ALAIN BORDIER FOUNDATION VISUAL DHARMA PUBLICATIONS LTD.
HROEDER
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he Tibet Museum founded by Alain Bordier is situated in the medieval town of Gruyères in the western part of Switzerland. It houses an important collection of Buddhist sculptures, paintings and ritual objects. Alain Bordier has created this collection with great care in the course of more than twenty-five years. The whole collection covers about three hundred objects – mostly of Tibetan provenance, yet also metal statues from Buddhist cultures bordering Tibet. Some of these statues are true rarities from Nepal and other Himalayan regions, as well as from Kashmir, Northern India and Burma. This book is meant as a general introduction to the world of Tibetan Buddhism. Eighteen short essays touch on various aspects of Buddhism, however, with an emphasis on the development of Tibetan art. These essays are illustrated with a selection of eighteen statues and paintings from the Alain Bordier foundation.
TIBETAN ART OF THE ALAIN BORDIER FOUNDATION
ULRICH VON SCHROEDER – HEIDI VON SCHROEDER
TIBETAN ART OF THE
ALAIN BORDIER FOUNDATION
VISUAL DHARMA PUBLICATIONS LTD.
Published by Visual Dharma Publications Ltd., Hong Kong for the Alain Bordier Foundation, Gruyères First edition, 2009 Distribution:
Alain Bordier Foundation CH 1663 Gruyères / Switzerland www.tibetmuseum.ch
ISBN-10: 962-7049-12-3 ISBN-13: 962-962-7049-12-8 EAN-13: 9789627049128 Dr. Carmen Meinert
English translation:
962-7049-11-5 978-962-7049-11-1 9789627049111
French edition:
ISBN-10: ISBN-13: EAN-13:
962-7049-13-1 962-962-7049-13-5 9789627049135
Couverture:
Ma~∂ala of the Pañcarakœå Distemper on cotton. 52 x 45 cm Tibet, 15th century Alain Bordier Foundation; ABP 1
Back:
Gruyères / Switzerland Vajrayogin¡ Gilt copper. Height 25.5 cm Tibet, 15th century Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 4
Frontispiece:
Jobo Buddha. Jokhang Temple. Lhasa Tibet, circa 12th/13th century Photo: Thomas Hahnloser, 2002
Production:
Repro-Service & pk-Verlag Peter Klüber www.klueber-repro-verlag.de
Printed by:
Burger)(Druck, 79183 Waldkirch/Allemagne
Notes on Romanization: Sanskrit words are transliterated into Roman script with diacritical marks Tibetan words are phonetically transliterated into Roman script
Content Prologue: The Venerable Lama Mönlam Gyatso Foreword: Alain Bordier Introduction: Ulrich von Schroeder
6 7 11
fiåkyamuni – The Historical Buddha
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Plate 1. Buddha fiåkyamuni at Bodhgayå. North-Eastern India: Påla Style; 11 /12 Century th
th
Life of the Historical Buddha
14
Plate 2. Life Story of the Historical Buddha fiåkyamuni. Tibet; 14th Century
Spread of Buddhism to Tibet
18
Plate 3. Dh°mavas fir¡-Dev¡ – the “Smoke-Clad-Lady”. Tibet; 14th Century
Foreign Inspiration and Tibetan Creativity
20
Plate 4. Stone Relief Carving of Buddha fiåkyamuni. Tibet; 15 16 Century th/
th
Patrons of Buddhism
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Plate 5. King Ripumalla, Khåßa Ruler of Western Nepal and Western Tibet with a Prince Worshipping the “White Tårå”. Khåßa Tradition of Western Nepal; early 14th Century
Buddhist Teachings and Transmissions
24
Plate 6. The First four Abbots of Ngor Monastery in Southern Tibet. Tibet; circa 1475–1500 AD
Mahåsiddhas – “Great Masters of Accomplishment”
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Plate 7. Mahåsiddha Vir°pa – the Great Teacher. Tibetan Gilt Copper Traditions; circa 15th Century
Casting Metal Sculptures
28
Plate 8. Enthroned Buddha fiåkyamuni. Tibetan Brass Traditions; 13th/14th Century
Tibetan Traditions of Metal Sculptures
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Plate 9. Mañjughoœa – the “Gentle Voice”. Nepalese Schools in Tibet; 13th Century
Tibetan Traditions of Thangka Paintings
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Plate 10. N¡lå-Vajravidåra~a. N.-E. Tibet (Qinghai): Kokonor Tibetan Culture; 13th Century
Ritual and Practice in Tibetan Buddhism
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Plate 11. Ritual Objects Used in Tibetan Buddhist Practice
Multiplication of Buddhas
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Plate 12. Amoghasiddhi – the Buddha of “Unfailing Success”. Tibetan Brass Traditions; 13th Century
“Bodhisattva Ideal”
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Plate 13. Avalokiteßvara Padmapå~i. Nepal: Early Malla Period (circa 1200–1482 AD); 13th/14th Century
Tantric Buddhism
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Plate 14. Ma~∂ala of the Pañcarakœå – the “Five Protectresses”. Tibet; 15 Century th
Buddhist Protector Deities
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Plate 15. Mahåkåla – the “Great Black-One”. Tibetan Brass Traditions; circa 15th Century
Peaceful Goddesses
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Plate 16. fiyåma-Tårå – the “Green Tårå”. Tibetan Brass Traditions; circa 14th Century
Wrathful Goddesses
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Plate 17. Vajrayogin¡ – the “Diamond Sceptre Yogin¡”. Tibetan Gilt Copper Traditions; 15 Century th
Tenth Karmapa – the Greatest Tibetan Artist
48
Plate 18. fiåkyamuni Painted by the Tenth Karmapa Chöying Dorje (1604–1674). Tibet; 17th Century Epilogue
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6
In memory of my parents Jacques and Marcelle Bordier
Foreword The Village of Gruyère is, in a certain way, the end of a journey, of a quest, of a path of initiation. It all started at the end of the seventies in India, when I was accompanied by a friend and discovered this civilisation – fearful of the unknown. I would have never thought that this journey would change, step by step, my existence as an ordinary protestant from Geneva. I was 35 years old and my two children were becoming teenagers. My father had joined his ancestors. Therefore, I had a certain kind of freedom and the right state of mind. I had always lived in beautiful places and had a taste for the precious. So I felt an immediate enthusiasm for the unbelievable beauty of the temples filled with a vivid and religious life. Only in 1985 after several trips to the north and south I decided to proceed to this paradise, which was Srinagar in the Cashmere region. From there we continued to Ladakh, little Tibet, where my life took a decisive turn. The visit of the Indus valley, its tenderness and the beauty of its inhabitants, the richness of its monasteries and finally the Buddhas – all of this affected me. A flame was lit in me and started to guide me in an extraordinary manner. Pushed by a profound inner force I organised my existence between the study of Buddhist art and philosophy and the work at my office in the real estate business in Geneva. I am infected by the collector’s virus by my family, so I always brought objects along from my travels. But since the discovery of the Himalayas I focused mainly on objects of this region. My interest was initially ignited by sculptures made of metal, stone, or wood. They represent Buddhas, deities, and monks with a secret and radiant spirit that fascinated me. The interest in painting developed much later thanks to a better understanding of art. Before any other considerations it was always beauty itself that inspired my decisions. In close contact with the imagination of Tibetan artists, endless as the vast space of the plateaus, this art continuously shaped my life and gave it a meaning. The present worldwide expansion of Tibetan Buddhism is a result of the Chinese invasion of Tibet in the late 1950s and the ensuing flight of a great number of spiritual masters and part of the general population into exile. This gave me the opportunity to establish privileged relations for the acquisition of extraordinary objects. Each and every new piece that I bought during these twenty-five years triggered in me delights, surprises, and amazements – creating intense emotions. I have to clarify that I have not bought a single piece during my eight journeys to Tibet. It has always been my deepest desire to share my fascination with as many people as possible and especially to preserve and hold together those miraculously preserved objects. Fortunes made me find a place of such beauty that I could not resist meeting my fate: the wonderful village of Gruyères. That very treasure in our mountains will be, I hope, a place of open mindedness and enrichment. May it be suitable to bring two worlds closer to each other, worlds that appear to be so different, yet belong to the same humanity. My collection represents an ensemble of religious objects manufactured in the course of the centuries during which Buddhism spread in Tibet and its surrounding countries. Nearly all of the pieces have been used as ritual objects during hundreds of years. They represent male and female deities that are visualised in meditation; they express in the outside world qualities within the mind, namely devotion and the understanding of the nature of mind. The manufacturing of these objects represent the supreme perfection of profound experiences in spiritual accomplishments – the highest realization mankind could achieve.
7
Tibet truly represents one of the last living links that connect us to cultures of a remote past. In those cultures the guiding principles were respect for mother earth, the creator of everything, and mystic cults and cosmic forces. Buddhism has always combined philosophy and religion, metaphysics and esoteric teachings. At the same time it has preserved the beliefs and customs of the countries in which it was spread. It is thanks to the masters of the past and present that this knowledge, fruit of such experiences and accomplishments, has been handed down without interruption for thousands of years until the present.
