The Morphological Systems of the English and Ukrainian Languages Are Characterized by a Considerable Number of Isomorphic and by Some Allomorphic Features

The morphological systems of the English and Ukrainian languages are characterized by a considerable number of isomorphic and by someallomorphic features. The isomorphic features are due to the common Indo-European origin of the two languages while the allomorphic features have been acquired by them in the course of their historic development and functioning as independent national languages, Contrastive morphology deals with: a) the specific traits of morphemes in languages under investigation; b) the parts of speech arid their grammatical meanings (morphological categories). The morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit, which may be free!root, that is they can stand alone and do not depend on other morphemes in a word, and hound, that is they cannot stand alone, they are bound to the root or to the stem consisting of the root and one or more affixal morphemes. Due to its historical development, English has a much larger number of root morphemes than Ukrainian. Consequently, the number of inflexions expressing the morphological categories is much smaller in English than in Ukrainian. E.g.: arm, pen, hoy. work, do, red, he, she, it, five, ten, here: лоб, чуб, я, є, три, тут, де,etc. Affixal morphemes are represented in English and Ukrainian by suffixes or prefixes. Suffixes in the contrasted languages, when added to the root, change the form of the words, adding some new shade to their lexical meaning: duck .............................................. duckling:, four ............ —fourteen --forty; дитина — дитинча.The number of suffixes in the contrasted languages considerably exceeds the number of prefixes. Among the noun indicating suffixes in English are -асу, -anee, -ion, -dom, -er, -ess, -hood, -ism, -Ity, -merit, -ness, -ship and others. The adjective indicating suffixes are: -able, -al, -k, -isfa, -ful, -less, -otis, -some» -y, etc. The verb indicating suffixes are -ate, -en, -esee, -ify, -ize, and. the adverb indicating suffixes -!y, -wards, -ways, Ukrainian word-forming suffixes are more numerous and also more diverse by their nature because there exist special suffixes to identify different genders of nouns. The masculine gender suffixes of nouns in Ukrainian are -ник, -ецьАєць, -ар/~яр,-up, -ист, -тель, -аль.Suffixes of feminine gender in Ukrainian are: -к/а, -иц/я, -ec/a, -их/а, -ш/а. Suffixes of the neuter gender are mostly used in Ukrainian to identify collective nouns, as in the nouns:жіно-цтв-о, 6ади-лл-я. збі-жж-я.Besides, inUkrainianthereexistiargegroupsofevaluativesuffixes(сон-ечк-о, кабан-юр-а)andpatronymicsuffixes: -енк-о, -ук, -еоуь (Бондаренко, Поліщук, Птшець). Prefixes in the contrasted languages modify the lexical meaning of the word: coexistence, unable, підвид, праліс, вбігати, вибігати.Word-forming prefixes pertain mostly io the English language where they can form different parts of speech, Verbs; enable, disable, enclose. Abjectives: pre-war, post-war. Adverbs! today, tomorrow, together. Prepositions: below, behind. Conjunctions: because, unless, until. In Ukrainian only some conjunctions and adverbs can be formed by means of prefixes, for example:вдень, вночі.Isomorphic is also the use of two (in English) and more (in Ukrainian) prefixes before the root: misrepresentation, oversubscription, недовиторг., перерозподіл,etc. Inflexional morphemes in the contrasted .languages express different morphological categories. The number of genuinely English inflexions is restricted to noun inflexions: -s/-es, -en, -ren (boys, watches, oxen, children); inflexions of the comparative and the superlative degrees of qualitative adjectives: ~er, -est (bigger, biggest): inflexions of the comparative and the superlative degrees of qualitative adverbs: -er, -est (slowlier, slowliest); the verbal inflexions: ~s/-es, -d/-ed, -t, -n/-en {he puts/watches; she learned the rule/burnt the candle; a broken -pencil); the inflexions of absolute possessive pronouns: -s, -e (hers, ours, yours, mine, thine). Besides the genuine English inflexional morphemes, there exist some foreign inflexions used with nouns of Latin, Greek and French origin only. Among them Latin inflexions -um/-a (datum ........... data); -us/-i (terminus ........................ termini); -a/-ae (formula .......................... formulae); -is/-es (thesis ........................ theses); Greek inflexions -on/-a (phenomenon —phenomena); -ion/-ia (criterion — criteria). The number of inflexions in Ukrainian exceeds their number in English since every national part of speech has a variety of endings. They express number, case and gender of nominal parts of speech and tense, aspect, person, number, voice and mood of verbs:червоний — червоного — червоному — червоним; двоє — двох — двом — двома; читаю — читав — читала — читали — читатиму - читатимеш читатимете,etc. and The contrasted languages are characterized by such common morphological phenomena of word-building nature as agglutination suppletivity. Agglutination represents a mechanical adding of one or more affixal morphemes in preposition, post-position or in interposition to the root morpheme. The quantitative representation of the parts of speech formed by means of pre-posed agglutinating morphemes in the contrasted languages is somewhat different. In present-day English there exist a larger number of the parts of speech formed by agglutinating prefixes, Pre-posed agglutinators apart from forming new parts of speech or creating some shades in the lexical meaning of the words (do — undo — overdo, lead — mislead; схід — захід — вихід — прихід)can also perform some purely grammatical function: for example, they may sometimes turn the intransitive verbs into transitive: live — outlive, жити — прожити, пережити.In Ukrainian pre-posed affixes can change imperfect verbs into perfect (вчити — вивчити -— довчити — завчити). Post-posed agglutination is observed in both contrasted languages, in Ukrainian even more frequent than in English. All Ukrainian infinitives, without exception, are formed by adding to the root the post- posed morphemes-ти/-ть, -ся, -ки, -оньки, -тусі/-туні(diminutive friendship.. кому. civilize... tooth — teeth. гарно..... eight. cat . прийменник. ми. the second) and one in Ukrainian(один — перший). adverbs of both languages (nicely. has suppietive forms of some interrogative and indefinite pronouns:хто — кого...... ■що — чого. adverb ... прикметник. два. you. she.. дядько — тітка. швидко. добрий — кращий — найкращий.... Root morphemes in the contrasted languages can be pre-posed and post-posed simultaneously. fifteen. The rest of funetionals are common: conjunction* preposition. etc. we — us.. Post-posed agglutination helps to form nouns in the contrasted languages: freedom. The identification of the parts of speech in the contrasted languages is not always an easy matter because of "migration" of one part of speech to another. salmon). Or in Ukrainian:хто там? (adv. etc.etc. вище). . only two ordinal numerals of the kind in English (one .unrealistically. жінка. ten. чесність). зірка. Among these are... ви. багач. information..day English is that of number.. cock — hen... п'ять. he has just come (adv. частка...etc.adjective. just a moment.... борець. For example: a just man (adj. tree —ручка.As to the funetionals. through zero and marked inflexions.. responsibility).. etc. blacken.. дерево).. Completely allomorphic is the formation of plural number by way of mutation in the following seven English nouns: foot ... boy.. It finds its realization not only in concrete nouns (book.. warm).)..Polish. одинадцягь.numerals of both languages {fifty.. чим. meat etc..... love. stone — двері. life nouns (boy. swine.. seven. hostess..... four... Typologically isomorphic are also the paradigmatic classes of nouns. two.. as in the words irresponsibility. воно.). Suppletivity as a means of grammatical expression is observed in words. вигук... two ... son — daughter. yours.. live.. кіт)... count nouns (pen. вони. brother — sister... сімдесят).. adjectives (meaningful. and. займенник. friendship. inanimate nouns (door.. six. модальні слова.. in English there exist possessive absolute suppietive forms of pronouns unknown in Ukrainian (mine.. я —мене.... -en. питоньки. been — e. некомунікабельність. It is realized.. which are two: 1)common nouns. adverbs (foolishly.де там(particle).... gender distinctions: boy — girl. ти. спатуні. вона....... -escc.etc.... first of all. woman — women..а там ще люди(conjunctive element).. baa — worse — worst.. employee.... man — men. The noun as a part of speech is characterized in English and Ukrainian by a common.. fish. At the lexical level it helps to express...... it. чоловік . дієслово. курка..feet. Ukrainian.. on the other hand. прислівник. брат — сестра..). -ity. 2)proper names.... louse — lice.... eighteen. sideways.. was. Similarly in Ukrainian:чужак. is.. .Least represented in both languages are suppietive forms of numerals. man — woman. swim... три.. ким.. tree. hers.grammatical class of words as a whole: f he... like in Ukrainian.. злитися спатки. холодок.. theirs).) but also in abstract nouns (love. word-forms and morphemes of all Indo-European