destructi&e urges o rogue humans" &&")"' (etting ?oals Setting a goal and working towards it can !e a li e%shaping e8perience" Not e&eryone can !e world amous$ and not e&eryone will reach all their goals$ !ut ha&ing a ew well%chosen goals pro&ides direction and moti&ation" -e ore you can set practical goals you need a realistic &iew o yoursel $ including your strengths and your weaknesses" Learning who you are$ where you are going$ and why you are headed that way are signi icant challenges$ especially or young adults" #ou need short term goals so that you can e8perience success on a daily and weekly !asis" Success with your short term goals also helps to pro&ide moti&ation as you work towards your long term goals" De&ising your long term goals is e:ui&alent to asking what message you would like to ha&e car&ed on your tom!stone" When your li e is done$ what would you like others to remem!er you orJ Speculating on your potential accomplishments in li e orces you to consider what you regard as most important$ and how you would like to spend your time and energy on Earth" Some care is re:uired to ensure that your goals do not con lict with each other" ( one .eature o humanity is its adapta!ility" We ha&e !eha&ioural tendencies$ !ut we are adapta!le and$ gi&en speci ic situations$ we can make choices that will enhance our chances o sur&i&al" The li e o an indi&idual -iologically$ the struggle to sur&i&e is identical with the struggle to produce li&ing o spring" Through much o history the primary goals o humans ha&e !een to secure ood$ shelter$ and security or themsel&es and their amilies" There was little time or energy to pursue any other goals" (n most o the modern world our sur&i&al is o ten taken or grantedC we ha&e attained a!undant ood and shelter$ and reasona!le security" Ender these conditions$ what is the purpose o an indi&idual@s li eJ >ere are three &ery !asic philosophical approaches* 1" 3n Epicurean philosophy tells us that li e is short$ there is much to learn$ and we can take deli!erate action to a&oid pain and a&oid causing pain" We can seek happiness and appreciate the wonders o the uni&erse" 2" 3 Stoic philosophy tells us to accept our ate$ seek &irtue and li&e in harmony with nature" -y ollowing reason we can a&oid negati&e emotions$ ollow natural laws$ and seek !alance in nature and oursel&es" . ld Testament <Le&iticus 15*14= ^3void doing what you would blame others for doing"^ A Thales MWhat you do not want others to do do not do to others"N A Con ucius MDurt no one so that no one may hurt you"N A 1uhammad" .o your goals is to own a pet elephant and another is to li&e in a penthouse apartment$ you may ha&e a pro!lem" ( one o your goals is to dri&e a racing car or a li&ing and another is to help reduce glo!al warming$ those goals may also !e incompati!le" &&")") Personal Ethics Esta!lishing a logical and consistent ethical ramework can assist you in your e orts to think clearly" While goals pro&ide a direction or your endea&ours$ ethics pro&ide guidance as to which steps along the way are accepta!le$ and which are not" Ethics is a !ranch o philosophy that in&ol&es the systematic study o morality and has at least three !ranches* 1" 3pplied ethics deals with how you ought to !eha&e in a speci ic situation" 2" Normati&e ethics addresses the pro!lem o how you can )usti y a moral position" ." 1oral &alues are also associated with custom$ law$ and !asic human rights" Codes of ethics There are a num!er o codes o ethics that guide our indi&idual and ci&il !eha&iour" The Ethic o 7eciprocity The ethic o reciprocity$ Btreat others as you want them to treat you@$ is a undamental moral principal ound in &irtually all cultures and religious" The ethic o reciprocity$ o ten called the 6olden 7ule$ is an e8pression o !asic human rights* M$ove your neighbour as yourself"N A ." 