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Pride and Prejudice Jane Austen Plot Overview The news that a wealthy young gentleman named CharlesBingley has rented the manor of Netherfield Park causes a great stir in the nearby village of Longbourn, especially in the Bennet household. The Bennets have five unmarried daughters— from oldest to youngest, Jane, Elizabeth, Mary, Kitty, and Lydia—and Mrs. Bennet is desperate to see them all married. After Mr. Bennet pays a social visit to Mr. Bingley, the Bennets attend a ball at which Mr. Bingley is present. He is taken with Jane and spends much of the evening dancing with her. His close friend, Mr. Darcy, is less pleased with the evening and haughtily refuses to dance with Elizabeth, which makes everyone view him as arrogant and obnoxious. At social functions over subsequent weeks, however, Mr. Darcy finds himself increasingly attracted to Elizabeth’s charm and intelligence. Jane’s friendship with Mr. Bingley also continues to burgeon, and Jane pays a visit to the Bingley mansion. On her journey to the house she is caught in a downpour and catches ill, forcing her to stay at Netherfield for several days. In order to tend to Jane, Elizabeth hikes through muddy fields and arrives with a spattered dress, much to the disdain of the snobbish Miss Bingley, Charles Bingley’s sister. Miss Bingley’s spite only increases when she notices that Darcy, whom she is pursuing, pays quite a bit of attention to Elizabeth. When Elizabeth and Jane return home, they find Mr. Collins visiting their household. Mr. Collins is a young clergyman who stands to inherit Mr. Bennet’s property, which has been “entailed,” meaning that it can only be passed down to male heirs. Mr. Collins is a pompous fool, though he is quite enthralled by the Bennet girls. Shortly after his arrival, he makes a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. She turns him down, wounding his pride. Meanwhile, the Bennet girls have become friendly with militia officers stationed in a nearby town. Among them is Wickham, a handsome young soldier who is friendly toward Elizabeth and tells her how Darcy cruelly cheated him out of an inheritance. At the beginning of winter, the Bingleys and Darcy leave Netherfield and return to London, much to Jane’s dismay. A further shock arrives with the news that Mr. Collins has become engaged to Charlotte Lucas, Elizabeth’s best friend and the poor daughter of a local knight. Charlotte explains to Elizabeth that she is getting older and needs the match for financial reasons. Charlotte and Mr. Collins get married and Elizabeth promises to visit them at their new home. As winter progresses, Jane visits the city to see friends (hoping also that she might see Mr. Bingley). However, Miss Bingley visits her and behaves rudely, while Mr. Bingley fails to visit her at all. The marriage prospects for the Bennet girls appear bleak. That spring, Elizabeth visits Charlotte, who now lives near the home of Mr. Collins’s patron, Lady Catherine de Bourgh, who is also Darcy’s aunt. Darcy calls on Lady Catherine and encounters Elizabeth, whose presence leads him to make a number of visits to the Collins’s home, where she is staying. One day, he makes a shocking proposal of marriage, which Elizabeth quickly refuses. She tells Darcy that she considers him arrogant and unpleasant, then scolds him for steering Bingley away from Jane and disinheriting Wickham. Darcy leaves her but shortly thereafter delivers a letter to her. In this letter, he admits that he urged Bingley to distance himself from Jane, but claims he did so only because he thought their romance was not serious. As for Wickham, he informs Elizabeth that the young officer is a liar and that the real cause of their disagreement was Wickham’s attempt to elope with his young sister, Georgiana Darcy. This letter causes Elizabeth to reevaluate her feelings about Darcy. She returns home and acts coldly toward Wickham. The militia is leaving town, which makes the younger, rather man-crazy Bennet girls distraught. Lydia manages to obtain permission from her father to spend the summer with an old colonel in Brighton, where Wickham’s regiment will be stationed. With the arrival of June, Elizabeth goes on another journey, this time with the Gardiners, who are relatives of the Bennets. The trip takes her to the North and eventually to the neighborhood of Pemberley, Darcy’s estate. She visits Pemberley, after making sure that Darcy is away, and delights in the building and grounds, while hearing from Darcy’s servants that he is a wonderful, generous master. Suddenly, Darcy arrives and behaves cordially toward her. Making no mention of his proposal, he entertains the Gardiners and invites Elizabeth to meet his sister. Shortly thereafter, however, a letter arrives from home, telling Elizabeth that Lydia has eloped with Wickham and that the couple is nowhere to be found, which suggests that they may be living together out of wedlock. Fearful of the disgrace such a situation would bring on her entire family, Elizabeth hastens home. Mr. Gardiner and Mr. Bennet go off to search for Lydia, but Mr. Bennet eventually returns home empty-handed. Just when all hope seems lost, a letter comes from Mr. Gardiner saying that the couple has been found and that Wickham has agreed to marry Lydia in exchange for an annual income. The Bennets are convinced that Mr. Gardiner has paid off Wickham, but Elizabeth learns that the source of the money, and of her family’s salvation, was none other than Darcy. 1 Now married, Wickham and Lydia return to Longbourn briefly, where Mr. Bennet treats them coldly. They then depart for Wickham’s new assignment in the North of England. Shortly thereafter, Bingley returns to Netherfield and resumes his courtship of Jane. Darcy goes to stay with him and pays visits to the Bennets but makes no mention of his desire to marry Elizabeth. Bingley, on the other hand, presses his suit and proposes to Jane, to the delight of everyone but Bingley’s haughty sister. While the family celebrates, Lady Catherine de Bourgh pays a visit to Longbourn. She corners Elizabeth and says that she has heard that Darcy, her nephew, is planning to marry her. Since she considers a Bennet an unsuitable match for a Darcy, Lady Catherine demands that Elizabeth promise to refuse him. Elizabeth spiritedly refuses, saying she is not engaged to Darcy, but she will not promise anything against her own happiness. A little later, Elizabeth and Darcy go out walking together and he tells her that his feelings have not altered since the spring. She tenderly accepts his proposal, and both Jane and Elizabeth are married. Analysis of Major Characters Elizabeth Bennet The second daughter in the Bennet family, and the most intelligent and quick-witted, Elizabeth is the protagonist of Pride and Prejudice and one of the most well-known female characters in English literature. Her admirable qualities are numerous—she is lovely, clever, and, in a novel defined by dialogue, she converses as brilliantly as anyone. Her honesty, virtue, and lively wit enable her to rise above the nonsense and bad behavior that pervade her class-bound and often spiteful society. Nevertheless, her sharp tongue and tendency to make hasty judgments often lead her astray; Pride and Prejudice is essentially the story of how she (and her true love, Darcy) overcome all obstacles—including their own personal failings—to find romantic happiness. Elizabeth must not only cope with a hopeless mother, a distant father, two badly behaved younger siblings, and several snobbish, antagonizing females, she must also overcome her own mistaken impressions of Darcy, which initially lead her to reject his proposals of marriage. Her charms are sufficient to keep him interested, fortunately, while she navigates familial and social turmoil. As she gradually comes to recognize the nobility of Darcy’s character, she realizes the error of her initial prejudice against him. Fitzwilliam Darcy The son of a wealthy, well-established family and the master of the great estate of Pemberley, Darcy is Elizabeth’s male counterpart. The narrator relates Elizabeth’s point of view of events more often than Darcy’s, so Elizabeth often seems a more sympathetic figure. The reader eventually realizes, however, that Darcy is her ideal match. Intelligent and forthright, he too has a tendency to judge too hastily and harshly, and his high birth and wealth make him overly proud and overly conscious of his social status. Indeed, his haughtiness makes him initially bungle his courtship. When he proposes to her, for instance, he dwells more on how unsuitable a match she is than on her charms, beauty, or anything else complimentary. Her rejection of his advances builds a kind of humility in him. Darcy demonstrates his continued devotion to Elizabeth, in spite of his distaste for her low connections, when he rescues Lydia and the entire Bennet family from disgrace, and when he goes against the wishes of his haughty aunt, Lady Catherine de Bourgh, by continuing to pursue Elizabeth. Darcy proves himself worthy of Elizabeth, and she ends up repenting her earlier, overly harsh judgment of him. Jane Bennet and Charles Bingley Elizabeth’s beautiful elder sister and Darcy’s wealthy best friend, Jane and Bingley engage in a courtship that occupies a central place in the novel. They first meet at the ball in Meryton and enjoy an immediate mutual attraction. They are spoken of as a potential couple throughout the book, long before anyone imagines that Darcy and Elizabeth might marry. Despite their centrality to the narrative, they are vague characters, sketched by Austen rather than carefully drawn. Indeed, they are so similar in nature and behavior that they can be described together: both are cheerful, friendly, and goodnatured, always ready to think the best of others; they lack entirely the prickly egotism of Elizabeth and Darcy. Jane’s gentle spirit serves as a foil for her sister’s fiery, contentious nature, while Bingley’s eager friendliness contrasts with Darcy’s stiff pride. Their principal characteristics are goodwill and compatibility, and the contrast of their romance with that of Darcy and Elizabeth is remarkable. Jane and Bingley exhibit to the reader true love unhampered by either pride or prejudice, though in their simple goodness, they also demonstrate that such a love is mildly dull. Mr. Bennet Mr. Bennet is the patriarch of the Bennet household—the husband of Mrs. Bennet and the father of Jane, Elizabeth, Lydia, Kitty, and Mary. He is a man driven to exasperation by his ridiculous wife and difficult daughters. He reacts by withdrawing from his family and assuming a detached attitude punctuated by bursts of sarcastic humor. He is closest to Elizabeth because they are the two most intelligent Bennets. Initially, his dry wit and self-possession in the face of his wife’s hysteria make him a sympathetic figure, but, though he remains likable throughout, the reader gradually loses respect for him as it becomes clear that the price of his detachment is considerable. Detached from his family, he is a weak father and, at critical moments, fails his family. In particular, his foolish indulgence of Lydia’s immature behavior nearly leads to general disgrace when she elopes with Wickham. Further, upon her disappearance, he proves largely ineffective. It 2 is left to Mr. Gardiner and Darcy to track Lydia down and rectify the situation. Ultimately, Mr. Bennet would rather withdraw from the world than cope with it. Mrs. Bennet Mrs. Bennet is a miraculously tiresome character. Noisy and foolish, she is a woman consumed by the desire to see her daughters married and seems to care for nothing else in the world. Ironically, her single-minded pursuit of this goal tends to backfire, as her lack of social graces alienates the very people (Darcy and Bingley) whom she tries desperately to attract. Austen uses her continually to highlight the necessity of marriage for young women. Mrs. Bennet also serves as a middleclass counterpoint to such upper-class snobs as Lady Catherine and Miss Bingley, demonstrating that foolishness can be found at every level of society. In the end, however, Mrs. Bennet proves such an unattractive figure, lacking redeeming characteristics of any kind, that some readers have accused Austen of unfairness in portraying her—as if Austen, like Mr. Bennet, took perverse pleasure in poking fun at a woman already scorned as a result of her ill breeding. Themes, Motifs & Symbols Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. Love Pride and Prejudice contains one of the most cherished love stories in English literature: the courtship between Darcy and Elizabeth. As in any good love story, the lovers must elude and overcome numerous stumbling blocks, beginning with the tensions caused by the lovers’ own personal qualities. Elizabeth’s pride makes her misjudge Darcy on the basis of a poor first impression, while Darcy’s prejudice against Elizabeth’s poor social standing blinds him, for a time, to her many virtues. (Of course, one could also say that Elizabeth is guilty of prejudice and Darcy of pride—the title cuts both ways.) Austen, meanwhile, poses countless smaller obstacles to the realization of the love between Elizabeth and Darcy, including Lady Catherine’s attempt to control her nephew, Miss Bingley’s snobbery, Mrs. Bennet’s idiocy, and Wickham’s deceit. In each case, anxieties about social connections, or the desire for better social connections, interfere with the workings of love. Darcy and Elizabeth’s realization of a mutual and tender love seems to imply that Austen views love as something independent of these social forces, as something that can be captured if only an individual is able to escape the warping effects of hierarchical society. Austen does sound some more realist (or, one could say, cynical) notes about love, using the character of Charlotte Lucas, who marries the buffoon Mr. Collins for his money, to demonstrate that the heart does not always dictate marriage. Yet with her central characters, Austen suggests that true love is a force separate from society and one that can conquer even the most difficult of circumstances. Reputation Pride and Prejudice depicts a society in which a woman’s reputation is of the utmost importance. A woman is expected to behave in certain ways. Stepping outside the social norms makes her vulnerable to ostracism. This theme appears in the novel, when Elizabeth walks to Netherfield and arrives with muddy skirts, to the shock of the reputation-conscious Miss Bingley and her friends. At other points, the ill-mannered, ridiculous behavior of Mrs. Bennet gives her a bad reputation with the more refined (and snobbish) Darcys and Bingleys. Austen pokes gentle fun at the snobs in these examples, but later in the novel, when Lydia elopes with Wickham and lives with him out of wedlock, the author treats reputation as a very serious matter. By becoming Wickham’s lover without benefit of marriage, Lydia clearly places herself outside the social pale, and her disgrace threatens the entire Bennet family. The fact that Lydia’s judgment, however terrible, would likely have condemned the other Bennet sisters to marriageless lives seems grossly unfair. Why should Elizabeth’s reputation suffer along with Lydia’s? Darcy’s intervention on the Bennets’ behalf thus becomes all the more generous, but some readers might resent that such an intervention was necessary at all. If Darcy’s money had failed to convince Wickham to marry Lydia, would Darcy have still married Elizabeth? Does his transcendence of prejudice extend that far? The happy ending of Pride and Prejudice is certainly emotionally satisfying, but in many ways it leaves the theme of reputation, and the importance placed on reputation, unexplored. One can ask of Pride and Prejudice, to what extent does it critique social structures, and to what extent does it simply accept their inevitability? Class The theme of class is related to reputation, in that both reflect the strictly regimented nature of life for the middle and upper classes in Regency England. The lines of class are strictly drawn. While the Bennets, who are middle class, may socialize with the upper-class Bingleys and Darcys, they are clearly their social inferiors and are treated as such. Austen satirizes this kind of class-consciousness, particularly in the character of Mr. Collins, who spends most of his time toadying to his upper-class patron, Lady Catherine de Bourgh. Though Mr. Collins offers an extreme example, he is not the only one to hold such views. His conception of the importance of class is shared, among others, by Mr. Darcy, who believes in the dignity of his lineage; Miss Bingley, who dislikes anyone not as socially accepted as she is; and Wickham, who will do anything he can to get enough money to raise himself into a higher station. Mr. Collins’s views are merely the most extreme and obvious. The satire directed at Mr. Collins is therefore also more subtly directed at the entire social hierarchy 3 Murdstone’s winebottling business and moves in with Mr. David’s mother dies. Journeys Nearly every scene in Pride and Prejudice takes place indoors. and leads to his first proposal. David Copperfield Charles Dickens Plot Overview N ow a grown man. and unproductive. Micawber leaves London to 4 . brings her into contact with Mr. Motifs Motifs are recurring structures. increasingly. Miss Murdstone. he is neither “formal. characters. Gummidge.” she writes. which perhaps has something to do with the novel’s reliance on dialogue over description.and the conception of all those within it at its correctness. and the journey ends with Darcy tracking them down and saving the Bennet family honor. and his two adopted children. David attends school at Salem House. nor falsely adorned. and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.” Pemberley even offers a symbol-within-a-symbol for their budding romance: when Elizabeth encounters Darcy on the estate. she is crossing a small bridge. Peggotty. but without any artificial appearance.” Darcy possesses a “natural importance” that is “swelled” by his arrogance. During David’s early childhood. Ham and Little Em’ly. this whole discussion of class must be made with the understanding that Austen herself is often criticized as being a classist: she doesn’t really represent anyone from the lower classes. Murdstone’s hand during one beating. those servants she does portray are generally happy with their lot. suggesting the broad gulf of misunderstanding and class prejudice that lies between them—and the bridge that their love will build across it. Courtship becomes a sort of forge of a person’s personality. sits at the center of the novel. Miss Bingley’s unsuccessful attempt to attract Darcy. The Murdstones send David away to school. The third journey. literally and figuratively. Nevertheless. Symbols Symbols are objects. and by the picturesque countryside. Collins’s aborted wooing of Elizabeth. Peggotty’s brother. where the Murdstones neglect him. Darcy. Nevertheless. which is run by a man named Mr. Pride and Prejudice is the story of two courtships—those between Darcy and Elizabeth and between Bingley and Jane. by the gifts of its owner. an unfortunate. Creakle. After this visit. his mother marries the violent Mr. the widowed wife of Mr. Peggotty. then of the never-seen Miss King. followed by his successful wooing of Charlotte Lucas. As a young boy. he lives happily with his mother and his nurse. where David meets Peggotty’s brother.” Like the stream. Wickham’s pursuit first of Elizabeth. and each courtship becomes a microcosm for different sorts of love (or different ways to abuse love as a means to social advancement). smaller courtships: Mr. more worthy virtues. just as she will be charmed. David befriends and idolizes an egotistical young man named James Steerforth. if often unspoken. in the process demonstrating his continued devotion to Elizabeth. The Murdstones treat David cruelly. Peggotty’s family lives in a boat turned upside down—a space they share with Mrs. who mismanages his finances. and the action centers around the Bennet home in the small village of Longbourn. Mr. Darcy’s estate. journeys—even short ones—function repeatedly as catalysts for change in the novel. in complete disregard of other. importance in the novel. david copperfield tells the story of his youth. Peggotty takes David to visit her family in Yarmouth. David also befriends Tommy Traddles. but which coexists with a genuine honesty and lack of “artificial appearance. who brings his strict sister. meanwhile. Micawber. Elizabeth visits it at a time when her feelings toward Darcy are beginning to warm. When Mr. Austen does criticize class structure but only a limited slice of that structure. “In front. Of course. Murdstone. Through the Darcy-Elizabeth and Bingley-Jane marriages. Mr. Her second journey takes her to Derby and Pemberley. He works at Mr. Marriage is the ultimate goal. Elizabeth’s first journey. unfeeling. into the house. Courtship therefore takes on a profound. Collins. courtship constitutes the real working-out of love. as a geographic symbol of the man who owns it. His father died before he was born. “a stream of some natural importance was swelled into greater. and David bites Mr. by which she intends simply to visit Charlotte and Mr. Austen shows the power of love and happiness to overcome class boundaries and prejudices. where she fans the growing flame of her affection for Darcy. Pemberley. Pemberley Pride and Prejudice is remarkably free of explicit symbolism. she is enchanted by its beauty and charm. and David returns home. contrasts. sends various people in pursuit of Wickham and Lydia. and literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes. fat young boy who is beaten more than the others. Austen makes the connection explicit when she describes the stream that flows beside the mansion. and finally of Lydia. thereby implying that such prejudices are hollow. Courtship In a sense. Within this broad structure appear other. figures. Wickfield and his daughter. Barkis dies. Jack Maldon. On his way to Yarmouth. Mr. Miss Betsey persuades David to pursue a career as a proctor. Miss Dartle. They arrive in Yarmouth. cheating on her husband. His love for Agnes grows. David journeys to Yarmouth to visit Peggotty in her hour of need. Wickfield has joined into a partnership with Uriah Heep. Spenlow dies in a carriage accident that night. Barkis. In David’s first-person narration. The sailor turns out to be Steerforth. he develops a more mature point of view and searches for a lover who will challenge him and help him grow. Peggotty enlist the help of Little Em’ly’s childhood friend Martha. David fully matures as an adult when he expresses the sentiment that he values Agnes’s calm tranquility over all else in his life. and Dora goes to live with her two aunts. he also has moments of cruelty. Agnes and David become best friends. who locates Little Em’ly and brings Mr. Miss Betsey visits London to inform David that her financial security has been ruined because Mr. who she believes will make her a lady. David apprentices himself at the London firm of Spenlow and Jorkins and takes up lodgings with a woman named Mrs. Little Em’ly and Mr. As he grows up. Mrs. Miss Dartle adds that Steerforth’s servant. Miss Betsey sends David to a school run by a man named Doctor Strong. we are aware from the moment we meet Steerforth that he doesn’t deserve the adulation David feels toward him. as do the Micawbers. has proposed to her and that Little Em’ly has run away. David decides to search for his father’s sister. Uriah Heep informs Doctor Strong that he suspects Doctor Strong’s wife. Dick facilitates a reconciliation between Doctor Strong and Annie. In London. are to be married upon Mr. David encounters James Steerforth. that Mr. while he attends school. David pursues his writing career with increasing commercial success. vows to work as hard as he can to make their life together possible. especially as a young man in love. who has long harbored a secret love for him. who has become increasingly infatuated with Dora. through the eyes of a child. David also displays great tenderness. however. Miss Betsey Trotwood—his only living relative. Mr. can be foolish and romantic. David meets Spenlow’s daughter. in fact. through Steerforth. Dickens conveys the wisdom of the older man implicitly.escape his creditors. He walks a long distance to Miss Betsey’s home. Dora. Crupp. who is now married to Mr. like the scene in which he intentionally distresses Mr. There. David is reunited with Tommy Traddles and Mr. Agnes. forbids Dora from marrying David. When they return from Yarmouth. but we can sense Uriah’s devious nature and the boy’s treacherous intentions. Although David is ignorant of Steerforth’s treachery. a kind of lawyer. however. A powerful storm hits Yarmouth and kills Ham while he attempts to rescue a shipwrecked sailor. of having an affair with her young cousin. David and Mr. Dora falls ill and dies. Though David is trusting and kind. Little Em’ly and Ham. Littimer. Mr. David loves her anyway and is generally happy. summons David and informs him that Steerforth has left Little Em’ly. Annie. Spenlow. where Steerforth and the Peggottys become fond of one another. Mr. David reflects on what profession he should pursue. and they take a detour to visit Steerforth’s mother. We see David’s initial innocence in the contrast between his interpretation of events and our own understanding of them. David. now engaged. Spenlow invites David to his house for a weekend. David doesn’t understand why he hates Uriah or why he trusts a boy with a donkey cart who steals his money and leaves him in the road. Word reaches David. Mr. Steerforth’s ward. Mr. who first save the day for Agnes and Miss Betsey by exposing Uriah Heep’s fraud against Mr. a snakelike young man who often involves himself in matters that are none of his business. When David returns. David leaves the country to travel abroad. and Dora proves a terrible housewife. Meanwhile. Meanwhile. Micawber. however. Analysis of Major Characters David Copperfield Although David narrates his story as an adult. he and Agnes. as in the moment when he realizes his love for Agnes for the first time. David. he relays the impressions he had from a youthful point of view. Barkis’s death. David moves in with Mr. who was not. Peggotty decide to move to Australia. Uriah Heep 5 . incompetent in her chores. Barkis is terminally ill. Peggotty is devastated but vows to find Little Em’ly and bring her home. get married and have several children. David’s complex character allows for contradiction and development over the course of the novel. Little Em’ly runs off with Steerforth. Dora and David marry. and quickly falls in love with her. Dick by explaining Miss Betsey’s dire situation to him. and she takes him in on the advice of her mentally unstable friend. Dick. finds Little Em’ly upset over her impending marriage. Peggotty to her. We see how David’s perception of the world deepens as he comes of age. David graduates and goes to Yarmouth to visit Peggotty. the carrier. Wickfield. Among Wickfield’s boarders is Uriah Heep. David. When Mr. Mr. Likewise. David takes Steerforth’s kindness for granted without analyzing his motives or detecting his duplicity. as a woman. even though they are morally good people. The final scenes of the novel. Equality in Marriage In the world of the novel. David starves and suffers in a wine-bottling factory as a child. David doesn’t suspect that Steerforth is simply trying to use David to make friends and gain status. Because Steerforth’s duplicity is so clear to us. Steerforth likes David only because David worships him. Murdstone. Themes. Dickens does point toward an age of empowered women. The weak in David Copperfield never escape the domination of the powerful by challenging the powerful directly. the weak must ally themselves with equally powerful characters. children deprived of the care of their natural parents suffer at the hands of their own supposed protectors. he does so not out of a desire to show his moral superiority but rather out of love and respect for Annie.Uriah serves a foil to David and contrasts David’s qualities of innocence and compassion with his own corruption. James Steerforth Steerforth is a slick. David. His characters suffer punishment at the hands of forces larger than themselves. As his guardian. he flees to the wealthy Miss Betsey. The Plight of the Weak Throughout David Copperfield. Uriah plots strategies to increase his control. doesn’t stand up to Mr. in which Uriah praises his jail cell because it helps him know what he should do. he still assumes that his wife. we see. Uriah grows in his desire to exercise control over himself and other characters. neither of the Strongs views the other as inferior. Murdstone forces Clara into submission in the name of improving her. women. For example. although Doctor Strong does attempt to improve Annie’s character. The arbitrary suffering of innocents makes for the most vividly affecting scenes of the novel. marriages succeed to the extent that husband and wife attain equality in their relationship. Mr. The frequent contrast between Uriah’s and David’s sentiments emphasizes David’s kindness and moral integrity. Though Uriah is raised in a cruel environment similar to David’s. Doctor Strong is gentle and soothing with his wife. Creakle. Though Steerforth belittles David from the moment they meet. He refers to Uriah’s movements as snakelike and gives Uriah red hair and red eyes. it compounds his flaws. Dickens’s physical description of Uriah marks Uriah as a demonic character. To the end. wealthy young man whose sense of self-importance overwhelms all his opinions. In both situations. Instead. whereas Uriah wishes to marry Agnes only in order to hurt David. Dickens focuses on orphans. Conversely. Dickens holds up the Strongs’ marriage as an example to show that marriages can only be happy if neither spouse is subjugated to the other. As Uriah gains more power over Mr. he stands out as the novel’s greatest villain. Though Doctor Strong’s marriage is based at least partially on an ideal of equality. show Uriah’s need to exert control even when he is a helpless prisoner. Dickens draws on his own experience as a child to describe the inhumanity of child labor and debtors’ prison. David’s lack of insight into Steerforth’s true intentions emphasizes his youthful innocence. Murdstone’s attempts to improve David’s mother’s character. While David’s character development is a process of increased self-understanding. and his final betrayal comes as a surprise to David but not to us. which leaves her meek and voiceless. Mr. Murdstone. Uriah’s upbringing causes him to become bitter and vengeful rather than honest and hopeful. Murdstone and challenge his authority. Murdstone can exploit David as factory labor because the boy is too small and dependent on him to disobey. but rather the significance of family ties and family money in human relationships. Uriah and David not only have opposing characteristics but also operate at cross-purposes. egotistical. Wealth and Class 6 . Wickfield. David’s escape proves neither self-reliance nor his own inner virtue. the powerful abuse the weak and helpless. Motifs & Symbols Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. for example. depends upon him and needs him for moral guidance. Indeed. However. Instead. the boys at Salem House have no recourse against the cruel Mr. In contrast. When Steerforth befriends David at Salem House. But imprisonment does not redeem his evil—if anything. does not challenge his society’s constrictive views about the roles of women. Steerforth underscores the difference between what we understand as readers and what David sees—and fails to see—in his youthful naïveté. Dickens criticizes characters who attempt to invoke a sense of superiority over their spouses. for example. Because he deploys his strategies to selfish purposes that bring harm to others. Dickens. rather than abrasive and imperious like Mr. David is incapable of conceiving that his new friend might be taking advantage of him. whose financial stability affords her the power to shelter David from Mr. only crush her spirit. by depicting a marriage in which a man and wife share some balance of power. his sense of entitlement grows and he becomes more and more power-hungry. and the mentally disabled to show that exploitation—not pity or compassion—is the rule in an industrial society. David’s marriages are both motivated by love. physical beauty corresponds to moral good. Steerforth is treacherous and self-absorbed. Uriah Heep and Mr. to show that these traits are more likely to corrupt than improve a person’s character. The sea washes Steerforth up on the shore—a moment that symbolizes Steerforth’s moral emptiness. contrasts. much like physical appearance. In this manner. clearly adores him but does not dote on him. Dickens. Motifs Motifs are recurring structures. Likewise. Those who are physically beautiful.Throughout the novel. Dickens criticizes his society’s view of wealth and class as measures of a person’s value. Mr. the aunt who raises David. In David Copperfield. Peggotty and Ham. Physical Beauty In David Copperfield. not on the hand that the cruel world deals them. for almost all the characters in the novel. while those who are ugly. and ill-tempered. characters. Doctor Strong and Agnes. Miss Betsey. Many people in Dickens’s time believed that poverty was a symptom of moral degeneracy and that people who were poor deserved to suffer because of inherent deficiencies. even the most carefully buried characteristics eventually come to light and expose elusive individuals for what they really are. he cannot hide his true treachery for years. Dickens does not go so far as to suggest that all poor people are absolutely noble and that all rich people are utterly evil. nonetheless are morally upstanding. Peggotty are two notable examples of such characters whose speech indicates their social standing. and noble. Mr. The Sea The sea represents an unknown and powerful force in the lives of the characters in David Copperfield. Although Miss Betsey raises David to deal with the difficulties of the world. The success of mother figures in the novel hinges on their ability to care for their children without coddling them. both wealthy. On the other hand. Rather. Accented Speech Dickens gives his characters different accents to indicate their social class. Uriah’s mother. who grew up hard and fell into his current character because of the cruelty of the world. Symbols Symbols are objects. Mr. In contrast. and her ability to see faults in him helps him to mature into a balanced adult. The sea took Little Em’ly’s father in an unfortunate accident over which she had no control. on the other hand. sympathetic characters. The storm in the concluding chapters of the 7 . as with his marriage to Dora. and Mr. Mothers and Mother Figures Mothers and mother figures have an essential influence on the identity of the characters in David Copperfield. Poor people frequently swindle David when he is young. Wickfield’s friends confront him. dotes on her son and allows him to dominate her. good mother figures produce good children while bad mothers yield sinister offspring. Dickens uses accent in both cases to advance his assertion that class and personal integrity are unrelated and that it is misleading to make any connection between the two. physical beauty corresponds to personal worth. as the sea treats him like flotsam and jetsam. not their own failings. figures. Uriah develops a vain. Dickens does not paint a black-and-white moral picture but shows that wealth and class are are unreliable indicators of character and morality. powerful. the sea takes both Ham and Steerforth. cannot be disguised permanently. in an attempt to appear poor and of good character. On the whole. and it is almost always connected with death. Uriah drops this accent as soon as his fraud is revealed: he is not the urchin-child he portrays himself to be. Instead. are good and noble. Uriah. Heep. she does not block those hardships. Mrs. Dickens’s treatment of motherchild relationships in the novel is intended to teach a lesson. He warns mothers to love their children only in moderation and to correct their faults while they can still be fixed. She encourages him to be strong in everything he does and to be fair at all times. Almost invariably. As a result. indicates genuine humility and poverty. Dickens invites us to judge his characters based on their individual deeds and qualities. for example. both poor. consistently drops the “h” in “humble” every time a group of Mr. like David’s mother. or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes. or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. are evil. like Uriah Heep. even though he too is poor and helpless. on the other hand. inflated self-regard that breeds cruel behavior. who is wealthy. initially appears harmless but annoying. Rather. Dickens suggests that internal characteristics. This moral connection between mothers and children indicates Dickens’s belief that mothers have an all-important role in shaping their children’s characters and destinies. Peggotty’s lower-class accent. are generous. Murdstone. Creakle. Dickens uses Steerforth. Although Steerforth. she forces David to confront them himself. violent. She corrects him when she thinks he is making a mistake. middle-class citizens. Uriah is a conniving. sympathizes with the poor and implies that their woes result from society’s unfairness. double-crossing social climber who views himself as superior to the wealthy and who exploits everyone he can. circumstances will eventually reveal the moral value of characters whose good goes unrecognized or whose evil goes unpunished. which causes her to shrink to a small size. Humans must try to live in harmony with the sea’s mystical power and take precautions to avoid untimely death. 8 . Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland Lewis Carroll Plot Overview Alice sits on a riverbank on a warm summer day. Through the door. She finds a tree with a door in its side. who mistakes her for a servant and sends her off to fetch his things. Dick. drowsily reading over her sister’s shoulder. the force of the sea is beyond human control. and the pleasure the kite offers resembles the honest. Alice lets the pig go and reenters the forest. She enters and finds the Duchess. Alice meets the White Rabbit again. Dick’s enormous kite represents his separation from society. stands apart from the rest of society. She takes the key and uses the mushroom to shrink down and enter the garden.” Alice scares the animals away with tales of her cat. Mr. which Alice discovers is a pig. Alice eats one of the cakes. Strong. Because Mr. She wanders until she comes across the house of the Duchess. She learns that they have wronged Time and are trapped in perpetual tea-time. as well as a grinning Cheshire Cat. whom the characters believe to be insane. The kite’s carefree simplicity mirrors Mr. Alice follows the White Rabbit down the hole and comes upon a great hallway lined with doors. Flowers Flowers represent simplicity and innocence in David Copperfield. which none of the other characters can fix. which inexplicably transform into cakes when they land in the house. The Cheshire Cat explains to Alice that everyone in Wonderland is mad. and travels through it to find herself back in the great hall. Dick’s Kite Mr. he tells Alice that different parts of the mushroom will make her grow or shrink. who is nursing a squealing baby. The White Rabbit returns to his house. Dick is not a part of the social hierarchies that bind the rest of the characters. but before the Caterpillar crawls away in disgust. As she leaves. where a number of animals stand gathered on a bank. Flowers indicate fresh perspective and thought and often recall moments of frivolity and release. Alice eats another part of the mushroom and shrinks down to a normal height. but she swats him and his servants away with her giant hand. After a “Caucus Race. Alice tastes a part of the mushroom. where she meets the Cheshire Cat again. Dick’s own childish innocence. After a final discourtesy. and finds herself alone again. when she catches sight of a White Rabbit in a waistcoat running by her. Steerforth nicknames David “Daisy” because David is naïve. A pigeon sees her and attacks. The pool of tears becomes a sea. uninvited. She finds a small door that she opens using a key she discovers on a nearby table. Alice leaves and journeys through the forest. and pops down a rabbit hole.. She shrinks down to the right size to enter the door but cannot enter since she has left the key on the tabletop above her head. where she meets a Caterpillar sitting on a mushroom and smoking a hookah (i. As she cries. fuming at the now-giant Alice. Alice stands by the tea party. The Mouse accompanies Alice to shore. When David returns to the Wickfields’ house and the Heeps leave. and the Dormouse having tea together. Dinah. The Cheshire Cat gives directions to the March Hare’s house and fades away to nothing but a floating grin. Alice drinks an unmarked bottle of liquid and grows to the size of the room. the Mad Hatter. he discovers that the old flowers are in the room. Like death. and her giant tears form a pool at her feet. deeming her a serpent hungry for pigeon eggs. Mr. and Alice begins to cry when she realizes she cannot fit through the door. The Caterpillar and Alice get into an argument. For example. including Alice herself. Alice travels to the March Hare’s house to find the March Hare. While in the White Rabbit’s house. unpretentious joy Mr. David brings Dora flowers on her birthday. Just as the kite soars above the other characters. Alice begins to cry again. Dora forever paints flowers on her little canvas. Alice shrinks and falls into the pool of tears. exclaims that he is late. Dick brings to those around him. Still unable to enter the garden. The Duchess behaves rudely to Alice and then departs to prepare for a croquet game with the Queen.novel alerts us to the danger of ignoring the sea’s power and indicates that the novel’s conflicts have reached an uncontrollable level. the Duchess hands Alice the baby. The White Rabbit pulls out a pocket watch. and a Cook who tosses massive amounts of pepper into a cauldron of soup. She wanders off into the forest.e. The animals outside try to get her out of the house by throwing rocks at her. Treated rudely by all three. In each of these cases. a water pipe). she sees a beautiful garden. and her neck stretches above the trees. Alice discovers a cake marked “EAT ME” which causes her to grow to an inordinately large height. which indicates that the room has been returned to its previous state of simplicity and innocence. he is able to mend the disagreement between Doctor and Mrs. flowers stand as images of rebirth and health—a significance that points to a springlike quality in characters associated with their blossoms. and as she treads water she meets a Mouse. She finds a bottle marked “DRINK ME” and downs the contents. Additionally.” and no toys. she flaunts her limited information base with anyone who will listen and becomes increasingly obsessed with the importance of good manners as she deals with the rude creatures of Wonderland. After listening to the Mock Turtle’s story. and the Victorian virtue of good manners. The Queen of Hearts chases the Duchess off and tells Alice that she must visit the Mock Turtle to hear his story. which the King interprets as an admission of guilt on the part of the Knave. and as a result. The letter turns out to be a poem. illogical world of Wonderland. and Pigeon challenge Alice’s notions of urbane intelligence with an unfamiliar logic that only makes sense within the context of Wonderland. Analysis of Major Characters Alice Alice is a sensible prepubescent girl from a wealthy English family who finds herself in a strange world ruled by imagination and fantasy. whom she declares has a “poky little house. Alice believes the note to be nonsense and protests the King’s interpretation. The Queen becomes furious with Alice and orders her beheading. The King takes offense and arranges for the Cheshire Cat’s execution. frantically calling for the other player’s executions. Alice finds herself awake on her sister’s lap. Alice’s fixed sense of order clashes with the madness she finds in Wonderland. March Hare. Certainly. Threatened by no one. Alice bumps into the Cheshire Cat again. Most significantly.” Alice displays great curiosity and attempts to fit her diverse experiences into a clear understanding of the world. who asks her how she is doing. but takes encouragement when the White Rabbit provides new evidence in the form of a letter written by the Knave. She has confidence in her social position. but none of it makes any sense. and consistent rules and features. and as a result Alice suffers an identity crisis. making her seem mad in comparison. education. The croquet ground is hilly. Alice’s fundamental beliefs face challenges at every turn. First. The Cheshire Cat has insight into the workings of Wonderland as a whole. The White Rabbit challenges her perceptions of class when he mistakes her for a servant. Wonderland challenges her perceptions of good manners by constantly assaulting her with dismissive rudeness. The Mad Hatter and the Cook both give their testimony. grinning outsider status. She persists in her way of life as she perceives her sense of order collapsing all around her. The King of Hearts leads the proceedings. but Alice grows to a huge size and knocks over the Queen’s army of playing cards. Alice joins the Queen in a strange game of croquet. but since the Cheshire Cat is now only a head floating in midair. Alice’s burning curiosity to absorb everything she sees in Wonderland sets her apart from the other Wonderland creatures. acting as a herald. but the Duchess makes Alice feel uneasy. they hear an announcement that a trial is about to begin. Alice’s normal behavior becomes inconsistent with its operating principles.After saving several gardeners from the temper of the Queen of Hearts. Alice’s familiarity with the world has led one critic to describe her as a “disembodied intellect. The White Rabbit. The King goes nowhere with his line of questioning. it maintains a cool. and the Queen tears about. Its calm explanation to Alice that to be in Wonderland is to be “mad” reveals a number of points that do not occur to Alice on her own. but maintains a strong sense of noblesse oblige that comes with her class status. logical. and various witnesses approach the stand to give evidence. The King of Hearts interrupts their conversation and attempts to bully the Cheshire Cat. The Queen of Hearts sends Alice with the Gryphon as her escort to meet the Mock Turtle. The Cheshire Cat The Cheshire Cat is unique among Wonderland creatures. Alice approaches Wonderland as an anthropologist. back at the riverbank. Wonderland is ruled by nonsense. The tension of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland emerges when Alice’s fixed perspective of the world comes into contact with the mad. no one can agree on how to behead it. Alice has a feeling of entitlement. Amidst this madness. 9 . the Cheshire Cat points out that Wonderland as a place has a stronger cumulative effect than any of its citizens. She tells her sister about her dream and goes inside for tea as her sister ponders Alice’s adventures. who listen sympathetically and comment on the strangeness of her adventures. calls Alice to the witness stand. so Alice herself becomes mad in the context of Wonderland. All of a sudden. Alice shares her strange experiences with the Mock Turtle and the Gryphon. while the Mad Hatter. and the Gryphon brings Alice back to the croquet ground. Alice maintains a superior attitude and behaves with solicitous indulgence toward those she believes are less privileged. the mallets and balls are live flamingos and hedgehogs. The Duchess approaches Alice and attempts to befriend her. Alice must choose between retaining her notions of order and assimilating into Wonderland’s nonsensical rules. The Knave of Hearts stands trial for stealing the Queen’s tarts. Alice feels comfortable with her identity and has a strong sense that her environment is comprised of clear. who impudently dismisses the King. particularly when comparing herself to Mabel. riddles. Over time. Alice finally gets a taste of true fear. In Wonderland. Alice takes risks that could possibly kill her. Even though Lewis Carroll was a logician. she starts to realize that her experiences in Wonderland are far more threatening than they appear to be. the narrative follows the dreamer as she encounters various episodes in which she attempts to interpret her experiences in relationship to herself and her world. but to no avail. even though she understands that the Queen of Hearts is merely a playing card. riddles. These constant fluctuations represent the way a child may feel as her body grows and changes during puberty. she loses control over specific body parts when her neck grows to an absurd length. as she botches her multiplication tables and incorrectly recites poems she had memorized while in Wonderland. Themes. Wonderland frustrates Alice’s desires to fit her experiences in a logical framework where she can make sense of the relationship between cause and effect. she becomes upset when she keeps finding herself too big or too small to enter the garden. Alice tries to understand the Caucus race. and Alice starts to understand that the risks she faces may not be ridiculous and absurd after all. Death as a Constant and Underlying Menace Alice continually finds herself in situations in which she risks death. the Queen of Hearts is not as concerned with nonsense and perversions of logic as she is with absolute rule and execution.The Queen of Hearts As the ruler of Wonderland. but she never considers death as a possible outcome. In Chapter 1. the riddles and challenges presented to Alice have no purpose or answer. they suggest that death lurks just behind the ridiculous events of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland as a present and possible outcome. and feels discomfort. Though Alice’s experiences lend themselves to meaningful observations. which imitates the ways that life frustrates expectations. when the narrator mentions that Alice would say nothing of falling off of her own house. Alice encounters a series of puzzles that seem to have no clear solutions. In Wonderland. frustration. even when problems seem familiar or solvable. Motifs Motifs are recurring structures. solve the Mad Hatter’s riddle. Alice goes through a variety of absurd physical changes. Death appears in Chapter 1. in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland he makes a farce out of jokes. the Queen of Hearts is literally the heart of Alice’s conflict. In Chapter 5. The Gryphon later informs Alice that the Queen never actually executes anyone she sentences to death. Subversion Alice quickly discovers during her travels that the only reliable aspect of Wonderland that she can count on is that it will frustrate her expectations and challenge her understanding of the natural order of the world. Unlike many of the other characters in Wonderland. Alice finds that her lessons no longer mean what she thought. even when they appear to be problems. contrasts. and games of logic. she is a singular force of fear who even dominates the King of Hearts. The dream motif explains the abundance of nonsensical and disparate events in the story. the Queen of Hearts is the character that Alice must inevitably face to figure out the puzzle of Wonderland. or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes. they resist a singular and coherent interpretation. The Queen becomes representative of the idea that Wonderland is devoid of substance. Alice learns that she cannot expect to find logic or meaning in the situations that she encounters. As the Queen screams “Off with its head!” she understands that Wonderland may not merely be a ridiculous realm where expectations are repeatedly frustrated. so that the characters and phenomena of the real world mix with elements of Alice’s unconscious state. since it would likely kill her. and sadness when she goes through them. Language 10 . In the Queen’s presence. which reinforces the fact that the Queen of Hearts’s power lies in her rhetoric. Carroll makes a broader point about the ways that life frustrates expectations and resists interpretation. In every instance. Dream Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland takes place in Alice’s dream. Even Alice’s physical dimensions become warped as she grows and shrinks erratically throughout the story. or games that would normally have solutions that Alice would be able to figure out. and while these threats never materialize. In a sense. The discomfort she feels at never being the right size acts as a symbol for the changes that occur during puberty. but they repeatedly frustrate her ability to figure out Wonderland. Death may be a real threat. Alice expects that the situations she encounters will make a certain kind of sense. Motifs & Symbols Themes The Tragic and Inevitable Loss of Childhood Innocence Throughout the course of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. and understand the Queen’s ridiculous croquet game. As in a dream. Alice finds these changes to be traumatic. She struggles to maintain a comfortable physical size. Life as a Meaningless Puzzle In Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. Far from the Madding Crowd. Carroll invents words and expressions and develops new meanings for words. Symbols Symbols are objects. its sales assured Hardy’s financial future. a rural region of southwestern England that was to become the focus of his fiction. Although he built a reputation as a successful novelist. the garden may simply represent the experience of desire. an architect who lived in the city of Dorchester. Finally able to support himself as a writer. which represents the bodily frustrations that accompany puberty. But Hardy cannot solely be labeled a Victorian novelist. between Victorian sensibilities and more modern ones. hoping to gain a clearer picture of how that individual or experience functions in the world. which explained the convoluted.Carroll plays with linguistic conventions in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. The garden may symbolize the Garden of Eden. Alice must master the properties of the mushroom to gain control over her fluctuating size. Hardy married Emma Lavinia Gifford later that year. she usually assigns curious and confusing to experiences or encounters that she tolerates. Nor can he be categorized simply as a Modernist. The two symbolic meanings work together to underscore Alice’s desire to hold onto her feelings of childlike innocence that she must relinquish as she matures. in Higher Bockhampton in Dorset. This novel and the one 11 . Hardy was trapped in the middle ground between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. and Carroll’s manipulation of language reflects this sense of unlimited possibility. The location would later serve as the model for Hardy’s fictional Casterbridge. Hardy considered himself first and foremost a poet. Nonsense. characters. Soon after Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891) was published. often incredible plots of many such Victorian novels. and between tradition and innovation. an idyllic space of beauty and innocence that Alice is not permitted to access. novels were primarily a means of earning a living. or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. Others view the mushroom as a psychedelic hallucinogen that compounds Alice’s surreal and distorted perception of Wonderland. was the author’s first critical and financial success. H. making use of puns and playing on multiple meanings of words throughout the text. declining religious faith and lack of money led Hardy to pursue a career in writing instead. writers often structured each installment to be something of a cliffhanger. Often the symbols work together to convey a particular meaning. Although he gave serious thought to attending university and entering the church. He became famous for his compassionate. Anything is possible in Wonderland. its phallic shape a symbol of sexual virility. 1840. as she does with the trial in Chapter 12. On a more abstract level. figures. The Caterpillar’s Mushroom Like the garden. and his work reflects the conventions of serialization. Though the words are generally interchangeable. a struggle he would dramatize in his novel Jude the Obscure. But the novel also aroused a substantial amount of controversy. When Alice declares something to be nonsense. Alice’s exclamation “Curious and curiouser!” suggests that both her surroundings and the language she uses to describe them expand beyond expectation and convention. Lawrence. Like many of his contemporaries. He spent nearly a dozen years toiling in obscurity and producing unsuccessful novels and poetry. In many respects. The child of a builder. The symbolic resonances of Wonderland objects are generally contained to the individual episode in which they appear. Some readers and critics view the Caterpillar as a sexual threat. To him. often controversial portrayal of young women victimized by the self-righteous rigidity of English social morality. in that Alice focuses her energy and emotion on trying to attain it. Tess of the d’Urbervilles Thomas Hardy Context T homas Hardy was born on June 2. she rejects or criticizes the experience or encounter. the Caterpillar’s mushroom also has multiple symbolic meanings. and Confusing Alice uses these words throughout her journey to describe phenomena she has trouble explaining. Perhaps his most famous depiction of such a young woman is in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. To ensure that readers would buy a serialized novel. in the tradition of writers like Virginia Woolf or D. She endures is the experiences that are curious or confusing. particularly for rural women. Hardy was apprenticed at the age of sixteen to John Hicks. but nothing clearly represents one particular thing. The Caterpillar’s mushroom connects to this symbolic meaning. In Tess of the d’Urbervilles and other novels. Curious. Hardy demonstrates his deep sense of moral sympathy for England’s lower classes. The Garden Nearly every object in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland functions as a symbol. he first published his novels in periodic installments in magazines or serial journals. published in 1874. who were determined to explode the conventions of nineteenth-century literature and build a new kind of novel in its place. He gives her some money and boards a ship bound for Brazil. but it slides under the carpet and Angel never sees it. d’Urberville’s son. and Tess is forced to return home to take care of her. Angel and Tess both confess indiscretions: Angel tells Tess about an affair he had with an older woman in London. Tess has no choice but to accept. the d’Urbervilles. he again begs Tess to marry him. Alec and Tess are each shaken by their encounter. They hide out in an empty mansion for a few days. and when the lascivious Alec d’Urberville. Tess learns from her sister Liza-Lu that her mother is near death. a search party discovers them. When they come to Stonehenge.that followed it. knowing he only wants to obligate her to him again. Jude the Obscure (1895). At last. so she leaves. When the landlady finds Alec’s body. Angel leaves in a daze. or “old money. Tess goes to sleep. Angel decides to forgive his wife. the merchant Simon Stokes. Instead. But Tess refuses to accept. he finds her mother. She returns home to her family to give birth to Alec’s child. and Tess tells Angel about her history with Alec. who turns out to be the man from the May Day dance at the beginning of the novel. when England was making its slow and painful transition from an old-fashioned. though he cannot quite believe that she has actually murdered Alec. whom she christens Sorrow. He spent the rest of his career writing poetry. who has been converted to Christianity by Angel’s father. There. Mrs. In reality. She befriends three of her fellow milkmaids—Izz. lose themselves in the fantasy of belonging to an ancient and aristocratic family. He leaves Brazil. Alec offers help. Hardy lived and wrote in a time of difficult social change. joins the other village girls in the May Day dance. Her mother recovers. Meanwhile. She finally accepts a job as a milkmaid at the Talbothays Dairy. or “new money. Soon after. At Talbothays. and. Tess goes upstairs and stabs her lover to death. and she eventually accepts his proposal of marriage. Sorrow dies soon after he is born. engendered widespread public scandal with their comparatively frank look at the sexual hypocrisy of English society. then travel farther. Angel and Liza-Lu watch as a black flag is raised over the prison. as some families of the ancient aristocracy. but when morning breaks shortly thereafter. but her father unexpectedly dies soon after. Tess. She has a difficult time finding work and is forced to take a job at an unpleasant and unprosperous farm. She tries to visit Angel’s family but overhears his brothers discussing Angel’s poor marriage. d’Urberville is no relation to Tess at all: her husband. Tess tells him he has come too late. having turned his back on his -religious ways. When the family is evicted from their home. Angel agrees to help Tess. Though today he is remembered somewhat more for his novels. and Alec appallingly begs Tess never to tempt him again.” joined the ranks of the social elite. heartbroken to the point of madness. she is troubled by pangs of conscience and feels she should tell Angel about her past. resisting Alec’s attempts to seduce her. but Tess has already fled to find Angel. as Tess’s parents. She was unable to resist and went back to Alec d’Urberville. Tess spends several months at this job. d’Urberville will make Tess’s fortune. simply changed his name to d’Urberville after he retired. Tess is arrested and sent to jail. Tess and Angel slowly fall in love. since she blames herself for an accident involving the family’s horse. He tells Tess he will try to accept her past but warns her not to try to join him until he comes for her. Mrs. and Tess of the d’Urbervilles was met in England with widespread controversy. and Tess spends a miserable year at home before deciding to seek work elsewhere. Hardy was frustrated by the controversy caused by his work. his eldest daughter. Alec takes advantage of her in the woods one night after a fair. Durbeyfield and his wife decide to send Tess to the d’Urberville mansion. After their wedding. procures Tess a job tending fowls on the d’Urberville estate. Tess forgives Angel. agricultural nation to a modern. its only means of income. Tess struggles. signaling Tess’s execution. They grow closer throughout Tess’s time at Talbothays. the d’Urbervilles. industrial one. where he tells her he has forgiven her and begs her to take him back. he finds Tess in an expensive boardinghouse called The Herons. and Marian—and meets a man named Angel Clare. She writes him a confessional note and slips it under his door. Tess enjoys a period of contentment and happiness. where they hope Mrs. where he thinks he might establish a farm. Tess’s family in Tess of the d’Urbervilles illustrates this change. Analysis of Major Characters Tess Durbeyfield 12 . where Tess briefly exchanges glances with a young man. and he finally abandoned novel-writing altogether following Jude the Obscure. the Reverend Clare. who tells him Tess has gone to a village called Sandbourne. She hears a wandering preacher speak and is stunned to discover that he is Alec d’Urberville. desperate to find her. however. Hardy’s views on the subject were appalling to conservative and status-conscious British readers. Still. the Durbeyfields. but Angel cannot forgive Tess. he was an acclaimed poet in his time and was buried in the prestigious Poet’s Corner of Westminster Abbey following his death in 1928. Hardy’s novel strongly suggests that such a family history is not only meaningless but also utterly undesirable. she raises an alarm. Mr.” faded into obscurity. Finally. Tess knows she does not love Alec. Businessmen and entrepreneurs. But Tess does not know this fact. Plot Overview T he poor peddler John Durbeyfield is stunned to learn that he is the descendent of an ancient noble family. Retty. fade with their expulsion from Eden. He rejects the values handed to him. Alec symbolizes the base forces of life that drive a person away from moral perfection and greatness. Adam and Eve. But. and bearer of a name that his father purchased. Stoke-d’Urberville. Like Satan. but. “I suppose I am a bad fellow—a damn bad fellow. This torment represents the most universal side of Tess: she is the myth of the human who suffers for crimes that are not her own and lives a life more degraded than she deserves. her diction. She is in between. as in the stoking of a furnace or the flames of hell. when he quickly abandons his newfound Christian faith upon remeeting Tess. like Tess herself. or refers to her by the Greek mythological names “Artemis” and “Demeter” in Chapter XX. The narrator himself sometimes describes Tess as more than an individual woman. Alec is the nemesis and downfall of Tess’s life. sincerely. and when he seduces her as the serpent in Genesis seduced Eve. making humans sad shadows of what they once were. he bluntly tells Tess. Indeed. visible in her graceful beauty—yet she is forced to work as a farmhand and milkmaid. Tess thus represents what is known in Christian theology as original sin. another martyr whose vision of a higher reality cost her her life. suggests the conqueror—as in Alexander the Great—who seizes what he wants regardless of moral propriety. even when—like Tess herself after killing Prince or succumbing to Alec—they are not wholly or directly responsible for the sins for which they are punished. but financial constraints keep her from rising to a higher station in life. In fact. Tess represents the changing role of the agricultural workers in England in the late nineteenth century. and he fervently believes in the nobility of man. A typical young nineteenth-century progressive. and distinguished by her deep moral sensitivity and passionate intensity. in all probability. is not quite up to the level of Alec’s or Angel’s. I was born bad.” Tess’s story may thus be a “standard” story. Angel represents a rebellious striving toward a personal vision of goodness. whose origins are simpler than their pretensions to grandeur. Angel Clare A freethinking son born into the family of a provincial parson and determined to set himself up as a farmer instead of going to Cambridge like his conformist brothers. however. In part. and its consequences for Tess so severe. Yet he is more slippery than a grand conqueror. After all. His first name. This duplicity of character is so intense in Alec. both socially and culturally. rather than for the honor and glory of God in a more distant world. and I have lived bad. a mere milkmaid and his social inferior. Tess represents fallen humanity in a religious sense. There is aristocracy in Tess’s blood. strikingly attractive. rather all these shades together. he revels in them. that he becomes diabolical. Her name. he represents a larger moral principle rather than a real individual man. Alexander. It is hard to believe Alec holds his religion. but as something closer to a mythical incarnation of womanhood. Stokes is a blunt and inelegant name. Angel sees human society as a thing to be remolded and improved. His love for Tess. The first part of his surname conjures associations with fiery energies. Alec d’Urberville An insouciant twenty-four-year-old man. they do not satisfy her—she seems not quite comfortable with those popular songs. Tess does not quite fit into the folk culture of her predecessors. His full last name. representing a deeper and larger experience than that of a single individual. on the other hand. He is a secularist who yearns to work for the “honor and glory of man. the divided and duplicitous character of Alec is evident to the very end of the novel. but where cold economic realities made sheer wealth more important than inner nobility. recalls St. so too did the early glory of the first humans. as the frequent biblical allusions in the novel remind us. and I shall die bad. But she is also more than a distinctive individual: Hardy makes her into somewhat of a mythic heroine. where old family lines retained their earlier glamour. as we discover on the first page of the novel with the news that the Durbeyfields are the surviving members of the noble and ancient family of the d’Urbervilles. She belongs in that higher world. formally Theresa.” as he tells his father in Chapter XVIII. Thus. When she tries to express her joy by singing lower-class folk ballads at the beginning of the third part of the novel. Just as Tess’s clan was once glorious and powerful but is now sadly diminished.” There is frank acceptance in this admission and no shame. Other characters often refer to Tess in mythical terms.” like “an almost standard woman. as when Angel calls her a “Daughter of Nature” in Chapter XVIII. like Satan. Teresa of Avila. Possessing an education that her unschooled parents lack. and sets off in search of his own. 13 . he says that her eyes are “neither black nor blue nor grey nor violet. His devilish associations are evident when he wields a pitchfork while addressing Tess early in the novel. since she has passed the Sixth Standard of the National Schools.Intelligent. is one expression of his disdain for tradition. In Chapter XIV. like the famous depiction of Satan in Milton’s Paradise Lost. Additionally. His supposed conversion may only be a new role he is playing. Tess is a symbol of unclear and unstable notions of class in nineteenth-century Britain. Some readers feel Alec is too wicked to be believable. Tess is indisputably the central character of the novel that bears her name. In Chapter XII. Alec does not try to hide his bad qualities. while more polished than her mother’s. the degraded state in which all humans live. symbolizes the split character of his family. or anything else. heir to a fortune. Beyond her social symbolism. This independent spirit contributes to his aura of charisma and general attractiveness that makes him the love object of all the milkmaids with whom he works at Talbothays. His love for Tess may be abstract.” Tess may be more an archetype or ideal to him than a flesh and blood woman with a complicated life.As his name—in French. is intent on becoming a farmer and marrying a milkmaid. These girls appear utterly dominated by a desire for a man who. When Angel calls Tess names like “Daughter of Nature” and “Artemis. Angel. Alec’s father. we are told explicitly. Mrs. The d’Urbervilles pass for what the Durbeyfields truly are—authentic nobility—simply because definitions of class have changed. the moral atmosphere of the novel is not Christian justice at all. For others in their misery. with no attention paid to fortune or worldly success. Nor is there justice waiting in heaven. The pre-Christian rituals practiced by the farm workers at the opening of the novel. Tess’s friend Retty attempts suicide and her friend Marian becomes an alcoholic. and their acquaintance would not have been possible if he were a more traditional and elitist aristocrat. and only then he realizes he has been unfair to Tess.” or a frivolous game. exerting a power over them linked primarily to their maleness. the three main characters in the Angel-Tess-Alec triangle are all strongly marked by confusion regarding their respective social classes.” we feel that he may be denying her true self in favor of a 14 . His willingness to work side by side with the farm laborers helps endear him to Tess. Certainly the Durbeyfields are a powerful emblem of the way in which class is no longer evaluated in Victorian times as it would have been in the Middle Ages—that is. and Tess’s final rest at Stonehenge at the end. Indubitably the Durbeyfields have purity of blood. Generally. which explains how Simon Stokes. is clearly the most serious instance of male domination over a female. the most life-altering event that Tess experiences in the novel. The narrator says that Angel shines rather than burns and that he is closer to the intellectually aloof poet Shelley than to the fleshly and passionate poet Byron. as pure and gentle as it seems. Christianity offers little solace of heavenly justice. remind us of a world where the gods are not just and fair. In the Victorian context. What passes for “Justice” is in fact one of the pagan gods enjoying a bit of “sport. it is not the angel who guides the human in this novel. as when Alec acknowledges how bad he is for seducing Tess for his own momentary pleasure. Tess does not mean to kill Prince. but whimsical and uncaring. this fact amounts to nothing more than a piece of genealogical trivia. Angel awakens to the actual complexities of real-world morality after his failure in Brazil. Men Dominating Women One of the recurrent themes of the novel is the way in which men can dominate women. dominates her in an unhealthy way. Sometimes this command is purposeful. whose most promising son. but his faith seems shallow and insincere. Motifs & Symbols Themes The Injustice of Existence Unfairness dominates the lives of Tess and her family to such an extent that it begins to seem like a general aspect of human existence in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. which makes their earlier schoolgirl-type crushes on Angel seem disturbing. thus bypassing the traditional privileges of a Cambridge education and a parsonage. Angel’s ideals of human purity are too elevated to be applied to actual people: Mrs. in the man’s full knowledge of his exploitation. close to “Bright Angel”—suggests. The forces that rule human life are absolutely unpredictable and not necessarily well-disposed to us. Angel substitutes an idealized picture of Tess’s country purity for the real-life woman that he continually refuses to get to know. after Angel reveals that he prefers Tess. just as she is unfairly punished for her own rape by Alec. Christianity teaches that there is compensation in the afterlife for unhappiness suffered in this life. by blood alone. Durbeyfield never mentions otherworldly rewards. but the only devout Christian encountered in the novel may be the reverend. His moral system is readjusted as he is brought down to Earth. but she is punished anyway. but unhealthy obsession. Ironically. an issue that is one of the main concerns of the novel.” we are reminded that justice must be put in ironic quotation marks. cash matters more than lineage. Changing Ideas of Social Class in Victorian England Tess of the d’Urbervilles presents complex pictures of both the importance of social class in nineteenth-century England and the difficulty of defining class in any simple way. The issue of class confusion even affects the Clare clan. Alec’s act of abuse. The converted Alec preaches heavenly justice for earthly sinners. but the human who instructs the angel. When the narrator concludes the novel with the statement that “‘Justice’ was done. since it is not really just at all. When. But there are other. This devotion is not merely fanciful love. Even Angel’s love for Tess. Angel is not quite of this world. Themes. Clare. yet for the parson and nearly everyone else in the novel. Durbeyfield’s easygoing moral beliefs are much more easily accommodated to real lives such as Tess’s. less blatant examples of women’s passivity toward dominant men. as we guess when he calls her “Daughter of Nature” or “Demeter. but floats above it in a transcendent sphere of his own. and the President of the Immortals (in the Aeschylean phrase) had ended his sport with Tess. This sort of unconscious male domination of women is perhaps even more unsettling than Alec’s outward and self-conscious cruelty. Mr. was smoothly able to use his large fortune to purchase a lustrous family name and transform his clan into the Stoke-d’Urbervilles. does not even realize that they are interested in him. Thus. but pagan injustice. although at the cost of her own life. who seems more or less content in his life anyway. d’Urberville. whether successful or merely imagined. The horse’s demise is thus a powerful plot motivator.” and his family is evicted after his death at the end of the novel.” He imposes a fictional map on a real place. “she regarded him as Eve at her second waking might have regarded Adam. which symbolize sublime heights. These pheasants are no Romantic songbirds hovering far above the Earth—they are victims of earthly violence. characters. while Tess is the indecisive and troubled Eve. and actually renames himself Sir John. as her parents also believe.mental image that he prefers. Hardy’s interest in name changes makes reality itself seem changeable according to whims of human perspective. John Durbeyfield goes a step further than Tess. the resulting death of the Durbeyfield horse. this act only leads to even greater suppression of a woman by men. Tess knows and accepts that she is a lowly Durbeyfield. spurs Tess to seek aid from the d’Urbervilles. like a spoiled medieval nobleman. giving her sexual knowledge in return for her lost innocence. Both the Christian dove of peace and the Romantic songbirds of Keats and Shelley. Original sin suggests that humans have fallen from their once great status to a lower station in life. making us doubt whether these images of hope and freedom are illusory. which will never be erased. that her aristocratic original name should be restored.” Alec. or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. Thus. with his open avowal that he is bad to the bone. Just as John Durbeyfield is told in Chapter I that “you don’t live anywhere. When Tess gazes upon Angel in Chapter XXVII. Angel’s father. This pattern of male domination is finally reversed with Tess’s murder of Alec. her identity and experiences are suppressed. but by the end. when the crowd of male police officers arrest Tess at Stonehenge. a woman takes active steps against a man. when he appears at the d’Urberville family vault. Variant Names The transformation of the d’Urbervilles into the Durbeyfields is one example of the common phenomenon of renaming. Birds Images of birds recur throughout the novel. He seduces Tess under a tree. These birds offer images of hope and liberation. in which. is the conniving Satan. contrasts. The question raised by all these cases of name changing. Another character who renames himself is Simon Stokes. d’Urberville’s birds leave little white spots on the upholstery. Tess occasionally hears birdcalls on her frequent hikes across the countryside. and are never able to inhabit the places of grandeur we feel we deserve. Motifs Motifs are recurring structures. birds no longer seem free. but rather oppressed and submissive. their homelessness evokes the human exile from Eden. for just a moment. his lordly and commanding bearing make him seem almost deserving of the name his father has bought. Tess herself bears a high-class 15 . Like the horse. and indeed Hardy famously renames the southern English countryside as “Wessex. The roles of Eve and the serpent in paradise are clearly delineated: Angel is the noble Adam newly born. figures. Nevertheless. Names matter in this novel. The very name of the forest where this seduction occurs. This Story of the Fall—or of the “Pure Drop. their free expressiveness stands in stark contrast to Tess’s silent and constrained existence as a wronged and disgraced girl. when Tess encounters the pheasants maimed by hunters and lying in agony. is known in Christian theology as the original sin that all humans have inherited. is the extent to which an altered name brings with it an altered identity. the Chase. Alec acts notoriously ungentlemanly throughout the novel. When Tess goes to work for Mrs. or variant naming. just as the d’Urbervilles have devolved into the modern Durbeyfields. in the novel. Of course. giving the novel a broader metaphysical and philosophical dimension. who purchased a family tree and made himself Simon Stoked’Urberville. but part of her still believes. just as Alec’s free enjoyment of Tess’s body leads her to a lifetime of suffering. she is surprised to find that the old woman’s pet finches are frequently released to fly free throughout the room. The village of Blakemore. Mrs. Reality may not be as solid as the names people confer upon it. It may be that freedom for one creature entails hardship for another. The Book of Genesis The Genesis story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden is evoked repeatedly throughout Tess of the d’Urbervilles. is also known as Blackmoor. with names altered correspondingly. the accepted pattern of submissive women bowing to dominant men is interrupted. suggests how Eve will be chased from Eden for her sins. Symbols Symbols are objects. or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes. Prince When Tess dozes off in the wagon and loses control. and its name a potent symbol of Tess’s own claims to aristocracy.” to recall the name of a pub in Tess’s home village—is much more than a social fall. Yet there is irony attached to birds as well. evoking or contradicting their traditional spiritual association with a higher realm of transcendence. as his tombstone epitaph shows. In the end. It is an explanation of how all of us humans—not only Tess—never quite seem to live up to our expectations. as we are reminded twice in Chapters I and II. condemned to suffer down below and never fly again. albeit unknowingly. and Tess’s act seems heroic. Prince. lead us to expect that birds will have positive meaning in this novel. This guilt. for the first time in the novel. which presumably some servant— perhaps Tess herself—will have to clean. setting the events of the novel in motion. The Scarlet Letter Nathaniel Hawthorne Context N athaniel Hawthorne was born in Salem. a home in Concord where Emerson had once lived. Hawthorne attended Bowdoin College in Maine. Prince’s death occurs right after Tess dreams of ancient knights. producing historical sketches and an anonymous novel. Alec brings Tess both his lofty name and. strangely hollow and meaningless. and this lesson helps him reevaluate his disappointment with Tess’s imperfections. Since Tess herself moves from passivity to active murder by the end of the novel. direct relationship with the divine in place of formalized. He may be able to milk cows. It also advocated a personalized. Brazil is the country in which Robinson Crusoe made his fortune and it seems to promise a better life far from the humdrum familiar world. where he met two people who were to have great impact upon his life: Henry Wadsworth Long-fellow. When Alec stomps on the floor of the vault. who would later become president of the United States. the narration shifts very briefly to Brazil when Angel takes leave of Tess and heads off to establish a career in farming. Brazil Rather surprising for a novel that seems set so solidly in rural England. The d’Urberville Family Vault A double-edged symbol of both the majestic grandeur and the lifeless hollowness of the aristocratic family name that the Durbeyfields learn they possess. hailed Hawthorne as the “American Shakespeare. Hawthorne left Brook Farm and moved into the Old Manse. such as a useful animal or even her own honor. indirectly. where she reads her own name inscribed in stone and feels the presence of death. and Hawthorne’s collection of stories displayed both a stylistic freshness and an interest in American subject matter. For Angel. Brazil symbolizes the impossibility of ideals. Throughout his life. her failure to incarnate the ideal he expected her to be. Yet the vault that sounds so glamorous when rhapsodized over by John Durbeyfield in Chapter I seems. Raised by a widowed mother. having just heard the news that her family is aristocratic. the horse is pierced by the forward-jutting piece of metal on a mail coach. by the end. His fiasco teaches him that ideals do not exist in life. it is natural that he meets her in the vault in d’Urberville Aisle. but is doomed to a lowly life of physical labor. After college Hawthorne tried his hand at writing. the d’Urberville family vault represents both the glory of life and the end of life. among others. When Tess is executed. The death of the horse symbolizes the sacrifice of real-world goods. Even more exotic for a Victorian English reader than America or Australia. as if uncaring even about the fate of a member of their own majestic family. Yet her dream of meeting a prince while she kills her own Prince.name. as if its basic emptiness is a complement to its visual grandeur. Tess’s dream of medieval glory comes true. one of the judges at the 1692 Salem witch trials.” 