Thesis Clayton

AMERICAN PUBLIC UNIVERSITY SYSTEM Charles Town, West VirginiaHIGH LIFT ENTRY VEHICLE DESIGN FOR LANDING HIGH MASS PAYLOADS ON MARS A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in SPACE STUDIES by John Clayton Department Approval Date: ______________ The author hereby grants the American Public University System the right to display these contents for educational purposes. The author assumes total responsibility for meeting the requirements set by United States Copyright Law for the inclusion of any materials that are not the author’s creation or in the public domain. © Copyright 2011 by John Clayton All rights reserved. Without their patience. the completion of this work would not have been possible. understanding.DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my wife and mother. support. . and most of all love. ________. and multiply by the number of lines. West Virginia Professor Robert Thrower. Thesis Professor Begin typing the abstract here. 2011 Charles Town.ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS HIGH LIFT ENTRY VEHICLE DESIGN FOR LANDING HIGH MASS PAYLOADS ON MARS by John Clayton American Public University System. Spaces and punctuation are counted as characters for this purpose. double-spaced. and conclusion. The abstract must include the following components: purpose of the research. findings. . count the characters (including spaces and punctuation) of a line of average length. To get an estimate of the count. methodology. The body of the abstract is limited to 150 words. .............................. LIST OF REFERENCES .......................................................................38 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK ...............8 Terrain ................................................................................................30 Reusability …................... III..5 Elevation .........27 Interplanetary Transfer …............27 Propulsive Requirements …........................................................................34 VEHICLE DESIGN ..............................34 Aerocapture ..............34 Landing …................................................................................................9 MISSION ASSUMPTIONS ........................................................................................................TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I......................................................................................................................................................................................….........................9 Landing Sites ................................................................................................................................................................5 Atmosphere ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9 MARS ENVIRONMENT ......................................................................................5 Elevation ..........................................................25 Mars Arrival .............................................................36 Landing …................................................... V.....49 II.................................................35 Descent …......................... II..................................................................................... PAGE INTRODUCTION ............25 TPS Requirements ......................................................................................................................27 Aerocapture vs Direct Descent…............. IV......................................................8 Terrain ...........................................................................................................................................27 SIMULATIONS ......................................................................5 Atmosphere ...................................................................................................................................60 ............................1 APPROACH …..........24 X-33 Scaled …..............................24 Launch System ….......................................................................................................................................................................................................... III..............................9 Landing Sites ...................................................... ................................66 ..............APPENDICES .............................................................. ................................................................39 7.............. Teacher Value Orientation Profile by Academic Rank .....LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1....................28 5.........41 8.. Student Value Orientation Profile by Gender ................................................. Number of High or Low Value Orientations for Respondents .......15 2..................45 9.. Student Value Orientation Profile by Academic Major .................................... Teacher Value Orientation Profile by Teaching Experience .........33 6.................................25 4......... Student Value Orientation Profile in Different Year at University .......................17 3.....................51 ........... Physical Education Teacher Demographic Data ........................................................... Current University Student Demographic Data ................................... Teacher