Let me return to the items presented here in Gruyères. I hope that they will stimulate each of us to reflect on beauty. The view belongs together with hearing, remembrance, and the sense of touch to the four sources of liberation. If one sees and contemplates on these objects, and may it be only for one moment, it certainly leads to an inner transformation. Is it not true that beauty nourishes us? We are also the product of our aesthetic, cultural, acoustic, and visual environments. Therefore, the beauty manifesting in these different objects shall contribute to our growing process within, beyond cultures, affiliations, or convictions. This collection was accomplished thanks to a number of friends and associates. It was with my friend JeanPaul Dentan that I discovered India and Ladakh. Thereafter, I had the privilege to accompany my friend Ulrich von Schroeder on seven expeditions to Tibet which allowed me to enter numerous temples and monasteries usually closed to the public. The experiences accumulated during these journeys allowed me to considerably enrich my knowledge and understanding of Buddhism.
8
A number of people have influenced my life as a collector to various degrees. It would be too long a list to name all of them, but the contact with passionate and religious people, intellectuals, and traders was crucial to the successful outcome of this achievement. For me it is an acknowledgement as collector that Ulrich von Schroeder has agreed to be the author of this publication with the assistance of his wife Heidi von SchroederImhof and Andreas Kretschmar. This publication is illustrated with a selection of sculptures and paintings from the Tibet Museum. I am also honoured to give the floor to a representative of Tibetan Buddhism, the Venerable Lama Mönlam Gyatso, whom I have known since 1989 and who is living in Geneva. He kindly agreed to write the prologue of this work to express the point of view of a Tibetan master. I would like to dedicate this publication to the memory of Marie-Thérèse de Mallmann of Paris, an extraordinary specialist of Buddhist iconography. She was a close friend of David Roussier of Rougemont and passed away in 1975 at Château d’Oex. She was dearly fond of the region and some of the old people still remember her unusual generosity. I have to thank the authorities of Gruyères for their extraordinary open-mindedness and especially the two successive mayors: Christian Bussard and Jean-Pierre Doutaz. I would also like to express my thanks to the group of people who have worked on the realisation of the museum, the architects, the enterprises, and all the friends of the Gruyère region and the highlands. Finally it is impossible for me not to include my wife Françoise in everything which was achieved. Certainly, I would not have reached my goal without her strength and inspiration. Moreover, I am thinking of my children Nicolas and Véronique, who accepted to have a father too occupied with his passions. Nonetheless, I am convinced that the two of them will safeguard the young foundation in charge of the collection of the Tibet Museum. It is an honour and a priviledge to see the Tibet Museum in a more than symbolic relationship situated between the respected institutions of the Castle of Gruyère and the avant-garde museum of the Swiss artist H. R. Giger! I would like to conclude this foreword with the reminder that the Tibet Museum has found its place in the chaplaincy and the chapel of St Joseph of the old Château St Germain. It used to be an institution for deaf-mutes run by catholic nuns and was active between 1892 and 1921. The religious symbolism of the chapel is very important. Beside Chris, Maria, and Joseph, there are images of St Pancras, as well as of St Francis of Assisi, healer and guardian of wild and domestic animals. The latter used to speak to birds, like his contemporary in distant Tibet: Milarepa, who cared with love and compassion for his flying friends and all the animals and other beings of the creation. Beneath yet another painting is Christ healing a deaf-mute saying: “Open up yourself (EPHPHETHA)”. I hope that this life-creating motto will be the symbol of our museum. Tibet Museum, Gruyères, 2008
Alain Bordier
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Introduction
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The Tibet Museum founded by Alain Bordier is located in the small Swiss town of Gruyères, famous for its medieval character. The Tibet Museum houses an important collection of Buddhist sculptures and paintings in addition to ritual objects. Alain Bordier established this collection with great care over a period of more than twenty-five years. It consists of about three hundred objects, mainly originating from Tibet. However, among the statues are a number of objects that were manufactured in the ancient Buddhist cultures surrounding Tibet: 2 3 4 5 there are rare Buddhist sculptures from the kingdom of Nepal and other Himalayan regions, in addition to examples from Northern India and Burma (Myanmar). The oldest Buddhist statues in the Tibet Museum date from the 7th century and originate from North-Western India, in particular the greater Swat and Kashmir regions. The art of the Påla Empire of North-Eastern India and its influence on the tradition of Buddhist art in Burma is documented by mostly small-sized brass and stone sculptures. The majority of the objects in the Tibet Museum, also those of Indian and Nepalese provenance, were originally retained in Tibetan monasteries, sometimes for more than a thousand years. Like other collections of Tibetan art, Alain Bordier established his collection during the last quarter of the 20th century when Tibetan refugees brought great with them into exile in9 India and Nepal. The reason 7 numbers of religious objects 8 10 behind this enormous exodus of Tibetans to Nepal and India was the Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959 followed by the “cultural revolution” between 1966 and 1969. During that period about three thousand Tibetan monasteries were destroyed resulting in an enormous loss through destruction and theft. A few large monasteries survived these times almost intact. In their custody are still more than two hundred thousand Buddhist sculptures and paintings.1 Many of the destroyed monasteries have since been rebuilt. Between 1992 and 2000 Alain Bordier accompanied me on seven expeditions to Tibet. On our travels we spent many unforgettable hours studying the collections of the Potala Palace and the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa. We visited a number of other monasteries and studied jointly their collections, such as those at Drepung, 12 14 Thalung, and Tandruk. It 15was my Drigung, Gyantse, Mindroling, Nor, Nethang,13 Reting, Sakya, Shalu, Sera, pleasure to assist Alain Bordier in establishing his collection, documentation, and library. It is my wish to present with this publication an introduction into the world of Tibetan culture which fascinates a growing number of people all over the world. Mariahalden, Weesen, 2008
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Ulrich von Schroeder
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1 Two monumental books illustrate more than 1100 of the most important Buddhist sculptures that still belong to Tibetan monasteries. Cf. Ulrich von
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Schroeder. Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet. Volume One: India & Nepal; Volume Two: Tibet & China. (Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd., 2001). These are 23the only existing scholarly books about 24 Buddhist art in Tibetan collection 25 [www.visualdharma.com]. 26
11
fiåkyamuni – The Historical Buddha The historical figure Siddhårtha Gautama, a prince from the ruling house of fiåkya in northern India, is the founder of the Buddhist teachings. He was born around the middle of the first millennium before Common Era in Lumbin¡, in present-day Nepal. A prophecy was made on the occasion of his birth that he would become a great world sovereign (cakravartin). He would be equally gifted as a worldly and spiritual sovereign. Naturally, his father wished for a worthy successor. Therefore, he offered to his son all sensual delights of palace life in order to distract him from any spiritual thoughts. Nonetheless, the prince did long for his own spiritual growth, so he escaped secretly from the palace. He dedicated himself to train his own mind in solitude. Eventually it led him to his complete awakening. According to the Buddhist teachings an “enlightened one” is fully accomplished and has gained by himself realisation and omniscience with regard to the causes of suffering. With his own enlightenment Siddhårtha Gautama became the “awakened and enlightened sage” (muni). The Sanskrit root budh means “to awake”, “to realise”, “to become aware”, or “to understand”. Thus he was given the honorary title “Buddha fiåkyamuni”, meaning the “Awakened One from the ruling house of the fiåkya”. Buddha fiåkyamuni explicitly disapproved of a cult of his person. On the contrary, he merely saw himself as teaching a method to end suffering and to attain enlightenment. He only passed on his knowledge on his disciples’ urge. His instructions aim to attain the state of nirvå~a. The Sanskrit term “nirvå~a” means “to cease”; yet might also be translated as “without winds”. It refers to the cessation of the erroneous belief in a solid and independent self as well as to the cessation of “the winds of passions”. During one’s lifetime it means the liberation of the causes of existential fears, whereas after one’s death it refers to the cessation of cyclic existence (saµsåra). Essentially, the teachings of Buddha fiåkyamuni rest upon three basic elements 1. The teachings on Buddha nature. According to Buddhism all sentient beings are inherently endowed with the potential for awakening and therefore with the ability to accomplish it. 2. The teachings on karma. The Sanskrit term karma is usually translated as “action” or “deed”. Traditionally, the term karma is understood as the “summation of all deeds”. It means the law of cause and effect and therefore demands a great deal of individual responsibility. It also means that one needs to become aware of the consequence of all deeds – also including those of speech and thoughts. 3. The teachings of the true nature of all phenomena, called emptiness (ßunyatå). Here, “emptiness” should not be misunderstood as “without content”. Rather it should be envisioned as an open space, as a kind of empty projection screen. According to the Buddhist teachings the experience of reality is a pseudo-truth, merely construed by one’s own mind. This “reality” is not inherently existent and therefore without substance and “empty”. Due to the “emptiness of all phenomena” it is possible to create a new reality in the process of transformation of one’s own mental structure. All three elements emphasise one’s personal responsibility as a human being. They clearly point at Buddhist soteriology as a means for personal growth. The aim is an independent and mature human being. 1. Buddha fiåkyamuni at Bodhgayå – the Place of His Enlightenment North-Eastern India: Påla Style; 11th/12th Century Brass; hollow cast in one piece. Inlaid with silver and copper. Height: 18 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 232]
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Plate 1
Life of the Historical Buddha This colourful thangka illustrates the life story of the historical fiåkyamuni, which depicts him seated on a lotus throne in the Mahåbodhi st°pa at Bodhgayå in Northern India. It was here that the Buddha-to-be conquered the temptation and threat of Måra and eventually attained enlightenment. Thus this location became highly important for all Buddhists. The life story of the historical Buddha fiåkyamuni is depicted on both sides of the thangka, starting in the upper right corner moving downward. In the vertical registers immediately to both sides of the central figure are representations of the sixteen arhats, the first ordained disciples, as well as the lay disciple Dharmatåla. The gold-coloured Buddha sits on a lotus pedestal in the attitude of meditation (dhyånåsana), with his right hand showing the gesture of touching the earth (bh°misparßa-mudrå). The Buddha is dressed with the three precious garments (tric¡vara). The upper garment (uttaråsa∫ga) is stoat with dark brown patches, embroidered with a bordure and lined with a light red lining. The lower garment (antaravåsaka) is of light red colour. The monk’s robe (sa∫ghå†i) is folded over his left shoul der. To the right and left of the Buddha are standing his favourite monks, Maudgalyåyana and fiåriputra. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Future Buddha fiåkyamuni as Bodhisattva in Tuœita heaven Coronation of Maitreya in Tuœita heaven Decision of the Bodhisattva to enter the womb of queen Måyå, the wife of King fiuddhodana of the ruling house of the fiåkyas at Kapilavastu, as a white elephant with six tusks Birth of Siddhårtha in the grove of Lumbin¡ Prophecy of the seer Asita, who realises the miraculous signs Prince Siddhårtha is learning the alphabet: the dBu-can script with the first four letters of the Tibetan alphabet: ka kha ga nga Devadatta kills a white elephant who is then dragged outside the town gate by Sundar¡nandå. Prince Siddhårtha kicks the cadaver with his foot beyond the vicinity of the town At a swimming competition Prince Siddhårtha floats on the water surface whereas his rivals are threatened to drown Archery contest Four encounters: old age, sickness, death, and asceticism King fiuddhodana commands the palace guard to prevent Siddhårtha from renouncing his home-life for the life of a wandering ascetic Siddhårtha escapes from the royal palace Siddhårtha instructs his servant Chandaka to return to the palace with his horse Ka~†haka Siddhårtha cuts his plait, which is kept in a st°pa by the gods of the Tråyastriµßa heaven During his sixteen years of practice of austerities Siddhårtha is teased, e.g. by a young herdsman tickling his ears At the end of his practice of austerities Sujåtå offers a bowl of milk-gruel to Siddhårtha
17. 18A. 18 B. 18 C. 18D. 18 E. 18 F. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.