16 . structured religion. Herman Melville. Hawthorne was both fascinated and disturbed by his kinship with John Hathorne. His growing relationship with the intellectual circle that included Ralph Waldo Emerson and Margaret Fuller led him to abandon his customs post for the utopian experiment at Brook Farm. and Franklin Pierce. Fanshawe. but also forgiveness and acceptance of life in spite of those disappointed ideals. Brazil is thus more than a geographical entity on the map in this novel: it symbolizes a fantasyland. which is reminiscent of a wound one might receive in a medieval joust. attaining a kind of personal grandeur even as she brings death to others and to herself. and her horse dies a heroic death. that detailed his college days rather embarrassingly. so inevitably his experience in the imagined dream world of Brazil is a disaster that he barely survives. it produces only a hollow echo. among his forebears was John Hathorne (Hawthorne added the “w” to his name when he began to write). is a tragic foreshadowing of her own story. the double symbolism of the vault makes it a powerful site for the culminating meeting between Alec and Tess. As Angel’s name suggests. her ancestors are said to snooze on in their crypts. a place where dreams come true. In an odd way. through excessive fantasizing about a better world. After marrying fellow transcendentalist Sophia Peabody in 1842. in 1804. Hawthorne also held positions as an editor and as a customs surveyor during this period. This second transcendental idea is privileged in The Scarlet Letter. Transcendentalism was a religious and philosophical movement of the early nineteenth century that was dedicated to the belief that divinity manifests itself everywhere. Mosses from an Old Manse earned Hawthorne the attention of the literary establishment because America was trying to establish a cultural independence to complement its political independence. he is a lofty visionary who lacks some experience with the real world. her own death later. Massachusetts. particularly in the natural world. Perhaps the secret of the family crypt is that its grandiosity is ultimately meaningless. In 1846 he published Mosses from an Old Manse. a commune designed to promote economic self-sufficiency and transcendentalist principles. His family descended from the earliest settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. and with him her family’s only means of financial sustenance. a collection of essays and stories. Moreover. despite all his mechanical know-how in farm management. but he does not yet know how to tell the difference between an exotic dream and an everyday reality. Interestingly. many of which are about early America. who would later become a famous poet. acclaim. In 1850. Analysis of Major Characters Hester Prynne Although The Scarlet Letter is about Hester Prynne. a few years after returning to America. Chillingworth no longer has a victim. he published The Scarlet Letter to enthusiastic. but he circumvents the aesthetic and thematic limitations that might accompany such a focus. His universality and his dramatic flair have ensured his place in the literary canon. Hester also becomes a kind of compassionate maternal figure as a result of her experiences. The early chapters of the book suggest that. The Blithedale Romance (1852). which had love. His other major novels include The House of the Seven Gables (1851). also reflect universal experiences. as his chemical experiments and medical practices occasionally verge on witchcraft and murder. The religious sect was known for its intolerance of dissenting ideas and lifestyles. Although the narrator pretends to disapprove of Hester’s independent philosophizing. stooped. His desire to hurt others stands in contrast to Hester and Dimmesdale’s sin. and he seeks the deliberate destruction of others rather than a redress of wrongs. The majority of Hawthorne’s work takes America’s Puritan past as its subject. he feeds on the vitality of others as a way of energizing his own projects. The Puritan setting also enables him to portray the human soul under extreme pressures. yet expected her to nourish his soul with affection when he did condescend to spend time with her. By the novel’s end. Dimmesdale. at a post in Salem. capable. but The Scarlet Letter uses the material to greatest effect. The fact that she has an affair also suggests that she once had a passionate nature. Pearl. but not necessarily extraordinary woman. Shamed and alienated from the rest of the community. Roger Chillingworth is a man deficient in human warmth. We read that she married Chillingworth although she did not love him. Hester moderates her tendency to be rash. Hester was a strong-willed and impetuous young woman—she remembers her parents as loving guides who frequently had to restrain her incautious behavior. Hester. whereas Chillingworth reaps deliberate harm. appointed Hawthorne a United States consul. But it is what happens after Hester’s affair that makes her into the woman with whom the reader is familiar. like the narrator of The Scarlet Letter. Chillingworth’s decision to assume the identity of a “leech. and they come to Hester seeking shelter from the sexist forces under which they themselves suffer. Any harm that may have come from the young lovers’ deed was unanticipated and inadvertent. for she knows that such behavior could cause her to lose her daughter. Arthur Dimmesdale 17 . It is the extraordinary circumstances shaping her that make her such an important figure. In The Scarlet Letter. Chillingworth’s death is a result of the nature of his character. as its intent. social organization. and larger moral questions. not hate. Hester is also maternal with respect to society: she cares for the poor and brings them food and clothing. We know very little about Hester prior to her affair with Dimmesdale and her resultant public shaming. He is interested in revenge.In 1845 Hawthorne again went to work as a customs surveyor. Hawthorne speaks specifically to American issues. his tone indicates that he secretly admires her independence and her ideas. He is associated with secular and sometimes illicit forms of knowledge. Unable to engage in equitable relationships with those around him. She speculates on human nature. Dimmesdale’s revelation that he is Pearl’s father removes Hester from the old man’s clutches. In 1853 Hawthorne’s college friend Franklin Pierce. From what the reader is told of his early years with Hester. authoritarian Puritan society as an analogue for humankind in general. the book is not so much a consideration of her innate character as it is an examination of the forces that shape her and the transformations those forces effect. the leech has no choice but to die. He died in 1864. Chillingworth represents true evil. this time. The writer spent the next six years in Europe. after having lost the job. while unquestionably part of the Puritan society in which they live. but we never fully understand why. he was a difficult husband. The Puritans were a group of religious reformers who arrived in Massachusetts in the 1630s under the leadership of John Winthrop (whose death is recounted in the novel). He ignored his wife for much of the time. for whom he had written a campaign biography and who had since become president. Hester becomes contemplative. and Chillingworth. Roger Chillingworth As his name suggests. The shame attached to her scarlet letter is long gone. Having lost the objects of his revenge. is fitting. and The Marble Faun (1860). Hester has become a protofeminist mother figure to the women of the community. His twisted. Women recognize that her punishment stemmed in part from the town fathers’ sexism. if not widespread. not justice. After Dimmesdale dies. Similarly. Ultimately. Throughout The Scarlet Letter Hester is portrayed as an intelligent. prior to her marriage. Hawthorne uses the repressive. Hester’s tribulations also lead her to be stoic and a freethinker.” or doctor. deformed shoulders mirror his distorted soul. Pearl Hester’s daughter. Sin. so that his heart vibrate[s] in unison with theirs. The Bible begins with the story of Adam and Eve. and the reader’s. Dimmesdale’s congregation generally interprets his sermons allegorically rather than as expressions of any personal guilt. Once expelled from the Garden of Eden. Hester and Dimmesdale contemplate their own sinfulness on a daily basis and try to reconcile it with their lived experiences. Knowledge. In his death. She asks them pointed questions and draws their attention. in knowledge of what it means to be human. the townspeople do not believe Dimmesdale’s protestations of sinfulness. Dimmesdale becomes even more of an icon than he was in life. like Hester Prynne. The Nature of Evil The characters in the novel frequently debate the identity of the “Black Man. sympathy. As a result of their knowledge. the kind of man who would not have much natural sympathy for ordinary men and women. the relationship between Hester and Dimmesdale—and offers perceptive critiques of them. However. or perhaps intuitive. in both cases. she fixates on the emblem. Motifs & Symbols Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. The experience of Hester and Dimmesdale recalls the story of Adam and Eve because. Similarly. on the other hand. they view sin as a threat to the community that should be punished and suppressed. Paradoxically. and his congregation is able to receive meaningful spiritual guidance from him. Pearl provides the text’s harshest.Arthur Dimmesdale. She is quite young during most of the events of this novel— when Dimmesdale dies she is only seven years old—and her real importance lies in her ability to provoke the adult characters in the book. and Pearl is the most perceptive of them all. while others believe Dimmesdale’s fate was an example of divine judgment. who were expelled from the Garden of Eden for eating from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. The book argues that true evil arises from the close relationship between hate and love. Yet. and little Pearl is thought by some to be the Devil’s child. they are forced to toil and to procreate—two “labors” that seem to define the human condition. Chillingworth. In general.” leading her to “speculate” about her society and herself more “boldly” than anyone else in New England. As for Dimmesdale. the scarlet letter functions as “her passport into regions where other women dared not tread. and understanding of others. Pearl. Adam and Eve are made aware of their humanness. Dimmesdale has an unusually active conscience. insist on seeing earthly experience as merely an obstacle on the path to heaven. Thus. The characters also try to root out the causes of evil: did Chillingworth’s selfishness in marrying Hester force her to the “evil” she committed in Dimmesdale’s arms? Is Hester and Dimmesdale’s deed responsible for Chillingworth’s transformation into a malevolent being? This confusion over the nature and causes of evil reveals the problems with the Puritan conception of sin. judgment of Dimmesdale’s failure to admit to his adultery.” His eloquent and powerful sermons derive from this sense of empathy. at Dimmesdale’s death she becomes fully “human. to the denied or overlooked truths of the adult world. is an individual whose identity owes more to external circumstances than to his innate nature. The Puritan elders. children in The Scarlet Letter are portrayed as more perceptive and more honest than adults. The reader is told that Dimmesdale was a scholar of some renown at Oxford University. Pearl is no longer needed in this symbolic capacity. she inquires about the relationships between those around her—most important. he becomes an eloquent and emotionally powerful speaker and a compassionate leader.” the embodiment of evil. comments about the letter raise crucial questions about its meaning. His past suggests that he is probably somewhat aloof. and Mistress Hibbins. sin results in expulsion and suffering. This drives Dimmesdale to further internalize his guilt and self-punishment and leads to still more deterioration in his physical and spiritual condition. Once her father’s identity is revealed. Many believe his confession was a symbolic act. Puritan society is stagnant. For Hester. Consequently. that which separates them from the divine and from other creatures. Pearl makes us constantly aware of her mother’s scarlet letter and of the society that produced it. the “burden” of his sin gives him “sympathies so intimate with the sinful brotherhood of mankind. functions primarily as a symbol. The town’s idolization of him reaches new heights after his Election Day sermon. But it also results in knowledge—specifically. Pearl’s innocent. and most penetrating. From an early age. Over the course of the novel. Given his background and his penchant for rhetorical speech. Ironically. which is his last. The fact that Hester takes all of the blame for their shared sin goads his conscience. Their answer to Hester’s sin is to ostracize her. Themes. the “Black Man” is associated with Dimmesdale. and his resultant mental anguish and physical weakness open up his mind and allow him to empathize with others. and the Human Condition Sin and knowledge are linked in the Judeo-Christian tradition. these qualities are shown to be incompatible with a state of purity. both emotions depend upon “a high 18 . As the narrator points out in the novel’s concluding chapter. while Hester and Dimmesdale’s experience shows that a state of sinfulness can lead to personal growth.” leaving behind her otherworldliness and her preternatural vision. Dimmesdale’s encounter with Hester and Pearl on the scaffold. the “A” eventually comes to stand for “Able. Civilization Versus the Wilderness In The Scarlet Letter. is located on the outskirts of town and at the edge of the forest. His cruel denial of love to his own child may be seen as further perpetrating evil. Hester reacts with dismay when Chillingworth tells her that the town fathers are considering letting her remove the letter. and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. While this allows for misbehavior— Mistress Hibbins’s midnight rides. on the other hand. Night is the time when inner natures can manifest themselves. Thus. refiguring the scarlet letter as a symbol of her own experiences and character. in its most poisonous form. not a rejection. society’s rules do not apply. running away or removing the letter would be an acknowledgment of society’s power over her: she would be admitting that the letter is a mark of shame and something from which she desires to escape. for example—it also permits greater honesty and an escape from the repression of Boston. linking it to other allegorical works of literature such as The Pilgrim’s Progress and to portions of the Bible. This system of naming lends a profundity to the story. and secrets remain secrets. a rule-bound space where everything one does is on display and where transgressions are quickly punished. Symbols Symbols are objects. characters. To her.” while “Dimmesdale” suggests “dimness”—weakness. it becomes indeterminate: the Native Americans who come to watch the Election Day pageant think it marks her as a person of importance and status. and leaving the Massachusetts Bay Colony would allow her to remove the scarlet letter and resume a normal life. significantly.” because her father. has perverted his love. her unwillingness to leave the town may seem puzzling. Perhaps Pearl is not entirely wrong when she thinks Dimmesdale is the “Black Man. misinterpreting it as holiness. She is not physically imprisoned. Identity and Society After Hester is publicly shamed and forced by the people of Boston to wear a badge of humiliation. embodies both orders. and literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes. all of which characterize the young minister. The town represents civilization.degree of intimacy and heart-knowledge. those around the minister willfully ignore his obvious anguish. it is a place where she can create for herself a life of relative peace. Hester stays. Evocative Names The names in this novel often seem to beg to be interpreted allegorically. Originally intended to mark Hester as an adulterer. Daylight exposes an individual’s activities and makes him or her vulnerable to punishment. and lack of will. too. each renders one individual dependent . These notions of visibility versus concealment are linked to two of the book’s larger themes—the themes of inner versus socially assigned identity and of outer appearances versus internal states. is a space of natural rather than human authority. Dimmesdale. Except for Chillingworth. upon another. nor even in the cruel ignorance of the Puritan fathers. and those which must take place covertly. the letter functions as a physical reminder of Hester’s 19 . Unfortunately. whose love has been perverted. is found in the carefully plotted and precisely aimed revenge of Chillingworth. . Instead. interiority is once again hidden from public view. who should love Pearl. Like Pearl.” Finally. “Prynne” rhymes with “sin. to pretend that it never happened would mean denying a part of herself. for a few moments. As the community’s minister. When Hester and Dimmesdale meet in the woods. . will not even publicly acknowledge her. Hester’s behavior is premised on her desire to determine her own identity rather than to allow others to determine it for her. indeterminacy. they become happy young lovers once again. Dimmesdale also struggles against a socially determined identity. the town and the surrounding forest represent opposing behavioral systems. Her past sin is a part of who she is. Evil. It is her place of exile. contrasts. the novel organizes the plot’s events into two categories: those which are socially acceptable. During the day. Dimmesdale never fully recognizes the truth of what Hester has learned: that individuality and strength are gained by quiet self-assertion and by a reconfiguration. Hester very determinedly integrates her sin into her life. which ties it to the authoritarian town.” Evil is not found in Hester and Dimmesdale’s lovemaking. Motifs Motifs are recurring structures. The forest. Chillingworth is cold and inhuman and thus brings a “chill” to Hester’s and Dimmesdale’s lives. on the other hand. of one’s assigned identity. Night. It also aligns the novel with popular forms of narrative such as fairy tales. Hester’s cottage. Night Versus Day By emphasizing the alternation between sunlight and darkness. In the forest. The letter’s meaning shifts as time passes. Surprisingly. conceals and enables activities that would not be possible or tolerated during the day—for instance. but instead it becomes a powerful symbol of identity to Hester. lack of insight. which. he is more symbol than human being. figures. and alternate identities can be assumed. The Scarlet Letter The scarlet letter is meant to be a symbol of shame. The name “Pearl” evokes a biblical allegorical device—the “pearl of great price” that is salvation. but because it lies apart from the settlement. To Dimmesdale. 1860 saw another edition of a now much larger Leaves—containing some 156 poems—which was issued by a trade publisher. Whitman’s wartime work led to a job with the Department of the Interior. He was less than successful. expanded to include more poems. and thus helps to point out the ultimate meaninglessness of the community’s system of judgment and punishment. She represents not only “sin” but also the vital spirit and passion that engendered that sin. but he was soon fired when his supervisor learned that he had written the racy poems of Leaves of Grass. as did yet another edition of Leaves of Grass. and brotherhood..affair with Dimmesdale. Democratic Vistas. The “Deathbed Edition” came out in 1892. even as a reminder of Hester’s “sin. in which he offered his “greet[ings]. as its title implies. Several other prose works followed. which contained two appendices of old-age poems as well as a review essay in which he tries to justify his life and work. In this narrative. but the letter is merely a human contrivance. More often than not. Additionally. Whitman also tried to develop a poetry that was uniquely American.” Whitman promptly published another edition of Leaves of Grass. Thus. In response to America’s new position in the world. he returned to New York and began to write poetry. Pearl is a sort of living version of her mother’s scarlet letter. Drum Taps was then incorporated into an 1867 edition of Leaves of Grass. which thinks that it stands for “Angel” and marks Governor Winthrop’s entry into heaven. The volume was widely ignored. The 1871 edition was reprinted in 1876 for the centennial. The Meteor As Dimmesdale stands on the scaffold with Hester and Pearl in Chapter 12. It is only after Dimmesdale is revealed to be Pearl’s father that Pearl can become fully “human. however. a meteor traces out an “A” in the night sky. The meteor is interpreted differently by the rest of the community. The child has been sent from God. She is the physical consequence of sexual sin and the indicator of a transgression. Pearl’s existence gives her mother reason to live. then became a teacher. Whitman’s health had been shaky since the mid-1870s. expanding it by some twenty poems and appending the letter from Emerson. with one significant exception. the meteor implies that he should wear a mark of shame just as Hester does. which included the poems written on Lincoln’s assassination. The incident with the meteor obviously highlights and exemplifies two different uses of symbols: Puritan and literary. then a further expanded version of Leaves of Grass. in 1881. argues for the maintenance of democratic ideals. Leaves of Grass. which at the time consisted of only twelve poems. as was another volume of wartime poetry. The war inspired a great deal of poetry. He witnessed both the apex and the abolition of slavery. and by 1891 it was clear he was dying. But.” Until then. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote him a congratulatory letter. Sequel. During his early years he trained as a printer. she functions in a symbolic capacity as the reminder of an unsolved mystery. equality. compared with a human child. symbols are taken to mean what the beholder wants them to mean.” Pearl is more than a mere punishment to her mother: she is also a blessing. The failure of Reconstruction led him to write the best known of his prose works. her primary function within the novel is as a symbol. his stridently radical views made him unpopular with readers.. he also wrote dispatches as a correspondent for the New York Times. In 1855 he self-published the first edition of Leaves of Grass. After an 1848 sojourn in the South. bolstering her spirits when she is tempted to give up. much to the latter’s discomfort. Pearl Although Pearl is a complex character. at the beginning of a great career. or at least from nature. Whitman’s Poetry Walt Whitman Context Walt Whitman was born in 1819 on Long Island (the Paumanok of many of his poems). At the outset of the Civil War Whitman volunteered as a nurse in army hospitals. which introduced him to some of the variety of his country. with its multiple editions and 20 . and finally a journalist and editor. the letter seems insignificant. But “Angel” is an awkward reading of the symbol. which. a symbol becomes a focal point for critical analysis and debate. Yet. Whitman died that year. Whitman’s lifetime saw both the Civil War and the rise of the United States as a commercial and political power. The Puritans commonly looked to symbols to confirm divine sentiments. which was published in 1865 as Drum Taps. that both surpassed and broke the mold of its predecessors. He therefore prepared his so-called “Deathbed” edition of Leaves of Grass. His poetry is thus centered on ideas of democracy. the instability of the letter’s apparent meaning calls into question society’s ability to use symbols for ideological reinforcement. This volume came out in 1871. erudite language so often found in nineteenth-century verse. work. particularly Abraham Lincoln. Describing the life cycle of nature helped Whitman contextualize the severe injuries and trauma he witnessed during the Civil War—linking death to life helped give the deaths of so many soldiers meaning. a single entity composed of myriad parts. Whitman tried to be democratic in both life and poetry. the speaker also lists the different types of voices who speak through Whitman. In the early nineteenth century. and its growth and potential seemed limitless. hemes. separated by commas. “Song of Myself” notes that democracy must include all individuals equally. Like William Wordsworth. Also. with his journalistic endeavors on the side. as they mirror the growth of the United States. The speaker of “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” realizes that flowers die in the winter. The Cycle of Growth and Death Whitman’s poetry reflects the vitality and growth of the early United States. He imagined democracy as a way of interpersonal interaction and as a way for individuals to integrate their beliefs into their everyday lives. Whitman still singled out specific individuals for praise in his poetry. they age and reproduce. colloquialisms. During the nineteenth century. He imagined a democratic nation as a unified whole composed of unique but equal individuals. Whitman widened the possibilities of poetic diction by including slang. and Whitman began composing several elegies. all individuals possess equal weight. Later in this section. most of it implicitly deals with democracy: it describes communities of people coming together. These lists create a sense of expansiveness in the poem. Often a sentence will be broken into many clauses. In a democracy. and each clause will describe some scene. people still harbored many doubts about whether the United States could survive as a country and about whether democracy could thrive as a political system. Whitman praised the individual. “Song of Myself” opens in a triumphant paean to the individual: “I celebrate myself. In his poetry. making itself felt in the ways we think. The Human Body Whitman’s poetry revels in its depictions of the human body and the body’s capacity for physical contact. Such poems as “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” imagine death as an integral part of life. The speaker of “Song of Myself” claims that “copulation is no more rank to me than death is” (521) to demonstrate the naturalness of taking pleasure in the body’s physical possibilities. and regional dialects. these lists layer images atop one another to reflect the diversity of American landscapes and people. The Beauty of the Individual Throughout his poetry. Similarly. and sing myself” (1). In 1865. including “O Captain! My Captain!” Although all individuals were beautiful and worthy of praise. With physical contact comes spiritual communion: two touching bodies 21 . Motifs Lists Whitman filled his poetry with long lists. In “Song of Myself. In this way.” for example. and even make art. the speaker lists several adjectives to describe Walt Whitman in section 24. Elsewhere the speaker of that exuberant poem identifies himself as Walt Whitman and claims that. and no individual is more important than another. many individuals make up the individual democracy. or else it will fail. made the most of his role as celebrity and artist. and he vows to mourn his fallen friends every year just as new buds are appearing. To allay those fears and to praise democracy. all items possess equal weight. rather than employing the stiff. democracy was an idea that could and should permeate the world beyond politics. For Whitman. Every voice and every part will carry the same weight within the single democracy—and thus every voice and every individual is equally beautiful. Lincoln was assassinated. but they rebloom in the springtime. some individuals merited their own poems because of their contributions to society and democracy. or object. through him. Despite this pluralist view. person. public artist. set the pattern for the modern. and Whitman. and no item is more important than another item in the list.public controversies. Whitman focused on the life cycles of individuals: people are born. But sectionalism and the violence of the Civil War threatened to break apart and destroy the boundless possibilities of the United States. Motifs and Symbols Themes Democracy As a Way of Life Whitman envisioned democracy not just as a political system but as a way of experiencing the world. fight. Although much of Whitman’s work does not explicitly discuss politics. Lists are another way of demonstrating democracy in action: in lists. he broadened the possibilities of subject matter by describing myriad people and places. Whitman believed that everyday life and everyday people were fit subjects for poetry. As a way of dealing with both the population growth and the massive deaths during the Civil War. and it imagines many voices pouring into a unified whole. and they die. America expanded at a tremendous rate. The speaker uses multiple adjectives to demonstrate the complexity of the individual: true individuals cannot be described using just one or two words. speak. the voices of many will speak. form one individual unit of togetherness. Several poems praise the bodies of both women and men, describing them at work, at play, and interacting. The speaker of “I Sing the Body Electric” (1855) boldly praises the perfection of the human form and worships the body because the body houses the soul. This free expression of sexuality horrified some of Whitman’s early readers, and Whitman was fired from his job at the Indian Bureau in 1865 because the secretary of the interior found Leaves of Grass offensive. Whitman’s unabashed praise of the male form has led many critics to argue that he was homosexual or bisexual, but the repressive culture of the nineteenth century prevented him from truly expressing those feelings in his work. Rhythm and Incantation Many of Whitman’s poems rely on rhythm and repetition to create a captivating, spellbinding quality of incantation. Often, Whitman begins several lines in a row with the same word or phrase, a literary device called anaphora. For example, the first four lines of “When I Heard the Learn’d Astronomer” (1865) each begin with the word when. The long lines of such poems as “Song of Myself” and “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” force readers to inhale several bits of text without pausing for breath, and this breathlessness contributes to the incantatory quality of the poems. Generally, the anaphora and the rhythm transform the poems into celebratory chants, and the joyous form and structure reflect the joyousness of the poetic content. Elsewhere, however, the repetition and rhythm contribute to an elegiac tone, as in “O Captain! My Captain!” This poem uses short lines and words, such as heart and father, to mournfully incant an elegy for the assassinated Abraham Lincoln. Symbols Plants Throughout Whitman’s poetry, plant life symbolizes both growth and multiplicity. Rapid, regular plant growth also stands in for the rapid, regular expansion of the population of the United States. In “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d,” Whitman uses flowers, bushes, wheat, trees, and other plant life to signify the possibilities of regeneration and re-growth after death. As the speaker mourns the loss of Lincoln, he drops a lilac spray onto the coffin; the act of laying a flower on the coffin not only honors the person who has died but lends death a measure of dignity and respect. The title Leaves of Grass highlights another of Whitman’s themes: the beauty of the individual. Each leaf or blade of grass possesses its own distinct beauty, and together the blades form a beautiful unified whole, an idea Whitman explores in the sixth section of “Song of Myself.” Multiple leaves of grass thus symbolize democracy, another instance of a beautiful whole composed of individual parts. In 1860, Whitman published an edition of Leaves of Grass that included a number of poems celebrating love between men. He titled this section “The Calamus Poems,” after the phallic calamus plant. The Self Whitman’s interest in the self ties into his praise of the individual. Whitman links the self to the conception of poetry throughout his work, envisioning the self as the birthplace of poetry. Most of his poems are spoken from the first person, using the pronoun I. The speaker of Whitman’s most famous poem, “Song of Myself,” even assumes the name Walt Whitman, but nevertheless the speaker remains a fictional creation employed by the poet Whitman. Although Whitman borrows from his own autobiography for some of the speaker’s experiences, he also borrows many experiences from popular works of art, music, and literature. Repeatedly the speaker of this poem exclaims that he contains everything and everyone, which is a way for Whitman to reimagine the boundary between the self and the world. By imaging a person capable of carrying the entire world within him, Whitman can create an elaborate analogy about the ideal democracy, which would, like the self, be capable of containing the whole world. Song of Myself” Summary and Form This most famous of Whitman’s works was one of the original twelve pieces in the 1855 first edition of Leaves of Grass. Like most of the other poems, it too was revised extensively, reaching its final permutation in 1881. “Song of Myself” is a sprawling combination of biography, sermon, and poetic meditation. It is not nearly as heavy-handed in its pronouncements as “Starting at Paumanok”; rather, Whitman uses symbols and sly commentary to get at important issues. “Song of Myself” is composed more of vignettes than lists: Whitman uses small, precisely drawn scenes to do his work here. This poem did not take on the title “Song of Myself” until the 1881 edition. Previous to that it had been titled “Poem of Walt Whitman, an American” and, in the 1860, 1867, and 1871 editions, simply “Walt Whitman.” The poem’s shifting title suggests something of what Whitman was about in this piece. As Walt Whitman, the specific individual, melts away into the abstract “Myself,” the poem explores the possibilities for communion between individuals. Starting from the premise that “what I assume you shall assume” Whitman tries to prove that he both encompasses and is indistinguishable from the universe. Commentary 22 Whitman’s grand poem is, in its way, an American epic. Beginning in medias res—in the middle of the poet’s life—it loosely follows a quest pattern. “Missing me one place search another,” he tells his reader, “I stop somewhere waiting for you.” In its catalogues of American life and its constant search for the boundaries of the self “Song of Myself” has much in common with classical epic. This epic sense of purpose, though, is coupled with an almost Keatsian valorization of repose and passive perception. Since for Whitman the birthplace of poetry is in the self, the best way to learn about poetry is to relax and watch the workings of one’s own mind. While “Song of Myself” is crammed with significant detail, there are three key episodes that must be examined. The first of these is found in the sixth section of the poem. A child asks the narrator “What is the grass?” and the narrator is forced to explore his own use of symbolism and his inability to break things down to essential principles. The bunches of grass in the child’s hands become a symbol of the regeneration in nature. But they also signify a common material that links disparate people all over the United States together: grass, the ultimate symbol of democracy, grows everywhere. In the wake of the Civil War the grass reminds Whitman of graves: grass feeds on the bodies of the dead. Everyone must die eventually, and so the natural roots of democracy are therefore in mortality, whether due to natural causes or to the bloodshed of internecine warfare. While Whitman normally revels in this kind of symbolic indeterminacy, here it troubles him a bit. “I wish I could translate the hints,” he says, suggesting that the boundary between encompassing everything and saying nothing is easily crossed. The second episode is more optimistic. The famous “twenty-ninth bather” can be found in the eleventh section of the poem. In this section a woman watches twenty-eight young men bathing in the ocean. She fantasizes about joining them unseen, and describes their semi-nude bodies in some detail. The invisible twenty-ninth bather offers a model of being much like that of Emerson’s “transparent eyeball”: to truly experience the world one must be fully in it and of it, yet distinct enough from it to have some perspective, and invisible so as not to interfere with it unduly. This paradoxical set of conditions describes perfectly the poetic stance Whitman tries to assume. The lavish eroticism of this section reinforces this idea: sexual contact allows two people to become one yet not one—it offers a moment of transcendence. As the female spectator introduced in the beginning of the section fades away, and Whitman’s voice takes over, the eroticism becomes homoeroticism. Again this is not so much the expression of a sexual preference as it is the longing for communion with every living being and a connection that makes use of both the body and the soul (although Whitman is certainly using the homoerotic sincerely, and in other ways too, particularly for shock value). Having worked through some of the conditions of perception and creation, Whitman arrives, in the third key episode, at a moment where speech becomes necessary. In the twenty-fifth section he notes that “Speech is the twin of my vision, it is unequal to measure itself, / It provokes me forever, it says sarcastically, / Walt you contain enough, why don’t you let it out then?” Having already established that he can have a sympathetic experience when he encounters others (“I do not ask the wounded person how he feels, I myself become the wounded person”), he must find a way to re-transmit that experience without falsifying or diminishing it. Resisting easy answers, he later vows he “will never translate [him]self at all.” Instead he takes a philosophically more rigorous stance: “What is known I strip away.” Again Whitman’s position is similar to that of Emerson, who says of himself, “I am the unsettler.” Whitman, however, is a poet, and he must reassemble after unsettling: he must “let it out then.” Having catalogued a continent and encompassed its multitudes, he finally decides: “I too am not a bit tamed, I too am untranslatable, / I sound my barbaric yawp over the roofs of the world.” “Song of Myself” thus ends with a sound—a yawp—that could be described as either pre- or post-linguistic. Lacking any of the normal communicative properties of language, Whitman’s yawp is the release of the “kosmos” within him, a sound at the borderline between saying everything and saying nothing. More than anything, the yawp is an invitation to the next Walt Whitman, to read into the yawp, to have a sympathetic experience, to absorb it as part of a new multitude. “Starting from Paumanok” Summary and Form “Starting from Paumanok” first appeared in the 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass and was modified several times. The final version is that of the 1881 edition. This poem is Whitman’s literary manifesto, an elaborate and often confounding statement of his poetic project. Whitman intends to quite literally start from Paumanok (a Native American name for Long Island, New York), the place of his birth. He will journey forth geographically as well as philosophically, and his travels will qualify him to “strike up for a New World”: to lose himself in the maelstrom of American life and become the first truly American poet. “Starting from Paumanok” delineates poetic materials as well as principles. Whitman dictates not only how but what he will write, in his lengthy lists of place-names, people, machines, and actions. The lists contained in this poem are a good example of Whitman’s ability to encode meaning in form. By listing without analyzing, by refusing to subject his materials to linguistic devices such as metaphor, Whitman creates a more democratic form of poetry, in which not even the almighty 23 poet himself has pride of place. The voice of the poet submerges and surfaces at odd intervals, losing itself in a list at one moment only to trumpet forth a series of proclamations the next. This suggests a loss of control, but also freedom. Whitman wants to catalogue, not master. Commentary Whitman makes several major statements about the purpose of poetry in this piece. The first comes at the beginning of the sixth section, when he proclaims that he “will make the poems of materials, for I think they are to be the most spiritual poems, / And I will make the poems of my body and of mortality, / For I think I shall then supply myself with the poems of my soul and of immortality.” Here Whitman questions several traditional assumptions about poetry. Transcendence, universality of emotion, and immortality have long been considered the basis of poetry: good verse, previous generations of poets have proclaimed, situates itself outside its time and place, and through the common ground of human experience ensures immortality for itself and its author. Whitman wants to stand this premise on end. Only by capturing his specific moment and— importantly—a sense of his physical self can he write poetry that achieves a maximum intellectual and spiritual content. In part there is a very practical reason for Whitman to take this stance: as the open frontiers, factories, steamboats, and printing presses that show up in this poem suggest, Whitman was living and writing during a period of great change. The world was modernizing, and the assumption that a common ground existed