1eta%ethics in&ol&es the study o the undamental nature o ethics and morality" 1orals can !e regarded as the e&eryday interpretations and actions that ollow a code o ethics" Ethics are more undamental than customs and eti:uette$ !ut less ormal than ci&il or criminal law" Sources o ethics Ethical &alues stem rom at least three sources* 1" Ethics !egin with e&ol&ed social !eha&iours" Such !eha&iour can !e o!ser&ed in all social animals including horses$ wol&es$ chimpan9ees$ and humans" These !eha&iours go&ern leadership$ group de ence$ mating$ eating$ grooming$ and child rearing practices" 3s early hominoids ac:uired the use o stone tools and hunting weapons$ they re:uired more ela!orate codes o social !eha&iour" 2" 1any !asic rules or human !eha&iour are common across cultures and may pro&ide the oundation or religious doctrines" 7eligions tend to encourage !eha&iour that is !ene icial to its adherents" >istorically$ religions ha&e also tended to pro&ide )usti ication or the special pri&ileges o an aristocratic class" . 4$ paci ist and leader o the (ndian independence mo&ement= also noted that the ethic o reciprocity is incompati!le with the concepts o re&enge and retaliation" The Ethic o Eni&ersality While the ethic o reciprocity ocuses on our !eha&iour towards other humans$ the ethic o uni&ersality includes our !eha&iour towards the en&ironment" The ethic o uni&ersality asks us to e&aluate the :uestion* BWhat are the consequences if everybody does the same thing that + am consideringJ@ ( it is moral and ethical or one person to act in a speci ic manner$ then it is moral and ethical or e&eryone to act in the same manner" Would the result o e&eryone acting in that manner lead to an accepta!le stateJ ( may decide to chop down a tree or tomorrow@s heating uel$ !ut what i e&ery!ody in the world did the same thingJ Would there !e enough treesJ Would there !e any orests le t to seed new treesJ Would !urning that many trees produce too much air pollutionJ The ethic o uni&ersality is growing in importance as humans approach the !oundaries o en&ironmental e8ploitation" The Ten Commandments The Ten Commandments o the Pewish$ Christian$ and 1oslem religions are o ten cited as a sound oundation or human ethics and morality" The irst our o these commandments deal with the relationship !etween humans and 6od" The remaining si8 deal with relationships among humans" Edited &ersions o the commandments are o ten :uoted$ !ut the ull te8t <-ook o E8odus 20*1%12= contains language that some might ind surprising* MU+ the $ord your 4od am a "ealous 4od punishing children for the iniquity of parents to the third and the fourth generationUN MUyou shall not do any work Lon the 'abbathM Nyou your son or your daughter your male or female slave .M%o for one who may do for you that you may cause him thus to do"^ A 3ncient Egypt 3 modern interpretation o the ethic o reciprocity emphasi9es that it should apply to all people$ not )ust mem!ers o your own group" 1ahatma 6andhi <1405 A 15.ne o the challenges o ethics is to esta!lish a code or human !eha&iour that will apply in all places or all time" .N MUyou shall not covet your neighbour*s wife or male or female slaveUN During the era in which the commandments were irst recorded$ worldly rulers had a!solute power o li e and death o&er e&ery su!)ect" 'unishing children or their parents@ aults$ and owning sla&es were accepted components o that society" The language o the commandments reminds us that ethical codes are most rele&ant to the society and the times in which they are ormulated" . ne o the goals o clear thinking is to help make these thought processes more producti&e$ more thorough$ and more en)oya!le" ." They taught that it was only possi!le to remain ree rom sin !y ollowing a strict code o ethics that included hard work$ communal ownership$ and celi!acy" The original Shaker communities grew through con&ersion and adoptionC reproduction was contrary to their !elie s" 3lthough Shaker mem!ership grew to a!out 0000 people !y 14.0$ their ethic o celi!acy spelled their own demise and !y 1500 there were only a ew mem!ers le t" .Esta!lishing an ethical code Taking the time and making the e ort to de&ise a personal code o ethics is an e8cellent e8ercise in clear thinking" (t re:uires you to think &ery care ully a!out the conse:uences o your !eha&iours$ and then to consider the criteria or deciding which !eha&iours are accepta!le and which are not" 3 code o ethics pro&ides a ramework or thinking a!out human !eha&iour" 3 well% considered code o ethics can help you to a&oid most pro!lems in human relations !e ore they occur$ and pro&ide guidelines or dealing with the remaining pro!lems that do arise" We tend to think &ery poorly under stress A a code o ethics pro&ides well%planned guidelines and can help to point you in the right direction$ e&en in times o duress" Ethics and pragmatism 3 code o ethics has to !e practical or the indi&iduals in a society or else it is automatically sel %limiting" 3 group@s code o ethics may impose restrictions on !eha&iour and re:uire speci ic o!ser&ances$ !ut unless the code allows mem!ers to prosper in the real world$ that group and its ethics are doomed to ultimate ailure" The Enited Society o -elie&ers in Christ@s Second 3ppearing$ commonly known as the BShakers@$ was a religious sect irst introduced to the Enited States in 122. Applied Clear Thinking We are thinking all the time A consciously and su!