languages... needlessly).. мною. безвідповідальність.the first. nine...b) at the level of paradigmatic word forms: J—me. are. mouse—mice.. particle. поганий .. іменник. -Іже:create... acquiesce..Suppietive forms of some qualitative adjectives and adverbs in the contrasted languages are represented by degrees of comparison: good — better — best. The English verb "to be" has more forms to express different categorial meanings than the verb Ukrainian "бути»:am. please (particle). дівчина... star. motionless).. мені. where all pronouns are declinable:я — мене. honesty — повітря. trout. син — дочка.. Isomorphism is observed in the existence of some other grammatically relevant groups of nouns in English and Ukrainian. numeral* verb.. boyhood.. The only morphological category of the noun which is almost always marked in present..forms):працювати. камінь). один.. fly... хлопець.. business. we. There are only five post-posed verbal morphemes: -ate... interjection...).political). plural forms (sheep. чому.. Of suppietive nature are most of nouns forming the LSG denoting kinship: father — mother.. він. medals words — сполучник. purify.Isomorphic is also the post-posed agglutination of two affixal morphemes to a stem: nouns (capableness. A lew simple life nouns in English have identical singular and. чотири. in English and Ukrainian. гірший . respectively: book — books. twentieth).. they — я.. ours. westwards. numerals (thirteenth.... lexico-grammatical nature of substantively. five. These forms are more numerous in Ukrainian. півень .. pronoun. three..... the number of notional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian from the typological point of view may be considered the same — six: noun.Suppletivity of pronouns finds its expression and realization in English and 'Ukrainian at different levels: a) at the level of the lexieo. deer. найгірший. girl..and non-count nouns (air.. However.. хлопець — дівчина.Among other parts of speech formed by means of post-posed agglutination are English relative adjectives (economic. house.... goose — geese. their number in the contrasted languages is not identical (present-day English has the article which is missing in Ukrainian). Nevertheless.whereas all simple numerals are suppietive in both languages: one.. батько — мати.. sixty... був/була/були... ми — нас.etc.. числівник.. In English most of the indefinite form infinitives are pure root-morphemed words {come.. aunt — uncle. read. sit.. двадцять.etc.Suppietive forms of a verb paradigm can be used in English and Ukrainian to express morphological categories. were.... .. гарна дівчина... The nouns express dual number in connection with the numeral..е число. genitive. о—і тінь — тіні. he-hear — she-bear. which are more numerous than in English.. чий).. English interrogative pronouns have no number.... ..... Наша взяла)........ мною).... them). дуби — три дуби.. котрий.. цей/той. степи..The 3IUand lh ra 4 declensionnounsmayalsohavehardpalatalizedandsibilantfinalconsonants: inthe 3 declension:u—І мати —матері... наші). The morphological category of gentler is identified through the inflexions of the attribute гарний хлопець... жито цвіло. bl declension have the following endings: а—u хата — хати.... е—а селище — селища... Двері відчинилися. (у) степах. dative..... which can respectively be hard.. ягня — ягнята. м — та: теля — телята...хто. her. хмарі. Apart from number Ukrainian demonstrative pronouns. я—і вишня — вишні. they) and eight in Ukrainian (because ofти . All personal pronouns in Ukrainian are declinable(я. о— . Interrogative pronouns in the contrasted languages are used as noun-pronouns (who. it.. 1. дні. and a teacher entered.. дуб — .. 3.... хмари...... thou which is substituted in English by you).They may correlate with numerals (how much/many скільки).. Двері відчинилися... хмару. ці/ті. Ukrainian nouns may have 7 marked singular and plural oppositions in nominative....In presentday English no distinctions of the kind are possible: the great actor played/the great actress played.. є—і плече — плечі. Ukrainian possessive pronouns have gender (мій.. except "it" and "you" take objective case forms (me. what...два береги. степам. слова ■ The category of case is represented in present-day English by two cases: common and genitive (-'s genitive and of-genitive). girl friend.. степи.....etc.. Thus.. 2..) and b) possessive absolute (mine. we. English demonstrative pronouns nave the same equivalents in Ukrainian: this/that. soft or mixed (sibilant). The number is mostly indicated by stress which differs from that of the plural form. яблуня цвіла. скільки) and as adjective pronouns (which......They are often substantivized in colloquial speech(Твоя прийшла. us.The major allomorphic feature in the system of noun categories is the existence in Ukrainian of dual number. ціімУцією.. що.. цього/цієї. he. лота— лошата..... який.