between generations had to be challenged. Perhaps too much had changed already, and this suggests that perhaps too much would change in the future for the kind of transcendental, anti- material poems favored in the past to survive. By focusing on the material world Whitman can at least re-create enough of his surroundings to enable a future reader to read the poem sympathetically. In other words, Whitman’s poems ensure their survival by encapsulating their own context. At the same time, though, Whitman makes statements that seem to contradict this principle of specificity and materiality. As he writes in the twelfth section, he “will not make poems with reference to parts, / But I will make poems, songs, thoughts, with reference to ensemble, / And I will not sing with reference to a day, but with reference to all days, / And I will not make a poem nor the least part of a poem but has reference to the soul, / Because having look’d at the objects of the universe, I find there is no one nor any particle of one but has reference to the soul.” Again this has to do with Whitman’s sense of the modern world. True to his democratic principles of inclusivity, he feels that “modern” does not necessarily equate with “superior.” While the world may seem to be a very different place than it was in Shakespeare’s time, Whitman understands that he is too submerged in it to be able to evaluate it clearly. Thus it is not for him to pick and choose which things are truly significant, and it is not for him to try to make claims for his specific place and time. Instead, he must try to capture himself as accurately as possible in the moment of perceiving: without judging, he must write down what he sees in its entirety, because everything has some relevance, no matter how hidden it may be. Therefore he cannot choose, say, the Fourth of July to epitomize an American day: he must try to depict all of his days. The final section of “Starting from Paumanok” seems to leave all of Whitman’s abstract, universalizing aspirations behind. Instead the poet exhorts a “camerado” (a comrade—Whitman loves to invent or bastardize words) to join with him so the two of them, hand in hand, can journey forth. The desire for intimacy spelled out in so many of Whitman’s poems is at odds with his more worldly or materialist writings. Again this can be read as a response to modernity: the rapidly changing world often leads to geographical and social dislocation and therefore isolation. At the same time, Whitman also wants to point out the erotic energy of his poetry. The furious torrents of words force one to try to make connections between them, just as one tries to make connections with other human beings. The sense of movement and urgency in the final “haste on with me” suggests a new way of relating that is technological and physical rather than emotional or spiritual. The Portrait of a Lady Henry James Context Henry James was born in New York City in 1843 and was raised in Manhattan. James's father, a prominent intellectual and social theorist, traveled a great deal to Geneva, Paris, and London, so Henry and his brother, William, accompanied him and virtually grew up in those locations as well. As a child, James was shy, delicate, and had a difficult time mixing with other boys—his brother, who was much more active, called him a sissy. William James, of course, went on to become a great American philosopher, while Henry became one of the nation's preeminent novelists. The James family moved to Boston when Henry was a teenager, and Henry briefly attended Harvard Law School. But he soon dropped out in order to concentrate on his writing. He found success early and often: William Dean Howells, the editor of the Atlantic Monthly, befriended the young writer, and by his mid- twenties James was considered one of the most skilled writers in America. In novels such as The American, The Europeans, and Daisy Miller, James perfected a unique brand of psychological realism, taking as his primary subject the social maneuverings of the upper classes, particularly the situation of Americans living in Europe. For James, America represented optimism and innocence, while 24 James himself moved to Europe early on in his professional career and was naturalized as a British citizen in 1915 to protest America's failure to enter World War I. Osmond's daughter Pansy is being brought up in a convent. though she fears that she is passing up a great social opportunity by not marrying Warburton. Goodwood again presses Isabel to marry him. slowly eroding her American values and replacing them with romantic idealism. Touchett's polished. allowing her to educate herself and encouraging her independence. Touchett's health declines. an American who lives in Europe. Touchett offers to take Isabel on a trip to Europe. imaginative. becomes deeply devoted to her. elegant friend. she pledges to accomplish something wonderful with her life. he explored many of his most characteristic themes. including such classics as The Golden Bowl. as well as for his elliptical technique. Touchett and Madame Merle. As a result. and Isabel eagerly agrees. In it. she receives a visit from her indomitable aunt. the fast-talking Henrietta Stackpole. an American journalist. she still believes that marriage would damage her treasured independence. clarity. and the sinister villains. he is often considered to be a "writer's writer. telling Caspar that she cannot tell him whether she wishes to marry him until she has had at least a year to travel in Europe with her aunt. She has had few suitors. slowly dying of a lung disorder. Her inheritance piques the interest of Madame Merle. but one of them is Caspar Goodwood. but her commitment to her independence makes her fear him as well. Mrs. Her mother died when she was a young girl. where Mrs. he produced nearly 100 books. First written in the 1880s and extensively revised in 1908. The Portrait of a Lady is often considered to be James's greatest achievement. she has the reputation in Albany for being a formidable intellect. the indomitable Mrs. Merle introduces Isabel to a man named Gilbert Osmond. charismatic son of a wealthy Boston mill owner." and his prose is remarkable for its elegance of balance. and the immortal ghost story "The Turn of the Screw. Touchett's county manor of Gardencourt: her cousin Ralph. and she promises him nothing. Plot Overview Isabel Archer is a woman in her early twenties who comes from a genteel family in Albany. Touchett." He died on February 28. believes that Europe is changing Isabel. and Ralph convinces him that when he dies. Shortly after Isabel's father dies. but only implied by later scenes. Touchett leave for England. Isabel is drawn to Caspar. the adult Isabel is widely read. As a result. and precision. a man of no social standing or wealth. something that will justify her decision to reject Warburton. she tells him she needs at least two years before she can answer him. and her father raised her in a haphazard manner. In secret. especially Ralph. Touchett. Mrs. Everyone in Isabel's world disapproves of Osmond. his wife is dead. Mr. and slightly narcissistic. confident in her own mind. Mrs. for she feels that to marry him would be to sacrifice her freedom. James earned criticism for the slow pacing and uneventful plotting of his novels. While he was a dedicated observer of human beings in society. Gilbert Osmond and Madame Merle. but whom Merle describes as one of the finest gentlemen in Europe. Henrietta comes to Gardencourt and secretly arranges for Caspar Goodwood to meet Isabel in London. The Wings of the Dove. shortly after receiving the English Order of Merit for his dedication to the British cause in World War I. Warburton proposes. Isabel travels to Florence with Mrs. She has a child the year after they are married. Isabel makes a strong impression on everyone at Mr. including the lady of the novel's title. including the conflict between American individualism and European social custom and the situation of Americans in Europe. Mr. Madame Merle begins to lavish attention on Isabel. but also because she makes a fine addition to his collection of art objects. James was a socially distant man who formed few close friendships. the wise and funny Ralph Touchett. in which many of a work's important scenes are not narrated. Merle is attempting to manipulate Isabel into marrying Osmond so that he will have access to her fortune. but Isabel declines. She is thrilled to have exercised her independence so forcefully. Perhaps this gave him time to write: in four decades of his writing career. in the late 1860s. Isabel is left with a large fortune for the first time in her life. But as a stylist James earned consistent admiration.Europe represented decadence and social sophistication. It also includes many of his most memorable characters. Osmond and Merle have a mysterious relationship. she is a social hostess and a source of wealth. but the boy dies six months after he is born. He never married and openly claimed to practice celibacy. and the two women become close friends. not only for her money. Isabel and Osmond have come to despise one another. Touchett's estranged husband is a powerful banker. Three years into their marriage. wholly devoted to art and aesthetics. they live with Pansy in a palazzo in Rome. but Isabel chooses to marry him anyway. Touchett agrees shortly before he dies. Isabel and Mrs. Osmond is pleased to marry Isabel. Isabel Archer. the powerful. 1916. Isabel's friend Henrietta Stackpole. this time. Throughout his career. New York. and he is annoyed by her 25 . and the Touchetts' aristocratic neighbor Lord Warburton falls in love with her. he should leave half his wealth to Isabel: this will protect her independence and ensure that she will never have to marry for money. where Osmond treats Isabel as barely a member of the family: to him. and as a result she often seems intimidating to men. Touchett. A young American art collector who lives in Paris. who wants her only for her money and who treats her as an object. after the death of her cousin Ralph. As the title of the novel indicates. innocent American. a young American woman who must choose between her independent spirit and the demands of social convention. and she does not know that Merle is her real mother. The next day. Isabel has realized that there is something mysterious about Madame Merle's relationship with her husband. confronting her with shocking impropriety and demanding brazenly to know what she did to Warburton. the daughter of Osmond and his manipulative lover Madame Merle. and Isabel receives word that he is dying. Merle is Pansy's mother. Pansy. and in Albany. she has the reputation of being a formidable intellect.independence and her insistence on having her own opinions. possibly with her American suitor Caspar Goodwood. she did so with the intention of transforming herself into a good wife. But her independent spirit urges her to flee from Osmond and find happiness elsewhere. Isabel's independence of spirit is largely a result of her childhood. and not merely an abstract philosophical consideration. Ralph is rapidly deteriorating. But Osmond is insistent that Pansy should marry a nobleman. But Osmond desperately wants to see Pansy married to Warburton. and her commitment to social propriety impels her to go back and honor her marriage. Isabel is shocked and disgusted by her husband's atrocious behavior—she even feels sorry for Merle for falling under his spell—so she decides to follow her heart and travel to England. Isabel chooses to return to Osmond and maintain her marriage. but she does not consider leaving him. in this way. the staunchest advocate of her independence. Edward Rosier. She is motivated partly by a sense of social duty. and decadence. throughout Portrait of a Lady. America is a place of individualism and naïveté. Goodwood asks Henrietta where she has gone. Madame Merle is also furious with her. he asks Isabel to run away with him and forget about her husband. After professing and longing to be an independent woman. Isabel must then decide whether to honor her marriage vows and preserve social propriety or to leave her miserable marriage and escape to a happier. convinced that she is plotting intentionally to humiliate him. and he uses all his creative powers to ensure that Isabel's conflict is the natural product of a believable mind. Isabel shows Warburton the dejected-looking Rosier and explains that this is the man who is in love with Pansy. After she travels to England with her aunt. comes to Rome and falls in love with Pansy. she supervised her own haphazard education and allowed her mind to develop without discipline or order. and his sinister desire to crush her individuality. She also has a 26 . and the main focus of the novel is on presenting. as well as a romantic streak that suits her position as an optimistic. Analytical Overview The Portrait of a Lady explores the conflict between the individual and society by examining the life of Isabel Archer. At this time. Caspar Goodwood appears at the funeral. his selfishness. it becomes clear that Isabel has a woefully unstructured imagination. and afterwards. New York. convention. Henrietta quietly tells him that Isabel has returned to Rome. the Countess Gemini. however. Encouraging her to go. more independent life. when she was generally neglected by her father and allowed to read any book in her grandmother's library. and developing her character. Pansy was born out of wedlock. For all her commitment to her independence. Isabel chafes against Osmond's arrogance. James is one of America's great psychological realists. Her natural intelligence has always ensured that she is at least as quick as anyone around her. or to fulfill the impulse of her conscience and discourage Warburton. unable to find her. She promised Pansy that she would return to Rome. Osmond's sister. Guiltily. Osmond's wife died at about the same time.) Isabel often considers her life as though it were a novel. Isabel struggles to decide whether to return to her husband or not. unable to break away from her marriage to Gilbert Osmond. (For James. Warburton is still in love with Isabel and wants to marry Pansy solely to get closer to her. tells her that there is still more to Merle and Osmond's relationship. Warburton admits that he is not in love with Pansy. Isabel falls in love with and marries the sinister Gilbert Osmond. Osmond is furious with Isabel. almost as part of his art collection. At a ball one night. and he says that Rosier is neither rich nor highborn enough. but Osmond forbids it. partly by a sense of pride. and partly by the love of her stepdaughter. while Europe is a place of sophistication. In the end. Matters grow complicated when Lord Warburton arrives on the scene and begins to court Pansy. In brief. autonomous and answerable only to herself. he quietly arranges to leave Rome. Mrs. explaining. now. Pansy returns his feelings. Pansy was placed in a convent to be raised. while helping Pansy find a way to marry Rosier. Isabel is torn about whether to fulfill her duty to her husband and help him arrange the match between Warburton and Pansy. so Merle and Osmond spread the story that she died in childbirth. After Ralph's death. Isabel is the principal character of the book. Isabel is also committed to her social duty. and when she married Osmond. She longs to travel to England to be with him. Now Isabel must struggle to decide whether to obey his command and remain true to her marriage vows or to disregard him and hurry to her cousin's bedside. she suddenly realizes that Merle is his lover. Isabel actually wishes that she might be made to suffer. In the novel. and capability. Isabel is lost. anti-vaccinationist. recognizing that she has never faced hardship. Isabel moves from America to England to continental Europe. so that she could prove her ability to overcome suffering without betraying her principles. He left behind him a truly massive corpus of work including about 60 plays. Instead of narrating moments such as Isabel's wedding with Osmond. 4 volumes of dance and theatrical criticism. relating that they have happened only after the fact. if not the most significant in literary terms. Patrick Campbell. and it has been said that "a day never passes without a performance of some Shaw play being given somewhere in the world. and voluminous correspondence. Pygmalion is without the doubt the most beloved and popularly received. and now that she has found it. and James skillfully intertwines the novel's psychological and thematic elements. James skips over them. and which this flamboyant public figure was always most willing to share. the historic heart of continental Europe. semi-feminist vegetarian who believed in the Life Force and only wore wool. with whom Shaw was having a prominent affair at the time that had set all of London abuzz. Shaw died at the age of 94. in which America represents innocence.tendency to think about herself obsessively and has a vast faith in her own moral strength—in fact. The aborted romance between Professor Higgins and Eliza Doolittle reflects Shaw's own love life. When Isabel moves to England. and heaps of social commentary. In that way. Her marriage to Osmond effectively stifles Isabel's independent spirit. Several film versions have been made of the play. her decision to return to Rome after briefly leaving for Ralph's funeral at the end of the novel. And this list does not include the opinions that Shaw could always be counted on to hold about any topic. Shaw wrote the part of Eliza in Pygmalion for the famous actress Mrs." One of Shaw's greatest contributions as a modern dramatist is in establishing drama as serious literature. the book relies on a kind of moral geography. at least until she is married to him. the slayer of Macbeth). James uses this method to create the sense that. and England represents the best mix of the two. This literary technique is known as ellipses. Others most certainly disagree with such an assessment. with whom he flirted outrageously but with whom he almost 27 . in peripheral conversations. Eventually she lives in Rome. In fact. political theory. slow pacing. and it has even been adapted into a musical. 3 volumes of music criticism. by choosing to be with Gilbert Osmond. individualism. Europe represents decadence. James uses many of his most characteristic techniques in Portrait of a Lady. socialist. In addition to his polished. James most often uses his elliptical technique in scenes when Isabel chooses to value social custom over her independence—her acceptance of Gilbert's proposal. negotiating publication deals for his highly popular plays so as to convince the public that the play was no less important than the novel. Set almost entirely among a group of American expatriates living in Europe in the 1860s and 70s. for instance. writing the screenplay for the film version of 1938 helped Shaw to become the first and only man ever to win the much coveted Double: the Nobel Prize for literature and an Academy Award. even if they mean a loss of independence. Pygmalion George Bernard Shaw Context Born in Dublin in 1856 to a middle-class Protestant family bearing pretensions to nobility (Shaw's embarrassing alcoholic father claimed to be descended from Macduff. which she believes in more than the real thing. 5 novels. In the same way that James unites his psychological and thematic subjects. George Bernard Shaw grew to become what some consider the second greatest English playwright. Isabel's pride in her moral strength makes it impossible for her to consider leaving him: she once longed for hardship. and it is here that she endures her greatest hardship with Gilbert Osmond. Shaw's most lasting contribution is no doubt his plays. This is the thematic background of Portrait of a Lady. They conspire to convince Isabel to marry Osmond in order to gain access to her wealth. he also intertwines the novel's settings with its themes. Narratively. sophistication. behind only Shakespeare. it would be hypocritical for her to surrender to it by violating social custom and abandoning her husband. her cousin Ralph is so taken with her spirit of independence that he convinces his dying father to leave half his fortune to Isabel. which was always peppered with enamored and beautiful women. he utilizes a favorite technique of skipping over some of the novel's main events in telling the story. This is intended to prevent her from ever having to marry for money. in a sense. Once she marries Osmond. but few question Shaw's immense talent or the play's that talent produced. in these moments. and social convention. he created the conditions for later playwrights to write seriously for the theater. a hypochondriac. gradually losing a bit of independence with each move. Madame Merle and Gilbert Osmond. enables the book's most trenchant exploration of the conflict between her desire to conform to social convention and her fiercely independent mind. as her husband treats her as an object and tries to force her to share his opinions and abandon her own. Of all of Shaw's plays. It is also perfectly explained by the elements of Isabel's character: her haphazard upbringing has led her to long for stability and safety. elegant prose and his sedate. and at each stage she comes to mirror her surroundings. Isabel is no longer accessible to the reader. and her active imagination enables her to create an illusory picture of Osmond. their wedding. Isabel's downfall with Osmond. but ironically it attracts the treachery of the novel's villains. naturalism Notable award(s) Nobel Prize in Literature 1925 Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay 1938 Pygmalion Influences Arthur Schopenhauer. he had a long marriage to Charlotte Payne-Townsend in which it is well known that he never touched her once. these lean biographical facts. but Higgins and Pickering are too absorbed in their game to take heed. Hyndman 28 . William Morris. the girl appears at his laboratory on Wimpole Street to ask for speech lessons. black comedy Literary movement Ibsenism. She throws Higgins' slippers at him in a rage because she does not know what is to become of her. offering to pay a shilling. so that she may speak properly enough to work in a flower shop. That Higgins was a representation of Pygmalion. The son Freddy is very attracted to her. makes Higgins sexual disinterest all the more compelling." Mrs. On his tail is Eliza's father. The first bets the other that he can. but is seduced by the idea of working his magic on her. Then Eliza's father Alfred Doolittle comes to demand the return of his daughter. he will be able to transform the cockney speaking Covent Garden flower girl. Higgins. however. and Colonel Pickering is a linguist of Indian dialects. but Higgins and Pickering are now bored with the project. The wager is definitely won. He suggests she marry somebody. chides the two of them for playing with the girl's affections. The next morning. gives him five pounds.never had any further relations. Professor Higgins is a scientist of phonetics. H. might or might not inform the way that Higgins would rather focus his passions on literature or science than on women. On his way out. who has been hiding Eliza upstairs all along. Henrik Ibsen. Higgins shouts out a few errands for her to run. in a matter of months. Richard Wagner. The professor. and he accuses her of ingratitude. The first occurs at Higgins' mother's home. When she enters. amused by Doolittle's unusual rhetoric. but threatens Higgins that she will go work with his rival phonetician. For example. into a woman as poised and well-spoken as a duchess. M. The following morning. She returns him the hired jewelry. in a panic because Eliza has run away. Shaw is too consummate a performer and too smooth in his self. assuming that she will return to him at Wimpole Street.presentation for us to neatly dissect his sexual background. George Bernard Shaw From Wikipedia. Karl Marx. which takes place some months later at an ambassador's party (and which is not actually staged). Ireland Died 2 November 1950 (aged 94) Hertfordshire. and the wherewithal to pass as a duchess. political activist Nationality Irish Genres Satire. A second trial. The challenge is taken. where Eliza is introduced to the Eynsford Hills. daughter. The outraged Higgins cannot help but start to admire her. an organization whose core members were young men agitating for homosexual liberation. pretty flower girl as his daughter. Eliza. Friedrich Nietzsche. convince high London society that. never makes it clear whether she will or not. Two trials for Eliza follow. As Eliza leaves for her father's wedding. and further taken with what he thinks is her affected "small talk" when she slips into cockney. critic. with his knowledge of phonetics. Higgins worries that the experiment will lead to problems once it is ended. Pickering goads him on by agreeing to cover the costs of the experiment if Higgins can pass Eliza off as a duchess at an ambassador's garden party. Higgins rushes to his mother. who has a lovelorn sweetheart in Freddy. which causes Eliza to be hurt. thereby bewildering him. a trio of mother. Henry George. do support the belief that Shaw would have an interest in exploding the typical structures of standard fairy tales. Eliza Doolittle. now unhappily rich from the trust of a deceased millionaire who took to heart Higgins' recommendation that Doolittle was England's "most original moralist. and Higgins starts by having his housekeeper bathe Eliza and give her new clothes. is a resounding success. and son. Mrs. the dustman fails to recognize the now clean. Nepommuck. the free encyclopedia George Bernard Shaw Born 26 July 1856 Dublin. The fact that Shaw was quietly a member of the British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology. For a number of months. England Occupation Playwright. Summary Two old gentlemen meet in the rain one night at Covent Garden. Eliza thanks Pickering for always treating her like a lady. though his real intention is to hit Higgins up for some money. the character from the famous story of Ovid's Metamorphoses who is the very embodiment of male love for the female form. Higgins trains Eliza to speak properly. Higgins makes merciless fun of her. and Lucinda Elizabeth Shaw. His sisters accompanied their mother[6] but Shaw remained in Dublin with his father. when he became self-supporting as a critic of the arts. health care. which was prevalent in his time.[5] In brief. and promoting healthy lifestyles. albeit discontentedly. Vandeleur Lee. in 1856 to George Carr Shaw (1814–85). He had two sisters. He is the only person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize for Literature (1925) and an Oscar (1938). which included gaining equal rights for men and women. For a short time he was active in local politics. government. He harboured a lifelong animosity toward schools and teachers. Shaw examined education. aged 94. née Gurly (1830–1913). He was most angered by what he perceived as the exploitation of the working class. [2] Shaw wanted to refuse his Nobel Prize outright because he had no desire for public honours. however. a singer of musical comedy and light opera. Colin Wilson. to London. alleviating abuses of the working class. a grammar school operated by the Methodist Church in Ireland. Lucinda Frances (1853–1920). He worked efficiently. Shaw joined his mother's London household. Kurt Vonnegut George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950)[1] was an Irish playwright and a co-founder of the London School of Economics. a professional singer. When his mother left home and followed her voice teacher. George Vandeleur Lee. Although his first profitable writing was music and literary criticism. saying: "Schools and schoolmasters. and he wrote more than 60 plays. Later. and class privilege. Dublin Early years and family George Bernard Shaw was born in Synge Street. His novels were rejected. he considered the standardized curricula useless.[10] a middle class organization established in 1884 to promote the gradual spread of socialism by peaceful means. rescinding private ownership of productive land. An ardent socialist. deadening to the spirit and stifling to the intellect. Shaw was almost sixteen years old. and his sister Lucy. respectively. his main talent was for drama. In 1898.[7] In 1876. He earned his allowance by ghostwriting Vandeleur Lee's music column.[4] In the astringent prologue to Cashel Byron's Profession young Byron's educational experience is a fictionalized description of Shaw's own schooldays. Lawrence in a house now called Shaw's Corner. he became a dedicated Socialist and a charter member of the Fabian Society. requesting it be used to finance translation of Swedish books to English. religion. He ended his formal education at the Dublin English Scientific and Commercial Day School. a fellow Fabian. [edit] Personal life and political activism The front of Shaw's Corner as it stands today Influenced by his reading. he painstakingly detailed the reasons for his aversion to formal education in his Treatise on Parents and Children. provided him with a pound a week while he frequented public libraries and the British Museum reading room where he studied earnestly and began writing novels. for several years. from chronic problems exacerbated by injuries he incurred by falling.[7] In the course of his 29 . Shaw married Charlotte Payne-Townshend. Shaw wrote many brochures and speeches for the Fabian Society. in which capacity he wrote many highly articulate pieces of journalism. before moving to a private school near Dalkey and then transferring to Dublin's Central Model School. Dublin. marriage. Dublin. but rather prisons and turnkeys in which children are kept to prevent them disturbing and chaperoning their parents". [edit] Education Shaw briefly attended the Wesley College.Influenced Socialism and Fabianism in the United Kingdom. for his contributions to literature and for his work on the film Pygmalion (adaptation of his play of the same name). Nearly all his writings address prevailing social problems. She. so his literary earnings remained negligible until 1885. He particularly deplored the use of corporal punishment. They settled in Ayot St. but accepted it at his wife's behest: she considered it a tribute to Ireland. then as a clerk in an estate office. as we have them today. and Elinor Agnes (1855–76).[8][9] which appeared in the London Hornet. an unsuccessful grain merchant and sometime civil servant.[3] Life Shaw's birthplace. whom he survived. first as a reluctant pupil. Shaw died there. He became an accomplished orator in the furtherance of its causes. He did reject the monetary award. serving on the London County Council. are not popular as places of education and teachers. but have a vein of comedy which makes their stark themes more palatable. now called Shaw's Corner. essayist and private correspondent was prodigious. as a result. seek freedom from their wealthy masters. he disembowels them. pamphleteer. mixed with those of his wife. In Cymbeline he has quite surpassed himself by extirpating the antiphonal third verse of the famous dirge. Shaw's plays were first performed in the 1890s. Charlotte Payne-Townshend.[14] Along with Fabian Society members Sidney and Beatrice Webb and Graham Wallas. Shaw had seen the play in the company of Barrymore's then wife. Shaw disparaged Brahms. Barrymore invited him to see a performance of his celebrated Hamlet.000 from Henry Hunt Hutchinson to the Fabian Society. One of the libraries at the LSE is named in Shaw's honor. but did not dare voice his true feelings about the performance aloud to her. it contains collections of his papers and photographs.” Shavian scholar John F. Our Corner (1885–86). He does not merely cut plays. and Shaw graciously accepted. sponsored by William Archer. in which position he campaigned brilliantly to displace the artificialities and hypocrisies of the Victorian stage with a theatre of actuality and thought.political activities he met Charlotte Payne-Townshend. Shaw founded the London School of Economics and Political Science in 1895 with funding provided by private philanthropy. a small village in Hertfordshire. but wrote Barrymore a withering letter in which he all but tore the performance to shreds.[23] Much of Shaw's music criticism.[22] He had a very high regard for both Irish stage actor Barry Sullivan's and Johnston Forbes-Robertson's Hamlets. as Shaw carefully points out. George Bernard Shaw was highly critical of productions of Shakespeare. England. but made no such claim about his opus. extols the work of the German composer Richard Wagner. at Charlotte's insistence. he joined the reviewing staff of the Pall Mall Gazette in 1885. The marriage was never consummated. Unity Theatre. were scattered along footpaths and around the statue of Saint Joan in their garden. deriding A German Requiem by saying "it could only have come from the establishment of a first- 30 . critic. including Dramatic Review (1885–86). He is known to have written more than 250.[12] Shaw declined to stand as an MP. and the Pall Mall Gazette (1885–88) his byline was "GBS".[15] [edit] Final years During his later years. Wagner did have socialistic sympathies. [11] Peters posits that Shaw was a repressed homosexual. Sir Henry Irving would ere this have expiated his acting versions on the scaffold.[13] In 1906 the Shaws moved into a house.[21] From 1895 to 1898. whose scenes tended to be cut in order to create “acting versions”. it was to be their home for the remainder of their lives. including a bequest of £20. The International Shaw Society provides a detailed chronological listing of Shaw's writings. Conversely. as he expressed in one of his reviews: “In a true republic of art. He notably held famous 19th-century actor Sir Henry Irving in contempt for this practice. though he had had a number of affairs with married women.[19] [edit] Criticism Shaw became a critic of the arts when. driven by "the invisible whip of hunger". with the disappearance of the two-hundred-year-old tradition of editing Shakespeare into “acting versions”. Matthews credits him. Shaw enjoyed attending to the grounds at Shaw's Corner.[18] See also George Bernard Shaw. He wrote sixtythree plays and his output as novelist. ranging from short comments to the book-length essay The Perfect Wagnerite. giants. He died at the age of 94. with links to their electronic texts. or shorten one of Velasquez’s Philips into a kitcat to make it fit over his drawing room mantelpiece.[24] Wagner worked 25 years composing Der Ring des Nibelungen. A man who would do that would do anything –cut the coda out of the first movement of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. Shaw considered it a work of genius and reviewed it in detail. and specifically denounced the dramatic practice of editing Shakespeare’s plays. an Irish heiress and fellow Fabian. they married in 1898. In a miscellany of other periodicals.000 letters. Writings See Works by George Bernard Shaw for listings of his novels and plays. Beyond the music. Even worse. in Ayot St. a massive four-part musical dramatization drawn from the Teutonic mythology of gods. if those exist. he saw it as an allegory of social evolution where workers.[16] His ashes. Shaw was the drama critic for Frank Harris' Saturday Review. Lawrence. of renal failure precipitated by injuries incurred by falling while pruning a tree. His earnings as a critic made him self-supporting as an author and his articles for the Saturday Review made his name well-known. By the end of the decade he was an established playwright. dwarves and Rhine maidens. although they also maintained a residence at 29 Fitzroy Square in London. but despised John Barrymore's. but in 1897 he was elected as a local councillor to the London County Council as a Progressive.[20] There he wrote under the pseudonym "Corno di Bassetto" ("basset horn")—chosen because it sounded European and nobody knew what a corno di bassetto was. always a workman but now a magnate. to which he is an active convert. it dominates the story. the couple settles down to prosaic family life with Lydia dominant. in their earliest maturity. Once the subject of socialism emerges. The preface. He needs the freedom gained by matrimonial truancy to promote the socialistic cause. The marriage soon deteriorates. 31 . calling his earlier animosity towards Brahms "my only mistake". eventually consents to marry despite the disparity of their social positions. written when Shaw was 49. runs away to Australia where he becomes a famed prizefighter. and falls in love with erudite and wealthy Lydia Carew. romantic love and the practicalities of matrimony. allowing only space enough in the final chapters to excoriate the idle upper class and allow the erstwhile schoolgirls. Its eponymous character.[32] Within a framework of leisure class preoccupations and frivolities Shaw disdains hereditary status and proclaims the nobility of workers. a musical genius.. minor misfortunes and subdued successes in the developing career of Robert Smith. Marriage. unable to share her husband's interests. The book was written in the year when Shaw first heard the lectures of Henry George who advocated such reforms. when he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature The first to be printed was Cashel Byron's Profession (1886).[27] As a drama critic for the Saturday Review.nobody can listen to Brahms' natural utterance of the richest absolute music. convinced she is unworthy and certain that she faces life as a pariah to her family and friends. a rebellious schoolboy with an unsympathetic mother. to marry suitably. as the knot in question. is exemplified by the union of Marian Lind. Shaw in 1925. but artists with real genius are too consumed by their work to fit that pattern. and derives from Shaw's familial memories. primarily because Marian fails to rise above the preconceptions and limitations of her social class and is. Cashel attains a seat in Parliament..[28] [edit] Novels Shaw wrote five unsuccessful novels at the start of his career between 1879 and 1883.[24] Shaw's writings about music gained great popularity because they were understandable to the average well-read audience member of the day. Lydia. rather than being owned and exploited privately. but she pridefully refuses. thus contrasting starkly with the dourly pretentious pedantry of most critiques in that era. drawn by sheer animal magnetism. it soon develops. he recanted. Shaw championed Henrik Ibsen whose realistic plays scandalized the Victorian public. He returns to England for a boxing match. Her husband rescues her and offers to take her back. Eventually all were published. he praised his musicality. This breach of propriety is nullified by the unpresaged discovery that Cashel is of noble lineage and heir to a fortune comparable to Lydia's. Short stories Shaw writing in a notebook at the time of first production of his play Pygmalion. From an abysmal beginning he rises to great fame and is lionized by socialites despite his unremitting crudity. but he proves himself a scoundrel and abandons her in desperate circumstances. With those barriers to happiness removed. The preface is a valuable resource because it provides autobiographical details not otherwise available. Condemnation of alcoholic behavior is the prime message in the book.[31] but it was written in 1881. an energetic young Londoner and outspoken agnostic. Love Among the Artists was published in the United States in 1900 and in England in 1914.[26] All of his music critiques have been collected in Shaw's Music. is really a wealthy gentleman in hiding from his overly affectionate wife. The dominant figure in the novel is Owen Jack.[30] The tale begins with a hilarious description of student antics at a girl's school then changes focus to a seemingly uncouth laborer who.[33] It relates tepid romances. especially in his chamber compositions.class undertaker". somewhat mad and quite bereft of social graces. Eventually she runs away with a man who is her social peer. Immaturity. His influential Quintessence of Ibsenism was written in 1891. Shaw's first novel. was written in 1879 but was the last one to be printed in 1931. In the 1920s. Written in 1883. can love and settle down to marriage. to Edward Conolly.[25] Although he found Brahms lacking in intellect. This is made clear in the books's preface. expresses gratitude to his parents for their support during the lean years while he learned to write and includes details of his early life in London. which was written by the mature Shaw at the time of its belated publication. thanks to his invention of an electric motor that makes steam engines obsolete. An Unsocial Socialist was published in 1887. Cashel. a lady of the upper class. he thinks. Dilettantes. saying ". In this novel Shaw first expresses his conviction that productive land and all other natural resources should belong to everyone in common.[29] which was written in 1882. without rejoicing in his natural gift". therefore. In the ambiance of chit-chat and frivolity among members of Victorian polite society a youthful Shaw describes his views on the arts. a post he held from 1895 to 1898. The Irrational Knot was written in 1880 and published in 1905. who supplied the structure. he considered himself indebted to Henrik Ibsen. but he detested it and for the rest of his life forbade musicalization of his work. for he was approaching 50 when he wrote them. New works such as Fanny's First Play (1911) and Pygmalion (1912). The Black Girl in Search of God and Some Lesser Tales. and that all the character names be changed. goes searching for God. Thus our democracy moves in a vicious circle of reciprocal worthiness and unworthiness. Vedrenne. From 1904 to 1907. Widowers' Houses — an example of the realistic genre — was completed after William Archer. several of his plays had their London premieres in notable productions at the Court Theatre. E. with the dates when they were written and first performed can be found in Complete Plays and Prefaces. written as an allegory. Plays The texts of plays by Shaw mentioned in this section. Several of his plays formed the basis of musicals after his death— most famously the musical My Fair Lady—it is officially adapted from the screenplay of the film version of Pygmalion rather than the original stage play (keeping the film's ending). Widowers' Houses. display Shaw's matured views. At the story's happy ending. Shaw uses her adventures to expose flaws and fallacies in the religions of the world. presented after the War. Archer decided that Shaw could not write a play. which relates the misadventures of an alcoholic investigator while he probes the mystery of a graveyard—full of saintly corpses—that migrates across a stream to escape association with the body of a newly buried sinner.