The Journal of Hindu Studies 2013;6:198–227doi:10.1093/jhs/hit026 Seeking Svasth@na: The Politics of Gender, Location, Iconography, and Identity in Hindu Nepal Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz* Abstract: The goddess Svasth@na’s textual-ritual complex is one of Nepal’s most popular traditions, celebrated ‘in every Hindu household in Nepal’. Yet, despite her ubiquity and popularity, Svasth@na is nearly invisible both within and outside of her own tradition. This article examines the elusive identity of this local goddess in an effort to understand where and in what form Svasth@na is and is not found and what this tells us about the politics of gender, location, iconography, and Hindu identity in Nepal. I argue that Svasth@na gradually transforms from an invisible, private, unfixed, indeterminate goddess into a visible, public, fixed, specific, and local protector of place. In seeking to locate Svasth@na within both the pan-Hindu pantheon and Nepal’s regional divine and human populations, we are able to see the complexities of coming into being, of being female in Hindu thought and practice, and of being Hindu in medieval and modern Nepal. For eleven months of the year, the goddess Svasth@na, wrapped cosily in red cloth, is safely stored in the homes of Nepal’s Hindus, locked away in closets or cabinets or sometimes stashed (forgotten?) under a bed. During the twelfth month, the winter month of M@gh (mid-January to mid-February), Svasth@na is not only brought forth from these private, protected places but is also worshipped throughout Hindu Nepal as the local divine patroness of Nepal’s annual month-long recitation of the celebrated Svasth@na Vrata Kath@ (SVK), or The Story of the Ritual Vow to the Goddess Svasth@na, and the ritual observance based upon it, the Svasth@na vrat. The Svasth@na textual–ritual complex is one of Nepal’s most popular traditions and, according to most Nepalis, is celebrated ‘in every Hindu household in Nepal’. Yet, despite the ubiquity and popularity of the goddess Svasth@na, she is also remarkably elusive and nearly invisible outside of and even within her own tradition. She is historically absent from the public sphere and confined instead to the The Author 2013. Oxford University Press and The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email
[email protected] Downloaded from http://jhs.oxfordjournals.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5, 2014 University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign *Corresponding author:
[email protected] Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 199 Downloaded from http://jhs.oxfordjournals.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5, 2014 private domain of the home, where she is kept out of sight for the greater part of the year. She thrives in the Kathmandu Valley and is worshipped elsewhere in Nepal, but she is generally not known outside of Nepal or even among non-Nepali Hindu communities in Nepal.1 She is the object of a communal worship ceremony performed by hundreds of women and men in a public ritual space, yet is historically absent from most accounts of Nepal’s religious traditions. She is beloved by Nepal’s Hindu majority, yet has largely escaped scholarly attention.2 How are we to understand this goddess, who is so popular and celebrated by so many, but who remains virtually invisible to those who are not explicitly looking for her? Who is Svasth@na? In this article I present an exploration of the often elusive and sometimes unexpected nature of this local Nepali Hindu goddess in an effort to understand where and in what form Svasth@na is and is not found, why, and what this tells us about the politics of gender, place, iconography, and Hindu identity in the context of medieval and modern Nepal. Drawing on over a decade of archival and ethnographic research, I retrace and reconstruct the emergent identity of Svasth@na, the goddess whose name, quite literally, means ‘one’s own place’. I use, first, the prolific manuscript tradition of the SVK, which has an unbroken history since the late sixteenth century that has produced hundreds of extent manuscripts,3 and, second, other non-textual representations and associations of the goddess found in sculpture and other artistic images. Specifically, I explore the character and changing role of Svasth@na in the following contexts in which they are most explicit: the narrative tradition of the SVK; an eighteenth-century statue consecrated by the king of Kathmandu, which was until recently the only such image of the goddess; other pictorial images that witness the transformation of Svasth@na from a tantric symbol to an anthropomorphic figure, and; the Svasth@na statue recently commissioned by locals and consecrated in Sankhu, Nepal. A survey of these depictions of Svasth@na specifically highlights the ambiguity of her character and more generally reflects the ambiguities and contradictions that epitomise the feminine, both divine and mortal, in the Hindu tradition. I demonstrate that Svasth@na, whose ‘newness’ calls to mind India’s relatively recent divine phenomenon SantoXa M@, complicates the so-called ‘wild’ (ugra) and ‘mild’ (saumya) categories to which Hindu goddesses are commonly assigned.4 She is, for example, variously associated with benign consort goddesses such as P@rvata and Uma, local manifestations of the fierce goddesses such as Durg@ and Taleju, and protector goddesses such as the AXbam@tPk@. Such a diversity of identities within a single goddess tradition is not unheard of among South Asian deities. A fellow secretive Nepali goddess, Guhyes´vara, for example, similarly exhibits a multitude of identities, which Indologist and Nepal scholar Axel Michaels argues are context-sensitive (Michaels 1996). The kind of hybridity that these goddesses exhibit is significant for our understanding and analysis of the goddesses of South Asia. Examination of Svasth@ni’s different associations and representations invites consideration of the ways in which her identity evolves according to the evolving sense of place and community in the Himalayan region in which she resides among a diverse and 200 Politics of Gender, Location, Iconography, and Identity in Hindu Nepal fluctuating mortal and divine population. I argue that over the course of her history, Svasth@na undergoes a gradual transformation from a relatively invisible, private, fluid, indeterminate goddess to a more visible, public, fixed, specific, and local protector of place and, significantly, the embodiment of a place to be protected. I aim to demonstrate that while a fluid indeterminacy characterises Svasthani’s identity and while she is arguably more absent than she is present, Svasthani nevertheless represents something female, local, and Nepali that is empowering. A brief survey of the SVK narrative tradition and ritual practice will help contextualise the discussion that follows. The SVK has an unbroken history that spans the last five centuries and three languages (Sanskrit, Newar, and Nepali). From the sixteenth century to the present, the SVK text expanded from a handwritten eightfolio palm-leaf local legend on the origin of the Svasth@na vrat, or ritual vow, into a full-fledged Pur@>a of thirty-one chapters in over four hundred printed pages. The text is read cover to cover, one chapter each night throughout the month of M@gh. The narratives can easily be divided into three main sections. The first is concerned with the creation of the universe and its divine, demon, and human populations. The second focuses on well-known pan-Hindu accounts of the family stories of DakXa Pr@japati, Sata Deva, Mah@dev, P@rvata, and others. The final section concentrates on the domestic and marital struggles of two women, the pious but ever-suffering Gomayaju5 and her selfish and sinful daughter-in-law Candr@vata. Gomayaju is married as a child to an aged, decrepit man who dies soon after leaving to beg for alms in order to support his newly pregnant wife. After her son Navar@j is older and married, he goes in search of his father, at which time Candr@vata abandons her mother-in-law and returns to her natal home. Gomayaju performs the Svasth@na vrat, which effects the return of her son and his subsequent coronation as king of a neighbouring region. Navar@j sends for his wife, but Candr@vata is waylaid when she desecrates pras@d from the Svasth@na vrat along the way, which results in her suffering in great misery for many years. Once she performs the Svasth@na vrat, Candr@vata is reunited with her husband and mother-in-law and they all live happily ever after. The plight of Gomayaju and Candr@vata and their son/husband, Navar@j, is regarded as a local legend of Nepali origin and constitutes the entirety of the oldest SVK texts available. Similar to the textual recitation, the Svasth@na vrat lasts the duration of the month of M@gh. It is an annual re-enactment of the ritual vow or fast that female characters in the SVK undertake in honour of the goddess Svasth@na in order to earn a boon from her. The vrat can be performed individually in the privacy of one’s home or communally in Sankhu, a traditional Newar village located eighteen kilometres east of Kathmandu. Nepalis believe that many of the events narrated in the SVK occurred in or near the Sali Nadi, the river that flows near the village and Downloaded from http://jhs.oxfordjournals.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5, 2014 By way of background in which P@rvata asks him to tell her about the ‘most difficult vow in the three worlds’. which includes meditating upon the image of the Svasth@na. and Sat@ are extolled for their dual roles as benign. however. respectively. Svasth@na’s physical presence in both the text and ritual is historically limited. 2014 Svasth@na in the SVK narrative tradition . to their Downloaded from http://jhs. she exists largely as an aniconic goddess and. That is. Although the patron deity of the textual and ritual traditions that bear her name. There are several hundred female participants. With her right hand she makes the boon-giving gesture.e. married consort goddess or the fierce. respectively). LakXmi. She is seated on a lion. The fact that she sits upon a lion and holds upraised a sword and a shield conjures images of the well-known goddess Durg@. Our first introduction to Svasth@na in the SVK is therefore both fitting and ironic. and an occasional smattering of people from among Nepal’s numerous other ethnic groups. it occurs in the opening dialogue between the ascetic god Mah@dev (as S´iva is commonly referred to in Nepal and particularly in the SVK) and his consort