%consciously$ rationally and emotionally A at all three le&els o unctionality" .n occasion$ the standards and structure o society ha&e to !e modi ied !e ore a particular ethic can !e implemented" +or thousands o years the institution o sla&ery was an accepted part o &irtually all societies and religions" The institution o sla&ery was ne&er seriously reconsidered until the machines o the industrial re&olution pro&ided practical alternati&es to human muscle power" E&en then it took o&er a hundred years to esta!lish Bfreedom for all@ as a !asic human right" 222 &&". r you might ha&e to wait an e8tra day or a connection" (n contrast$ in an integrated transportation network you would !e a!le to mo&e seamlessly rom one system to ."& Clear Thinking !efined (n its ullest sense Bclear thinking@ has many characteristics o a philosophy" (t represents a constructi&e and holistic approach to thinking that helps you to make !etter use o your !rain@s potential" The !uilding !locks o clear thinking Clear thinking includes three !asic acti&ities* 1" Systematically gathering the !est in ormation a&aila!le$ 2" 3pplying the !est strategies or analysing that in ormation$ and .&&"." Esing the most power ul part o your !rain to sol&e pro!lems and make decisions" -est in ormation (n ormation is the raw material or clear thinking" The greater the :uantity and :uality o the in ormation that you collect during your li e$ the easier it is or you to understand what is happening around you" (n ormation should !e collected rom a &ariety o sources$ and then organi9ed and e&aluated" The !est in ormation can !e reduced to o!)ecti&e measurements and can !e &eri ied using a num!er o independent sources" -est strategies The !est strategies or clear thinking are those that ha&e !een de&eloped o&er thousands o years !y philosophers$ mathematicians$ scientists$ and social leaders" 3mong those !est strategies are techni:ues that use logic$ deducti&e reasoning$ inducti&e reasoning$ pro!a!ility$ statistics$ and the ad&ice o e8perts" 'ower ul part o your !rain #our rontal lo!es are the most highly e&ol&ed and power ul part o your !rain" The key to engaging your rontal lo!es is to restrain your more primiti&e emotions and instincts" There are two simple techni:ues or doing this" +irst$ delay your response to a situation" Pust an e8tra raction o a second gi&es your rontal lo!es a chance to get in on the action" Second$ systematically analy9e the implications o di erent options" That kind o analysis automatically acti&ates your rontal lo!es and lets you utili9e the in ormation that you ha&e !een collecting and the thinking strategies that you ha&e !een practicing" (ntegration o thought processes The integration o your knowledge and skills is another important component o clear thinking" Consider an analogy with a transportation system that is not integrated" #ou might ind roads that end in the middle o a ield$ airports without any rapid transit to near!y cities$ train stations with no parking or cars$ and ships with no place to dock" #ou might arri&e at an airport )ust as your connecting light takes o without you" . another and rom place to place with a minimum o time and e ort" The analogy applies to your thought processes" When your knowledge and skills are ragmented you ha&e di iculty applying what you ha&e learned in one setting$ to any other setting" #ou can work with ractions in math class$ !ut you cannot layout a design in dra ting class" #ou can cherish your amily mem!ers one day$ then a!use them the ne8t" #ou can pray to your 6od or peace on Earth and then pick up a gun and systematically set a!out killing your ellow humans" When you take the time to