[35] Shaw began working on his first play destined for production. Significantly. although the operetta actually follows Shaw's plot quite closely. but he had found his medium. which he uncompromisingly opposed despite incurring outrage from the public as well as from many friends. who pioneered modern realistic drama. His first full-length piece.A collection of Shaw's short stories. It is more to the point that every Government has the electorate it deserves. Such works. most of them full-length. had translated some of Ibsen's plays to English and Shaw had written The Quintessence of Ibsensism. Candida (1894) and You Never Can Tell (1897). like those of Oscar Wilde. The first of his new plays to be performed at the Court Theatre. In the Victorian Era. somewhat reminiscent of Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress. the London stage had been regarded as a place for frothy. Shaw was a well-established playwright. had long runs in front of large London audiences. Major Barbara (1905) and The Doctor's Dilemma (1906). Shaw tried again and. Examples include Mrs. Warren's Profession (1893). In the preface to Heartbreak House he said: "It is said that every people has the Government it deserves. in 1885 in collaboration with critic William Archer. the Black Girl quits her searchings in favor of rearing a family with the aid of a red-haired Irishman who has no metaphysical inclination. Often his plays succeeded in the United States and Germany before they did in London. they are still being performed there. He went on to write 63 plays. and the characters' names. completed the play without collaboration. but his faith in humanity had dwindled.[36] However."[39] 32 . so the project was abandoned.[37] As Shaw's experience and popularity increased. One of the Lesser Tales is The Miraculous Revenge (1885). an enthusiastic convert to Christianity. In this. was first performed at London's Royalty Theatre on 9 December 1892. Shaw's wittiness should not obscure his important role in revolutionizing British drama. Shaw would later call it one of his worst works. including a proposed Franz Lehár operetta based on Pygmalion. Widowers' Houses. his plays and prefaces became more voluble about reforms he advocated. in 1892. possibly his most lasting and important contribution to dramatic art. and librettist Alan Jay Lerner kept generous chunks of Shaw's dialogue. Shaw's outlook was changed by World War I. unchanged. without diminishing their success as entertainments. He insisted that none of his dialogue be used. Although major London productions of many of his earlier pieces were delayed for years. Shaw's plays. in particular preserving its anti-war message. managed by Harley Granville-Barker and J. In the story. Shaw's friend. His first significant financial success as a playwright came from Richard Mansfield's American production of The Devil's Disciple (1897). Arms and the Man (1894). a scathing attack on slumlords. was Heartbreak House (1919). both authors are remembered for their comedy. written mostly during it. but he had a low opinion of German operetta. Shaw had permitted a musical adaptation of Arms and the Man (1894) called The Chocolate Soldier (1908). was published in 1934. which was exceptional among playwrights of the Victorian era. while not especially popular today. Shaw made it a forum for considering moral. made his reputation in London when King Edward VII laughed so hard during a command performance that he broke his chair. sentimental entertainment. for the orators of the front bench can edify or debauch an ignorant electorate at will. The work proved very popular and would have made Shaw rich had he not waived his royalties. including Caesar and Cleopatra (1898). contained incisive humor. A new Shaw had emerged—the wit remained. meaning drama designed to heighten awareness of some important social issue. Man and Superman (1903). political and economic issues. John Bull's Other Island (1904).[38] By the 1910s. Years later.[34] The Black Girl. heedless of opposition and ridicule. including Pygmalion. according to St. good personal hygiene and diets devoid of meat. Barrie. and Geneva (1938) have been seen as marking a decline.. the enormous power of the environment. five-play work starts in the Garden of Eden and ends thousands of years in the future. His preface to Heartbreak House (1919) attributes the rejection to the need of post-World War I audiences for frivolities. for Hitlers who call on them to exterminate Jews. Often his prefaces are longer than the plays they introduce. 33 . M. Shaw became a vegetarian while he was twenty-five. His last significant play. remembering the experience. Common Sense about the War (1914) lays out Shaw's strong objections at the onset of World War I. the Penguin Books edition of his one-act The Shewing-up Of Blanco Posnet (1909) has a 67-page preface for the 29-page playscript. where Shaw wrote most of his works after 1906. but he never compromised. The Apple Cart (1929) was probably his most popular work of this era. and her canonization in 1920 supplied a strong incentive. These tend to be more about Shaw's opinions on the issues addressed by the plays than about the plays themselves. as much as anyone. after four long years of grim privation. what is the use of writing anything. In the preface to Doctor’s Dilemma he made it plain he regarded traditional medical treatment as dangerous quackery that should be replaced with sound public sanitation. and can do nothing but mischief without leaders? And what sort of leaders do they vote for? For Titus Oates and Lord George Gordon with their Popish plots. In Good King Charles Golden Days has. and is believed to have led to his Nobel Prize in Literature. Shaw proclaimed the play a masterpiece. For example. We can change it. replying that "merit" in authorship could only be determined by the posthumous verdict of history. calling it "a particularly filthy piece of witchcraft". In the first act of Buoyant Billions (1946–48).F. but the place was instead given to J. The theme of a benign force directing evolution reappears in Geneva (1938). there is absolutely no other sense in life than the task of changing it. At this time Prime Minister David Lloyd George was considering recommending to the King Shaw's admission to the Order of Merit. [47][48] despite having nearly died from the disease when he contracted it in 1881. John Ervine. Methuselah was followed by Saint Joan (1923).. but many critics disagreed. Shaw completed Back to Methuselah.[41] The citation praised his work as ".The movable hut in the garden of Shaw's Corner. as a Socialist. Shaw's published plays come with lengthy prefaces.marked by both idealism and humanity. but the public tended to disregard his messages and enjoy his work as pure entertainment. but now he saw more hope in government by benign strong men. wherein Shaw maintains humans must develop longer lifespans in order to acquire the wisdom needed for self-government. Later full-length plays like Too True to Be Good (1931). his protagonist asks: "Why appeal to the mob when ninetyfive per cent of them do not understand politics."[40] In 1921. On the Rocks (1933).[41] It was not until 1946 that the government of the day arranged for an informal offer of the Order of Merit to be made: Shaw declined. which is generally considered to be one of his better works. Near his life's end that hope failed him too. have had to preach.[41] Shaw rejected a knighthood.[43] Shaw said: "I. his last full-length play. which he furthered with fierce intensity.[45] His stance ran counter to public sentiment and cost him dearly at the box-office. for Mussolinis who rally them to nationalist dreams of glory and empire in which all foreigners are enemies to be subjugated. For example. his "Metabiological Pentateuch". it showcases Shaw's postulate that a "Life Force" directs evolution toward ultimate perfection by trial and error."[44] Thus he viewed writing as a way to further his humanitarian and political agenda.[49] In 1901. after hearing a lecture by H. The play was an international success. The massive.[46] Shaw joined in the public opposition to vaccination against smallpox. its stimulating satire often being infused with a singular poetic beauty". He was acutely aware of that. we must change it. What is the use of writing plays. The Millionairess (1935). Shaw had previously supported gradual democratic change toward socialism. if there is not a will which finally moulds chaos itself into a race of gods. more than to their inborn distaste of instruction. he said "I was a cannibal for twenty-five years. Shaw had long considered writing about Joan of Arc. This sometimes made him oblivious to the dangers of dictatorships. [edit] Polemics In a letter to Henry James dated 17 January 1909. His works were very popular because of their comedic content.[42] passages that are equal to Shaw's major works. His crusading nature led him to adopt and tenaciously hold a variety of causes. but very few of them are as notable—or as often revived—as his earlier work.[41] He wrote plays for the rest of his life. Lester. [54] Late in his life he wrote another guide to political issues. Lawrence even used the name "Shaw" as his nom de guerre when he joined the Royal Air Force as an aircraftman in the 1920s. The Best of Friends.[55] as was his correspondence with the poet Lord Alfred 'Bosie' Douglas (the intimate friend of Oscar Wilde). Shaw's correspondence with the motion picture producer Gabriel Pascal. lived in abject poverty and were too ignorant and apathetic to vote intelligently.[57] and to H.[64] The outcome Shaw envisioned is dramatised in Back to Methuselah. starred John Gielgud as Cockerell. was "A man of my spiritual intensity does not eat corpses. aired on PBS. but died before he could realize it. he was a firm anti-vivisectionist and antagonistic to cruel sports for the remainder of his life. He called the developmental process elective breeding but it is sometimes referred to as shavian eugenics. Wendy Hiller as Laurentia. Chesterton. Ellen Terry. largely because he thought it was driven by a "Life Force" that led women—subconsciously—to select the mates most likely to give them superior children. saying that workers.[61] A stage play by Hugh Whitemore. known most notably for his book Seven Pillars of Wisdom and his role as liaison for the Arab revolt during World War I. The photographs document a prolific literary and political life – Shaw's friends. Wells.[52] and The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism (1912). Man & Cameraman[62] which will allow online access to thousands of photos taken by Shaw. It also records his experiments with photography over 50 years and for the photographic historian provides a record of the development of the photographic and printing techniques available to the amateur photographer between 1898 and 1950. such as Fabian Essays in Socialism (1889). many of them well-known. whom he invited to his home for dinner while Collins was negotiating the Anglo-Irish Treaty with Lloyd George in London. politics. and that the upper and middle classes won in the struggle while the working class lost. who was the first to bring Shaw's plays successfully to the screen and who later tried to put into motion a musical adaptation of Pygmalion. His non-fiction writing includes many reviews of photographic exhibitions such as those by his friend Alvin Langdon Coburn. Excerpts of the latter were republished in 1928 as Socialism and Liberty. succinctly stated. though this piece remained incomplete at Elgar's death. provides a window on the friendships of Dame Laurentia McLachlan. ruthlessly exploited by greedy employers.[59] Shaw campaigned against the executions of the rebel leaders of the Easter Rising. films and home life.For the rest I have been a vegetarian.E. a monumental play depicting human development from its beginning in the Garden of Eden until the distant future. and he became a personal friend of the Cork-born IRA leader Michael Collins. He condemned the democratic system of his time. Before 1898 Shaw had been an early supporter of photography as a serious art form. Another friend was the composer Edward Elgar. and Patrick McGoohan as Shaw. [edit] Correspondence Shaw corresponded with an array of people. His position. K. Patrick Campbell were adapted for the stage by Jerome Kilty as Dear Liar: A Comedy of Letters. He had an enduring friendship with G. Eventually the volume of his correspondence became insupportable. His letters to the prominent actress. OSB (late Abbess of Stanbrook) with Sir Sydney Cockerell and Shaw through adaptations from their letters and writings."[51] As well as plays and prefaces. into the drama Bernard and Bosie: A Most Unlikely Friendship by Anthony Wynn. to Shaw. [edit] Politics Shaw asserted that each social class strove to serve its own ends. Shaw sent a personal message of condolence to one of Collins's sisters. Lawrence. The belief in the immorality of eating animals was one of the Fabian causes near his heart and is frequently a topic in his plays and prefaces. It is available on DVD.[53] a 495-page book detailing all aspects of socialistic theory as Shaw interpreted it.. Everybody's Political What's What (1944). A television adaptation of the play.[56] to the boxer Gene Tunney. The collection is currently the subject of a major project. is published in a book titled Bernard Shaw and Gabriel Pascal. and Shaw exerted himself (eventually with success) to persuade the BBC to commission from Elgar a third symphony. the Roman Catholic-convert British writer.[58] have also been published.[65] 34 ."[50] As a staunch vegetarian. as can be inferred from apologetic letters written by assistants.[63] He believed this deficiency would ultimately be corrected by the emergence of long-lived supermen with experience and intelligence enough to govern properly. Severn Suite.[60] Shaw also enjoyed a personal friendship with T.G. plays. [edit] Photography Shaw bought his first camera in 1898 and was an active amateur photographer until his death in 1950. The latter dedicated one of his late works. After Collins's assassination in 1922. Shaw wrote long political treatises. travels. His letters to and from Mrs. now will you be kind enough to justify your existence? If you can’t justify your existence. Italy. to go into these questions and "liquidate" persons who could not answer them satisfactorily. Jonathan Swift had made his modest proposal that babies of the poor could be used as food. Shaw believed that income for individuals should come solely from the sale of their own labour and that poverty could be eliminated by giving equal pay to everyone. Shaw includes a criticism of the pogroms conducted by the State Political Directorate (OGPU). which favoured forcible reforms. we cannot use the organizations of our society for the purpose of keeping you alive. which they rejected.[52] lectured tirelessly on behalf of their causes and provided money to set up The New Age. Shaw echoes this sentiment in the preface to his play On the Rocks (1933) writing: But the most elaborate code of this sort would still have left unspecified a hundred ways in which wreckers of Communism could have sidetracked it without ever having to face the essential questions: are you pulling your weight in the social boat? are you giving more trouble than you are worth? have you earned the privilege of living in a civilized community? That is why the Russians were forced to set up an Inquisition or Star Chamber. and advocated equitable distribution of land and natural resources and their control by governments intent on promoting the commonwealth. and by the New York American on 13 August 1916. he participated in the formation of the Labour Party. Just put them there and say Sir.[68] Tim Tzouliadis asserts that hundreds of Americans responded to his suggestion and left for the USSR.[66] Shaw was an active Fabian. Shaw opposed the execution of Sir Roger Casement in 1916. not with ridiculous hotheaded attacks on Germany. Shaw became a supporter of the Stalinist USSR. is apparently speaking in favour of discarding those members of society 'who are no use in this world': You must all know half a dozen people at least who are no use in this world. to save itself from stagnation and putrefaction.] The concentration of British and American attention on the intolerances of Fascism and Communism creates an illusion that they do not exist elsewhere.of suitable age and good character' would be welcomed and given work in the Soviet Union. The preface concludes: Put shortly and undramatically the case is that a civilization cannot progress without criticism. and Russia. he joined the newly formed Fabian Society... if you’re not producing as much as you consume or perhaps a little more. which accorded with his belief that reform should be gradual and induced by peaceful means rather than by outright revolution. [. often used satiric irony in order to mock those who took eugenics to inhumane extremes and commentators have sometimes failed to take this into account. or Madam. a right-wing coalition of European parliamentarians. As a Fabian. After visiting the USSR in the 1930s where he met Stalin. called at first the Cheka and now the Gay Pay Oo (Ogpu). if you’re not pulling your weight in the social boat. led by H. a 2008 documentary from the Union for Europe of the Nations. He wrote a letter "as an Irishman"[67] to The Times. These concepts led Shaw to apply for membership of the Social Democratic Federation (SDF). influenced by Henry George's views on land nationalization. The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism[53] provides a clear statement of his socialistic views.[69] The Soviet Story. Instead. and must be met. M. Shaw never joined the SDF.[71][72] Similarly. In the preface to On the Rocks.In 1882. then. On 11 October 1931 he broadcast a lecture on American national radio telling his audience that any 'skilled workman. Shaw also maintained that the killing should be humane. but they exist everywhere. but it was subsequently printed by both the Manchester Guardian on 22 July 1916. an independent socialist journal. As evinced in plays like Major Barbara and Pygmalion. who are more trouble than they are worth. however.[70] Shaw. This means impunity not only for propositions 35 . He wrote many of their pamphlets. but by a restatement of the case for Toleration in general. and must therefore. Shaw concluded that private ownership of land and its exploitation for personal profit was a form of theft. because your life does not benefit us and it can’t be of very much use to yourself. facing the camera. Hyndman who introduced him to the works of Karl Marx.[73] Yet. in the 18th century. class struggle is a motif in much of Shaw's writing.. He compares their logic to that of other societies throughout human history. we still snatch as every excuse for declaring individuals outside the protection of law and torturing them to our hearts' content. in 1884. clearly.. includes an extensive clip of film in which George Bernard Shaw. declare impunity for criticism. and writes: When the horrors of anarchy force us to set up laws that forbid us to fight and torture one another for sport. which. I must not suggest that this has occurred all over Russia. Now in Russia Marx is a Pontif. He controversially supported De Valera's letter of Condolences on the news of the death of the Führer. you may easily find that you have spent too much on these forms of capitalization and are running short of immediately consumable goods. for while the grass grows the steed starves. and transmit this acquired characteristic to its seed.[71] Shaw's play Man and Superman (1903) has been said to be "invested with eugenic doctrines" and "an ironic reworking" of Nietzsche's concept of Übermensch.[citation needed] [edit] Eugenics Shaw delivered speeches on and the theory of eugenics and he became a noted figure in the movement in England. is the author of "The Revolutionist’s Handbook and Pocket Companion". in which he asserted that an "acquired characteristic" could heritable. but for propositions that shock the uncritical as obscene. and the children were remarkably plump. Herriot. but the situation is confused by the purely verbal snag that Marx called his philosophy Dialectical Materialism. and when education means not only schools and teachers. seditious. The Revolutionist's Handbook includes chapters on "Good Breeding" and "Property and Marriage". if not for ever. unemployment and cynical despair of betterment as are accepted as inevitable and ignored by the press as having “no news value” in our own countries. less sacrifice of the present to the future. which Shaw published along with his play. presenting the spectacle of the nation with the highest level of general culture running short of boots and tightening its belt for lack of sufficient food. and effectively limit the selection of the individual to his own clique. Not only should every person be nourished and trained as a possible parent. and equality. and respectable.[73] In an open letter to the Manchester Guardian in 1933. for I have no sooner read in The Times a letter from Mr Kerensky assuring me that in the Ukraine the starving people are eating one another. and contrasts them with the hardships then current in the West during the Great Depression: We desire to record that we saw nowhere evidence of such economic slavery. Still." 36 ."[74] In the preface to On The Rocks he wrote: It sounds simple. and more varied food and more of it: in short.[75] ” Despite Shaw's scepticism about the creation of the Irish free state. Accordingly. is to postpone the Superman for eons. he was supportive of Éamon de Valera's stance on the second world war. however novel. heretical. goes to Russia and insists on visiting the Ukraine so that he may have ocular proof of the alleged cannibalism. and it is no secret that the struggle of the Russian Government to provide more collective farms and more giant factories to provide agricultural machinery for them has to be carried on against a constant clamor from the workers for new boots and clothes. seem interesting. statesmanlike. and all scientists who do not call themselves Materialists must be persecuted. Equality is essential to good breeding. is incompatible with property. and thus muddles us ludicrously. between satiety and starvation mitigated by cannibalism there are many degrees of shortage.[71][76] The main character in the play. as all economists know. Marxism seems to have gone as mad as Weismannism. the eminent French statesman. In the "Property and Marriage" section Tanner writes: "To cut humanity up into small cliques. privation. but can find no trace of it. but the process requires better planning than is always forthcoming (with local famines and revolts as the penalty). he dismissed stories—which were later determined to be largely substantiated—of a Soviet famine as slanderous. Lysenko has to pretend that he is a Materialist when he is in fact a Vitalist.[73] He wrote a defence of Lysenkoism in a letter to Labour Monthly. than M. and it is no longer surprising that Marx had to insist that he was not a Marxist. but there should be no possibility of such an obstacle to natural selection as the objection of a countess to a navvy or of a duke to a charwoman. And I cannot trust the reports. including his policy of refusing to fall in line with the Allies' demand towards neutral countries on refusing to provide asylum to Axis refugees during the war. and revolutionary." He added:“ Lysenko is on the right side as a Vitalist. blasphemous. writing of Lysenko: "Following up Michurin's agricultural experiments he found that it is possible to extend the area of soil cultivation by breeding strains of wheat that flourish in a sub-Arctic climate. but only because he felt that Britain and the Allies had as much to be guilty about as the Germans. John Tanner. but giant collective farms equipped with the most advanced agricultural machinery. According to Shaw "The voice of the Irish gentleman and Spanish grandee was a welcome relief from the chorus of retaliatory rancour and self-righteousness then deafening us". for I saw no underfed people there. which means also gigantic engineering works for the production of the machinery. [88] The Shaw Theatre. Euston Road. he used irony. Shaw stated that his "religious convictions and scientific views cannot at present be more specifically defined than as those of a believer in creative revolution. he himself may not have been born. but particularly so in his examination of the "social purity" movement. Hertfordshire is a National Trust property." Shaw also called for the development of a "deadly" but "humane" gas for the purpose of killing." Concerned about the vagaries of English spelling. We should have to get rid of all ideas about capital punishment .[78] As with many of the topics which Shaw addressed. though many others in the press took his words out of their satirical context.In this Shaw was managing to synthesize eugenics with socialism.[90][91] He is also remembered as one of the pivotal founders of the London School of Economics.. in 1910. Shaw willed a portion of his wealth (probated at £367. in the small village of Ayot St Lawrence. The first London production was at the Savoy Theatre in 1907. Shaw wrote that natural attraction rather than wealth or social class should govern selection of marriage partners. which is now called the Shavian alphabet. and was famed throughout the world. the money available was insufficient to support the project. Shaw's home. The Shaw Festival. designed by Shaw. opened in 1971." Legacy In his old age. 1899. it could not be enforced because it failed to satisfy the beneficiary principle. used to characterize observations such as: "My way of joking is to tell the truth. so it was neglected for a time. This was a popular concept at the time. Ontario. However."[84] He requested that no one should imply that he accepted the beliefs of any specific religious organization. Dan Stone of Liverpool University writes: "Either the press believed Shaw to be serious. and has grown into an annual festival with over 800 performances a year. London. a contemporary statue of Saint Joan commemorates Shaw as author of that play. open to the public. an annual theater festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake. His ironic wit endowed English with the adjective "Shavian". so depriving humanity of his great contributions. and as a non-charitable purpose trust. many at a time. and to leave living a great many people whom we at present kill. 37 . The Fabian Window. It's the funniest joke in the world.233 13s)[85] to fund the creation of a new phonemic alphabet for the English language. The National Gallery of Ireland.[86] However. CM (1913–2009).[87] In the end an out-of-court settlement granted only £8600 for promoting the new alphabet. was first staged in 1901 and first published with Captain Brassbound's Conversion and The Devil's Disciple in his 1901 collection. opposite the new British Library. Religion In his will.. the free encyclopedia Wikisource has original text related to this article: Caesar and Cleopatra.[89] Near its entrance. those unfit to live.[77] When.[73][80][81] At a meeting of the Eugenics Education Society of 3 March 1910 he suggested the need to use a "lethal chamber" to solve their problem. It was first performed at Newcastle-on-Tyne on March 15. and vilified him.[82] Some noticed that this was an example of Shaw satirically employing the reductio ad absurdum argument against the eugenicists' wilder aspirations: The Globe and The Evening News recognised it as a skit on the dreams of the eugenicists. and that no memorial to him should "take the form of a cross or any other instrument of torture or symbol of blood sacrifice. or recognised the tongue-in-cheek nature of his lecture". This changed when his estate began earning significant royalties from the rights to Pygmalion after My Fair Lady—the musical adapted from Pygmalion by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe—became a hit.[79] He seems to have maintained his opinion throughout his life. was named in his honour. pointing out that if eugenics had been thought about some generations previously. Shaw said: "We should find ourselves committed to killing a great many people whom we now leave living. now called Shaw's Corner. dedicated to producing the works of Shaw and his contemporaries. the concept of eugenics did not have the negative connotations it later acquired after having been adopted by the National Socialists of Germany. his best-loved political doctrine. Canada began as an eight week run of Don Juan in Hell (as the long third act dream sequence of Man And Superman is called when staged alone) and Candida in 1962. the Public Trustee found the intended trust to be invalid because its intent was to serve a private interest instead of a charitable purpose. a play written in 1898 by George Bernard Shaw. RADA and the British Museum all received substantial bequests. hangs in the Shaw Library in the main building of the LSE. Shaw was a household name both in Britain and Ireland. Caesar and Cleopatra (play) From Wikipedia.[78] Shaw sometimes treated the topic in a light-hearted way. Three Plays for Puritans. Elizabeth Bradford Holbrook. The portrait of George Bernard Shaw located at Niagara-on-the-Lake was commissioned by hotelier Si Wai Lai and sculpted by Dr. whose library is now called the British Library of Political and Economic Science. misdirection and satire to make his point. when Cleopatra appears. has no fear of the Egyptian army but learns Achillas also commands a Roman army of occupation. saying it is better that the Egyptians should live their 38 . with two legions (three thousand soldiers and a thousand horsemen). is smuggled into Caesar's presence was credited by Otto Skorzeny as the inspiration for his doing the same to his kidnapping victim Miklós Horthy.Contents [hide] Plot The play has a prologue and an "Alternative to the Prologue". Caesar nevertheless. Ptolemy. Meanwhile. The prologue consists of the Egyptian God Ra addressing the audience directly. Ra recounts the conflict between Caesar and Pompey. and falls into his arms. Each claims sole rulership. She. with whom she is vying for the Egyptian throne. (The film version of the play. if he is awake. allows the captives to depart. The messenger warns that Caesar's conquest is inevitable and irresistible. Caesar's secretary. impervious to jealousy. and Pothinus (his guardian). The others all depart. a wounded soldier comes to report Achillus. his tutor Theodotus (very aged). In "An Alternative to the Prologue". makes Cleopatra happy by promising to send Mark Anthony back to Egypt. intent on developing his strategy. Ftatateeta. Britannus. left after a previous Roman incursion. Caesar orders Rufio to take over the palace. Cleopatra wakes and. She sobs in relief. arrives distraught. Caesar meets King Ptolemy Dionysus (aged ten). that he is experiencing a dream or. a theatre adjacent to it. Jr. They try to locate her. thinks him a nice old man and tells him of her childish fear of Caesar and the Romans. His ships on the west side are to be burnt at once. that she has run away. In a hall on the first floor of the royal palace in Alexandria. then escorts her to her palace.The famous scene in which Cleopatra. then. Caesar. Caesar does not sympathize. who is middle-aged and balding. As a defensive measure. comes upon the sphinx and speaks to it profoundly. As she leaves. and the new Rome. The conference deteriorates into a dispute. and Pompey's eventual assassination in Egypt at the hands of Lucius Septimius. Caesar. even though the two are siblings and already married in accordance with the royal law. Caesar urges bravery when she must face the conquerors. When the Roman guards arrive and hail Caesar. with his Roman army. those of Caesar's ships anchored on the east side of the harbor can return to Rome. still unseen.) Act I opens with Cleopatra sleeping between the paws of a Sphinx. Caesar. choose to remain with Caesar. Cleopatra reluctantly agrees to maintain a queenly presence. which could overwhelm his relatively small contingent. because he "lived the life they had given him boldly". an island in the harbor accessible from the palace via a causeway that divides the harbor into eastern and western sections. used the Alternative Prologue rather than the original one. which is rich and huge. who restored her father to his throne when she was twelve years old. but greatly fears that Caesar will eat her anyway. a touch of madness. with the Egyptians threatening military action. Act II. anguished because fire from the blazing ships has spread to the Alexandrian library. but are told by Cleopatra's nurse. his military aide. but inflexibly demands a tribute whose amount disconcerts the Egyptians. not recognizing Caesar. He says that Pompey represents the old Rome and Caesar represents the new Rome. He draws a contrast between the old Rome. which has a defensible lighthouse at its eastmost tip. concealed in a rolled-up carpet. At first Caesar imagines the sphinx is speaking in a girlish voice. wandering lonely in the desert night. knowing of Caesar's weakness for women. to the dismay of Rufio. as if he could see them in the theater. fearing Ptolemy's associates. A Nubian watchman flees to Cleopatra's palace and warns those inside that Caesar and his armies are less than an hour away. is at hand and that the citizenry is attacking Caesar's soldiers. tries to dismiss all other matters but is interrupted by Cleopatra's nagging for attention. according to Ra. Cleopatra has been driven into Syria by her brother. He indulges her briefly while she speaks amorously of Mark Antony. the savant. The gods favored Caesar. and Pothinus (for reasons of his own). the captain of Cleopatra's guard is warned that Caesar has landed and is invading Egypt. Theodotus. A siege is imminent. which was poor and little. Cleopatra suddenly realizes he has been with her all along. proclaims the king and courtiers prisoners of war. Achillas (general of Ptolemy's troops). but Caesar. As an inducement. replies. and Pharos. their battle at Pharsalia. Rufio discovers the ships he was ordered to destroy have been torched by Achillo's forces and are already burning. The guards. the rivalry exists because. made in 1945. Caesar's solution is acceptable to none and his concern for Ptolemy makes Cleopatra fiercely jealous. However. in 1944 during Operation Panzerfaust. Her gushing about the youth and beauty of Mark Antony are unflattering to Caesar. Caesar greets all with courtesy and kindness. Caesar says he will settle the dispute between the claimants for the Egyptian throne by letting Cleopatra and Ptolemy reign jointly. Only Cleopatra (with her retinue). they detest each other with a mutual antipathy no less murderous for being childish. From Pharos. Watching from a balcony. plan to persuade him to proclaim Cleopatra—who may be controllable—Egypt's ruler instead of Ptolemy. now occupying Egypt. search out the Nile's source and a city there. alerted by Ftatateeta's distress. Cleopatra enthusiastically agrees and. and Apollodorus. He is watching for signs of an impending counter-attack by Egyptian forces arriving via ship and by way of the Heptastadion. Swimming to a Roman ship in the eastern harbor becomes the sole possibility for escape. As a practicality. Matters worsen when Britannus. The sentinel tells her she is a prisoner and orders her back inside the palace. as her champion. who is distressed because of the rigors of her journey and even more so when she finds Caesar too preoccupied with military matters to accord her much attention. Apollodorus dives in readily and Caesar follows. With the threat diminished. He hires a small boat. They complain about its weight. The festivities are interrupted by a scream. Rufio. Cleopatra claims responsibility for the slaying and Caesar reproaches her for taking shortsighted vengeance. who is a prisoner of war. But Cleopatra is enraged at Pothinus' allegation and secretly orders her nurse. She is sent back to the palace. becomes suspicious and attempts. to recall the boat after it departs. They part. however. unsuccessfully. shows little interest in the carpets. conversation grows lively when world-weary Caesar suggests to Cleopatra they both leave political life. suffering paroxysms of anxiety. Rufio diagnoses Caesar's woes as signs of hunger and gives him dates to eat. and they begin to storm the palace. who is not a prisoner. A centurion intervenes and avers Cleopatra will not be allowed outside the palace until Caesar gives the order. the falling bag breaks its prow and it quickly sinks. then Rufio takes the plunge. followed by a thud: Pothinus has been murdered and his body thrown from the roof down to the beach. deeming it better to convert his enemies to friends than to waste his time with prosecutions. Rufio. 39 . Caesar considers that a natural motive and is not offended. and Pothinus to tell Caesar that Cleopatra is a traitress who is only using Caesar to help her gain the Egyptian throne. she screaming mightily. Doom seems inevitable. engages in swordplay with the sentinel. who is her favorite god. Cleopatra to be hostess at a feast prepared for Caesar and his lieutenants. who was a popular hero. to name the city. Caesar draws up a battle plan and leaves to speak to the troops. who has been observing the movements of the Egyptian army. Britannus cannot swim. but then they learn that reinforcements. now captured and occupied by Caesar. The porters leave the palace bearing a rolled carpet. Caesar unrolls the carpet and discovers Cleopatra. where she may select a carpet for delivery to Caesar.lives than dream them away with the help of books. eating dates and resting after the day's battle. Apollodorus. Ftatateeta. he casts the bag into the sea. accompanied by a retinue of porters carrying a bale of carpets. As Cleopatra's boat arrives. (a stone causeway spanning the five miles of open water between the mainland and Pharos Island). barely allowing time for Appolodorus to drag the carpet. The sentinel's vigil is interrupted by Ftatateeta (Cleopatra's nurse) and Apollodorus the Sicilian (a patrician amateur of the arts). They do so with great relish. reports the enemy now controls the causeway and is also approaching rapidly across the island. so he is instructed to defend himself as well as possible until a rescue can be arranged. across the eastern harbor. discuss what will happen when Caesar eventually leaves and disagree over whether Cleopatra or Ptolemy should rule. both army and civilian. At the feast the mood is considerably restrained by Caesar's ascetic preference for simple fare and barley water versus exotic foods and wines. commanded by Mithridates of Pergamos have engaged the Egyptian army. The besieging Egyptians. to kill him. Caesar scorns to read them. seeks help from Ra. but only Ftatateeta. Act III. are enraged by the killing of Pothinus. for activity at the Pharos lighthouse. Caesar's outlook brightens as he eats them. so he kills her in turn. realizes Ftatateeta was Pothinus' killer. pointing out that his clemency towards Pothinus and the other prisoners has kept the enemy at bay. Cleopatra and Pothinus. However. hears Caesar speaking somberly of his personal misgivings and predicting they will lose the battle because age has rendered him inept. Cleopatra and Britannus help Caesar don his armor and he goes forth to battle. and expresses a desire to visit Caesar at the lighthouse. to the west. A friendly craft soon rescues all the swimmers. The sentinel. for the purpose. and its queenly contents safe ashore. he notes the Egyptian firefighters will be diverted from attacking Caesar's soldiers. At scene's end. left alone and utterly forlorn discovers the bloodied body concealed behind a curtain. with a single boatmen. will deliver it since he is free to travel in areas behind the Roman lines. after privately instructing Rufio and Britannus to toss Cleopatra into the water so she can hang on while he swims to safety. Meanwhile. Cleopatra is enraged. Meanwhile. Cleopatra emerges from the palace. Six months elapse with Romans and Cleopatra besieged in the palace in Alexandria. Cleopatra. A Roman sentinel stationed on the quay in front of the palace looks intently. knows Cleopatra is hidden in the bundle. from which Cleopatra is to select a gift appropriate for Caesar. He is himself again when Britannus exultantly approaches bearing a heavy bag containing incriminating letters that have passed between Pompey's associates and their army. Act IV. the god Ra says. Caesar lets his enemies go instead of killing them. who declines the offer in favor of remaining Caesar's servant. "ye shall marvel. Caesar approves the execution because it was not influenced by emotion. Clarissa is aware that she has a noncritical. was drowned when his barge sank. In good health at the age of fifty-two. 40 . Clarissa feels practically the same as she felt when she was eighteen and living in Wellfleet with her former lover Richard. Caesar remarks that he will not stoop to vengeance when confronted with Septimius." A second theme.[3] The murder enrages the Egyptian crowd. Caesar throws away letters that would have identified his enemies in Rome. Dalloway Summary Clarissa Vaughn remembers that she must buy flowers. Caesar appoints Rufio governor of the province and considers freedom for Britannus. that men twenty centuries ago were already just such as you.