THE FULANI OF WEST AFRIKA

FULA/FULA OF WEST AFRIKA2010 Ambakisye-Okang Dukuzumurenyi, PH.D. UNTS 6/4/2010 1|Page Fula people From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Fula, Fulani, Pulo, Fulɓe Fula women. Regions with significant populations Guinea, Nigeria, Cameroon, Senegal, Mali, Sierra Leone Central African Republic, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Ghana, Chad, Mauritania, Sudan, Egypt, Togo, Côte d'Ivoire. Languages Fula language Religion Islam Related ethnic groups Wolof and Serer person Pullo people language Fulɓe Pulaar (west), Fulfulde (east) Fula or Fulani or Fulbe (the latter being an Anglicisation of the word in their language, Fulɓe[1]) are an ethnic group of people spread over many countries, predominantly in West Africa, but found also in Central Africa and Sudanese North Africa. The countries in Africa where they are present include Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, The Gambia, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea Bissau, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Chad, Togo, the Central African Republic, Ghana, Liberia, and as far as Sudan in the east. Fula people form a minority in every country they inhabit, but in Guinea they represent a plurality of the population (40%).Total population 27 000 000.[2] Contents     1 2 3 4    Terminology Related groups Traditional livelihood History o 4.1 Origins and spread o 4.2 Rise to political dominance 5 Culture & Language o 5.1 Clothing o 5.2 Herding o 5.3 Music o 5.4 Food o 5.5 Houses 6 Notable Fulani people by country o 6.1 Nigeria o 6.2 Senegal o 6.3 Guinea o 6.4 Mali o 6.5 Sierra Leone o 6.6 Burkina Faso o 6.7 Cameroon o 6.8 Mauritania o 6.9 The Gambia 7 References o 7.1 Further reading o 7.2 External links  8 See also Terminology Men from the Wodaabe subgroup performing Yaake dance There are also many names (and spellings of the names) used in other languages to refer to the Fulɓe. Fulani in English is borrowed from the Hausa term, and it is also used by the Manding peoples, being the diminutive form of the word "Fula" in their language, essentially meaning "little Fula". Fula, from Manding languages is also used in English, and sometimes spelled Fulah or Foulah. Fula and Fulani are commonly used in English, including within Africa. The French borrowed the Wolof term Pël, which is variously spelled: Peul, Peulh, and even Peuhl. More recently the Fulfulde / Pulaar term Fulɓe, which is a plural noun (singular, Pullo) has been adapted to English as Fulbe, which some people use. In Portuguese it's Fula or Futafula. Related groups A closely related group is the Tukolor (Toucouleur) in the central Senegal River valley. These people are often referred to together with Fulɓe of the region as Haalpulaar'en (Pulaar-speakers). Fula society in some parts of West Africa features the "caste" divisions typical of the region. In Mali, for instance, those who are not ethnically Fula have been referred to as yimɓe pulaaku (people of the Fula culture).[citation needed] The Woɗaaɓe, also known as the Bororo, are a subgroup of the Fula people. Traditional livelihood The Fulani are traditionally a nomadic, pastoralist, trading people, herding cattle, goats and sheep across the vast dry hinterlands of their domain, keeping somewhat separate from the local agricultural populations. Young Fulani cattle herders circa 1967 History Fula Girl from Mali Origins and spread While some have speculated over the origin of Fulani people, current linguistic and genetic evidence suggests an indigenous West African origin among the Peul.[3] The vast majority of genetic lineages associated with them reflect those most commonly seen in other west Africans. Their language is also of west African origin, most closely related to that of the Wolof and Serer ethnic groups.[1]. Historical and archaeological records indicate that Peul-speakers have resided in western Africa since at least the 5th century A.D. as well. Interestingly, rock paintings in the Tassili-n-Ajjer suggests the presence of proto-Fulani cultural traits in the region by at least the fourth millennium B.C. Scholars specializing in Fulani culture believe that some of the imagery depicts rituals that are still practiced by contemporary Fulani people.[4] Rise to political dominance Main article: Fula jihads Beginning as early as the 17th and 18th centuries, but mainly in the 19th century, Fulas and others took control of various states in West Africa. These included the Fulani Empire, also known as the Sokoto Caliphate, founded by Usman dan Fodio (which itself included smaller states), Fouta Djallon, Massina and others. Culture & Language Popular illustration of Fula greeting ritual ca. 1910, in French it reads: Salutations among primitive people. The language of Fulas is called Pulaar or Fulfulde depending on the region, or variants thereof. It is also the language of the Tukulor. All Senegalese who speak the language natively are known as the Halpulaar or Haalpulaar'en, which stands for "speakers of Pulaar" ("hal" is the root of the Pulaar verb haalugol, meaning "to speak"). In some areas, e.g. in northern Cameroon, Fulfulde is a local lingua franca. With the exception of Guinea (where the Fula make up a ~40% plurality of the population), Fulas are minorities in