[email protected]. and is decorated with all kinds of ornaments. (Svasth@n@parames´varyy@vratakath@ [sic] NS 693 [1573 CE])7 From this earliest portrait of Svasth@na. She has three eyes and her face is like a lotus. In her left hand she holds a blue lotus while making the fear-dispelling gesture. She holds a sword and shield upraised in her [other] right and left hands. Saraswata. He offers the following rich physical description of the goddess: Her beauty is luminous like the color of gold.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. At the same time.6 Throughout her tradition. R@dh@. The majority of participants are Hindu Newars. Mah@dev complies. who typically number several hundred. she also holds a blue lotus and makes both the fear-dispelling and boon-giving gestures. From this very first introduction to Svasth@na. for upon partnering with their respective male consorts. which evokes images of the popular goddess P@rvata. virgin warrior goddess to which divine women are often assigned. i. iconographic representations of her are rare. as we shall see.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 201 figures prominently in the text. subservient wives. they transfer their inherent s´akti. we can begin to understand that she does not readily conform to either of the customary categories of the benevolent. Bahuns and Chetris (Skt Brahmans and KXyatriyas. there are already clear signs that her identity and nature are complicated. goddesses such as P@rvata. or the female principle of empowering energy. but the number of male participants in Sankhu’s communal vrat observance typically does not exceed two dozen. nurturing mothers and submissive. In the oldest extant manuscripts from the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century. but there are also a large number (around one hundred) of high-caste hill Hindus. but first relates the basic instructions for preparation and performance of the vow. It is their married state that has rendered these divine women to a large degree passive. In contrast. And so. let us explore Svasth@na’s role and nature in the text further.202 Politics of Gender. if you successfully protect your prosperous kingdom here in this world. who sets off to find his long-gone father. This occurs when her newly crowned husband sends palanquin bearers to bring her back from her natal home. while Navar@j performs his daily rituals. ‘O. more remarkably. in later manuscripts. it is Navar@j’s mother Gomayaju who undertakes the Svasth@na vrat when she is abandoned first by Navar@j. they return to Candr@vata with some pras@d. which she promptly spits upon. Iconography.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5.) Svasth@na’s appearance and direct communication here is unexpected if we consider her conspicuous absence both elsewhere in this text and. She punctuates her disdain with verbal insults to the goddess. the palanquin bearers see a group of apsaras-s perform the Svasth@na vrat. who selfishly returns to her natal home in the absence of her husband. On their return. a reflection of her nurturing. . on account of (a lack of) which they retain their s´akti and consequently have the capacity to be wild and destructive (although Durg@ in particular is also celebrated for her creative prowess and both K@la and Durg@ are commonly approached by devotees as mothers). One morning. Because Svasth@na’s iconographic representation in the oldest extant SVK manuscripts suggests that Svasth@na is not easily nor exclusively identified as either a so-called ‘mild’ or ‘wild’ goddess. All that has happened I made happen. Rather.oxfordjournals. Svasth@na makes only a single appearance in the oldest SVK narrative. we see a kind. goddesses such as Durg@ and K@la are characterised by their independence and lack of male partner. 2014 consorts. mild side. the SVK narrative makes plain that Svasth@na also has a wilder streak and may just as readily use her power to punish those who disparage her. ‘Sinners! You left me here in the palanquin and are now speaking nonsense. While the above example illustrates the benevolence of the goddess. young king! I am pleased because your mother is devoted to me. and Identity in Hindu Nepal the goddess Svasth@na appeared in the form described [earlier in the text]. which dates to 1573 CE [Vikram Samvat 693]. The brahmunic@ then became exceedingly angry and said to them.’ (Ibid. I made you king. In this instance. she is depicted as an omnipresent force or entity whose mouthpiece and go-between is most commonly Mah@dev. generous side of Svasth@na that shows her desire to reward her devotee. After taking leave of their charge to witness the vrat. This is best illustrated when the self-important Candr@vata desecrates pras@d from the Svasth@na vrat.8 In the later SVK tradition. Location. and said [to Navar@j]. From Downloaded from http://jhs. you will obtain liberation. Nevertheless. Gomayaju’s successful completion of the vrat results in the speedy return of Navar@j and his subsequent coronation as king of a neighbouring region. from this rare appearance described above. the goddess does not manifest herself at all or speak with anyone. and then by his wife Candr@vata. but these two palanquin bearers are my devotees‘. What further complicates Svasth@na’s identity is that in the SVK narrative she is by all accounts an independent goddess unattached or married to a male god. ViX>u. the water swelled and submerged all them and the brahmunic@. Mah@dev gives the following instruction directly after the description of the goddess given above: One should worship me. It is true that in the oldest SVK manuscripts Svasth@na’s physical presence is limited and.) . but her nature as revealed in these vignettes suggests that Svasth@na is more than just a benign goddess having an off day and is rather located somewhere between the benign and the fierce on the spectrum of the divine feminine. likening her to the silent. Svasth@na causes the waves of the river to swell and swallow all three travellers. Moreover. (Svasth@nipalames´vayyauvratakath@ [sic] NS 723 [1603 CE]. supportive wife in the background.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 203 whence is the Svasth@na vrat? What god is she? What is this vrat? What rewards are to be obtained? You are talking of matters unheard of!’ she exclaimed. Thus meditate on Svasth@na [sic] and Jagadas´vara. They did not have a chance to cross to the other side. even more so later in the textual tradition. O Mah@deva. ‘P@pini (sinful woman)! Do you understand the sin of insulting my vrat now? For twelve years you must remain submerged in this water. largely overshadowed by the presence of Mah@dev and. Svasth@na may not be demanding a blood sacrifice from Candr@vata or other devotees. who also has four arms and whose symbol is the bull. 2014 As a result of the brahmunic@’s sin of insulting this vrat. By the grace of Svasth@na. for the vrat clearly state that Svasth@na is to be worshipped together with S´iva. the two devout bearers immediately ascend to heaven. to a lesser extent. when soon thereafter the two bearers carried the palanquin across the river.) When the palanquin bearers attempt to carry Candr@vata across a river shortly thereafter. Parames´vara then became invisible again and left.) Downloaded from http://jhs. particularly in the earlier years of the tradition. With her own hand she lifted the two men up and sent them to heaven. (Ibid. Parames´vara materialized on the bank of the river and said. but she leaves Candr@vata to languish first in the river and then on the riverbank for over two decades. from the beginning of the written tradition. the opening verses that constitute the
[email protected]/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. This may in part be explained by the frequency with which she is referred to as Svasth@na Parames´vara. or ritual instructions. there [with Parames´vara]. (Ibid. because ‘Parames´vara’ is a title often associated with S´iva. Candr@vata rectifies her situation only when she successfully performs the Svasth@na vrat. Underscoring the significance of this notable independence and physical absence is the understanding among devotees that Svasth@na is associated with Mah@dev as his consort.oxfordjournals. is Devi. Deva/Mah@m@y@ is introduced into the SVK with the inclusion of the popular creation myth of the daitya (demon) duo Madhu and Kaibabha during the second phase of Pur@>icization the SVK experienced near the close of the eighteenth century. in Sanskrit. has been the opening narrative of SVK texts. is perhaps most well known as one of the three main episodes of the Deva-m@h@tmya and is also found in other Pur@>a texts such as the Devabh@gavata Pur@>a. If there is a statue of you [P@rvata] and me [Mah@dev]. Mah@dev here clearly equates the goddess Svasth@na with his consort P@rvata. The only different feature is his vehicle.). and twentieth centuries. Mah@dev explains to P@rvata that the devotee ‘should worship you and me in an image’ (ibid. Location. Such is also the image of S´iva. childbirth and child rearing. One should meditate on the image of S´ivas´akti. The emphasis on these divine wives as well as on other womanly. These two goddesses become prominent divine players in the SVK with the incorporation of the popular DakXa Praj@pati– Sata Deva–P@rvata cycle of myths in the course of the text’s ongoing Pur@>icization during the eighteenth. in the form of Mah@m@y@. which is a bull. Originally limited to the story of Gomayaju. although ‘originally’ from the Mah@bh@rata. with their four arms and three eyes. The Madhu–Kaibabha episode. the SVK gradually comes to spend the first two thirds of the text recounting the trials and tribulations of Sata Deva and P@rvata before. (Ibid.9 ‘Pur@>icization’ refers to the process by which the SVK text transformed from a discrete local narrative on the origin of the Svasth@na vrat into a Pur@>a text that encompasses cosmology and genealogy of the gods and Manu. this myth of the creation of the universe. however.10 The central figure in this myth. his s´akti. both wives of S´iva.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. and after their marriages to Mah@dev. then one should worship the statue’ (ibid. The Newar language translation provided immediately afterward clarifies in the following way: ‘P@rvata! In this vrat one does not perform religious rites of other deities. 2014 The designation of Svasth@na and Mah@dev as S´ivas´akti clearly identifies Svasth@na as S´iva’s consort. and motherly concerns – including child marriage. here in . in the Newar language translation of this Sanskrit s´loka there is little ambiguity about the relationship between S´iva and Svasth@na: Such is the image of Svasth@na Parames´vara. for example. and Identity in Hindu Nepal In a 1603 CE [VS 723] SVK. nineteenth. we see yet another important association and aspect of Svasth@na in her association with the great goddess Deva. At the same time. the move from one’s maiti (natal home) to husband’s ghar (home).) Downloaded from http://jhs. kinship. and widowhood – serves to strengthen Svasth@na’s association with Mah@dev as his consort and wife. particularly as presented in the latter two texts. wifely. Their conjugal association is further entrenched later in the SVK textual tradition on account of the fact that since the mid-eighteenth century the text also introduces P@rvata and Sata Deva (as the goddess Sata is commonly referred to in Nepal and the SVK). in which the goddess Mah@m@y@ plays a key role.).