Value Orientation Profile by Gender ............. .......39 7.................. Teacher Value Orientation Profile by Gender .... Physical Education Teacher Demographic Data ..................................... Student Value Orientation Profile by Gender ........25 4..............................................................15 2......17 3.......... Number of High or Low Value Orientations for Respondents .......LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1.........................................................................................28 5...................41 ............. Teacher Value Orientation Profile by Teaching Experience .......................... Teacher Value Orientation Profile by Academic Rank .... Current University Student Demographic Data ..............33 6.................................... LIST OF SYMBOLS SYMBOL . LIST OF ACRONYMS ACRONYM (counted and numbered) . all Mars lander missions have use variations of the entry. That technology is limited to low landed masses in areas of low elevation and does not scale up. and a high lift entry design which could “fly” in the Mars atmosphere for a longer descent profile. descent. “ballutes”. and the possibility of dust storms. has not been extensively studied. the most important of which are the low density and shallowness. to overcome the Mars high mass EDL problem. with a propulsive landing phase. both of which limit the aerodynamic braking available for entering spacecraft. a parachute to reduce velocity from supersonic to subsonic.INTRODUCTION The Martian atmosphere poses a number of challenges for spacecraft entry. Up to the present. and are under study. ballistic descent with propulsive landing. These include the use of inflated structures. APPROACH . and a propulsive final landing phase. originally proposed by Wernher von Braun in his 1952 book Das Marsprojekt. Several technologies have been proposed. either attached or towed by the craft. That technology consists of a capsule shape with jettison-able heat shield for atmospheric entry. as larger masses do not decelerate to velocities suitable for parachute deployment in sufficient time. This high lift approach. to increase the drag profile. and is the focus of this paper. and landing (EDL) technology created for the Viking missions. Further complicating the problem is the variability of the atmospheric thickness. and has the high volumetric efficiency needed for a payload vehicle. Entry Vehicle Configuration Many configurations of spacecraft are conceivable for the interplanetary journey from the Earth to Mars. Entry Vehicle Choice A number of high-lift designs have been researched and tested in the past.000 kg . not to perform a trade study of different approaches and configurations. and allowing for a 20 percent decrease of LEO capability due to increased drag. Restricting the vehicle size to the width of the Falcon 9 Heavy. Later lifting body designs include the X-33 Single Stage to Orbit and X-38 Crew Return Vehicle flight demonstrators. For this paper. it is assumed that the X-33S is sized to fit a present-day heavy launch vehicle. a scaled down version of the X-33. including delta-winged vehicles such as the Space Shuttle. To that end. places an upper mass limit of about 40. is chosen as the entry vehicle. a number of assumptions and design configuration choices were made in order to limit the scope of the research while still addressing the main objective.000 kg into LEO. For this paper. including lift generation and stability at high angles of attack. such as the SpaceX Falcon 9 Heavy which can place 50.The objective of this paper is to explore the feasibility of a high-lift approach to landing high-mass payloads on Mars. and lifting body designs dating from the 1960’s. denoted “X-33S”. The X33 has an extensive database of aerodynamic testing and simulation research available that are applicable to Mars high-lift entry simulations. It has hypersonic aerodynamic characteristics that seem appropriate for the Mars EDL problem. the Mars arrival velocity will be approximately 7. has advantages in thermal loading and landing precision over a direct descent. in which the vehicle pitches up past vertical.3 km/s. are then attached to the X-33S. The aerocapture loads are restricted to a maximum of 5 g’s. all within a 5 g load limit. Mars Arrival Given a Hohmann transfer. and that the X-33S TPS must be dual-capable of handling the thermal environment of both aerocapture and descent. and provide the delta-V for a Hohmann transfer orbit. it is assumed that an aerocapture into orbit is used. and a maximum width of approximately 13 m. The final phase is a vertical landing using rocket propulsion.on the X-33S. Mars Environment . It is further assumed that external fuel tanks are launched separately. The second phase uses rocket propulsion to maintain altitude during a Pugachev Cobra maneuver. which is presumed to be the maximum tolerable by de-conditioned astronauts. Previous studies show that aerocapture into orbit and subsequent descent. and uses the forward component of the rocket propulsion vector to reduce the horizontal velocity to zero while still maintaining altitude. For this paper. using onboard X-33S rocket engines. with on-board fuel limited to that required for Mars entry. The first phase is a gliding descent from orbit utilizing the high lift characteristics of the X-33S to achieve maximum deceleration to near the surface. Descent and Landing The descent profile is proposed to be in three stages. 