every country they live in (most countries of West Africa). So some also speak other languages, for example:             Portuguese and Kriol in Guinea-Bissau French and Arabic in Mauritania Hausa and French in Niger French and English in Cameroon Wolof and French in Senegal Sango and French in Central African Republic Bambara and French in Mali English in The Gambia Liberian English in Liberia English, Hausa and Ghanaian languages in Ghana English and some indigenous languages in Sierra Leone, particularly Krio, the lingua franca. Other Nigerian languagess and English in Nigeria Fulani women with traditional facial tattoos Clothing Two Fulani Men The traditional dress of the Fula consists of long colorful flowing robes, modestly embroidered or otherwise decorated. Also characteristic Fula tradition is that of women using Henna around the mouth, resulting in a blackening around the lips. Fula ethics are strictly governed by the notion of pulaaku. Men wear long robes to the lower calves with trousers of cotton. Herdsmen wear the distinctive conical straw hat and a turban. Women wear long robes and turbans. They decorate themselves with necklaces, earrings, nose rings and anklets.[5] Herding Fula are primarily known to be pastoralists, but are also traders in some areas. Most Fula in the countryside spend long times alone on foot, moving their herds; they were the only major migrating people of West Africa, though most Fula now live in towns or villages. Wealth is counted by how large the herd of cattle is and how many cattle. Long ago fulani tribes used to fight over cattle. Music The Fula have a rich musical culture and play a variety of traditional instruments including drums, hoddu (a plucked skin-covered lute similar to a banjo) and riti or riiti (a one-string bowed instrument similar to a violin), in addition to vocal music. The well known Senegalese Fula popular musician Baaba Maal sings in Pulaar on his recordings. "Zaghareet" or ululation is a popular form of vocal music formed by rapidly moving the tongue sideways and making a sharp, high sound. Food Traditional food The Fulani eat millet, milk and meat as staples. Millet is eaten in the morning, noon and night as a porridge with a sauce or stew which usually contains, tomatoes, peppers, bone, meat, onion and water. Meat such as goat is usually eaten at special occasions as well as beef. A thick beverage similar to the tuareg beverage eghajira, is made by pounding goat cheese, milk, dates and millet. Houses Fula live in domed houses during the dry season. The domed house is supported by compact millet stalk pillars. During the wet season the house is covered by reed mats. Notable Fulani people by country Nigeria              Usman dan Fodio, founder, Sokoto Caliphate Nana Asma‟u, scholar and author, Sokoto Caliphate Umaru Yar'Adua, former President of Nigeria Shehu Shagari, Former Nigeria President Muhammadu Buhari, former Nigerian Head of State Ahmadu Bello, first Premier of Northern Nigeria Atiku Abubakar, former Vice President of Nigeria Shehu Musa Yar'Adua, Nigerian politician and the brother of former Nigerian president Umaru Yar'Adua Dr.Aliyu Musdafa, His Royal Highness, Lamido of Adamawa. Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Nigerian father and first prime minister Vice-Admiral Murtala Nyako, current Governor of Adamawa State,former Chief of Naval Staff Justice Salihu Moddibo Alfa Belgore, former Chief Justice of the Federation Sheik Dahiru Usman Bauchi,tijjaniya and islamic scholar  Professor Ibrahim Gambari, Under Secretary-General/Special Adviser Africa in the UN; former Professor and Chiarman (Head) of Political Science department & the International Studies program at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and Nigeria; former Minister of Foreign Affairs and also former Nigerian Ambassador and Permanent Representative to the United Nations. Senegal                      Malick Daouda Sy (to not confuse with El Hadj Sayyid Malick Sy),Imam and founder of the Fulbe Islamic Kingdom of Bundu(French: Boundou)in 1690 in the est of Fuuta-Tooro Bubu Malick Sy,son of Malick Daouda Sy,king of Bundu Souleymane Baal, founder of Fuuta-Tooro Islamic state (circa 1750) Cheikh Abdul Karim Kane, successor to Souleymane Baal Cheikh Umar Tall, General Khalif (1850–1865) of the Tijaniyya suufi way (tarikh) for West Africa Ahmadou Bamba Ba, Marabout, Spiritual Leader Maba Diakhou Ba Almamy of Rip Malick Sy marabout Sheikh Hamidou Kane, writer, author of the autobiographical novel L‟Aventure ambiguë (1961; Ambiguous Adventure), that considers the African and Muslim identity Habib Thiam, former Prime minister of president Abdou Diouf Yaya Wane, sociologist, author of the milestone work Les Toucouleur du Fouta Tooro (Sénégal). Stratification sociale et structure familiale Daouda Sow, former head of the parliament Amadou Cledor Sall, former interior minister Baaba Maal Baaba Maal, composer, singer, international star, head of the band Daande Leñol (the voice of the race) Mariam Bâ, writer Une si longue lettre Oumou Sy, fashion modelist Ibrahim Ba, French-Senegalese former football player Moussa Ba Senegalese professional kickboxer Mamadou Niang Senegales football player almamy abdoul first almamy from appe lowre Issa Ba Senegalese football player Guinea  Alfa