[email protected]. This is explicitly stated again in the p+j@vidhi when.204 Politics of Gender. Iconography. Since then. and Candr@vata. during. Mah@dev instructed a PXi named ?s´ava. Therefore. which in turns reinforces Svasth@na’s association with these fierce warrior goddesses. What the SVK provides is an account of the origin of the Svasth@na vrat among the human population. The palanquin bearers left their mistress and went to see this unusual occurrence. there was a sudden shower of flowers on the bank of the river next to the road. and daughters of gods had gathered on the top of Mount Kail@s and were performing the vrat of Svasth@na Parames´vara. we are told the following: . But it also makes it clear that the Svasth@na vrat was already previously known within the divine realm. Along the way. In the place where there had been the shower of flowers.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 205 When S´ra Mah@dev arrived there. which can be used for constructive or destructive ends. So what do we know of Svasth@na so far? We know nothing of her origin. the travelers encounter a group of apsaras-s performing the Svasth@na vrat.) Later in the kath@. to one person among both kinds of people. when Navar@j sends palanquin bearers to return his wife Candr@vata to him in his new kingdom. the immediate presence of the supreme S´akti at the opening of a local text that extols the virtues and power of the local goddess Svasth@na intimates a connection of consequence between Mah@m@y@ and Svasth@na. merits. the world of the gods performed this vrat in heaven. the realm of mortals. It is not known among those of the mortal realm. and fruits of this vrat and then return. ‘?s´ava PXi! Go to the realm of mortals and whether there may be very rich people or whether there may be people suffering greatly. ‘This vrat is only known in heaven.’ Meanwhile. she said. Mah@m@y@ represents the illusory female principal of m@y@. many gods. in order to teach the middle realm [i.’ After saying this. It is she who enables ViX>u to awaken and fight the daitya and she who deludes the duo. When P@rvata saw the face of Mah@dev. Mah@m@y@’s role is limited to (the critical task of) awakening ViX>u so that he can engage Madhu and Kaibabha in battle. process. In the popular contemporary SVK version of this narrative. neither is true in the case of Svasth@na and the SVK. There is at least one SVK that draws a direct connection between Mah@m@y@ and the goddess Svasth@na by explicitly referring to the Goddess of this episode as
[email protected]/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. This is significant because of the additional association the Goddess of the Deva-m@h@tmya and Devabh@gavata Pur@>a have with the goddesses Durg@ and K@la. It is this performance that evoked such anger and impropriety from Candr@vata discussed earlier. While most deities in the Hindu tradition have an origin myth and while vrat kath@-s often narrate this myth. tell the precepts. 2014 the form of Mah@m@y@. the realm of mortals] you should be pleased and send someone to instruct them. After Mah@dev travels to martyalok. Downloaded from http://jhs. goddesses.11 Whether explicit or not.oxfordjournals. to take care of some business and returns back to Mount Kail@s. (Svasth@nipalames´vayyauvratakath@ [sic] NS 723 [1603 CE]. thereby contributing to their final demise.e. granting boons to devoted supplicants. ‘Brahmunaju.206 Politics of Gender. Seeing this. ‘Is´vara.’ (Ibid. She is depicted with iconographic emblems that evoke images of Durg@. Location. n@ga-s. and Svasth@na and P@rvata are both emanations of the divine feminine. Svasth@na both is and is not P@rvata. then you should be pleased to tell it to me in detail’. the conversation between P@rvata and Mah@dev suggest that the Svasth@na vrat has in fact been kept a secret from those in both devalok and martyalok. Given her various ties to P@rvata. (Ibid. sitting astride her lion with weapons raised. we both are so very lucky. If I am worthy of this matter being told. despite the fact that P@rvata is herself present in the vrat kath@ and in fact urges Mah@dev to make known the Svasth@na vrat among the human population as described above. sons. and Identity in Hindu Nepal the daughters of the gods and the daughters of the n@ga-s were gathered together and sat doing the vrat of Svasth@na Parames´vara. S´ra Bhagav@na Mah@rudra related this matter in detail.) These inconsistencies reflect the complex nature of the Goddess figure in the Hindu tradition. she again asks. each person who is a devotee: What vrat is there that has been kept secret from these people? You should be pleased and tell me. P@rvata asks. it is not surprising that Svasth@na is also positioned as S´iva’s consort in the text and in the popular imaginaire. the palanquin bearers returned to the palanquin with incredible happiness and said to their mistress. We saw the daughters of the gods performing the vrat of Svasth@na Parames´vara. in this opening dialogue she claims to be ignorant of the rite. After P@rvata learns from Mah@dev that this secreted vrat is that of the goddess Svasth@na. however.oxfordjournals. whose creative and destructive powers of illusion and delusion are perhaps most applicable for our understanding of Svasth@na. many relatives. and husbands. curiously. in the opening verses of the oldest SVK manuscripts. I have a great desire to listen to the story of who first heard this kath@ [of the vrat] and of who first performed this vrat.) Master! Is there a vrat that you have kept very secret? What karman should be done to benefit you? Gods. We brought flowers from the vrat. What is surprising. (Ibid. to listen to this vrat from you. but is also quick to temper and lash out at those who wrong her. But she is likened to Mah@m@y@. Iconography. Upon her asking. We are very thankful. With one hand she sent the palanquin bearers to heaven and with her other she relegated the sinful Candr@vata to a (temporary yet long) life of misery. is that she is simultaneously portrayed as independent and unfettered by a male companion or master. Downloaded from http://jhs. . 2014 Svasth@na and her vrat are therefore evidently familiar to those residing in devalok.) Moreover. Svasth@na is generally benign and benevolent. Yet.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. daitya-s (demons). brothers and their own wives. 1).14 In this singular image of the goddess. what do we find when we examine representations of the goddess in the few non-textual images of the goddess available to us? Just as. It is similarly impossible to recognise S´iva’s token third eye.13 a development discussed below. wears earrings and armlets of serpents. in stark contrast to the hundreds of extant SVK manuscripts available to us. physical images of the goddess are few in number. the king of Kathmandu. 2014 Given the varied narrative portrait of Svasth@na presented in the SVK. who sits to the right of Svasth@na. we see carved in stone the complexities of Svasth@na’s identity described in the narrative text. similarly situated and depicted with four arms. She is seated next to him in a manner emblematic of his union with his consort. Prat@p’s inscription. it is in these images that we also see the physical manifestation of the transformation of Svasth@na into a protector deity. it is difficult to discern whether or not Svasth@na has the stated third eye. As such. and armlets and a headdress. consecrated an image of the goddess near the royal palace in Kathmandu and so made permanent the presence of Svasth@na in the Nepal Valley12 (Fig. however. This is the first known. Nevertheless. Svasth@na is notably absent (or at least largely invisible) in the SVK. it is S´iva. remarkably. most notably Um@ and P@rvata. He sits upon a bull. In 1674 CE [NS 794] Prat@p Malla. the Thrice Illustrious Svasth@na was . thereby assuredly announcing that Svasth@na is his consort. she immediately becomes interchangeable with the other personas of S´iva’s consorts. the only extant statue of Svasth@na until the twenty-first century. He is also draped with a garland of skulls.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 207 Svasth@na in art The oldest image of Svasth@na Downloaded from http://jhs. clearly identifies the female seated with the easily recognisable S´iva as a goddess named Svasth@na: ‘Together with the Thrice Illustrious S´iva. However.oxfordjournals. With her lower right hand she makes the boon-giving gesture and her lower left hand makes the feardispelling gesture. She is ornamented with a flower necklace. She is seated upon a lion. Svasth@na is almost identical with the description of her offered in the earliest SVK manuscripts. extant physical image of the goddess and. and makes the fear-dispelling gesture with his lower right hand while holding a p@tra or vessel in his lower left hand. earrings. and in her raised right hand she holds a sword and in her raised left hand a shield.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. Perhaps the most visually striking aspect of this image is that Svasth@na is depicted not alone but with S´iva. Because of the layers of colourful red and yellow powder used in deity worship. has a crown on his head and a crescent moon in his matted hair. Svasth@na’s ambiguous nature as somewhere between that of a mild and wild goddess is initially reified in these limited images. A blue lotus appears to hover near her upraised raised left hand that holds the shield. holds in his upraised right hand a string of beads (akXam@l@) and in his upraised left hand a trident. In this unique and sizable statue. p. . Gautam Vajr@c@rya entitles his transcription of the statue’s inscription ‘The inscription of Prat@p Malla at the base of Um@ Mahes´vara at Tana Bahal’ (Vajr@c@rya 2003 [1976]. Sakya and Vaidya.15 Similarly. which must be much newer. for example. comment without further remark that in the Svasth@na statue Downloaded from http://jhs.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. Vaidya first identify the stone image as ‘Swasth@naparames´vara‘.208 Politics of Gender. ). although Hemraj Sakya and T. Kathmandu. 141). 2). p.though the date of this nametag. The goddess’s name is also conspicuously painted above the stone carving further clarifying what was already clearly stated in the inscription . Iconography. scholars have all but unanimously identified this happy couple as none other than Um@ Mahes´vara. and the local goddess Svasth@na. and Identity in Hindu Nepal established’ (‘s´ra 3 s´ivasahitena s´ra 3 svasth@na parames´vara’ . 231). they immediately offer parenthetical clarification that this represents S´iva and P@rvata (Sakya and Vaidya 1970. . What is surprising is that these scholars see but fail to consider the importance of the differences in the physical representation of these two panHindu goddesses. Nevertheless. . Photo by author. Location. R. The S´iva-Svasth@na statue installed in 1674 CE by King Prat@p Malla in Makhan Tol. 2014 Figure 1. is unknown (Fig. Um@ and
