Theories of Personality Summarized

Theories Of Personality SummarizedTHEORIES OF PERSONALITY OUTLINE  Introduction to Personality Theory  Psychodynamic Theories  Freud: Psychoanalysis  Adler: Individual Psychology  Jung: Analytical Psychology  Klein: Object Relations Theory  Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory  Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis  Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory  Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory  Learning Theories  Skinner: Behavioral Analysis  Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory  Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory  Dispositional Theories  Cattel and Eysenck: Trait and Factor Theories  Allport: Psychology of the Individual  Humanistic/Existential Theories  Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs  Rogers: Person Centered Theory  Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory  May: Existential Psychology INTRODUCTION OF PERSONALITY THEORY Overview of Personality Theory Personality theorists (1) make controlled observations of human behavior and (2) speculate on the meaning of those observations. Differences in theories are due to more than differences in terminology; they stem from differences among theorists on basic issues concerning the nature of humanity. What Is Personality? The term personality has several definitions. In everyday language, the word personality refers to one's social skills, charisma, and popularity. However, scientists use the term to mean more than a person's persona, or public image. To them, personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits or characteristics that give some consistency to a person's behavior. What Is a Theory? Theories are tools used by scientists to generate research and organize observations. Theory Defined A theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses. Theory and Its Relatives The term theory is often used incorrectly to imply something other than a scientific concept. Although theory has some relationship with philosophy, speculation, hypothesis, and taxonomy, it is not the same as any of these. Philosophy-the love of wisdom-is a broader term than theory, but one of its branchesepistemology-relates to the nature of knowledge, and theories are used by scientists in the pursuit of knowledge. Theories rely on speculation, but speculation in the absence of controlled observations and empirical research is essentially worthless. Hypothesis, or educated guess, is a narrower term than theory. A single theory may generate hundreds of hypotheses. Taxonomy means a classification system, and theories often rely on some sort of classification of data. However, taxonomies do not generate hypotheses. Why Different Theories? Psychologists and other scientists generate a variety of theories because they have different life experiences and different ways of looking at the same data. Theorists' Personalities and Their Theories of Personality Because personality theories flow from an individual theorist's personality, some psychologists have proposed the psychology of science, a discipline that Page 1 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 Theories Of Personality Summarized studies the personal characteristics of theorists. motives, which permit varying explanations for the same observations. What Makes a Theory Useful? A useful theory must (1) generate research-both descriptive research and hypothesis testing, (2) be falsifiable; that is, research findings should be able to either support of refute the theory, (3) organize data into an intelligible framework and integrate new information into its structure; (4) guide action, or provide the practitioner with a road map for making day-to-day decisions; (5) be internally consistent and have a set of operational definitions; and (6) be parsimonious, or as simple as possible. Biography of Sigmund Freud Born in the Czech Republic in 1856, Sigmund Freud spent most of his life in Vienna. In his practice as a psychiatrist, he was more interested in learning about the unconscious motives of patients than in curing neuroses. Early in his professional career, Freud believed that hysteria was a result of being seduced during childhood by a sexually mature person, often a parent or other relative. In 1897, however, he abandoned his seduction theory and replaced it with his notion of the Oedipus complex, a concept that remained the center of his psychoanalytic theory. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity Personality theorists have had different conceptions of human nature, and the authors list six dimensions for comparing these conceptions. These dimensions include determinism versus free choice, pessimism versus optimism, causality versus teleology, conscious versus unconscious determinants of behavior, biological versus social influences on personality, and uniqueness versus similarities among people. Research in Personality Theory In researching human behavior, personality theorists often use various measuring procedures, and these procedures must be both reliable and valid. Reliability refers to a measuring instrument's consistency whereas validity refers to its accuracy or truthfulness. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS Overview of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis has endured because it (1) postulated the primacy of sex and aggression-two universally popular themes, (2) attracted a group of followers who were dedicated to spreading psychoanalytic doctrine, and (3) advanced the notion of unconscious Levels of Mental Life Freud saw mental functioning as operating on three levels: unconscious, preconscious, and conscious. Unconscious The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are beyond awareness but that motivate most human behaviors. Unconscious drives can become conscious only in disguised or distorted form, such as dream images, slips of the tongue, or neurotic symptoms. Unconscious processes originate from two sources: (1) repression, or the blocking out of anxiety-filled experiences and (2) phylogenetic endowment, or inherited experiences that lie beyond an individual's personal experience. Preconscious The preconscious contains images that are not in awareness but that can become conscious either quite easily or with some level of difficulty. Conscious Consciousness plays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory. Conscious ideas stem from either the perception of external stimuli (our perceptual conscious system) or from the unconscious and preconscious after they have evaded censorship. Page 2 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 Theories Of Personality Summarized Provinces of the Mind Freud conceptualized three regions of the mind: the id, the ego, and the superego. The Id The id, which is completely unconscious, serves the pleasure principle and contains our basic instincts. It operates through the primary process. The Ego The ego, or secondary process, is governed by the reality principle and is responsible for reconciling the unrealistic demands of the id and the superego. The Superego The superego, which serves the idealistic principle, has two subsystems-the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience results from punishment for improper behavior whereas the egoideal stems from rewards for socially acceptable behavior. Dynamics of Personality Dynamics of personality refers to those forces that motivate people. Instincts Freud grouped all human drives or urges under two primary instincts-sex (Eros or the life instinct) and aggression (the death or destructive instinct). The aim of the sexual instinct is pleasure, which can be gained through the erogenous zones, especially the mouth, anus, and genitals. The object of the sexual instinct is any person or thing that brings sexual pleasure. All infants possess primary narcissism, or self-centeredness, but the secondary narcissism of adolescence and adulthood is not universal. Both sadism (receiving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain on another) and masochism (receiving sexual pleasure from painful experiences) satisfy both sexual and aggressive drives. The destructive instinct aims to return a person to an inorganic state, but it is ordinarily directed against other people and is called aggression. Anxiety Freud believed only the ego feels anxiety, but the id, superego, and outside world can each be a source of anxiety. Neurotic anxiety stems from the ego's relation with the id; moral anxiety is similar to guilt and results from the ego's relation with the superego; and realistic anxiety, which is similar to fear, is produced by the ego's relation with the real world. Defense Mechanisms According to Freud, defense mechanisms operate to protect the ego against the pain of anxiety. Repression Repression involves forcing unwanted, anxiety-loaded experiences into the unconscious. It is the most basic of all defense mechanisms because it is an active process in each of the others. Undoing and Isolation Undoing is the ego's attempt to do away with unpleasant experiences and their consequences, usually by means of repetitious ceremonial actions. Isolation, in contrast, is marked by obsessive thoughts and involves the ego's attempt to isolate an experience by surrounding it with a blacked-out region of insensibility. Reaction Formation A reaction formation is marked by the repression of one impulse and the ostentatious expression of its exact opposite. Displacement Displacement takes place when people redirect their unwanted urges onto other objects or people in order to disguise the original impulse. Fixation Fixations develop when psychic energy is blocked at one stage of development, making psychological change difficult. Page 3 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 Theories Of Personality Summarized Regression Regressions occur whenever a person reverts to earlier, more infantile modes of behavior. Projection Projection is seeing in others those unacceptable feelings or behaviors that actually reside in one's own unconscious. When carried to extreme, projection can become paranoia, which is characterized by delusions of persecution. Introjection Introjections take place when people incorporate positive qualities of another person into their own ego to reduce feelings of inferiority. Sublimation Sublimations involve the elevation of the sexual instinct's aim to a higher level, which permits people to make contributions to society and culture. Stages of Development Freud saw psychosexual development as proceeding from birth to maturity through four overlapping stages. Infantile Period The infantile stage encompasses the first 4 to 5 years of life and is divided into three subphases: oral, anal, and phallic. During the oral phase, an infant is primarily motivated to receive pleasure through the mouth. During the second year of life, a child goes through an anal phase. If parents are too punitive during the anal phase, the child may become an anal character, with the anal triad of orderliness, stinginess, and obstinacy. During the phallic phase, boys and girls begin to have differing psychosexual development. At this time, boys and girls experience the Oedipus complex in which they have sexual feelings for one parent and hostile feelings for the other. The male castration complex, which takes the form of castration anxiety, breaks up the male Oedipus complex and results in a well-formed male superego. For girls, however, the castration complex, in the form of penis envy, precedes the female Oedipus complex, a situation that leads to only a gradual and incomplete shattering of the female Oedipus complex and a weaker, more flexible female superego. Latency Period Freud believed that psychosexual development goes through a latency stage-from about age 5 until puberty-in which the sexual instinct is partially suppressed. Genital Period The genital period begins with puberty, when adolescents experience a reawakening of the genital aim of Eros. The term "genital period" should not be confused with "phallic period." Maturity Freud hinted at a stage of psychological maturity in which the ego would be in control of the id and superego and in which consciousness would play a more important role in behavior. Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory Freud erected his theory on the dreams, free associations, slips of the tongue, and neurotic symptoms of his patients during therapy. But he also gathered information from history, literature, and works of art. Freud's Early Therapeutic Technique During the 1890s, Freud used an aggressive therapeutic technique in which he strongly suggested to patients that they had been sexually seduced as children. He later dropped this technique and abandoned his belief that most patients had been seduced during childhood. Freud's Later Therapeutic Technique Beginning in the late 1890s, Freud adopted a much more passive type of psychotherapy, one that relied heavily on free association, dream interpretation, and transference. The goal of Freud's later psychotherapy was to uncover repressed memories, and the therapist uses dream analysis and free Page 4 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 Theories Of Personality Summarized association to do so. With free association, patients are required to say whatever comes to mind, no matter how irrelevant or distasteful. Successful therapy rests on the patient's transference of childhood sexual or aggressive feelings onto the therapist and away from symptom formation. Patients' resistance to change can be seen as progress because it indicates that therapy has advanced beyond superficial conversation. the long term, maximize gratification, and have the least amount of distortion Dream Analysis In interpreting dreams, Freud differentiated the manifest content (conscious description) from the latent content (the unconscious meaning). Nearly all dreams are wish-fulfillments, although the wish is usually unconscious and can be known only through dream interpretation. To interpret dreams, Freud used both dream symbols and the dreamer's associations to the dream content. Critique of Freud Freud regarded himself as a scientist, but many critics consider his methods to be outdated, unscientific, and permeated with gender bias. On the six criteria of a useful theory, psychoanalysis is rated high on its ability to generate research, very low on its openness to falsification, and average on organizing data, guiding action, and being parsimonious. Because it lacks operational definitions, it rates low on internal consistency. Freudian Slips Freud believed that parapraxes, or socalled Freudian slips, are not chance accidents but reveal a person's true but unconscious intentions. Related Research Freudian theory has generated a large amount of related research, including studies on defense mechanisms and oral fixation. Defense Mechanisms George Valliant has added to the list of Freudian defense mechanisms and has found evidence that some of them are neurotic (reaction formation, idealization, and undoing), some are immature and maladaptive (projection, isolation, denial, displacement, and dissociation), and some are mature and adaptive (sublimation, suppression, humor, and altruism). Valliant found that neurotic defense mechanisms are successful over the short term; immature defenses are unsuccessful and have the highest degree of distortion; whereas mature and adaptive defenses are successful over Oral Fixation Some recent research has found that aggression is higher in people who bite their finger nails than it is in non-nail biters, especially in women. Other research found that people who are orally fixated tend to see their parents more negatively than did people who were less orally fixated. Concept of Humanity Freud's concept of humanity was deterministic and pessimistic. He emphasized causality over teleology, unconscious determinants over conscious processes, and biology over culture, but he took a middle position on the dimension of uniqueness versus similarities among people. ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY Overview of Adler's Individual Psychology An original member of Freud's psychoanalytic group, Alfred Adler broke from that group and advocated a theory of personality that was nearly diametrically opposed to that of Freud. Whereas Freud's view of humanity was pessimistic and rooted in biology, Adler's view was optimistic, idealistic, and rooted in family experiences. Biography of Alfred Adler Alfred Adler was born in 1870 in a town near Vienna, a second son of middle-class Jewish parents. Like Freud, Adler was a physician, and in 1902, he became a charter member of Freud's organization. However, personal and Page 5 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 Fictionalism Fictions are people's expectations of the future. Origins of Social Interest Although social interest exists as potentiality in all people. Adler held that fictions guide behavior. but they do so without losing their personal identity. its main tenets can be stated in simple form. a feeling of oneness with all of humanity. Conscious and Unconscious Conscious and unconscious processes are unified and operate to achieve a single goal. or explanations of behavior in terms of future goals rather than past causes. Adler soon founded his own group. Striving for Success or Superiority The sole dynamic force behind people's actions is the striving for success or superiority. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality Adler believed that all behaviors are directed toward a single purpose. Adler believed that the parent-child relationship can be so strong that it negates the effects of heredity. The striving force can take one of two courses: personal gain (superiority) or community benefit (success). Without social Page 6 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Organ Dialect People often use a physical disorder to express style of life. Adler's strengths were his energetic oral presentations and his insightful ability to understand family dynamics. Subjective Perceptions People's subjective view of the world-not realityshapes their behavior. Adler emphasized teleology over causality." and the worthiness of all one's actions must be seen by this standard. that is. psychologically healthy people strive for the success of all humanity. their basic motivation is personal benefit. a condition Adler called organ dialect. The part of our goal that we do not clearly understood is unconscious. a limitation that may have prevented individual psychology from attaining world recognition equal to Freud's psychoanalysis. Introduction to Adlerian Theory Although Adler's individual psychology is both complex and comprehensive. Striving for Personal Superiority Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for other people. they feel inferior and attempt to overcome these feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion. because people act as if these fictions are true. Social Interest Human behavior has value to the extent that it is motivated by social interest. which stimulate subjective feelings of inferiority and move people toward perfection or completion. Organ Inferiorities Adler believed that all humans are "blessed" with organ inferiorities. Importance of Social Interest According to Adler. The Striving Force as Compensation Because people are born with small.Theories Of Personality Summarized professional differences between the two men led to Adler's departure from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1911. it must be fostered in a social environment. Striving for Success In contrast. social interest is "the sole criterion of human values. He was not a gifted writer. The Final Goal The final goal of either success or superiority toward which all people strive unifies personality and makes all behavior meaningful. the Society for Individual Psychology. When seen in the light of that sole purpose. seemingly contradictory behaviors can be seen as operating in a selfconsistent manner. Although they may appear to be interested in other people. inferior bodies. the part of our goal that we fail to fully comprehend is conscious. a pattern that is relatively well set by 4 or 5 years of age. which may take the form of depreciating others' accomplishments. Abnormal Development Creative power is not limited to healthy people. early recollections. Thus. which do not by themselves cause abnormal development. (2) aggression. dreams. Second-born children are likely to have strong social interest. or constructing obstacles. and psychotherapy. and to have more than their share of anxiety. standing still. Masculine Protest Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the desirability of being manly. which allow people to preserve their inflated sense of personal worth. or self-accusation. Family Constellation Adler believed that people's perception of how they fit into their family is related to their style of life. External Factors in Maladjustment Adler listed three factors that relate to abnormal development: (1) exaggerated physical deficiencies. each of us is free to choose either a useful or a useless style of life. Creative Power Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environment-the building blocks of personality-but ultimately style of life is shaped by people's creative power. accusing others of being responsible for one's own failures. Even today. Adler believed that Page 7 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Youngest children are likely to be pampered and to lack independence. He claimed that firstborns are likely to have strong feelings of power and superiority. which contributes to an overriding drive to establish a permanent parasitic relationship with the mother or a mother substitute. to be overprotective. unhealthy individuals also create their own personalities. (2) a pampered style of life. and (3) withdrawal. The frequently found inferior status of women is not based on physiology but on historical developments and social learning. Safeguarding Tendencies Both normal and neurotic people create symptoms as a means of protecting their fragile self-esteem. In addition. Adler believed that healthy individuals are marked by flexible behavior and that they have some limited ability to change their style of life. (2) have a dogmatic style of life. However. but which may contribute to it by generating subjective and exaggerated feelings of inferiority. by their ability to freely choose a course of action. people with a useless style of life tend to (1) set their goals too high. which can be expressed by psychologically moving backward. These safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic style of life and protect a person from public disgrace. Style of Life The manner of a person's striving is called style of life. whereas only children have some of the characteristics of both the oldest and the youngest child. which leads to distrust of other people. Applications of Individual Psychology Adler applied the principles of individual psychology to family constellation. General Description The most important factor in abnormal development is lack of social interest. and (3) live in their own private world. that is. an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward a nurturing person.Theories Of Personality Summarized interest. individuals in antiquity could not have survived without cooperating with others to protect themselves from danger. a condition Adler called the masculine