Ibrahima Sambegu (Karamoko Alfa mo Timbo] First ruler of the islamic state of Fuuta-Jalon, head of the Alfaya branch of the Seediyaaɓe dynasty of Timbo               Alfa Mamadou Sellu Diallo, Karamoko Alfa mo Labe, first lord of the Diiwal (province) of Labe, circa 1726. Mama Tofi, Zoubairou Diallo, Former chief of Binani (Solou Bombi, Kalia, etc..) Head of the branch of Tofiyabe or Tofiyanke in Binani, Gaoual, GUINEA. Ancestor of Thierno Sarafudine Diallo Chief of Kalia, Bougoume, Bombi, etc... Ibrahima Sori Yero Poore aka Ibrahima Sori Mawɗo (1730–1764). Second ruler of Fuuta-Jalon after Karamoko Alfa and the first to hold the Almaami title, head of the Soriya branch of the Seediyaaɓe dynasty of Timbo. Tierno Muhammadu Samba Mombeya, (1765–1850), author of Oogirde Malal, co-founder, with Usman ɓii Foduyee, of Pular [ajami] literature Boubacar Biro Barry Buubakar dit Bocar Biro The Last Almaami of Fuuta-Jalon, died at the battle of Poredaka in 1896 Alfa Yaya Diallo (1850–1912), Former Chef of Labé, arrested by french colonialist. The national anthem of the republic of Guinea was adapted by musicians Jean Cellier and Fodeba Keita, from the Alfa Yaya praisesong, composed by a Griot circa 1900. Tierno Aliyyu Ɓuuɓa Ndiyan (1855–1927). Author, theologian, Tijaniyya suufi. Thierno Diawo Pellel, (1900-1984), islamic theologist, scholar and poet, student of Thierno Aliyyu Ɓuuɓa Ndiyan Tierno Chaikou Baldé, (1902–1972), schoolteacher, researcher, author. Saifoulaye Diallo (1923–1981), former Guinean politician, first president of the national assembly (1958–1963) held various cabinet positions under the regime of Sekou Toure Diawadou Barry [2] (1917–1969), accountant, descendant of the Soriya branch of the former ruling family of Fuuta-Jalon, leader of Bloc Africain de Guinea political party, opted for the No vote in the 1958 French referendum. Executed secretely at [Camp Boiro] in May 1969. Barry Ibrahima aka Barry III, lawyer, politician, head of Democratie Socialiste de Guinée, arrested, tried and sentenced in absentia, hanged publicly on Jan. 25, 1971 in Conakry under the dictatorship of president [Sékou Touré]. Ousmane Poreko Diallo (1922–1961) [3]. Ethnographer and author ; his fieldwork documents various aspects of Fulɓe traditional and changing culture ; he worked successively at Centre IFAN-Guinée (under French rule) and at Institut National de la Recherche et de la Documentation (INRD) of the republic of Guinea. Afâ Ibrâhîm Sow (1931–2005), linguist, author of numerous articles, editor of several classic books on Fulbe tradition                      Diallo Telli (or Boubacar Telli Diallo [4]), Lawyer, former Diplomat, First Sec. Gen. of the Organization of African Unity, died of starvation at [Camp Boiro][5] in 1977. Thierno Diallo. Guinean historian, author of Alfa Yaya, roi de Labé and Institutions politiques du Fouta-Djallon-19e s.. Boubakar Barry. Guinean historian, author of Bokar Biro, le dernier grand almamy du Fouta-Djallon. Tierno Monénembo, Tierno Saidou Diallo, acclaimed author and activist. He has published several novels, all steeped in Fulɓe history and culture as well as in African and Guinean contemporary history: The Eldest Orphan (2000), (Peuls (2004) and Le roi du Kahel (2008) deal respectively with the Rwandan Genocide, the Fulɓe's saga and Fuuta-Jalon. Cellou Dalein Diallo, Prime Minister of Guinea from 2004–2007 Bobo Balde, Guinean football star Katoucha, former haute couture model and anti-female circumcision activist Abdoul Salam Sow, former Guinean footballer Abdallah Bah, Guinean football star Ibrahima Diallo, Guinean football star Alpha Yaya Diallo, Guinean musician Almamy Schuman Bah, Guinean football star Amadou Diallo, young Guinean resident in the Bronx killed by police in 1999 Habib Diallo, former Diplomat and Minister,actually Mano River Union Secretary-General Saidou Diallo,former Diplomat and Minister, Amadou Poredaka Diallo,former Minister Thierno Samba Diallo,former chief of the Diwal of Bhouria Alpha Saliou Diallo,first chief of the canton of Poredaka Alpha Amadou Diallo,The last chief of the canton of Poredaka Boubacar Biro Diallo,former politician and head of the parliament General Bailo Diallo,former minister of Defense Mali       Cheick Ahmadou Barry, Emperor of Macina Ahmadou Cheickou Barry, Emperor of Macina Ahmadou Ahmadou Barry, Last Emperor of Macina Cerno Bokar Salif Taal, suufi theologian Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Malian researcher and author, student of Cerno Bokar Salif Taal Adame Ba Konaré, Malian historian and spouse of the former president Alpha Oumar Konaré                       Amadou Toumani Touré, Malian President Ahmadou Lam Djoulde Tall, Emperor of Segou Tidiane Ahmadou Tall,Emperor of Macina, cousin of Ahmadou Lam Djoulde Tall Mountaga Tall, King of Nioro du Sahel, son of Cheick Oumar Tall Thierno Hady Tall, Marabout of the Tidiania brotherhood, descendent of Cheick Oumar Tall Ahmadou Abdoulaye Souaidou Kane, Soufi Saint of Dina and Dilly Daouda Kane, Soufi Saint of Mopti Oumou Dilly Kane,Soufi Sainte of Dilly, The most famous soufi woman in Mali, daughter of Ahmadou Abdoulaye Souaidou Modibo Kane, Soufi Saint of Dilly, unique son of Oumou Dilly Kane Cheick Sidi Modibo Kane, Soufi Saint of Dilly, son of Modibo Kane Baba Modibo Kane,Soufi and