integrate your thoughts$ your actions tend to !e more thought ul and more positi&e" When your knowledge and skills are integrated you can make much !etter use o them$ and your actions tend to !e much more consistent" (n summary$ clear thinking in&ol&es systematic e orts* to ac:uire knowledge and thinking skills$ to integrate mental acti&ities$ and to de&elop attitudes or enhanced participation in li e" &&"."' A Fresh 5iew We should always seek out new knowledge and resh points o &iew" Clear thinking can help us to utili9e our a!ilities to look at old things in a new light" The search or resh points o &iew can help you to learn more$ make personal disco&eries$ and sol&e pro!lems" #oursel Look at yoursel in the mirror and what do you see" That !ody standing there is really )ust your space suit" The real you$ the thinking$ emotional you is located inside your skull" The more you think a!out more things$ the more ama9ing you !ecome" .ther people around you are stri&ing to make the !est o their situations$ )ust as you are" They may ha&e grown up in a &ariety o physical en&ironments$ speak a &ariety o languages$ wear a &ariety o clothes$ and ha&e a &ariety o social customs A !ut they are mostly kind$ caring$ and hard working" Li e around you The 1550 ilm$ Aicrocosmos$ !y Claude Nuridsany and 1arie 'Lrennou pro&ides an intimate &iew o the insect li e in a +rench meadow" The ilm is a reminder that there is ascinating li e all around us" #ou can seek out the eatures o li e )ust a!out anywhere$ o!ser&e it and en)oy it" #ou are part o that same collection o li e that is un olding in the uni&erse" 3s indi&iduals we e8ist$ we participate$ and we o!ser&e" (n many ways we are like lea&es on a &ine" We recei&e the spark o li e rom our ancestors who were a little closer to the root$ we grow and li&e our li&es$ and then we pass on the gi t o li e to our descendants urther up the &ine" .thers . ".appier You With clear thinking you will take !etter care o yoursel $ de&elop your thinking skills$ and !e more content with your place in the uni&erse" >appiness is a ne!ulous concept$ !ut it seems to ha&e at least three !asic components* 1" We want to o!tain the !asic needs or oursel&es$ and our amilies" 3ccomplishing that !rings a sense o relie $ accomplishment$ and contentment" 2" We en)oy engaging in acti&ities and pro)ects that pro&ide a sense o satis action A we stri&e to !e success ul in completing tasks$ to participate with others$ and to reach speci ic goals" .The Eni&erse 'ioneer in&estigators in astronomy$ physics$ chemistry$ !iology$ ecology$ geology$ mathematics$ and engineering ha&e pro&ided us with the means to understand the !asic workings o the uni&erse" We owe it to oursel&es to del&e into this material as !est we can to gain a !etter appreciation o what is happening on$ and !eyond Earth" The we!site or the >u!!le Space Telescope <http*HHhu!!lesite"org= pro&ides a most dramatic introduction to the &ast array o cosmic structures" Look on in wonder$ and let your wonder grow as you ponder the meaning o it all" &&"." We seek acti&ities that will earn us recognition and ele&ated status" We all want to !e lo&ed and respected" We like to ha&e our accomplishments recogni9ed" The implication is that meeting !asic needs$ working on satis ying pro)ects$ and recei&ing recognition or who we are$ and what we can do$ are signposts on the road to happiness" The accumulation o physical wealth !eyond !asic needs$ does not appear in this description o happiness" -ags o money$ a!ulous )ewels$ and a lu8ury yacht do not necessarily !ring happiness" >appiness can also !e enhanced with a !etter understanding o your thought processes" The three%le&el model o emotions can help you to relish your positi&e emotions and control negati&e eelings" When you are happy and content$ you also ha&e the con idence to take reasona!le risks" #ou are a!le to admit mistakes and then work to correct them" Clear thinking can guide you towards more contentment and pleasure in your li e" &&".") A . The Pleasure of +earning The opportunity or learning something new is always a&aila!le$ and e&ery new concept that you encounter pro&ides more ood or thought" Learning rom mentors . Learning rom a mentor is one o the most e icient and pleasura!le routes to learning" With a mentor you ha&e ace%to% ace contactC