[1] Caesar understands the importance of good government. Cleopatra remains unforgiving until Caesar renews his promise to send Mark Antony to Egypt. but says it was not for the sake of punishment. Clarissa. she admires the June morning and feels lucky to be alive. to be disposed of as mere vermin. apparent both from the text of the play itself and from Shaw's lengthy notes after the play. she will have to ensure that the guests have a good time and that Richard gets through the evening without getting too tired." Another theme is the value of clemency. her neighbor Willie Bass catches sight of her and thinks about how she must have been beautiful at one point but that time has dragged her downwards. instead choosing to try to win them to his side. That renders her ecstatic as the ship starts moving out to sea. A conversation ensues that foreshadows Caesar's eventual assassination. arrives.” He chose this pet name because of her first name. is Shaw's belief that people have not been morally improved by civilization and technology. revenge or justice: He killed her without malice because she was a chronic menace. After the party. Caesar prepares to leave for Rome. Mrs. she will lead him uptown to receive the Carrouthers Prize for his poetry. Sally. She accuses Rufio of murdering Ftatateeta.Act V is an epilogue. She leaves her lover. after your ignorant manner. people would perceive her as stupid for being so easy to please. and her destiny to “charm and to prosper” like the character in the Virginia Woolf novel of the same name. no worse and no better. This probably contrasts with historical fact. On the street. but she knows that if she were to express herself fully. Clarissa will host a party that evening in honor of Richard’s award. [edit] Themes Shaw wants to prove that it was not love but politics that drew Cleopatra to Julius Caesar. The god Ra addresses the audience and says. As the gangplank is being extended from the quay to Caesar's ship. the murderer of Pompey. and values these things above art and love. Rufio admits the slaying. As Clarissa waits at a stoplight. Dalloway. dressed in mourning for her nurse. Despite this awareness of the potential criticisms of others. "the blood and iron ye pin your faith on fell before the spirit of man. She feels badly for loving the beauty of the day so much that she can forget about Richard’s troubles for a minute. She remembers stepping out of glass doors on a similar day. His forces have swept Ptolemy's armies into the Nile. As the hostess. Pothinus remarks that Caesar doesn't torture his captives. Amidst great pomp and ceremony. when Richard put his hand on her shoulder and greeted her by calling her “Mrs. As she steps outside. At several points in the play. The wisdom of this approach is revealed when Cleopatra orders her nurse to kill Pothinus because of his "treachery and disloyalty" (but really because of his insults to her). He sees the Roman occupation of ancient Egypt as similar to the British occupation that was occurring during his time. Clarissa believes her capacity to enjoy things is the deepest part of her soul. and spoke and lived as ye speak and live. Cleopatra. and but for Mithridates' reinforcements would have meant the death of all the protagonists.[2] Shaw's philosophy has often been compared to that of Nietzsche. Clarissa thinks about how Richard’s literary success will be cut short by AIDS. Caesar only endorses the retaliatory murder of Cleopatra's nurse because it was necessary and humane. Their shared admiration for men of action shows itself in Shaw's description of Caesar's struggle with Pompey. In the prologue. himself. for the spirit of man is the will of the gods. cleaning the bathroom and dashes out of the house. A line from the prologue clearly illustrates this point. and Ptolemy. no wiser and no sillier. romantic point of view. Most important. 1925 publisher · Hogarth Press. He makes a point about the eternal nature of the ideas of mortality. The literary form respects the ordinary details of the life of an ordinary woman. Analysis Clarissa has a sensitive perception of the world. and she drinks in the pleasures of the store. For example. through her thought process and her contact with the objects and people she sees. It also describes in minute detail the shopping trip that Clarissa takes. and as they chat Clarissa invites Walter and Evan to the party that night. Clarissa looks over the flowers and thinks about which to buy. when a shattering sound comes from the street outside. Clarissa’s relationship with her daughter. and by extension Clarissa may feel the same way. She feels guilty that she hasn’t become better friends with Barbara. but she also thinks that Richard is unfair to her by wanting her to be more than she can be. we learn that her major relationships with the people she cares about most are conflicted. Woolf most often uses free indirect discourse. the publishing house created by Leonard and Virginia Woolf in 1917 narrator · Anonymous. point of view · Point of view changes constantly. Cunningham plays off of Woolf’s structure and style the way a jazz musician plays off an established riff. By mirroring the first chapter of Mrs. Clarissa notices that a movie production is filming on the street in front of the shop. beauty. Though essentially a happy person. and Clarissa resents Mary for turning Julia against her. as she pokes her head out of a trailer to see if everything is okay. we hear about Richard’s tendency to argue with Clarissa soon after she physically bumps into Walter in the park. whom Richard thinks is shallow. She loves the eternity of the city. and Cunningham’s Clarissa and Woolf’s Clarissa both find beauty in small pieces of the world. the feeling that it’s been this way forever. who Clarissa thinks might be Meryl Streep or Vanessa Redgrave. Clarissa thinks sadly that if Richard were healthier. This voice appears occasionally among the subjective thoughts of characters. Barbara. As she looks in the window of a bookstore. and contemplation that mattered so much to Woolf. is semiestranged. Dalloway. a literary technique that describes the interior thoughts of characters using third-person singular pronouns (he and she). Dalloway has the Clarissa going out to buy flowers for a party that she will be throwing that night. The memory seems to come from a childhood vacation she took with her family to Wisconsin. she has a memory of a branch tapping against a window. This technique ensures that transitions between the thoughts of a large number of characters are subtle and smooth. In this short recap of Clarissa’s morning. As she walks in. Clarissa continues walking down the street and regrets not buying the dress for her daughter. She has guilt about her health. Key Facts genre · Modernist. Clarissa falls in love with every detail of the city. Dalloway in Sussex in 1922 and completed the novel in London in 1924.As she walks through the park. she sometimes sees herself as shallow. Clarissa’s conflict with herself becomes evident. date of first publication · May 14. The beginning of Mrs. who wants to be an opera singer and faced a close call with breast cancer the year before. Dalloway. about her ability to enjoy things. Clarissa contemplates buying her daughter. She feels a bond with Richard and sadness at losing him to illness. She and Barbara both look outside and catch sight of a famous movie star. 41 . The omniscient narrator is a commenting voice who knows everything about the characters. Clarissa bumps into Walter Hardy. revealing that Clarissa thinks that life is beautiful and worth describing and cherishing. Julia. The critique of Sir William Bradshaw’s reverence of proportion and conversion is the narrator’s most sustained appearance. Before entering the flower shop. but Richard thinks Sally is unexciting. Clarissa imagines what Richard would comment on if he could walk around with her. Walter’s lover Evan has been doing much better on his new HIV drugs. she greets the owner. and she realizes that her memory means more to her than any book that she could find in the store. feeling guilty about the extravagance. her insecurities. and her conflicted relationships with the people she loves. Julia. This moment triggers her reflection about how different the walk would be if Richard were well enough to join her. and the small moments that constitute the first chapter reveal her zest for life. often shifting from one character’s stream of consciousness (subjective interior thoughts) to another’s within a single paragraph. feminist time and place written · Woolf began Mrs. Cunningham introduces details and themes of Clarissa’s life slowly. formalist. a pretty dress but realizes that Julia would never wear it. she’d have been able to have a fight with him about her having invited Walter. Julia has been changed by her friend Mary Krull. Sally grounds Clarissa. Clarissa’s chapter recreates the first chapter of Woolf’s Mrs. and about the decisions she has made in her life. · Peter thinks of Clarissa when he wakes up from his nap in Regent’s Park and considers how she has the gift of making the world her own and standing out among a crowd. 1923. the second of six children. Although their relationship didn’t last. After returning to America and finding new work as a journalist.tone · The narrator is against the oppression of the human soul and for the celebration of diversity. There are many flashbacks to a summer at Bourton in the early 1890s. however. privacy. Men Without Women. setting (time) · A day in mid-June. eventually commits suicide due to the social pressures that oppress his soul. Intelligent and an avid nature lover. as are the book’s major characters. falling action · Clarissa returns to her party and is viewed from the outside. but Hemingway wanted to enter the army or become a writer. the fear of death. Hemingway met and married Elizabeth Hadley Richardson. Hemingway soon grew restless and left the Star to serve in the Red Cross. for example. themes · Communication vs. Hemingway later condemned them for their distinctly middle-class values and oppressive sense of morality. Hemingway demonstrated a clear talent for writing from a young age. a suburb of Chicago. While recovering from a knee injury in a hospital in Milan. We do not know whether she will change due to her moment of clarity. the threat of oppression motifs · Time. Both his mother and father were active members of the First Congregational Church and ran a strict household. 42 . Hemingway published “Hills Like White Elephants” in 1927 in his critically acclaimed second collection of short stories. factual sentences without too many negatives to deliver the facts in his articles. the old woman singing an ancient song foreshadowing · At the opening of the novel. The novel takes place largely in the affluent neighborhood of Westminster. Peter Walsh’s pocketknife and other weapons. protagonist · Clarissa Dalloway major conflict · Clarissa and other characters try to preserve their souls and communicate in an oppressive and fragmentary post–World War I England. The story’s numerous allusions and sparse style are also typical of Hemingway’s writing. and spent his early years in Oak Park.” a line he will repeat as the last line of the novel. Shakespeare. England. Hemingway began to hone his now-famous literary style during his years as a reporter. Peter states simply. Martha Gellhorn. particularly his lifelong difficulty building meaningful relationships. where the Dalloways live. “there she was. His editors instructed him to write short. tense · Though mainly in the immediate past. he published his first literary work at age seventeen. Clarissa recalls having a premonition one June day at Bourton that “something awful was about to happen. He later incorporated this writing style into his own fiction writing. trees and flowers. the old woman in the window. while her double. waves and water symbols · The prime minister. When his father refused to allow him to enlist. and were strictly punished for any disobedience. Hills Like White Elephants Ernest Hemingway Context Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21. but we do know that she will endure. he based his novel A Farewell To Arms (1929) on their romance. Sometimes the mood is humorous. 1899. disillusionment with the British Empire. She identifies with him and is glad he did it.” This sensation anticipates Septimus’s suicide. when Clarissa was eighteen. Clarissa goes to a small room to contemplate Septimus’s suicide. believing that he preserved his soul. His father encouraged him to attend college after finishing high school. All their children were required to abstain from any enjoyment on Sundays. Hemingway left home and began reporting for the Kansas City Star. He subsequently married Pfeiffer and had two more children. Septimus Warren Smith. This third marriage lasted roughly ten years. Peter’s dream of the solitary traveler is in the present tense. the couple divorced because of Hemingway’s affair with Pauline Pfeiffer. where he worked as an ambulance driver in Europe during World War I. when Clarissa appears again at her party. rising action · Clarissa spends the day organizing a party that will bring people together. setting (place) · London. he fell in love with a nurse named Agnes von Kurosky. but it dissolved like the others when he fell in love with yet another mistress. but an underlying sadness is always present. He wove many autobiographical elements into the story. but he left her after twelve years to marry another mistress. climax · At her party. In fact. Soon after giving birth to their first child. confused. When the man still persists. but when pressured. the baby—to elephants also recalls the expression “the elephant in the room. Analysis of Major Characters The American Throughout the story. the girl herself implies this when she remarks that she and the American man never do anything together except try new drinks. moreover. Hemingway’s overly masculine character. and that they’re actually quite lovely. In fact. “Jig. as if constantly looking for new ways to avoid each other. In fact. and Symbols Themes Talking versus Communicating Although “Hills Like White Elephants” is primarily a conversation between the American man and his girlfriend. In fact. The girl. The girl’s inability to speak Spanish with the bartender. They start drinking large beers the moment they arrive at the station as if hoping to fill their free time with anything but discussion. and indecisive. he tackles them head on by oversimplifying the operation and relentlessly pushing her to have it. he seems to identify more with the other passengers “waiting reasonably” at the station than with his own girlfriend at the end of the story. the girl seems to understand that her relationship with the American has effectively ended. which suggests that the two will go their separate ways. She changes her mind about the attractiveness of the surrounding hills. Comparing the hills—and. She knows that even if she has the operation. who never really understands why they still can’t have “the whole world” like they once did. not only illustrates her dependence on the American but also the difficulty she has expressing herself to others. offhand remark. when his mental and physical health took a turn for the worse. please. and seems uncertain about whether she wants to have the operation. Although they drink primarily to avoid thinking about the pregnancy. and always in control of himself and the situation at hand. Ironically. highlighting the rift between the two. he patronizes the girl and fails to provide the sympathy and understanding she needs during the crisis. claims to selflessly care only for the American. for example. she finally begs him to “please.” a euphemism for something painfully obvious that no one wants to discuss. He died in the summer of 1961 from a self-inflicted gunshot wound at age sixty-one. readers sense that deeper problems exist in their relationship. By the end of their conversation. the girl’s unborn child. the girl asks to order more drinks to put off the inevitable conversation about the baby. the girl can’t even order drinks from the bartender on her own without having to rely on the man’s ability to speak Spanish. The girl’s comment in the beginning of the story that the surrounding hills look like white elephants initially seems to be a casual. Both talk. please. at one point conceding that she’ll have the abortion just to shut him up. Hemingway struggled with depression and alcoholism for most of his adult life. Frustrated and placating. realizing the futility of their conversation. Motifs Drinking Both the American man and the girl drink alcohol throughout their conversation to avoid each other and the problems with their relationship. please. the American behaves according to Hemingway’s rigid conception of masculinity. despite her professed desire to make him happy. which. the girl’s realization of this fact gives her power over the American. Themes. waffles indecisively. please. the girl appears helpless. The Girl Compared to the American. Many critics claim that his writing deteriorated after World War II. meanwhile.” subtly indicates that the two characters merely dance around each other and the issue at hand without ever saying anything meaningful. their relationship won’t return to how it used to be. 43 . she even says that the hills only seemed to look like white elephants at first glance. In many ways. although never mentioned by name. Thinking himself to be the more reasonable of the two. but it actually serves as a segue for her and the American to discuss their baby and the possibility of having an abortion. both drink alone—the girl at the table and the man at the bar—suggesting that the two will end their relationship and go their separate ways. such as when he tells the girl he doesn’t care whether she has the operation. Throughout the story. of which the baby is merely one. Uncompromising. the American man will say almost anything to convince his girlfriend to have the operation. as soon as they begin talking about the hills that look like white elephants. please” stop talking. Symbols White Elephants A white elephant symbolizes something no one wants—in this story. but neither listens or understands the other’s point of view. a subtle hint that perhaps she wants to keep the baby after all—a hint the American misses. He initially avoids discussion of their problems. Even when vexed or confused. worldly.Despite his success. the girl’s nickname. the girl is less assertive and persuasive. Then. and that everything between them will go back to the way it used to be. neither of the speakers truly communicates with the other. In fact. metaphorically. Hemingway portrays the American as a rugged man’s man—knowledgeable. he maintains his cool and feigns indifference. is understood to be an abortion. for example. Motifs. He tells her he loves her. The girl later retracts this comment with the observation that the hills don’t really look like white elephants. The year is not given. whom he calls Jig. Others have called his writing overly masculine—there are no beautiful phrases or breathtaking passages. "You've got to realize that I don't want you to do it if you don't want to." However. He walks back through the station. please stop talking?" He is silent a while. This is an allegory which develops into mixed feelings as the story unfolds. and does not know the taste of. "Everything tastes of 44 . so does Hemingway’s dialogue belie the unstated tension between his characters. while Jig could see the child as an extraordinary addition to her mundane life of drinking and mindless traveling. Hemingway also avoids using dialogue tags. "I’ll scream. This particular day is oppressively hot and dry. before rejoining Jig.[1] "Hills Like White Elephants" shows Hemingway's use of iceberg theory or theory of omission: a message is presented through a story's subtext. Hemingway firmly believed that perfect stories conveyed far more through subtext than through the actual words written on the page. Jig muses.The Iceberg Theory and Hemingway’s Style Many first-time readers read “Hills Like White Elephants” as nothing more than a casual conversation between two people waiting for a train and therefore miss the unstated dramatic tension lurking between each line. "Do you feel better?" She again smiles at him. "The train comes in five minutes. The American could see the baby as a white elephant and not want to raise it because of the cost. The more a writer strips away. As a result. he then responds. but the American persists as if still unsure of Jig's intentions and mental state.[2] The title of the story. In fact." and adds. many people don’t realize that the two are actually talking about having an abortion and going their separate ways. In “Hills Like White Elephants. He leaves the table and carries their bags to the opposing platform. alone. but then smiles brightly at the woman and thanks her. becomes. but is almost certainly contemporary to the composition (1920s). She insists. and the scenery in the valley is barren and ugly for the most part." He continues. She notes.” or story. Just as the visible tip of an iceberg hides a far greater mass of ice underneath the ocean surface.” for example. Innocence is revealed when Jig orders a drink that she has never had before. the more powerful the “iceberg. The two main characters are a man (referred to only as "the American") and his female companion. Hemingway stripped so much from his stories that many of his contemporary critics complained that his fiction was little more than snippets of dialogue strung together. Pausing at the bar. both the American man and the girl speak in short sentences and rarely utter more than a few words at a time." is an allegory of the innocence of what seemed to be but is not (Jig's lust towards an American man) from Jig's perspective in regards to her affair with a man who simply sees the pleasure in being with her in the flesh. he drinks another Anis. just the sheer basics." Jig was distracted. After posing arguments to which the American is largely unresponsive. "Hills Like White Elephants." among numerous context clues) that Jig is pregnant and that the procedure in question is an abortion. Symbolism and setting Jig's reference to white elephants could be in regard to the baby." The story ends. it is made clear (through phrases of dialogue such as "It's just to let the air in" and "But I don't want anybody but you. Hemingway’s fans. Their conversation is mundane at first. "But I don't want you to.. "Would you please please . in "Hills Like White Elephants" the word 'abortion' is never uttered although the male character seems to be attempting to convince his girlfriend to have an abortion. "Hills Like White Elephants" is a short story by Ernest Hemingway." She attempts to drop the subject. He then asks her. Hemingway stripped everything but the bare essentials from his stories and novels. but quickly drifts to the subject of an operation which the American is attempting to convince Jig to undergo. and repeats. While waiting for the train to Madrid. Plot summary The story takes place at a train station in the Ebro River valley of Spain. let alone why the story was so revolutionary for its time. however. "I don't care anything about it. It was first published in the 1927 collection Men Without Women.” and skips any internal monologues. which Jig compares to liquorice." The barmaid comes out through the beaded curtains with two glasses of beer and puts them down on the damp felt pads. "I feel fine. and everyone else is still waiting reasonably for the train. In accordance with his so-called Iceberg Theory.. I feel fine. but still no sight of the train in the distance. for instance. Jig next assents to the operation." She interjects. believing that fewer misleading words paint a truer picture of what lies beneath. These elements leave the characters’ thoughts and feelings completely up to the reader’s own interpretations. leaving readers to sift through the remaining dialogue and bits of narrative on their own. such as “he said” or “she said. Though it is never made explicit in the text. the American and Jig drink beer and a liquor called Anís del Toro. while saying: "I don't care about me. "I'm perfectly willing to go through with it if it means anything to you. have lauded his style for its simplicity. There's nothing wrong with me. like absinthe (sometimes valued as an aphrodisiac). and goes on saying. like absinthe. other parts of the setting provide symbolism which expresses the tension and conflict surrounding the couple. Absalom. "Just because you say I wouldn't have doesn't prove anything. Some critics have written that the dialogue is a distillation of the contrasts between stereotypical male and female relationship roles: in the excerpt above." She also asks his permission to order a drink. and also emotionally. Jig draws a simple simile by describing the hills across the desolate valley as looking like white elephants. the tone and pattern of dialogue indicate that there may be deeper problems with the relationship than the purely circumstantial. "I've never seen one. the contentious nature of the couple's conversation indicates resentment and unease. Jig is the one who is pregnant. traveling reluctantly from rejection to acceptance of the idea of an abortion). the American takes the initiative to pick up the couple's luggage and port it to the "other tracks" on the opposite side of the station. "It isn't ours anymore.[3] The reference to the white elephants may also bear a connection to the baby as 'a valuable possession of which its owner cannot dispose and whose cost (particularly cost of upkeep) is out of proportion to its usefulness. symbolizing his sense of primacy in making the decision to give up their child and betraying his insistence to Jig that the decision is entirely in her hands. and nursing pads. the American is rational." the man drank this beer. this symbolism combined with Jig's question "That's all we do. hedonistic circus-like lifestyle has become something of a metaphorical white elephant to her. let's try and have a fine time. for instance.licorice. "There's nothing wrong with me. The train tracks form a dividing line between the barren expanse of land stretching toward the hills on one side and the green. she concludes. and their attitudes toward one another." the man said. To avoid this impending responsibility. From the outset of the story. The American answers.[5] While the American attempts to frame the fetus as the source of the couple's discontent with life and one another. Especially all the things you’ve waited so long for. the American views the couple's unborn child as an approaching obstacle. Throughout the story." she said. he attempts to manipulate Jig into having an abortion by presenting the operation as a simple procedure that is in her best interests. "What does it say?" "Anis del Toro. The implication is that." This clearly reflects that. which is a pun intended as a nod toward abortion. The symbolism of the hills and the big white elephant can be thought of as the image of the swollen breasts and abdomen of a pregnant woman. a panacea for all that is ailing her and troubling their relationship. Jig draws the comparison with white elephants.[4] At the end of the story. you wouldn't have. "Well. a few have argued for alternate scenarios based upon the same dialogue. a symbol of fertility.' Apart from the eponymous hills. Jig is distant." implies that the couple's perpetually ambling. I feel fine." The girl looked at the bead curtain. She does go on to express his immorality towards her as she expresses that everything to her tastes like licorice. It appears that she seeks more stability and permanence in life. merely end up "tasting like licorice. isn't it--look at things and try new drinks" and her statement that even exciting new things she has waited a long time to try. on the table." Dialogue "They look like white elephants. a symbol of prestigious leadership) presents her with a lotus flower. in her innocence. "Oh cut it out". rarely making eye contact with the American. and in the end. "No. Absalom! William Faulkner Context 45 . Jig focuses on the landscape during the conversation. and to the prenatal dream of the mother of the future Buddha in which a white elephant (in this case. symbolizing the choice faced by each of the main characters and their differing interpretations of the dilemma of pregnancy. while most critics have espoused relatively straightforward interpretations of the dialogue (with Jig as the dynamic character. fertile farmland on the other." The title of the story refers to an aspect of its setting which is symbolically important in many ways. It's a drink. just as Jig thinks the hills in the distance look like white elephants. dissolving the bit of poetry into objective realism with "I've never seen one. a hindrance to the status quo or status quo ante. Meanwhile. she is confused." "I might have. "They've painted something on it." "Could we try it?" The reader must interpret their dialogue and body language to infer their backgrounds and their attitudes with respect to the situation at hand." she said. Furthermore. as he abused her physically. Some have noted the similarity of the two damp felt pads.This reflects her intoxication which goes beyond the physical." she states of the carefree lifestyle she and the American have been pursuing from one hotel to the next. This ambiguity leaves a good deal of room for interpretation. but the hyper-rational male immediately denies it. and also demonstrating how the human mind reconstructs the past in the present imagination. a black man. and sacrifice in each character's life. Absalom! is one of Faulkner’s fifteen novels set in fictional Yoknapatawpha County. Faulker tells a single story from a number of perspectives. Sutpen has a son and a daughter. following the birth of his and Milly's daughter. they enlist. and he and Bon flee to New Orleans. who is preparing to leave Jefferson to attend Harvard. killing herself and Henry. Sutpen’s story is told by several narrators. to hear the story of how Sutpen destroyed her family and his own. Absalom! draws characters from The Sound and the Fury. imposing man named Thomas Sutpen comes to Jefferson. He buys a hundred square miles of land from an Indian tribe. The novel explores the relationship between 46 . an engagement between them is assumed. Henry murders him in front of the gates of the Sutpen plantation. Charles meets Judith. Decades later. capturing the conflict. When war breaks out. a wild. Although the novel’s complex and fragmented structure poses considerable difficulty to readers. Rosa attempts to return for Henry with an ambulance. and bringing the Sutpen dynasty to a fiery end. and on the day Bon arrives to marry Judith. Henry goes to college at the University of Mississippi in 1859. Light in August. The map shows events that happen in Sartoris. Absalom!—rank among the finest novels of world literature. The greatest of these novels—among them The Sound and the Fury. His prose style—which combines long. he is also. This is the first of Faulkner’s novels in which he includes a chronology and a map of the fictitious setting to better enable the reader to understand the context for the novel’s events. Henry and Judith. and later telling it in detail to his Harvard roommate Shreve. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1949. the book’s literary merits place it squarely in the ranks of America’s finest novels. This unusual technique spotlights one of the novel’s central questions: To what extent can people know the truth about the past? Faulkner’s novels and short stories often relate to one another. and becomes a broken—though still forceful—man. in part. racism. and meets a sophisticated fellow student named Charles Bon. His ambition and extreme need for control bring about his ruin and the ruin of his family. Faulkner achieved a reputation as one of the greatest American novelists of the 20th century largely based on his series of novels about a fictional region of Mississippi called Yoknapatawpha County. The story of a man hell-bent on establishing a dynasty and a story of love and hatred between races and families. Mississippi. At the end of the war. Absalom!. with a group of slaves and a French architect in tow. it is also an exploration of how people relate to the past. Absalom! is considered by many to be William Faulkner’s masterpiece. Faulkner was especially interested in moral themes relating to the ruins of the Deep South in the post-Civil War era. Sanctuary. Quentin Compson is a twenty-year-old man. Henry repudiates his birthright. The story concerns Thomas Sutpen. He is summoned by Miss Rosa Coldfield. sets fire to the manor house. Absalom. but Clytie. a poor man who finds wealth and then marries into a respectable family. Quentin is drawn deeper and deeper into the Sutpen story. uninterrupted sentences with long strings of adjectives. including slavery. Summary In 1833. where they find Henry Sutpen— now an old man— waiting to die.William Faulkner was born in New Albany. Absalom. Over the following weeks and months. discussing it with his father. plants cotton. and spend four hard years fighting for the Confederacy as the South crumbles around them. and over time. Thomas Sutpen's daughter with a slave woman and now a withered old woman herself. Henry reacts with outrage. frequent changes in narration. The Sound and the Fury. whereby the inner experience of a character in a scene is contrasted with the scene's outward appearance—ranks among his greatest achievements. thinking about it. raises a manor house. The story is burned into his brain the night he goes with Miss Rosa to the Sutpen plantation. Further. he readily condemns many aspects of its history and heritage in Absalom. Absalom. in September 1897. But Sutpen realizes that Bon is actually his own son—Henry and Judith's half-brother—from a previous marriage which he abandoned when he discovered that his wife had negro blood. and Light in August. The map includes captions noting areas where certain events take place. he slides slowly into alcoholism. He tells Henry that the engagement cannot be. Absalom! is perhaps Faulkner's most focused attempt to expose the moral crises which led to the destruction of the South. violence. the sister of Sutpen's wife Ellen (and briefly Sutpen's fiancee herself). and continues in that vein until. who grow up in a life of uncultivated ease in the northern Mississippi countryside. and marries the daughter of a local merchant. the grandson of Sutpen's first friend in the country (General Compson). He reveals the unsavory side of southern morals and ethics. in 1909. As I Lay Dying. Absalom! Despite Faulkner’s roots in the South. Published in 1936. and it anticipates the action and themes of Intruder in the Dust. whom he befriends and brings home for Christmas. Sutpen returns to a broken house. he died in Mississippi in 1962. as well as those that occur in Absalom. Absalom. refusing to believe that Bon knew all along and willingly became engaged to his own sister. centered on the fictional town of Jefferson. begins an affair with a fifteen-year-old white girl named Milly. Months later. allowing the reader to observe variations in the saga as it is recounted by different speakers. many recursive asides. he is murdered by Milly's grandfather Wash Jones in 1869.consciousness technique. and a frequent reliance on a sort of objective stream-of. and within a few years is entrenched among the local aristocracy. and Absalom. That knowledge makes Henry revolt against Bon in a way that even the idea of incest did not. Sutpen (a colonel) finds his son and reveals to him that not only is Bon his and Judith's half-brother. Mississippi. and that Bon is Henry's own brother. possible homosexuality. As a narrator. What Faulkner attempts to do is to adjust his style to his subject matter. Mr. whereas Quentin presents his narration with great passion. Faulkner's style throughout many of his novels has been a restraining hindrance for many readers. a technique whereby the author approaches his material in circular movements rather than heading directly to the heart of the story). he does not use a straightforward method of relating the story. During this technique of circumlocution (that is. the style reflects the way which the story actually occurred. motivations. Compson had too little concern about the story and tended to view it only as support to his own view of life. That is to say. facts. but again it was years before anyone knew all of the facts surrounding this death. this is Faulkner's method of making you become a part of the story. years later. Possibly the story is too great or too violent to be told in a straight. And every sentence reminds the reader that this story is not one that can be told with simplicity. Critical Essays William Faulkner's Writing Style Many readers find that Faulkner's style is the most difficult aspect of this particular novel to overcome. Miss Rosa was too deeply involved to be objective and was also too bitter and warped by being connected with Thomas Sutpen. Faulkner's style suggests also the way that story actually occurred. nothing was known about him for a long time. Compson has only a mild and sardonic interest in the subject matter. the more experienced reader of Faulkner's entire works knows something about Quentin from an earlier novel. This type of technique would fall very flat if Faulkner used a simple expository prose. pulsating rhythms of his style until we become totally emerged in Faulkner's strange but vivid world so that when we follow Henry and Bon onto the battlefield. It would be dangerous to go too rapidly into the story. The complexity of the narration is another way Faulkner uses to indicate and to suggest the complexity that man (particularly Quentin) must face in arriving at the truth. He does not feel that the story has any meaning except to illustrate that all men are victims of a hostile universe. the difficult sentences retard the reader at first. it is not just Shreve and Quentin following them. from fragment to fragment. The Sutpen story conceals many important revelations and truths which need to be revealed. If the sentences surround you and envelop you and entangle you in the story. simple narration. And it is from Quentin that the reader draws his final impression. he will tell the reader a little about a certain event. then the reader must know something about his character. the reader gradually becomes aware of events. As the subject matter is told in circular movements. Both had sisters who were so close to them that the subject of incest was predominant to both characters. as does Shreve. we find out that Quentin is intensely concerned over his relationship with the past and with the reasons for modern man's present predicament. But with the difficulty of untangling Faulkner's complex style. fratricide. Likewise. and then he will drop it and later return to the event and tell the reader more and then drop it and then later return once more and tell more. As stated above he is intensely interested in his subject matter. Truth is not easy to discover. Quentin possesses the sensitivity and intelligence necessary for narration. we must review briefly his approach to his subject. We have already seen that Faulkner does not begin his story at the beginning. Sutpen appeared in Jefferson for one day. If we were suddenly confronted in simple factual prose with the facts of incest. because Mr. If. Then gradually a little information was discovered by General Compson. and then gradually it brought the reader into the story so personally that he became one of the actors or participants. The meaning of the story comes through the character of Quentin. and emotions. so is the style involved and circular. that is. Furthermore. And both had fathers who directly affected their destinies. Every sentence is almost as involved as is the entire novel. he is similar in many ways to the young Henry Sutpen. The style. We become or we identify with the strong. Therefore. then. It is through his eyes that the largest segment of the novel is presented. And since this novel is a part of a larger cycle or chronicle. lust. And before long. the reader becomes accustomed to the style and becomes. Then the death of Bon was announced to the town.. In fact. In other words. Faulkner's style has served its purpose: First. examining how past events affect modern decisions and to what extent modern people are responsible for the past. In Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury. But Quentin is far enough removed from the Sutpen myth so as to 47 . emphasizes the difficulty which man must encounter when he seeks after the real truth. etc. one of the narrators or one of the participants. to see how his style functions in this particular novel. Compson. Then later. But of more importance is Quentin's role in this individual novel. suddenly the very complexity of his style makes the bizarre plot more believable. then. but it is also we the readers who are also following them. they are supposed to. it held the reader back and confused him. more information was uncovered. He is constantly contemplating what his important ancestors of the past meant to him. This interest makes him better as a narrator than Mr. Part of the thrill and excitement of the novel is that the style is therefore adapted to the subject matter and the emotions.modern humanity and the past. we would think the story too incredible and too fantastic to believe. And finally. every sentence reflects the complexity of the subject matter. Character Analysis Quentin Compson If an author uses a narrator to relate a major portion of the novel. Shreve is able to respond to the story in a detached manner.view it more objectively. On the contrary. or by turning to the appendix of the novel and noting Quentin's suicide. and he is not prejudiced with preconceived ideas which would prevent him from responding objectively. he has a sincere desire to learn more about the South. but his knowledge has come from history books. Had a person from some part of the United States requested the same from Quentin. But with the addition of several narrators. With these qualifications. we see the value of Shreve as a listener. And we will also investigate man's efforts to determine the causes which influence man's present actions. that is. Faulkner is able to obviate the regional preconception and prejudices of the reader. he can at least realize that the old South was not built on a firm moral basis. and try to determine whether or not these causes stem from the old virtues. Compson Part of the force of Mr. There are no regional prejudices or sectional loyalties involved in his response. Apparently. Compson's view of the South and of the lives of those who were responsible for the destiny of the South is filled with pessimism and cynicism. Shreve has those qualities necessary for a good listener. It is as though he resents the nobility of the past and uses his resentment to ridicule all of life. It is a story he tells to illustrate that all of humanity is weak and pathetic. the story of Sutpen is the story of a strong man who failed. If such a man as Sutpen could not achieve his goals in life. his son. But why do we need Quentin? Without Quentin as the central narrator. He is sympathetic. Quentin must have a listener who is objective and yet responsive. particularly Quentin. Mr. An answer may be found by resorting to another novel (The Sound and the Fury). then weaker men are rather useless and pathetic. Likewise Henry's sanctioning of incest and his crime of fratricide both suggest the most extreme perversion of values — a perversion that is only equaled by the South's willingness to fight with great chivalry for such a perverted system of values as those embedded in the concept of slavery. Almost all of his comments are filled with cynicism. Shreve is familiar with the history and events which have molded the American culture. If he cannot determine the exact relationship he should hold with the past. Thus for Mr. thus universalizing the narration. in Quentin's tormented and violent denial that he hates the South lies his dual view of the South which he admires and the South which he castigates. he investigates to see how much responsibility he feels toward the South and toward his own past. It is not immediately apparent that Faulkner is using at least three narrators besides that of his own voice. Shreve Mccannon It is Shreve who asks Quentin to tell him about the South. That he doesn't entirely reject or accept the present South is indicated in his terribly tormented and ambiguous answer to Shreve's question: "Why do you hate the South?". He assumes his role of the detached and ironic commentator on the mores of the South and the value of life in general. But the important thing is that Shreve is not a United States citizen. If Mr. it is highly probable that he would have told a completely different story. Quentin's investigations lead him to believe that Sutpen's defeat and the South's defeat are correlated to each one's lack of a firm moral standard. 