Theodossiev Ancient Thrace

COLLOQUIA ANTIQUA————— 1 ————— THE BLACK SEA, GREECE, ANATOLIA AND EUROPE IN THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC Edited by GOCHA R. TSETSKHLADZE PEETERS LEUVEN – PARIS – WALPOLE, MA 2011 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_Voorwerk.indd III 7/03/11 15:35 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction to the Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII Introduction to the Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX List of Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI List of Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XIII CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 Ancient Thrace during the First Millennium BC Nikola Theodossiev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Getae: Selected Questions Alexandru Avram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 The Black Sea: Between Asia and Europe (Herodotus’ Approach to his Scythian Account) J.G.F. Hind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 The Scythians: Three Essays Gocha R. Tsetskhladze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 The American-Ukrainian Scythian Kurgan Project, 2004– 2005: Preliminary Report N.T. de Grummond, S.V. Polin, L.A. Chernich, M. Gleba and M. Daragan Skeletal Analyses: A.D. Kozak Faunal Remains: O.P. Zhuravlev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Persia in Europe John Boardman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 The Etruscan Impact on Ancient Europe Larissa Bonfante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_Voorwerk.indd V 7/03/11 15:35 VI CHAPTER 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS Hallstatt Europe: Some Aspects of Religion and Social Structure Biba Terzan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 The Elusive Arts: The Study of Continental Early Celtic Art since 1944 Ruth Megaw and Vincent Megaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 An Archaic Alphabet on a Thasian Kylix M.A. Tiverios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 The Iron Age in Central Anatolia Hermann Genz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 The Role of Jewellery in Ancient Societies Iva Ondrejová. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 The Mushroom, the Magi and the Keen-Sighted Seers Claudia Sagona and Antonio Sagona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_Voorwerk.indd VI 7/03/11 15:35 Economic contacts and trade are also discussed. the American Academy in Rome. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. I am pleased to offer an overview of ancient Thrace in a volume in honour of Prof. particularly to illustrate the dynamic relations and long-distance contacts of the region throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Scythians. together with such topics as settlement patterns. I wish to extend my gratitude to the Andrew W. a brilliant * I would like to thank Gocha Tsetskhladze for his kind invitation to contribute to this volume dedicated to Jan Bouzek. particularly the significant gold and silver treasures/hoards. the Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts at the National Gallery of Art in Washington. Celts and Romans are outlined. and lastly Thracian coinage. Mellon Foundation. located on the northern fringe of the Greek world. The various cultural interactions and ethnic interrelations between Thracians and Greeks. So too are Thracian metalwork and its iconography. Thracian funerary practices are examined. Jan Bouzek. and the Centre d’Étude des Peintures Murales Romaines in Soissons for their generous support and the various fellowships which have enabled me to work on my research projects. the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Attention is paid to the social structure of the tribal communities and to Thracian religion. the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences in Wassenaar. in the northern part of southeastern Europe. especially the rich aristocratic burials and the numerous Late Classical and Hellenistic Thracian monumental tombs. the urbanisation process and sanctuaries. a number of scholars from different countries have studied the region. Macedonians. the Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities at the University of Edinburgh. was among the most dynamic regions of the eastern Mediterranean and played an important role in ancient history and culture.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC* Nikola THEODOSSIEV Abstract The paper provides a general discussion of ancient Thrace in the 1st millennium BC. Since the early 20th century. Ancient Thrace. as are the various tribes and the political history of the most powerful tribal kingdoms. the Council of American Overseas Research Centers.indd 1 7/03/11 15:44 . DC. Greek and Roman historical sources on ancient Thrace are examined. the Maison des Sciences de l’Homme in Paris. The territorial extent of Thrace is discussed and the chronology of this period is outlined. Persians. and was inhabited by a number of tribes known as Thracians. Thrace was located on the northern fringe of Greece. examining a variety of topics and publishing important work. Illyrians. See A. the eastern and southern parts of Romania. Oppermann 1984. north-west Anatolia and some Aegean islands. Bulgaria. and the lower Axios (Vardar) river valley (to the west). 1981. and on which he has written many works of the greatest importance. including the Gallipoli peninsula. 1975b. Avram’s chapter in the present volume. and the Chalkidiki peninsula (in the south). Archibald 1998. the northern coast of the Sea of Marmara.2 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV scholar whose career is closely related to the region. The frontiers of ancient Thrace were relative. Spiridonov 1991. but in antiquity these areas belonged to other historical and geographical regions. but 1 In this article I do not deal with the North Thracian territories inhabited by the Getae and the Daci. Hoddinott. Also. to the Bosporus (in the southeast). Macedonia and the Roman Republic. Historically. A. where he has been personally involved for many years in both theoretical and field research. Popov 1999). TERRITORIAL SCOPE AND CHRONOLOGY1 Ancient Thrace was an extensive but variable historical and geographical region of south-eastern Europe (Fig 1). and the North Aegean coast. parts of northern Greece and the European part of Turkey (Danov 1976. Fol 1972. Mihailov 1972. separate Thracian tribes were attested in central Greece. 1974. Moreover. the eastern part of the Republic of Macedonia. R. and the ancient Thracians never formed a unified nation or entirely centralised kingdom controlling their whole territory. and during the 1st millennium BC certain Thracian areas belonged to the Greek colonies. and from the Transylvanian Alps and the Moldavian Carpathians (in the north) and the Dniester river (in the north-east).indd 2 7/03/11 15:44 . the Achaemenid empire. D. Fol and Spiridonov 1983. often sharing a common culture. the area between the middle river valleys of the Struma/Strymon and Vardar. A. ancient Thrace was not a homogeneous region inhabited by homogeneous ethnic groups. 1997. ‘Thracians’ is a cumulative and relative ethnonym that included a great number of various tribes. eastern Serbia. During the 1st millennium BC Thrace spread from the West Pontic coast (in the east) to the Morava river valley. religion and language. In fact. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. I do not deal with an area of south-western Thrace which became a constituent part of the Macedonian kingdom during the Classical and Hellenistic periods. It covered the following modern countries (from north to south): Moldova. the south-western part of the Odessa Province of the Ukraine. except for present-day north-eastern Bulgaria. variable and quite dynamic. including the islands of Samothrace and Thasos. 36. Tatarevo. Dolno Sahrane. 26. Staro Selo. Mumdyilar. Tarnevets. Novo Mahala. Seuthopolis. Philippi. Smolyan. 8. 47. 446. Lukovit. Kozarevo. Voinitsine. Beroea. Vetren. 16. 63. 50. Mezek. 21. 51. Edirne. 3. Lovech. ‘Thracians and Scythians’. Topolovgrad. Kyolmen. Kirklareli. Topolovo.indd 3 1. 32. Ezerovo. Vurbitsa. 57. Strelcha. Letnitsa. Rozovets. Troian. 68. Fig. 25. 38. 31. 59. Zlokoutchene. Toros. 46. 11.93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Bednyakovo. 49. 70. Skalitsa. CAH VI. 37. 27. 7. Chirpan. 56. Yourukler. Asenovgrad. 76. 2nd ed. 45. Stoyanovo. 34. 20. Pudriya. Boukyovtsi. 14. Arzos. 17. 77. Panagyurishte. Nevrokop.H. 35. Svilengrad. 30. 4. 42. 71. Archibald. Gradnitsa. Didimotikhion. 33. ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 3 7/03/11 15:44 . Glozhene. map 14). 52. Pastousha. Kaloyanovo. 1. 67. 43 Pomorie. Branichevo. Kabyle. 6. Gotse Delchev. 66. Novoselets. Oryahovo. Dulboki. 40. Madara. 22. Razlog. 69. 53. Turnovo. 58. 5. Slavyanovo. Daskal Atanassov. 74. 9. 60. 73. 29. Brezovo. 61. 72. Vulchitrun. Koprinka. Alexandrovo. Stara Zagora. 28. 12. 75. 54. Yankovo. 39. 2. Purovay. 65. Chernozem. Kazanlak. 18. 15. 55. 44. 62. Pustrovo. [Cambridge 1994]. Thracian sites and tribal territories of the Classical period (after Z. 48. Opulchenets. 64. 41. 10. Izgrev. Svetlen. Pazardyik. 19. Krivodol. Duvanli. 23. 24. 13. Velingrad. Teteven. Derveni. Bouzek 1997. Hänsel 1976. such as the lasting Greek colonisation on the North Aegean and West Pontic coasts. jewellery. although some studies on specific areas of Thrace during the Early Iron Age provide more detailed chronology and precise division by phases and sub-phases. The Late Iron Age covered the period from the middle of the 6th or middle of the 5th century BC down to the late 1st century BC or into the first several decades of the 1st century AD. besides various multilateral contacts and interactions throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Theodossiev 2000c. the North Pontic regions and Central Europe. depending on the specific historical. 5–12. Persians. 7–18. Borislavov 1999. The Early Iron Age is usually divided further into two phases – the first from the late 11th or early 10th to the 9th  century BC. 1998a. the most significant being the Odrysian kingdom. and distinctive changes in Thracian material culture. The recent studies clearly demonstrate that the beginning of the Early Iron Age should be placed between 1050 BC and 950 BC. weaponry. Toncheva 1980a. The Late Iron Age in Thrace is usually divided into the Classical and Hellenistic periods.indd 4 7/03/11 15:44 . Paeonians. the production of new types of pottery. Archibald 1998. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. 26–34. cf.4 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV sometimes being quite different. and the second from the 8th to the late 6th or early 5th century BC. economic and cultural features in the different areas of Thrace. a developing economy and intensive trade. but several detailed studies on the northern areas of Thrace clearly demonstrate that the Late Iron Age chronology and periodisation here was somewhat different. Archibald 1998. A number of important publications deal with the chronology and periods of the Early Iron Age (Chichikova 1974b. Macedonians. important historical events in Thrace. during which various major developments occurred: the gradual political consolidation of the Thracian tribes and the rise of tribal kingdoms. Nikov 2000). The Thracian Iron Age divides into two: Early and Late. Taylor 1989b. – all the result of dynamic internal developments of the tribal communities. Scythians. its end between 550 BC and 450 BC. 11–13). 1998a). when the main part of ancient Thrace was annexed by the Roman empire (Domaradzki 1994b. 11–13. which were turned into zones of interaction. Stoyanov 2000. 1987. 17–20. Celts and Romans inhabited particular areas of Thrace. increased productive activity among the Thracian tribes. Illyrians. Gotsev 1990. etc. Gergova 1986. the appearance of rich aristocratic burials. Domaradzki 1994b. such as the adoption of iron metallurgy. following the model of classical archaeology. while mixed groups consisting of local people who lived besides the Greeks. The 1st millennium BC in Thrace is defined as the Iron Age. toreutics. often related to the La Tène phases (Theodossiev 2000c. although not complete accounts. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Theodossiev 2000c. Demosthenes. a number of Greek and Roman authors give information on the region and the local tribes. Lewis 1958. Yordanov 1998. Yordanov and Velkov 1984. Many ancient writers living during the Imperial age also described various earlier events related to Thracian history and culture of the 1st millennium BC. Xenophon. D. Archibald 1998. 1998. A. Gocheva 2002). relying on second-hand and fragmentary information to compile their accounts. the earliest literary evidence on Thrace was given in Homer’s epics. Stronk 1995. Spiridonov 1991. Alongside these. Ancient writings provide some possibility to study Thracian political history. Mihailov 1972. 1997. 1981.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 5 LITERARY AND EPIGRAPHIC SOURCES While the ancient Thracians were a non-literary people and no domestic historical sources are known. Strabo. on the other hand. a number of ancient authors – Herodotus. Later. but. exaggerated or biased information as their Greek or Roman authors. they do not contain sufficient data to enable those studying Thrace to draw comprehensive conclusions and to reconstruct the whole situation. Papazoglu 1978. Todorov 1933 Danov 1976. religion and society. study of ancient written sources about Thrace advanced significantly. Boshnakov 2003. Tacheva 1987. Popov 1999. Diodorus. Fol and Spiridonov 1983. Plato. usually when the local tribes interfered in some event related to Greek or Roman history. Boteva-Boyanova 2000. usually receiving first-hand information from Greeks and Romans living in the region or having personal experience in Thrace – like Thucydides and Xenophon. Fol 1972. Moreover. Some Thracian personal and tribal names have turned up in Mycenaean documents (Best 1989). Delev 2004). sought to understand and explain a ‘barbarian’ reality in a peripheral region which most had never visited and whose language they did not speak. Polybius. although further work is necessary to collect all the information available in ancient writings. Velkov et al. Casson 1926. Livy. In fact. Aeschines. although this information does not seem to be sufficiently reliable from an historical point of view. 2003. Euripides. ancient written sources sometimes contain uncertain. However. among many others – provide reliable and relatively objective. Conon and Pompeius Trogus. discussing a number of sources and studying various theoretical and methodological issues (Katsarov 1916.indd 5 7/03/11 15:44 . Many scholars have published important works. foreigners. the ancient authors rarely discuss Thrace. 1975b. Thucydides. for example Pomponius Mela. culture. Loukopoulou 1989. During the 20th century and since. mentioning it but incidentally. several volumes have provided collections of translations of ancient written sources (Katsarov and Dechev 1949. A. 1930. in the course of various contacts and interactions they adopted the Greek alphabet quite extensively. but all attempts at translation have been highly uncertain. Manov 1998b. Kitov n. Although the Thracians never created literature of their own.6 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV Pliny. 60–69. both of the 5th or the early 4th century BC. 566–82) and on a stone funerary slab from Kyolmen (Theodossiev 1997b). consist of relatively long texts. Pausanias. Archibald 1998. living in emporia or among the local people. several inscriptions with Greek letters but in the Thracian language are known. Boshnakov 1999). Dimitrov and Chichikova 1978. A. Mihailov 1987. 34–42). 174. such as Cotys I. Following various political and ritual practices in the eastern Mediterranean. 1997. 7–11. Loukopoulou 1989. Mihailov 1980. 2) (Atanasov and Nedelchev 2002) and Alexandrovo (Fig. like those found at Seuthopolis (D. Der thrakische Silberschatz 1988. Ptolemy and Athenaeus. which date to the 4th or the early 3rd century BC. TRIBES AND POLITICAL HISTORY Several scholarly works have provided comprehensive analyses of the ethnonymic situation in ancient Thrace and locate the separate tribes known from the written sources (Danov 1976. Dimitrova 2006). and much more epigraphic material and bilingual data are needed before proper translation of anything written in the Thracian language can be made. Kersebleptes. Fol 1972. 317. Seuthes III and others (Venedikov 1972. Velkov 1991.indd 6 7/03/11 15:44 . these inscriptions are usually brief and contain the names of local aristocrats or some Odrysian kings. Fraser 1960. 1975b. Pistiros (Velkov and Domaradzka 1994. A.d). A. a significant number of Thracian silver vessels of the late 5th and 4th centuries BC were inscribed in Greek. Thus. Fol 1972. Vassileva 1992–93. Manov 1998a). 1975b. A. while a certain number of Greeks inhabited inland Thrace. religion and topography. Tacheva 1987. a number of Greek inscriptions provide reliable information on Thrace in the Classical and Hellenistic periods (IGBulg. Polyaenus. the inscriptions on a gold ring from Ezerovo (Detschew 1976. Delemen 2004b. Zournatzi 2000. contain valuable information on Thracian history. Arrian. Kitov and Theodossiev 2003. Some of them. and clearly demonstrate that Greek was the official language of the Thracian aristocracy. Fol and 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Domaradzki 1995. Sboryanovo (Chichikova 1990) and Mesambria (Galabov 1950). Plutarch. In addition. 2004a. 3) (Kitov 2002. Theodossiev 1997a. and in certain cases the script was used in the funerary ritual for recording the names of the dead aristocrats – as in the tombs at Smyadovo (Fig. Fol 1990. Appian. Julius Florus. While literary works are often ambiguous. Inscription on the facade of the tomb at Smyadovo.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 7 Fig. Graffito in the tholos burial chamber of the Alexandrovo tomb.indd 7 7/03/11 15:44 . 2002). 3. 2. second half of the 4th or early 3rd century BC (courtesy Georgi Kitov). Fig. 4th century BC (after Atanasov et al. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Danthaletai. Simultaneously. at the end of the 1st century BC Strabo (7. and why certain ethnonyms spread far beyond their initial geographical location. Papazoglu 1978. Bottiaoi. where they described a number of tribes. Tacheva 1987. very often the names of powerful tribes. besides being administrative units) and Ptolemy (3. Bistones. Dersaioi. than with the western and northern hinterland. Pliny (Natural History 4. in most cases the appearance of any Thracian tribe in the written sources was a result of its political advance and significant military power – which were good reasons for ancient authors to take note and to record the tribe. Boshnakov 2003). 11. In other cases. Spiridonov 1991. spread across extensive areas of ancient Thrace and covered the names of the minor tribes who existed at the same time. One of the major problems in studying the ethnonymic reality in ancient Thrace is to propose an exact chronological ‘stratigraphy’ of the different ethnonyms for the separate regions and to explain clearly the quite dynamic ethnonymic situation. ancient writers usually had more complete knowledge of the eastern and southern areas of Thrace. While the Odrysians.indd 8 7/03/11 15:44 . Yordanov and Velkov 1984. while disappearance was due to military weakness when certain tribes fell under the political control of other more powerful communities. as attested in Greek and Roman sources. Some modern scholars consider that the actual number of the different Thracian tribes throughout the entire 1st millennium BC was up to 80. while in the Imperial age. Dioi. a number of other tribes played political roles and are mentioned or relatively well described in ancient sources. such as the Odrysians. 40) wrote that Thrace was separated into 50 strategiae (these might reflect some ethnic division.8 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV Spiridonov 1983. Apsynthioi. the dynamic situation might reflect tribal migration. Sometimes. It is clear also that the ethnonymic situation as attested in Greek and Roman sources does not depict the true reality. 11. Astai. where the ethnonyms attested in written sources are less numerous. 6) described 14 strategiae. Dakoi. Stronk 1995. Brenai. frg. Theodossiev 2000c. Archibald 1998. Boteva-Boyanova 2000. Bessoi. The exact number of the Thracian tribes will never become known – for example. It is not always easy to understand why in ancient literary works different tribal names appear and disappear in one and the same region. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. 