2469h)) a = √(-5789.1921T ) where p = 0.8 J/kg/K For 0 ≤ h ≤ 7000: For 7000 < h ≤ 30500: a = √(-7670. or MarsGRAM.0. R = 191. p = pressure (K-Pa).4 .000998h T = -23.29 the specific heat ratio (dimensionless). dust storm. time-of-day.0.0.NASA has developed a model of the Martian atmosphere known as Mars Global Reference Atmospheric Model.1 . T = temperature (oK). and in which the atmospheric density is modeled in two parts by: ρ = p / (0.5492h)) The atmospheric model parameters are shown in the following graphs: . a.699e-0. which corresponds to average parameters of MarsGRAM. For the goals of this paper.0. at altitude yields: a = √(⋎RT). ⋎ = 1. It models seasonal. h = altitude (m) For 0 ≤ h ≤ 7000: For 7000 < h ≤ 30500: T = -31 .00222h Incorporating the atmospheric density model into the equation for the speed of sound. MarsGRAM has been used for the entry calculations and guidance for all of the recent NASA Mars missions.7 . and several other parameters.00009h ρ = density (kg/m3). a previous NASA simplified model of the Mars atmosphere is sufficient. . X. including scale model flights.16 Unit kg m2 m . Parameter Empty Mass. Although cancelled due to budgetary and technology problems. b Value 28. The results of those studies form the basis for the vehicle design considered in this paper. The X-33 planform reference geometry and aerodynamic parameters are given in Table X. Sref Ref. m Reference Surface Area.39 11. a number of studies were made of its aerodynamic performance.440 149. Aerodynamic Span.VEHICLE PARAMETERS X-33 The X-33 is a lifting body design that was intended as a technology demonstrator for Single Stage to Orbit (SSTO) operations. X.0005225α2 + 0.0.4 through Mach 20. Scaling Factor Linear dimension Relative density (m/ρl3) Mach number Froude number (V2/lg) Angle of attack Linear acceleration Weight. M) = -0. AR Sweep 19.00558α .01048M + 0.Ref.1577 CD(α. principally whether the flow is incompressible or compressible.2204 X-33 Scaled The relationship between the aerodynamic parameters of a scaled down model and a full size vehicle depend on a number of factors.86 70 m degrees The X-33 aerodynamic coefficients are modeled by second order polynomials from Mach 0. as a function of the angle-of-attack ⍺ up to a maximum of 50o. Aspect Ratio. and the Mach number M: CL(α. and the gravitational field. mass Moment of inertia Incompressible Flow Value n 1 1 1 1 1 n3/σ n5/σ Compressible Flow Value n 1 1 1 Dependent on Froude scaling 1 n3/σ n5/σ . Those scaling factors are shown in Table X.03506α .04857M + 0. c Ref. M) = 0.0001432α2 + 0.0. Aerodynamic Chord.26 0. validity of the X-33 data for the X-33S near the maximum angle of attack is a reasonable assumption.92 11.86 70 Unit m2 m m degrees . Aerodynamic Span.Linear velocity Angular velocity Time Reynolds number n1/2 1/n1/2 n1/2 n1. which implies a linear scale factor of 0.X. for a linear scale factor of 0.38 also.5v/v0 n1/2 1/n1/2 n1/2 n1.94 0. b Ref. and is highly configuration dependent.62.77 6. Sref Ref. AR Sweep Value 149.38g. Aspect Ratio. gMars = 0. The difference in Reynolds number has a primary effect on the boundary layer separation characteristics at high angle of attack conditions. The X-33S reference geometry and aerodynamic parameters are given in table X. 56. Parameter Reference Surface Area.5v/v0 For unaccelerated flight conditions. and so to be able to apply the X-33 aerodynamic data to the Mars environment directly. Aerodynamic Chord. Because the main effect is that flow separation of the model is delayed to a higher angle of attack in the model.39.62. the lift coefficient is given by CL = W / ½ρV2S = 2mg / ρV2S Note that for Mars. the X-33S reference area must have a scale factor of 0. which gives a vehicle size approximately correct for the Falcon 9 Heavy launch vehicle. c Ref. 25 to 4.1 to 30 respectively. TPS Requirements Propulsive Requirements The entry profile to maximum the effect of lift for deceleration ends in flight near the surface at a velocity where aerodynamic lift is insufficient to maintain altitude??? Rocket propulsion is then used to maintain altitude while using the Pugachev Cobra maneuver to decrease the velocity to zero.2 and . Plotting these coefficients shows that L/D becomes less than 1 at Mach 0.0 for a Mach range of 0. Determining the transition point is the subject of the following paragraphs.The X-33 L/D range from approximately 1. The aerodynamic coefficients during supersonic flight in compressible flow of a scaled model are approximately the same as the full size vehicle. The X-33 aerodynamic coefficients during supersonic flight will therefore approximate those of the X-33S. the speed of sound is 243 m/s. and the Mach number M: ANALYSIS Aerocapture Descent . as a function of the angle-of-attack ⍺ up to a maximum of 50o. the At an altitude of 1000 m.Assuming that an altitude of 1000 m provides sufficient terrain clearance for the duration of the Pugachev Cobra maneuver. and are modeled by second order polynomials from Mach 1 through Mach 20. Landing VEHICLE PARAMETERS X-33 Scaled TPS Requirements Propulsive Requirements CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK REFERENCES Bibliography Appendices . It will include a review the current literature for the status of key technology areas. including prior terrestrial and Mars EDL systems. and landing systems are bounded by the Viking parachute system at around 900 kg landed mass with a landing accuracy of 20 