great marabout of Dilly, son of Modibo Kane Ahmadou Modibo Kane,Soufi Saint of Dilly, son of Modibo Kane and brother of Sidi Modibo Bokar Sada Sy, former Malian Defense Secretary (Ministre de la defense) Ousmane Sy, Malian politician Sy Kadiatou Sow, Malian politician and spouse of Ousmane Sy Djibril Diallo, former Malian minister under the regime of General Moussa Traore Boubou Ardo Gallo, one the famous legendary heroes ever in West African, Chief warrior of Nene (Macina) Alpha Sillamakan Dicko, one of the famous heroes in Macina Moctar Ly, Malian politician General Sekou Ly, former Malian politician and military chief Ahamadou Coumba ketchel Sy, Lieutenant of Ahmadou Lam Djoulde Tall, Mali, Segou Ma Demba Sy, King of Sissany in Mali, under the French colonists Sierra Leone Main article: Fula people of Sierra Leone        Amadu Wurie, early Sierra Leonean educationist and politician Amadu Jalloh, Sierra Leonean politician Alimamy Rassin, Sierra Leonean chief during colonial period Minkailu Bah, Sierra Leone's minister of Education, Youth and Sports Sulaiman Tejan-Jalloh, Sierra Leone ambassador to the United Kingdom Abubakarr Jalloh, Sierra Leone Minister of Mineral Resources Alimamy Jalloh, Sierra Leonean football star            Mahmadu Alphajor Bah, Sierra Leonean football star Rashid Wurie, former Sierra Leonean international football star Saajo Bah, Editor of www.peeral.com , one of the few online magazines published in African languages. Umu Hawa Tijan Jalloh, Sierra Leone´s 1st Chief Justice Dr Abdulai Timbo, former Sierra Leone´s Chief Justice Mohamed Bailor Barrie, Businessman and Fulani Advocate Chernor Musa Jalloh, Football Consultant Abdulai Jalloh, former Sierra Leone's national footballer Mohamed Jalloh, former Sierra Leone's national footballer Ibrahim Bah, former Sierra Leone's national footballer Stanley Ibrahim Jalloh, Former Chief Police Officer Burkina Faso    Thomas Sankara, Former President of Burkina Faso Youssouf Sambo Bâ, Burkinabe politician Bénéwendé Stanislas Sankara, Burkinabe politician Cameroon   Ahmadou Ahidjo, first President of Cameroon Issa Hayatou, current President African Football Confederation (CAF) Mauritania  Mamadou Samba Diop Murtudo, writer, historian, Fulani educator The Gambia            Alhagi Habib Sallah, Marabout Hassan Musa Camara, 2nd Vice President of The Gambia, Former opposition Leader Kebba Nyaama Leigh, Gambian politician. Hamat Bah, Politician, Oppostion Leader Halifa Sallah, Politician, Writer Alpha Molloh, Father of Musa Molloh Musa Molloh Baldeh, King of Fulladou, Warrior Aja Isatou Njie Saidy, Current Vice President Assan Jallow, Former Attorney General, Lawyer Alhagi Cherno Jallow, Marabout Modou Musa Njie, Businessman           Omar Jallow AKA O.J., Politician Captain. Sanna Sabally, Former Vice President/No. 2 Man of AFPRC. Baba Leigh, Imam and preacher. Juldeh Camara, International master Riti playerP Paul L. Baldeh, Former Min ister of Education Michael Baldeh, Former Minister of Education Mathew K. Jallow, Journalist, Writer, Human Right Activist Saba Jallow, University Professor, U.S. Gainako Jallow, Warrior with Musa Molloh, Granddad of Mathew K. Jallow & Prof.Dr Saba Jallow Jay Saidy, Journalist/Sociologist, Late Husband of Vice-President Isatou Njie-saidy References 1. ^ The letter "ɓ" is an implosive b sound. In the orthography for languages of Guinea (pre-1985), it was written bh, so one would have written Fulbhe instead of Fulɓe. Some people still use this spelling convention. 2. ^ People Guinea: People. CIA World Factbook. 14 May 2009 update. Accessed 2009-06-05. 3. ^ mtDNA of Fulani Nomads and Their Genetic Relationships to Neighboring Sedentary Populations 4. ^ The Fulani/Fulbe People | Thematic Essay | Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art 5. ^ Pulaaku Ethics     Almanach de Bruxelles (now a paying site) Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.) (2005): "Adamawa Fulfulde". Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th ed. Dallas: SIL International. Accessed 25 June 2006. Ndukwe, Pat I., Ph.D. (1996). Fulani. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. Christiane Seydou, (ed.) (1976). Bibliographie générale du monde peul. Niamey, Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines du Niger Wodaabe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Wodaabe Woɗaaɓe A group of traveling Wodaabe. Niger, 1997. Total population 45,000 in 1983 Regions with significant populations Niger, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Nigeria Languages Fula Religion Islam Related ethnic groups Fula The Wodaabe (or Bororo) are a small subgroup of the Fulani ethnic group. They are traditionally nomadic cattle-herders and traders in the Sahel, with migrations stretching from southern Niger, through northern Nigeria, northeastern Cameroon, and the western region of the Central African Republic.[1][2] The number of Wodaabe was estimated in 1983 to be 45,000.[3] They are known for their beauty (both men and women), elaborate attire and rich cultural ceremonies. The Wodaabe speak the Fula language and don't use a written language.