48) counted 22 tribes. they are the Agrianes. this might be simply a result of a deficiency of knowledge and error. the Getae and the Triballi were among the most powerful ethnic communities that established strong tribal unions and kingdoms. in alphabetical order. Dolonkoi. D. The appearance of the ethnonyms in Greek and Roman sources depends also on geographical location: thus. However. Popov 1999. Bisaltai. the tribes living near the North Aegean and West Pontic shores were noted much earlier by the ancient authors than the tribes located deep in the Thracian interior. Yordanov and Velkov 1984. Miltiades the Elder.indd 9 7/03/11 15:44 . Sithones. strong rulers of the second and third quarters of the 4th century BC. Later. Kikones. the Getae formed a powerful tribal union. Papazoglu 1978. An interesting example of a joint ThracoAthenian state-community. Mihailov 1972. who were. Delev 2004). some of the Getic kings. far to the north. Detschew 1976). Sitalces. Oppermann 1984. Danov 1976. Kainoi. Fol. R. Gattinoni 1992. to be succeeded by Sparadokos. 560 BC. Boshnakov 2003. Popov 1999. Medokos (known as Amadokos I as well) and Hebryzelmis. Krestonaioi. Loukopoulou 1989. Stronk 1995. the true ethnic reality in Thrace and the names of all minor tribes will never become clear. obviously. Hoddinott 1981. Korpiloi. Casson 1926. In the late 6th century BC. Mygdones. Boteva-Boyanova 2000. who married Hegesipyle. 1972. Sintoi. the most significant supra-tribal state in Thrace was the Odrysian kingdom. The political history of the Thracian tribes has been studied thoroughly by several scholars (Katsarov 1916. At the same time. 1997. Treres. Saioi. Remax and Byrebistas. Another powerful tribal union was established in the north-western Thracian lands by the Triballi. Nipsaioi. this Athenian ruler was succeeded by his relatives Stesagoras and Miltiades the Younger. Trausoi. Tacheva 1987. 1930. the daughter of the Thracian king. Krobyzoi. who had significant military power by the last quarter of the 5th century BC. Karpoi. Archibald 1998. Zalmodegikos. Theodossiev 2000c. who established his rule in Thracian Chersonesos in ca. One of the most powerful Odrysian 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. such as Kotelas. being tyrant of both the Athenian colonists and the Dolonkoi. Seuthes I. A. Serdoi. Undoubtedly. who reigned during the first half of the 5th century BC. like Getas and Pittakos. Chales and Syrmos. Zoltes. The Odrysians inhabited south-east Thrace and were historically attested in the late 6th century BC at the earliest. the Edonoi established one of the most significant early Thracian kingdoms in the lower Strymon valley.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 9 Edonoi. Odomantoi. Lund 1992. Maidoi. Satrai. which was already known to Greek writers at the end of the 6th century BC. as attested in written sources. 1975b. is related to the political activity of the Athenian aristocrat. and others (cf. Skaioi. Some of the Edonian kings. From the middle of the 4th century BC down to the end of the Hellenistic period. Todorov 1933. Ancient sources inform us of two Triballian kings. Oloros. Yordanov 1998. Laiaioi. Tranipsai. Sapaioi. many other tribes are only mentioned briefly in ancient sources. Tilataioi. were attested in the records. In fact. played important roles in the political events of north-eastern Thrace. Terizoi. in the extensive areas of north-eastern Thrace. Melanditai. Paitoi. Thynoi. D. Dromichaites. Of course. Kebrenoi. Their first king known to ancient authors was Teres. in certain regions and at certain times some Thracian communities gained independence from the tribal kingdoms and were ruled by their own leaders. D.10 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV kings was Cotys I (383–359 BC). 94–108. Local chieftains controlled the great number of separate Thracian tribes known from the sources. Fol 1970. Bouzek and Domaradzka 2003. by Amadokos II and Teres II. Tacheva 1987. Porozhanov 1998. In 341 BC the Macedonian king. Spiridonov 1991. he was succeeded by Roimetalkas I. as well as certain archaeological data. It seems that through the weakness of the royalty or some other circumstances. After his murder. 41–63). and Alexander the Great took possesion of almost the entirety of Thracian territory soon afterwards. the aristocracy and elite groups. After 42 BC. he imposed his political control upon extensive regions of ancient Thrace and maintained diplomatic relations with the local Triballian and Getic rulers to the north. ruled respectively by Kersebleptes. Roimetalkas II and Roimetalkas III. Popov 1999. and many different kings are attested in the written sources. a powerful Odrysian king emerged. enable us to conclude that the Thracian communities usually comprised two main social strata. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND RELIGION A number of studies have dealt with the social structure of the Thracian tribes during the 1st millennium BC (Katsarov 1916. Lysimachus continued Macedonian control over a significant part of the Thracian lands and declared himself ‘king of Thrace’ but. and by Berisades and Ketriporis. The tribal chieftains often came under some supreme political control 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. the Odrysian kingdom declined and split further. Reskouporis II. Stefanovich 2003. In AD 45. 1930. tribal chieftains. Danov 1976. The upper consisted of kings. In the time of the Diadochi. the Odrysian kingdom split into three parts. Archibald 1998. Seuthes III. Reskouporis I established the Sapaian dynasty with its capital at Bizye. The Thracian aristocracy consisted of various noble clans who had different levels of power and control during the 1st millennium BC. 1997. the Roman emperor Claudius annexed the Thracian kingdom. 48–53. the last Thracian ruler. Theodossiev 2000c. at the same time.indd 10 7/03/11 15:44 . 115–29. The literary and epigraphic evidence. Domaradzki 1988. These semi-dependent peasants were the main producers of goods and the main resource of the armed forces recruited in time of war. they were the main owners of the lands and the production. Philip II. Cotys V. 2003. conquered the Odrysian kingdom. The lower comprised semi-dependent peasants who were small landowners within the frames of the royal economy. A. From the beginning of the 3rd century BC onwards. Rhesos and Orpheus. Archibald 1999. Theodossiev 2000c. 97. D. 5. Seuthopolis (Velkov 1991. B. Beschi 1990. his band of military warriors. Kotys/Kotytto. 5. Popov 1981. Zerynthios. 1989. In addition. Ganea. R. gave Greek or Roman theonyms to the gods worshipped by the Thracians. A number of literary sources and toreutic works show that a female Great Goddess. was a central deity in the Thracian religion. 7. Darzalas. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Their quite different interpretations of the written and archaeological evidence and the contradictory results of their studies clearly demonstrate the significant difficulties in examining the religion of any ancient non-literary ethnic community that inhabited the fringes of the Graeco-Roman world during the 1st millennium BC. Sîrbu and Florea 2000a. Rheskyntis. Thracian religion has been examined by a great number of scholarly works. Zerynthia and others. Roller 2002. Marazov 1992. The Odrysian state was ruled by a supreme king from the royal dynasty. as in Phrygia. literary and epigraphic sources attest that in the different regions of Thrace a male deity was worshipped. 2000b. while toreutic works and funerary paintings clearly reveal the cult of the king-hero. 1990. like Herodotus (4. Özbayoglu 2004. known by different local names in different regions. 317). Bogdanov 1991. some ancient authors. usually with hereditary power. 1995. 1994. 53–70.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 11 and economic dependence when a stronger ruler managed to incorporate the separate tribes into some form of tribal union or kingdom (in fact. 2002. Very close to the supreme king were his wives and kin. 1936. which is usually interpreted as the literary device of ‘translating’ the Thracian religious reality for their readers. Gocheva 2003. several 4th–early 3rd-century BC inscriptions from the Thracian hinterland. Hoddinott 1989. Katsarov 1916. 1998. Vassileva 1994. Simultaneously. The written records provide some names of Thracian goddesses: Bendis. servants and others. Thucydides 2. 1). etc. Domaradzki 1995. The best example of such a structure is provided by the Odrysian kingdom during the second half of the 5th and first half of the 4th century BC. Brown 2002. such as Zalmoxis. which included paradynasts (paradynastoi) – local tribal chieftains or governors who controlled separate regions of the kingdom – and tribal aristocrats called eupatridai and gennaioi (cf. 33. Delemen 2004a. Pittioni 1977. Hoddinott 1989. Fol 1986. Lozanova-Stancheva 1993. 3). Danov 1976. Dimitrova 2002. A number of written sources testify that mythical Thracian kings and priests. known as Deloptes. 2002. Ursu Naniu 2004). A. 1997. 2003. the kingdoms were supra-tribal states). Cole 1984.indd 11 7/03/11 15:44 . such as those from Pistiros (Velkov and Domaradzka 1994. were considered as anthropodaimones and deities. Rabadzhiev 1994. He was surrounded by an entourage. displaying different patterns of study and deploying various methodologies (Perdrizet 1910. Archibald 1998. However. During the Classical period. The great number of imported Classical and Hellenistic amphorae in Thrace provides clear information of regular economic contacts with significant Greek trade and production centres. Chios. wine. Mihailov 1972. although both forms of exchange were always used in trade between the Greeks and the Thracians. the Thracian tribes were involved in active trade with each other and with neighbouring regions. L. Bozhkova 1992. tar. Theodossiev 2000c. Stoyanov 2000. Boardman 1980. Nehrizov and Mikov 2000. Tsetskhladze 2000). long-distance trade contacts were usually indirect. 97–99. Rhodes.. 317. gold and silver jewellery. at least in the circles of the Thracian aristocracy. wine.and red-figure pottery. honey. Balabanov 2000. 92–100. timber. Scythian Chersonesos. etc. Domaradzki 1995. livestock. Acanthus. The usual exports from Thrace included slaves. Corinth. besides being engaged in longdistance contacts (Bozhkova 1987. 92–100. 1.) such as Pistiros and the Belanian emporia of the Prasenoi. ECONOMIC CONTACTS AND TRADE During the 1st millennium BC. being maintained via the Greek colonies on the Thracian shores. Oppermann 2004). Manov 1998a) and Sboryanovo (Chichikova 1990). 16–23. Bouzek and Domaradzka 2003). Bozhkova 1987. Archibald 1998. Lazarov 2003). Archibald 2001a. testify to the cults of Dionysos. Undoubtedly. Colophon. 