Bodhisattva Siddhårtha obtains kusa grass for his seat from Svastika Måra challenges the future Buddha Måra’s daughters try to seduce Siddhårtha Earth goddess witnesses the defeat over Måra and the enlightenment of Buddha fiåkyamuni Måra’s army of demons attacks the future Buddha Måra’s army of demons is defeated Måra accepts his defeat by Buddha fiåkyamuni Mucalinda, king of the serpents (någaråja), protects Buddha fiåkyamuni with his body Two merchants Trapußa and Bhallika offer Buddha fiåkyamuni a meal Buddha delivers first sermon in the deer park at Sårnåth Conversion and teachings to heretics Series of miracles at firåvast¡ Buddha fiåkyamuni teaching the sa∫gha of monks A monkey offers honey to fiåkyamuni fiåkyamuni is taming the elephant Nålågiri at Råjag®ha Buddha fiåkyamuni ascends to Tråyastriµßa heaven to teach his deceased mother Teaching to the gods in the Tråyastriµßa heaven Gathering of Buddhas and monks Ådibuddha Vajrasattva attended by two Bodhisattvas Deathbed of Buddha fiåkyamuni and his passing into parinirvå~a Cremation of Buddha fiåkyamuni and the ensuing distribution of his relics Gathering of Buddhas and monks The future Buddha overcomes all attacks by Måra
2. Life Story of the Historical Buddha fiåkyamuni Tibet; 14th Century Distemper on cloth. 69.5 x 59.5 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABP 3]
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18 D
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4 Arhats
Arhats 34
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18 B 16
18 C 15
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18 B 18 E 18 F 14
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18 B
18 D
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18 E
18 F
18 D
Dharmatåla
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Plate 2
Spread of Buddhism to Tibet According to Tibetan literary sources Buddhism was introduced to the Tibetan court during the 7th century. This is a rather late date, since Buddhism had already flourished in all surrounding countries for at least 500 years. Nonetheless, the first contacts between Tibetans and foreign Buddhists already took place much earlier – particularly among those Tibetans who lived in the borderland and who were involved in trade with Buddhists and Hindus. Although not mentioned in any written records, it is very likely that Buddhism and perhaps also Hinduism and other Indian religious beliefs had been practiced by some Tibetans before the 7th century. At that time the Tibetan aristocracy relied on the concept of divine ancestry and the sacrosanct status of its monarchs. Within this frame the worship of the tombs of Tibetan kings was highly important as the tombs represented an integral symbolic vestige of passing royal power down through the generations. The belief systems of common people presumably followed ancient customs which included the worship and appeasement of spirits inhabiting trees, rocks, mountains, rivers, and lakes. In particular, it was believed that mountains were inhabited by omnipotent spirits that were regarded as the ancestors of the clans living in the neighbourhood. These spirits were propitiated by annual sacrificial offerings. After the spread of Buddhism some of these mountain peaks were incorporated in the Buddhist pantheon as the abode of Buddhist deities. In the Yarlung dynasty (circa 600–842 AD) the Tibetan sovereign, King Songtsen Gampo (reigned circa 618–649), developed an interest in Buddhism that was most likely initiated by Wencheng, his Chinese wife, a passionate practising Buddhist. According to legend, the first Buddhist images were brought to Tibet from China as part of her dowry, the most renowned and sacred one being the Jobo Buddha statue in the Jokhang temple in Lhasa. The Jobo is the most sacred statue of Tibet. It is further recorded that Bh®ku†¡, King Songtsen Gampo’s Nepalese wife, brought several Buddhist statues from Nepal as part of her dowry. However, the relevant literary sources cannot be verified any longer, as none of these statues survived the often warlike times. According to style and outer appearance, the Jobo statue still preserved in the Jokhang temple certainly does not date from the 7th century but rather is a copy dating from around the 11th or 12th centuries. In the early days of the spread of Buddhism to Tibet, it was probably mostly practiced in the inner circles of the court with little impact on the commoner’s life. The first Buddhist teachers to Tibet were primarily of Indian, Nepalese, Khotanese, and Chinese origin. These early translators interpreted Buddhism according to their own traditions. Naturally, there was resistance on part of the traditional priests and shamans. For the Buddhist tradition to actually take roots in Tibetan society, it needed either to assimilate the various categories of spirits or to defeat them. According to Tibetan legend, the most important figure in the transformation process of the Tibetan landscape and the pre-Buddhist pantheon into Buddhist ones was the famous tantric practitioner Padmasambhava from U∂∂iyåna in North-Western India who was invited by the Tibetan court in the 8th century. His efforts were later recorded in historiography as a cornerstone in the assimilation process of Buddhism in Tibet. 3. Dh°mavas fir¡-Dev¡ – the “Smoke-Clad Lady” Tibet; 14th Century Distemper on cotton. 72 x 51 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABP 9]
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Plate 3
Foreign Inspiration and Tibetan Creativity According to Tibetan chronicles, during the first diffusion of Buddhism the Tibetans depended in many aspects on foreign assistance. Apart from the teachers and translators from India, Nepal, Central Asia, and China, there was also a demand for trained craftsmen. The art styles employed varied according to the origin and training of the employed artists. The resulting artistic variety was reflected in the architectural characteristics of Samye – the first Tibetan monastery, built by the Tibetan ruler Trisong Detsen (reigned circa 755–797). Each of the three floors of the principal building was built by craftsmen of different ethnic backgrounds. Despite some disagreement in textual sources, the overall consensus is that the ground floor was attributed to Tibetan, the first floor to Chinese, and the second floor to Indian craftsmen. Since Samye was much destroyed during the “cultural revolution” between 1966 and 1969, it is not possible to verify the conflicting claims anymore. As a result of the growing popularity of Buddhism during its first period of diffusion, monasteries were built in all Tibetan regions. Over the course of time, more and more Tibetans were trained in the production of sculptures and paintings. These Tibetan craftsmen and their apprentices relied on the artistic patterns applied by the foreign artists working in Tibet. However, the developing Tibetan art styles cannot just be labelled as copies of foreign artistic traditions. They rather represent a synthesis of foreign inspiration and Tibetan creativity. Moreover, the enormous geographical extension of Tibet favoured the development of different artistic traditions. Nonetheless, there are many corresponding elements despite distinct regional differences. The mobility of the artists was certainly the main reason for these stylistic resemblances. The reason for the overall similarities lies also in the strict iconographical requirements the craftsmen had to meet, e.g. with regard to proportions. The freedom of individual artistic expressions was thus very much restricted. The great stylistic variations encountered when comparing Buddhist art of India, Nepal, and Tibet was the result of local developments – within the strict confines of iconographical requirements. Quite a different development is found in the Chinese artistic tradition: stylistic conformity among the different workshops was always enforced through censorship by the imperial court. Such consistency in modelling could only be achieved through the employment of reusable matrices. This time-saving method enabled the production of large series of almost identical objects. Regardless of local artistic achievements, foreign artists remained active in Tibet at all times. The activities of Indian artist in Tibet, however, lasted only until the end of the 12th century. The almost complete disappearance of the Buddhist artistic tradition in North-Eastern India after the 12th century was an immediate result of the persecutions of Buddhists by the Islamic invaders. Quite different was the influence of very talented Newar craftsmen from the Kathmandu valley in Nepal who remained the highest paid artists in Tibet from the 7th century until the Chinese occupation of Tibet in the middle of the 20th century. The Newars since earliest times were very talented artists and remained such until present times. Many of their sculptures and paintings reflected the artistic sense of the Tibetan patrons to the degree that these objects might be regarded as examples of Tibetan rather than Nepalese art. 4. Stone Relief Carving of Buddha fiåkyamuni Tibet; 15th/16th Century Carved stone slab with remains of painted decoration. 80 x 55 x 3 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 245]