48 . With Quentin. Compson's narration and character is that it functions as a contrast to that of Quentin. Compson's narration had been handled by some other person completely separated from Quentin. what would we have? We would have only the bizarre and somewhat romanticized story of the rise and fall of an unusual man. determinism. Mr. Therefore. Compson. By choosing the most objective person as the listener. Thus by choosing a person outside the United States. The question of the responsibility that the modern Quentin must feel for those evils committed by his predecessors is left partially undetermined. The meaning of Sutpen's story becomes clear to Quentin as he tells it and as he realizes that no man and no section can set its personal aims above those of another man or above that of humanity in general. Critical Essays Structure and Meaning through Narration Perhaps the chief problem in reading this novel is the complexity of the narration. Quentin's failure to solve the dilemma contributed to his suicide. part of the force of the narration would be lost because Quentin must be seen in relation to the family influences and the background as represented by his father. It is therefore important that Quentin should know more about the entire Sutpen myth than does his father. A person from any part of the United States would have constantly had objections to Quentin's story. That he does feel some responsibility is indicated by the fact that he chose to tell the myth of Sutpen and in telling it probed deeply into its significance. we are able to investigate man's relationship with the past and his obligations to this past. Quentin must investigate the story to see if his father's view of life is justified. He knows that it is a part of his life and a part of his heritage. Compson is left as the son who lives in that world of transition between the old and new South. As a Canadian. Faulkner is able to subjectively involve the reader in his story. the story takes on added levels of meaning. Whereas the old general had performed all the acts of grandeur and heroism linked with the old South. and it becomes more the reader than Shreve who is the fourth person on the ride back to Sutpen's Hundred. Mr. and fatalism. Consequently. Basically it is as a result of his father's attitude toward the entire Sutpen story that Quentin chooses this story to tell when asked what the South is like. not from being involved in living that history. " For Miss Rosa. and 3) Quentin Compson. Miss Rosa's Narration The first and most fundamental narration is Miss Rosa's. Sutpen's proposal was her last chance to bring the "living fairy tale" not into "frustration's vicarious recompense" but into a living reality. Therefore. To Miss Rosa. She alleviated her romantic frustrations by projecting her romantic dreams into the Judith-Charles Bon marriage and she became "all polymath love's androgynous advocate. Likewise. and unlike Quentin. the myth. and yet another narrator in that each individual reader becomes one of the narrators as Faulkner forces us to add our own interpretation to the events. and once more Miss Rosa's dreams were shattered. Both were figures with whom she had had very little or no contact and who lived in a distant and strange world. begins to emerge as the prominent and most capable interpreter. Miss Rosa's main distortion or divergence from reality is her belief that Sutpen's refusal to allow the Judith-Bon marriage was "without rhyme or reason. therefore her approach. Her narration must be viewed with the realization that the forty-three years of her life since that outrageous request were years during which she brooded upon the events and shaped them in her mind so as to place the burden of guilt upon Sutpen. Unlike Miss Rosa." In later life. Consequently. or history has only one meaning to Miss Rosa: it is proof that man has no control over his destiny and that man is the victim of the hostile and irrational forces of the universe. William Faulkner. even though her ascription of evil to Sutpen is essentially correct in the total view of the novel. throughout all the narrations. is more distorted than the other narrations because she is unable to view the story with objectivity. there is the voice of the author. Compson's Narration Mr. he is not far enough away from it to view it seriously as an integral part of his past and heritage. And of course. Whereas Miss Rosa's interpretation must be sifted through extreme romanticism on the one hand and 49 . Thus. we can add another narrator in the person of Shreve. Miss Rosa put all her dreams into this union. Compson (Quentin's father). Bon was the epitome of the romantic and dashing hero. There are other helpers. Miss Rosa. and the hatred she felt for her father. For example. the past. But then Sutpen makes his outrageous request that they try to beget a male child before marriage. we have Mr. Mr. In fact. in order to eliminate the distortions from the truth in Miss Rosa's narration. Consequently. Consequently. it is not until the sixth chapter that Quentin. it was her romantic nature. What Miss Rosa failed to understand when attributing the Coldfield downfall to Sutpen was her complete and irrational romanticism. she looks back on Sutpen as possessing some superhuman and demonic quality which predetermined the fates of everyone with whom he came into contact. Let us now examine the three principal narrators (or narrations). Miss Rosa had only one more chance to live in her romantic world. inherited a romantic nature which was heightened by the strictness of her early life. her reasons for ascribing this evil to Sutpen are the effect of her personal disillusionment and are not the basic reasons for his defects. Compson serves as the generation once removed from the myth. Quentin's roommate. that was outraged by Sutpen's request because now all her romantic dreams were destroyed by the practical proposal. she views the myth as it directly affects the downfall of the Coldfield family and looks at the story in search of a reason for the family's destruction. in Quentin's section. Since Miss Rosa was the romanticist rather than the moralist. consequently. Compson's narration. not her moral sense. But then the marriage was destroyed. Unlike the Compsons. As the complete romanticist. she is constantly viewing with astonishment not just her acceptance but even the circumstances which led her to consider the possibility of marriage with Sutpen. it is necessary to ask when she started viewing Sutpen as a demon. being the earliest and the closest to the actual story. and she is never able to give a logical explanation of how the entire family was destroyed. An air of determinism (if not fatalism) pervades Miss Rosa's story. he is not close enough to it to be directly affected by it. therefore. the entire Coldfield family must be viewed as romantics. 2) Mr. Miss Rosa viewed the boredom and tedium of her life and projected her vicarious dreams into the wedding. She can find no other answer for the collapse of the entire Coldfield family other than to blame the demon and some hostile destiny. she fades from the action except as a point of reference. she is an active participant in the events narrated. By the end of the fifth chapter.The three main narrators are 1) Miss Rosa Coldfield. Therefore. Since Miss Rosa's connections with the Sutpen myth are the earliest chronologically. Miss Rosa's extreme romanticism is also seen in her reaction to the engagement of Charles and Judith. But before Quentin assumes his full role. Sutpen and Bon held one quality in common. her narration is covered essentially in the earliest sections of the novel. his roommate is always projecting himself into the story and offering his views. the most recently affected of the narrators. the guilt which she felt for causing her mother's death. Sutpen's evil derives basically from his failure to become the romantic chevalier for the entire Coldfield family. and the use of three interpreters — Miss Rosa. The fact that Quentin chose this particular story to illustrate what the "South is like" is a strong indication that he views this story as 1) having a direct bearing upon the present (both in a personal manner and in a general sociological manner) and 2) as having a direct correlation with the history and downfall of the entire South. He finds the myth insignificant except as an ironic commentary on the foibles of human nature and views the whole myth with a certain ironic detachment and sardonic cynicism. Quentin hopes to discover some answer to the present.extreme fatalism on the other hand. that this story and its implications are part of his heritage which cannot be ignored. But Quentin is more than just another narrator. Therefore. And in examining Sutpen's career. and then. to objectify the story and discover what meaning the myth has for him. Even though he feels a certain responsibility and personal involvement in the myth. Compson. and some from his talk with Henry Sutpen. Faulkner creates his story of the past. and by constant repetitions of the basic elements has endowed the story with a mythic quality. the title from the Hebrew. When asked to tell about the South. And in the fashion of the Greek dramatist. with the help of Shreve. Compson. That Sutpen's design failed in spite of Sutpen's great determination was proof to Mr. Mr. His narration. presents his interpretations of the story. Unlike Quentin. Therefore. However. Compson. the man of the past was also a victim of circumstances. Unlike Mr. he must establish the history which is to be examined. Faulkner implies that modern man has lost a certain amount of the old heroic qualities connected with the past. using Quentin as the final interpreter and having Quentin reiterate his relation to the story (it was a part of his heritage) again forces us — the readers — to accept the myth as a part of our heritage. Quentin had received his basic impressions of the myth through his father's and grandfather's recounting of the Sutpen story so that he has finally become so involved in the story that he has developed resistance to listening to it again. for Mr. objectifies much of Miss Rosa's distorted information. as the novel progresses. Thus by the end of the first chapter. By the end of the first chapter. by now. however. by examining the life and career of Sutpen. each of the interpreters (who also serve as narrators) gives his own particular interpretation of the myth. Compson's narration. his rise and the causes of his defeat. Compson. Both Quentin and Mr. he has already given all the basic facts of the story. So how can he convey the idea of myth and legend? Faulkner wanted to show man interpreting and reinterpreting his past. But this is almost impossible because the story is unknown. Quentin realizes that the present evils of the modern world are inherited because those who preceded him failed to distinguish between good and evil. Faulkner wished the reader to view this story as an old established legend. Quentin also examines the history and morals of the South. This task is made easier for him since he has removed himself from the immediate environment of the story. names of some characters from the Greeks. Mr. And also. Compson viewed the old South as more heroic and containing people of mammoth import but who were also victims of the southern system. Quentin chose this story not only because of his involvement in it but also because it illustrated certain facets of man's relationship to the past. the worth of the story lies in Sutpen's futile attempt to create and to bring to fruition a personal design which does not involve or invoke any outside help — a design which if successful would indicate that man can control his destiny. Quentin realizes that his is the same land. Compson of the weakness of the human race — of man's inability to determine his fate. the same atmosphere. Besides the use of constant repetition. the reader has all the information that a member of a Greek audience would possess when attending the theater to see the dramatist's reinterpretation of the House of Atreus or Oedipus myths. he also investigates the amount of responsibility a man of the present should feel for the sins and evils of his ancestors. is as directly involved as was Miss Rosa Coldfield. he refuses to view the story as important or as possessing any direct bearing upon the present world. he is still unable to objectify and determine accurately the reasons for the failure of Sutpen's design. Quentin also chose the Sutpen story because he hopes that he will be able. Compson. Therefore. in some ways. The novel diverges most significantly from the Greek method of presenting the myth in the most prominent inconsistency — the motivation each narrator attributes to Sutpen as the reason 50 . Quentin's Narration Quentin's narration brings the story into full perspective and provides the additional facts which were missing from the other interpretations — some of the facts coming from the grandfather who had not revealed them to Mr. The Sutpen story had been made a more integral part of his heritage through his grandfather's direct involvement with Sutpen. in that lesser parts of the history are now revealed for further interpretation. the same world in which Sutpen lived. is connected with Miss Rosa's in that both view man as being subjected to some preordained and capricious fate. To Mr. It was Faulkner's purpose to force the reader to accept the Sutpen story as an old established myth so that through the remainder of the story the reader would become involved in the reinterpretation of this ancient and familiar myth. and Quentin each narrate part of the story and attempt to interpret it — all contribute toward establishing a mythic tone. Faulkner has already started treating his tale as an established myth. Faulkner used other devices to establish a mythic quality: elements from the ancient myths. in addition to giving more factual information. And because of Quentin's desire to analyze these heroic qualities and to discover how the man of the present has lost these qualities. the Sutpen myth emphasized how little control man has over his destiny and provides him with a humorous and incongruous anecdote on human fallibility. he. some from Quentin's own investigations. In the first chapter of the novel. But first. The novel diverges most significantly from the Greek method of 51 . but again it was years before anyone knew all of the facts surrounding this death. Likewise. Every sentence is almost as involved as is the entire novel. possible homosexuality. And finally. Critical Essays Story as Myth in Faulkner's Work Faulkner wished the reader to view this story as an old established legend. he has already given all the basic facts of the story. the style reflects the way which the story actually occurred. we would think the story too incredible and too fantastic to believe. etc. the difficult sentences retard the reader at first. Therefore. This type of technique would fall very flat if Faulkner used a simple expository prose. using Quentin as the final interpreter and having Quentin reiterate his relation to the story (it was a part of his heritage) again forces us — the readers — to accept the myth as a part of our heritage. What Faulkner attempts to do is to adjust his style to his subject matter. But this is almost impossible because the story is unknown. Possibly the story is too great or too violent to be told in a straight. it held the reader back and confused him. And also. Therefore. they are supposed to. And before long. and emotions. Faulkner's style throughout many of his novels has been a restraining hindrance for many readers. to see how his style functions in this particular novel. Part of the thrill and excitement of the novel is that the style is therefore adapted to the subject matter and the emotions. lust. motivations. more information was uncovered.that Sutpen refused to allow the marriage of Judith and Bon. presents his interpretations of the story. Truth is not easy to discover. each of the interpreters (who also serve as narrators) gives his own particular interpretation of the myth. so is the style involved and circular. he does not use a straightforward method of relating the story. fratricide. In fact. Faulkner has already started treating his tale as an established myth. That is to say. as the novel progresses. the reader becomes accustomed to the style and becomes. If the sentences surround you and envelop you and entangle you in the story. every sentence reflects the complexity of the subject matter. In other words. The Sutpen story conceals many important revelations and truths which need to be revealed. In the first chapter of the novel. The complexity of the narration is another way Faulkner uses to indicate and to suggest the complexity that man (particularly Quentin) must face in arriving at the truth. and then gradually it brought the reader into the story so personally that he became one of the actors or participants. that is. then. During this technique of circumlocution (that is. one of the narrators or one of the participants. Faulkner's style suggests also the way that story actually occurred. years later. we must review briefly his approach to his subject. We become or we identify with the strong. If we were suddenly confronted in simple factual prose with the facts of incest. simple narration. a technique whereby the author approaches his material in circular movements rather than heading directly to the heart of the story). The style. as does Shreve. he must establish the history which is to be examined. But first. And every sentence reminds the reader that this story is not one that can be told with simplicity. and by constant repetitions of the basic elements has endowed the story with a mythic quality. but it is also we the readers who are also following them. this is Faulkner's method of making you become a part of the story. If.. and then. Faulkner used other devices to establish a mythic quality: elements from the ancient myths. As the subject matter is told in circular movements. Thus by the end of the first chapter. the reader has all the information that a member of a Greek audience would possess when attending the theater to see the dramatist's reinterpretation of the House of Atreus or Oedipus myths. the reader gradually becomes aware of events. it is not just Shreve and Quentin following them. It was Faulkner's purpose to force the reader to accept the Sutpen story as an old established myth so that through the remainder of the story the reader would become involved in the reinterpretation of this ancient and familiar myth. By the end of the first chapter. But on the basic level. We have already seen that Faulkner does not begin his story at the beginning. So how can he convey the idea of myth and legend? Faulkner wanted to show man interpreting and reinterpreting his past. from fragment to fragment. he will tell the reader a little about a certain event. Many readers find that Faulkner's style is the most difficult aspect of this particular novel to overcome. Then later. Then the death of Bon was announced to the town. the title from the Hebrew. by now. then. And in the fashion of the Greek dramatist. suddenly the very complexity of his style makes the bizarre plot more believable. and the use of three interpreters — Miss Rosa. names of some characters from the Greeks. in that lesser parts of the history are now revealed for further interpretation. facts. Mr. Besides the use of constant repetition. and then he will drop it and later return to the event and tell the reader more and then drop it and then later return once more and tell more. Then gradually a little information was discovered by General Compson. nothing was known about him for a long time. the novel is still analogous to the manner in which the Greek dramatist approached his material. and Quentin each narrate part of the story and attempt to interpret it — all contribute toward establishing a mythic tone. pulsating rhythms of his style until we become totally emerged in Faulkner's strange but vivid world so that when we follow Henry and Bon onto the battlefield. But with the difficulty of untangling Faulkner's complex style. Sutpen appeared in Jefferson for one day. It would be dangerous to go too rapidly into the story. Faulkner creates his story of the past. Faulkner's style has served its purpose: First. Compson. emphasizes the difficulty which man must encounter when he seeks after the real truth. But this variance in each narrator's interpretation is due mainly to the different amount of information available to each. the reader gradually becomes aware of events. possible homosexuality. from fragment to fragment. He confronts a figure with whom he once fought in a battle that seems to conflate the clashes of World War I with the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage (both futile and excessively destructive wars). suddenly the very complexity of his style makes the bizarre plot more believable. These recollections are filtered through quotations from Wagner’s operatic version of Tristan und Isolde. Sutpen appeared in Jefferson for one day. The Sutpen story conceals many important revelations and truths which need to be revealed. That is to say. S. What Faulkner attempts to do is to adjust his style to his subject matter. he will tell the reader a little about a certain event. Possibly the story is too great or too violent to be told in a straight. Part of the thrill and excitement of the novel is that the style is therefore adapted to the subject matter and the emotions. The style. the novel is still analogous to the manner in which the Greek dramatist approached his material. this is Faulkner's method of making you become a part of the story.. If we were suddenly confronted in simple factual prose with the facts of incest. We have already seen that Faulkner does not begin his story at the beginning. then. but it is also we the readers who are also following them. Likewise. much of the night. If. In other words. the style reflects the way which the story actually occurred. simple narration. Therefore. he does not use a straightforward method of relating the story. Eliot The Waste Land Section I: “The Burial of the Dead” Summary The first section of The Waste Land takes its title from a line in the Anglican burial service. It is made up of four vignettes. and emotions. During this technique of circumlocution (that is. The speaker walks through a London populated by ghosts of the dead. it is not just Shreve and Quentin following them. Eliot’s Poetry T. an Arthurian tale of adultery and loss. years later. we must review briefly his approach to his subject. In fact. the difficult sentences retard the reader at first. Faulkner's style throughout many of his novels has been a restraining hindrance for many readers. pulsating rhythms of his style until we become totally emerged in Faulkner's strange but vivid world so that when we follow Henry and Bon onto the battlefield. Truth is not easy to discover. As the subject matter is told in circular movements. The woman mixes a meditation on the seasons with remarks on the barren state of her current existence (“I read. Then gradually a little information was discovered by General Compson. lust. But on the basic level. But this variance in each narrator's interpretation is due mainly to the different amount of information available to each. The third episode in this section describes an imaginative tarot reading. It would be dangerous to go too rapidly into the story. in which she recalls sledding and claims that she is German. and then he will drop it and later return to the event and tell the reader more and then drop it and then later return once more and tell more. This type of technique would fall very flat if Faulkner used a simple expository prose. every sentence reflects the complexity of the subject matter. If the sentences surround you and envelop you and entangle you in the story. in which some of the cards Eliot includes in the reading are not part of an actual tarot deck. 52 . apocalyptic invitation to journey into a desert waste. and then gradually it brought the reader into the story so personally that he became one of the actors or participants. motivations. fratricide. etc. But with the difficulty of untangling Faulkner's complex style. it held the reader back and confused him. emphasizes the difficulty which man must encounter when he seeks after the real truth. Every sentence is almost as involved as is the entire novel.presenting the myth in the most prominent inconsistency — the motivation each narrator attributes to Sutpen as the reason that Sutpen refused to allow the marriage of Judith and Bon. one of the narrators or one of the participants. Faulkner's style suggests also the way that story actually occurred. where the speaker will show the reader “something different from either / Your shadow at morning striding behind you / Or your shadow at evening rising to meet you. Then the death of Bon was announced to the town. The almost threatening prophetic tone is mixed with childhood reminiscences about a “hyacinth girl” and a nihilistic epiphany the speaker has after an encounter with her. Faulkner's style has served its purpose: First. Many readers find that Faulkner's style is the most difficult aspect of this particular novel to overcome. And finally. each seemingly from the perspective of a different speaker. as does Shreve. Then later. we would think the story too incredible and too fantastic to believe. facts. The second section is a prophetic. nothing was known about him for a long time. and go south in the winter”). not Russian (this would be important if the woman is meant to be a member of the recently defeated Austrian imperial family). The complexity of the narration is another way Faulkner uses to indicate and to suggest the complexity that man (particularly Quentin) must face in arriving at the truth. but again it was years before anyone knew all of the facts surrounding this death. And every sentence reminds the reader that this story is not one that can be told with simplicity. so is the style involved and circular. The final episode of the section is the most surreal. The first is an autobiographical snippet from the childhood of an aristocratic woman. more information was uncovered. that is. We become or we identify with the strong. they are supposed to. And before long. a technique whereby the author approaches his material in circular movements rather than heading directly to the heart of the story). / [He] will show you fear in a handful of dust” (Evelyn Waugh took the title for one of his bestknown novels from these lines). the reader becomes accustomed to the style and becomes. to see how his style functions in this particular novel. then. The reader is not expected to be able to translate these immediately. the reader is left with the feeling of being trapped in a crowd. the underlying plot of The Waste Land. Most of the poem was written in 1921. Eliot received a great deal of guidance from Ezra Pound. rather. Many of the references are from the Bible: at the time of the poem’s writing Eliot was just beginning to develop an interest in Christianity that would reach its apex in the Four Quartets. she is unable to do much else. Eliot’s poem. he means to do more than just frustrate his reader and display his own intelligence: He intends to provide a mimetic account of life in the confusing world of the twentieth century. the time of forgetfulness and numbness. To read is also to remember a better past. It is instead the time when the land should be regenerating after a long winter. in which the Sibyl (a woman with prophetic powers who ages but never dies) looks at the future and proclaims that she only wants to die. In the modern world. who encouraged him to cut large sections of the planned work and to break up the rhyme scheme. of course. unable to find a familiar face. The important difference. is that in Eliot’s world there is no way to heal the Fisher King. is painful. about the fate of a corpse planted in his garden. Thus. The inclusion of fragments in languages other than English further complicates matters. Because the sections are so short and the situations so confusing. suggests no overarching paradigm but rather a grab bag of broken fragments that must somehow be pieced together to form a coherent whole. particularly after the first World War had ravaged Europe.” The Waste Land employs only partial rhyme schemes and short bursts of structure. is of critical importance in The Waste Land. The legend’s imperfect integration into a modern meditation highlights the lack of a unifying narrative (like religion or mythology) in the modern world. Stetson. accusing the reader of sharing in the poet’s sins. like the anthropological texts that inspired it. Eliot picks up on the figure of the Fisher King legend’s wasteland as an appropriate description of the state of modern society. Jessie Weston’s From Ritual to Romance and Sir James Frazier’s The Golden Bough. but it may be—along with Joyce’s Ulysses—the greatest work of all modernist literature. taken from the Satyricon. like wars. Eliot provided copious footnotes with the publication of The Waste Land in book form. particularly when it involves remembering the dead. and the land will regain its fertility. for it brings back reminders of a more fertile and happier past. but it cannot be approached in the same way. The episode concludes with a famous line from the preface to Baudelaire’s Fleurs du Mal (an important collection of Symbolist poetry). In this case.” Heal the Fisher King.” this section of The Waste Land can be seen as a modified dramatic monologue. perhaps there is no Fisher King at all. The world of The Waste Land has some parallels to an earlier time. which could produce a coherent literary culture. and coffee in the park has been replaced by a complex set of emotional and political consequences resulting from the war. though. The four speakers in this section are frantic in their need to speak. Both of these works focus on the persistence of ancient fertility rituals in modern thought and religion. of particular interest to both authors is the story of the Fisher King. sledding. While Eliot employs a deliberately difficult style and seems often to find the most obscure reference possible. healing the Fisher King has been the subject of mythic tales from ancient Egypt to Arthurian England. A sign of the pessimism with which Eliot approaches his subject is the poem’s epigraph. and it first appeared in print in 1922. Commentary Not only is The Waste Land Eliot’s greatest work. draws on a vast range of sources. Memory creates a confrontation of the past with the present. and he is forced to live with reminders of its former glory. is indeed preferable. inasmuch as it can be said to have one. Recent scholarship suggests that Eliot’s wife. also had a significant role in the poem’s final form. The topic of memory. The overall range of allusions in The Waste Land. April is not the happy month of pilgrimages and storytelling. 53 . Marie reads for most of the night: ostracized by politics. Marie’s childhood recollections are also painful: the simple world of cousins. these are an excellent source for tracking down the origins of a reference. achieving simultaneously a stabilizing and a defamiliarizing effect. though.The speaker asks the ghostly figure. The Waste Land opens with a reference to Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. A long work divided into five sections. though. Form Like “Prufrock. These are meant to reference—but also rework— the literary past. to find an audience. The Sibyl’s predicament mirrors what Eliot sees as his own: He lives in a culture that has decayed and withered but will not expire. The Waste Land takes on the degraded mess that Eliot considered modern culture to constitute. who has been wounded in the genitals and whose lack of potency is the cause of his country becoming a desiccated “waste land. but they find themselves surrounded by dead people and thwarted by outside circumstances. the legend says. winter. As the poem’s dedication indicates. instead. According to Weston and Frazier. they are reminders of the cosmopolitan nature of twentieth-century Europe and of mankind’s fate after the Tower of Babel: We will never be able to perfectly comprehend one another. Vivien. Regeneration. the effect is not one of an overwhelming impression of a single character. a juxtaposition that points out just how badly things have decayed. revolves around Eliot’s reading of two extraordinarily influential contemporary cultural/anthropological texts. Also like “Prufrock. of things falling apart. Stetson. The vision consists only of nothingness—a handful of dust—which is so profound as to be frightening. with the garden. Eliot is writing in a lower-class vernacular 54 . or blank verse. As the section proceeds. though. Rather than following an organized structure of rhyme and meter. Here. This in turn leads directly to the desert waste of the present. essential nothingness itself. devoid of the possibility of healing or revelation. The speaker pesters him with a series of ghoulish questions about a corpse buried in his garden: again. though. The third episode explores Eliot’s fascination with transformation. leads the speaker to a revelation of the nothingness he now offers to show the reader. The last four lines of the first half rhyme. his memories are lush. but here it also serves to explode the idea of coherence in either place. Here. the sea is not a locus for the fear of nothingness. meaningless cries. the lines become increasingly irregular in length and meter. then a snippet from a nonsense song. having nearly died giving birth to her fifth child. and the poet’s dead predecessors combine to create an oppressive burden. in it. no reconciliation. the apparition the speaker recognizes. This encounter can be read as a quest for a meaning behind the tremendous slaughter of the first World War. at least formally: We read lines of dialogue. vulgarity. rather. is the result of the highest art of humankind. Between the bartender’s repeated calls of “HURRY UP PLEASE IT’S TIME” (the bar is closing for the night) one of the women recounts a conversation with their friend Lil. one of high society and one of the lower classes.” Yet the scene seems to offer salvation: shade and a vision of something new and different. The second part of this section shifts to a London barroom. In the episode from the past. it can also be read as an exercise in ultimate futility: as we see in Stetson’s failure to respond to the speaker’s inquiries. Shakespeare’s The Tempest (“Those are pearls that were his eyes” is a quote from one of Ariel’s songs). The drowned sailor makes reference to the ultimate work of magic and transformation in English literature. Form The first part of the section is largely in unrhymed iambic pentameter lines. telling her that her husband will seek out the company of other women if she doesn’t improve her appearance. in one of which the moves in a game of chess denote stages in a seduction. Dickens’s London (“the brown fog of a winter dawn”) and Dante’s hell (“the flowing crowd of the dead”). She has chided Lil over her failure to get herself some false teeth. The ocean is truly empty. but her husband “won’t leave [her] alone. The tarot reader Madame Sosostris conducts the most outrageous form of “reading” possible. The vibrancy of the earlier scene. with whom he has apparently had some sort of romantic involvement. Eliot’s London references Baudelaire’s Paris (“Unreal City”). it is the site of true. The Waste Land Section II: “A Game of Chess” Summary This section takes its title from two plays by the early 17th-century playwright Thomas Middleton. a moment of impotence. the “nothingness” is more clearly a sexual failure. full of water and blooming flowers. yet truth also resides here: No longer a religious phenomenon achieved through Christ. however.The second episode contains a troubled religious proposition. whose husband has just been discharged from the army. is possible. As the woman of the first half begins to give voice to her paranoid thoughts. In the final line of the episode attention turns from the desert to the sea. giving the feeling of disintegration. Lil claims that the cause of her ravaged looks is the medication she took to induce an abortion. The second half of the section is a dialogue interrupted by the barman’s refrain. The first half of the section portrays a wealthy. This section focuses on two opposing scenes. suggesting at least a partial return to stability.” This is perhaps the most poetically experimental section of the entire poem. In contrast to the present setting in the desert.” The women leave the bar to a chorus of “good night(s)” reminiscent of Ophelia’s farewell speech in Hamlet. tradition. many of which will come true in succeeding sections of the poem. the dead offer few answers. and. man can recognize only “[a] heap of broken images. highly groomed woman surrounded by exquisite furnishings. The speaker describes a true wasteland of “stony rubbish”. and cheap mysticism. where two women discuss a third woman. The speaker remembers a female figure from his past. Despite the overall fecundity and joy of the moment. That Madame Sosostris will prove to be right in her predictions of death and transformation is a direct commentary on the failed religious mysticism and prophecy of the preceding desert section. no action. The line comes from a section of Tristan und Isolde where Tristan waits for Isolde to come heal him. The city is desolate and depopulated. The great respective weights of history. Transformation in The Tempest. we return to the theme of regeneration and fertility. Again memory serves to contrast the past with the present. The final episode of the first section allows Eliot finally to establish the true wasteland of the poem. this section constitutes a loose series of phrases connected by “I said(s)” and “she said(s). and neither is it the locus for a philosophical interpretation of nothingness. her neurotic thoughts become frantic. As she waits for a lover. although they are irregular in meter. Her day culminates with plans for an excursion and a game of chess. She is supposedly coming by ship but fails to arrive. she had refused to have another. transforming a series of vague symbols into predictions. therefore. truth is represented by a mere void. inhabited only by ghosts from the past. he says. is a fallen war comrade. the modern city. transformation is associated with fraud. things do fall apart. Eliot transforms the traditional tarot pack to serve his purposes. The section opens with a desolate riverside scene: Rats and garbage surround the speaker. rather than moving. is taken from a sermon given by Buddha in which he encourages his followers to give up earthly passion (symbolized by fire) and seek freedom from earthly things. supported her soldier husband. barren interchange inseparable from neurosis and self-destruction. Their friend Lil has done everything the right way—married. as suggested by the nonsense song that she sings (which manages to debase even Shakespeare).” watches the whole thing.here that resists poetic treatment. The queen seems unmoved by her lover’s declarations. who is fishing and “musing on the king my brother’s wreck. at home for tea. She can be seen as a counterpart to the title character of Eliot’s earlier “Love Song of J. Her association with Dido and Cleopatra. The sisters are then changed into birds. a fisherman’s bar is described. who helps her avenge herself by murdering the king’s son and feeding him to