2001b. D. Apollo. metals. Bozhkova 1987. 2004. Arrian Anabasis 1. 2. etc. Theodossiev 2000c. Amphipolis. as attested in the inscription from Vetren (Velkov and Domaradzka 1994. which maintained large-scale trade with Thracian coastal areas and with the interior (Danov 1976. Getov 1995. 177–96.-Scylax Periplus 67. Ainos and others (Lazarov 1978. Boshnakov 1999. grain. charcoals. 2003. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. which clearly reveals the Hellenisation of Thracian religion. Domaradzki 1995. 1988. Stoyanov et al. 1992. such as Thasos. luxury bronze tableware. Dimitrov et al. It is usually supposed that the initial barter/commodity exchange was gradually replaced by the introduction of money. 6.indd 12 7/03/11 15:44 . 16–23). 1984. beeswax. weapons. Stoyanov et al. Sinope. Heracleia Pontica. Supposedly. Tsetskhladze 1998a-b. 2004. Kos. Cnidus. Artemis Phosphoros and the Samothracian Great Gods. olive oil and other goods (Danov 1976. Archibald 1998. 100. silver and gold vessels.12 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV 7–11. Reho 1990. while imports into the Thracian hinterland consisted of Attic black. most important for the Thracians were economic relations with the Greek colonies on the North Aegean and the West Pontic shores. Isaac 1986. 2000. the Greeks established inland market-places and trade settlements (see Thucydides 1. Ps. Manov 1998b. Lazaridis 1997. Tsatsopoulou-Kaloudi 2001. CULTURAL INTERACTIONS AND ETHNIC INTERRELATIONS During the 1st millennium BC. and to understand more completely the complex web of ethnic and cultural contacts and relations that took place. 1980. 1992. Maroneia (Schönert-Geiss 1987) and Mesambria (Karayotov 1992) among many others. In the 2nd–1st centuries BC. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. most of which became part of the Macedonian kingdom for several decades or more (Mushmov 1912. silver and bronze coins minted by the Macedonian kings circulated within the Thracian territories. the Greek colonies in Thrace issued their own coins for the needs of the local trade (Mushmov 1912. Although abundant historical and archaeological evidence is available and in receipt of continued examination. Avram et al. Venedikov et al. Owen 2000. 92–100. 1973. 1963. Cole 1984. Thompson et al. Porozhanov 1985. while a significant number of Roman Republican denarii clearly indicates that the Roman military conquest of the northern Balkans was preceded by economic and trade expansion (Thompson et al. Paunov and Prokopov 2002. During the Early Hellenistic period. Isaac 1986. Late Hellenistic Greek coins were in continuous use in Thrace. 2002. K. 1976. Bonias and Dadaki 2002. Samsaris 1985. Lehmann 1998. Gerasimov 1975. 1973. 92–100. Gaebler 1935. for example Thasian tetradrachms were widespread. minted both in Greek poleis and in Anatolia. Dimitrova and Clinton 2003. 1973. Pelekidis 1994. 2004. Daux 1967. Svoronos 1919. Tsetskhladze 1998a. Markov 1977. Theodossiev 2000c. Panayotova 1994. Musielak 2003. Dimitrov 1997. Youroukova 1979. 2003. clearly testifying to intensive trade (Thompson et al. ancient Thrace was a place of various interrelations and dynamic interactions between the different ethnic groups that inhabited or settled the region. Ognenova-Marinova 1985. Tacheva 1999. further analysis of it is needed to obtain an overview of the exchange of ideas and the level of multilateral interaction. 1994.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 13 A number of coins. Graham 2002. Loukopoulou 1989. Triantaphyllos 1994. Theodossiev 2000c. Damyanov 2003. a significant quantity of gold. Prokopov 2006). Balabanov 1983. Certain areas of Thrace came to be occupied by ethnically different groups or by mixed populations. Boardman 1980. Gerasimov 1975). penetrated into Thrace from the 6th century BC onwards.indd 13 7/03/11 15:44 . In addition. Archibald 1998. Draganov 2000–01). Youroukova 1979). KoukouliChrysanthaki 1985. One of the most important historical events with a significant impact upon the Thracian tribes was the Greek colonisation of the North Aegean and West Pontic shores (Danov 1947. Simultaneously. Actually. Dimitrova 2006). Thracian culture also influenced Greek literature. A. Fol 1972. Babic 2004). Archibald 1998). Fol 1977. usually mercenaries or slaves. Other very important contacts between the ancient Thracians and the Macedonians. Domaradzki 1995. 2000a. Adams 1997. clearly testifies that in the Classical period the Greeks had already settled in the Thracian hinterland and established emporia such as Pistiros. D. Mihailov 1972. Boshnakov 1999. While various archaeological material indicates active pre-colonial contacts between the Greeks and the Thracians (Bouzek 1985. intensive cultural and ethnic processes occurred in north-eastern Thrace where the local tribes interacted and mingled with the Scythians (A. Tsetskhladze 2000). Abdera. a number of Thracians. Fol 1975a. Stoyanov 1999). and even more intensive colonisation lasted throughout the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Archibald 1998. Archibald 1998. Velkov and A. were established between the middle of the 8th and the end of the 7th  century  BC.14 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV Oppermann 2004. Yordanov 1998. Greenwalt 1997. Domaradzka and Domardzki 1999. Hatzopoulos 1980. Tacheva 1987. iconography and cult (Danov 1976. Melyukova 1976. Mihailov 1972. 1997. Samothrace. 2000. Vasic 1987a–b. such as Mende. 317. while being politically engaged with the Thracian kings (Velkov and Domaradzka 1994. Popov 1981. Alcock 1993.indd 14 7/03/11 15:44 . Babic 2004). Borza 1999. Selymbria. Thasos. Bouzek 2000a–b. Archibald 1998. Gergova 1987. and led to gradual Hellenisation of the Thracian aristocracy and certain tribes who inhabited the coastal areas. 1975b. Chambers 1999. K. as well as some literary sources. Paeonians and Illyrians occurred within the interaction zone in the western frontier areas of Thrace (Bouzek 1986. Maroneia. 1997. A. the whole process followed the typical model of interaction between centre and periphery throughout the ancient world (cf. Cardia. Byzantium. At the same time. The inscription from Vetren. the earliest Greek colonies in Thrace. Dimitrov 1999. which in fact led to Hellenisation of the Thracian interior – especially during the Late Classical and Early Hellenistic periods (Casson 1926. 2000c. Potidaea. Brown 2002). Nikov 1999. Tsiafakis 1998. 1996. Greek colonisation stimulated multifarious ethnic and cultural relations and interactions between the Greeks and the Thracians. Fol 1997. Best 1969. 1997. Toncheva 1980a–b. Acanthus. On the other hand. 1991. in the course of the Argead political expansion northward and eastward from the late 6th century BC onwards. Theodossiev 1998a. Borza 1990. 2000). Danov 1976. spread throughout ancient Greece and the entire Hellenistic world (Griffith 1935. Sestos. Apollonia and Istros. Badian 1980. Bouzek and Ondrejová 1988. Randsborg 1993. Gergova 1987. Yordanov 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. 1979. Beschi 1990. 2002. From the 8th–7th centuries BC onwards. Hatzopoulos and Loukopoulou 1992. a great part of Thrace was gradually annexed by the Macedonian kingdom. Domaradzki 1998a. Balcer 1988. Kitov and Agre 2002. Archibald 1998. Damyanov 1998. Theodossiev 2000c). The Celtic inrush and settlement had quite a strong impact upon Thracian culture. Domaradzki 1984. which adopted a number of La Tène elements. Later. Most widespread during the 1st millennium BC seems to be the slightly fortified and open settlement. Celts. Tonkova 2000. Fischer 1983. the large-scale Gallic invasion in Thrace at the very end of the 280s and the early 270s  BC. Georgieva and Bachvarov 1985. Spiridonov 1979. Boardman 2000. 2002. located on the plains as 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 15 1990. Tacheva 1987. Lehmann 1998. Illyrians and Scythians appeared in certain areas of Hellenistic Thrace. 1990. 53–80. Danov 1975–76. Yordanov and Velkov. 1992. the Roman state launched regular military campaigns against the Thracian tribes and annexed most of the Thracian territories. Szabó 1991. Ivanov 1985. Zazoff 1991. on a wide variety of topics covering the whole of Thracian territory or specific regions (Chichikova 1974a–b. 2000.indd 15 7/03/11 15:44 . Megaws et al. Zahrnt 1997. Delev et al. SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND URBANISATION Many ancient literary and epigraphic sources provide information on various settlements and some towns in inland Thrace (A. intensive archaeological investigation has brought to light abundant evidence that has enabled scholars to study and publish. Changova 1981. Gergova 1986. Megaw 2004. Bozhkova and Delev 2002. The settlement pattern in ancient Thrace was quite dynamic and consists of various types of habitation. while mixed populations of Thracians. Bobcheva 1985. Triantaphyllos 1988. Popov 2002. which were set up as Roman provinces in AD 15 and AD 45. Zournatzi 2000. Gotsev 1990. Andruh 2000). 169–73. Theodossiev 2000c). 1998a. 1990. 1995. Marazov 1977. H. Theodossiev 2000c. 2000. In addition. Cunliffe 1997. Domaradzki 1982. 13–21. 13–15. V. Another significant event for the political and cultural development of the local tribes was the Persian occupation of Aegean Thrace during the late 6th and the first decades of the 5th century BC (Venedikov 1969. 163–74). Fialko 1995. Borislavov 1999. After the fall of Macedonia in 168 BC. Agre 1994. descriptively and analytically. 1994. Stoyanov 2000. 14–19. was followed by Celtic settlement in certain Thracian areas and the establishment of a Gallic kingdom with its capital Tylis that existed till 213 BC (Katsarov 1919. Fol 1970. 1992. Yordanov 2003). Balabanov 1986. Gergova and Iliev 1982. 1997. Kissyov 2004). Luschey 1983. 2000. These political events clearly mark the end of the Iron Age in Thrace and the beginning of a powerful process of Romanisation and the adoption of Roman civilisation (Tacheva 1987. some inland fortresses – like Krakra at Pernik and Kastro at Kalyva. Vrychos in Samothrace. Very important as well is the settlement at Koprivlen. rarely. inhabited by local tribal chieftains or kings. while sometimes up to four-course fortification walls were built to protect particular sites. The fortification walls were up to 3–4 m in thickness and were constructed of roughly cut and irregularly arranged dry free stone blocks. while the usual domestic architecture included dugouts and rectangular huts constructed with posts and lath-andplaster or. mountain hillforts with strategic locations were undoubtedly used as strongholds to control important passes and roads or to defend tribal frontiers. Actually. Some of these may be specified as Thracian villages. usually built on barely accessible elevations most often in the mountains. known as tyrseis in the literary sources (see Xenophon Anabasis 7. 