protest. provided they do not get trapped trying to overcome their older sibling. The three principal safeguarding tendencies are (1) excuses. Early Recollections A more reliable method of determining style of life is to ask people for their earliest recollections. hesitating. societies could not exist. and (3) a neglected style of life. From a critical midlife crisis. Jung's early experience with parents (who were quite opposite of each other) probably influenced his own theory of personality. the therapist adopts both a maternal and a paternal role. alcoholism. Concept of Humanity Adler saw people as forward moving. with the latter further subdivided into a personal and a collective unconscious. It receives a moderate rating on parsimony. Psychotherapy The goal of Adlerian therapy is to create a relationship between therapist and patient that fosters social interest. and uniqueness. Related Research Although family constellation and birth order have been widely researched. and guide the practitioner. Other research has shown that a change in style of life may be capable of producing a change in early recollections. Not long after he traveled with Freud to the United States. Jung emerged to become one of the leading thinkers of the 20th century. and success in counseling. Levels of the Psyche Jung saw the human psyche as being divided into a conscious and an unconscious level. and began his own approach to theory and therapy. criminal behavior. a topic more pertinent to Adlerian theory is early recollections. People are ultimately responsible for their own unique style of life. masculinity and femininity. very high on optimism and teleology. social influences. the ego is secondary to the self. which he called analytical psychology. Critique of Adler Individual psychology rates high on its ability to generate research. such as introversion and extraversion. Conscious Images sensed by the ego are said to be conscious. and average on unconscious influences. JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY Overview of Jung's Analytical Psychology Carl Jung believed that people are extremely complex beings who possess a variety of opposing qualities. but because it lacks operational definitions. Personal Unconscious The unconscious refers to those psychic images not sensed by the ego. the oldest surviving child of an idealistic Protestant minister and his wife. but others stem Page 8 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . it rates low on internal consistency. broke with Freud. These recollections need not be accurate accounts of early events. Biography of Carl Jung Carl Jung was born in Switzerland in 1875. He died in 1961 at age 85. Dreams Adler believed that dreams can provide clues to solving future problems. Jung became disenchanted with Freud's pansexual theories. such as depression. The ego thus represents the conscious side of personality.Theories Of Personality Summarized early memories are templates on which people project their current style of life. It also rates low on falsification because many of its related research findings can be explained by other theories. To ensure that the patient's social interest will eventually generalize to other relationships. social animals who are motivated by goals they set (both consciously and unconsciously) for the future. Adler's theory rates high on free-choice. during which he nearly lost contact with reality. Some unconscious processes flow from our personal experiences. and in the psychologically mature individual. organize data. Still other research suggests that made-up early recollections may be as meaningful as actual ones. they have psychological importance because they reflect a person's current view of the world. Soon after receiving his medical degree he became acquainted with Freud's writings and eventually with Freud himself. and rational and irrational drives. Research shows that early recollections are related to a number of personal traits. However. dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually must be interpreted by another person. Thus. Other archetypes include the great mother (the archetype of nourishment and destruction). the image we have of fulfillment. or feminine side. but rather they refer to our innate tendency to react in a particular way whenever our personal experiences stimulate an inherited predisposition toward action. Psychological Types Eight basic psychological types emerge from the union of two attitudes and four functions. Dynamics of Personality Jung believed that the dynamic principles that apply to physical energy also apply to psychic energy. we must first realize or accept our shadow. or perfection. Jung believed. Archetypes Jung believed that archetypes originate through the repeated experiences of our ancestors and that they are expressed in certain types of dreams. or perceiving elementary data that are beyond our awareness. Collective Unconscious Collective unconscious images are not inherited ideas. which refers to people's subjective perceptions. Progression involves adaptation to the outside world and the forward flow of psychic energy. humans are motivated both by their past experiences and by their expectations of the future. Causality and Teleology Jung accepted a middle position between the philosophical issues of causality and teleology. Introverts and extraverts often mistrust and misunderstand one another. or taking in sensory stimuli. that is. Functions The two attitudes or extroversion and introversion can combine with four basic functions to form eight general personality types. Another is the shadow-the dark side of personality.Theories Of Personality Summarized from our ancestors' experiences with universal themes. or recognizing the meaning of stimuli. or ideas that are beyond our personal experiences and that originate from the repeated experiences of our ancestors. people must adapt to both their external and internal worlds. Progression and Regression To achieve self-realization. One is the persona-the side of our personality that we show to others. which is symbolized by the mandala. fantasies. The two basic attitudes are introversion. and hallucinations. Extraverts are influenced more by the real world than by their subjective perception. Contents of the collective unconscious are called archetypes. The four functions are (1) thinking. whereas introverts rely on their individualized view of things. or placing a value on something. Jung referred to thinking and feeling as rational functions Page 9 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . delusions. These forces include causality and teleology as well as progression and regression. or perfect geometric figure. which indicates an orientation toward the objective world. Attitudes Attitudes are predispositions to act or react in a characteristic manner. but who has a single fatal flaw). and extraversion. (3) sensation. Several archetypes acquire their own personality. the wise old man (the archetype of wisdom and meaning). (2) feeling. whereas regression refers to adaptation to the inner world and the backward flow of psychic energy. To reach full psychological maturity. completion. (the image we have of a conqueror who vanquishes evil. which contains the complexes (emotionally toned groups of related ideas) and the collective unconscious. The most comprehensive archetype is the self. and for women to embrace their animus. Jung divided the unconscious into the personal unconscious. In other words. A second hurdle in achieving maturity is for men to accept their anima. and Jung identified these by name. and the hero. or masculine disposition. Jung believed that the backward step is essential to a person's forward movement toward selfrealization. The ultimate in psychological maturity is selfrealization. and (4) intuition. some investigators have used the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to examine the idea of psychological types. This technique requires the patient to concentrate on a single image until that image begins to appear in a different form. "Big dreams" and "typical dreams." both of which come from the collective unconscious. and active imagination during the process of psychotherapy. and preparation for death. the period from puberty until middle life. Jung saw middle and old age as times when people may acquire the ability to attain self-realization. Some research suggests that extraverts and introverts have different preferences in their choice of partners. and intuition as Development of Personality Nearly unique among personality theorists was Jung's emphasis on the second half of life. and (4) old age. many of his writings have more of a philosophical than a psychological flavor. Unusual responses indicate a complex. Critique of Jung Although Jung considered himself a scientist. Concept of Humanity Jung saw people as extremely complex beings who are a product of both conscious and unconscious personal experiences. However. or individuation. (2) youth. (3) middle life. Dream Analysis Jung believed that dreams may have both a cause and a purpose and thus can be useful in explaining past events and in making decisions about the future. Psychotherapy The goal of Jungian therapy is to help neurotic patients become healthy and to move healthy people in the direction of self-realization. Related Research Although Jungian psychology has not generated large volumes of research. It is about average on its ability to organize knowledge but low on each of the other criteria of a useful theory. Other researchers have reported that personality type is related to academic performance and success. which is a time for psychological rebirth. selfrealization. dreams. Self-realization represents the highest level of human development. occupation. the patient should see figures that represent archetypes and other collective unconscious images. involves a psychological rebirth and an integration of various parts of the psyche into a unified or whole individual. The technique requires a patient to utter the first word that comes to mind after the examiner reads a stimulus word. people are also motivated by inherited remnants that spring from the collective experiences of their early ancestors. Eventually. Jung was eclectic in his choice of therapeutic techniques and treated old people differently than the young.Theories Of Personality Summarized and to sensation irrational functions. but very low on its ability to withstand falsification. Because Jungian theory is a psychology of opposites. marriage. and all these methods contributed to his theory of personality. which is a time for extraverted development and for being grounded to the real world of schooling. As a scientific theory. which lasts from birth until adolescence. and family. have meanings that lie beyond the experiences of a single individual. Word Association Test Jung used the word association test early in his career to uncover complexes embedded in the personal unconscious. Jung's Methods of Investigation Jung used the word association test. which is a time from about 35 or 40 until old age when people should be adopting an introverted attitude. it rates average on its ability to generate research. Self-Realization Self-realization. courtship. it receives a moderate rating on the issues of free will versus Page 10 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Stages of Development Jung divided development into four broad stages: (1) childhood. Active Imagination Jung also used active imagination to arrive at collective images. In essence. It then has a relationship with the ideal breast and the persecutory breast. Paranoid-Schizoid Position The struggles that infants experience with the good breast and the bad breast lead to two separate and opposing feelings: a desire to harbor the breast and a desire to bite or destroy it. As an analyst. unconscious fantasy life. infants adopt the paranoidschizoid position. and (3) it suggests that people are motivated primarily for human contact rather than for sexual pleasure.). and low on social influences. Introduction to Object Relations Theory Object relations theory differs from Freudian theory in at least three ways: (1) it places more emphasis on interpersonal relationships. penis. hands. children adopt various psychic defense mechanisms to protect their ego Page 11 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . It rates very high on unconscious influences. Unlike Jung and Adler. (2) it stresses the infant's relationship with the mother rather than the father. wanting to destroy her. low on uniqueness. which she saw as having a life of their own within the child's fantasy world. infants organize their experience into positions. the ego splits itself by retaining parts of its life and death instincts while projecting other parts onto the breast. Positions In their attempts to reduce the conflict produced by good and bad images.D. which is a tendency to see the world as having both destructive and omnipotent qualities. Depressive Position By depressive position. Objects Klein agreed with Freud that drives have an object. Klein tried to validate Freud's theories. KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY Overview of Object Relations Theory Many personality theorists have accepted some of Freud's basic assumptions while rejecting others. Klein extended Freud's developmental stages downward to the first 4 to 6 months after birth. In 1927. but she was more likely to emphasize the child's relationship with these objects (parents' face. To control this situation. or take into their psychic structure and then later project onto other people. at the same time. optimism versus pessimism. Fantasies Klein assumed that very young infants possess an active. the youngest of four children. nor an M. Their most basic fantasies are images of the "good" breast and the "bad" breast. The depressive position is resolved when infants fantasize that they have made up for their previous transgressions against their mother and also realize that their mother will not abandon them.Theories Of Personality Summarized determinism. breast. etc. she moved to London where she practiced until her death in 1960. She had neither a Ph. The term object in object relations theory refers to any person or part of a person that infants introject. she specialized in working with young children. Klein meant the anxiety that infants experience around 6 months of age over losing their mother and yet. who came to reject Freud's ideas. To tolerate these two feelings. Psychic Defense Mechanisms According to Klein. Psychic Life of the Infant Klein believed that infants begin life with an inherited predisposition to reduce the anxiety that they experience as a consequence of the clash between the life instinct and the death instinct. or ways of dealing with both internal and external objects. One approach to extending psychoanalytic theory has been the object relations theories of Melanie Klein and others.D. degree but became an analyst by being psychoanalyzed. Biography of Melanie Klein Melanie Klein was born in Vienna in 1892. and causality versus teleology. developed her theory of object relations from careful Page 12 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Oedipus Complex Klein believed that the Oedipus complex begins during the first few months of life. he projects his destructive drive onto his father. However. to use defense mechanisms. but they also introject bad objects in order to gain control of them. whom he fears will bite or castrate him.Theories Of Personality Summarized against anxiety aroused by their own destructive fantasies. then reaches its zenith during the genital stage. or mentally keeping apart. incompatible images. The male Oedipus complex is resolved when the boy establishes good relations with both parents. The little girl also adopts a "feminine" position toward both parents quite early in life. infants organize them into a psychologically meaningful framework. the superego preceded rather than followed the Oedipus complex. Otto Kernberg. To her. Infants usually introject good objects as a protection against anxiety. children should retain positive feelings for each parent. According to Klein. Klein also held that much of the Oedipus complex is based on children's fear that their parents will seek revenge against them for their fantasy of emptying the parent's body. at about 3 or 4 years of age. and to form object relations in both fantasy and reality. which she believes will feed her with babies. Ego Internalizations are aided by the early ego's ability to feel anxiety. Later. because it allows them to like themselves while still recognizing some unlikable qualities. and John Bowlby. Projection The fantasy that one's own feelings and impulses reside within another person is called projection. a process that Klein called internalization. Margaret Mahler's View Mahler. a unified ego emerges only after first splitting itself into two parts: those that deal with the life instinct and those that relate to the death instinct. or the same time that Freud had suggested it began. Sometimes the girl develops hostility toward her mother. Internalizations After introjecting external objects. For healthy development during the Oedipal years. especially onto their parents. Heinz Kohut. but in most cases. especially the mother's breast. Later Views on Object Relations A number of other theorists have expanded and altered Klein's theory of object relations. Splitting Infants tolerate good and bad aspects of themselves and of external objects by splitting. She has a positive feeling for both her mother's breast and her father's penis. whom she fears will retaliate against her and rob her of her babies. Children project both good and bad images. Klein also saw the superego as being quite harsh and cruel. Notable among them are Margaret Mahler. Superego Klein believed that the superego emerged much earlier than Freud had held. Projective Identification Projective identification is the psychic defense mechanism whereby infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves. the female Oedipus complex is resolved without any jealousy toward the mother. Splitting can be beneficial to both children and adults. the little boy adopts a "feminine" position very early in life and has no fear of being castrated as punishment for his sexual feelings for his mother. Introjection Klein defined introjection as the fantasy of taking into one's own body the images that one has of an external object. a native of Hungary who practiced psychoanalysis in both Vienna and New York. and finally introject them in an altered form. project them onto another object. when infants behave as if they and their mother were an omnipotent. However. Second is normal symbiosis. a stable selfconcept. a time when infants satisfy their needs within the all-powerful protective orbit of their mother's care. Bowlby observed three stages of separation anxiety: (1) protest. received training in child psychiatry from Melanie Klein. Critique of Object Relations Theory Object relations theory shares with Freudian theory an inability to be either falsified or verified through empirical research. First is normal autism. adults treat infants as if they had a sense of self. John Bowlby's Attachment Theory Bowlby. or a sense of personal identity. children who have poor relations with their mother will have difficulty integrating their ego and may suffer from some form of psychopathology during adulthood. children pass through a series of three major developmental stages. Concept of Humanity Object relations theorists see personality as being a product of the early mother-child relationship. from about 4 months until about 3 years. Otto Kernberg's View Kernberg. which covers the first 3 to 4 weeks of life. symbiotic unit. More than any of the other object relations theorists. Kohut emphasized the development of the self. Nevertheless. The parents' behaviors and attitudes eventually help children form a sense of self that gives unity and consistency to their experiences. and thus they stress determinism over free choice. Still other studies have shown that 8. (2) apathy and despair. Heinz Kohut's View Kohut was a native of Vienna who spent most of his professional life in the United States. The powerful influence of early childhood also gives these theories a low rating on uniqueness. In caring for their physical and psychological needs. Related Research Some research on attachment theory has found that children with secure attachment have both better attention and better memory than do children with insecure attachment. In contrast. and satisfying interpersonal relations. a native of England. Page 13 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . a native of Vienna who has spent most of his professional career in the United States. including the primary caregiver. Psychotherapy The goal of Kleinian therapy was to reduce depressive anxieties and persecutory fears and to lessen the harshness of internalized objects. some clinicians regard the theory as being a useful guide to action and as possessing substantial internal consistency.Theories Of Personality Summarized observations of infants as they bonded with their mothers during their first 3 years of life. Third is separation-individuation. a punitive superego. a very high rating on social influences. Klein and other object relations theorists rate average on optimism versus pessimism. Other research suggests that securely attached young children grow up to become adolescents who feel comfortable in friendship groups that allow new members to easily become part of those groups. believes that the key to understanding personality is the mother-child relationship. and high ratings on causality and unconscious forces. Children who experience a healthy relationship with their mother develop an integrated ego. By studying human and other primate infants. a time when children are becoming psychologically separated from their mothers and achieving individuation. Klein encouraged patients to reexperience early fantasies and pointed out the differences between conscious and unconscious wishes. the theory must be rated low on parsimony and also low on its ability to organize knowledge and to generate research.and 9-year-old children who were securely attached during infancy produced family drawings that reflect that security. In their progress toward achieving a sense of identity. Children who reach the third stage lack warmth and emotion in their later relationships. and (3) emotional detachment from people. To do this. have a powerful effect on later personality. prestige. and (4) withdrawal. HORNEY: PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY Overview of Horney's Psychoanalytic Social Theory Karen Horney's psychoanalytic social theory assumes that social and cultural conditions. dominate. Horney left Germany to settle in the United States. these behaviors then produce more basic anxiety. her theories also appropriate suggest much that is appropriate to normal development. but she placed far more emphasis on social factors. most of which are traced to a lack of genuine love. (2) submissiveness. was one of the first women in that country admitted to medical school. These conditions lead to exaggerated The Importance of Childhood Experiences Neurotic conflict stems largely from childhood traumas. or overindulge their children. conditions that lead to the child's feelings of basic hostility toward parents. These include needs (1) for affection and approval. including his notions on feminine psychology. who was born in Germany in 1885. Children who do not receive genuine affection feel threatened and adopt rigid behavioral patterns in an attempt to gain love. If children repress feelings of basic hostility. including (1) affection. Biography of Karen Horney Karen Horney. (6) for social recognition or prestige. but neurotics are compelled to rely rigidly on only one. She agreed with Freud that early childhood traumas are important. Horney and Freud Compared Horney criticized Freudian theory on at least three accounts: (1) its rigidity toward new ideas. (5) to exploit others. (7) for personal admiration. Normal people have the flexibility to use any or all of these approaches. In her mid-40s. Unfortunately. (9) for self-sufficiency and independence. The Impact of Culture Horney insisted that modern culture is too competitive and that competition leads to hostility and feelings of isolation. She died in 1952 at age 67. first in Chicago and then in New York. She soon abandoned orthodox psychoanalysis in favor of a more socially oriented theory-one that had a more positive view of feminine development. they will develop feelings of insecurity and a pervasive sense of apprehension called basic anxiety. (2) for a powerful partner (3) to restrict one's life within narrow borders. and (10) for perfection and unassailability. and the cycle continues. especially during childhood.Theories Of Personality Summarized needs for affection and cause people to overvalue love. but these can be gained only by love from parents. but she objected to most of his interpretations. (4) for power. (2) its skewed view of feminine psychology. Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory Although Horney's writings deal mostly with neuroses and neurotic personalities. There. or possession. she became acquainted with Freudian theory and eventually became a psychoanalyst and a psychiatrist. reject. (8) for ambition and personal achievement. Page 14 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . and (3) its overemphasis on biology and the pleasure principle. Horney accepted many of Freud's observations. Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety All children need feelings of safety and security. parents often neglect. (3) power. Like Melanie Klein. People can protect themselves from basic anxiety through a number of protective devices. Compulsive Drives Neurotics are frequently trapped in a vicious circle in which their compulsive need to reduce basic anxiety leads to a variety of selfdefeating behaviors. Neurotic Needs Horney identified 10 categories of neurotic needs that mark neurotics in their attempt to reduce basic anxiety. Therefore. (2) moving against people. although hypercompetitiveness is a negative personality trait. Hypercompetitiveness Horney's idea of moving against people relates to the concept of hypercompetitiveness. which can be expressed as: (1) relentless demands on the self. and change self-hatred to self-acceptance. they create an idealized self-image. or a belief that they are entitled to special privileges. has produced research showing that people with neurotic needs to move toward others will go to great lengths to win the approval of other people. Some of this research indicates that. Feminine Psychology Horney believed that psychological differences between men and women are not due to anatomy but to culture and social expectations. Self-Hatred Neurotics dislike themselves because reality always falls short of their idealized view of self. Page 15 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Feeling alienated from self. were much more nurturant toward a person they perceived as exploitative than toward a person they perceived as nurturing. (2) merciless self-accusation. in which detached people protect themselves against feelings of isolation by appearing arrogant and aloof. Other research has found that hypercompetitive European American women frequently have some type of eating disorder. some types of competitiveness can be positive.Theories Of Personality Summarized Neurotic Trends Later. and (3) neurotic pride. or a comprehensive drive toward actualizing the ideal self. The three neurotic tends are (1) moving toward people. in which compliant people protect themselves against feelings of helplessness by attaching themselves to other people. Intrapsychic Conflicts People also experience inner intrapsychic conflicts that become belief system and take on a life separate from the interpersonal created them. and (3) moving away from people. a topic that has received some recent research interest. or a false pride based not on reality but on a distorted and idealized view of self. Morbid Dependency The current concept of codependency. give up their idealized self-image. Horney believed that successful therapy is built on self-analysis and self-understnding. and (6) selfdestructive actions and impulses. (4) self-frustration. tensions or part of their of their own. they learn self-hatred. in which aggressive people protect themselves against perceived hostility of others by exploiting others. Her view of the Oedipus complex differed markedly from Freud's in that she insisted that any sexual attraction or hostility of child to parent would be the result of learning and not biology. (3) self-contempt. A study by Lyon and Greenberg (1991) found that women with an alcoholic parent. Related Research Horney's concepts of morbid dependency and hypercompetitiveness have both stimulated some recent research. which apply to both normal and neurotic individuals in their attempt to solve basic conflict. Horney grouped these 10 neurotic needs into three basic neurotic trends. relinquish their neurotic search for glory. Psychotherapy The goal of Horney's psychotherapy was to help patients grow toward self-realization. compared with women without an alcoholic parent. which is based on Horney's notion of morbid dependency. Horney recognized three aspects of the idealized self-image: (1) the neurotic search for glory. (5) self-torment or self-torture. conflicts that The Idealized Self-Image People who do not receive love and affection during childhood are blocked in their attempt to acquire a stable sense of identity. or an extravagantly positive picture of themselves. (2) neurotic claims. is the only relatedness need that can solve our basic human dilemma. to organize data. Fromm was influenced by the bible. Freud. Love. Frame of Orientation By frame of orientation. an accomplishment that moves us toward a reunion with the natural world. FROMM: HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS Overview of Fromm's Humanistic Psychoanalysis Erich Fromm's humanistic psychoanalysis looks at people from the perspective of psychology. optimism. but they can also create and care about their creations. whom he had known in Germany. The drive for a sense of identity is expressed nonproductively as conformity to a group and productively as individuality. our human dilemma cannot be solved by satisfying our animal needs. they can think about their isolated condition-a situation Fromm called the human dilemma. Human Needs According to Fromm. Fromm meant a road map or consistent philosophy by which we find our way through the world. and Marx. and anthropology. It can only be addressed by fulfilling our uniquely human needs. He died in 1980. Humans can destroy through malignant aggression. and (3) love. Concept of Humanity Horney's concept of humanity is rated very high on social factors. (2) power.Theories Of Personality Summarized Critique of Horney Although Horney painted a vivid portrayal of the neurotic personality. In 1934. Fromm began studying psychoanalysis and became an analyst by being analyzed by Hanns Sachs. This need is expressed nonproductively as a striving for Page 16 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . or the ability to unite with another while retaining one's own individuality and integrity. the only child of orthodox Jewish parents. Influenced by Freud and Horney. Transcendence Being thrown into the world without their consent. Fromm's Basic Assumptions Fromm believed that humans have been torn away from their prehistoric union with nature and left with no powerful instincts to adapt to a changing world. But because humans have acquired the ability to reason. Much of his later years were spent in Mexico and Switzerland. humans have to transcend their nature by destroying or creating people or things.. Biography of Erich Fromm Erich Fromm was born in Germany in 1900. as well as by socialist ideology. Productively. Her theory is rated about average on internal consistency and parsimony. which can take the form of (1) submission. and about average on causality versus teleology and on the uniqueness of the individual. With the nonproductive strategy. high on free choice. we become fixated and afraid to move beyond the security and safety of our mother or a mother substitute. Sense of Identity The fourth human need is for a sense of identity. Rootedness Rootedness is the need to establish roots and to feel at home again in the world. or killing for reasons other than survival. where he also resumed his friendship with Karen Horney. rootedness enables us to grow beyond the security of our mother and establish ties with the outside world. her theory rates very low in generating research and low on its ability to be falsified. a student of Freud. history. Fromm moved to the United States and began a psychoanalytic practice in New York. Fromm identified five of these distinctively human or existential needs. and unconscious influences. After receiving his Ph.D. Fromm developed a more culturally oriented theory than Freud's and a much broader theory than Horney's. and to serve as a useful guide to action. A thoughtful young man. or an awareness of ourselves as a separate person. Relatedness First is relatedness. or the tendency to give up one's independence and to unite with a powerful partner. People with an exploitative orientation also believe that the source of good lies outside themselves. including psychotherapy. or an extreme dependence on one's mother or mother surrogate. freedom becomes a burden. and people experience basic anxiety. and reasoning. or a belief that everything belonging to one's self is of great value and anything belonging to others is worthless. (2) malignant narcissism. Psychotherapy The goal of Fromm's psychotherapy was to work toward satisfaction of the basic human needs of relatedness. knowledge. They have fewer positive qualities than the other orientations because they are essentially empty. feelings. and they can do so either nonproductively or productively. transcendence. Character Orientations People relate to the world by acquiring and using things (assimilation) and by relating to self and others (socialization). or the love of death and the hatred of all humanity. cultural anthropology. they began to experience more isolation from others and from the world and to feel free from the security of a permanent place in the world. People with a marketing orientation see themselves as commodities and value themselves against the criterion of their ability to sell themselves. and a frame of orientation. integrated personality. and psychohistory. love. Mechanisms of Escape To reduce the frightening sense of isolation and aloneness." Historically. The therapist tries to accomplish this through shared communication in which the therapist is simply a human being rather than a scientist. (2) destructiveness. People with a receptive orientation believe that the source of all good lies outside themselves and that the only way they can relate to the world is to receive things. Fromm's Methods of Investigation Fromm's personality theory rests on data he gathered from a variety of sources. Productive love necessitates a passionate love of all life and is called biophilia. and material possessions. and (3) conformity. people may adopt one of three mechanisms of escape: (1) authoritarianism. and incestuous symbiosis. and which is achieved when a person becomes reunited with others. The Burden of Freedom As the only animal possessing self-awareness. Nonproductive Orientations Fromm identified four nonproductive strategies that fail to move people closer to positive freedom and self-realization. and material objects. rootedness. including love. as people gained more political freedom. The Productive Orientation Psychologically healthy people work toward positive freedom through productive work. but they aggressively take what they want rather than passively receiving it. an escape mechanism aimed at doing away with other people or things. humans are what Fromm called the "freaks of the universe. and especially loving. which is the spontaneous activity of the whole. Personality Disorders Unhealthy people have nonproductive ways of working. or a feeling of being alone in the world. a sense of identity. As a result. or surrendering of one's individuality in order to meet the wishes of others. Social Character in a Mexican Village Fromm and his associates spent several years investigating social character in a isolated farming village in Mexico and Page 17 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 .Theories Of Personality Summarized irrational goals and productively as movement toward rational goals. reasoning. including their opinions. Fromm recognized three major personality disorders: (1) necrophilia. Hoarding characters try to save what they have already obtained. Positive Freedom The human dilemma can only be solved through positive freedom. Fromm's theory rates high on organizing existing knowledge. his ability to work with schizophrenic patients won him a reputation as a therapeutic wizard. Sullivan called anxiety Page 18 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Related Research Fromm's theory ranks near the bottom of personality theories with regard to stimulating research. A socially immature and isolated child. with energy existing either as tension (potentiality for action) or as energy transformations (the actions themselves). Fromm's theory rates very low on its ability to generate research and to lend itself to falsification. and incestuous symbiosis. he evolved a theory of personality that emphasized the importance of interpersonal relations.Theories Of Personality Summarized found evidence of all the character orientations except the marketing one. In his interpersonal theory. it rates low on usefulness to the practitioner. Sullivan nevertheless formed one close interpersonal relationship with a boy five years older than himself. Shaun Saunders and Don Munro have developed the Saunders Consumer Orientation Index (SCOI) to measure Fromm's marketing character. necrophilia. Saunders has found that people with a strong consumer orientation tend to place low value on freedom. such as food or oxygen. However. Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington. In brief. In general. self-respect. such as tenderness and intimacy. Six years after becoming a physician. Tensions Sullivan conceptualized personality as an energy system. General needs can be either physiological. as a psychiatrist. Sullivan gained a position at St. Concept of Humanity Fromm believed that humans were "freaks of the universe" because they lacked strong animal instincts while possessing the ability to reason. SULLIVAN: INTERPERSONAL THEORY Overview of Sullivan's Interpersonal Theory Although Sullivan had a lonely and isolated childhood. low on causality. optimism. Sullivan's principal contribution to personality theory was his conception of developmental stages. malignant narcissism. however. Because it is quite broad in scope. including Adolf Hitlerthe person Fromm regarded as the world's most conspicuous example of someone with the syndrome of decay. He further divided tensions into needs and anxiety. As a scientific theory. Needs Needs can relate either to the general well-being of a person or to specific zones. A Psychohistorical Study of Hitler Fromm applied the techniques of psychohistory to the study of several historical people. Biography of Harry Stack Sullivan Harry Stack Sullivan. There. Recently. Sullivan had few close interpersonal relations with any of his peers. Critique of Fromm The strength of Fromm's theory is his lucid writings on a broad range of human issues. much of their work has consisted in establishing the validity of this instrument. and community. internal consistency.. such as the mouth or genitals. He insisted that personality is shaped almost entirely by the relationships we have with other people. or they can be interpersonal.C. his view is rated average on free choice. the first American to develop a comprehensive personality theory. that is. unconscious influences. To date. and uniqueness. He died alone in Paris in 1949. Anxiety Unlike needs-which are conjunctive and call for specific actions to reduce themanxiety is disjunctive and calls for no consistent actions for its relief. and high on social influences. inner harmony. Sullivan believed that such a relationship has the power to transform an immature preadolescent into a psychologically healthy individual. equality. was born in a small farming community in upstate New York in 1892. despite achieving much respect from an influential group of associates. at age 56. and parsimony. and with no training in psychiatry. All infants learn to be anxious through the empathic relationship that they have with their mothering one. D. Later. but because its primary job is to protect the self from anxiety. or ways of perceiving things-prototaxic. it tends to stifle personality change. Intimacy The conjunctive dynamism marked by a close personal relationship between two people of equal status is called intimacy. In other words. Dynamisms may relate either to specific zones of the body or to tensions. which includes all those experiences that we block from awareness. and syntaxic. Those children who become malevolent have much difficulty giving and receiving tenderness or being intimate with other people. even though their real mothers may be loving and nurturing. which allows a person to dissociate or selectively inattend the experiences related to anxiety. and (3) the not-me. Another is selective inattention. These imaginary friends enable children to have a safe. Experiences that are inconsistent with our self-system threaten our security and necessitate our use of security operations. even though that person is imaginary. Me Personifications During infancy. Intimacy facilitates interpersonal development while decreasing both anxiety and loneliness. Page 19 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 .Theories Of Personality Summarized the chief disruptive force in interpersonal relations. Still later. which results from experiences with reward and approval. (2) the good-me. Good-Mother The bad-mother personification grows out of infants' experiences with a nipple that does not satisfy their hunger needs. Personifications Sullivan believed that people acquire certain images of self and others throughout the developmental stages. defined by Sullivan as a feeling of living among one's enemies. parataxic. which consist of behaviors designed to reduce interpersonal tensions. children acquire three "me" personifications: (1) the bad-me. All infants experience the bad-mother personification. Lust In contrast to both malevolence and intimacy. infants acquire a good-mother personification as they become mature enough to recognize the tender and cooperative behavior of their mothering one. Levels of Cognition Sullivan recognized three levels of cognition. lust is an isolating dynamism. and he referred to these subjective perceptions as personifications. Malevolence The disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred is called malevolence. Included in these eidetic personifications are the imaginary playmates that preschool-aged children often have. secure relationship with another person. lust is a self-centered need that can be satisfied in the absence of an intimate interpersonal relationship. Self-System The most inclusive of all dynamisms is the self-system. Dynamisms Sullivan used the term dynamism to refer to a typical pattern of behavior. Bad-Mother. A complete absence of anxiety and other tensions is called euphoria. which grows from experiences of punishment and disapproval. or that pattern of behaviors that protects us against anxiety and maintains our interpersonal security. Eidetic Personifications One of Sullivan's most interesting observations was that people often create imaginary traits that they project onto others. That is. which involves blocking only certain experiences from awareness. The self-system is a conjunctive dynamism. One such security operation is dissociation. lust is based solely on sexual gratification and requires no other person for its satisfaction. although intimacy presupposes tenderness or love. these two personifications combine to form a complex and contrasting image of the real mother. frequently have preverbal experiences that are momentary and incapable of being communicated. but errors made during preadolescence are nearly impossible to overcome in later life. from infancy to mature adulthood. to compromise. which Sullivan termed parataxic distortions. Preadolescence Perhaps the most crucial stage is preadolescence. Stages of Development Sullivan saw interpersonal development as taking place over seven stages. the chief dynamism of the next developmental stage.Theories Of Personality Summarized Prototaxic Level Experiences that are impossible to put into words or to communicate to others are called prototaxic. too. help a child develop intimacy. Juvenile Era The juvenile stage begins with the need for peers of equal status and continues until the child develops a need for an intimate relationship with a chum. a time when the child receives tenderness from the mothering one while also learning anxiety through an empathic linkage with the mother. Late Adolescence Chronologically. Development during this stage is ordinarily marked by a coexistence of intimacy with a single friend of the same gender and sexual interest in many persons of the opposite gender. Syntaxic Level Experiences that can be accurately communicated to others are called syntaxic. late adolescence may start at any time after about age 16. who is now differentiated from other persons who nurture the child. Included in these are erroneous assumptions about cause and effect. Infancy The period from birth until the emergence of syntaxic language is called infancy. At this time. Children who do not learn intimacy during preadolescence have added difficulties relating to potential sexual partners during later stages. Anxiety may increase to the point of terror. because mistakes made earlier can be corrected during preadolescence. they may confuse lust with love and develop sexual relationships that are devoid of true intimacy. These three abilities. if children have no preexisting capacity for intimacy. Early Adolescence With puberty comes the lust dynamism and the beginning of early adolescence. but such terror is controlled by the built-in protections of apathy and somnolent detachment that allow the baby to go to sleep. Children become capable of syntaxic language at about 12 to 18 months of age when words begin to have the same meaning for them that they do for others. Parataxic Level Experiences that are prelogical and nearly impossible to accurately communicate to others are called parataxic. Page 20 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Childhood The stage that