[3] In the Fula language, woɗa means "taboo", and Woɗaaɓe means "people of the taboo". "Wodaabe" is an Anglicisation of Woɗaaɓe. The Wodaabe culture is one of the 186 cultures of the standard crosscultural sample used by anthropologists to compare cultural traits. Contents         1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Everyday life Religion, morals and customs Marriage Beauty ideal and Gerewol festival Documentaries and popular culture Works cited External links o 7.1 Photos and videos 8 References Everyday life The Wodaabe keep herds of long-horned Zebu cattle. The dry season extends from October to May. Their annual travel during the wet season follows the rain from the south to the north.[4] Groups of several dozen relatives, typically several brothers with their wives, children and elders, travel on foot, donkey or camel, and stay at each grazing spot for a couple of days. A large wooden bed is the most important possession of each family; when camping it is surrounded by some screens. The women also carry calabashes as a status symbol. [3] These calabashes are passed down through the generations, and often provoke rivalry between women. The Wodaabe mostly live on milk and ground millet, as well as yogurt, sweet tea and occasionally the meat of a goat or sheep. This is a rarity for them as they don't often have enough animals to spare for meat.[5] Religion, morals and customs Wodaabe religion is largely but loosely Islamic. Although there are varying degrees of orthodoxy exhibited, most adhere to at least some of the basic requirements of the religion.[6]Some academics have called them nominal Muslims due to elements of "non-Islamic" cultural customs which sometimes contradict Islamic belief.[citation needed] Islam became a religion of importance among Wodaabe peoples during the 16th century when the scholar alMaghili preached the teachings of Muhammad to the elite of northern Nigeria. Al-Maghili was responsible for converting the ruling classes among Hausa, Fulani, and Tuareg peoples in the region.[1][2] The code of behavior of the Wodaabe emphasizes reserve and modesty (semteende), patience and fortitude (munyal), care and forethought (hakkilo), and loyalty (amana). They also place great emphasis on beauty and charm.[7] Parents are not allowed to talk directly to their two first born children, who will often be cared for by their grandparents. During daylight, husband and wife cannot hold hands or speak in a personal manner with each other.[3] Young suitors perform the Yaake dance in a Gerewol festival, Niger 1997 Marriage The Wodaabe are sexually liberal; unmarried girls may have sex whenever and with whomever they wish.[5] The Wodaabe practice polygamy. The first marriage is typically arranged among members of the same lineage by parents when the couple are infants (called koogal); later additional "love marriages" (teegal) are also possible, when a woman leaves her husband and joins another one.[8] A bride stays with her husband until she becomes pregnant after which she returns to her mother's home, where she will remain for the next three to four years. She will deliver the baby at her mother's home and then she becomes a boofeydo which literally means "someone who has committed an error." While she is boofeydo, she is not allowed to have any contact with her husband, and he is not allowed to express any interest in either her or the child. After two to three years, she is permitted to visit her husband, but it is still taboo that she should live with him or bring the child with her; this only becomes permissible when her mother has managed to purchase all the items that are necessary for her home. [9] A Yaake dance performed for tourists, Niger 1997 Beauty ideal and Gerewol festival Main article: Gerewol At the end of the rainy season in September, Wodaabe clans gather in several traditional locations before the beginning of their dry season transhumance migration. The best known of these is In-Gall's Cure Salée salt market and Tuareg seasonal festival. Here the young Wodaabe men, with elaborate make-up, feathers and other adornments, perform the Yaake: dances and songs to impress marriageable women. The male beauty ideal of the Wodaabe stresses tallness, white eyes and teeth; the men will often roll their eyes and show their teeth to emphasize these characteristics. Wodaabe clans then join for the remainder of the week-long Gerewol: a series of barters over marriage and contests where the young men's beauty and skills are judged by young women.[10] Documentaries and popular culture The 1989 documentary Wodaabe - Herdsmen of the Sun by Werner Herzog describes the Wodaabe. The Niger-based band Etran Finatawa is composed of Wodaabe and Tuareg members and creates their unique style of "Nomad Blues" by combining modern arrangements and electric guitars with more traditional instruments and polyphonic Wodaabe singing. In 2005 they recorded an album and toured Europe. Married Wodaabe women are mentioned in part four of the the BBC Series The Human Animal for having the right to take a different married man as a sexual partner. Young Wodaabe women with facial tattoos Two Wodaabe men A young woman judging the beauty of men at a Gerewol Works cited 1. ^ a b ""People of Africa"". "African Holocaust Society". http://www.africanholocaust.net/peopleofafrica.htm#w. 2. ^ a b ""Wodaabe People"". "University of Iowa ". http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Wodaabe.html. 3. ^ a b c d Carol Beckwith, Niger's Wodaabe: "People of the Taboo". National Geographic, October 1983 4. ^ Gabrielle Lyon, The Wodaabe 5. ^ a b Amanda Jones, Wodaabe of the Sahara - Niger 6. ^ ""Wodaabe religion"". "Africa.com". http://www.gatewayafrica.com/tribe/wodaabe_tribe.html. 7. ^ Beckwith, Carol, and Angela Fisher. African Ceremonies. New York: Harry N Abrams, 1999. 