2. presumably they were production centres. for instance Gradishteto at Leskovets. dated to the 7th–6th centuries BC. the fortification walls of most Thracian hillforts were constructed in the Late Iron Age and fewer fortresses in the Aegean regions of Thrace were built in the Early Iron Age – before Greek colonisation: Kremasto at Ergani. Sometimes the settlements were quite extensive. military bands and servants. 21). One of the most representative open settlements was excavated at Pshenichevo: it dates to the Early Iron Age and covers about 6 ha.16 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV well as on hills or mountain slopes. Some of the hillforts were residential centres. Additionally. Philip II. the larger hillforts were used as refuges for the population from the surrounding open settlements in case of military danger. and quite a few display greater continuity (throughout the entire 1st millennium BC or even from the Late Bronze Age down to the Imperial period). 4). well-described in ancient written sources (for example Xenophon Anabasis 7. dating from the middle of the 4th century BC – were constructed entirely using Greek architectural techniques and style of masonry. as the literary sources attest. Other hillforts with larger areas were presumably fortified settlements inhabited by various social groups. Also widespread were hillforts. which displays remarkable monumental domestic architecture of stone-built quadrilateral buildings. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. although further stratigraphic investigations are needed in order to identify whether there is true cultural continuity on such sites or not. The archaeological material clearly indicates that many mountain hillforts were related to the extraction of ore and to metallurgy. Some hillforts.indd 16 7/03/11 15:44 . although the dating of their fortification walls is still questionable. In addition. and others. Most settlements were inhabited for one to two centuries. While most Thracian hillforts display quite primitive fortification walling. and were presumably built by the Macedonian king. were inhabited right through from the 8th–6th centuries BC to the Imperial period. together with their kin. with dry stone masonry. H. H. 2002.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 17 Among the earliest examples of Thracian towns on the North Aegean coast is Ismaros. starting in the Archaic period and continuing through the Classical into the Early Hellenistic (Balabanov 1986. 2000. which is located on the Agios Georgios hill at Maroneia and existed already in the 9th–8th centuries BC (Triantaphyllos 1988. because of multilateral contacts and interaction at the time when Aegean Thrace became part of the Achaemenid empire. 1984. 111–22) and Philippopolis (Koleva 2000. which was typical of the northern regions of Thrace and differed from the Early Hellenistic towns in southern Thrace (Stoyanov 1999. a process of urbanisation began in certain regions of the Thracian hinterland. SANCTUARIES AND RITUAL PLACES Some ancient historical sources provide scarce information on Thracian sanctuaries. 1994). 39–42. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Bouzek et al.  6. 102. 129–47. 75) and Drabeskos (Thucydides 1. 77–92). Popov 2002. 156–65). the Greek historians mention the Edonian towns of Daton (Herodotus 9.  Popov 2002. Tsetskhladze 2000. whose exact location is still unclear (Herodotus 8. 1991. Popov 2002. 44). Later. Other significant Late Classical and Hellenistic towns in southern Thrace were Kabyle (Velkov 1982. Popov 2002. the capital of the Odrysian king. 2004. 122–34). and of interrelations with the Greek colonies on the North Aegean and West Pontic coasts and with Macedonia. In ancient sources. which was built entirely in accordance with Hellenistic architecture and comprised insulae including houses with pastas. Seuthopolis existed from ca. 4. 3). H. Velkov 1991. Ismaros is described as a Kikonian polis (Homer Odyssey 9. 2). One of the most important sites is the Greek emporion Pistiros near Vetren. 320 BC to ca. Stoyanov et al. 107. the most famous was the sanctuary of Dionysos. Archibald 1998. later it was known as an Edonian polis (Thucydides 4. 93–111).indd 17 7/03/11 15:44 . 100. Domaradzki 1995. 2. Tacheva 1987. 1996. Strabo 7. another was Seuthopolis. H. inhabited by a mixed population of Greeks and Thracians (Velkov and Domaradzka 1994. 2002. 260 BC (Dimitrov and Chichikova 1978. 111. Seuthes III. while another town called Myrkinos was established by the Ionian Greeks at the time of the Persian king Darius (Herodotus 5. 5. Domaradzka and Domaradzki 1999. Popov 2000. 7–11. Stoyanova 2002b). 3. but further archaeological investigation is necessary to obtain a clear picture of their overall architectural appearance. H. Dimitrov et al. Bouzek 1999. frg. 2). Boshnakov 1999. 124. Suetonius Divus Augustus 94. H. 11. prostas and peristylon. Undoubtedly. Popov 2002. Thus. The Getic town at Vodnata Tsentrala in Sboryanovo displays another kind of urban model. Domaradzki 1991. Dimitrov and Chichikova 1978. 1994a. while an altar of Apollo and a phosphorion existed in Kabyle. Fol 1993. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Kissyov 1998a–b. A number of very similar rock sanctuaries are known in Anatolia. Rhesos and Salmoxis. A. cut into the rock massifs. Many sanctuaries in other parts of Thrace are also situated on hills or mountain peaks. Other ancient writings state that the Thracians worshipped their deities in various natural places: in sacred mountains. In addition. Dimitrov et al. Pistiros and Kabyle. they consist of various combinations including enclosing stone walls. Triantaphyllos 1985. which records that two temples – of Dionysos and of the Samothracian Great Gods – were situated within the city of Seuthes III. Popov 1989. 38–66. frequently adjacent to rock-cut tombs or megalithic dolmens from the Early Iron Age. 10–54). while similar ritual hearths are known in other settlements from inland Thrace. platforms. The sanctuaries consist of stairs. Many of the peak sanctuaries functioned without major interruption through the entire 1st millennium BC and even from the Late Bronze Age to Roman Imperial times. De Francovich 1990). Manov 1998a. seats and other elements. 2003. cf. and they clearly demonstrate the strong relationship in cult practices (Vassileva 1994. Archibald 1999. Georgieva 1991. Intensive archaeological excavation over recent decades has yielded important evidence. D. Fol 1982.18 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV cf. predominantly located in southeastern Thrace. Among several pertinent inscriptions. Fol 1990. A number of recent scholarly studies have brought together the investigations and analysed the material (Venedikov and A. in cult caves. Rheskyntion and Kogaionon. bothroi. ritual basins. like the grottoes of Zerynthia. Tonkova 1997. such as the grove at Ismaros dedicated to Apollo (A. Most impressive are the rock sanctuaries. 19–24. the Seuthopolis inscription indicates well the Hellenisation of Thracian ritual and cult during the Early Hellenistic period. solar discs. 1997. Dimitrov and Chichikova 1978. thrones. 25–30. V. Theodossiev 2000c. Borislavov 1999. 1984. Rabadzhiev 2002. 19–24). Domaradzki 1986. especially in Phrygia.indd 18 7/03/11 15:44 . many of them related to contemporary settlements or necropoleis. and in sacred forests. Haspels 1971. Actually. 1995. 7–11. remains of ritual feasts and animal sacrifices. are found within the most houses and the ‘palace’ in Seuthopolis (D. Rabadzhiev 2002. votive deposits of metal objects. presumably associated with the cult of Hestia. Theodossiev 2000c. etc. the most important is that from Seuthopolis (D. Archibald 1999. 53–54). at least in towns inhabited by a mixed population. many decorated ritual escharai. 1990. 2002). altars. 16–17. Archibald 1999. 1998. Gotsev 1990. Velkov 1991. such as Philippopolis. D. coins and pottery. revealing the great variety of Thracian sanctuaries and ritual places. such as Ganos. Fol 1976. Fol 1990). A. escharai. show personages that could represent a female goddess and a male deity. but the cult drawings in the Magurata Cave. Some of the sites consist of hundreds of bothroi dug into the ground and were in continued use from the Late Bronze Age down to late antiquity. MORTUARY PRACTICES AND MONUMENTAL TOMBS The funerary rites of the Thracian tribes were not well described by ancient authors. usually located in the plains area. the remains of ritual feasts. the remains of human sacrifices (human body-parts or whole skeletons) dating to the Late Iron Age are found inside the bothroi. A number of other ancient sources related to the mythological figures of Zalmoxis. Herodotus (5. During the 1st millennium BC the most common type seems to have been the open-air pit sanctuaries and ritual places. 38. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. embers. 1). in the late 6th century BC. after a battle in Bithynia. 2–5) supplements Herodotus’ description: in 399 BC. drank a lot of wine and arranged horse racing in memory of deceased. different contests. in addition. who wrote that the grave of Orpheus was a large tumulus encircled like a temenos. The bothroi vary significantly in size and shape. etc. illustrate what ancient literary sources have to say about sacred caves in Thrace.indd 19 7/03/11 15:44 . In certain cases. animal sacrifices. Some of this mythological evidence contains quite reliable descriptions. the excavated material is so far too sparse for us to be able to specify the exact Thracian rituals performed inside the caves. Unfortunately. 8. Rhesos and Orpheus provide additional information on the eschatological conceptions of the Thracian aristocracy and testify that some Thracian kings and priests were deified after death and were worshipped as immortal heroes and anthropodaimones who would return from the underworld (Theodossiev 2000b). being respected by sacrifices and by other things used in worshipping the gods. Earlier. coins and metal objects. including single combat. most probably coming from the Late Bronze or Early Iron Age. which was a heroon and later became a sanctuary. 