lasts from the beginning of syntaxic language until the need for playmates of equal status is called childhood. During infancy children use autistic language. However. Personality changes can take place at any time but are more likely to occur during transitions between stages. The child's primary interpersonal relationship continues to be with the mother. and to cooperate. but adults. Preadolescence spans the time from the need for a single best friend until puberty. as well as an orientation toward living. children should learn how to compete. which takes place on a prototaxic or parataxic level. Newborn infants experience images mostly on a prototaxic level. average on free choice. improve interpersonal relations. Concept of Humanity Because Sullivan saw human personality as being largely formed from interpersonal relations. more intelligent. women were more likely than men to engage in a wide variety of activities with their intimate friend. as young people learn how to live in the adult world. Psychotherapy Sullivan pioneered the notion of the therapist as a participant observer. and average in its capacity to organize knowledge and to guide action.Theories Of Personality Summarized but psychologically. of Freudian psychoanalysis. and associates at Vanderbilt developed the Structural Analysis of Social Behavior. low in its ability to generate research. his theory is an extension. ERIKSON: POST-FREUDIAN THEORY Overview of Erikson's Post-Freudian Theory Erikson postulated eight stages of psychosocial development through which people progress. his theory rates very low in falsifiability. and to have a better sense of humor than children who do not report having an imaginary playmate. He was primarily concerned with understanding patients and helping them develop foresight. a time when a person establishes a stable relationship with a significant other person and develops a consistent pattern of viewing the world. Critique of Sullivan Despite Sullivan's insights into the importance of interpersonal relations. Intimate Relationships with Friends Elizabeth Yaughn and Stephen Nowicki studied intimate interpersonal relationships in same-gender dyads and found that women-but not men-had complementary interpersonal styles with their close women friends. optimism. Adulthood Late adolescence flows into adulthood. Therapist-Patient Relationships Hans Strupp. it begins when a person is able to feel both intimacy and lust toward the same person. Page 21 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Imaginary Friends Other researchers have studied Sullivan's notion of imaginary playmates and have found that children who have identifiable eidetic playmates tend to be more socialized. less aggressive. In addition. Related Research In recent years. In addition. Psychological Disorders Sullivan believed that disordered behavior has an interpersonal origin. these researchers reported therapists' professional training was less important to successful therapy than the therapists' own developmental history. William Henry. In summary. a number of researchers have studied the impact of two-person relationships. and causality. and low on uniqueness. it is only average in self-consistency and low in parsimony. This group of researchers found that patients tended to have relatively stable behaviors that were consistent with the way their therapists treated them. who establishes an interpersonal relationship with the patient. his theory of personality and his approach to psychotherapy have lost popularity in recent years. his theory rates very high on social influences and very low on biological ones. not a repudiation. Although he differed from Freud in his emphasis on the ego and on social influences. and restore their ability to operate mostly on a syntaxic level. it rates high on unconscious determinants. Also. a finding that suggests that women develop deeper samegender friendships than do men. and can only be understood with reference to a person's social environment. involving both therapy and non-therapy encounters. an instrument for studying the dynamics between therapist and patient. Later. Late adolescence is characterized by a stable pattern of sexual activity and the growth of the syntaxic mode. Also. from adolescence on. meaning that children have both an interest in genital activity and an increasing ability to move around. he taught at Yale. Infants who do not develop hope retreat from the world. each stage is characterized by an identity crisis or turning point. and this withdrawal is the core pathology of infancy. The psychosocial crisis between autonomy on the one hand and shame and doubt on the other produces will. that is. Society's Influence The ego develops within a given society and is influenced by child-rearing practices and other cultural customs. which is characterized by both receiving and accepting. It consists of three interrelated facets: the body ego. or a fictional notion that they are superior to other cultures. the basic strength of early childhood. According to Erikson. which may produce either adaptive or maladaptive adjustment. The psychosexual mode of infancy is oralsensory. and ego identity. Early Childhood The second to third year of life is early childhood. and children of this age behave both impulsively and compulsively. Stages of Psychosocial Development Each of the eight stages of development is marked by a conflict between a syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive) element. Still searching for his personal identity. Erik Homburger moved to the United States.Theories Of Personality Summarized Biography of Erik Erikson When Erik Erikson was born in Germany in 1902 his name was Erik Salomonsen. which produces a basic strength or ego quality. He died in 1994. The psychosexual mode of early childhood is anal-urethral-muscular. however. and holding. a month short of his 92nd birthday. Infancy Erikson's view of infancy (the first year of life) was similar to Freud's concept of the oral stage. he was psychoanalyzed by Ms. an experience that allowed him to become a psychoanalyst. Erik eventually took his step-father's name. it grows according to a genetically established rate and in a fixed sequence. Unlike Freud. Play Age From about the third to the fifth year. where he met Anna Freud. children experience the play age. Erikson saw the Oedipus complex as an early model of lifelong playfulness and a drama played out in children's minds as they attempt to understand the basic facts of life. changed his name to Erikson. Later. but it also includes mastery of other body functions such as walking. The psychosocial crisis of the play age is initiative versus guilt. Freud. the University of California at Berkeley. The Ego in Post-Freudian Psychology One of Erikson's chief contributions to personality theory was his emphasis on ego rather than id functions. From the crisis between basic trust and basic mistrust emerges hope. urinating. The psychosocial crisis of infancy is basic trust versus basic mistrust. and several other universities. At age 18 he left home to pursue the life of a wandering artist and to search for self-identity. a period that parallels Freud's phallic phase. The psychosocial crisis of early childhood is autonomy versus shame and doubt. except that Erikson expanded the notion of incorporation beyond the mouth to include sense organs such as the eyes and ears. the ego ideal. The primary psychosexual mode of the play age is genitallocomotor. The core pathology of early childhood is compulsion. and took a position at the Harvard Medical School. a period that compares to Freud's anal stage. He gave up that life to teach young children in Vienna. the ego is the center of personality and is responsible for a unified sense of self. Epigenetic Principle The ego develops according to the epigenetic principle. The conflict between initiative and guilt helps children to act with purpose and to set Page 22 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . the basic strength of infancy. In mid-life. All cultures and nations develop a pseudospecies. After his mother married Theodor Homburger. From the conflict of industry and inferiority emerges competence. The psychosocial crisis of adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. and the successful resolution of this crisis results in care. The conflict between identity and identity confusion produces fidelity. or the caring for one's children. The psychosocial crisis of adolescence is identity versus identity confusion. and play construction to explain and describe human personality. or an inability to bring together one's various self-images. they develop inhibition. Adolescence Adolescence begins with puberty and is marked by a person's struggle to find ego identity. The psychosexual mode of adulthood is procreativity. the core pathology of this stage. The psychosexual mode of adolescence is puberty or genital maturation. children can use their energies to learn the customs of their culture. whereas isolation is the fear of losing one's identity in an intimate relationship. the children of others. but it may also lead to disdain (a core pathology marked by feelings of being finished or helpless). The crisis between intimacy and isolation results in the capacity to love. Anthropological Studies Erikson's two most important anthropological studies were of the Page 23 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . The struggle between integrity and despair may produce wisdom (the basic strength of old age). a time of psychosexual latency. The core pathology of adulthood is rejectivity. or inability to love. taking pleasure in a variety of sensations and an appreciation of the traditional lifestyle of people of the other gender. The psychosocial crisis of this age is industry versus inferiority. that is. Erikson saw care as taking care of the persons and products that one has learned to care for. Erikson's Methods of Investigation Erikson relied mostly on anthropology.Theories Of Personality Summarized goals. a time when people make significant contributions to society. or the rejection of certain individuals or groups that one is unwilling to take care of. but they also must develop some sense of inferiority. Intimacy is the ability to fuse one's identity with that of another without fear of losing it. including both formal and informal education. Lack of belief in one's own selfhood results in role repudiation. or faith in some ideological view of the future. but some identity confusion is normal. Young Adulthood Young adulthood begins with the acquisition of intimacy at about age 18 and ends with the development of generativity at about age 30. which is expressed as mutual trust between partners in a stable sexual relationship. but it is also a period of psychosocial latency. The psychosexual mode of old age is generalized sensuality. It is a time of psychosexual growth. The psychosocial crisis of old age is the struggle between integrity (the maintenance of ego-identity) and despair (the surrender of hope). Psychologically healthy individuals emerge from adolescence with a sense of who they are and what they believe. and the material products of one's society. Adulthood The period from about 31 to 60 years of age is adulthood. Its psychosocial crisis is intimacy versus isolation. the core pathology of the play age. psychohistory. from about age 60 until death. Lack of industry leads to inertia. Because sexual development is latent during the school age. School Age The period from about 6 to 12 or 13 years of age is called the school age. Children need to learn to work hard. But if children have too little purpose. The psychosexual mode of young adulthood is genitality. but it is also a time of psychosocial growth beyond the family. the basic strength of school age children. The core pathology of young adulthood is exclusivity. Old Age The final stage of development is old age. LEARNING THEORIES SKINNER: BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS Overview of Skinner's Behavioral Analysis Unlike any theory discussed to this point. Identity in Early Adulthood A longitudinal study by Jennifer Pals and Ravenna Helson found that identity established in early adulthood is associated with stable marriage and high levels of creativity. F. that is. but after having little success in this endeavor.Theories Of Personality Summarized Sioux of South Dakota and the Yurok tribe of northern California. to organize knowledge. It rates high on internal consistency and about average on parsimony. In both cases. Both studies demonstrated his notion that culture and history help shape personality. In addition. Additional research by Helson and Pals found that women who had solid identity and high creative potential at age 21 were more likely than other women to have had a challenging and creative work experience at age 52. While in college. and about average on its ability to be falsified. Research by Dan McAdams and colleagues found that adults at midlife who contributed to the well-being of young people had a clear sense of who they were and what life had to offer them. Skinner wanted to be a writer. some researchers have looked at Erikson's concept of generativity. After earning a Ph. the radical behaviorism of B. F. he taught at the Universities of Minnesota and Indiana before returning to Page 24 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . In contrast. Erikson is rated high on both optimism and uniqueness of individuals. he turned to psychology. Pennsylvania in 1904. values. Other research found that people high in generativity are typically concerned with the well-being of others. and should benefit from a pattern of helping younger people. and to guide the practitioner. most notably Gandhi and Luther. As a useful theory. Concept of Humanity Erikson saw humans as basically social animals who have limited free choice and who are motivated by past experiences. from Harvard. Generativity in Midlife People high in generativity should have a lifestyle marked by creating and passing on knowledge. Skinner was born in Susquehanna. Play Construction Erikson's technique of play construction became controversial when he found that 10. In addition. which may be either conscious or unconscious. the central figure experienced an identity crisis that produced a basic strength rather than a core pathology. and he emphasized the primacy of environmental influences on behavior.to 12-year-old boys used toys to construct elongated objects and to produce themes of rising and falling. Skinner B. it rates high on its ability to generate research. Critique of Erikson Although Erikson's work is a logical extension of Freud's psychoanalysis. Erikson concluded that anatomical differences between the sexes play a role in personality development.D. the older of two brothers. Skinner was also a determinist and an environmentalist. girls arranged toys in low and peaceful scenes. Skinner avoids speculations about hypothetical constructs and concentrates almost exclusively on observable behavior. Related Research Erikson's theory has generated a moderately large body of research. he rejected the notion of free will. and ideals to a younger generation. it offers a new way of looking at human development. Biography of B. F. Besides being a radical behaviorist. must of it investigating the concept of identity. Psychohistory Erikson combined the methods of psychoanalysis and historical research to study several personalities. Psychologists and others use shaping to mold complex human behavior. emotions. Precursors to Skinner's Scientific Behaviorism Modern learning theory has roots in the work of Edward L. Conditioned reinforcers are those stimuli that are not by nature satisfying (e. Three factors are essential in operant conditioning: (1) the antecedent. desires. Conditioning Skinner recognized two kinds of conditioning: classical and operant. Anything within the environment that strengthens a behavior is a reinforcer. or response. and that psychologists should not attribute inner motivations to it. a process Skinner called stimulus generalization. Eventually. Both punishment and reinforcement can result from either natural consequences or from human imposition. sudden noise (an unconditioned stimulus).g. reinforcement is used to increase the probability that a given behavior will recur. Any event that decreases a behavior either by presenting an aversive stimulus or by removing a positive one is called punishment. meaning that different organisms will respond differently to the same environmental contingencies. Scientific Behaviorism Skinner believed that human behavior. consciousness.. and (3) the consequence that follows the behavior. Thorndike and his experiments with animals during the last part of the 19th century. is subject to the laws of science. money). Positive reinforcement is any stimulus that when added to a situation increases the probability that a given behavior will occur. For example. etc. Characteristics of Science Skinner held that science has three principle characteristics: (1) its findings are cumulative. where he remained until his death in 1990. The effects of punishment are much less predictable than those of reward. Philosophy of Science Skinner believed that. or environment in which behavior takes place. Different histories of reinforcement result in operant discrimination. a concept that anticipated Skinner's use of positive reinforcement to shape behavior. through the process of generalization. the boy learned to fear stimuli that resembled the white rat. but that can become so when they are associated with a primary reinforcer. Although he rejected internal states (thoughts. He simply insisted that they should not be used to explain behavior.Theories Of Personality Summarized Harvard. Skinner did not deny their existence. and (3) it searchers for order and lawful relationships. Both positive and negative reinforcement strengthen behavior. Skinner was even more influenced by John Watson. Operant Conditioning With operant conditioning. Generalized reinforcers are conditioned reinforcers that have become associated Page 25 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Classical Conditioning In classical conditioning. now called the conditioned response. People may also respond similarly to different environmental stimuli. because the purpose of science is to predict and control. or the mind-is the basic data of scientific psychology. such as food. Watson and Rayner conditioned a young boy to fear a white rat (the conditioned stimulus) by associating it with a loud. who argued that psychology must deal with the control and prediction of behavior and that behavior-not introspection. Thorndike's law of effect stated that responses followed by a satisfier tend to be learned. like any other natural phenomena. a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it is capable of bringing about a previously unconditioned response. (2) it rests on an attitude that values empirical observation. psychologists should be concerned with determining the conditions under which human behavior occurs so that they can predict and control it. Negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior through the removal of an aversive stimulus.) as being outside the realm of science. (2) the behavior. including positive and negative reinforcement and punishment. (2) cultural practices. sex and aggression) that were beneficial to the human species tended to survive. or using language to inform people of the consequence of their behaviors.Theories Of Personality Summarized with several primary reinforcers. in part. Natural Selection As a species. Skinner believed that emotions can be accounted for by the contingencies of survival and the contingencies of reinforcement. by modern tools (computers. which we discussed above. Similarly. (2) describing contingencies. purpose and intention are not causes of behavior. media. and customs that transcend any one person's means of countercontrol. and (4) variable interval. whereas those that did not tended to drop out. There are four basic methods of social control: (1) operant conditioning. Such elimination or weakening of a response is called classical extinction in a classical conditioning model and operant extinction when the response was acquired through operant conditioning. all of a person's behavior is controlled by the environment. the lives of nearly all people are shaped. There are four basic intermittent schedules: (1) fixedratio. Reinforcement can follow behavior on either a continuous schedule or on an intermittent schedule.g. humans do not make cooperative decisions to do what is best for their society. Cultural Evolution Those societies that evolved certain cultural practices (e. etc. although they are sensations that exist within the skin. The tendency of a previously acquired response to become progressively weakened upon nonreinforcement is called extinction. but it is much more complex and difficult to predict or control. Skinner viewed dreams as covert and symbolic forms of behavior that are subject to the same contingencies of reinforcement as any other behavior. techniques that increase the likelihood that people will behave in a certain way. Skinner explained creativity as the result of random or accidental behaviors that happen to be rewarded. on which the organism is reinforced after the lapse of varied periods of time. they do not cause behavior. Control of Human Behavior Ultimately. but they are not the causes of behavior. on which the organism is reinforced intermittently according to the number of responses it makes. on which the organism is reinforced for the first response following a designated period of time. (3) deprivation and satiation. (2) variable-ratio.g. Complex Behavior Human behavior is subject to the same principles of operant conditioning as simple animal behavior. Although Skinner denied the existence of free will. those behaviors (e. on which the organism is reinforced after an average of a predetermined number of responses. our behavior is shaped by the contingencies of survival. but those societies whose members behave in a cooperative manner tended to survive. tool making and language) tended to survive. drives refer to the effects of deprivation and satiation and thus are related to the probability of certain behaviors. but he rejected the notion that they can explain behavior. Inner States Skinner recognized the existence of such inner states as drives and selfawareness. The Human Organism Skinner believed that human behavior is shaped by three forces: (1) natural selection.. rules.) and by their use of language. he did recognize Page 26 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . various modes of transportation. Societies exercise control over their members through laws. that is. (3) fixed-interval. and (3) the individual's history of reinforcement. and (4) physical restraint. To Skinner. including the jailing of criminals. Currently. Skinner believed that most of our behavior is unconscious or automatic and that not thinking about certain experiences is reinforcing. However. but like drives. Critique of Skinner On the six criteria of a useful theory. and (5) believes that reinforcement is mediated by cognition. In addition.Theories Of Personality Summarized that people manipulate variables within their own environment and thus exercise some measure of self-control. For example. such as tools. Inappropriate Behaviors Inappropriate behaviors follow from self-defeating techniques of counteracting social control or from unsuccessful