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Plate 4
Patrons of Buddhism Since its foundation some 2500 years ago, the spread and survival of Buddhism always depended on the generosity of wealthy patrons. Their support including donations of suitable land and funds for the construction of temples, teaching halls, communal buildings, and monastic quarters enabled the foundation of monasteries. Additional funds were needed for the sustention of the monasteries – including the daily subsistence allowances for monks and nuns. Many monasteries also received a part of their income from surrounding communities that were required to supply annual gifts in form of food or other means. But it was not alone the privilege of the most wealthy people to act as benefactors. Also common lay people acquired merit through various kinds of offerings to temples such as donating butter for oil-lamps or white shawls for particular statues. One of the most important patrons of Buddhism was emperor Aßoka (3rd century BC) of the Indian Maurya Empire. After witnessing the horrors of war during his forcible conquests in Eastern India, he forswore war as a political tool. Instead he became a fervent adherent of the Buddhist doctrine and henceforward pursued a policy of justice and righteousness (Påli: dhamma). Aßoka initiated a new policy of religious conquest (Påli: dhammavijaya), sending missionaries to all parts of his dominion and to distant countries. He proclaimed his message with the aid of public edicts, of which many have survived chiselled on rocks and stone pillars. Three rulers of the Tibetan imperial period (circa 600–842) are especially remembered as the three great kings of the doctrine (dharmaråja). These great patrons of Buddhism are Songtsen Gampo (reigned circa 618–649), Trisong Detsen (reigned circa 755–797), and Relpachen (reigned circa 815–838). During their rule the conditions were favourable for the dissemination of Buddhism, and many monasteries and temples were built in all parts of Tibet. Another Tibetan royal patron who acquired great merit was Lhatsun Tsenpo Khore of Western Tibet, who later became a monk and was thereafter known as Lhalama Yeshe Öd (died circa 1035). About 980, Khore/Yeshe Öd sent twenty-one Tibetan boys to Kashmir in the hope that they get well trained by learned, spiritually oriented monks from India and that after their return to Western Tibet they might revive the Buddhist teachings. These aspirations were accomplished under the guidance of Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055). Here is a rare example of a thangka where the donor is illustrated and additionally identified by an inscription as “Ripumalla” (Plate 5). In fact, he is King Ripumalla, the Khåßa ruler of Western Nepal and Western Tibet around 1300–1350 AD. He is depicted together with one of his sons, either Prince Saµgråmamalla or Pratåpamalla. The ruler and his son are shown in humble attitude expressing respectful salutation to Sita-Tårå or White Tårå. This painting records the actual worshipping of an image of White Tårå and represents the only known painting that can be attributed to the Khåßa Malla kingdom without any doubt. The painting style reveals strong similarities with works originating from the Kathmandu Valley, a characteristic that applies also to the metal statues. There is evidence that Newår artists of the Kathmandu Valley worked for the Khåßa patrons. 5. King Ripumalla, Khåßa Ruler of Western Nepal and Western Tibet with Prince Saµgråmamalla or Prince Pratåpamalla Worshipping the “White Tårå” Khåßa Tradition of Western Nepal; Early 14th Century Distemper on cotton. 29.8 x 24.8 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABP 38]
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Plate 5
Buddhist Teachings and Transmissions The majority of practising Buddhists regard a teacher (guru) who transmits the teachings authentically as an indispensable necessity. Moreover, for practitioners of Tibetan Buddhism, an initiation granted by the teacher is a prerequisite for practising the tantric teachings. This feature is to be understood against the background of the historical development of Buddhism of the Theravåda, Mahåyåna, and Tantric teachings. Up to the third century B.C. the earliest teachings of the historical Buddha, the Theravåda teachings, were only transmitted orally – first by his immediate disciples, later by their successors. A couple of hundred years elapsed after the death of the Buddha until the teachings were first put into writing. It is around this time that the Mahåyåna teachings developed. It is likely that the original messages of the historical Buddha were subject to indispensable changes and various inter-pretations during this by far not insignificant period of time. It is part of human nature to perceive everything from a personal point of view and to interpret things accordingly. As a matter of fact the role of the teacher is not particularly emphasised in the earlier Buddhist texts. Here, the Buddha rather points to his individual method that liberated himself (Theravåda tradition), as well as to the potential for enlightenment inherent in all sentient beings (Mahåyåna tradition). The Mahå-Parinibbåna D¡gha-Nikåya, Suttanta 16, an early Theravåda scripture, explicitly discourages the practitioner from looking for a teacher. Instead he should rather take refuge in himself and in the Buddhist teachings. Other texts, such as the tantras transmitted by Mahåsiddhas, point to the “inner teacher” for advanced practitioners. Nonetheless, later tantric texts refer to the great importance of an actual physical teacher. In this very tradition the guru is regarded as an Enlightened One, passing on his knowledge to his disciples. It became an essential feature of Tibetan tantric Buddhism. Each ceremony starts with a ritual dedicated to the teacher (guru-p°jå) – who is then visualised as a Buddha. The disciple pays homage to the teacher so that he may pass on his wisdom. In this context it is noteworthy that in Tibet the lineage of trans-mission of a particular teaching method is of utmost importance. The meaning of the word “tradition” comes from Latin “traditio”, namely “transmission”. In either way all teaching methods of Tibetan Buddhism derive from Northern Indian Mahåyåna Buddhism, may it be in form of a s°tra or tantra. Each lineage of transmission invokes a historical teacher as the primordial transmission of this knowledge – generally as the historical Buddha or as a primordial Buddha. The first teacher in a given lineage passes on the teachings – either received through a vision, a dream, or an inspiration – to one or more main disciples, who are then responsible of equally passing on the teachings. The above-mentioned guru-p°jå, the ritual dedicated to the teacher, invokes the whole genealogy of teachers and pays homage to them. One feature of Tibetan art is the depiction of teachers who gained particular merit – including portraits of historical figures, images of the legendary Mahåsiddhas, but also of masters not known by name any longer. 6. The First Four Abbots of Ngor Monastery in Southern Tibet Tibet; circa 1475–1500 AD Distemper on cotton. 104 x 79.5 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABP 31]
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Plate 6
Mahåsiddhas – “Great Masters of Accomplishment” The siddha practice or the “practice of accomplishment” is a pan-Indian movement that has its roots in the practice of yoga. Those early yoga practices aimed at the utter control of body and mind in order to escape from death and attain spiritual immortality instead. For this very reason death was either meant to be continously delayed or the physical body was meant to be entirely dematerialised – and eventually transformed into a transcendental state of divine nature. The Buddhist siddha practice is rooted in a certain cult of Nåth which is of neither Buddhist nor Hindu provenance but rather shares a spiritual ground common to all Indian religions and which has distinct features of yoga practice as well as sexual rites. The origin of the tantras is not very clear. Nonetheless, it seems that the tantras are rooted in ancient magic cults, partly connected to rites of fertility. Over the course of centuries the tantras were transmitted orally and only much later passed down in written form. All Buddhist and other esoteric practices are transmitted from one generation to the next in an unbroken lineage of transmission from teacher to disciple. Siddhas, a group of eccentric and unconventional ascetics, are part of this tradition. They practiced their vigorous discipline outside a monastic setting. The most renowned Indian tantric practitioners lived between the 9th and 12th centuries. They are known as Mahåsiddhas or “great masters of accomplishment”. A special group of eighty-four Mahåsiddhas became very famous because of their supernatural powers. This rather loose movement had no restrictions with regard to the social background. Among the Mahåsiddhas were Brahmans, monks and nuns, as well as lay practitioners, kings, ministers, merchants, farmers, servants, beggars, and robbers. All of them had one or more teachers who initiated them into tantric ritual practice. These systems of practices were also taught in the major Buddhist monasteries in northern India, such as Nålandå, Vikramaß¡la, and Odantapur¡. However, the meditation practice of the Mahåsiddhas varied greatly from the disciplined daily life of monks in these monasteries. Beyond any restrictions Mahåsiddhas could do their practices anywhere, may it be on cremation grounds or in remote areas in wilderness. Among the group of eighty-four Indian Mahåsiddhas, 9 th century Vir°pa is venerated most in Tibet (Plate 7). Vir°pa was one of the versatile tantric practitioners, although he was also renowned as a drunkard. It is said that one day Vir°pa drank up all stocks of wine in a tavern. When he was asked to pay, he promised to do so once the shade of the sun had reached a certain point. He pointed with his finger to the sun and fixed it in its natural course. Then, the sun did not move for two whole days and one night, so that the amazed king started to inquire about the reasons. When he heard that a yogin stopped the course of the sun due to shortage of money, the king paid the open bill. Thereupon Vir°pa lifted the spell and the sun continued its course. 7. Mahåsiddha Vir°pa – the Great Teacher Tibetan gilt copper tradition; circa 15 th Century Gilt copper; hollow cast in one piece. Height: 15 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 27]