[email protected]. typical of the fierce warrior goddess
[email protected]. These symbols are. Um@ often bears a string of beads. in her own sanctuary or in the village with which her tradition becomes so intimately associated. While S´iva here essentially conforms to traditional Um@-Mahes´vara iconography.18 More specifically. 2014 Figure 2. Even when depicted alone. she is not customarily associated with emblems of war such as a sword and shield. benign consort. . These differences in this stone image are that S´iva holds a vessel and.16 In other words. The ‘s´rasvasth@na’ painted above this 1674 CE statue leaves little doubt as to the identity of the goddess seated next to Mah@dev. Her left leg raised on the seat. the lion. then. namely. the goddess’s possession of both a weapon (the sword) and warfare-related armour (the shield) is a notable divergence from Um@’s conventional iconography. as S´iva’s peaceful. The only aspect of this established iconography that is found in the Svasth@na stone image is the goddess’s holding of a flower in her left hand. sometimes a staff.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. The lower part of her body is turned gracefully outwards with her right foot hanging down and resting on the back of her tiny mount. he erected the Svasth@na statue in close proximity to the main Taleju temple in Downloaded from http://jhs. The location of this Svasth@na image further reinforces this latter association with the fierce warrior goddess. but also aligned with Durg@ because of the weaponry she wields. Rather than installing this image in the goddess’s own place. Svasth@na is associated with Um@/P@rvata on account of her physical proximity and demeanour with S´iva.).Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 209 ‘the disposition of symbols in the hands of the two deities differs from the normal Um@-Mahes´vara image’ (ibid. on the contrary. pp.17 At one and the same time. Um@ is holding a flower in her left hand’ (Sakya 2000. Svasth@na holds a sword and shield. Prat@p placed it near the royal palace in Kathmandu. 59–60). Um@ typically ‘nestl[es] on her husband’s left thigh with her right hand. more importantly. Photo by author. a vessel. and makes the boongranting gesture and sometimes the fear-dispelling gesture. then. and ‘sth@nam‘. is the connection between Taleju and Svasth@na? Taleju’s primary role as the protective tutelary deity of the Hindu monarchy is well established. was established as the tutelary deity of the Nepal monarchy by Jayasthiti Malla in the fourteenth century. I would argue that Prat@p’s choice of location in such close proximity to his favoured Taleju and the royal palace cannot be merely coincidental. There are. and Identity in Hindu Nepal Downloaded from http://jhs. of course. Location. During the construction of the great Taleju temple. What. Svasth@na. To expand on the . Even in the courtyard of Tana Bahal there are a handful of smaller stone images of K@la and of ViXnu in the form of his fish avatar. Her patronage and protection were of the utmost importance to the Malla kings. Upon entering Tana (which is the commonly abbreviated name of T@n@deva or T@ra>a Bhav@na) Bahal through its west (and only) gate. 2014 Kathmandu’s royal palace square. standing. is the Goddess of One’s Own Place. which flank the S´iva-Svasth@na image. and religious well being of the state and its (Hindu) population. portions of the temple fell down on Tana Bahal. countless temples and statues of any number of deities in the vicinity of Taleju’s watchful gaze from her own temple. it is reasonable to conclude that ‘one’s own place’ here broadly refers to the Nepal Valley. which in a compound most often means ‘one’s own‘. a local form of the goddess Durg@. situation. p. 1737). Whereas Taleju protects the political well being of the king and state. cultural. ‘An accomplished tantric then prayed in this shrine who was instructed by an oracle to take a pinnacle of this shrine and install it on the Taleju temple.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. nor does the SVK manuscript make any mention or even hint of this area in its local geography. The inscription itself offers no indication of the significance of its particular location. which means ‘place. The name Svasth@na is a composite Sanskrit word that consists of ‘sva’.19 I would like to suggest that Svasth@na similarly emerged in Nepal’s divine pantheon as a protector deity and that it is in this capacity that she shares mutual interests and associations with Taleju. in a small temple courtyard called Tana Bahal that is adjacent to the northern side of Taleju’s storied temple. one’s own abode’ (Apte 1998. and so on. Given that the SVK textual tradition is rooted in the Nepal Valley20 and that the tradition has not had in historical or modern times any currency in India. Prin. This unimposing temple is. in the medieval period and the Shah rulers in the modern period. Then the Taleju temple was completed’ (Majupuria and Kumar 1993. Off to the south of them in the courtyard is a late-fifteenth-century small house-like temple dedicated to T@n@deva/ T@ra>a Bhav@na. Svasth@na protects the social. 70). Iconography. let us explore a brief but relevant tangent to consider the significance of the goddess’s name. region’. as well as of Ga>es´. such as Prat@p Malla. However. S´iva and Svasth@na are the first deities encountered. The addition of ‘-a’ to the compound then feminises it. according to one local legend. She has since then served the historically critical and prestigious role of protecting the kingdom through the medium of the monarchy. abode. Taleju.210 Politics of Gender. p. To explicate this further. then.oxfordjournals. Vaman Shivaram Apte provides a gloss for the whole compound in his A Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary: ‘svasth@nam[:] one’s own place or home. The statue is located in Makhan Tol. intimately associated with Taleju. or a nation (ibid). regional. therefore. This protected area may be as local and personal as one’s home. As the Goddess of One’s Own Place. This role of the AXbam@tPk@ and Svasth@na’s own role as a goddess of place and protection take on new significance when the SVK tradition establishes a connection between the .e. these goddesses ‘all are classed as hitv@dyo. religious. guiding devotees as they navigate their way through complex relationships. and the larger local. p. such as ‘(In politics. somewhat fierce or forbidding deities who expect blood sacrifice’ (Slusser 1982.22 In contrast to the protection Durg@ historically offered on the battlefield and Taleju provided in the royal courts.21 In Nepal. ‘with the eight mother goddesses personified in household tools’ (Iltis 1985. 344). the AXbam@tPk@ physically demarcate the area they protect. the AXbam@tPk@ are linked to Durg@ and Taleju. p. town. which are each encircled by AXbam@tPk@ temples).oxfordjournals. and cultural identity formation and negotiation. Patan. 641) or a neighbourhood. Nepal was also navigating its emerging identity as the ‘asal Hindustan’. one of Svasth@na’s central roles is. war &c. or a town or city (such as Kathmandu. this site of social. as evidenced by her eventual association with the AXbam@tPk@. and eventually national community.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 211 Downloaded from http://jhs. it is worth noting that ‘sva’ can also mean ‘belonging to one’s own caste or tribe’ (Apte 1998. p. all of which are engaged in negotiating their specific time and place in the immediate and broader contexts of their socioreligious and geopolitical standing.) [t]he firm attitude or bearing of troops. The idea that Svasth@na represents a place to be nurtured and protected continues to gain currency over the coming centuries. This interpretation is further supported by the additional definitions of ‘sth@nam’ Apte offers. army. As the embodiment of ‘one’s own place’. 1736) which suggests that Svasth@na serves also as a divine figure who represents and protects a specific community that seeks protection or differentiation from other communities. 2014 possible implications of each component of the goddess’ name. treasure. p. she simultaneously represents the individual. to demarcate and protect this place. or Eight Mother Goddesses.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. Moreover. 1721). These alternative ways of translating and understanding the implications of ‘one’s own place’ yield additional levels of significance to Svasth@na’s identity and relationship to the Hindu communities that worship her. a stamina of a kingdom. 322). or pure land of the Hindus. During Nepal’s medieval period and well into the modern period. and Bhaktapur. These goddesses are all invested with the critical role ‘as guardian protectors of Nepal Mandala’ (Slusser 1982. and territory’ (Apte 1998. In this way. p. the home or family. In this way Svasth@na emerged as a socioreligious ambassador for medieval and modern Nepal. Nepal and its indigenous Newar Hindu population were navigating their place and identity as Hindus and Nepalis in response to the influx into the Nepal Valley of high-caste hill Hindus and orthodox Brahmanical Hindu ideology and practice. which the ruling class of Nepal consciously constructed vis-a`-vis what they perceived as the defilement of India and its Hindu population at the hands of first the Mughals and then the British. i. standing firm so as to repel a charge’ and ‘[t]hat which constitutes the chief strength or the very existence of a kingdom. 3). there is another image (that precedes the one just described) that provides an important link between earlier and later depictions of
[email protected]. this association with LakXma is tentative. Yet it is not until over another hundred years later that we find the first artistic drawings and paintings of the goddess. and Identity in Hindu Nepal mother goddesses and Svasth@na. 2014 In the nascent years of the SVK tradition in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. sits on an ornate chaise while seemingly greeting and/or giving/receiving dars´an from Mah@dev23 (Fig. By the early to mid-twentieth century. More rarely is an image of the goddess included in the text itself. Since their gradual emergence beginning in the early nineteenth century. Aside from their shared characterisation as benevolent goddesses and the fact that all goddesses are ultimately one with the Goddess. situated between two trees (Fig. the earliest image of the goddess that I have discovered. a statue of the goddess materialised near the royal palace in Kathmandu. 5). Perhaps more telling is the presence of a ‘Svasth@na yantra’ at all.212 Politics of Gender.24 No longer seated upon a tiger. or mirror used for ritual purposes. which may reflect the influence of Tantrism on the Svasth@na tradition. for example. Iconography. In the same 1885 CE manuscript. a connection that develops over hundreds of years before it becomes physically manifest in the tradition. the imagery surrounding Svasth@na has ranged from symbolic representations to anthropomorphic images that associate the goddess not with S´iva/ Mah@dev but with the AXbam@