attempts at self-control. This means that the same reinforcement strategies will not have the same effect on all people. (4) arranging the environment to allow escape from aversive stimuli. Counteracting Strategies People can counteract excessive social control by (1) escaping from it. In contrast to Skinner. How Personality Affects Conditioning Research has also found that different personalities may react differently to the same environmental stimuli. Concept of Humanity Skinner's concept of humanity was a completely deterministic and causal one that emphasized unconscious behavior and the uniqueness of each person's history of reinforcement within a mostly social environment. Unlike many determinists. (2) revolting against it. and (6) doing something else. a recent study by Stephen Higgens et al. Behavior therapists play an active role in the treatment process. high on its ability to be falsified. Alan Pickering and Jeffrey Gray have developed and tested a reinforcement sensitivity theory that suggests that impulsivity. Nevertheless. Related Research Skinner's theory has generated more research than any other personality theory. which has several techniques: (1) physical restraint. Bandura (1) recognizes that chance encounters and fortuitous events often shape one's behavior. as well as the environment. and about average on its ability to organize knowledge. Skinner's approach rates very high on its ability to generate research and to guide action. others have used operant conditioning principles to shape behavior in a therapeutic setting. and he even criticized psychotherapy as being one of the major obstacles to a scientific study of human behavior. meaning that humans have some limited ability to control their lives. behavior). (3) stresses the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Much of this research can be divided into two questions: (1) How does conditioning affect personality? and (2) How does personality affect conditioning? How Conditioning Affects Personality A plethora of studies have demonstrated that operant conditioning can change personality (that is. (2) places more emphasis on observational learning. BANDURA: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Overview of Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory Bandura's social cognitive theory takes an agentic perspective. (2) physical aids. For example. Psychotherapy Skinner was not a psychotherapist. Page 27 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . or (3) passively resisting it. The Unhealthy Personality Social control and self-control sometimes produce counteracting strategies and inappropriate behaviors. using behavior modification techniques and pointing out the positive consequences of some behaviors and the aversive effects of others. (3) changing environmental stimuli. anxiety. and introversion/extraversion relate to ways people respond to environmental reinforcers. (4) suggests that human activity is a function of behavior and person variables. Skinner is quite optimistic in his view of humanity. it rates very high on internal consistency and high on simplicity. demonstrated that a contingent management program can be successful in decreasing cocaine use. (5) drugs. He completed a Ph. which allows people to think about and evaluate their motives. Selfefficacy combines with environmental variables. modern people would be forced to spend most of their time securing the necessities of survival. and (3) environmental eventsa model Bandura calls reciprocal determinism. Human agency has four core features: (1) intentionality. and person depends on which factor is strongest at any particular moment. Self-System The self-system gives some consistency to personality by allowing people to observe and symbolize their own behavior and to evaluate it on the basis of anticipated future consequences. unexpected event. such as anxiety or fear. including cognition. and (4) self-reflectiveness. their beliefs that they can or cannot exercise those behaviors necessary to bring about a desired consequence. which usually lowers self-efficacy. humans are defined by their ability to organize. Successful living in the 21st century requires people to seeks proxies to supply their food. in clinical psychology at the University of Iowa in 1951 and since then has worked almost entirely at Stanford University. or observing someone of equal ability succeed or fail at a task. First. Efficacy expectations differ from outcome expectations. (3) social persuasion. that is. Chance encounters and fortuitous events enter the reciprocal determinism paradigm at the environment point. regulate. (2) social modeling. or a proactive commitment to actions that may bring about desired outcomes. Human Agency Bandura believes that human agency is the essence of humanness. events in other Page 28 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Reciprocal Determinism Social cognitive theory holds that human functioning is molded by the reciprocal interaction of (1) behavior. where he continues to be the most active of all personality theorists in investigating his own hypotheses. (3) self-reactiveness. The relative influence of behavior. provide transportation. enhanced. and enact behaviors that they believe will produce desirable consequences. and other personal variables to predict behavior. Without the use of proxies. deliver information. The self-system includes both self-efficacy and self-regulation. etc. High self-efficacy and a responsive environment are the best predictors of successful outcomes. which includes people monitoring their progress toward fulfilling their choices. Collective Efficacy Collective efficacy is the level of confidence that people have that their combined efforts will produce social change. Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events The lives of many people have been fundamentally changed by a chance meeting with another person or by a fortuitous. which refer to people's prediction of the likely consequences of their behavior. or the ability to set goals. but he has spent his entire professional life in the United States. environment.D. Self-Efficacy How people behave in a particular situation depends in part on their selfefficacy-that is. (2) person variables. previous behaviors. Proxy Agency Bandura has recently recognized the influence of proxy agency through which people exercise some partial control over everyday living. after which they influence behavior in much the same way as do planned events. Differential Contributions Bandura does not suggest that the three factors in the reciprocal determinism model make equal contributions to behavior.Theories Of Personality Summarized Biography of Albert Bandura Albert Bandura was born in Canada in 1925. or decreased by any one or combination of four sources: (1) mastery experiences or performance. and (4) physical and emotional states. (2) foresight. At least four factors can lower collective efficacy. It is acquired. and life goals. values. or listening to a trusted person's encouraging words. People can do this by minimizing. depending on their evaluation of the situation. power. or distorting the consequences of their behavior. Internalized selfsanctions prevent people from violating their own moral standards either through selective activation or disengagement of internal control. People can use redefinition of behavior to disengage themselves from reprehensible conduct by: (1) justifying otherwise culpable behavior on moral grounds. Bandura recognized four processes that govern observational learning: (1) attention. entrenched bureaucracies discourage people from attempting to bring about social change. First is redefining behavior. and (3) people tend to model behavior that they see as being rewarding to the model. second. Two external factors contribute to self-regulation: (1) standards of evaluation. humans can manipulate their environments and produce consequences of their actions. or symbolically representing new response patterns in memory. Self-Regulation By using reflective thought. complex technology can decrease people's perceptions of control over their environment. which is more than simple imitation. that is.Theories Of Personality Summarized parts of the world can leave people with a sense of helplessness. or noticing what a model does. Internal requirements for selfregulation include: (1) self-observation of performance. people can disengage their behavior from its consequences by displacing or diffusing responsibility. Selective activation refers to the notion that self-regulatory influences are not automatic but operate only if activated. or justifying otherwise reprehensible actions by cognitively restructuring them. It also means that people react differently in different situations. and (2) external reinforcement. including self-reinforcement or self-punishment. (3) and selfreactions. Finally. third. the observer must be motivated to perform the observed behavior. A third set of disengagement procedures involves blaming the victims. (2) making advantageous comparisons between their behavior and the even more reprehensible behavior of others. (3) behavior production. People in ambiguous moral situations-who are uncertain that their behavior is consistent with their own social and moral standards of conductmay separate their conduct from its injurious consequences through four general techniques of disengagement of internal standards or selective activation. or status are most likely to model. Bandura believes that behavior stems from a reciprocal influence of external and internal factors. (2) people who lack skill. giving them some ability to regulate their own behavior. External factors affect self-regulation by providing people with standards for evaluating their own behavior. and (4) motivation. Page 29 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . the size and scope of worldwide problems contribute to people's sense of powerlessness. Learning People learn through observing others and by attending to the consequences of their own actions. and fourth. disregarding. or producing the behavior that one observes. (2) representation. he contends that people can learn in the absence of reinforcement and even of a response. and (3) using euphemistic labels to change the moral tone of their behavior. Disengagement of internal control means that people are capable of separating themselves from the negative consequences of their behavior. A second method of disengagement from internal standards is to distort or obscure the relationship between behavior and its injurious consequences. because it involves adding and subtracting from observed behavior. (2) judging or evaluating performance. Observational Learning The heart of observational learning is modeling. At least three principles influence modeling: (1) people are most likely to model highstatus people. Although Bandura believes that reinforcement aids learning. and guide the practitioner. People can store past experiences and then use this information to chart future actions. Bandura's theory rates near the middle Page 30 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . as the person is reinforced for avoiding fear-producing situations. or (3) treat themselves badly for their faults. Depression People who develop depressive reactions often (1) underestimate their successes and overestimate their failures. aggressive behaviors can become dysfunctional. leading to future lapses and. Concept of Humanity Bandura sees humans as being relatively fluid and flexible. Therapy The goal of social cognitive therapy is selfregulation. Related Research Bandura's concept of self-efficacy has generated a great deal of research demonstrating that people's beliefs are related to their ability to enact a wide variety of performances. In a study of children observing live and filmed models being aggressive. Self-Efficacy and Smoking Cessation Saul Shiffman and his colleagues studied the effects of daily fluctuations in selfefficacy on smoking lapses and relapses among ex-smokers who had quit on their own for at least 24 hours. and behavioral factors (especially previous experiences with reinforcement). In addition. their daily selfefficacy became more variable. Social cognitive therapists sometimes use systematic desensitization. it rates high on parsimony and on its ability to be falsified. Once learned they are maintained by negative reinforcement. (2) generalization of change to other appropriate situations. Ex-smokers who believed in their ability to quit smoking were able to maintain high selfefficacy and to avoid lapses and relapse. the environment (including interpersonal relations). Bandura and his associates found that aggression tends to foster more aggression. Critique of Bandura Bandura's theory receives the highest marks of any in the text largely because it was constructed through a careful balance of innovative speculation and data from rigorous research. They found that when these participants smoked even a single cigarette. the theory rates very high on its ability to generate research and on its internal consistency. a complete relapse. They found that children who believed that their parents had confidence in their academic ability were likely to have high academic aspirations. a technique aimed at diminishing phobias through relaxation. Aggressive Behaviors When carried to extremes. with some exsmokers. and (3) observational experiences. Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance Bandura and a group of Italian researchers studied levels of selfefficacy and their relation to academic performance in middle-school children living near Rome. and that each of these factors related either directly or indirectly to high academic performance. organize knowledge. Phobias Phobias are learned by (1) direct contact. Dysfunctional Behavior Dysfunctional behavior is learned through the mutual interaction of the person (including cognitive and neurophysiological processes). and high self-regulatory efficacy. (2) inappropriate generalization. including stopping smoking and academic performance. In summary. high academic self-efficacy. but whether that consequence reinforces the behavior depends on the person's cognitive evaluation of the situation. Bandura noted three levels of treatment: (1) induction of change. and (3) maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors.Theories Of Personality Summarized Enactive Learning All behavior is followed by some consequence. (2) set personal standards too high. D. Rotter believes that. which states that the potential for a behavior to occur in a particular situation in relation to a given reinforcement is a function of people's expectancy that the behavior will be followed by that reinforcement in that situation.Theories Of Personality Summarized on teleology versus causality and high on free choice. optimism. In 1941. Reinforcementreinforcement sequences suggest that the value of an event is a function of one's expectation that a particular reinforcement will lead to future reinforcements. Behavior Potential Behavior potential is the possibility that a particular response will occur at a given time and place in relation to its likely reinforcement. Biography of Julian Rotter Julian Rotter was born in Brooklyn in 1916. whereas external reinforcement refers to society's evaluation of an event. Each suggests that our expectations of future events are major determinants of performance. Psychological Situation The psychological situation is that part of the external and internal world to which a person is responding. it rates very high on social determinants of personality. and uniqueness. although personality can change at any time. Introduction to Rotter's Social Learning Theory Rotter's interactionist position holds that human behavior is based largely on the interaction of people with their meaningful environments. in any specific situation. Predicting General Behaviors The basic prediction is too specific to give clues about how a person will generally behave. but he majored in chemistry rather than psychology while at Brooklyn College. Basic Prediction Formula Hypothetically. As a high-school student. Expectancies can be either general or specific. more than immediate reinforcements. he moved to the University of Connecticut and has remained there since retirement. After World War II. As a social cognitive theory. he became familiar with some of the writings of Freud and Adler. Predicting Specific Behaviors Human behavior is most accurately predicted by an understanding of four variables: behavior potential. in clinical psychology from Indiana University. reinforcement value. Behavior is a function of the interaction of people with their meaningful environment. ROTTER AND MISCHEL: COGNITIVE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Overview of Cognitive Social Learning Theory Both Julian Rotter and Walter Mischel believe that cognitive factors. and the psychological situation. or their Page 31 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . and the overall likelihood of success is a function of both generalized and specific expectancies. determine how people will react to environmental forces. he took a position at Ohio State. Reinforcement Value Reinforcement value is a person's preference for any particular reinforcement over other reinforcements if all are equally likely to occur. he received a Ph. behavior can be predicted by the basic prediction formula. Expectancy People's expectancy in any given situation is their confidence that a particular reinforcement will follow a specific behavior in a specific situation or situations. expectancy. it has a basic unity that preserves it from changing as a result of minor experiences. Generalized Expectancies To make more general predictions of behavior. Internal reinforcement is the individual's perception of an event. one must know people's generalized expectancies. His empirical law of effect assumes that people choose a course of action that advances them toward an anticipated goal. where one of his students was Walter Mischel. In 1963. conscious influences. ignoring inappropriate behaviors. goals. or a person's overall expectation of being reinforced for performing those behaviors that are directed toward satisfying some general need. including reinforcing positive behaviors. and to have others recognize one's worth. and reinforcement value. or the extent to which people prefer one set of reinforcements to another. expectancy. Maladaptive Behavior Rotter defined maladaptive behavior as any persistent behavior that fails to move a person closer to a desired goal. Changing Goals Maladaptive behaviors follow from three categories of inappropriate goals: (1) conflict between goals. Generalized expectancies include people's needs-that is. such as expectancies. Eliminating Low Expectancies In helping clients change low expectancies of success. Psychotherapy In general. Mischel seriously questioned Page 32 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Internal and External Control of Reinforcement The Internal-External Control Scale (popularly called "locus of control scale") attempts to measure the degree to which people perceive a causal relationship between their own efforts and environmental consequences. and (6) physical comfort includes those behaviors aimed at securing food. Rotter uses a variety of approaches. or the possible occurrences of a set of functionally related behaviors directed toward the satisfaction of similar goals. and physical security. Introduction to Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality System Like Bandura and Rotter. (2) dominance is the need to control the behavior of others. modeling appropriate behaviors. good health. Three need components are: (1) need potential. to be in charge. (3) independence is the need to be free from the domination of others. Rotter listed six broad categories of needs. Needs Needs refer to functionally related categories of behaviors.Theories Of Personality Summarized expectations based on similar past experiences that a given behavior will be reinforced. Interpersonal Trust Scale The Interpersonal Trust Scale measures the extent to which a person expects the word or promise of another person to be true. and (3) unrealistically lofty goals. Mischel believes that cognitive factors. The therapist is actively involved in trying to (1) change the importance of the client's goals and (2) eliminate their unrealistically low expectancies for success. Rotter's two most famous scales for measuring generalized expectancies are the Internal-External Control Scale and the Interpersonal Trust Scale. In his early theory. It is usually the result of unrealistically high goals in combination with low ability to achieve them. and personal standards. (4) protection-dependency is the need to have others take care of us and to protect us from harm. and pointing out the long-range consequences of both positive and negative behaviors. General Prediction Formula The general prediction formula states that need potential is a function of freedom of movement and need value. values. (2) freedom of movement. and (3) need value. with each need being related to behaviors that lead to the same or similar reinforcements: (1) recognition-status refers to the need to excel. the goal of Rotter's therapy is to achieve harmony between a client's freedom of movement and need value. Need components are analogous to the more specific concepts of behavior potential. (2) destructive goals. or to gain power over others. to achieve. behaviors that move them toward a goal. giving advice. are important in shaping personality. (5) love and affection are needs to be warmly accepted by others and to be held in friendly regard. subjective perceptions. Biography of Walter Mischel Walter Mischel was born in 1930. Cognitive-Affective Personality System However. In addition. which Mischel argues is responsible for the apparent consistency of other traits. the second son of upper-middle-class parents. and physiological aspects of people that permit them to interact with their environment with some stability in their behavior. he recognizes that inconsistent behaviors reflect stable patterns of variation within a person. his family moved to the United States and eventually settled in Brooklyn. Mischel's theory continues to recognize the apparent inconsistency of some behaviors. but presently he has recognized the importance of relatively permanent cognitive-affective units. Thus. including Page 33 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . but by people's perceptions of themselves in a particular situation. indeed. When the Nazis invaded Austria in 1938. and the interaction between person and situation. he and Yuichi Shoda have advanced the notion that behavior is also a function of relatively stable personal dispositions and cognitiveaffective processes interacting with a particular situation. Person-Situation Interaction Mischel believes that behavior is best predicted from an understanding of the person. but he contends that there is little evidence to suggest that they are consistent from one situation to another. Consistency Paradox The consistency paradox refers to the observation that. behavior is not the result of some global personality trait. Situation Variables Situation variables include all those stimuli that people attend to in a given situation.A. it tends to vary as situations vary. or people's individualized manner of categorizing information they receive from external stimuli. then X. Mischel received an M. Mischel