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Plate 7
Casting Metal Sculptures The casting of images according to the method of “cire perdue” or “lost form” is a time-consuming process which can take several months, depending on the size and complexity of the statue. Usually there are a number of specialised craftsmen involved. The first step is the modelling of the required statue in beeswax. Judging from the artistic and stylistic viewpoint, this is the most important part. The modelling of the statue in wax is usually done by the chief artist. The size and type of the statue determines whether a hollow or a solid casting is advisable. For hollow statues, a clay core is first produced. This is then covered with beeswax that is carefully and patiently shaped down to the minutest details. Once the wax statue is completed, the wax pipes must be attached which are later necessary for the funnelling of the molten metal and for the circulation of the air. Next the casting mould needs to be prepared. For this purpose the wax model is covered with thin layers of fire-proof clay. Each layer must be slowly and uniformly dried before each successive layer of clay can be applied. For a larger image, it may take up to two or three months to create a casting mould strong enough for the expected stresses of the casting process. Once the casting mould is finished, the image is ready to be cast. It must be decided prior to the modelling of the wax statue whether the statue will be cast in unalloyed copper or a brass alloy. Since brass alloys composed of copper and enriched with zinc are stronger, less metal is therefore needed. Unalloyed copper statues need to be cast more solidly and therefore require thicker wax models. The crucibles filled with raw metal are then placed inside the furnace. To reach the high temperature necessary for smelting – for copper almost 1100 degrees centigrade is required – sufficient amounts of charcoal, or even better coal, is essential. The casting process is divided into three stages: the melting out of the wax model resulting in an empty cavity, the filling of the pre-heated, empty clay mould with molten metal, and finally the breaking open of the clay mould to free the cast statue. After the clay mould is broken open and the circulation pipes are chiselled away, the clay core is removed from inside the hollow statue. Then follows the time-consuming process of polishing and engraving. Unlike statues cast in brass, those made of almost pure copper alloys are usually fire gilt. For this technique, an amalgam of powdered gold and mercury is brushed on to the object after its surface has been carefully cleaned with nitric acid. The coated image is then held over the fire and as soon as the temperature reaches 360 degrees centigrade, the mercury spontaneously evaporates leaving the gold evenly coating the surface of the metal. The jewelled ornaments of many statues are inset with precious stones, the Tibetans clearly preferring blue turquoise and red coral. Earlier, many of the non-gilt brass statues were inlaid with silver and copper, especially the eyes, lips, and garments. Every image – regardless of whether it be Buddhist or Hindu – requires formal consecration before it acquires a sacred status and serves as an object of worship and veneration. In Tibet the ritual of consecration is performed by monks and is in many aspects similar to ancient Indian traditions. However, in Tibet – different from Indian and Nepalese customs – hollow statues of deities are filled with sacred substances and are consequently sealed with a sheet of copper. In Tibetan Buddhism, it has been the custom for the last four or five hundred years to paint the faces of deities with a mixture consisting of powdered gold diluted with an adhesive binding agent. Subsequently, during the eye opening ceremony, the deities are awakened by painting the pupils. Whenever considered necessary, the consecration procedure may be repeated. 8. Enthroned Buddha fiåkyamuni Tibetan Brass Traditions; 13th/14th Century Brass statue remounted on a gilt copper pedestal. Buddha statue is inlaid with silver and copper. Height: 41 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 2 & 3]
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Plate 8
Tibetan Traditions of Metal Sculptures As indicated by archaeological findings, the beginnings of metallurgy on the Tibetan plateau date back to the first millennium BC at least. However, the oldest literary references concern the Tibetan imperial period (circa 600–842 AD). According to ancient Chinese and Arabic records, the Tibetans were during this period of time renowned as excellent producers of weapons and armour. The Chinese records of the Tang dynasty (618–907) list among the gifts received from the Tibetans extraordinary golden and silver vessels and sculptures of animals made of gold and silver. However, it is not explicitly stated by whom these statues were made. In the light of the difficulties Tibetan craftsmen faced in casting Buddhist statues, one wonders whether all of these gifts were really made by Tibetans or rather by Sogdian craftsmen. The latter were famous for their works in precious metal; moreover they were active all over Central Asia and as far as China. For the present publication the main concern is the casting of Buddhist statues by Tibetan artists. The development of Tibetan religious art began with the introduction of Buddhism sometimes during the 7th century. The first Buddhist sculptures and paintings to reach Tibet were almost certainly brought by missionaries who needed them for their teachings and practice. Since native artists were not yet capable of making statues and paintings, Indian and Nepalese craftsmen were filling the gap. Nonetheless, as a consequence of the spreading of Buddhism, Tibetan craftsmen felt also encouraged to obtain the skills to cast statues and produce paintings. The existence of early Tibetan Buddhist metal sculptures was for a long-time mere speculation based on Tibetan literary references – sometimes compiled more than 500 years after the described events had occurred. Proof was lacking until a few years ago, when for the first time undoubtedly Tibetan Buddhist statues cast in copper or brass dating from the 7th to 9th centuries were published.2 The great geographical size of Tibet encouraged the development of different artistic traditions characterised by different foreign influences. With regard to metal alloys that were suitable for the casting of statues, there existed only two principal possibilities: either the use of copper or of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. The choice of the alloy depended on the wishes of the patron, whether the commissioned statue had to be gilt or not gilt. It is therefore suitable to divide the Tibetan metal images accordingly: “Tibetan gilt copper traditions” (Plates 7, 9, 17) and “Tibetan brass traditions” (Plates 8, 12, 15, 16).3 The Indian and Nepalese artists from whom the Tibetans learnt the crafts of casting Buddhist statues also used these two principal methods. The artists from Northern Indian and the Western Himalaya had preference of working in brass, often inlaid with silver and copper (Plate 1). The Newar artists from the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal clearly preferred gilt copper statues (Plate 13). 9. Mañjughoœa – the “Gentle Voice” Nepalese Schools in Tibet; 13th Century Gilt copper alloy; assembled from several separately cast parts. The jewelled ornaments are inset with turquoise, corals, lapis lazuli, and rock crystal. Height: 68 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 65]
2 Cf. Ulrich von Schroeder. Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet. Volume Two: Tibet & China, pls. 174–189. 3 Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was hardly used in Northern Indian, Nepal and Tibet because of lack of tin resources.