[email protected]/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. Svasth@na is now pictured sitting in the middle a lotus flower. the text described Svasth@na in words but offered no physical representations of her. Svasth@na is here seen with her various emblems and seated with Ga>es´ to her right and Kum@r to her left. again outfitted with her symbolic paraphernalia (which rarely match those described in the text itself). including an unusual image of Svasth@na being fanned by a female devotee as she. Artistic images of Svasth@na in SVK manuscripts Downloaded from http://jhs. images of Svasth@na’s likeness were painted on the insides of the wooden covers that protected handwritten manuscripts. Initially. In the last third of the seventeenth century. with whom the darpana is commonly associated. This unusual symbolisation of the goddess Svasth@na suggests a connection between Svasth@na and LakXma. offers several drawings of events described in the text. The diagram as a whole is labelled as the yantra of Svasth@na (‘s´rasvasth@naparames´varakoyantra’). In the middle of the darpana is drawn an eight-petal lotus flower. 4). Location. The image presents a darpana. A SVK from 1885 CE [VS 1942]. each of whom is seated on a petal of the lotus and is identified by . both these sporadic individual portraits of the goddess and the Svasth@na yantra evolve into a different image of the goddess that increasingly become a fixture in the majority of SVK texts from the midtwentieth century onwards. Each petal is marked with the name of one of the eight Mother Goddesses. the pan-Hindu goddess of wealth. She is surrounded by the AXbam@tPk@. such as that on the front cover of an 1830 CE [NS 950] SVK (Fig. She has four arms and three eyes. reel no. p. I25/41). An early image of the goddess Svasth@na painted on the inside of the wooden cover of a 1830 CE SVK (private copy.oxfordjournals. emblems. The inclusion of the trident comes in addition to or at the expense of the shield and boon-giving Downloaded from http://jhs. it is notable that in this image she now holds a trident. She holds upraised [in two hands] a sword and trident. 3). Her beauty is radiant like the color of gold. and vehicles. 2014 Figure 3. This Nepali language text was produced by lithography in 1885 CE (National Archives. 6).Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 213 Figure 4.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. One of the earliest illustrations of the goddess Svasth@na in the pages of a SVK manuscript. as seen in a 1947 CE SVK (Fig. and is adorned with all kinds of ornaments. their name. Kathmandu). Under this reenvisioned picture in the 1947 CE SVK is a Sanskrit verse that describes this new image of Svasth@na: Svasth@na Jagadas´vara is seated among the eight Mother Goddesses on an eight leaf petal. While it is common for pictorial representations of Svasth@na to deviate from the description of her given in the body of the SVK text. . one of S´iva/Mah@dev’s iconic symbols. and with her lower [hands] holds a shield and a blue lotus (S´arm@ 1947. and Identity in Hindu Nepal Figure 6. I25/41).org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. The ?Xbam@tPk@ are represented as the eight petals of the lotus flower situated in the middle of this darpana. 2014 Figure 5. . reel no. or mirror (National Archives. Iconography.214 Politics of Gender.oxfordjournals. Svasth@na seated in the center of an eight-petal lotus and surrounded by the ?Xbam@tPk@ in a SVK from 1947 CE (Madan Purask@r Pustak@laya). Downloaded from http://jhs. A ‘Svasth@na yantra’ found in an 1885 CE SVK. Location. Svasth@na is no longer described as seated upon a lion but is instead ‘seated among the eight Mother Goddesses on an eight leaf petal’. just as Mah@dev does in the oldest extant SVK manuscripts when P@rvata asks about the most difficult vrat. A SVK from 1970 CE. for example. Svasth@na represents both the place to be protected and is the source of its protection.oxfordjournals.they are part of her and her identity. placed at the point of definition of this protective ma>nala. Svasth@na. The mother goddesses do not merely protect Svasth@na and all that she embodies . The absence of the tiger immediately distances Svasth@na from her association with Durg@ and her role as S´iva’s consort. Interestingly. nor is there any concrete historical evidence that documents the origin and development of Svasth@na’s connection with the AXbam@tPk@. protective nature. who both represented the idea and protected the experience of place as a site of sociocultural and religious identity negotiation among the people of the Nepal Valley. who are both the disease and its cure. Interestingly. The explicit connection made here between her and the mother goddesses. now also represented the ‘place to be protected’. 642). for example. his instructions include telling P@rvata to worship Svasth@na and the AXbam@tPk@. ViX>u describes her as ‘seated among the eight mother goddesses on an eight-petal lotus flower’ (S´rasvasth@naparames´vary@kath@ [sic] VS 1904 [1847 CE]). so that she actually represents ‘one’s own place’ (Iltis 1985. upon Mah@dev’s request. however. Now encircled by the AXbam@tPk@. 2014 and fear-dispelling gestures. Much like afflicting and healing goddesses. Swasthani [sic] is the ‘place to be protected‘.25 More importantly. In the course of relating to her the necessary instructions. ViXnu instructs P@rvata to perform the Svasth@na vrat.26 This directive does not refer to an altogether different vrat. there is no mention of the AXbam@tPk@ in the earliest SVK narrative variant. It is only in the nineteenth century that the AXbam@tPk@ first appear in the SVK narrative. adds an additional title to this picture and verse that plainly states that the AXbam@tPk@ represent the eight natural forms of the goddess Svasth@na (‘s´ra svasth@na deva k@ @bha svarupa’). ViXnu describes the goddess Svasth@na. family or community. such as Sitala/H@rata/ M@riyamma@. this close relationship between these goddesses is not present in the oldest extant Nepali language SVK (dated to 1810 CE [S´akya Samvat 1732]) nor Downloaded from http://jhs. In some variants. but rather suggests the conflation of a vrat honouring the AXbam@tPk@ with the vrat of Svasth@na. she is situated at the center of their protective embrace. p. As Linda Iltis states: .org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. and their presence is in name only – much like the presence of Svasth@na herself. only reinforces Svasth@na’s fierce. In P@rvata’s mission to win Mah@dev as her husband.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 215 In her abstract nature. leaving little doubt as to the significance of Svasth@na’s relationship to the AXbam@tPk@ and the meaning of this ma>nala. Many modern SVK texts from the past decade go one step further to state the complexity of Svasth@na’s personality and purpose. In an 1847 CE [VS 1904] SVK. The ‘place’ differs for each individual. The goddess Svasth@na in this image – the first of its kind since Pratap Malla consecrated his S´iva-Svasth@na m+rti in 1674 – bears notable similarities and dissimilarities with her earlier images.216 Politics of Gender.oxfordjournals. each depicting one of the sixty-four yoginas. Rather than seated upon a lion and next to S´iva. Iconography. While images of Svasth@na have by this time all but erased any traces of her once explicit and dominant association with S´iva. What remains unclear from the text is who first made this connection between Svasth@na and the mother goddesses and why. Also begun in 2002 and nearing completion in 2008 when I last visited Sankhu. and flanking its sides are GaneX on the top left and Kum@r on the top right and two fierce deities on the lower right and left. would become associated with the AXbam@tPk@. It is this picture that Shrestha sells to numerous devotees and pilgrims each year during the Svasth@na vrat and mel@ in Sankhu. the temple is an exemplary illustration of traditional Newar woodworking and craftsmanship. on the petals of which are situated the eight mother goddesses. this relationship is established and soon thereafter crystallised. Hovering above the large lotus are two apsaras-s bearing garlands. in the village of Sankhu. It is built like an eight-petal lotus. Yet it is also unlike any temple I have ever seen in Nepal or elsewhere. Svasth@na in Sankhu Downloaded from http://jhs. who are also traditionally aniconic goddesses. . with each petal dedicated to one of the AXbam@tPk@. next to an equally small photo of the artist himself. Along the upper part of the temple are sixty-four struts. 7). 9). In 2002. Svasth@na holds in her two right hands an upraised sword and trident and in her two left hands a discus and blue lotus. Yet by the mid-nineteenth century. 8). and Identity in Hindu Nepal does it seem to be a regular feature in the Newar language SVK variant tradition. Similarly striking is the brand new temple built to house the goddess Svasth@na (Fig. She is seated both on a lotus and in the middle of a larger lotus.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. 2014 Svasth@na’s association with the AXbam@tPk@ has been further entrenched in the public imagination in recent years on account of a popular painting sold during the annual month-long Svasth@na vrat and mel@. Location. which clearly draws on Svasth@na’s modern ties with the AXbam@tPk@27 (Fig. but much like other more modern representations of the goddess. this painting includes a small image of S´iva’s head atop a lin˙ga and of his bull vehicle below the large lotus housing Svasth@na and the AXbam@tPk@. Svasth@na here sits cross-legged upon an eight-petal lotus constituted by the AXbam@tPk@ (Fig. thus introducing into many Nepali homes a physical image of Svasth@na – with the AXbam@tPk@ – for the first time. herself historically an aniconic figure. as in Pratap Malla’s m+rti. Sankhu locals commissioned a statue of Svasth@na designed by Shrestha. It is perhaps fitting that the goddess Svasth@na. She is bedecked with what has become her customary signalia in the local region based on Shrestha’s painting. Some years ago. or festival. local artist and farmer Bhupendra Man Shrestha was inspired to paint his vision of the goddess Svasth@na. The new Svasth@na-AXbam@tPk@ m+rti reflects the transformation of the goddess from being identified first and foremost as the lesser-known local consort of the pan-Hindu great god S´iva. She wields weaponry but is not a warrior. to a more independent goddess self-assuredly situated among her host of fellow divine female protectresses. A local Sankhu artist’s painting of Svasth@na surrounded by the AXbam@tPk@. She is independent and claims no consort but is nevertheless closely associated with (and often overshadowed by)