8. ^ Christine Nesbitt, The Wodaabe's Cure Salée 9. ^ ""African Marriage Ritual"". "African Holocaust Society". http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/africanmarriageritual.html. 10.^ Niger's dandy Gerewol festival, The Times, 4 July 2004 Hausa people From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to:navigation, search The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (December 2007) Hausa Total population 30-35 million (Newman 2000, Schuh 2001) Regions with significant populations Nigeria, Niger, Ghana, Chad, Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Sudan Languages Hausa Religion Islam Christian Animist The Hausa are a Sahelian people chiefly located in the West African regions of northern Nigeria and southeastern Niger. There are also significant numbers found in regions of Sudan, Cameroon, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, and Chad and smaller communities scattered throughout West Africa and on the traditional Hajj route across the Sahara Desert and Sahel. Many Hausa have moved to large coastal cities in West Africa such as Lagos, Accra, Kumasi and Cotonou, as well as to countries such as Libya. However, most Hausa remain in small villages, where they grow crops and raise livestock, including cattle. They speak the Hausa language, an Afro-Asiatic language of the Chadic group. Contents [hide]          1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 History and culture Religion Clothing Food Population Hausa ethnic flag See also References External links History and culture See also: Hausa Kingdoms Kano, north Nigeria is considered the center of Hausa trade and culture. In terms of cultural relations to other peoples of West Africa, the Hausa are culturally and historically close to the Fulani, Songhai, Mandé and Tuareg as well as other Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan groups further East in Chad and Sudan. Islamic Shari‟a law is loosely the law of the land and is understood by any full time practitioner of Islam, known in Hausa as a Mallam (see Maulana). Between 500 CE and 700 CE Hausa people, who had been slowly moving west from Nubia and mixing in with the local Northern and Central Nigerian population, established a number of strong states in what is now Northern and Central Nigeria and Eastern Niger. With the decline of the Nok and Sokoto, who had previously controlled Central and Northern Nigeria between 800 BCE and 200 CE, the Hausa were able to emerge as the new power in the region. Closely linked with the Kanuri people of Kanem-Bornu (Lake Chad), the Hausa aristocracy adopted Islam in the 11th century CE. Near East in 1200 AD, showing Hausa States and neighbors. By the 12th century CE the Hausa were becoming one of Africa's major powers. The architecture of the Hausa is perhaps one of the least known but most beautiful of the medieval age. Many of their early mosques and palaces are bright and colourful and often include intricate engraving or elaborate symbols designed into the facade. By 1500 CE the Hausa utilized a modified Arabic script known as ajami to record their own language; the Hausa compiled several written histories, the most popular being the Kano Chronicle. In 1810 the Fulani, another Islamic African ethnic group that spanned across West Africa, invaded the Hausa states. Their cultural similarities however allowed for significant integration between the two groups, who in modern times are often demarcated as "Hausa-Fulani" rather than as individuated groups, and many Fulani in the region do not distinguish themselves from the Hausa. The Hausa remain preeminent in Niger and Northern Nigeria. Their impact in Nigeria is paramount, as the Hausa-Fulani amalgamation has controlled Nigerian politics for much of its independent history. They remain one of the largest and most historically grounded civilizations in West Africa. The language of Hausa has more native speakers than any other language in sub-Saharan Africa, with an estimated 22 million native speakers, plus an additional 17 million second language speakers. The main Hausa speaking area is northern Nigeria and Niger, but Hausa is also widely spoken in northern Ghana and northern Cameroon, and there are large Hausa communities in every major West African city. Most Hausa speakers are Muslims, and Hausa is often a lingua franca among Muslims in non-Hausa areas. There is a large and growing printed literature in Hausa, which includes novels, poetry, plays, instruction in Islamic practice, books on development issues, newspapers, news magazines, and even technical academic works. Radio and television broadcasting in Hausa is ubiquitous in northern Nigeria and Niger, and radio stations in Ghana and Cameroon have regular Hausa broadcasts, as do international broadcasters such as the BBC, VOA, Deutsche Welle, Radio Moscow, Radio Beijing, and others. Hausa is used as the language of instruction at the