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Plate 9
Tibetan Traditions of Thangka Paintings The main features of Tibetan Buddhism were adopted from Buddhist traditions in India. The same is true for the artistic realisation of sculptured and painted deities. Buddhist paintings – like statues – were probably brought to Tibet by Indian, Nepalese, and even Chinese missionaries. The development of Tibetan Buddhism is usually divided into two phases, namely the “early phase” (Tib.: sNga dar) from the beginning of the 6th to the middle of the 9th centuries; and the “later phase” (Tib.: Phyi dar) from the late 10th century onward. During the “early phase” most of the artists were of Indian or Nepalese provenance. Apart from a few fragmentary frescos hardly any paintings from this time seem to have survived. During the revival of Tibetan Buddhism in the late 10th century Tibetan painting was apart from Indian and Nepalese influences also enriched with Chinese artistic elements. From the 11th century onward Tibetans gradually developed their own painting style – a process that continues up to the present. The different Buddhist schools founded monasteries all over Tibet. Adequate artists from all over the country were invited to embellish temples with paintings and sculptures. With regard to the high degree of mobility it is difficult to locate schools of painting geographically. The painting of a thangka – the Tibetan designation for a painted scroll – is done in a sequence of work steps by a number of specialists. In most cases linen cloth forms the base (Plates 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 14), in rare cases also silk (Plate 18). First the cloth is fixed on a frame, then it is primed with size and lime, and at last it is smoothed out. Only then the motif is drawn on the sized cloth either by hand or by using block prints – a less time-consuming method. Colours from mineral pigments are used primarily for priming whereas colours from plants serve for contours and shadings. The choice of pigments often gives a hint to date a painting. During the actual painting process the base colour, shadings and contours are applied. Finally a border from fabric is attached to the finished painting, then a round bar is sewed in at the bottom and a flat bar at the top of the thangka. Moreover, a silk cover is stitched to the upper border. Just as in the case of all other ritual objects, a thangka is also consecrated in order to invite the presence of the respective deity. At times when the thangka is not used, it is rolled up and stored in a chest. In India as well as in Tibet most paintings have a religious meaning. In this regard Indo-Tibetan culture is quite different from the Chinese where secular paintings of literati painters were venerated more than paintings of a religious context. Tibetan painters also followed the Indian models in their choice of a base cloth: they equally preferred linen or hemp. One of the few exceptions among Tibetan artists was the 10th Karmapa Chöying Dorje (1604-1674) who shared the preference of the Chinese for paintings on silk (Plate 18). One of the main differences between the various methods is that it is more difficult to apply contours on silk than on linen or hemp. 10. N¡lå-Vajravidåra~a – a Form of Vajrapå~i North-Eastern Tibet (Qinghai): Kokonor Tibetan Culture; 13th Century Distemper on cotton. 64 x 51 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABP 40]
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Plate 10
Ritual and Practice in Tibetan Buddhism With the arrival of Buddhism in Tibet, Buddhist rituals were also introduced. Here we are mainly concerned with those aspects related to the field of art. Statues and paintings were not made for mere aesthetic reasons but solely for religious purposes. The artist was commissioned to produce a figurative representation of a deity that would help the adept to visualise and identify himself with the deity. The initiate is familiar with all aspects of the deity, the meaning of its colours, postures, and gestures. Thus statues and paintings are an indispensable device for a practitioner to familiarise himself with the outer characteristics of a certain deity. Buddhists and Hindus refer to the practice of mental creation of a deity as sådhana. The deity is generated in a series of stages. The first stage aims to generate a clear mental image (Tib.: rnam par gsal ba). Thereafter the adept reflects on the outer characteristics of the deity: e.g. in case of a six-armed deity he meditates upon the six transcendental perfections (påramitå), etc.. This state is experienced as clear recollection (Tib.: rnam dag dran pa). Finally, the meditator generates the conviction in his heart and identifies himself with the visualised deity. This third stage of the visualisation process is called firm pride (Tib.: nga rgyal brtan pa). At this stage the practitioner recites the mantra of the respective deity. Finally, the meditator dissolves the visualised deity into emptiness (ßunyatå). The two stages of visualisation and dissolution are integral parts of each sådhana: the development stage (utpattikrama) and the perfection stage of dissolution (sampannakrama). An intimate connection between the meditator and the deity are a prerequisite for a successful visualisation. This practice is limited to the deities to which the practitioner has been initiated and whom he is invoking regularly. Every initiate has a main tutelary deity (Tib.: yi dam gyi lha) whom he is invoking in his practice of the sådhana. Often the adept has a small metal, stone, or wooden statue of it. This statue is referred to as practice support (Tib.: thugs dam gyi rten) and regarded as the actual deity. It is the most precious belonging of a practitioner and accompanies him throughout this life. Such statues or objects are kept extremely secret and are passed on from one generation to the next. The tutelary deity represents the individual and characteristic Buddha-nature of the adept. A yidam is not regarded as a protective deity or a saviour, but is in fact a mirror of one’s basic individual energy. Here are displayed some ritual objects that monastic and lay practitioners have for daily use. A st°pa is a reliquary and originates in pre-Buddhist architectural buildings. Originally, relics of the historical Buddha fiåkyamuni were stored in it. The diamond sceptre (vajra) and the complementary bell (gha~†å) symbolise the male and female principle. Holding them with hands crossed in front of the chest symbolise the gesture of union of opposites. Moreover, the ritual dagger (vajrak¡la) is used in exorcist rites and to tame inner and outer demonic forces. 11. Ritual Objects Used in Tibetan Buddhist Practice Tibet; 14th–17th Century [Alain Bordier Foundation]
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Plate 11
Multiplication of Buddhas The foundation of the Buddhist tradition is the transmission of the teachings of the historical Buddha fiåkyamuni (Plates 1, 2, 4, 8). He said that his knowledge was already revealed by previous Buddhas, yet that it had fallen into oblivion. All these previous Buddhas are also said to have manifested as humans. They were mortal and passed into nirvå~a at the end of their lives. Further Buddhas are said to appear in the future as human beings on earth in order to teach the Buddhist doctrine. The next one of these is said to be Buddha Maitreya who presently abides in a heavenly realm to wait for his time of descend. However, early Buddhism solely venerates the historical Buddha fiåkyamuni. At a later stage in the development of the Buddhist teaching the notion of the three bodies (trikåya) arose – namely along with the Mahåyåna Buddhist idea that all sentient beings are able to become a Buddha. This notion refers to the way a Buddha appears and to the dimension in which he abides. A Buddha enters into this world as a human being in form of an emanation body (nirmå~akåya). This is also the form of the historical Buddha. A “Primordial Buddha” (Ådibuddha) appears as the body of reality (dharmakåya). He is beyond the law of nature and is regarded as a personification of ultimate reality. In Tibet the Ådibuddha is differently identified. The “old translation tradition” (Tib.: snga bsgyur) of the Nyingma order identifies the Ådibuddha with Samantabhadra; the “new translation traditions” (Tib.: gsar ma pa), namely the Kagyü, Sakya, and Gelug orders, identify him with Vajradhara. Since ultimate reality is beyond designation and description, an Ådibuddha is also invisible. He abides in the nether world, in the realm of ultimate reality. He is a symbol of all-ground consciousness from which everything arises. It is from this primordial Buddha that the five transcendental or cosmic Buddhas (tathågata/jina) arise and manifest as the enjoyment body (saµbhogakåya). These Buddhas abide in the universe, their bodies are very subtle in nature. The system of these five Tathågatas rests on the view that the world is composed of five cosmic elements or aggregates (skandhas). These skandhas comprise all material as well as all emotional and spiritual aspects. Their powers are represented by the five Tathågatas (pañcatathågata). At the same time they symbolise a partial aspect of above-mentioned all-ground consciousness. According to the descriptions contained in the sådhanas, the transcendental Buddhas wear royal ornaments, abide each in a certain direction, and are of a specific colour. Each has his own vehicle and shows a particular hand gesture (mudrå). Moreover, each of them represents a certain psycho-physical mode and a desire which might be transformed into the embodied wisdom by means of an appropriate meditation practice. The five Tathågatas are white Vairocana in the centre of the universe, blue Akœobhya in the east, golden yellow Ratnasambhava in the south, red Amitåbha in the west, and green Amoghasiddhi in the north (Plate 12). In representational art the monks robes of a Buddha refer to his mortal embodiment (nirmå~akåya). Transcendental Buddhas who symbolise a visionary state (saµbhogakåya), on the other hand, never wear monks robes, but a cloth around their waists and ornaments. 12. Amoghasiddhi – the Transcendental Buddha of “Unfailing Success” Tibetan Brass Traditions; 13th Century Brass; hollow cast in one piece. Inset with turquoise and corals. Height: 47 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 65]
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Plate 12