[email protected]/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. This is remarkable because it reflects the relatively modern association found only more recently in the textual tradition. Svasth@na is a local Nepali goddess who embodies the diversity and hybridity of traditional female and divine characteristics and associations.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 217 This Sankhu m+rti of the goddess and her temple are unusual for several reasons. nor is she explicitly a mother figure or a virgin. She has agency but little if any actual voice. More significant is the design of the statue that has Svasth@na seated upon the eight mother goddesses. . on the other hand. and. The statue is made of black granite. Downloaded from http://jhs. Conclusion If we return to the initial question posed at the outset of this essay – Who is Svasth@na? – it seems that we now have more questions than we have answers. Lastly. 2014 Figure 7. which is a common material for divine images in South India. but less common in Nepal. on the one hand. She is formidable but also benevolent. Like Nepal’s Guhyes´vara. because it consequently deviates markedly from Pratap Malla’s S´iva-Svasth@na m+rti.oxfordjournals. ‘goddess of the secret’. there is the mere fact of its existence. whose watchful gaze keeps an eye on Svasth@na. which comes some five hundred years after the known beginning of the Svasth@na tradition and over nearly two hundred years after the only other known statue was consecrated. p. boundless power’ (Michaels et al. Buddhist S´akti or consort of Hevajra. Iconography. such as private/public. and Identity in Hindu Nepal who is variously regarded and worshipped as ‘the Vaidic-Puranic P@rvata or Satadeva. 30). p. can well be applied to Svasth@na. wife of S´iva. The Svasth@na goddess tradition reveals a productive blurring of potentially false or misleading boundaries and dichotomies.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5.oxfordjournals. This inability to neatly categorise and contain these goddesses reflects Downloaded from http://jhs.g. Location. local/ regional/supraregional. Guhyak@la). alcohol-accepting goddess (e. as a Tantric. Michaels’ conclusion that the uncertainty surrounding Guhyes´vara’s identity is what ‘gives her and other goddesses unlimited. Photo by the author (January 2005). they just as often highlight the shortcomings of these umbrella categories and demonstrate the fluidity and hybridity that in fact characterises many South Asian goddesses. While at times these goddesses may conform to the traditional categories of the so-called ‘mild’ and ‘wild’ goddesses. and Brahmanical/folk. Svasth@na has not yet fully revealed her identity. and last but not least as a folk deity’ (Michaels 1996. 1996. The statue in Sankhu of Svasth@na seated upon the AXbam@tPk@ prior to its installation in her own temple. as a Mah@yanist or Vajray@nist Buddhist goddess.218 Politics of Gender. 2014 Figure 8. . 316). 29 The K@la tradition in Bengal. desires. Sati and P@rvata. What is more striking than this fluid indeterminacy is the shift we see from Svasth@na’s clear association with Mah@dev to her intimate ties with the AXbam@tPk@. the portrait of Svasth@na the SVK paints increasingly presents her pleasantly but firmly situated in the protective embrace of the eight Mother Goddesses. Photo by the author. ‘sweeter’ aspects according to the needs. In doing so. which refers to gradual favouring of a wild(er) goddess’ less wild. like the women who look to them for guidance and support. 32). 1996. p. Svasth@na will inevitably continue to be likened to Mah@dev’s famous wives. not Mah@dev. thus insuring her continued if somewhat ambiguous relationship with Mah@dev. In the case of Svasth@na. destructive aspects so visible in her iconography and mythology (McDermott 1996). At the same time.28 Moreover. possess creative powers that can be used for productive or destructive ends and have different roles to play in different contexts. 2014 Figure 9. the sweetening process is neither definitive nor linear. however. for example.oxfordjournals. there is a simultaneous softening of Svasth@na as a woman gathered together with her female friends and an immediate emboldening of her as a fierce.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 219 the fluidity of their individual and collective identities as wild or mild. protective deity. it highlights the fact that goddesses like Svasth@na. illustrates this phenomenon insofar as Bengalis embrace the goddess’ motherly persona as ‘the allcompassionate Mother’ more so than her fierce. The new Svasth@na temple in Sankhu nearing completion in January 2008. and perceptions of the goddess’ devotees (Michaels et al. These transformations evoke the idea of ‘the sweetening of wild goddesses’. . because their myths constitute the bulk of the modern SVK narrative. The dynamic tension between Svasth@na as mild consort goddess and Svasth@na as fierce(r) protector goddess is in large part what gives her currency among and makes her accessible to her devotees. as Svasth@na seems to maintain Downloaded from http://jhs. 23). whether emphasis is placed on her association with Mah@dev or the AXbam@tPk@. Second.30 It is nevertheless important to note that. once her s´akti is no longer safely mediated through S´iva. the fierce nature of many Hindu (and Buddhist) deities. Svasth@na has the potential to become hypersexualised as an independent. political. Brahmanical religious orientation into the social. At the same time. cultural. as to why Sankhu locals commissioned their Svasth@na statue within the past decade. is ‘an expression not of malevolence. and political specificity of Nepal. p. This is particularly true during three key periods of transformation in Nepal’s medieval and modern history. Spanning the length of the country are the words ‘s´rasvasth@nanam’. For example. . which was subsequently subjugated. indigenous Newar Hindu (and Buddhist) population. and Identity in Hindu Nepal Downloaded from http://jhs. The picture depicts a large ray of light that emanates from an om q symbol. and shines upon the full length of an outline of modern Nepal. there is a notable desexualisation of the goddess as she is further removed from her male partner.220 Politics of Gender. Location. but of protective potency’ (Iltis 1985. To suggest that Svasth@na has ever been or would ever be identified primarily as a fierce goddess is to overstate the case. many ethnic groups in Nepal have sought to reassert their presence and group identity vis-a`vis the long favoured and sociopolitically dominant high-caste Hindus. fierce goddess. leaving little doubt that Svasth@na embodies the historical social. 2014 a balance between the wild and mild aspects of her identity. and religious domain of the local. herself becomes a place to be protected. As what is in need of protection evolves with growing import from the individual to the family and home to the local and then regional community to the nation. passes through the royal Nepal crown.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. particularly in Newar contexts. the ruling elite in Nepal actively positioned their kingdom as a – as the – Hindu kingdom as a means of justifying and maintaining their ruling power and independence. despite her more explicit association with the AXbam@tPk@ in contemporary iconography. First. Moreover. Reassertion of Newar Hindu identity and practice may provide some explanation. during both the colonial and Rana period in the 19th century and the post-Rana and -colonial periods in the 20th century. The goddess herself is now both protector and herself protected. Svasth@na. there is a shift in the implication of who and/or what is to be protected. in response to the Maoist insurgency (1996– 2006) and the subsequent fall of the royal monarchy in 2008. as protector of these places and peoples and their associated local and translocal identities as Hindus and as Nepalis. as Linda Iltis rightly points out. devotees continue to celebrate Svasth@na in her ‘sweeter’ role as P@rvata. Third. If anything. religious. That these sociocultural and political understandings of the goddess as a protector of one’s own place and as a place to be protected continue to be embraced and propagated in the Nepali imaginaire today is exemplified by the illustration on the inside cover of Tarthal@l R@jbha>n@ra’s 1985 S´ra Svasth@na Brata
[email protected]. in the wake of the Gorkha conquest in the eighteenth century. there was the rise of the high-caste hill Hindus and the encroachment of their orthodox. for example. Iconography. and image were gradual.oxfordjournals. These reflect the complexities of coming into being. though all extent evidence available to us suggests a quiet birth in the same vein as the relatively ‘new’ goddess SantoXa