elementary level in schools in northern Nigeria, and Hausa is available as course of study in northern Nigerian universities. In terms of sheer numbers, Hausa thus ranks as one of the world's major languages, and its widespread use in a number of countries of West Africa makes it probably the single most useful language to know in that region. Hausa's rich poetic, prose, and musical literature, more and more of which is now available in print and in audio and video recordings, makes it a rewarding area of study for those who reach an advanced level. Aside from the inherent interest of Hausa language and its literature, the study of Hausa provides perhaps the most informative entree into the world of Islamic West Africa. Throughout West Africa, there is a strong connection between Hausa and Islam. The influence of Hausa language on the languages of many non-Hausa Islamic people in West African is readily apparent. Likewise, many Hausa cultural practices, including such overt features as dress and food, are shared by other Islamic communities. Because of the dominant position which Hausa language and culture have long held, the study of Hausa provides crucial background for other areas such as West African history, politics (particularly in Nigeria and Niger), gender studies, commerce, and the arts. Religion Hausa have an ancient culture that had an extensive coverage area, and have long ties to the Arabs and other Islamized peoples in West Africa, such as the Mandé, Fulani and even the Wolof of Senegambia, through extended long distance trade. Islam has been present in Hausaland since the 14th century, but it was largely restricted to the region's rulers and their courts. Rural areas generally retained their animist beliefs and their urban leaders thus drew on both Islamic and African traditions to legitimise their rule. Muslim scholars of the early nineteenth century disapproved of the hybrid religion practised in royal courts, and a desire for reform was a major motive behind the formation of the Sokoto Caliphate.[1] It was after the formation of this state that Islam became firmly entrenched in rural areas. The Hausa people have been an important factor for the spread of Islam in West Africa. Maguzawa, the animist religion, was practiced extensively before Islam. In the more remote areas of Hausaland Maguzawa has remained fully intact, but as one gets closer to more urban areas it almost totally disappears. It often includes the sacrifice of animals for personal ends, it is thought of as illegitimate to practice Maguzawa magic for harm. What remains in more populous areas is a “cult of spirit possession” known as Bori which still holds the old religion's elements of animism and magic.[2] Four Hausa gun carriers of the South Nigerian Regiment, 1902 photo by John Benjamin Stone. Clothing The Hausa people have a very restricted dressing code due to the fact of religious beliefs. The men are easily recognizable because of their elaborate dress which is a large flowing gown known as Baba riga and a robe called a jalabia and juanni, see Senegalese kaftan. These large flowing gowns usually feature some elaborate embroidery designs around the neck. (See Grand boubou for more information). Men also wear colorful embroidered caps known as fullah, see kufi for more information. The females can be identified by their dressing codes in which they wear wrappers called abiah made with colorful cloth with a matching blouse, head tie and shawl. Food The most common food that the Hausa people prepare consists of grains such as sorghum, millet, rice, or maize which are ground into flour for a variety of different kinds of food. The food is popularly known as tuwo in the Hausa language. Usually, breakfast consist of cakes made from ground beans which are then fried -- known as kosai -- or wheat flour soaked for a day then fried and served with sugar -- known as funkaso. Both of these cakes can be served with porridge and sugar known as koko. Lunch or dinner are usually served as heavy porridge with soup and stew known as tuwo da miya. The soup and stew are usually prepared with ground or chopped tomatoes, onions, and a local pepper sauce called daddawa. While preparing the soup, most of the times spices and other vegetables such as spinach, pumpkin, or okra are added to the soup. The stew is prepared with meat, which can include goat or cow meat but not pork due to Islamic religion restrictions. Beans, peanuts, and milk are also served as a complementary protein diet for the Hausa people. Population Ethnic territories of the Hausa people in Nigeria (in yellow) Table of Hausa population by country[3] Country Population, 1000s Algeria 9 Benin 34 Burkina Faso 2 Cameroon 238 Central African Republic 29 Chad 158 Congo 8.1 Côte d'Ivoire 108 Equatorial Guinea 11 8.4 Gabon Gambia 7.3 Ghana Niger Nigeria Sudan Togo 202 5,598 21,000 550 14 Hausa ethnic flag A proposed Hausa ethnic flag is a banner with five horizontal stripes--from top to bottom they are red, yellow, indigo blue, green, and khaki biege.[4] There is no political entity which uses this flag. References 1. ^ Robinson, David, Muslim Societies in African History (Cambridge, 2004), p141 2. ^ Adeline Masquelier. Prayer Has Spoiled Everything: Possession, Power, and Identity in an Islamic Town of Niger. Duke University Press (2001) ISBN 9780822326397 3. ^ "Joshua Project, Peoples Listing, Hausa". http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?rop3=103733. Retrieved 200703-04. 