“Bodhisattva Ideal” Buddhism distinguishes two main traditions which developed according to different interpretations of the original teachings. The various traditions are referred to as “vehicle” (yåna), a term that points to the meaning of “vehicle for the mind”. The Theravåda tradition is the oldest order and also called “Southern Buddhism” since it is practiced up to the present in South Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos. The followers of the other traditions use the derogative term Hinayåna – the “small (hina) vehicle” – to refer to this tradition. Theravåda Buddhism developed in the time between the death of the historical Buddha and the beginning of the Common Era. This tradition aims at entering into nirvå~a. The literal meaning of the term nirvå~a is “ceasing” and refers to the cessation of any attachment to and causes for saµsåric existence, that is to the end of cyclic existence (saµsåra). According to the Theravåda tradition its aim is solely to be reached as a monk fully renouncing all worldly affairs; it is not possible to reach nirvå~a as a lay practitioner. In the Theravåda tradition ordained monks and nuns strive for their individual liberation. In contrast to that, Mahåyåna Buddhism – the “great (mahå) vehicle” – offers a path to liberation for all sentient beings, thus it envisions attainment of awakening for all. The beginnings of Mahåyåna Buddhism date to the first century of the Common Era. Like the Theravåda tradition, Mahåyåna Buddhism originates in the teachings of the historical Buddha. However, at the core of the philosophy of the latter is not any longer the historical Buddha – as it is true in the Theravåda tradition – but Buddha nature that is inherent in all sentient beings. Because of this, liberation may also be attained as a lay practitioner. The characteristic feature of Mahåyåna Buddhism, however, is the ideal of a Bodhisattva. A Bodhisattva is an awakened (bodhi) being (sattva) who renounces his own entry into nirvå~a because of his compassion for all sentient beings. Again and again he enters the cycle of life voluntarily in order to help the suffering humankind on the path to liberation. As a first and crucial step on the Bodhisattva path one generates compassion (bodhicitta). It reflects the decision to dedicate all one’s deeds to the benefit of all sentient beings and to work as a role model for their well-being. This decision is sealed with a vow that is firmly maintained. The generation of bodhicitta consists of minimising egotism and cultivating kindness, compassion and happiness towards all sentient beings. These virtues are developed by means of mindfulness, meditation, and equanimous acceptance. In the Indian Buddhist traditions the path of a Bodhisattva was restricted to male practitioners, whereas in Tibetan Buddhism males and females may equally practice this path. Representational art distinguishes between “ascetic” and “bejewelled” depictions of Bodhisattvas. The “ascetic form” represents the emanation body (nirmå~akåya) aspect of a Bodhisattva in the world of saµsåra. As an ascetic he is unembellished and dresses in plain robes, sometimes carrying a skin of an antelope over the shoulder. The “bejewelled form” represents the enjoyment body (saµbhogakåya) aspect of a transcendental being. In the “bejewelled form” the artist envisions him residing in his transcendental abode. Moreover, sometimes Bodhisattvas are depicted with more than one head and several pairs of arms which represent their infinite potential to work for the welfare of sentient beings. 13. Avalokiteßvara Padmapå~i Nepal: Early Malla Period (circa 1200–1482 AD); 13th/14th Century Gilt copper; cast in one piece. Height: 22.8 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 123]
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Plate 13
Tantric Buddhism Tantric Buddhism developed from a branch of the Mahåyåna tradition. Synonyms for this form of Buddhism are Vajrayåna, the “adamantine vehicle”, Tantrayåna, the “tantra vehicle”, or “esoteric Buddhism”. The foundation of tantric Buddhism are the “tantras”, a collection of sacred texts which are ritualistic and magicalmythical in character. The Sanskrit term tantra literally means “net”, “web”, or “continuum” and refers to the connectedness of everything. It is like a continuous thread that forms a net or web. Moreover, it points to the Buddhist beliefs that everything is of “one taste” and that in the end the separation between self and others is non-existent, yet that everything is mutually dependent. Apparently tantric Buddhism originates in early rites of fertility. Aspects of such rites entered all religious traditions of the Indian subcontinent and in the case of Hinduism and Buddhism formed independent branches of those religions. It has been proved that both traditions influenced each other and that they appeared as rivals in a certain way. It is not clear which of the two had the leading role. Although both religions share the basic belief in the union of the male and female principles, they, nonetheless, vary in any other fundamental regard. The most striking difference is the function of these two basic dynamics. Whereas in Hindu Tantrism the female energy, represented in fiakti (from the verb ßak – powerful), has the active role and is united with the male energy of fiiva (from the verb ßiva – kind, merciful, auspicious), in Buddhist Tantrism it is the male energy that is active and referred to as “method” (upåya). It is united with the female passive energy known as “wisdom” (prajñå). The followers of Tantrayåna practice a religion that is accessible to everybody – also outside a monastic setting. All aspects of passions and emotions are integrated on the path to salvation as a means to train the mind. Liberation may be obtained through all sorts of deeds since Buddha nature is inherent in everything and is primordially pure and perfect. Tantric meditation practice demands from the practitioner to fearlessly confront all the aspects of his mind, also including the profound, dark and untamed sides. The most striking feature of tantric Buddhism is the great number of Buddhas and various peaceful and wrathful deities. Moreover, there are images of deity couples in sexual union. These depictions represent our own open and hidden emotions and moods. The method of tantric Buddhism is not to deaden and suppress such driving powers, but to use the generated energy instead in the process of developing self-awareness. Compassion (bodhicitta) is the overall guiding principle. Tantric meditation practice aims to maintain a clear state of mind even in emotional chaos, to develop a positive energy and a creative synthesis of the union of opposites on a higher level. These ideas, the union of male and female energy, are symbolically represented in the deity couple in sexual union. 14. Ma~∂ala of the Pañcarakœå – the “Five Protectresses” Tibet; 15th Century Distemper on cotton. 52 x 45 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABP 1]
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Plate 14
Buddhist Protector Deities An eye-catching feature of tantric Buddhism is the number of deities in a wrathful and terrifying appearance (krodha). They originate in popular belief systems of pre-Buddhist deities and demons. These fearsome figures were integrated in tantric Buddhism and assigned with various duties – above all with protective functions. They appear as independent deities as well as deity couples in sexual union. Almost all peaceful deities have a wrathful counterpart. Even the benevolent Tårås (Plates 5, 16) or Bodhisattvas such as Vajrapå~i may take on a gruesome appearance in “sacred wrath” (Plates 10, 17). Wrathful deities are ghastly to look at: often with many heads and arms, distorted facial features and protruding eyes. Their stocky bodies are adorned with garlands made of freshly chopped off heads and ornaments of carved human bones; sometimes they wear freshly flayed skin drenched in blood. In their hands they hold skull cups filled with blood, chopper knives and other scary weapons and tools. They are surrounded by a flaming mandorla, dance on corpses and wade through a sea of blood (Plate 3). All these attributes are highly symbolical and point to the impermanence of all phenomena. The deities’ wrath does not focus on the believers, however, it turns against any inner and outer hostile forces on the path of training the mind. The most evil hostile forces are within ourselves, such as inner and outer fears, aggressions, constraints, blockages, behaviour patterns, and frustrations and are represented by wrathful deities. Recognition and training in dealing with these malign emotions and impulses shall lead to a better “self-awareness” and to more empathy with others. The names of the deities vary according to their duties. One of these groups is called yidam. A yidam is a tutelary deity which the master usually assigns to the disciple or which appears in a vision during meditation. A yidam corresponds to the individual character of the believer. This deity should awaken the mind of enlightenment in the meditator and should accompany him on the path to awakening. The protectors (dharmapåla) have a fierce appearance. They protect the sacred teachings and mind that they are transmitted verbatim and practiced correctly. They protect the practitioner from unwanted influences and distractions; they dispel doubt and impatience arising during study. Despite their terrifying appearance they are nonetheless well-disposed toward human beings. After all, they represent a particular form of compassion: when human strength and willpower are insufficient to continue on the path of salvation and when the obstacles of temptations, indolence and weariness arise, they dispel these hostile forces and newly awaken confidence and motivation in the practitioner. 15. Mahåkåla – the “Great Black-One” Tibetan Brass Traditions; c. 15th Century Brass; hollow cast in two parts. The eyes are inlaid with silver, the pupils filled with a black substance. The lips are inlaid with copper. Height: 22 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 42]
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Plate 15
Peaceful Goddesses Female deities entered the Buddhist pantheon at a relative late stage due to the patriarchal structures during the lifetime of the historical Buddha. At that time women had a subordinate position to men, a situation that is reflected in early Theravåda scriptures. There the Buddha even said that women are incapable of attaining enlightenment, that it was only possible for men. Moreover, the Buddha rejected the institution of a nunnery. He even denied to grant initiation to his own widowed stepmother Mahåpråjåpat¡. Only when his cousin and favourite disciple Ånanda insistently pleaded with him, he changed his mind and would grant initiation to her. Nuns had to follow a much stricter set of monastic rules than monks and continued to have an inferior position. Over the course of time different traditions developed due to dissonant interpretations of the Buddha’s teachings. With the rise of Mahåyåna Buddhism the female principle also gained recognition and the veneration of female deities was introduced. The rite of Tårå, a female deity of Indian provenance, started to flourish. This rite probably originated in the veneration of female deities related to nature and fertility and dates back to around the 6th century AD. Tårå appears to be the most popular female deity. In the beginning she was regarded as the consort of Avalokiteßvara, the Bodhisattva of great compassion. Eventually a number of manifestations of Tårå with different names and iconographic characteristics developed. Mahåyåna Buddhism and particularly the tantric tradition aim to overcome duality. This is represented iconographically in the symbolism of the male and female principles. All female icons refer to the female aspect, whereas all male images demonstrate the male principle. The female principle represents wisdom (prajñå), the male method (upåya). Virtues such as emotional intelligence, intuition and spontaneity, mindfulness and longing for harmony relate to the female principle; on the other hand male energy is expressed in logic, motivation, courage and power. Both sides, nonetheless, are merely a part of the whole. Perfection is experienced in union, a union that is depicted iconographically in the sexual union of a female and a male deity. As a peaceful female deity Tårå represents the gentle and benevolent side of the female aspect such as empathy and tactfulness; she also embodies a creative potential in the form of motherly love and devotion as well as altruism and compassion. In Buddhist countries Tårå is highly respected as a protective deity and an aide on the path to salvation. She is invoked in all circumstances and is regarded as a saviour in misery. According to folk beliefs she protects the believers against the “eight outer and inner dangers”. Up to the present Tibetan women wear a turquoise or a blossom around their necks, visualising that Tårå is present within them. 16. fiyåma-Tårå – the “Green Tårå” Tibetan Brass Traditions; c. 14th Century Brass; hollow cast in one piece. Inlaid with silver and copper; inset with turquoise, coral, rock crystal and other precious stones. Height: 21.5 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 13]
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Plate 16