1) wrote that deceased Thracian nobles were buried by cremation or inhumation in tumuli. 2. ritual hearths. the mixed inhabitants of Thracian Chersonesos – Dolonkoi and Athenian colonists – followed the custom. followed the completion of the tumuli. as in the sanctuaries at Gledachevo and Staliiska Mahala. Later information by Xenophon (Hellenica 3.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 19 Some archaeological investigations may. after three days of prothesis during which numerous sacrifices were made and funeral feasts were arranged. such as Conon (45. the Thracian Odrysians buried their dead fellows. and contain pottery. 4–6). making sacrifices and arranging horse races and other athletic games in memory of Miltiades the Elder (Herodotus 6. Bouzek 1997. Toncheva 1980a–b. Mitrevski 1997). Ravna. as have other studies exploring in detail these practices in individual regions of Thrace or publishing particular burial sites (Mirchev 1962.20 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV While ancient written sources are relatively scarce. with complex layout. Özdogan 1988. etc. 1997. while certain necropoleis display remarkable continuity and sometimes functioned throughout the entire 1st millennium BC. multiple or secondary inhumation and cremation burials and various kterismata. but it is clear that both flat graves and small burial mounds were used. 1998a. Another type of megalithic funerary monument spread through south-eastern Thrace is the rock-cut tomb consisting of a single burial chamber of irregular shape. Dobrina. these display their closest similarities with the rock-cut tombs of Anatolia (Vassileva 1994. Many general studies of Thracian funerary rituals have appeared. Haspels 1971. Chichikova 1974b. analysing both archaeological and written sources. 1965. Triantaphyllos 1980. Gergova 1986. 1994. Kitov and Agre 2002. Many tumuli in the western Rhodope were used for multiple or secondary burials. 1998. etc. North-eastern Thrace is a region where intensive archaeological investigation has provided a relatively complete picture of burial rites in the Early Iron Age. De Francovich 1990). 1994a. Totevski 1994.. Bobcheva 1975. Radev 1992. 1998a–b. Stanchev 2002. 1991. While megalithic funerary monuments were typical of the eastern Rhodope. The burial rites of the Early Iron Age are well examined. Stoyanov 1992. ritual gifts placed within the tumular embankments. with antechamber and funeral chamber. Kissyov 1993. Kragulevo. Lehmann 1998. They were usually covered with small tumuli and come in three types: single chamber. However. Borislavov 1999. Georgieva 2003. Kull 1997. 1997. Kulov 2002. remains of funerary feasts. the intensive archaeological excavations underway continue to reveal significant amounts of information on the great variety of the rites and practices of the Thracian tribes during the 1st millennium BC. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki 1992. The usual constructions were small tumuli. Koicheva 1994. the 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Gotsev 1990. V. 1998). 1998. Kitov 1993. Nehrizov 1996. hearths. Fol 1993. 1999. 169–70. Theodossiev 2000c. Among the most remarkable funerary constructions are the megalithic dolmens widespread in south-eastern Thrace and Samothrace. Domaradzki 1988. like those at Sboryanovo. Information on Early Iron Age mortuary practices in south-western Thrace is sparse. Georgieva et al. Gocheva 1994. cf. the practices in the western part of the mountains were quite different: burial constructions were usually small tumuli with both cremation and inhumation burials and with various remains of ritual activities – bothroi. 1995. with single. Petropoulou 1986–87. Delev 1984. similar to neighbouring Paeonia (cf. Yılmaz 1997.indd 20 7/03/11 15:44 . Venedikov 1976b–c. animal or sometime human sacrifices. 1989. Panayotova 1994. Archibald 1998. 2000a). rarely. Very often. Sofronievo. In addition. various weapons. and small tumuli. cist graves. imported Greek pottery and bronze tableware. Theodossiev 1998a. like those at Leskovets.indd 21 7/03/11 15:44 . and a rich burial inventory. are larger and have monumental stone-built funeral and ritual constructions. urns. Some burial mounds. following the traditions of the Late Bronze Age. platforms. similar to the late 8th. display significant variety of funeral rites. bothroi. The tumuli of the Late Iron Age were bigger than the earlier ones. and many others. the Late Iron Age continued the traditions of the Early Iron Age in some way. etc. and contain various combinations of different funerary constructions. The archaeological discoveries in north-western Thrace show that during the Early Iron Age the local tribes made extensive use of flat graves. In certain regions. displaying regional differences in the correlation of cremations to inhumations and some unusual practices (partial cremation. non-burial stone constructions. the Rhodope mountains and north-western and northeastern Thrace. and practised both cremation and inhumation.). the tumuli at Belogradets indicate contacts with the Scythians. located in the interaction zone between Thrace and Macedonia and providing an impressive burial inventory. luxurious Greek imports. Altimir and Tarnava. The most remarkable Thracian royal cemetery from the late 6th to the early 4th century BC is the tumular necropolis at Duvanli. ritual hearths. it yielded significant amount of gold and silver objects. in particular spectacular golden funeral masks. and many other 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. The constructions within the burial mounds were multifarious: grave pits.or early 7th-century BC burial mound at Polsko Kosovo. At the very end of the Early and the beginning of the Late Iron Age. such as animal or. sometimes up to 25 m in height and more than 100 m in diameter. Thracian elite graves usually contain gold and silver vessels and jewellery. a number of innovations are evident throughout Thracian territory. ritual deposits of metal or ceramic objects. Both flat graves and tumuli were widespread during the period. the tumuli were used for multiple and secondary burials. dating to the 8th–6th centuries BC. human sacrifices (equine and canine sacrifices were most common). which appeared in the 8th–7th centuries BC. etc. being typical for the period from the late 6th to the first half of the 3rd century BC. rich aristocratic and royal burials appeared in Thrace. However.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 21 burial mounds at Belogradets. anthropomorphic funerary stelai. pyres. the remains of funerary feasts. stone-built chambers. Among the earliest rich aristocratic necropoleis is the burial ground at Sindos (Bouzek and Ondrejová 1988. sarcophagi. inhumation of individual parts of the human body. A number of additional ritual activities and constructions were also typical of the tumuli. besides a number of other funerary gifts. 5). During the 4th and the early 3rd century BC. etc. Greek bronze tableware. 56–75) and in the Svetitsata tumulus at Shipka (Kitov 2004b). Fig. 7) being very spectacular. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. a gold pectoral (Fig. Bouzek and Ondrejová 1988). 6) and silver kylix (Fig. last quarter of the 5th century BC (after Kitov 2004b). it contains significant local and imported gravegoods. this last includes an impressive gold funeral mask (Fig. rich aristocratic tumular burials spread through the entire Thracian territory. vessels and appliqués of horse trappings. 4.indd 22 7/03/11 15:44 . Examples include the tumuli at Koprivets (Stanchev 1994. 4) as well as other precious grave-goods (Fig. yielding various grave constructions and burial inventories: gold and silver jewellery. Golden funerary mask from the Svetitsata tumulus at Shipka. Other rich elite burials of the last quarter of the 5th century BC are found at Dalboki (Vickers 2002. 1 at Chernozem (Kissyov 2005). Another aristocratic burial of this time was excavated in tumulus No. 2004).22 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV finds (Filov 1934. red-figure Attic pottery. weaponry. 6.indd 23 7/03/11 15:44 . 2005]). Greek gold ring from the Svetitsata tumulus at Shipka showing a spear-carrying athlete. 1 at Chernozem featuring a Gorgon and animal figures. Gold pectoral from tumulus No. Fig.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 23 Fig. 5. last quarter of the 5th century BC (after The Valley of the Thracian Rulers [Calendar. last quarter of the 5th century BC (after Kissyov 2005). 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. and Mogilanskata Mogila in Vratsa (Theodossiev 2000c. Steingräber 1999. Golemani (Marazov 1998.) and beehive tholos tombs spread across Thrace. Oleson 1982. More than 100 monuments are known so far (Filov 1937a. forthcoming). 1985. Miller 1972. Dolna Koznitsa (Marazov 1998. Theodossiev 2004. 1 at Chernozem showing Bellerophon and Chimaera. 118–21). Stoyanov 1990. see Kurtz and Boardman 1971. 2000. 205–06). Tomlinson 1974. Hat¥as 1997. 1973. 145–47. 2001. Valeva 1993. 1976a. Stoyanova 2002a–b. Venedikov 1974a–b. last quarter of the 5th century BC (after Kissyov 2005). Mansel 1943.or barrel-vaulted.indd 24 7/03/11 15:44 . Delemen 2001. Marazov 1998. Bittel 1942. 7. rectangular tumular (corbel. no. Yılmaz 1996. 1994. 1993. Gergova 1996. Gossel 1980. 104–11. Rousseva 2000. Staikova-Alexandrova 2004).2 The appearance of the Thracian monumental 2 For comparanda. Torelli 1985. Chichikova 1999. Mikov 1955.24 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV Fig. Ceka 1975. Greek silver kylix from tumulus No. Kralevo (Ginev 1983. In the same century and a half. Bouzek and Domaradzka 2003. Pandermalis 1972. etc. 248). 2002. 1999. Onurkan 1988. Fedak 1990. Steingräber 2000. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. 2002a–b. Tsetskhladze 1998c. Kitov and Theodossiev 2003). 2) and clearly identifies the deceased. Another significant monument is the painted tholos tomb at Alexandrovo of the second half of the 4th–early 3rd century BC (Kitov 2002. a small graffito (Fig. 2003). hunting and combat scenes (Figs. A 4th-century BC rectangular tomb discovered at Smyadovo (Atanasov and Nedelchev 2002) displays the rare use of the Greek script in the Thracian funerary ritual: a two-line inscription GONIMASJHJ SEUQOU GUNJ (‘Gonimaseze the wife of Seuthes’) is placed on the facade (Fig. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01.indd 25 7/03/11 15:44 . 