you share e8periences$ acts$ and emotions" #ou can en)oy the personality o your mentor and ha&e the !ene it o personal guidance and timely eed!ack" Learning rom !ooks The a!ility to record thoughts and in ormation in writing is one o the greatest accomplishments o humankind" The printing press and mass marketing make !ooks one o the world@s !est !argains" The opportunities to learn rom !ooks are always a&aila!le in !ookstores and li!raries" Learning rom a !ook is similar to learning rom a mentor$ e8cept that the communication is one%way A rom the author to you" Learning rom a !ook is con&enient" #ou can read$ or re%read$ any passage at any time" 3nd you can take a !ook with you$ )ust a!out anywhere" Learning rom other media The (nternet is perhaps the newest and most power ul new technology or learning" The (nternet pro&ides rapid access to an unlimited range o in ormation$ opinions$ and data!ases" .ther technical media such as computer simulations pro&ide opportunities or interacti&e learning along with diagnostic eed!ack" 'hotography can also capture in ormation or detailed study" Learning rom hands%on e8perience (t can !e challenging and en)oya!le to learn rom your own personal e8perience" #ou can e8plore a new city$ in&estigate the action o wa&es$ !ake a cake$ or !uild a garden shed" There are thousands o interesting e8periences that you might want to try" 3ll learning e8periences encourage you to take a new look at the world around you$ and to admire the accomplishments o others" &&"."/ The Ho of Thinking (t is our a!ility to think that gi&es us our special status on Earth" Thinking is what makes us human" #ou can only e8perience )oy !ecause you can think" Thinking is your ultimate source o )oy" The com ort o making sense out o in ormation There is satis action to !e gained rom organi9ing data and making sense o it" #ou can read the instructions and e&entually put a new toy together" #ou can tackle challenging pro!lems and pu99les" #ou can ollow the daily motions o the stars and understand the rotation o the Earth" Con&erting !its o data into organi9ed in ormation gi&es you the a!ility to understand$ . interpret$ and e&aluate what is happening around you" The pleasure o pondering There is unlimited pleasure to !e had in simply contemplating what has !een$ what is$ and what might !e" #ou can re&el in your own internal world as you wonder why things are the way they are$ and speculate how the uture would change i &arious actors could !e altered" The pleasure o creating There is pleasure to !e ound in !uilding a structure$ painting a picture$ composing a song$ or writing a poem" Creati&e acti&ity is a satis ying e8perience" En)oying the arts Technology has pro&ided us with the a!ility to access thousands o good !ooks$ and en)oy the creati&e works o thousands o actors$ musicians$ painters and sculptors" Contemplating the creations o world masters is another o the )oys o li e" The B3haS@ e8perience .ne o the simplest moments o )oy can !e ound in the BahaS@ e8perience$ when you make a new connection !etween e8isting concepts" Suddenly things make senseC you understand a new conceptC you see how to put the pu99le pieces together" %%% . A$out the Author William Dodd has spent twenty% i&e years as a high school teacher o mathematics and computer science$ and i&e years as a high school administrator" 3 ter retiring rom teaching he worked or a year as an editor o mathematics te8ts or 'earson Education$ and then wrote a num!er o articles or the Pournal o the 7oyal 3stronomical Society o Canada" (n creating Train #our -rain$ he has utili9ed the works o a host o philosophers$ scientists$ thinkers$ and authors and has sought to encapsulate and integrate many o their most signi icant conclusions" #ou can contact William Dodd at circle!ooks_hotmail"ca " Acknowledgements This pro)ect could not ha&e !een completed without the encouragement and support o my wi e$ Donna" The editing skills and constructi&e ad&ice o Po 3nn 1adill$ Pac:ueline >olloway$ and 3ndrew Dodd were also most help ul" Thanks to 'hyllis Day or her detailed re&iew o the grammar and synta8$ and to 7on Taylor and Dr" Sidney &an den -ergh or their insight ul comments and suggestions" 3ny remaining errors and o!li:ue thoughts are mine" .
Report "Train Your Brain Build a Framework for Clear Thinking"