the king. although aesthetically pleasing. These are among the few moments of tranquility in the poem. run softly till I end my song.” The river-song begins in this section.” with whom she shares both a physical setting and a profound sense of isolation. a character out of Ovid’s Metamorphoses who is raped by her brother-in-law the king. rather. who seems to be associated with the narrator of this part of the poem. Alfred Prufrock. a dull and slightly arrogant clerk. Eliot means to suggest that neither woman’s form of sexuality is regenerative.” The section then comes to an abrupt end with a few lines from St. the other side of this sexuality is a rampant fecundity associated with a lack of culture and rapid aging. Form 55 . After her lover’s departure. two women who committed suicide out of frustrated love. The woman and her surroundings.” A snippet from a vulgar soldier’s ballad follows. Dido. Tiresias. a figure from classical mythology who has both male and female features (“Old man with wrinkled female breasts”) and is blind but can “see” into the future. with the refrain from Spenser’s Prothalamion: “Sweet Thames. Interestingly. A brief interlude begins the river-song in earnest. Unlike the two queens of myth. who then cuts her tongue out to keep her quiet. The woman allows the clerk to have his way with her. then a beautiful church interior. and he leaves victorious. the longest section of The Waste Land. then the Thames itself. Her despair is pathetic. Eugenides. who has “foresuffered all. The scene shifts again. can think only of drowning (again. and she thinks only of her “people humble people who expect / Nothing. in a reference to The Tempest) and rats among dead men’s bones. The woman is explicitly compared to Philomela. Although Eliot is able to produce startlingly beautiful poetry from the rough speech of the women in the bar. Augustine’s Confessions and a vague reference to the Buddha’s Fire Sermon (“burning”). The speaker is then propositioned by Mr. Tiresias/the speaker observes a young typist. The speaker then proclaims himself to be Tiresias. are ultimately sterile and meaningless. the oneeyed merchant of Madame Sosostris’s tarot pack. The second scene in this section further diminishes the possibility that sex can bring regeneration—either cultural or personal. overly emotional but not terribly intellectual figure. the typist thinks only that she’s glad the encounter is done and over. who has also been compared to famous female suicides. and even Keats’s Lamia. this woman will never become a cultural touchstone. Eugenides invites the speaker to go with him to a hotel known as a meeting place for homosexual trysts. it relies on vernacular speech to make its point. The comparison between the two is not meant to suggest equality between them or to propose that the first woman’s exaggerated sense of high culture is in any way equivalent to the second woman’s lack of it. This section is remarkably free of the cultural allusions that dominate the rest of the poem. this section ends with a line echoing Ophelia’s suicide speech in Hamlet. that she is unable to communicate her interior self to the world. surrounded by “strange synthetic perfumes” and smoking candles. Notice that Eliot is using a British vernacular: By this point he had moved to England permanently and had become a confirmed Anglophile. Philomela into a nightingale. and they seem to represent some sort of simpler alternative. as a series of increasingly debased sexual encounters concludes with a riversong and a religious incantation. by virtue of the lushness of language surrounding her (although Eliot would never have acknowledged Keats as an influence). The first woman is associated by allusion with Cleopatra. as she demands that her lover stay with her and tell her his thoughts. The Thames-daughters. he nevertheless presents their conversation as further reason for pessimism. despite her rough phrasing and the coarse content of her story. to Queen Elizabeth I in an amorous encounter with the Earl of Leicester. She is a frustrated. oddly sinister. Commentary The two women of this section of the poem represent the two sides of modern sexuality: while one side of this sexuality is a dry. then a reference back to Philomela (see the previous section). instead. borrowed from Spenser’s poem. however. borne children—yet she is being punished by her body. this links Lil to the woman in the first section of the poem. A turn away from the earthly does indeed take place in this section. chime in with a nonsense chorus (“Weialala leia / Wallala leialala”). suggests her fundamental irrationality. She manages to tell her sister. who awaits her lover. Yet the section sounds like poetry: the repeated use of “I said” and the grounding provided by the barman’s chorus allow the woman’s speech to flow elegantly. The lover. This comparison suggests something essentially disappointing about the woman. First. This section refutes the prevalent claim that iambic pentameter mirrors normal English speech patterns: Line length and stresses are consistently irregular. The Waste Land Section III: “The Fire Sermon” Summary The title of this. therefore. and some of the fragments he uses (the lines from Spenser in particular) are themselves taken from more exalted forms. he is an individual who does not hope or act. and Eliot once again tosses us into a world of sex and strife. The typist and her lover are equally barren in their way. “Death by Water” describes a man.” unable to break free of its monotonous fascination. an event that never happened. Tiresias disappears. he would like to die but cannot. In the case of the Prothalamion. in fact. The actual sexual encounters that take place in this section of the poem are infinitely unfruitful. has been reduced to a “dull canal. it provides a critical commentary on the episodes described. like Prufrock. But Eliot also uses these bits and pieces to create high art. normally a symbol of renewal. becomes an important model for modern existence. Elizabeth was required to represent herself as constantly available for marriage (to royalty from countries with whom England may have wanted an alliance). a soldier’s ballad. is the inclusion of Elizabeth I: The liaison between Elizabeth and Leicester is traditionally romanticized. intimating a sexual liaison. thus. Commentary The opening two stanzas of this section describe the ultimate “Waste Land” as Eliot sees it. Neither man nor woman. He is not quite able to escape earthly things. the interlude is brief. Another such reference. is a consummation that is simultaneously denied. rhymed at random. dry. though. unlike Prufrock. as the representatives of Eastern and Western asceticism. here represented by the sound of horns and motors in the distance. Her tryst with Leicester. However. Living in so impoverished a manner that she does not even own a bed. rats are scavengers. The more plot-driven sections are in Eliot’s usual assortment of various line lengths. however. out of this need came the myth of the “Virgin Queen. is the rat. Eliot is placing himself within a tradition stretching back to ancient Greece (classically. this place is static. In death he has forgotten his worldly cares as the creatures of the sea have picked his body apart. The most significant image in these lines. generating both ironic distance and proximate parallels. covered in garbage.” however. or lack thereof. The narrator asks his reader to consider Phlebas and recall his or her own mortality. save for a few scurrying rats. Form 56 . The brief interlude following the typist’s tryst may offer an alternative to escape. everyday scene of work and companionship. Eliot claims in his footnote to have deliberately conflated Augustine and the Buddha. Tiresias is held motionless by ennui and pragmatism. The rat could be said to provide a model for Eliot’s poetic process: Like the rat. apparently by drowning. the typist is certainly not interested in a family. Elizabeth had to compromise her own sexuality. Like the crabs in Prufrock. The use of such “low” forms cuts both ways here: In one sense.” but. For political reasons.” isolated on the page. this is not meant to be a democratizing move but a nihilistic one: Romance is dead. the reference seems to clash with the otherwise sordid nature of this section. deadened version of what were once plump. a nightingale’s chirps. which by its very nature thwarts fertility. including Spenser’s wedding song (which becomes the song of the Thames-daughters). however. Phlebas the Phoenician. which at least burns with heat. a song from Oliver Goldsmith’s The Vicar of Wakefield. Tiresias. Whereas Prufrock is paralyzed by his neuroses.” This can be read as the opposite of the Fisher King legend: To protect the vitality of the land. thus. Eliot takes what he can from earlier. though. whereas in the Fisher King story. He has. The poem’s next section. he sees no possibility for action. for that matter—as a mere fragment. Again this provides an ironic contrast to the debased goings-on but also provides another form of connection and commentary. Augustine at the end of the section. “seen it all. the renewal of the land comes with the renewal of the Fisher King’s sexual potency. reveals the futility of all of man’s struggles. for he is forced to sit and watch the sordid deeds of mortals.” The ugliness stands in implicit contrast to the “Sweet Thames” of Spenser’s time. grander generations and uses the bits and pieces to sustain (poetic) life. The twisted logic underlying Elizabeth’s public sexuality. exposes the absurdity of these two figures’ faith in external higher powers. to be replaced by St.” while Buddha can only repeat the word “burning. Eugenides proposes a homosexual tryst. Both seem. who has died. like the Sibyl in the poem’s epigraph. “prothalamion” is a generic term for a poem-like song written for a wedding). That this section ends with only the single word “burning. Somehow this is preferable to the more coherent but vulgar existence of the contemporary world. particularly musical ones. and a mandolin tune (which has no words but is echoed in “a clatter and a chatter from within”). especially through sexuality. stripped of noble connotations and made to represent just one more piece of cultural rubbish. in the modern world. The wasteland is cold. the cheap sexual encounters shaped by popular culture (the gramophone. Again. Unlike the desert. and barren. also includes bits of many musical pieces. in the lines Eliot quotes. to be unable to transcend the world on their own: Augustine must call on God to “pluck [him] out. mirrors and distorts the Fisher King plot and further questions the possibility for renewal. and. the men’s hotel). The Waste Land Section IV: “Death by Water” Summary The shortest section of the poem. “The Fire Sermon. Even the river. and blind yet able to see with ultimate clarity. Eliot depicts Elizabeth—and Spenser. even though reproduction is at least theoretically possible for the two. fertile fruits. taking what they can from the refuse of higher-order creatures. which will relate the story of a death without resurrection.This section of The Waste Land is notable for its inclusion of popular poetic forms. by describing a warm. The impossibility of regeneration by such means is symbolized by the currants in his pocket—the desiccated. Elizabeth and Leicester are perhaps the most interesting of the three couples. that’s it. Commentary The initial imagery associated with the apocalypse at this section’s opening is taken from the crucifixion of Christ. half a world away from Europe. Atop the chapel. its ironic layering is twofold. “fit” is used as a verb. The reader’s relief at the shift in style mirrors the physical relief brought by the rain midway through the section. the only lesson that Phlebas offers is that the physical reality of death and decay triumphs over all.” as the ghost-filled London did earlier in the poem. Phlebas is not resurrected or transfigured. the thunder “gives. didactic feel of this section. Vienna. gratuitously. continues to draw on Biblical imagery and symbolism associated with the quest for the Holy Grail. after pulling the card of the Drowned Sailor. Both formally and thematically. while making reference to contemporary events in Eastern Europe and other more traditional apocalypse narratives. translates this chant as “the peace which passeth understanding. Eliot’s last major work. leading up to a final chant of “Shantih shantih shantih”—the traditional ending to an Upanishad. Cities are destroyed. This is a horribly sad situation: The symbols that have previously held profound meaning still exist. such as music. These two features suggest that something of great significance lies here.”) of the apocalyptic opening. indeed. the final section of The Waste Land moves away from more typical poetic forms to experiment with structures normally associated with religion and philosophy. Christ is not resurrected here: we are told. and from Elizabethan drama. Egypt.” and “controls” through its “speech”.” the expression of ultimate resignation. which suggests the chapel in the legend of the Holy Grail.” The rest of the first part. Commentary The major point of this short section is to rebut ideas of renewal and regeneration. Phlebas’s body yields nothing more than products of decay. though. and destroyed again. like aphorisms and parables. According to these fables. then. It is as if such a profound end would be inappropriate for such a pathetic civilization. Release comes not from any heroic act but from the random call of a farmyard bird. where thunder rumbles. 57 .” as taken from the Upanishads (Hindu fables).” “sympathizes. the renewal has come seemingly at random. The proposition and meditation structure of the last part of this section looks forward to the more philosophically oriented Four Quartets. In reality. Eliot. First. Phlebas just dies. mirroring the cyclical downfall of cultures: Jerusalem.” she says. There is something nevertheless insubstantial about this looming disaster: it seems “unreal. Second. The first half of the section builds to an apocalyptic climax. However. this is one of the most formally organized sections of the poem. Both visually and audibly. mimics other literary forms (parables. here. The symbolism surrounding the Grail myth is still extant but it is empty. as a Fisher Kingtype figure is shown sitting on the shore preparing to put his lands in order. this section. from Dante. perhaps—releases the rain and lets the poem end. A decaying chapel is described. Eliot further emphasizes Phlebas’s dried-up antiquity and irrelevance by placing this section in the distant past (by making Phlebas a Phoenician). the section’s meaning is far from flat. Curiously.) that are normally rich in meaning.” “a fortnight dead”) also contribute to the serious. though. devoid of people. yet they are unused and unusable. Rather. a sign of his imminent death or at least abdication. Greece. etc. and the rains come. Its patterning reflects the speaker’s offer at the end to “fit you. A flash of light—a quick glimpse of truth and vitality. this final chapter follows a pattern of obsession and resignation. Like Stetson’s corpse in the first section. and Austria—among the major empires of the past two millennia—all see their capitals fall. Form Just as the third section of the poem explores popular forms. that not only will there be no renewal but that there will be no survival either. “He who was living is now dead. Significantly. it compresses into eight: four pairs of rhyming couplets.. in its language and form. The alliteration and the deliberately archaic language (“o you. in reading. and London are destroyed. as suffering people become “hooded hordes swarming” and the “unreal” cities of Jerusalem. we expect the end to be accompanied by a sense of boredom and surrender. rebuilt. biblical stories. relieving the drought and bringing life back to the land. no heroic figure has appeared to claim the Grail. structured nature of the final stanzas comes as a relief after the obsessively repetitive language and alliteration (“If there were water / And no rock / If there were rock / And also water. a cock crows. Athens. It is meant to recall other highly organized forms that often have philosophical or religious import..While this section appears on the page as a ten-line stanza. this section fulfills one of the prophecies of Madame Sosostris in the poem’s first section: “Fear death by water. The Waste Land Section V: “What the Thunder Said” Summary The final section of The Waste Land is dramatic in both its imagery and its events. meaning “to render into a fit. Eliot draws on the traditional interpretation of “what the thunder says. The repetitive language and harsh imagery of this section suggest that the end is perhaps near. and destroyed.” to make into poetry). No one comes to the ruined chapel.” to transform experience into poetry (“fit” is an archaic term for sections of a poem or play. yet it exists regardless of who visits it. rebuilt. in his notes to the poem. Alexandria. The scene then shifts to the Ganges. The reasoned. The meditations seem to bring about some sort of reconciliation. Eliot launches into a meditation on each of these aspects of the thunder’s power. The poem ends with a series of disparate fragments from a children’s song. they offer a glimpse into a culture and a value system new to us—and. and philosophical interludes. The possibility of regeneration for the “arid plain” of society has been long ago discarded. a year after England entered World War II. meaning that the characters and objects in the novel are infused with symbolic significance that conveys the novel’s central themes and ideas. where he served in command of a rocket-launcher and participated in the invasion of Normandy. and for Eliot. The king offers some consolation: “These fragments I have shored against my ruins. Golding joined the Royal Navy. Although he never matched the popular and critical success he enjoyed with Lord of the Flies. 1911. As the boys splinter into factions. Instead. they invoke an alternative set of paradigms to those of the Western world. when he changed his focus to English literature. Much of the novel is allegorical. Golding resumed teaching and started to write novels. are never realized. suggesting that it will be possible to continue on despite the failed redemption. the boys on the island in Lord of the Flies descend into savagery. Golding wrote several more novels. in Cornwall. During the 1950s and 1960s. while others rebel and seek only anarchy and violence. Golding employs a relatively straightforward writing style in Lord of the Flies. 58 . and a play. he remained a respected and distinguished author for the rest of his life and was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1983. and act lawfully— and the savage instinct—the impulse to seek brute power over others. which ultimately became a bestseller in both Britain and the United States after more than twenty publishers rejected it. “what have we given?” he finds that the only time people give is in the sexual act and that this gift is ultimately evanescent and destructive: He associates it with spider webs and solicitors reading wills. The third idea expressed in the thunder’s speech—that of control—holds the most potential. England. he worked briefly as a theater actor and director. although he still fails to understand the true significance of the coming void (as implied by the phrase “peace which passeth understanding”). In his portrayal of the small world of the island. Asking. his parents urged him to study the natural sciences. Golding followed his parents’ wishes until his second year at Oxford. Free from the rules and structures of civilization and society. its exploration of the idea of human evil is at least partly based on Golding’s experience with the real-life violence and brutality of World War II. The novel’s sales enabled Golding to retire from teaching and devote himself fully to writing. It is important that the last words of the poem are in a non-Western language: Although the meaning of the words themselves communicates resignation (“peace which passeth understanding”). notably Pincher Martin (1956). Finally Eliot turns to the Fisher King himself.” to create art in the face of madness. Although he tried to write a novel as early as age twelve. In 1940. Golding’s experience in World War II had a profound effect on his view of humanity and the evils of which it was capable.The meditations upon the Upanishads give Eliot a chance to test the potential of the modern world. behave morally. It will still be possible for him. Golding paints a broader portrait of the fundamental human struggle between the civilizing instinct—the impulse to obey rules. scorn moral rules. the king will do his best to put in order what remains of his kingdom. Golding died in 1993. who taught that the human mind was the site of a constant battle among different impulses—the id (instinctual needs and desires). the ego (the conscious. Readers and critics have interpreted Lord of the Flies in widely varying ways over the years since its publication. Golding explores the broad spectrum of ways in which humans respond to stress. one of the most acclaimed writers of the second half of the twentieth century. wrote poetry. to “fit you. although it implies a series of domineering relationships and surrenders of the self that. Lord of the Flies tells the story of a group of English schoolboys marooned on a tropical island after their plane is shot down during a war. Lord of the Flies William Golding Context W illiam golding was born on September 19. and indulge in violence. The Brass Butterfly (1958). such as original sin and the nature of good and evil. Though the novel is fictional.” he says. thus. and then became a schoolteacher. Others approached Lord of the Flies through the theories of the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. one that avoids highly poetic language. The burst of allusions at the end can be read as either a final attempt at coherence or as a final dissolution into a world of fragments and rubbish. and he will then surrender. act selfishly. change. Just as the poem’s speaker fails to find signs of giving. still on the shore fishing. After graduating from Oxford. His first and greatest success came with Lord of the Flies (1954). In portraying the various ways in which the boys on the island adapt to their new surroundings and react to their new freedom. so too does he search in vain for acts of sympathy—the second characteristic of “what the thunder says”: He recalls individuals so caught up in his or her own fate—each thinking only of the key to his or her own prison—as to be oblivious to anything but “ethereal rumors” of others. some behave peacefully and work together to maintain order and achieve common goals. and tension. lengthy description. After the war. Some believed that the novel explores fundamental religious issues. ultimately. offer some hope for an alternative to our own dead world. many readings of the novel claimed that Lord of the Flies dramatizes the history of civilization. He is furious when he loses the election to Ralph and continually pushes the boundaries of his subordinate role in the group. this strength gives Ralph a moral victory at the end of the novel. Analysis of Major Characters Ralph Ralph is the athletic. Simon acts morally not out of guilt or shame but because he believes in the inherent value of morality. painting his face like a barbarian and giving himself over to bloodlust. that the monster on the island is not a real. and his main wish is to be rescued and returned to the society of adults. Simon stands on an entirely different plane from all the other boys. To an extent. when he sees the naval officer. Ralph’s commitment to civilization and morality is strong. in school. The sow’s head on the stake symbolizes this idea. Simon embodies a kind of innate. Elected the leader of the boys at the beginning of the novel. Themes. the group largely follows Jack in casting off moral restraint and embracing violence and savagery. the human impulse toward civilization is not as deeply rooted as the human impulse toward savagery. Ultimately. this idea of the inherent evil within each human being stands as the moral conclusion and central problem of the novel. even the seemingly civilized Ralph and Piggy are products of social conditioning. As the novel progresses. as within all human beings. But this knowledge also enables him to cast down the Lord of the Flies at the end of the novel. However. Indeed. as both enable him to feel powerful and exalted. Jack’s love of authority and violence are intimately connected. The more savage Jack becomes. The first time he encounters a pig. They are not innately moral. The other boys abandon moral behavior as soon as civilization is no longer there to impose it upon them. Ralph’s power and influence over the other boys are secure at the beginning of the novel. Ralph’s story ends semi-tragically: although he is rescued and returned to civilization. Ralph remains determined not to let this savagery -overwhelm him. having fun. and Ralph is left alone to be hunted by Jack’s tribe. Unlike all the other boys on the island. Simon Whereas Ralph and Jack stand at opposite ends of the spectrum between civilization and savagery. he experiences the exhilaration and thrill of bloodlust and violence. Ralph. Ralph sets about building huts and thinking of ways to maximize their chances of being rescued. Jack desires power above all other things. Simon represents a contrary idea of essential human goodness. In a sense. The sight of the hunters chanting and dancing is baffling and distasteful to him. Simon. however. there is some validity to each of these different readings and interpretations of Lord of the Flies. and Piggy. and the desire for power—in short. it resounds with implications far beyond the bounds of the small island and explores problems and questions universal to the human experience. and productive leadership in the novel. most of the boys except Piggy leave Ralph’s group for Jack’s. as primal as Jack’s evil. Ralph’s position declines precipitously while Jack’s rises. However. and he is the first to realize the problem posed by the beast and the Lord of the Flies— that is. Jack has learned to use the boys’ fear of the beast to control their behavior—a reminder of how religion and superstition can be manipulated as instruments of power. In the earlier parts of the novel. But Jack soon becomes obsessed with hunting and devotes himself to the task.rational mind). apart from Ralph. Motifs & Symbols 59 . Still others maintained that Golding wrote the novel as a criticism of the political and social institutions of the West. the more he is able to control the rest of the group. the antithesis of Ralph. By the end of the novel. Eventually. comes to understand that savagery exists within all the boys. Ralph is unable to understand why the other boys would give in to base instincts of bloodlust and barbarism. When Ralph hunts a boar for the first time. when he casts the Lord of the Flies to the ground and takes up the stake it is impaled on to defend himself against Jack’s hunters. and only briefly does he consider joining Jack’s tribe in order to save himself. the adult world—the threat of punishment for misdeeds—has conditioned them to act morally. In Golding’s view. he weeps with the burden of his new knowledge about the human capacity for evil. in its own way. He behaves kindly toward the younger children. his brutal murder at the hands of the other boys indicates the scarcity of that good amid an overwhelming abundance of evil. Although Golding’s story is confined to the microcosm of a group of boys. as the group gradually succumbs to savage instincts over the course of the novel. and participates in the killing of Simon. physical beast but rather a savagery that lurks within each human being. While most of the other boys initially are concerned with playing. Early on. This firsthand knowledge of the evil that exists within him. spiritual human goodness that is deeply connected with nature and. Jack The strong-willed. dances on the edge of the group. civilization. he is unable to kill it. Ralph is the primary representative of order. Against this idea of evil. as we see when they participate in the hunt-dance. egomaniacal Jack is the novel’s primary representative of the instinct of savagery. Jack retains the sense of moral propriety and behavior that society instilled in him—in fact. he is swept away by the frenzy. For this reason. From the beginning of the novel. and it plunges him into listless despair for a time. When he attends Jack’s feast. is tragic for Ralph. violence. rather. as we see in Simon’s vision of the head speaking to him. charismatic protagonist of Lord of the Flies. however. and avoiding work. he was the leader of the choirboys. like Simon. Ultimately. and the superego (the sense of conscience and morality). many critics have drawn strong parallels between Simon and Jesus. Golding associates the instinct of civilization with good and the instinct of savagery with evil. While that description may be an oversimplification. The novel’s biblical parallels enhance its moral themes but are not necessarily the primary key to interpreting the story. adding thematic resonance to the main ideas of the story. impulse. anarchy. he discovers the bloody sow’s head impaled upon a stake in the middle of the clearing. When left to their own devices. This conflict might be expressed in a number of ways: civilization vs. Simon’s conversation with the Lord of the Flies also parallels the confrontation between Jesus and the devil during Jesus’ forty days in the wilderness. Golding implies that civilization can mitigate but never wipe out the innate evil that exists within all human beings. as told in the Christian Gospels. The conflict between the two instincts is the driving force of the novel. most notably the beast and the sow’s head on the stake. Simon dies before he is able to tell the boys the truth he has discovered. 60 . act peacefully. as something that civilization forces upon the individual rather than a natural expression of human individuality. Golding implies. Moreover. Loss of Innocence As the boys on the island progress from well-behaved. This idea of innate human evil is central to Lord of the Flies. particularly Simon’s glade in the forest. we may see the Lord of the Flies as a representation of the devil. Save for Simon’s two uncanny predictions of the future. was killed while spreading his moral philosophy. but when Simon returns later in the novel. However. reason vs. and finds expression in several important symbols. in many cases. barbaric life in the jungle. brutal. while Roger seems barely capable of comprehending the rules of civilization. in contrast. for instance. and Jack. the novel does echo certain Christian images and themes. his death does not bring salvation to the island. Savagery The central concern of Lord of the Flies is the conflict between two competing impulses that exist within all human beings: the instinct to live by rules. Motifs Motifs are recurring structures. and the other boys kill him sacrificially as a consequence of having discovered this truth. and enforce one’s will. At first. instead. moral. and literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes. for it works to promote evil among humankind. disciplined behavior as they accustom themselves to a wild. Civilization vs. Among the boys. who represents order and leadership. Among all the characters. In this way. Simon—and Lord of the Flies as a whole—echoes Christian ideas and themes without developing explicit. innate goodness. act violently to obtain supremacy over others. Golding does not make any explicit or direct connections to Christian symbolism in Lord of the Flies. recalls the Garden of Eden in its status as an originally pristine place that is corrupted by the introduction of evil. Jesus. contrasts. he lacks the supernatural connection to God that Jesus has in Christian tradition. only Simon seems to possess anything like a natural. Golding sees moral behavior.Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. The painted savages in Chapter 12 who have hunted. Biblical Parallels Many critics have characterized Lord of the Flies as a retelling of episodes from the Bible. people naturally revert to cruelty. order vs. it results naturally from their increasing openness to the innate evil and savagery that has always existed within them. Furthermore. savagery. it is important to remember that the parallels between Simon and Christ are not complete. it is a place of natural beauty and peace. Golding implies that the instinct of savagery is far more primal and fundamental to the human psyche than the instinct of civilization. however. the protagonist. and killed animals and human beings are a far cry from the guileless children swimming in the lagoon in Chapter 3. Although Simon is wise in many ways. Piggy. evil. and that there are limits to reading Lord of the Flies purely as a Christian allegory. precise parallels with them. follow moral commands. the antagonist. which means that Golding conveys many of his main ideas and themes through symbolic characters and objects. chaos. bloodthirsty hunters who have no desire to return to civilization. rather. tortured. Lord of the Flies is an allegorical novel. his death plunges the island deeper into savagery and moral guilt. But Golding does not portray this loss of innocence as something that is done to the children. they naturally lose the sense of innocence that they possessed at the beginning of the novel. who represents savagery and the desire for power. The forest glade in which Simon sits in Chapter 3 symbolizes this loss of innocence. Throughout the novel. or the broader heading of good vs. and barbarism. Similarly. and value the good of the group against the instinct to gratify one’s immediate desires. Golding shows how different people feel the influences of the instincts of civilization and savagery to different degrees. Generally. these biblical parallels function as a kind of subtle motif in the novel. has no savage feelings. explored through the dissolution of the young English boys’ civilized. savagery. He represents the conflict between civilization and savagery in the conflict between the novel’s two main characters: Ralph. Simon is the one who arrives at the moral truth of the novel. rather. orderly children longing for rescue to cruel. The island itself. law vs. The bloody offering to the beast has disrupted the paradise that existed before—a powerful symbol of innate human evil disrupting childhood innocence. As the novel progresses. signifying the demise of the civilized instinct among almost all the boys on the island. the other boys ignore Ralph and throw stones at him when he attempts to blow the conch in Jack’s camp. The Beast The imaginary beast that frightens all the boys stands for the primal instinct of savagery that exists within all human beings. and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. As the boys grow more savage. The shell effectively governs the boys’ meetings. the name “Lord of the Flies” is a literal translation of the name of the biblical name Beelzebub. and a kind of Satan figure who evokes the beast within each human being. When Jack’s hunters raid Ralph’s camp and steal the glasses. Ralph.) In this way. telling him that evil lies within every human heart and promising to have some “fun” with him. when the boys use the lenses from Piggy’s glasses to focus the sunlight and start a fire. In the early parts of the novel. This complicated symbol becomes the most important image in the novel when Simon confronts the sow’s head in the glade and it seems to speak to him. The signal fire thus functions as a kind of measurement of the strength of the civilized instinct remaining on the island. Instead. Simon. 61 . just as Simon recalls Jesus. the shell is more than a symbol—it is an actual vessel of political legitimacy and democratic power. In this regard. The boys’ behavior is what brings the beast into existence. a symbol of the power of evil. the Lord of the Flies recalls the devil. Ralph clutches the shell desperately when he talks about his role in murdering Simon. the signal fire becomes a barometer of the boys’ connection to civilization. As a result. and civilization. the savages effectively take the power to make fire. Simon represents natural human goodness. the conch shell becomes a powerful symbol of civilization and order in the novel. the littluns might be seen as the common people. By the end of the novel. the more real the beast seems to become. point of view · The narrator speaks in the third person. their belief in the beast grows stronger. In fact. for the boy who holds the shell holds the right to speak. the boys are leaving it sacrifices and treating it as a totemic god. Jack. the fact that the boys maintain the fire is a sign that they want to be rescued and return to society. Piggy represents the scientific and intellectual aspects of civilization. figures. the conch shell loses its power and influence among them. Roger represents brutality and bloodlust at their most extreme. and many of its characters signify important ideas or themes. The Conch Shell Ralph and Piggy discover the conch shell on the beach at the start of the novel and use it to summon the boys together after the crash separates them. a powerful demon in hell sometimes thought to be the devil himself. The relationships that develop between the older boys and the younger ones emphasize the older boys’ connection to either the civilized or the savage instinct: civilized boys like Ralph and Simon use their power to protect the younger boys and advance the good of the group. leaving Ralph’s group helpless. severed sow’s head that Jack impales on a stake in the forest glade as an offering to the beast.Symbols Symbols are objects. so the more savagely the boys act. Ironically. Looking at the novel in the context of biblical parallels. The boys are afraid of the beast. Piggy’s Glasses Piggy is the most intelligent. it is the fire of savagery—the forest fire Jack’s gang starts as part of his quest to hunt and kill Ralph. The Lord of the Flies The Lord of the Flies is the bloody. the Lord of the Flies becomes both a physical manifestation of the beast. but only Simon reaches the realization that they fear the beast because it exists within each of them. rational boy in the group. To the extent that the boys’ society resembles a political state. and Roger Lord of the Flies is an allegorical novel. Ralph represents order. The boulder that Roger rolls onto Piggy also crushes the conch shell. Piggy. a fire finally summons a ship to the island. This symbolic significance is clear from the start of the novel. characters. Used in this capacity. while the older boys represent the ruling classes and political leaders. As the island civilization erodes and the boys descend into savagery. leadership. but not the signal fire. The Signal Fire The signal fire burns on the mountain. Key Facts narrator · The story is told by an anonymous third-person narrator who conveys the events of the novel without commenting on the action or intruding into the story. and his glasses represent the power of science and intellectual endeavor in society. The narrator is omniscient and gives us access to the characters’ inner thoughts. we realize that the boys have lost sight of their desire to be rescued and have accepted their savage lives on the island. Jack represents unbridled savagery and the desire for power. to attract the notice of passing ships that might be able to rescue the boys. When the fire burns low or goes out. (This “fun” foreshadows Simon’s death in the following chapter. at the end of the novel. primarily focusing on Ralph’s point of view but following Jack and Simon in certain episodes. savage boys like Jack and Roger use their power to gratify their own desires. Later. treating the littler boys as objects for their own amusement. and later on the beach. tension grows between Jack. the outward trappings of savagery (face paint. Ultimately. the signal fire. innate human evil motifs · Biblical parallels. and Roger foreshadowing · The rolling of the boulders off the Castle Rock in Chapter 6 foreshadows Piggy’s death. When Simon tries to approach the other boys and convey this message to them. and the group begins to divide into two camps supporting Ralph and Jack. violence. natural beauty. who is furious when he loses. falling action · Virtually all the boys on the island abandon Ralph and Piggy and descend further into savagery and chaos. respectively. the Lord of the Flies. who is interested only in hunting. the beast. the boys marooned on the island struggle with the conflicting human instincts that exist within each of them—the instinct to work toward civilization and order and the instinct to descend into savagery. Jack forms a new tribe altogether. spears. and Ralph. fully immersing himself in the savagery of the hunt. unsparing tense · Immediate past setting (time) · Near future setting (place) · A deserted tropical island protagonist · Ralph major conflict · Free from the rules that adult society formerly imposed on them. Ralph. Ralph flees from Jack’s tribe and encounters the naval officer on the beach. totems. and chaos. tragic. the loss of innocence. As the boys explore the island. rising action · The boys assemble on the beach. chants) symbols · The conch shell. Piggy. Piggy’s glasses. themes · Civilization vs. who believes most of the boys’ efforts should go toward building shelters and maintaining a signal fire. the boys grow fearful. Jack. the bullying of the weak by the strong. Ralph defeats Jack. the Lord of the Flies’s promise to have some “fun” with Simon foreshadows Simon’s death 62 . violent. they fall on him and kill him savagely. Simon. savagery.tone · Dark. climax · Simon encounters the Lord of the Flies in the forest glade and realizes that the beast is not a physical entity but rather something that exists within each boy on the island. In the election for leader. When rumors surface that there is some sort of beast living on the island. When the other boys kill Piggy and destroy the conch shell. pessimistic.