[email protected]. of being female in Hindu thought and practice. We still know little of Svasth@na’s actual origin. who appeared unannounced.31 Neither Nepal’s harsh environment nor historically non-literate culture was conducive to the reproduction of a lay textual tradition. onedimensional representation of the goddess. inscriptions. According to art historian Jinah Kim. and decidedly local – not to mention determined and relevant – nature of the goddess and her tradition. Svasth@na imagery gradually became increasingly dynamic and evolved into two-dimensional artistic renderings and three-dimensional images in stone. Svasth@na emerged from the conceptual realm into the material realm. Svasth@na was physically represented and so worshipped in the form of the SVK text itself. From an essentially aniconic image to anthropomorphic in theory to anthropomorphic in reality.) of Svasth@na could have more easily withstood the tests of time and environment. One wonders if. This speaks to the personal. at least initially. private.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 221 Downloaded from http://jhs. and without great fanfare in vrat pamphlets in last half of the twentieth century. function. given the growing popularity of the goddess and her tradition evidenced by the vast number of extant SVK manuscripts from the sixteenth century to the present day. Nevertheless. without a historical predecessor per se. 2014 But the evolution of the goddess Svasth@na’s identity. in seeking to locate Svasth@na within both the pan-Hindu pantheon and Nepal’s regional divine and human populations. statues. for the book is worshipped as a collective icon of the five protective goddesses’ (Kim 2010. . and of being Hindu in medieval and modern Nepal. Physical representations (i. though her origin may always be shrouded in mystery. A vibrant description of her is available from the earliest dated materials of her tradition.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. Continued scrutiny of the epigraphical information often (but not always) contained in the six hundred plus SVK manuscripts preserved in Nepal’s archives or in the hundreds of private copies owned by families throughout Hindu Nepal may eventually yield more insight as to machinations (human or otherwise) behind the creation of the goddess Svasth@na. 1). the Pan˜carakX@ goddesses ‘owe their cultic presence to the physicality of the [Pan˜carakX@ s+tra] in which they reside. She initially seems to have lived only within the pages of the vrat kath@ text that bears her name. yet for centuries it offered only a verbal. There are very few sightings of Svasth@na outside of the text and outside of the homes of her devotees. p. etc. while Svasth@na’s import and presence continues to be tied to the SVK text. we are able to see the complexity of her identity and the evolving nature of her associations and functions. Nevertheless. The lack of artistic representation of Svasth@na is notable. much like the cult of the protective Pan˜carakX@ goddesses. over the last five hundred years of her tradition. Yet hundreds of SVK manuscripts survived and are virtually our only source for accessing the history of the text and its patron goddess. Kim. Location. Nepal: Nepal Sanskrti Laypau. 2014 Research for this article was supported by a Fulbright-Hayes Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Fellowship (2004–2006) and a Mellon/ACLS Doctoral Dissertation Completion Fellowship (2008).. 1982. L.. with the collaboration of R@jop@dhy@ya. R. Iconography. 2010. Mukti Lakhi Mangharam. Gupta. S. and Identity in Hindu Nepal Acknowledgements References Apte. R. P. Kyoto: Rinsen Book Company. S. . NS 1124 [2004]. Paper read at Fourth Dubrovnik International Conference on the Sanskrit Epics and Puranas (DICSEP 4).. In: Michaels. Kathmandu Durbar Square (Hanuman Dhoka old palace: in & around).. G. Prabin Raj Shrestha. Wulff. Iltis. Dissertation. Dangerous wives. 1986. P. L. L. sacred sisters: social and symbolic roles of high-caste women in Nepal. Jwala Tuladhar (Sthapit). The divine consort: Radha and the goddesses of India. Varanasi.. The ‘Pur@>ization’ of the Nepalese M@h@tmya Literature. C... T. S.oxfordjournals. Iltis. Vogelsanger. South Asian folklore: an encyclopedia. 257–260. and Bhupendra Man Shrestha in Sankhu. Bu¨hnemann. 1996. Goddesses.. Bennett. R. D. place. Lalitpur. and Triveni Kuchi of the South Asian Studies Working Group at Rutgers University for their insightful critiques of an early draft of this article during my tenure as an ACLS New Faculty Fellow in the Department of Religion at Rutgers. Chicago. D. Kinsley. 2010. M. J. Nida Sajid. L. Kumar. H. (eds). New York: Columbia University Press.. C.. India: Indica Books.D. Meheli Sen. (eds). Mesocosm: Hinduism and the organization of a traditional Newar city in Nepal. A. Claus. I would like to thank the following friends and colleagues in Nepal without whom this research would not have been possible: Prakash Man Shrestha. F. Wulff. J. Berkeley: University of California Press. In: Mills. Hawley. and identity in Nepal. S´ra 3 Svasth@na Vrata P+j@vidhi va Kath@ [The ritual manual and story of the vow of S´ra 3 Svasth@na].’ Artibus Asiae 71: 259–329. National Archives. The Hindu pantheon in Nepalese line drawings: two manuscripts of the PratiXbh@lakXa>
[email protected] Politics of Gender. K@yastha. Deva: goddesses of India. Hawley. 2003. S. (eds). and the helpful staffs at the Nepal Research Center. 2003. Ph. Madison. Levy. 1985. place. Popular attitudes towards K@la and her poetry tradition: interviewing S´aktas in Bengal. M. Wilke. D.. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. New York: Routledge. University of Wisconsin-Madison.. Birkenholtz. M. I also thank Anjali Nerlekar.. McDermott. and Kasinath Tamot.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. Wild Downloaded from http://jhs. 1993. Dissertation. (eds). 2005. 1983. The Swasthani Vrata: Newar women and ritual in Nepal. V.. Diamond. D. Brinkhaus. Languages and Civilizations of Asia. at Dubrovnik. V.D. A. Croatia. C. 1996. Ph. K. India: Smt.. R. Majupuria. The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary. University of Chicago. ?s´@ Saph+ Kuthi. and Kaiser Library in Kathmandu. Berkeley: University of California Press. J. ‘A book of Buddhist goddesses: illustrated manuscripts of the Pan˜caraks @ S+tra and their ritual use.. The Svasth@na Vrata Kath@ tradition: translating self. Hindu goddesses: visions of the divine feminine in the Hindu religious tradition. and identity in Hindu Nepal.. M. South Asian Languages and Civilizations. 1990. Laskhar (Gwalior). I. L. 1998. R. Berkeley: University of California Press. J. CE. R. Par@jula. Michaels. R. Kathmandu. Medieval Nepal: colophons and inscriptions. Purana as Brahminic ideology. 2 vols. 2003. W. There are. Nepal: S´ramata GhanalakXma S´arm@. pp. Iltis 2003. Kathmandu. Short description of gods. Vajr@c@rya. Kathmandu.. (eds). Hanumandhoka Rajadarbara.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. H. Berne and Zurich. November 1994. in the west. Bern. S´rasvasth@naparames´vary@kath@ [sic].. C. goddesses and ritual objects of Buddhism and Hinduism in Nepal. Madhuparka. are the only known Svasth@na dramas and the only known extant SVK texts in Mithili (Birkenholtz 2010. 2003 [1976]. Germany: Peter Lang. 383–415. In: Michaels.. Kathmandu. pp. 1. Albany: State University of New York Press.. Medieval Nepal. Nepal Mandala: a cultural study of the Kathmandu Valley. 2014 goddesses in India and Nepal: proceedings of an international symposium.. Berkeley: University of California Press. V@r@>asa: Trim+rti Prak@shan. R. 85–100.L. which I have been unable to track down and verify. Sakya.. are generally unaware of her. Vogelsanger. Wild Goddesses in India and Nepal: Proceedings of an International Symposium. VS 2059 [2002]. Kathmandu. F. four extant Svasth@na dramas that are written in a mixture of the Newar and Mithili languages. however. Berne and Zurich. 1970. T. S´arm@. 425) reiterates Iltis’ assertion and offers a single citation. VS 2047 [1991 CE]. B. (eds). B. November 1994.. 1982. These texts. S´ra Svasth@na Vrata Kath@. S´ra Svasth@na Vrata-Kath@. pp. Berne and Zurich. J. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. November 1994. Svasth@nipalames´vayyauvratakath@ [sic]. D. VS 2045 [1988 CE].. J. (eds). . 1996. 1947. V. Ban@ras Siba: Gop@l Press. Svasth@na Vratkath@ Parampar@: Ek Simh@valokan. A. Kripal. Calcutta: Firma K. My research has yielded no further evidence to Downloaded from http://jhs. Wilke. Purana Perennis: reciprocity and transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Encountering K@la: in the margins. Sakya. (eds). Germany: Peter Lang. in collaboration with Sharma. Nepal: National Archives. at the center. 8). 259–60). 1993. N. B. Bern. 4 vols. Nepal: Nepal and Esiyali Adhyayan Samsthana. 2000. et al. M. A. Nepal: Handicraft Association of Nepal. one of which is undated while the other three range from the early eighteenth century to the late nineteenth century. In: Doniger. Vaidya. Vaidya. K. Vol.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 223 Notes 1 Some Buddhist Nepalis know of Svasth@na and her tradition. A. Tamob. A. Swasth@na [sa:s´odhita tath@ parivarddhita sa:skara>a]. Jan–Feb. J. Goddess of the secret: Guhyes´vara in Nepal and her festival. S´arm@. Linda Iltis (cf. Kathmandu.. G. Nepal: National Archives. Nepal: T. fn 2 below) states that the SVK has been translated into ‘Hindi and perhaps Maithili’. McDermott. Rao. Slusser. but offers no verifiable citations (Iltis 1985.oxfordjournals. Michaels. for example. (eds). Wild goddesses in India and Nepal: proceedings of an international symposium.. Regmi. R. V. 1966. 114).. VS 1904 [1847 CE]. A. 303–342. The SVK tradition is celebrated to varying degrees among communities of Nepali origin in Sikkim and the Darjeeling district in West Bengal as well as within the Nepali Hindu diaspora abroad (cf. 1996. N. M. Germany: Peter Lang. but Indian Hindus living in Nepal. Bern. pp. 5–16. NS 723 [1603 CE]. p. (ed). S. Robert Levy (1990. Mukhopadhyay.. p. seated upon which is Brahm@. Location. but they retort that they should offer him a boon because ViX>u was the one defeated in . and Identity in Hindu Nepal 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Downloaded from http://jhs. that is. Iltis has also subsequently authored a couple of articles related to Svasth@na. Linda Louise Iltis presents a comprehensive study of the Svasth@na ritual at Sankhu and its role in the religious lives of Newar women in her 1985 Ph. in later manuscripts it is the god Harihar who approaches Navar@j while he performs his morning rituals. most notably high-caste Hindus. In Dangerous Wives and Sacred Sisters: Social and Symbolic Roles of High-Caste Women in Nepal (1983). although the associated ritual tradition is referenced when relevant.224 Politics of Gender. 2014 3 date of the Svasth@na goddess or SVK tradition outside of Nepali cultural areas in the medieval or modern period. however. but some two decades later ended their documentation of SVK texts because they had already amassed several hundred. Hawley and Wulff (1982.