крила..... torn cat — pussy cat.. A testimony to being no grammatical gender in English nouns is the use of appositional pronouns and nouns to indicate the gender of living beings as in hoy friend — . Ukrainian number inflexions are partly predetermined by the declension groups... The noun in English and Ukrainian can be made definite/indefinite semantically by some morphological or syntactic means.In contrast to Ukrainian. cock-sparrow — hen-sparrow.а крило ... she. instrumental. you. whose.... студентка — це сам. The latter are used as attributes (the friend of mine) or as predicatives (that hook is mine)... locative and vocative cases:хмара..цей самий студент — ■ця само.case(мого.. цьому/и/ш. its..Ail English personal pronouns... these/those.. have also case and gender distinctions...... мене.. her..... Possesive pronouns in English may be a) possessive conjoint (my. and partly by the gender of nouns and final consonant or vowel. і в клас увійшов викладач.. (на. моєму)and number categories(мої.... -1 день ..... case or gender distinctions (except .. etc. his. мені. hers.. nouns of the !. а—І груша — груші. etc. хмарою.Demonstrative pronouns in English agree in number with the head noun: this day — these days.Unlike English.. моє)... о—и батько — батьки. хмаро..... степів........ е—-я поле — поля. гарне житоor through the inflexion of the finite form of the verb inUkrainian:каштан цвів. accusative........ степам.. Possessive conjoined pronouns very often function as determiners: He has his hands in his pockets.. і викладач увійшов (у клас)... Compare: The door opened andthe teacher entered..... Nouns of the 2Н0declension havethefollowingendings:0-..inthe 4Wdeclension:a—та курча — курчата..)... ours... how many/much.... The door opened.берег — береги ... слово чотири слова.. him.. моя... seven in English(I. степи. The Pronoun in contrasted languages has the following classes: E Personaіpronouns...) хмарі. completer. most/the least interesting. no gains. nobody home.. the inner state of a person (feel.. etc. ніщо.. happier. Ukrainian..They looked into each others eyes for a silent moment. hut neither spoke. другого. ніщо. кілька). десяти. verbs (to want to know.. The adjective as a part of speech expresses the attributes of substances (a nice flower. worst.."whom" and "whose" expressing respectively dative arid genitive case) as most of their Ukrainian equivalents do:чий.. нічий. кращий..Very often. nothing. хотіти гнати)or adverbs (to read well.. двоє). more/less interesting. троє дітей: п 'ять дубів/лип.. ourselves.. Common are 1)cardinal. чия.. гарний.. bother... none. гарно читати). possess). дваhave three gender distinctions(один... he grew old. найгірший. двом третім: дві цілих і три десятих. As to gender. something. only the cardinal numeralsодин. completest). багато/набагато. .. багато/набагато важливіший. чиїй. worry). the shops more busy. б .best. 2)ordinal and3)fractional (common and decimal fractions).. значно.All others have a common form for masculine and feminine genders and a separate form for neuter gender:три жінки/чоловіки. дещо. чиїх.. nothing . however. одне.etc.небудь. In colloquial emphatic speech base and disyllabic adjectives may be graded in the analytical way. however.. The verb in English and Ukrainian serves to convey different kinds of activity (go. Nobody ever knows anything.Thecomparativeorthesuperlative (orboth) degreesofsomeUkrainianadjectivesmaybeformedbyanalyticalmeans. himself.. найбільше. (на) собі)and no number distinctions (я питаю себе.. anything. little.). 1.. bad. ніхто.. ніскільки. хто-небудь.. happy. дві треті. собою. etc. In Ukrainian the synthetic way of grading is more often used. mostofwhichareintensifyingadverbsбільш/менш... Negative pronouns are generally common in English and Ukrainian:no. themselves. bigger. двох третіх. It is formed by means of the suffixes-іш-/-ш-and the prefixesнай-. дехто.. little. does not express gender or number category but only quantity{скільки снігу. чиє. -owf -y (narrow.. гірший.. obtain). найкращий... various processes (boil grow. too: The roar grew more loud. дитя було маленьке. 2. worse. The pronounскільки. чиї/чийому.Both smiled. which may be simple (no) or composite: nobody. 1...Allomorphism is observed in the wide use of English negative pronouns to form negative word-groups and sentences: no pains.. This way of grading have also the two-syllable adjectives in -le. ніякий. the passengers more numerous.. biggest. having number.. 