Wrathful Goddesses The aim of the Buddhist path is the attainment of awakening. Various traditions use different methods in order to reach this goal. However, all schools start with the same practice, namely, sitting in meditation and the training of mindfulness. Whereas the early Buddhist traditions solely pursue the path of renunciation and escapism, Mahåyåna Buddhism taught methods specifically in accordance with the nature of each disciple. The followers of tantric Buddhism integrate the whole range of emotions and states of mind as the fuel on the path of mind training, including wrath as well as hate. The adamantine vehicle (vajrayåna), another designation for tantric Buddhism, recognises all aspects of the human condition as a valid part of the whole. An important part of meditation practice is the awareness of this very wholeness and, as a result, the dissolution of duality. The preceding chapter described the gentle side of the female energy, a side that is mostly prominent in women, yet is part of human nature as such. However, humans also have an untamed side that is dominant in certain situations and may even help to assure one’s survival. For example, a benevolent woman may turn into a fury in order to protect her children. A wrathful female manifestation may be depicted as a flåkin¡ or a Yogin¡, a type of deity that originates in pre-Buddhist female demons of cremation grounds. Tibetans still practice the rite of open-air burial – not simply because of a lack of firewood, but in order to offer the corpses as food to wild animals. It is advised to practice the rite dedicated to the flåkin¡s on a cremation ground. In the presence of the limbs of a corpse and jackals and vultures the practitioner is said to swiftly proceed on the path of awakening and become fearless. Such a rite may be practiced with or without a consort; if it is practiced alone, one visualises the consort. A flåkin¡ has an emphatically naked appearance, adorned with a crown of skulls, ornaments carved from human bones and a necklace of freshly chopped-off heads. These attributes point to the impermanence of all phenomena and to the overcoming of inner and outer obstacles. A flåkin¡ is dancing on a corpse – a symbol that she overcame evil forces. In her hands she holds a skull cup filled with blood and a chopper knife to cut off all attachments. Her dance represents the energy to move things, the energy to go beyond oneself. It is a dynamic that originates in conscious activity and supports stamina. She is a symbol for the unconscious and the expelled. Her nakedness shows that she is “uncovering” these shadows and driving forces and that she is freed from all disguise and restraints. A flåkin¡ is a symbol for primordial innate wisdom and thus points to the Buddha nature inherent in all sentient beings. A Yogin¡ is not a compliant companion, but a mature, self-determined woman. Appearing to a practitioner, she uncovers his contradictions and weak sides – often in an unusual, rather outrageous manner. Nonetheless, her main task is to support the practitioner on his path of training the mind. She enhances the female side of inspiration, intuition, and spontaneity. She is a spiritual companion and protectress. 17. Vajrayogin¡ – the “Diamond Sceptre Yogin¡” Tibetan Gilt Copper Traditions; 15th Century Gilt copper; hollow cast in two parts. The jewelled ornaments are inset with turquoise. Height: 24 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABS 4]
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Plate 17
Tenth Karmapa – the Greatest Tibetan Artist Within the Tibetan artistic heritage, the Tenth Karmapa Chöying Dorje (1604–1674) is the most exceptional artist of all times. He was the incarnate head of the Karma Kagyü tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. His art styles are out of the ordinary to such an extent that especially his paintings are judged at first as somehow “bizarre”. Moreover, his sculptures raise mixed feelings, because the characteristics of age do not quite correspond with the style. However, meanwhile there has been sufficient evidence that many of these allegedly “strange” sculptures may be attributed to Chöying Dorje.4 Based on his biographies it was possible to reconstruct the career of this enigmatic artist. The various biographies agree that the Tenth Karmapa was a talented painter and sculptor already at a young age. It is also repeatetly stated that he was from a young age especially fond of Indian statues from Kashmir. This explains why many of the statues made by the Tenth Karmapa – regardless whether cast in metal or carved in ivory, wood, or conch shell, etc. – are stylistically very close to brass statues from the Kashmir and Swat regions. However, Chöying Dorje was not simply coying ancient Indian and Tibetan works. Just inspired, he rather created his own work of art – albeit using ancient stylistic elements. As mentioned in his biographies, he had ample opportunity to study early statues during his recurring visits to the Jokhang temple in Lhasa. In comparison with other Tibetan paintings those by the Tenth Karmapa are strikingly different (Plate 18). His activities as a painter were evidently influenced by the Chinese tradition, which also explains why Chöying Dorje painted mostly on silk. The main drawback of this technique is the fact that sketches can only be applied to silk with great difficulty. The Chinese influence in the works of Chöying Dorje has its origin in Chinese Arhats/Lohan paintings that he had seen in Tibet and copied several times. The Tenth Karmapa also encountered other Chinese silk paintings during his exile in Lijiang where he stayed for several years at the court of the local ruler. He took shelter there when he was pursued by the Qoßot Mongolian army under Güshri Khan (1582–1655) assisting Blo bzang rgya mtsho, the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–1682) in his quest for the supremacy of the “Yellow Hat” tradition in Tibet. When judging the artisic oeuvre of the Tenth Karmapa, it should always be taken into consideration that he spent most of his life as a refugee. In Tibetan art it is extremely difficult to attribute individual sculptures and paintings to any particular artist. Because the names of the artists are only rarely mentioned in inscriptions, most of the Tibetan art remains anonymous. And even if the name of an artist is mentioned in an inscription, it is often the only object that can be attributed to him. Due to this situation it is very difficult to come to conclusions about the oeuvre of an artist. Within this mass of anonymous Tibetan artists, Chöying Dorje stands out for several reasons. His life as an artist and as the Tenth Karma pa is minutely documented in his biographies. At least two of the known paintings are clearly attributed to him by inscriptions. As his enigmatic style is so unique, an attribution appears to be fairly easy. Nevertheless, not all statues and paintings rendered in the style of Chöying Dorje are necessarily his personal work. Therefore, caution is recommended, because his works were and still are enthusiastically copied. 18. Buddha fiåkyamuni Painted by the Tenth Karmapa Chöying Dorje (1604–1674) Tibet; 17th Century Distemper on silk. 68 x 44 cm. [Alain Bordier Foundation; ABP 6] 4 Cf. Ulrich von Schroeder. 2001. Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet. Vol. Two: Tibet & China, pp. 796–819, figs. XII–18–25; pls. 191–194
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Plate 18
Epilogue It is the wish of the authors to give the reader with this publication Tibetan Art of the Alain Bordier Foundation an insight into Tibetan religious art. This book is not meant as a catalogue to the Tibet Museum of the Alain Bordier Foundation but as a general introduction to this topic. The eighteen essays shed light on various aspects of Buddhism from the point of view of the development of Tibetan art. The book is illustrated with eighteen statues and paintings from the Alain Bordier Foundation which shall give an idea of the range of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist art. Despite the limited selections of the text, we do hope that this publication inspires the reader to learn more about Tibetan art. Readers who want to deepen their understanding of Tibetan art may consult the English publication Buddhist Sculptures of the Alain Bordier Foundation, which shows forty of the most important sculptures from the Alain Bordier Foundation. This book offers information about iconographic as well as stilistic features.
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A
ccording to Tibetan to the Tibetan court rather late date, since Bud surrounding countries for India, Nepal, China, and C emperor’s attention. Natur the traditional priests and new religion.
S
ince 1965 Ulrich von Schroeder has been studying Tibetan art and culture as an independent scholar. The results of his numerous field trips are published in several monumental volumes.
Indo-Tibetan Bronzes
Ulrich von Schroeder Definitive monograph on the stylistic development of metal sculptures in the Indo-Tibetan cultural region 576 pages with 1244 illustrations ISBN 962-7049-01-8 Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd., 1981
English/Chinese Reprint of Indo-Tibetan Bronzes English edition with a 32-page appendix in Chinese 608 pages with 1244 illustrations ISBN 978-962-7049-09-8 Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd., 2008
Chinese/English Reprint of Indo-Tibetan Bronzes Chinese title with 32 pages illustration list in Chinese 608 pages with 1244 illustrations ISBN 978-962-7049-10-4 Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd., 2008
Buddhist Sculptures of Sri Lanka
Ulrich von Schroeder Development of the Buddhist sculptures of Sri Lanka 752 pages with 1610 illustrations ISBN 962-7049-05-0 Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd., 1990
Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet
Ulrich von Schroeder 1100 sculptures discovered in Tibet during fourteen expeditions
Volume One – India & Nepal 655 pages with 766 illustrations
Volume Two – Tibet & China
675 pages with 987 illustrations ISBN 962-7049-07-7 Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd., 2001
108 Buddhist Statues in Tibet
Ulrich von Schroeder 210 pages with 120 illustrations Including DVD with digital pictures of 523 sculptures ISBN 978-1-932476-38-5 Chicago: Serindia Publications, 2008
www.visualdharma.com
The first Buddhist sculptu almost certainly brought b their teachings and practic capable of making statues northern India, Kashmir, N Naturally, the art styles va training of the employed a
As a result of the growing were built in all Tibetan re and more Tibetans were tr and paintings. It was to be and their apprentices relie foreign artists working in Tibetan art styles cannot j artistic traditions. They ra inspiration and Tibetan cre
A
ccording to Tibetan chronicles, Buddhism was introduced to the Tibetan court during the 7th century. This is a rather late date, since Buddhism had already flourished in all surrounding countries for at least 500 years. Missionaries from India, Nepal, China, and Central Asia competed for the Tibetan emperor’s attention. Naturally, there was resistance on part of the traditional priests and shamans who felt threatened by the new religion. The first Buddhist sculptures and paintings to reach Tibet were almost certainly brought by missionaries who needed them for their teachings and practice. Since native artist were not yet capable of making statues and paintings, craftsmen from northern India, Kashmir, Nepal and China were filling the gap. Naturally, the art styles varied according to the origin and training of the employed artists. As a result of the growing popularity of Buddhism, monasteries were built in all Tibetan regions. Over the course of time, more and more Tibetans were trained in the manufacture of sculptures and paintings. It was to be expected that these Tibetan craftsmen and their apprentices relied on the artistic patterns applied by the foreign artists working in Tibet. However, the developing Tibetan art styles cannot just be labelled as copies of foreign artistic traditions. They rather represent a synthesis of foreign inspiration and Tibetan creativity.
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