2004a. Sevinç et al. second half of the 4th or early 3rd century BC (after Kitov et al. relations and interactions. some with clear iconographic parallels throughout the eastern Mediterranean (cf. many of the Thracian tombs were built entirely in the manner of Late Classical and Early Hellenistic architecture. 2001. 2) in the beehive chamber depicts the deceased and gives his name – Fig. Thus. Delemen 2004a). predominantly with Anatolia. 8. 8–10).ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 25 tombs and their architectural features were definite results of the economic advance of the local aristocracy and multilateral contacts. while the impressive funerary paintings show heroic banqueting. but also with Illyria and Italy. Hunting horseman from the paintings in the tholos chamber of the Alexandrovo tomb. Greece and Macedonia. Borchhardt 1968. indd 26 7/03/11 15:44 . Hunt of a stag from the paintings in the tholos chamber of the Alexandrovo tomb. Hunt of a boar from the paintings in the tholos chamber of the Alexandrovo tomb. 9. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. 2003). Fig. 2003). second half of the 4th or early 3rd century BC (after Kitov et al. 10. second half of the 4th or early 3rd century BC (after Kitov et al.26 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV Fig. K. Fol et al. Another Early Hellenistic rectangular tomb with remarkable architecture and an intact elite burial is found in the Naip tumulus near Tekirdag (Delemen 2004b). The barrel-vaulted tomb at Sveshtari (A. Early Hellenistic period (after Kitov et al.indd 27 7/03/11 15:44 . 13) and a rectangular corbel-vaulted tomb with impressive pediment (Fig. Chichikova 1989. coming from the second quarter of the 3rd century BC. 1992. 14) showing two lions in relief (Kitov 1979). Valeva 1997).3 The Early Hellenistic tholos tombs at Starosel (Figs. 1986. is the most remarkable funerary monument in northern Thrace. 11. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. and decorated with caryatids in relief and a drawing depicting scene of heroisation. Clinton for his consultation. while the Zhaba Mogila tumulus at Strelcha comprises two funerary monuments of 350–300 BC: a tholos tomb (Fig. 11–12) (Kitov 2001–02. Monumental staircase and facade of the tholos tomb at Starosel. 2003). 3 I would like to thank Prof.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 27 KOHIMACJC XRJCTOC. Kitov and Theodossiev 2003) and Mezek (Filov 1937a–b) are among the most impressive burial constructions known in Thrace and display quite monumental funerary architecture. Fig. 2003a. Tholos burial chamber with Doric semi-columns and frieze of the tomb at Starosel. Antefix from the tholos tomb in Zhaba Mogila at Strelcha. 330–300 BC (photograph: N.28 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV Fig. 13. 12.indd 28 7/03/11 15:44 . 2003). Theodossiev). 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Fig. Early Hellenistic period (after Kitov et al. rectangular corbel-vaulted antechamber. Valeva 2002) provides remarkable paintings (Figs. Barbet et al. 1997. indicate that the monument was related to the Odrysian king. 18–19) on the ceiling of the monolithic rectangular burial chamber. 20–22). two inscribed silver vessels from the burial chamber. 1999. 17) in the Ostrusha tumulus (Kitov 1994b. Kitov and Krasteva 1994–95. Kitov et al. entirely in the spirit of Early Hellenistic art.indd 29 7/03/11 15:44 . A number of significant monuments were excavated in the Kazanlak region. Parts of a pediment showing two lions from the corbel-vaulted tomb in Zhaba Mogila at Strelcha. 330–300 BC).) that dates to ca. 1997. 14. 2003b) from the second half of the 4th century BC displays an unusual combination of Greek architectural orders (Figs. 15–16). second beehive tholos antechamber and monolithic rectangular burial chamber. The monumental tomb in the Golyamata Kosmatka tumulus (Kitov n. Thus. Theodossiev). second half of the 4th century BC (photograph: N.d. while the sarcophaguslike tomb of 330–320 BC (Fig. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. part of a rich funeral inventory (Figs. 300 BC has a unique layout consisting of a dromos. the tholos tomb in the Shushmanets tumulus (Kitov 1996. 1995.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 29 Fig. Seuthes III (ca. D. Dimitrov 1966. entirely in the spirit of Early Hellenistic art.indd 30 7/03/11 15:44 . The tholos tomb in Kazanlak (Frova 1945. Verdiani 1945. second half of the 4th century BC (after Kitov 1997). 16. Zhivkova 1974. Blázquez 1994). Mikov 1954. dated to the middle of the 3rd century BC. The barrel-vaulted entryway supported by Ionic column of the tholos tomb in the Shushmanets tumulus at Shipka. second half of the 4th century BC (after post-card). while a bronze head (Fig. 23) found in front of the tomb. Ognenova-Marinova 1977.30 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV Fig. broken from a lifesize statue. The rectangular corbel-vaulted tomb at Maglizh (Getov 1988. 15. contained remarkable funerary paintings showing an heroic banquet and combats. Barbet and Valeva 2001). 1953. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. is among the latest examples of Thracian painted funerary monuments. is a masterpiece of Early Hellenistic sculpture and is most probably a portrait of Seuthes himself. from the very end of the 4th or the first decades of the 3rd century BC. The beehive burial chamber with Doric semi-columns and supported by non-fluted Doric column of the tomb in the Shushmanets tumulus at Shipka. Fig. Picard 1947–48. 17.indd 31 7/03/11 15:44 . Fig. The monumental tomb in the Ostrusha tumulus at Shipka.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 31 Fig. 330–320 BC (courtesy Philip Sapirstein). 330–320 BC (after Kitov 1994b). 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Portrait of a woman on the ceiling of the sarcophagus-like burial chamber in the Ostrusha tumulus at Shipka. 18. 300 BC (after The Valley of the Thracian Rulers). from the tomb in the Golyamata Kosmatka tumulus at Shipka. Gold appliqué of horse trappings featuring human face. 19. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01.32 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV Fig. Scene showing two men on the ceiling of the sarcophagus-like burial chamber in the Ostrusha tumulus at Shipka. ca. 20. 330–320 BC (after Valeva 2002). Fig.indd 32 7/03/11 15:44 . 300 BC (after The Valley of the Thracian Rulers).ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 33 Fig. 21.indd 33 7/03/11 15:44 . Gold appliqué of horse trappings showing stag head in the Thracian ‘Animal Style’. from the tomb in the Golyamata Kosmatka tumulus at Shipka. ca. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. 22. Bronze greave with the head of Athena. 300 BC (after The Valley of the Thracian Rulers).indd 34 7/03/11 15:44 . ca. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01.34 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV Fig. from the tomb in the Golyamata Kosmatka tumulus at Shipka. d. Bronze head of a life-size statue most probably depicting Seuthes III. ca. found in front of the tomb in the Golyamata Kosmatka tumulus at Shipka.indd 35 7/03/11 15:44 . 23.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 35 Fig. 300 BC (after Kitov n. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01.). Schneider and Zazoff 1994. 181–219. 2000. and seem to belong to local tradition. 1987. Tsetskhladze 1999a. The shapes known in Thracian toreutics were usually borrowed from Achaemenid and Greek metalware and ceramics. Zazoff et al. 89–102. Other Classical and Early Hellenistic representations in Thracian metalwork are indicative of even stronger foreign influence and originated in Greek. 1984.36 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV TOREUTICS AND TREASURES The toreutics of ancient Thrace are among the most attractive of archaeological materials. the Near East and the Pontic region (Filov 1917. Fischer 1983. Fialko 1995. Sîrbu and Florea 2000a–b. Berciu 1974. jugs. 1979. 1990. Marghitan 1976. The presence of these characters testifies to the 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. 2003. Zournatzi 2000. Kull 1997. B. Theodossiev 2000c. calyxes. kantharoi. The Thracian king was usually depicted as a hunter-rider (Fig. 1990. Venedikov and Gerasimov 1976. Schneider 1989. They have received intense scrutiny from specialists world wide who have use different methods of examination and proposed various interpretations within the contexts and contacts of the eastern Mediterranean. Melyukova 1976. 1992. and include phialai. form the legacy of the Thracian aristocracy and provide options to examine a variety of topics. Stoyanov 1991. Ewigleben 1989. Artemis (potnia theron). 1986. Boardman 1994. 1989. Venedikov 1969. etc. 261–74. 24). Pfrommer 1983. 1987. Taylor 1982. 2002. 1934. while the images of the Great Goddess show more diversity. rhyta. skyphoi. Vickers 1989. 1998. A very important focus of research is on the rich iconography of the local toreutics from the 4th century BC onwards. Abka’i-Khavari 1988. Alexandrescu 1983. Archibald 1985. Amandry 1959. 1985. 2003. Minchev 1978. Pittioni 1977. 1993. Heracles and Bellerophon. goblets. Ebbinghaus 1999. Luschey 1983. A number of treasures and burial hoards comprising silver and gold objects. 1989a–b. Kemenczei 1995. both of local Thracian production and imported. Marazov 1977. 1991. Strong 1966. Damyanov 1998. The most spectacular works come from the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Byvanck-Quarles van Ufford 1966. 1990. von Bülow 1997. BarrSharrar 1982. 1978. Special attention must be given to the images of Kybele. Bergquist and Taylor 1987. Dörig 1987. Zazoff 1991. Shefton 1993. Ursu Naniu 2004).indd 36 7/03/11 15:44 . Kitov and Agre 2002. which clearly shows the creativity and influences that formed the indigenous art. Hoddinott 1989. Rabadzhiev 1994. but many other representations find a number of iconographical comparanda throughout the eastern Mediterranean. 1989a. Anatolian and Scythian art. Some images of the Great Goddess and her male companion – the king-hero – remain without parallels beyond Thrace. who appeared in the Early Hellenistic period. Kaul 1993. second half of the 4th century BC (after Kitov 2001–02). Thracian toreutics also influenced the art of the Celts and the Scythians. Some Early Hellenistic figures in Thracian toreutics.ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 37 Fig. may suggest. however. especially the Thracian elements. Hellenisation of local craftsmen and of the local aristocracy. that some local deities and heroes were represented in the form of Greek and Anatolian personages. of course on the basis of local traditions. obviously originated in Iranian art and indicate cross-cultural contacts. most of these connections were a result of the Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great.indd 37 7/03/11 15:44 . Presumably. In fact. like the Lamassu. who were aware of Greek myths. Simultaneously. The strong syncretism evident in the iconography. This is why the metalwork appears to be 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. 24. Gold ring from Peichova Mogila at Starosel featuring a hunting scene. Near East and the Pontic region during the 1st millennium BC gave rise to various interactions that influenced the forms and features of Thracian metalwork. when some members of the Thracian aristocracy participated in the actions of the Macedonian army and returned home with new syncretic ideas. the cultural diversity and free exchange of ideas between different ethnic communities in the eastern Mediterranean. 338–342. presumably the son of the Odrysian king. Berti and La Porta 1997.38 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV among the best evidence showing that Thrace was closely related to the rest of the ancient world and actively participated in syncretic cultural processes and multilateral interaction. ByvanckQuarles van Ufford 1989b. A number of stippled or incised inscriptions show that some vessels were possessions of the Odrysian kings. Ancient Thrace 2000). presumably. being dated to the period from the 11th to the 8th–7th centuries BC (Gergova 1982. Three inscriptions 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. Archibald 1998. Marazov 1998. Most of the Thracian treasures have been well illustrated in a number of exhibition catalogues (Gold der Thraker 1979. 185–189). 1. 205–07. and the 7th–6th-century BC hoard from Kazichene. Theodossiev 2000c. 139–41. 159–161). a ceramic vessel and a decorated gold cup. The vessels from the Rogozen treasure were accumulated over a long period and date from the middle of the 5th to the beginning of the 3rd century BC. and a two-handled bowl (Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. skyphos. 265–69. nos. The vessels are heterogeneous and some of them may originate from toreutic workshops in north-western Anatolia. Het Goud der Thraciërs 1984. Cotys I (383–359 BC) and Kersebleptes (359–341 BC).900 kg (Der thrakische Silberschatz 1988. comprising a silver pitcherrhyton decorated with two friezes showing Dionysiac scenes but with a form originating in the Persian toreutics. Archibald 1998. a total weight of some 19. Theodossiev 1998b). Two inscriptions mention Satokos. 129–30. no. Another important find is the treasure from Barzitsa. 196). Some vessels are decorated with mythological scenes and images and obviously were produced in northern Thracian workshops. comprising a bronze cauldron. Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. 264–65. of which a pair of gold earrings and one gold and three silver hoops (presumably spiral bracelets) survived. 54 jugs and three cups (goblet. Macedonian and. no. 1990. One of the most significant hoards is the Rogozen treasure. comprising 165 silver vessels: 108 phialai. which shows schematic decoration and dates to the beginning of the Early Iron Age (Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. The hoard is quite heterogeneous and belonged to the Triballi aristocracy.050 kg in weight (Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. Another important find is the Borovo treasure. others are of imported origin: Greek. 162). nos. Among the earliest finds. kotyle).indd 38 7/03/11 15:44 . ones that deserve special attention are the gold cup from Belene. nos. and another one gives the name of Didykaimos. 135. Stoyanov 1998. 130. three rhyta with Greek and Achaemenid shapes and decoration. Achaemenid. Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. Sitalces. who presumably offered the precious objects as political gifts to the Triballi chieftains during negotiations. not attested in the literary sources. but its shape undoubtedly originates in Achaemenid metalware. some of them showing the images of the kingrider and the Great Goddess. comprising nine gold vessels with a total weight of 6. nos. nos. it was produced in some prominent workshop in north-western Anatolia. Venedikov 1961. Two other important treasures. 250) come from the 2nd–1st centuries BC and consist of silver objects typical of Late Hellenistic Thracian toreutics: bracelets. 197–203. Apollo and Nike. 420–428. 472–483.164 kg (Svoboda and Concev 1956. Archibald 1998. date to the second half of the 4th–early 3rd century BC and contain a wide variety of silver objects of Thracian origin: appliqués of horse trappings decorated in the ‘Animal Style’ or showing Thracian mythological scenes and vessels (jugs and phialai). trade. 260–64. those found at Letnitsa (Pittioni 1977. Venedikov 1996) and Lukovit (Chichikova 1980. Simon 1960. most probably. which form a reliable source for studying political history. a kantharos and conical bowls. iconography and religion. indicating that the objects belonged to the Odrysian king. 114–15. while the rhyton with a male-goat protome depicts Hera. Cotys I. 315–333. 70) and Yakimovo (Marazov 1979. no. COINAGE The Thracian coinage provides a great variety of types minted in silver and bronze. Stoyanov 2004).ANCIENT THRACE DURING THE FIRST MILLENNIUM BC 39 in Greek were stippled on the pitcher-rhyton and two rhyta. Aphrodite and Hera. 269). Concev 1959. Theodossiev 2000c. The last vessel is a phiale decorated with circles of African heads in relief.indd 39 7/03/11 15:44 . The earliest coins appeared at the end of the 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. The hoards from Galiche (Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. The three anthropomorphic head-vases display the images of Athena. round appliqués. Artemis. The most spectacular hoard from Thrace is the Panagyurishte treasure. Theodossiev 2000c. Archibald 1998. Kitov and Atanasov 2000. The two rhyta ending in stag heads depict the Judgment of Paris (Alexander) and two Labours of Heracles (the Hind of Ceryneia and the Cretan Bull). 147– 48. Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. 271–74. nos. Eriope and Maenads. The amphora-rhyton is decorated with Greek mythological scene. Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. presumably showing the Seven against Thebes. Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. The Panagyurishte treasure dates to the last decades of the 4th century or the early 3rd century BC. The rhyton ending with a ram’s head shows Dionysos. no. 220–33. 268–71. economy. 375–410. nos. Gold of the Thracian Horsemen 1987. who presumably offered the silver vessels as diplomatic gifts to unknown Getic ruler. 494–502. nos. 237–41. Kersebleptes. Sariakos) and Celtic (Kauaros) kings who dominated in certain regions of Hellenistic Thrace. Hebryzelmis. reigned in Thrace and issued numerous gold. Further detailed studies. Sadalas II. Gerasimov 1975). Bisaltai. several scholars published important numismatic studies discussing some of the Thracian coins (Svoronos 1919. A number of other rulers. and are one of the earliest examples displaying the use of the title basileus in ancient coinage. during the 4th–2nd centuries BC some inland towns (Kypsela and Kabyle) coined their own emissions. Cotys III. 1925. minted various coins throughout the entire Hellenistic period until the last Thracian kingdom was annexed by Rome in AD 45. Mostis. Of special interest in this period are the silver coins of Getas. Roimetalkas I. or examined aspects such the earliest tribal emissions (Gerasimov 1937. Saratokos. king of the Thracian Edonoi. minted different bronze and silver coins from the middle of the 5th century BC down to the first decades of the 1st century AD. Ichnai and Orreskioi in south-western Thrace. both attested in historical or epigraphic sources but unknown in ancient written sources. in particular of the Odrysian Kingdom (Mushmov 1912. Haraspos. Amadokos II.40 NIKOLA THEODOSSIEV 6th century and in the first decades of the 5th century BC and were minted in silver by the tribal kingdoms of the Derrones. Gaebler 1935. 2000.indd 40 7/03/11 15:44 . While the Early Hellenistic Macedonian kings. combining written sources and archaeological data. Medokos (known as Amadokos I as well). such as Lysimachus. a number of Odrysian kings. Cotys V. Youroukova 1976. 1992. and the coins minted in Seuthopolis (K. Later. Ketriporis. 93254_Tsetskhladze_CA1_01. * * * I hope that this article has provided a general picture of Thrace during the 1st millennium BC and has described recent developments in scholarly research. Teres II. Seuthes I. silver and bronze coins. Roimetalkas II and Roimetalkas III. 1998. Seuthes III and Spartokos. on the border with Macedonia and Paeonia. Other publications provided comprehensive studies of the coinage of ancient Thrace. and there were also coins minted by Scythian (Kanitos. Dimitrov et al. which read: GETAS JDONEON BASILEUS (in several variants). During the 20th century. Among the most important coins from the Classical and Early Hellenistic periods are those of Sparadokos. besides some kings who ruled other tribal states. Topalov 1994. Reskouporis I. Tyntenoi. some of them showing quite realistic portraits of the kings. Peter 1997). Tacheva 1998). the relationship between the early Thracian and Macedonian coinage (Greenwalt 1997). Cotys II. 1984) and Kabyle (Draganov 1993). such as Adaios. Cotys I. 201–03.E. G.).M.). and Thrace’. and Oliver. 1998: The Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace: Orpheus Unmasked (Oxford/New York). Agre. 427–68. Rhod. V. In Actes. 2002: ‘The Shape of the New Commonwealth: Aspects of the Pontic and Eastern Mediterranean Regions in the Hellenistic Age’. In Archibald. Hierarchy. 320)’.) 2004: Panagyurskoto sakrovishte i trakiiskata kultura (Sofia). Adams.J. and Community in Archaic and Classical Macedonia. 2e symposium international des études Thraciennes: Thrace ancienne (Komotini). In Tsetskhladze 1999b. 12–25. In Tsetskhladze. IV. (eds. Gold and Silver Treasures from Bulgaria 5000 BC–AD 300 (Exhibition Catalogue) (Helsinki). G. (eds.J. VDI 3. Hellenistic Economies (London/New York). P.s. Regional Economies’.. D. V. 85–97. OJA 4. Greek Settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea (BAR International Series 1062) (Oxford). 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