7. possession (have.. поганий. . happiest) and the two-syllable adjectives with the concluding stressed syllable (complete. neither — ніхто. nobody. has no nominative case form(себе....... etc. and the superlative (найвищий). стала нервовою). Adjectives may be qualitative (having grading) and relative which characterize objects and phenomena through their relation to other objects and phenomena (economic progress.. — Вони якусь мить мовчки дивились у вічі одне одному.. They correspond to the Ukrainianсебеwhich. одна.. few) are allotted in Ukrainian to indefinite numerals(набагато. нічий..Of isomorphic nature in the contrasted languages is the existence of suppletivity (in actually the same adjectives): good. хтось. вони знають себе). better. narrowest. другий.. case and gender distinctions:десять. Most qualitative adjectives in English and Ukrainian are gradable and have three degrees of comparison: the positive (звичайний). read. 1. -er. less. anybody. міський житель).. all numerals are declinable.English equivalents(how many books. найсміливіший. щонай-orякпай-: сміливий.. економічний розвиток. ніскількиUkrainian negative pronouns are declinable..Indefinite pronouns are mostly common in English and Ukrainian: some.. другому... . щось. двом цілим і трьом десятим.. скільки людей)as its . 2.. In Ukrainian. The employment of the synthetic way of grading in English is restricted to base adjectives: big.. The way of grading may be synthetic or analytical. куди більший/ кращий. the neuter gender form may be used for any gender: The two younger people looked at one another. Сонце світить. два. найкращий.. п 'ятера курчат. where it exists in three gender forms and are used as noun pronouns:один одного. Обоє молодят поглядали одне на одного. кращий. Due to these lexico-graininatical properties the verb generally functions In the sentence as predicate going into combinations with: 1... urban population. The student passed his examinations.. добрий. Isomorphic are the structural forms of negative pronouns.. Студент склав іспити. narrower. least. It appeared to me that he was more clever and cold than they were. urgent measures) and can serve as a predicative complement after the verb (the child was small.. any... skate). що. одна одну. вона. Relative pronouns in English and Ukrainian coincide with the interrogative pronouns and perform the function of connectors.. дві. The Numerals in the contrasted languages fall into some common and divergent subclasses. куди: більш/менш важливий.. десятьом.. небагато. how much suger).. себе..Reflexive pronouns in English are used to form reflexive verbs (to wash oneself). the comparative (вищий). Reflexive pronouns In English have singular and plural forms (myself. The analytical forms of grading are more often employed in English than in Ukrainian: interesting. сміливіший. собі. одне одного...Some English pronouns (much. ніякий. somebody. Ukrainian equivalent sentences have negative pronouns and the negative particleне: Ніхто взагалі нічого не знає. Reciprocal pronouns are two in English (each other and one another) and one І n.. nouns and pronouns performing the functions of the subject or the object: The sun shines. значно сильніший: більш індустріальний. . я була б розповіла йому все... залежати від когось... is being built.. should. мусити. become..only analytically in English but synthetically and analytically in Ukrainian. could...... пішла). must.. and the category of mood is realized in both languages synthetically and analytically.... ні читати.... писати)and b) auxiliary verbs. do.. ... to work and. Ви розмовляєте ані щійською? Помовчить! Не розмовляйте так голосно! На вашому місті. was .. begin — began — begun). went. write. Common are the infinitive and the two participles. Thus. English notional verbs split into two subclasses which are not available in Ukrainian. the category of tense — synthetically and analytically. працювати і відпочивати). ставати. prepositions (to depend on smb/smth. the categories of person and number are realized in both languages synthetically.5 3.. These are 1)regular verbs forming their past stem and the past participle with the help of the ending. Хай буде. іти — пішов.. were.. здаватися). Mood Indicative: I study English. The latter split into primary (he.. Хату будують/хата ставиться. могти. 