believes that. some traits are consistent over time. or people's guesses about the consequences of each of the different behavioral possibilities. First are encoding strategies. Mischel's fifth cognitive-affective unit includes affective responses. in Vienna. Therefore. but if B. research suggests that it is not. Mischel identified five such units. then Y. from Ohio State.D. from City College of New York and a Ph. The fourth cognitive-affective unit includes people's goals and values. The third cognitive-affective units are expectancies and beliefs. although both laypeople and professionals tend to believe that behavior is quite consistent. He is currently a professor at Columbia University. people use self-regulatory strategies to control their own behavior through self-formulated goals and self-produced consequences. social. the situation. or their unique and stable pattern of behaving differently in different situations. which tend to render behavior fairly consistent. Nevertheless. even though people's behavior may reflect some stability over time. but more recently. then individuals encountering different situations should behave differently as situations vary. One of the most important of these competencies is intelligence. Behavior Prediction Mischel's basic theoretical position for predicting and explaining behavior is as follows: If personality is a stable system that processes information about the situation. where he was influenced by Julian Rotter. He and Shoda see these stable variations in behavior in the following framework: If A. Background of the Cognitive-Affective Personality System Mischel originally believed that human behavior was mostly a function of the situation. Mischel recognizes that. People's pattern of variability is their behavioral signature of personality. Second are competencies and self-regulatory strategies. Cognitive-Affective Units Cognitive-affective units include all those psychological. Mischel does not believe that inconsistencies in behavior are due solely to the situation.Theories Of Personality Summarized the consistency of personality. Correlations of the Page 34 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Cognitive social learning theory rates very high on social influences. He held positions at Columbia University. and research in this area suggests that selfmastery of health and people's belief about their personal control over healthrelated behaviors predict subsequent health status. European Americans who agreed with the verdict had thoughts and emotions very similar to those of African Americans who were elated by the verdict. a few weeks short of his 93rd birthday. Locus of Control and Health-Related Behaviors One adjunct of the locus of control concept is the health locus of control. are more likely to enact health-related behaviors. with Rotter's locus of control being one of the most frequently researched areas in psychology and Mischel's notion of delay of gratification and his cognitive-affective personality system also receiving wide attention. and the University of Illinois. Related Research The theories of both Rotter and Mischel have sparked an abundance of related research. but spent most of his professional career in the United States. Cattell was born in England in 1905. this research indicates that people high on internal locus of control. whereas Eysenck has extracted only three general factors. African Americans who disagreed with the verdict thought and felt much the same as European Americans who were dismayed by the not-guilty verdict. and high on uniqueness of the individual. where he spent most of his active career. and the affects that accompany physiological reactions. Concept of Humanity Rotter and Mischel see people as goal-directed. relatively permanent dispositions of people). and to guide action. Clark University. On the dimension of optimism versus pessimism. educated at the University of London. Rotter's view is slightly more optimistic. It rates high on generating research and on internal consistency. and it rates about average on its ability to be falsified. to organize data. abusing alcohol. Simpson murder trial. During the last 20 years of his life. Critique of Cognitive Social Learning Theory Cognitive social learning theory combines the rigors of learning theory with the speculative assumption that people are forward-looking beings.Theories Of Personality Summarized emotions. Moreover. J. Although their reactions tended to follow along racial lines. Shoda. and unwise eating. They found that European Americans and African Americans had different ways of looking at the Simpson verdict. Biography of Raymond B. He died in 1998. compared with those high on external locus of control. More specifically. whereas Mischel's is about in the middle. J. In general. DISPOSITIONAL THEORIES CATTEL AND EYSENCK: TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORIES Overview of Factor Analytic Theory Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck have each used factor analysis to identify traits (that is. participants' race itself was not as important as their thoughts and feelings in determining their reactions to the verdict. This body of research has included such health-related behaviors as smoking. Basics of Factor Analysis Factor analysis is a mathematical procedure for reducing a large number of scores to a few more general variables or factors. An Analysis of Reactions to the O. Cattell Raymond B. feelings. and conscious processes. Simpson Verdict Mischel. teleology. free choice. Harvard University. and two of their colleagues used the cognitive-affective personality system to analyze the verdict in the O. cognitive animals whose perceptions of events are more crucial than the events themselves. Cattell has identified a large number of personality traits. he was associated with the Hawaii School of Professional Psychology. a subsidiation chain. he began with a large body of data that he collected with no preconceived hypothesis or theory. traits. and sems. and (3) T data. and abiliy.Theories Of Personality Summarized original. fear. Eysenck used an orthogonal rotation whereas Cattell favored an oblique rotation. The additional seven factors that make up the 23 normal traits were originally identified only through L data. they exhibit one or more of 12 abnormal traits. The oblique rotation procedure ordinarily results in more traits than the orthogonal method. Motivation is usually quite complex. hunger. Traits generated through factor analysis may be either unipolar (scaled from zero to some large amount) or bipolar (having two opposing poles. or surface traits. Attitudes An attitude refers to a specific course of action. or desire to act. pride. in addition. Of the 23 normal traits. By combining these two techniques. all but one (intelligence) is basically a temperament trait. a person's pathology may simply be due to a normal trait that is carried to an extreme. Media of Observation Cattell used three different sources of data that enter the correlation matrix: (1) L data. but. ergs. For factors to have psychological meaning. which are based on questionnaires. curiosity. and Page 35 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . or information obtained from objective tests. the analyst must rotate the axes on which the scores are plotted. Introduction to Cattell's Trait Theory Cattell used an inductive approach to identify traits. Ergs Ergs are innate drives or motives. in response to a given situation. so that a network of motives. Personality traits can also be classified into temperament. which include attitudes. They can be distinguished from trait indicators. P Technique Cattell's P technique is a correlational procedure that uses measures collected from one person on many different occasions and is his attempt to measure individual or unique. sensuousness. rather than common. Cattell recognized motivational or dynamic traits. which correlates the scores of a large number of people on many variables obtained at two different occasions. In addition. pity. Source Traits Source traits refer to the underlying factor or factors responsible for the intercorrelation among surface traits. loneliness. (2) Q data. such as sex. forming eight clearly identifiable second-order traits. or a person's life record that comes from observations made by others. Temperament Traits Temperament traits are concerned with how a person behaves. underlies motivation. or a complex set of subgoals. such as introversion and extraversion). Also. Cattell also used the dR (differential R) technique. Of the 35 primary or first-order traits Cattell has identified. anger. The two strongest of the second-order traits might be called extraversion/introversion and anxiety. Cattell has measured both states (temporary conditions within an individual) and traits (relatively permanent dispositions of an individual). that is. or dynamic lattice. Second-Order Traits The 35 primary source traits tend to cluster together. 16 were obtained through Q media and compose Cattell's famous 16 PF scale. motivation (dynamic). Cattell believed that pathological people have the same 23 normal traits as other people. is ordinarily involved with an attitude. Personality Traits Personality traits include both common traits (shared by many people) and unique traits (peculiar to one individual). Dynamic Traits In addition to temperament traits. specific scores with the factors are called factor loadings. Eysenck was trained in the psychometrically oriented psychology department of the University of London. Although many traits exist. Extraverts are characterized by sociability. and controlled. Hierarchy of Measures Eysenck recognized a four-level hierarchy of behavior organization: (1) specific acts or cognitions. (2) extracted fewer factors. Biography of Hans J. The self-sentiment is the most important sem in that it integrates the other sems. He died in September of 1997. and obsessive compulsive disorders. liveliness. unsociable. suggesting that intelligence is due more to heredity than to environment. Eysenck identified only three major types. The Dynamic Lattice The dynamic lattice is a complex network of attitudes. and antisocial. and psychoticism/superego function. Neurotic traits include anxiety. impulsiveness. he moved to England to escape Nazi tyranny and made London his home for more than 60 years. The two most Page 36 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 .D. neuroticism/stability. and his books and articles often caused world-wide controversy. aggressive. Eysenck Hans J. optimism. (2) must possess heritability and fit an acceptable genetic model. sober. Dimensions of Personality Eysenck's methods of measuring personality limited the number of personality types to a relatively small number. or types. (3) traits. from which he received a bachelor's degree in 1938 and a Ph. peaceful. Eysenck was perhaps the most prolific writer of any psychologist in the world. Heritability is an estimate of the extent to which the variance of a given trait is due to heredity. and sems underlying a person's motivational structure. All three have a strong genetic component. Genetic Basis of Traits Cattell and his colleagues provided estimates of heritability of the various source traits. Sems Sems are learned or acquired dynamic traits that can satisfy several ergs at the same time. People who score high on the psychoticism scale are egocentric. pessimistic. whereas introverts are quiet. Eysenck (1) was more likely to theorize before collecting and factor analyzing data. and (4) types or superfactors. in 1940. Measuring Superfactors Eysenck and his colleagues developed four personality inventories to measure superfactors. and (3) used a wider variety of approaches to gather data. ergs. Introduction to Eysenck's Factor Theory Compared to Cattell. and quick-wittedness. however. Both normal and abnormal individuals may score high on the neuroticism scale of the Eysenck's various personality inventories. and (4) possess social relevance. suspicious. hostile. or personal dispositions. believes that the principal differences between extraverts and introverts is one of cortical arousal level.Theories Of Personality Summarized greed that humans share with other primates. (2) habitual acts or cognitions. passive. Criteria for Identifying Factors Eysenck insisted that personality factors must (1) be based on strong psychometric evidence. reserved. cold. Men tend to score higher than women on psychoticism. (3) make sense theoretically. Eysenck was born in Berlin in 1916. thoughtful. Eysenck. careful. Cattell has found relatively high heritability values for both fluid intelligence (the ability to adapt to new material) and crystallized intelligence (which depends on prior learning). but as a teenager. What Are the Major Personality Factors? Eysenck's theory revolves around only three general bipolar types: extraversion/introversion. Measuring Personality Eysenck believed that genetic factors were far more important than environmental ones in shaping personality and that personal traits could be measured by standardized personality inventories. nonconforming. jocularity. hysteria. impulsive. and willing to take risks than other people. optimism versus pessimism. In addition. indicating that they were more anxious. and adventurous. some of Eysenck's research attempted to show a biological basis of personality. E. In addition. then researchers should find very similar personality types in various cultures around the world. E and N relate to a large number of behaviors and processes. Some of this research has looked at personality factors and the creativity of scientists and artists. outgoing. Eysenck's later work investigated personality factors across 35 European. Critique of Trait and Factor Theories Cattell and Eysenck's theories rate high on parsimony. sensitive. Page 37 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . creativity. and antisocial behavior. selfsufficient. and on their usefulness in organizing data. He teamed with Ronald Grossarth-Maticek to study the connection between characteristics and both cancer and cardiovascular disease and found that people with a helpless/hopeless attitude were more likely to die from cancer. usefulness to the practitioner. Related Research The theories of both Cattell and Eysenck have been highly productive in terms of research. and driven. both are rated very high on biological influences and very low on social factors. thus supporting the biological nature of personality. compared to other women. Personality and Behavior Eysenck argued that different combinations of P. Personality and Disease For many years. confident.Theories Of Personality Summarized frequently used by current researchers are the Eysenck Personality Inventory (which measures only E and N) and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (which also measures P). Eysenck researched the relationship between personality factors and disease. and internal consistency. radical. impulsive. The concepts of free choice. and self-sufficient than other people. dominant. dominant. on their ability to generate research. Thus. intelligent. and he cited as evidence the existence of these three types in a wide variety of nations and languages. Research on the personality of artists found that writers and artists were more intelligent. due in part to Cattell's 16 PF questionnaire and Eysenck's various personality inventories. Asian. hostile. such as academic performance. whereas people who reacted to frustration with anger and emotional arousal were much more likely to die from cardiovascular disease. were more intelligent. were more dominant. He cautioned that psychologists can be misled if they do not consider the various combinations of personality dimensions. compared with either the general population or less creative scientists. and American cultures and found that personality factors are quite universal. and N all have a powerful biological component. Later research found that creative artists scored high on Eysenck's neuroticism and psychoticism scales. they are about average on falsifiability. Other research found that female scientists. emotionally sensitive. adventurous. adventurous. African. Biological Bases of Personality Eysenck believed that P. radical. and causality versus teleology do not apply to Cattell and Eysenck. Concept of Humanity Cattell and Eysenck believe that human personality is largely the product of genetics and not the environment. Studies in 24 countries found a high degree of similarity among these different cultures. Biology and Personality If personality has a strong biological foundation. sensitive. Personalities of Creative Scientists and Artists Early research using the 16 PF found that creative scientists. obsessive. both rate about average on conscious versus unconscious influences and high on the uniqueness of individuals. where he remained until his death in 1967.D. but he returned to teach at Harvard. and personal dispositions. Allport's Approach to Personality Allport believed that psychologically healthy humans are motivated by present. Personality Defined Allport defined personality as "the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought. whose major emphasis was on the uniqueness of each individual. people not only react to their environment. In addition. Two years later he took a position at Dartmouth. whereas proprium suggests the core of one's personhood. He also believed that people are capable of proactive behavior. which are peculiar to the individual. Motivation Allport insisted that an adequate theory of motivation must consider the notion that motives change as people mature and also that people are motivated by present drives and wants. He recognized three overlapping levels of personal dispositions. built a theory of personality as a reaction against what he regarded as the non-humanistic positions of both psychoanalysis and animal-based learning theory. the most general of which are cardinal dispositions that are so obvious and dominating that they cannot be hidden from other people. Allport was eclectic in his approach and accepted many of the ideas of other theorists. However. but they also shape their environment and cause it to react to them. Proprium The proprium refers to all those behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm and central in their lives. After receiving his Ph. in psychology. he had a fortuitous meeting with Sigmund Freud in Vienna. everyone has a great number of secondary dispositions. or characteristics around which their lives revolve. but all people have 5 to 10 central dispositions. Allport preferred the term proprium over self or ego because the latter terms could imply an object or thing within a person that controls behavior." Personal Dispositions Allport distinguished between common traits.D. the basic units of personality are personal dispositions and the proprium. Allport spent two years studying under some of the great German psychologists. Biography of Gordon Allport Gordon W. which refer to the manner in which an individual behaves and which guide rather than initiate action. Not everyone has a cardinal disposition. which are strong enough to initiate action and (2) stylistic dispositions. His proactive approach emphasized the idea that people often Page 38 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . ALLPORT: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL Overview of Allport's Psychology of the Individual Gordon Allport. mostly conscious drives and that they not only seek to reduce tensions but to establish new ones. which permit inter-individual comparisons.Theories Of Personality Summarized Structure of Personality According to Allport. which suggests that they can consciously behave in new and creative ways that foster their own change and growth. and taught in Europe for a year. which are less reliable and less conspicuous than central traits. Reactive and Proactive Theories of Motivation To Allport. He called his study of the individual morphogenic science and contrasted it with traditional nomothetic methods. from Harvard. He received an undergraduate degree in philosophy and economics from Harvard. While in Europe. but after four years at Dartmouth. he again returned to Harvard. which helped him decide to complete a Ph. Allport was born in Indiana in 1897. Allport further divided personal dispositions into (1) motivational dispositions. Most people. Unlike many psychologists. The Diaries of Marion Taylor In the late 1930's. which refers to selfsustaining motives (such as interests) that are related to the proprium. Nevertheless. and a neighbor-provided the Allports with a large quantity of material that could be studied using morphogenic methods. friends. Conscious and Unconscious Motivation Although Allport emphasized conscious motivation more than any other personality theorist. Letters from Jenny Even though Allport never published data from Marion Taylor's dairies. and (2) propriate functional autonomy. he did not completely overlook the possible influence of unconscious motives on pathological behaviors. The Psychologically Healthy Personality Allport believed that people are motivated by both the need to adjust to their environment and to grow toward psychological health. Allport and his wife became acquainted with diaries written by woman they called Marion Taylor. Functional Autonomy Allport's most distinctive and controversial concept is his theory of functional autonomy. (3) emotional security or self-acceptance. are aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it. which seeks general laws from a study of groups of people. favorite teacher. but Allport used idiographic or morphogenic procedures that study the single case. however. and (6) a unifying philosophy of life. These diaries-along with descriptions of Marion Taylor by her mother. which suggests that morphogenic studies can be reliable. whose son had been a roommate of Jenny's son. he saw a curvilinear relationship between church attendance and prejudice. Jenny had written a series of 301 letters to Gordon and Ada Allport. Two of Gordon Allport's students.Theories Of Personality Summarized seek additional tension and that they purposefully act on their environment in a way that fosters growth toward psychological health. However. people are both reactive and proactive. younger sister. Allport was willing to accept self-reports at face value. the Allports never published this material. but he also saw that many regular churchgoers did not have a mature religious orientation and were capable of deep racial and social prejudice. Allport recognized two levels of functional autonomy: (1) perseverative functional autonomy. (5) insight and humor. Allport listed six criteria for psychological health: (1) an extension of the sense of self. that is. (2) warm relationships with others. Morphogenic Science Traditional psychology relies on nomothetic science. Related Research Allport believed that a deep religious commitment was a mark of a mature person. psychologically healthy persons are more likely to engage in proactive behaviors. The Study of the Individual Allport strongly felt that psychology should develop and use research methods that study the individual rather than groups. (4) a realistic view of the world. In other words. Alfred Baldwin and Jeffrey Paige used a personal structure analysis and factor analysis respectively. The Religious Orientation Scale This insight led Allport to develop and use the Religious Orientation Scale to assess both an intrinsic orientation