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. but cannot defeat them. Gomayaju is known almost exclusively as simply Gom@. women in Nepal. I take the term ‘Pur@>ization’ from Horst Brinkhaus’s (2005) paper entitled ‘The ‘Puranization’ of the Nepalese Mahatmya Literature‘. among non-Newar Nepalis. two powerful daitya-s. begin to harass Brahm@. He therefore invites the daitya-s to ask of him a boon. 1986). This article focuses almost exclusively on the textual aspect of the Svasth@na tradition. More commonly. Madhu and Kaibabha. Michaels (1996). She does appear in the same fashion in a 1603 CE [VS 723] manuscript that is a Newar language translation of the oldest manuscript quoted here. Unless otherwise noted. He quickly beseeches Mah@m@y@ (or Yogam@y@. all (Sanskrit. In the SVK. Gom@ Bhabbina. many Hindu families pass down from generation to generation handwritten copies of the text. For discussion and examples of this categorisation. The Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project (NGMPP) began to collect and microfilm SVK texts in the early 1970s. Lynn Bennett presents an overview of the SVK narratives and ritual in a chapter devoted to mythological representations of women for Parbatiy@. dissertation. a lotus arises from his navel. The work of two American scholars in the mid-1980s provides the most extensive available research on Svasth@na and her textual and ritual tradition. ViX>u engages Madhu and Kaibabha in war for some 5000 divine years. however. Bahuns and Chetris. the Madhu-Kaibabha episode is told as follows: While ViX>u sleeps soundly on his serpent within the waters of the universal ocean. There are over six hundred SVK manuscripts alone preserved in Nepal’s National Archives. In contrast. or Gom@ Br@hma>a. or high-caste. While Brahm@ contemplates creating the world. for example. the allpervading illusory energy of god in the form of a goddess) to awaken ViX>u. There are also close to one hundred SVK manuscripts preserved in other smaller archives and libraries in Kathmandu. V Narayana Rao.D. Gomayaju is also widely known as Gomeju and less frequently as Gomaya among Newars (the suffix ‘-ju’ is added to names as an endearment). In addition to these archival collections. and Nepali) translations are mine. Iconography. born from ViX>u’s earwax. Kinsley (1986). Newar. introduced the term ‘Pur@>izing’ in his 1985 essay entitled ‘Pur@>a as Brahminic Ideology’ (Rao 1993). which she does. and McDermott and Kripal (2003). see.oxfordjournals. ‘The Swasth@na Vrata: Newar Women and Ritual in Nepal’. Bhasu R@jop@dhy@y. 14). Angered and deceived. and Bhaktapur and other villages nominally under their control. Prior to Tamob’s and K@yastha’s relatively recent discovery of the 1655 SVK manuscript that mentioned the 1689 installation of a Svasth@na image in Lalitpur. this statue is no longer in this location and its whereabouts are unknown. the author’s son. 138. After securing their word that they will give him whatever he asks. 62–3. pp. 131) who offers a similar description of the S´iva-Svasth@na statue. Lalitpur (Patan). ViX>u asks that he be able to kill the two daitya-s with his own hands. Downloaded from http://jhs. 59. 2014 12 225 .. though he confuses Svasth@na’s right and left hand gestures. Her blessing and protection is sought by the current governing prime minister and political party. Cf. S´arm@ (Swasth@na. The author researched older SVK texts and manuscripts in order to write a contemporary SVK that was faithful to the older SVK tradition (Iltis 1985. Madhu and Kaibabha. seeing the world around them made only of water. This perception is in fact still largely the case because of the limited publication and circulation of Tamob’s and K@yastha’s work. pp. Tamob also mentions this statue and inscription in his essay ‘Svasth@na vratkath@ parampar@: ek simh@valokan’ (p. This is Acyut@nanda R@jop@dhy@y’s Newar language SVK printed in 1980 entitled Svasth@na dharmavrata
[email protected] Vantine Birkenholtz 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 battle. According to the amended colophon of his 1654 [NS 775] SVK. when in fact the gesture made is that of the fear-dispelling gesture. Cf. So perhaps Prat@p Malla’s choice of locations for his 1674 statue was chosen for this same reason. Tamob makes the same claim with regard to S´iva’s gesture (Tamob VS 2047 [1991 CE]. p. Ibid. ibid. This suggests that the explicit connection between the goddesses Svasth@na and Mah@m@y@ has other historical precedents in earlier SVKs. Taleju remains an important political deity despite the official dissolution of the 250-year-old Shah monarchy in 2008. the tradition does not become explicitly linked to Sankhu until the eighteenth century. I first learned of this text and its mention of this earliest Svasth@na image in Chhatrab@hadur K@yastha’s (2004) introduction to a reprinting of an 1844 [NS 964] SVK text. He also writes that S´iva’s gesture of the right hand is the boon-granting gesture. true to the nature and function of the goddess and her tradition. Unfortunately. That her statue was not placed in the village of Sankhu where Nepalis believe much of the SVK narrative took place is not as surprising as it might seem at first glance. scholars believed that Prat@p Malla presented us with the first and one of the only stone images of the goddess Svasth@na. was installed in his own place. Bu¨hnemann (2003. 2005). Cf. I use the term ‘Nepal Valley’ to refer to this medieval region that consisted then of the Three Kingdoms of Kathmandu. 15).org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. ask in return that ViX>u kill them in a place not made of water. Note that Motir@j’s 1669 Svasth@na image. ViX>u cleverly places the daitya-s on his lap and kills them. fn 72. in 1669 [NS 789] a Brahman named Motir@j installed an image of the goddess Svasth@na at Bakh+ B@h@l in Lalitpur.oxfordjournals. ‘Nepal’ referred solely to the area of today’s Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding environs. Cf. personal communication. 56. 84. While the limited evidence suggests that the SVK written tradition emerged out of the Nepal Valley. for example. 39. Historically. 136). the AXbam@tPk@ exist as s´akti-s. 24 Here I refer specifically to printed Nepali language SVK texts (in contrast to the more traditional handwritten Newar language texts). 21 In India. pp. p. V@r@ha. In contrast. 22 This is in contrast to the ‘pacific’ nature attributed to many of these goddesses in the Indian tradition. and Identity in Hindu Nepal Downloaded from http://jhs. such as Durg@. or copper plate. This image of Svasth@na betrays its Indian origin in the distinctive Rajput style of drawing. 26 Specifically. VaiX>ava. and Mah@lakXma (Cf. called the Saptam@tPk@. and are each typically depicted bearing their name. Slusser 1982. Rudr@ya>a/Mahes´vara. are more physically present and accessible throughout the year. This standardised image remains in contrast to the centuries-old description of the goddess given in the body of the text. 25 Her image eventually becomes stabilised among printed Nepali language SVKs in the second half of the twentieth century. S´iva. ViX>u. a village located northeast of Bhaktapur. whereas women are generally ‘more involved with the rituals and texts concerning P@rvata .org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. respectively. other popular goddesses in Nepal. where she consistently is presented as holding upraised a sword and trident in one hand each. or personifications of the feminine energy sustaining their male counterparts. 23 This particular manuscript is noteworthy because it is the first lithographic SVK produced. 28 It is important to remember. 2014 20 I employ the term ‘Nepal Valley’ to refer to the Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding environs that historically constituted Nepal in the medieval period. Regmi 1966. the majority of these goddesses are consorts of well-known gods such as Brahma. p. Brahm@ya>a and Indr@ya>a are usually known as Br@hma>a and Indr@>a. The National Archives catalogue card indicates that the text was found in the possession of a Nepali local from N@l@. Location. Write the om q symbol in its center and there perform the worship of Svasth@na and the eight mother goddesses in/on the eight petals’ (Par@jula VS 2059 [2002]). Kum@r. silver. Lynn Bennett (1983. Shrestha reads a contemporary Nepali language printed SVK book each year because he cannot read the Classical Newar language or Newar script in which his family’s handwritten manuscript is written.) As is evident from their names. ViXnu instructs P@rvata as follows: ‘Draw an eight petal lotus on a mirror on a gold. 322) (In India.226 Politics of Gender. 269). all of which correspond with those of their male partner. C@mu>n@. While the number and identity of these goddesses do vary. Nevertheless. 261–308) argues that high-caste Hindu men in Nepal are ‘far more involved with Durga than women are’ (p. 27 Although his family owns a handwritten SVK text dated to 1764. and vehicle. Indr@ya>a. but the text was printed by the Trajachandra Yantr@laya in Banaras. the constituent members of the AXbam@tPk@ in Nepal most commonly are Brahm@ya>a. that Svasth@na is traditionally only worshipped during the winter month of M@gh and historically spends the other eleven months of the year wrapped in a protective cloth (covering the SVK) and locked behind cabinet doors. 578. the common number of m@tPk@-s is seven. token symbols. however.oxfordjournals. Individually. and Indra. Iconography. Kaum@ra. This presentation of the goddess is not seen elsewhere among printed SVK texts. while with each of her other two hands she holds a blue lotus and makes the fear-dispelling gesture. Only time will tell how this may change with the new Svasth@na statue and temple in Sankhu. oxfordjournals. domestic goddess. printed Nepali-language SVKs from the mid to late twentieth century to the present) found in the bazaars in and around the Kathmandu Valley have on their covers or cover pages an image of the divine couple Mah@dev and P@rvata. an eleventh-century CE text. On the other hand. Some of these images have the couple as if posed for a family portrait (sometimes with Ga>es´). 31 Kim further explains that the Pan˜carakX@ s+tra. . Bennett suggests that women’s ‘greater involvement’ with the mild forms of the goddess rather than the wild forms may be due to the fact that ‘women are barred from performing the blood sacrifices of which Durga and her hosts are so fond’ (p. ‘has remained one of the most utilised texts among the Newar Buddhists of Nepal’ (ibid. yet does not require any blood sacrifices that might stain her predominant reputation as a benevolent. 273). 2014 and other gentle forms of the goddess’ (p. who. The occasional cover depicts Mah@dev alone in meditation.Jessica Vantine Birkenholtz 227 Downloaded from http://jhs.org/ at Univ of Southern California on April 5. On the one hand. 273). she argues that ‘in some respects Durga embodies a predominantly male perception of women (or at least part of the male perception) that women themselves only partially share’ (p.). while others show Mah@dev blessing a meditating P@rvata. 269). Bennett offers both sociocultural and practical reasons to accounts for these preferences. demonstrates clear associations with fierce goddesses like Durg@ and Taleju. the vast majority of contemporary SVK books (i.e. McDermott (1996). as I have shown. 30 Notably. Both of these reasons may account for the general popularity and accessibility of Svasth@na. 29 Cf.