4. Allomorphic is the combinability of English verbs with postpositional particles (sit down.... put off.... The house will be/have been built. -ed(dressed/worked).... Come what may. іти.... The English infinitive is always distinguished by its determiner "to" (to ask.. may. The main classes of verbs are common in the contrasted languages. The verbals in the contrasted languages have both common arid divergent forms... to he asked..modal (can.. look. go . ask. have. They are a) notional verbs (go.. бути.. мати)and linking verbs (appear. the category of aspect — synthetically or analytically (continuous) in English and only synthetically in Ukrainian.... бути — є... Do you speak English? Imperative: Keep silent! Don't speak so loud! Subjunctive: If I were you....2)irregular verbs having their oast stems and the past participle formed with the help of vowel gradation (take — took — taken. Я вивчаю англійську. stand.... мати). I would have told him everything. read through)...... divergent are the gerund in English and the diyepryslivnyk in Ukrainian.. the category of voice —. запитувати..... Suppietive verbs are common in the contrasted languages(be .... ні писати.. The finite verb in the contrasted languages has six common morphological categories which are realized partly with the help of synthetic means (inflexions) and partly through different analytical means... Morphological categories of the verb In English and Ukrainian Morphological category Person Number Tense I know: he knows He reads: they read I work: I worked: I will work English Means of Realization Ukrainian Я знаю: він знає Вій читає: вони читають Я працюю: працював: працюватиму: буду працювати Він читав: він прочитав (недокоиатши/доконаний) Хата збудована/була збудована. up.. rest. need. що буде! Aspect He works: he is working (common/continuous) Voice The house Is/was built... conjunctions (neither read nor write. The Ukrainian participle has no perfect active and perfect passive of Participle I like English having asked.Specifically Ukrainian is the diminutive form of the infinitive formed by combined suffixes. спатки. According to their lexical meaning. the English infinitive can (to have been ashed. бути запитаним/запрошеним). працююча. they went home. Скажи їм.питати/запрошувати). сіштусеньки. -им. -му. Allomorphic for English is the use of adverbials in the function of a simple nominal predicate: Сонце вгорі. спатусі. 3. The present diyepiyslivnyk is formed from the present stem of the verb belonging to the first declension by adding the suffix-учм/-ючи: йдучи.etc. number and case distinctions: працюючий. 2. запросивший. Til be right there. The verbal characteristics of the gerund find their expression in the categories of time correlation and. at the same time the English participle has no Past Participle active like Ukrainianзапитавший. The adverbial modifier of manner or quality: He began to work very carefully. to have been asking).The past diyepryslivnyk is formed from the infinitive stems with the help of the suffix -вти: йшовши. has both verbal and noun characteristics. The adverbial modifier of time: Your advice has helped me today. The adverbial modifier of degree and quality:Almost instantly we were shut up in a fog. voice (asking — being asked. The functions of the infinitive and the participles in the sentence generally coincide in both languages. object. predicative. працюючі/працюючого. -ть. . He left without saying a word. запрошуючий)and Past Participle passive (asked. Пас майже вміть окутало туманом. whereas the Ukrainian infinitive is characterized by the suffixes-ти. adverbs in both contrasted languages can perform the following common functions in the sentence: 1.The U kraini an infiniti ve cannot De perfect passive and continuous. Стежка справа. Він став працювати дулее уважно. The English infinitive and participle may form complex constructins: We heard him sing/singing. що я буду там.The infinitive in the contrasted languages can be active simple (to ask. Ukrainian diyepryslivnyk as an indeclinable verbal my be present and past. Твоя порада допомогла мені сьогодні. It is easy for us to decide. І ні душі ніде. спатоньки. The lesson (being) over. Городи скрізь. -тись» -тися. The adverbial modifier of place and direction: Tell them.6 to he doing). 4.запрошений). The gerund and the diyepryslivnyk represent allomorphic verbals and cannot be contrasted in any way. having asked — having been asked). The gerund. having been asked. though Ukrainian participles have gender. знаючи. active perfect (to have asked. to be asking. знавши. запитати/запросити)and passive simple (to be asked. and as an adverbial modifier of manner: Seeing is believing. The noun characteristics of the gerund find their expression in the functions in the sentence as subject. The participle in the contrasted languages has only two common forms: Present Participle active (asking. працююче (колесо). 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