and Page 39 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . All three approaches yielded similar results. which holds that some (but not all) human motives are functionally independent from the original motive responsible for a particular behavior. while Allport used a commonsense approach to discern Jenny's personality structure as revealed by her letters. he did publish a second case study-that of Jenny Gove Masterson. which is the tendency of certain basic behaviors (such as addictive behaviors) to continue in the absence of reinforcement. It holds that people anticipate events by the meanings or interpretations that they place on those events.Theories Of Personality Summarized an extrinsic orientation toward religion. whereas those with an intrinsic orientation tend to be low on racial and social prejudice. but his views are based more on philosophical speculation and common sense than on scientific studies. these studies have found that some highly religious people have strong psychological health whereas others suffer from a variety of psychological disorders. but those with an extrinsic orientation suffer from poor psychological health. Biography of George Kelly George Kelly was born on a farm in Kansas in 1905. His philosophical position. It rates high on parsimony and internal consistency and about average on its ability to generate research and to help the practitioner. then after World War II. Kelly's Philosophical Position Kelly believed that people construe events according to their personal constructs rather than reality. he dabbled in a wide variety of jobs.D. Every scientific theory can be viewed from an alternate angle. and predict future events. Person as Scientist People generally attempt to solve everyday problems in much the same fashion as scientists. people with an intrinsic orientation tend to be psychologically healthy. He rates high on free choice. He remained there until 1965 when he joined the faculty at Brandeis. or a theory about theories. their pronouncements should be regarded with the same skepticism as any other data. being limited mostly to a model of human motivation. assumes that alternative interpretations are always available to people. As a consequence. On the six dimensions for a concept of humanity. his theory is very narrow. During his school years and his early professional career. formulate hypotheses. Page 40 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Thus. In general. Concept of Humanity Allport saw people as thinking. they observe. infer conclusions. that is. Scientist as Person Because scientists are people. and teleology. he took a position at Ohio State. and every competent scientist should be open to changing his or her theory. HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL THEORIES KELLY: PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY Overview of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory Kelly's theory of personal constructs can be seen as a metatheory. but he eventually received a Ph. The principal difference between the two groups is one of intrinsic or extrinsic religious orientation. purposeful beings who are generally aware of what they are doing and why. Critique of Allport Allport has written eloquently about personality. optimism. proactive. in psychology from the State University of Iowa. Allport and Ross found that people with an extrinsic orientation toward religion tend to be quite prejudiced. it rates low on its ability to organize psychological data and to be falsified. Kelly called these interpretations personal constructs. He died two years later at age 61. and about average on social influences. ask questions. that is. called constructive alternativism. He began his academic career at Fort Hays State College in Kansas. Allport rates higher than any other theorist on conscious influences and on the uniqueness of the individual. Religious Orientation and Psychological Health Research has found that people who score high on the Intrinsic scale of the ROS tend to have overall better personal functioning than those who score high on the Extrinsic scale. He further stressed that. with some constructs in a superordinate position and others subordinate to them. (6) The range corollary states that constructs are limited to a particular range of convenience. (2) The individuality corollary states that because people have different experiences. With the sociality corollary.Theories Of Personality Summarized Constructive Alternativism Kelly believed that all our interpretations of the world are subject to revision or replacement. (5) Kelly's choice corollary assumes that people tend to choose the alternative in a dichotomized construct that they see as extending the range of their future choices. Each of us has a core role and numerous peripheral roles. Personal Constructs Kelly believed that people look at their world through templates that they create and then attempt to fit over the realities of the world. (2) fear. (3) anxiety. we construe similar events as if they were the same. (10) The commonality corollary suggests that our personal constructs tend to be similar to the construction systems of other people to the extent that we share experiences with them. which requires an incidental rather than a comprehensive restructuring of one's construct system. (4) The dichotomy corollary assumes that people construe events in an either/or manner. Applications of Personal Construct Theory Kelly's many years of clinical experience enabled him to evolve concepts of abnormal development and psychotherapy. an assumption he called constructive alternativism. and to develop a Role Construct Repertory (Rep) Test. The basic postulate assumes that human behavior is shaped by the way people anticipate the future. they can construe the same event in different ways. reject or distort legitimate results. Supporting Corollaries The 11 supporting corollaries can all be inferred from this basic postulate: (1) Although no two events are exactly alike. or the recognition that one cannot adequately Page 41 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Abnormal Development Kelly saw normal people as analogous to competent scientists who test reasonable hypotheses. Kelly identified four common elements in most human disturbances: (1) threat. which he believed shape behavior. good or bad.. because people can construe their world from different angles. (3) The organization corollary assumes that people organize their personal constructs in a hierarchical system. which refers to a pattern of behavior that stems from people's understanding of the constructs of others. He called these templates or transparent patterns personal constructs. (9) The fragmentation corollary states that people's behavior can be inconsistent because their construct systems can readily admit incompatible elements. (7) Kelly's experience corollary suggests that people continually revise their personal constructs as the result of their experiences. and refuse to amend outdated theories. objectively view the results. that is. Kelly introduced the concept of role. concrete constructs resist modification through experience. unhealthy people are like incompetent scientists who test unreasonable hypotheses. Basic Postulate Kelly expressed his theory in one basic postulate and 11 supporting corollaries. A core role gives us a sense of identity whereas peripheral roles are less central to our self-concept. they are not relevant to all situations.g. Similarly. (11) The sociality corollary states that people are able to communicate with other people because they can construe those people's constructions. observations that are valid at one time may be false at a later time. (8) The modulation corollary assumes that only permeable constructs lead to change. and willingly change their theories when the data warrant it. and this is Kelly's construction corollary. or the perception that one's basic constructs may be drastically changed. e. In 1940. Biography of Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was born into a devoutly religious family in a Chicago suburb in 1902. and to organize knowledge. intelligent people. he also developed an important theory of personality that underscores his approach to therapy. in psychology from Columbia University in 1931. Carl became interested in scientific farming and learned to appreciate the scientific method. after nearly a dozen years Page 42 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . (2) detecting differences between the real self and the ideal self. By playing the part of a psychologically healthy person. Other research with children and the Rep test shows that preadolescents construe themselves and others in ways consistent with the Big Five personality factors (extraversion. and an external locus of control. and (4) guilt. including the Large and Strong (1997) study. Kelly's theory rates very high in teleology and high in choice and optimism. On the six criteria of a useful theory. He sometimes used a procedure called fixed-role therapy in which clients act out a predetermined role for several weeks. and (3) measuring neuroticism. it pays scant attention to problems of motivation. development. and intelligence). Unfortunately. The Rep Test The purpose of the Rep test is to discover ways in which clients construe significant people in their lives. agreeableness. The Rep Test and the Pain Patient A number of studies. but he gave up that notion and completed a Ph. it receives high ratings for conscious influences and for its emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual. However. The Rep Test and Children Use of the Rep test with children reveals that the self-constructs of depressed adolescents are marked by low selfesteem.Theories Of Personality Summarized deal with a new situation. Related Research Kelly's personal construct theory and his Rep test have generated a substantial amount of empirical research in both the United States and the United Kingdom. defined as "the sense of having lost one's core role structure. Clients place names of people they know on a repertory grid in order to identify both similarities and differences among these people. His concept of elaborative choice suggests that people increase their range of future choices by the present choices they freely make. When he graduated from the University of Wisconsin. thus demonstrating that the Big Five factors can come from instruments other than standard personality tests. emotional stability. In addition. ROGERS: PERSON-CENTERED THEORY Overview of Rogers's Person-Centered Theory Although Carl Rogers is best known as the founder of client-centered therapy. After the family moved to a farm near Chicago. Finally. to guide the practitioner. have found that the Rep test can be a reliable and valid instrument for measuring pain. conscientiousness. pessimism. Rogers intended to become a minister. The Rep Test and the Real Self Versus the Ideal Self Other research has found that the Rep test was useful in (1) predicting adherence to a physical activity program. it rates low on its ability to be falsified. and cultural influences. Thus." Psychotherapy Kelly insisted that clients should set their own goals for therapy and that they should be active participants in the therapeutic process. personal construct theory is about average on social influences. Critique of Kelly Kelly's theory probably is most applicable to relatively normal. clients may discover previously hidden aspects of themselves.D. Concept of Humanity Kelly saw people as anticipating the future and living their lives in accordance with those anticipations. it rates very high on parsimony and internal consistency and about average on its ability to generate research. and (3) those that are consistent with the self-concept and thus are accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure. and safety. air. or congruent.Theories Of Personality Summarized away from an academic life working as a clinician. Basic Assumptions Person-centered theory rests on two basic assumptions: (1) the formative tendency. and (2) an actualizing tendency. which is experienced when basic organismic needs are denied or distorted in favor of needs to be loved or accepted. In 1964. that is. which includes all those aspects of one's identity that are perceived in awareness. which they acquire only after they perceive that someone else cares for them and values them. Needs The two basic human needs are maintenance and enhancement. but people also need positive regard and self-regard. (2) those that are distorted or reshaped to fit it into an existing selfconcept. but. and (2) the ideal self. which suggests that all living things. For a person. and who demonstrates complete acceptance and empathy for that person. or our view of our self as we would like to be or aspire to be. and. he moved to California where he helped found the Center for Studies of the Person. Maintenance needs include those for food. he held positions at the University of Chicago and the University of Wisconsin. As awareness of self emerges. once established. and gaps between it and the ideal self-result in incongruence and various levels of psychopathology. which is a subsystem of the actualization tendency and refers to the tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness. certain identifiable conditions must be present. The self has two subsystems: (1) the self-concept. this value sometimes becomes more powerful than the reward they receive for meeting their organismic needs. people develop the need for self-regard. People naturally value those experiences that satisfy their needs for positive regard. he took a position at Ohio State University. Awareness People are aware of both their selfconcept and their ideal self. However. Once established. tend to move toward completion. or fulfillment of potentials. these conditions include a relationship with another person who is genuine. Person-Centered Theory Rogers carefully crafted his person-centered theory of personality to meet his own demands for a structural model that could explain and predict outcomes of client-centered therapy. He died in 1987 at age 85. tends to evolve from simpler to more complex forms. Later. both organic and inorganic. Page 43 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Enhancement needs include needs to grow and to realize one's full human potential. or not allowed into the selfconcept. subceived. an infant begins to receive positive regard from another person-that is. but they also include our tendency to resist change and to maintain our self-concept as it is. the theory has implications far beyond the therapeutic setting. however. Once formed. Any experience not consistent with the selfconcept-even positive experiences-will be distorted or denied. However. The Self and Self-Actualization A sense of self or personal identity begins to emerge during infancy. which states that all matter. it allows a person to strive toward self-actualization. although awareness need not be accurate or at a high level. the self-concept tends to resist change. This sets up the condition of incongruence. self-regard becomes autonomous and no longer dependent on another's continuous positive evaluation. in order for people (or plants and animals) to become actualized. As a result of experiences with positive regard. unfortunately. Rogers saw people as having experiences on three levels of awareness: (1) those that are symbolized below the threshold of awareness and are either ignored or denied. including humans. to be loved or accepted. Process Rogers saw the process of therapeutic change as taking place in seven stages: (1) clients are unwilling to communicate anything about themselves. The first is counselor congruence. or evaluation. clients become more congruent. defensiveness. Congruence is more basic than the other two conditions because it is a relatively stable characteristic of the therapist. which includes vulnerability. Psychological Stagnation When the organismic self and the selfconcept are at variance with one another. Instead. The greater the incongruence between self-concept and the organismic experience. (3) they begin to talk about themselves. (6) they freely allow into awareness those experiences that were previously denied or distorted. or a therapist whose organismic experiences are matched by an awareness and by the ability and willingness to openly express these feelings. Anxiety exists whenever the person becomes dimly aware of the discrepancy between organismic experience and self-concept. and empathy of the therapist. and (7) they experience irreversible change and growth. Finally. (5) they begin to express present feelings. Outcomes When client-centered therapy is successful. clients experience less physiological and psychological tension. threat. The client must in turn perceive the congruence. Unconditional positive regard exists when the therapist accepts the client without conditions or qualifications. If these conditions are present. but still as an object.Theories Of Personality Summarized Conditions of Worth Most people are not unconditionally accepted. people react with defensiveness. the more vulnerable that person becomes. then the process of therapy will take place and certain predictable outcomes will result. people refuse to allow the experience into awareness. projection. and Rogers called them the necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic growth. Page 44 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . (2) they discuss only external events and other people. clients' interpersonal relationships improve because they are more accepting of self and others. that is. as a consequence. people misinterpret an experience so that it fits into their self-concept. people sometimes behave consistently with their organismic experience and sometimes in accordance with their shattered self-concept. unconditional positive regard. certain conditions are necessary: A vulnerable client must have contact of some duration with a counselor who is congruent. whereas threat is experienced whenever the person becomes more clearly aware of this incongruence. with denial. With distortion. their behavior becomes disorganized or psychotic. and more realistic. When people's defenses fail to operate properly. and who demonstrates unconditional positive regard and listens with empathy to a client. they feel that they are loved and accepted only when and if they meet the conditions set by others. (4) they discuss strong emotions that they have felt in the past. less defensive. Psychotherapy For client-centered psychotherapy to be effective. they receive conditions of worth. The gap between their ideal self and their true self narrows and. whereas the other two conditions are limited to a specific therapeutic relationship. a person may experience incongruence. Empathic listening is the therapist's ability to sense the feelings of a client and also to communicate these perceptions so that the client knows that another person has entered into his or her world of feelings without prejudice. To prevent incongruence. With disorganization. more open to experience. and even disorganization. typically in the forms of distortion and denial. Conditions Three conditions are crucial to clientcentered therapy. The person of tomorrow (1) is able to adjust to change. they tested a control group of "normals" who were matched with the therapy group. as noted by friends. (2) is open to experience. Cramer found positive relationships between self-esteem. The factors have implications both for the individual and for society. Facilitative Conditions Outside Therapy In the United Kingdom. (6) has a basic trust of human nature. along with colleagues and graduate students. Summary of Results Although client-centered therapy was successful in changing clients. Philosophy of Science Rogers agreed with Maslow that scientists must care about and be involved in the phenomena they study and that psychologists should limit their objectivity and precision to their methodology. and (7) enjoys a greater richness in life. Related Research More recently. Moreover. and that some of these changes lasted for at least seven years after therapy. He found that client-centered couples therapy can bring about positive changes in couples. the direction of the relationship strongly suggested that Rogers's facilitative conditions precede the acquisition of higher levels of selfesteem. not to the creation of hypotheses or to the communication of research findings. Alfons Vansteenwegen (1996) used a revised form of the Barrett-Lennard to determine if Rogers's facilitative conditions related to success during couples therapy. (3) is able to live fully in the moment. Facilitative Conditions and Couples Therapy In Belgium. (3) clients' behavior will become more socialized and mature. (5) is more integrated with no artificial boundaries between conscious and unconscious processes. and empathy. and the four facilitative conditions that make up the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory-level of regard. Method Participants were adults who sought therapy at the University of Chicago counseling center. Page 45 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . The Chicago Study When he taught at the University of Chicago. and (4) clients will become both more self-accepting and more accepting of others. called the "fully functioning person" or the "person of tomorrow. Findings Rogers and his associates found that the therapy group-but not the wait groupshowed a lessening of the gap between real self and ideal self. Hypotheses This study tested four broad hypotheses. unconditionality of regard.Theories Of Personality Summarized The Person of Tomorrow Rogers was vitally interested in the psychologically healthy person. Rogers. (4) is able to have harmonious relations with others. (2) the gap between the real self and the ideal self will lessen. Experimenters asked half of them to wait 60 days before receiving therapy while beginning therapy with the other half. This control group was also divided into a wait group and a nonwait group. it was not successful in bringing them to the level of the fully functioning persons or even to the level of "normal" psychological health. In addition. Duncan Cramer has conducted a series of studies investigating the therapeutic qualities of Rogers's facilitative conditions in interpersonal relationships outside of therapy. congruence. as measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. other researchers have investigated Rogers's facilitative conditions both outside therapy and within therapy. conducted a sophisticated and complex study on the effectiveness of psychotherapy. They also found that clients who improved during therapy-but not those rated as least improved-showed changes in social behavior." Rogers listed seven characteristics of the person of tomorrow. As a consequence of therapy (1) clients will become more aware of their feelings and experiences. such as oxygen. He received both a bachelor's degree and a Ph. Maslow's hierarchy includes (1) physiological needs. which follow from the satisfaction of love needs and which include self-confidence and the recognition that one has a positive reputation. and justice. and (5) needs can be arranged on a hierarchy. and so on. and unconscious motives often underlie behavior. and to be curious. Only by embracing such B-values as truth. paranoid. and some people have much stronger aesthetic needs than do others. and it meets quite well each of the six criteria of a useful theory. (2) motivation