km. The results of this initial research will guide the thesis. This system can be extended to marginally higher . and include the following initial observations. thermal protection systems. and Mach 2. and landing dynamics. atmospheric entry dynamics. Proven Mars entry. Data from prior terrestrial and Mars missions will be used in the evaluation of these areas and vehicle design. The Viking system uses disk-band supersonic parachutes that are qualified to 19. Statement of the Problem Significance of the Research This thesis will help determine whether a high lift Mars entry design is a feasible option for supporting a manned mission to Mars. descent. along with software to simulate and evaluate approach.2 opening velocities. direct EDL versus aerocapture. Current Mars EDL limits. and characterize an optimal vehicle architecture.Purpose Statement This thesis will propose and explore the feasibility of a high lift Mars entry vehicle design to allow precision landing of high mass payloads. propulsive landing dynamics.5m diameter. atmospheric entry. approach navigation. Initial Research The author has reviewed literature in the technology areas related to this thesis. masses through qualification of larger parachutes. stronger materials for higher deployment velocities. . and higher temperature materials. including lifting bodies. A major consideration of the entry design for manned vehicles is the need to stay below a 5-g maximum loading for astronauts de-conditioned by the long interplanetary transit time. the space shuttle.Mars atmospheric entry. and more precise EDL targeting. Landing. or to first enter orbit with an aerocapture maneuver followed by a subsequent EDL. . one for each phase. These designs provide a wealth of data on hypersonic aerodynamics. That maneuver involves increasing the angle of attack past vertical for final deceleration. and provide the final deceleration through a “Pugachev Cobra” maneuver. then a return to vertical for landing. that is applicable to Mars EDL. A number of high lift vehicles have been designed for Earth reentry. and the result for capsule entry systems has been in favor of direct EDL. rocket propulsion will provide the additional lift vector needed to maintain altitude. This thesis will explore the feasibility of a high lift vehicle that “flies” as long as possible through the lower Martian atmosphere for deceleration from the hypersonic entry. The Earth’s upper atmosphere provides an analog for testing a Mars entry vehicle. Advantages of aerocapture over direct EDL include better characterization of atmospheric conditions prior to EDL. A fundamental design trade-off is whether to perform the EDL directly from the interplanetary approach. Newer thermal protection systems (TPS) may make feasible the use of a single TPS for both aerocapture and subsequent EDL. Prior high lift entry vehicle designs. This is largely because the different thermal protection requirements for aerocapture lead to the necessity of having two separate heat shields. including stability and thermal protection. This trade-off has been well studied. and the X-33. Once the angle of attack lift limits are reached. Tentative Table of Contents Chapter 1 . and will derive from legacy vehicle data.Legacy High Lift Entry Designs Chapter 3 . Aerocapture and entry TPS analysis will be based on legacy mission data and recent test data. Matlab will be used for computational analysis and visualization.Conclusion References .Entry Analysis Chapter 6 .Data Analysis Aerocapture flight dynamics analysis will be performed using the fourth order Runge Kutta algorithm of Gallais.Landing Analysis Chapter 7 . Entry dynamics and thermal analysis will be performed using the equations of Gallais and Wiesel.Proposed Mars High Lift Design Chapter 4 . High lift hypersonic flight dynamics analysis will be based on Newtonian flow as described by Bertin. Landing analysis will derive from legacy mission data and the Pugachev Cobra flight regime.Aerocapture Analysis Chapter 5 .Mars EDL Requirements Chapter 2 . HIGH LIFT ENTRY VEHICLE DESIGN FOR LANDING HIGH MASS PAYLOADS ON MARS INTRODUCTION APPROACH Entry Vehicle Choice Entry Vehicle Configuration Mars Arrival Descent and Landing Mars Environment ANALYSIS Aerocapture Descent Landing VEHICLE PARAMETERS X-33 Scaled TPS Requirements Propulsive Requirements CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK REFERENCES Bibliography Appendices . Robert D. 61 no. John J. and A. 5. and Landing Technologies for Human Mars Exploration. 1998 Bobylev. (August 2009): 442-456. 13 no. S. Christian. Eleanor C. Arnaud et al. Aerodynamics for Engineers. 7... AIain D. "Thermo-structural behaviour of an UHTC made nose cap of a reentry vehicle. Rumynskii. Bultel." Bertin. 1. Douglas E.. NJ: PrenticeHall.” Paper presented at the AIAA Space 2001 Conference and Exposition. Baiocco. (1973). "The Pre-X atmospheric re-entry experimental lifting body: Program status and system synthesis. NM. et al.List of References Anfimov. 1. Descent. Rosario et al." Cosmic Research.L. 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Text of body of thesis (divided into chapters or sections) The Reference Section 1. Appendices (if any) (counted and numbered) (counted and numbered) (counted and numbered) (counted and numbered) (counted and numbered) . 1. if any 2. Preface or introduction.The first page following the last page of preliminary pages is the first page of the text. Bibliography or List of References 2.