is complex. which are satisfied only by the psychologically healthiest people. Page 46 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . including the desire for friendship. (3) love and belongingness needs.D. oneness. and (5) selfactualization needs. Poor health forced him to move to California where he died in 1970 at age 62. teleology. Other needs include aesthetic needs. dependency. Concept of Humanity Rogers believed that humans have the capacity to change and grow-provided that certain necessary and sufficient conditions are present. the wish for a mate and children. and high-average on its ability to organize knowledge and to serve as a guide to the practitioner. Knowledge is a prerequisite for each of the five conative needs.Theories Of Personality Summarized Critique of Rogers Rogers's person-centered theory is one of the most carefully constructed of all personality theories. and freedom from danger. water. high on its ability to be falsified and to generate research. beauty. Therefore. Maslow's View of Motivation Maslow's theory rests on five basic assumptions about motivation: (1) the whole organism is motivated at any one time. and that. people who are denied knowledge and kept in ignorance become sick. The five needs on Maslow's hierarchy are conative needs. food. stability. self-actualization needs do not inevitably follow the satisfaction of esteem needs. and the uniqueness of the individual. they must be satisfied before higher needs become motivators. Also. Cognitive Needs Cognitive needs include the desire to know. (4) people in different cultures are all motivated by the same basic needs. Hierarchy of Needs Maslow held that lower level needs have prepotency over higher level needs. Maslow was born in New York in 1908. Biography of Abraham H. and neurotic needs. and which result in basic anxiety if not satisfied. which include physical security. (3) people are continually motivated by one need or another. MASLOW'S HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY Overview of Maslow's Holistic-Dynamic Theory Abraham Maslow's holistic-dynamic theory holds that people are continually motivated by one or more needs. Unlike other needs that automatically are activated when lower needs are met. It rates very high on internal consistency and parsimony. they can reach a level of psychological health called self-actualization. and depressed. After two or three mediocre years as a college student. protection. his theory rates very high on optimism. from the University of Wisconsin where he worked with Harry Harlow conducting animal studies. to understand. that is. cognitive needs. (4) esteem needs. his work improved at about the time he was married. and the need to belong. it rates high on free choice. under the proper circumstances. they become sick. social influences. can people achieve selfactualization. conscious motivation. (2) safety needs. Most of his professional career was spent at Brooklyn College and at Brandeis University. Aesthetic Needs Aesthetic needs include a desire for beauty and order. In addition. When people fail to meet their aesthetic needs. Maslow Abraham H. the oldest of seven children of Russian Jewish immigrants. others. the more fully the next highest need is likely to emerge. people's inability to reach self-actualization results in metapathology. However. or to subject oneself to the will of another person. esteem. and nature.Theories Of Personality Summarized Neurotic Needs With each of the above three dimensions of needs. and a loss of meaning in life. physical or psychological illness results when the needs are not satisfied. Neurotic needs are nonproductive and do not foster health. Maslow suggested that instinctoid needs are innately determined even though they can be modified by learning. (6) autonomy. and (4) full realization of one's potentials for growth. meaning that they no longer are dependent on other people for their self-esteem. or a detachment that allows self-actualizing people to be alone without being lonely. or those mystical experiences that give a person a sense of transcendence and feelings of awe. justice. the order of needs might be reversed. defined as an absence of values. goodness. ecstasy. (8) frequent reports of peak experiences. (5) the need for privacy. For example. if we understood the unconscious motivation behind many apparent reversals. In certain rare cases. In comparison. Page 47 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Self-Actualization Maslow believed that a very small percentage of people reach an ultimate level of psychological health called self-actualization. Criteria for Self-Actualization Four criteria must be met before a person achieves self-actualization: (1) absence of psychopathology. Maslow also believed that higher level needs (love. General Discussion of Needs Maslow believed that most people satisfy lower level needs to a greater extent than they do higher levels needs. and simplicity. beauty. (2) acceptance of self. we would see that they are not genuine reversals at all. coping behaviors (which are motivated) deal with a person's attempt to cope with the environment. Neurotic needs include such motives as a desire to dominate. These characteristics are (1) more efficient perception of reality. meaning that self-actualizers often have an almost uncanny ability to detect phoniness in others. (3) spontaneity. however. a lack of fulfillment. Deprivation of any of the needs leads to pathology of some sort. (2) satisfaction of each of the four lower level needs. simplicity. Values of Self-Actualizers Maslow held that self-actualizers are metamotivated by such B-values as truth. lead to pathology regardless of whether they are satisfied or not. Maslow also believed that some expressive behaviors are unmotivated. and humility. a starving mother may be motivated by love needs to give up food in order to feed her starving children. even though all behaviors have a cause. and naturalness. to inflict pain. although not all self-actualizers possess each of the characteristics to the same extent. and self-actualization) are later on the evolutionary scale than lower level needs and that they produce more genuine happiness and more peak experiences. and that the greater the satisfaction of one need. reverence. wonder. Thus. and they are not fooled by sham. (3) acceptance of the Bvalues. For example. Expressive behavior has no aim or goal but is merely a person's mode of expression. Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People Maslow listed 15 qualities that characterize self-actualizing people. meaning that self-actualizers have no need to appear complex or sophisticated. (4) problemcentered which is the ability to view age-old problems from a solid philosophical position. (7) continued freshness of appreciation and the ability to view everyday things with a fresh vision and appreciation. The conative needs ordinarily call forth coping behaviors. Neurotic needs. Maslow insisted that much of our surface behavior is actually motivated by more basic and often unconscious needs. (10) profound interpersonal relations. he refined the definition of selfactualization. and reality. (13) a philosophical sense of humor that is spontaneous. and changed the syndrome. He continued this process until he was satisfied that he had a clear definition of self-actualization. or the ability to set personal standards and to resist the mold set by culture. Measuring Self-Actualization Maslow's method for measuring self-actualization were consistent with his philosophy of science. with a keen perception of truth. studied other people. people who approached self-actualization tended to be selfmotivated. Self-actualizing people are capable of B-love because they can love without expecting something in return. Other researchers have developed personality inventories for measuring self-actualization. (14) creativeness. (11) the democratic character structure. and ritual. Maslow believed that many people allow false humility to stifle their creativity. and Self-Actualization Maslow compared D-love (deficiency love) to B-love (love for being or essence of another person). joy. that is. Most people who seek psychotherapy probably do so because they have not adequately satisfied their love and belongingness needs. learned what they had in common. The Jonah Complex Because humans are born with a natural tendency to move toward psychological health. accepted feelings of aggression. a condition that all of us have to some extent. and were able to sustain intimacy. B-love is mutually felt and shared and not based on deficiencies within the lovers. (15) resistance to enculturation. Self-Actualization and Intimate Interpersonal Relations Michael Sheffield and his colleagues used the POI as a measure of selfactualization and found that high scores on the POI were inversely related to interpersonal relations. social interest or a deep feeling of oneness with all humanity. and intrinsic to the situation. rapture. The most widely used of these is Everett Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory (POI). Self-Actualization and Creativity Mark Runco and his colleagues used the Short Index of Self-Actualization to assess self-actualization and found a positive relationship between selfactualization scores and two measures of creativity. More specifically. a 150-item forced-choice inventory that assesses a variety of self-actualization facets. and then established a syndrome for psychological health. unplanned. or to instill it with human values and to view participants with awe. but with no desperate need to have a multitude of friends.Theories Of Personality Summarized (9) Gemeinschaftsgefühl. or fear of being or doing one's best. or the ability to disregard superficial differences between people. He began his study of self-actualizing people with little evidence that such a classification of people even existed. He argued for a Taoistic attitude for psychology in which psychologists are willing to resacralize their science. beauty. with a methodology that is sterile and nonemotional. Related Research Researchers have investigated Maslow's concept of self-actualization in many divergence settings and for a variety of purposes. any failure to reach self-actualization can technically be called abnormal development. This suggests that much of therapy should involve a productive human relationship and that the job of a therapist is to help clients satisfy love and belongingness needs. Although the relationships Page 48 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . and they experience little conflict about basic values. He looked at healthy people. meaning that self-actualizing people have a clear sense of right and wrong. Sex. Psychotherapy The hierarchy of needs concept has obvious ramifications for psychotherapy. Next. which causes them to fall short of self-actualization. One such abnormal syndrome is the Jonah complex. Love. wonder. Philosophy of Science Maslow criticized traditional science as being value free. (12) discrimination between means and ends. he entered the Union Theological Seminary. 2000) with African-American businessmen found that those who scored high on self-actualization tended to have increased happiness and self-fulfillment. he spent three years roaming throughout eastern and southern Europe as an itinerant artist.D. which gives Maslow's theory the illusion of simplicity. but grew up in Michigan. such as management. Biography of Rollo May Rollo May was born in Ohio in 1909. Maslow's model rates high in generating research but low in falsifiability. the theory is somewhat complex. Second. from which he received a Master of Divinity degree. Concept of Humanity Maslow believed that people are structured in such a way that their activated needs are exactly what they want most. and uniqueness and about average on social influences. frightened people look for safety. humans are becoming more and more fully human and motivated by higher level needs. One study (Sumerlin & Bundrick. Background of Existentialism Søren Kierkegaard. Self-Actualization and Self-Acceptance Some researchers have tested Maslow's assumption that self-actualizing people accept themselves. MAY'S EXISTENTIAL THEORY Overview of May's Existential Theory Existential psychology began in Europe shortly after World War II and spread to the United States. he emphasized a balance between freedom and responsibility. teleology. He then served for two years as a pastor. he served as lecturer or visiting professor at a number of universities. When he returned to the United States. He received a Ph.Theories Of Personality Summarized were not strong. As a scientific theory. but quit in order to pursue a career in psychology. A clinical psychologist by training. conducted a private practice as a psychotherapist. Fourth. However. May took the view that modern people frequently run away both from making choices and from assuming responsibility. In summary. Maslow saw that people are capable of great evil and destruction. and so forth. on its simplicity and internal consistency. After graduating from Oberlin College in 1930. this acquisition of freedom and responsibility is achieved at the expense of anxiety and dread. in clinical psychology from Columbia in 1949 at the age of 40. optimism. it rates only average. What Is Existentialism? The first tenet of existentialism is that existence take precedence over essence. creativity is at least partly related to self-actualization. During his professional career. Third. Critique of Maslow Maslow's theory has been popular in psychology and other disciplines. On its ability to organize knowledge and guide action. with four dimensions of needs and the possibility of unconsciously motivated behavior. May died in 1994 at age 85. Although he was generally optimistic and hopeful. People acquire freedom of action by expanding their self-awareness and by assuming responsibility for their actions. as Maslow's hypothesized. meaning that process and growth are more important than product and stagnation. He believed that as a species. The hierarchy of needs concept seems both elementary and logical. the theory rates quite high. Hungry people desire food. nursing. and education. they insist that each of us is responsible for who we are and what we will become. However. the Danish philosopher and theologian. existentialists oppose the artificial split between subject and object. Fifth. and wrote a number of popular books on the human condition. most take an Page 49 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . they suggest that. Like later existentialists. is usually considered to be the founder of modern existentialism. where Rollo May played a large part in popularizing it. they stress people's search for meaning in their lives. Another study by William Compton and his colleagues found that selfactualization related to openness to experience and to seeking out new and exciting experiences. Maslow's view of humanity rates high on free choice. Eros is a psychological desire that seeks an Page 50 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . Death is the most obvious form of nonbeing. Intentionality The structure that gives meaning to experience and allows people to make decisions about the future is called intentionality. Eventually.Theories Of Personality Summarized antitheoretical position. Philip experienced severe anxiety when his relationship with Nicole (a writer in her mid40s) took a puzzling turn. that is. equating love with sex and will with will power. and to affirm that person's value as much as one's own. Both anxiety and guilt are ontological. and can be handled on a conscious level. He further held that psychologically healthy people are able to combine love and will because both imply care. fail to accurately perceive the needs of others. but have become preoccupied with it to the point of trivialization. It is felt whenever one's values are transformed into dogma. Love. The acquisition of freedom inevitably leads to anxiety. defined as that which is proportionate to the threat. or being-in-the-world. Three simultaneous modes of the world characterize us in our Dasein: Umwelt. a basic unity exists between people and their environments. Anxiety People experience anxiety when they become aware that their existence or something identified with it might be destroyed. which can also be experienced as retreat from life's experiences. or remain blind to their dependence on the natural world. Uncertain of his future and suffering from low self-esteem. he began to recover only after he accepted that his "need" to take care of unpredictable Nicole was merely part of his personal history with unstable women. Care is also an important ingredient in will. Philip went into therapy with Rollo May. to delight in the presence of another person. eros. May believed that intentionality permits people to overcome the dichotomy between subject and object. People are both aware of themselves as living beings and also aware of the possibility of nonbeing or nothingness. Philip was able to understand that his difficulties with women were related to his early experiences with a mother who was unpredictable and an older sister who suffered from severe mental disorders. May believed that Americans no longer view sex as a natural biological function. and responsibility. Care. or the environment around us. and Will Care is an active process that suggests that things matter. The Case of Philip Rollo May helped illustrate his notion of existentialism with the case of Philip. Union of Love and Will May believed that our modern society has lost sight of the true nature of love and will. action. Love means to care. because it enables them to see that their intentions are a function of both themselves and their environment. Normal Anxiety Growth produces normal anxiety. Mitwelt. Forms of Love May identified four kinds of love in Western tradition: sex. and agape. defined as a conscious commitment to action. choice. does not involve repression. or our relationship with our self. a unity expressed by the term Dasein. Despite his apparent success. believing that theories tend to objectify people. a successful architect in his mid-50s. Neurotic Anxiety Neurotic anxiety is a reaction that is disproportionate to the threat and that leads to repression and defensive behaviors. However. they refer to the nature of being and not to feelings arising from specific situations. Guilt Guilt arises whenever people deny their potentialities. Basic Concepts According to existentialists. or our world with other people. which can be either pleasurable and constructive or painful and destructive. Neurotic anxiety blocks growth and productive action. philia. and Eigenwelt. which he called existential freedom. an intimate nonsexual friendship between two people. the people of contemporary Western civilization have an urgent need for myths. this research can also be explained by other psychological theories. Agape is an altruistic or spiritual love that carries with it the risk of playing God. Freedom and Destiny Psychologically healthy individuals are comfortable with freedom. and willing to face their destiny. and. Critique of May May's psychology has been legitimately criticized as being antitheoretical and unjustly criticized as being anti-intellectual. gender. which is based on the notion of existential anxiety. sexual union with one parent and hostility toward the other. As he came to terms with his destiny. or an inner freedom. However. independence in one's search for identity. Agape is undeserved and unconditional. Psychotherapy The goal of May's psychotherapy was not to cure patients of any specific disorder. but Philip's subjective perceptions had. In other words. The Oedipus myth has had a powerful effect on our culture because it deals with such common existential crises as birth. or freedom of action. to allow them to make choices and to assume responsibility for those choices. and genetic predispositions. The Power of Myth According to May. Jeff Greenberg and his colleagues have investigated the concept of terror management. It may include sex. they turn to religious cults. from other people (Mitwelt). he gained his freedom of being. because freedom gains vitality from destiny." In other words. Nevertheless. Page 51 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . and. and from themselves (Eigenwelt). Greenberg's findings are consistent with May's definition of existential anxiety as an apprehension of threats to one's existence. able to assume responsibility for their choices. but it is built on care and tenderness. finally. Psychopathology May saw apathy and emptiness-not anxiety and guilt-as the chief existential disorders of our time. including our mortality. Philip was able to stop blaming his mother for not doing what he thought she should have done. separation from parents. Destiny Defined May defined destiny as "the design of the universe speaking through the design of each one of us. drugs. therefore. takes time to develop and does not depend on the actions of the other person. and popular culture to fill the vacuum. Freedom Defined Freedom comes from an understanding of our destiny. to feel less trapped in his relationship with Nicole. In general. We are free when we recognize that death is a possibility at any moment and when we are willing to experience changes. Psychopathology is a lack of connectedness and an inability to fulfill one's destiny. Freedom and destiny constitute a paradox. However. and destiny gains significance from freedom. but to make them more fully human. Forms of Freedom May recognized two forms of freedom: (1) freedom of doing. even in the face of not knowing what those changes will bring.Theories Of Personality Summarized enduring union with a loved one. Because they have lost many of their traditional myths. our destiny includes the limitations of our environment and our personal qualities. Philip began to be able to express his anger. The objective facts of his childhood had not changed. and to become more aware of his possibilities. May's antitheoretical approach calls for a new kind of science-one that considers uniqueness and personal freedom as crucial concepts. and (2) freedom of being. death. Philia. People have become alienated from the natural world (Umwelt). it has not generated much research. Philip's Destiny After some time in therapy. which he called essential freedom. May said that the purpose of psychotherapy is to set people free. Related Research May's theory of personality does not lend itself to easily testable hypotheses. most of all. and high on its organizational powers due to its consideration of a broad scope of the human condition. and. and uniqueness. average on parsimony. On the issue of conscious or unconscious forces. to be falsified. May's theory rates low on most standards. Concept of Humanity May viewed people as complex beings. People have become alienated from the world. from other people.Theories Of Personality Summarized according to the criteria of present science. teleology. May rates high on free choice. On the dimensions of a concept of humanity. and to guide action. his theory is very low on its ability to generate research. Reference: http://highered. from themselves.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072316799/student_view0/ Page 52 of 52 ASLagnadaIII/090213 . low on internal consistency (because it lacks operationally defined terms). his theory takes a middle position. Currently. capable of both tremendous good and immense evil. social influences.