4. ^ Hausa ethnic flag: Hausa-Fulani From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Hausa-Fulani is a term used to refer collectively to the Hausa and Fulani people of West Africa. The two are grouped together because since the Fulani War their histories have been largely intertwined. For example, when the Fulani took over Hausa city-state of Kano during the Fulani War, the new emirs ended up speaking the Hausa language instead of Fulfulde.[1] The Hausa-Fulani are one out of Nigeria's three major ethnic groups. The Hausa-Fulani account for 28-30% of Nigeria's northern ethnic divide. References 1. ^ "Caravans Across the Desert: Marketplace". AFRICA: One Continent. Many Worlds.. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Foundation. http://www.nhm.org/africa/tour/desert/030.htm. Retrieved 2007-05-06. Fula language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Fula (or Fulani) Fulfulde, Pulaar, Pular Spoken in Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gambia, Chad, Sierra Leone, Benin, Guinea-Bissau, Sudan, Central African Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo Total speakers Language family  Niger-Congo Atlantic-Congo 10–16 million o Senegal–Guinea  Senegambian  Fula-Wolof  Fula (or Fulani) Language codes ISO 639-1 ff ISO 639-2 ful ISO 639-3 variously: ful – Fulah (generic) fub – Adamawa Fulfulde fui – Bagirmi Fulfulde fue – Borgu Fulfulde fuq – Central-Eastern Niger Fulfulde ffm – Maasina Fulfulde fuv – Nigerian Fulfulde fuc – Pulaar fuf – Pular language fuh – Western Niger Fulfulde Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. The Fula language is a language of West Africa, spoken by the Fulɓe (Fula or Fulani people) from Senegambia and Guinea to Cameroon and Sudan. It is also spoken as the first language by the Tukulor in the Senegal River Valley and as a second language by peoples in other areas. There are several names applied to the language, just as there are to the Fula people. They call their language Pulaar or Pular in the western dialects and Fulfulde in the central and eastern dialects. Fula(h) and Fulani in English come originally from Manding and Hausa, respectively; Peul in French comes from Wolof. Contents    1 Classification 2 Description o 2.1 Morphology o 2.2 Noun classes o 2.3 Voices o 2.4 Consonant mutation o 2.5 Pronouns 3 Dialects o 3.1 East Central  3.1.1 Fulfulde, Western Niger (Niger)  3.1.2 Fulfulde, Central-Eastern Niger (Niger)  3.1.3 Fulfulde, Nigerian (Nigeria) o 3.2 Eastern  3.2.1 Fulfulde, Adamawa, fub  3.2.2 Fulfulde, Bagirmi, fui o 3.3 West Central  3.3.1 Fulfulde, Maasina, ffm  4   5 6 7  3.3.2 Fulfulde, Borgu, fub 3.3.3 Pular o 3.4 Western  3.4.1 Pulaar Writing systems o 4.1 Latin alphabet  4.1.1 Sample Fula alphabet o 4.2 Arabic script See also References o 6.1 Works o 6.2 Notes External links   Classification Fula belongs to the Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Description Fula has the reputation of being complex but very regular in the construction of verbs, with few exceptions or "irregular" forms. The plural forms of nouns, however, are highly irregular and often do not resemble their singular form. Morphology Fula is based on verbo-nominal roots, from which verbal, noun and modifier words are derived. It also uses infixes (a syllable inserted in the "middle" of a word, actually following the root and before the ending) to modify meaning. Noun classes There are about 25 noun classes (the number may vary slightly in different dialects). Voices Verbs in Fula are usually classed in 3 "voices" : active, middle, and passive. Not every root is used in all voices. Some middle voice verbs are reflexive. A common example are verbs from the root loot-:    lootude, to wash (something) [active voice] lootaade, to wash (one's self) [middle voice] looteede, to be washed [passive voice] Consonant mutation Another feature of the language is initial consonant mutation between singular and plural forms of nouns and of verbs (except in Pular, there is no consonant mutation in verbs, only in nouns). A simplified schema is as follows:        w ↔ b ↔ mb w ↔ g ↔ ng s↔c r ↔ d ↔ nd f↔p h↔k y ↔ j ↔ nj Pronouns Fula has inclusive and exclusive first-person plural pronouns. Dialects While there are numerous dialects of Fula, it is typically regarded as a single language. Wilson (1989) states that "travellers over wide distances never find communication impossible," and Ka (1991) concludes that despite it geographic span and dialect variation, Fulfulde is still fundamentally one language.[1] However, Bible translators estimate that at least 7 different translations are needed to make it comprehensible for all Fulfulde speakers, and Ethnologue treats several of the varieties as separate languages: East Central Fulfulde, Western Niger (Niger) Fulfulde, Central-Eastern Niger (Niger) Fulfulde, Nigerian (Nigeria)  1.700.000 in Nigeria (2000) Eastern Fulfulde, Adamawa, fub    700.000 speakers in Cameroon (1993) 128.000 in Chad (1993) 90.000 in Sudan (1982) Adamawa Fulfulde is also used by non-native speakers as the regional lingua franca in Far North, North and Adamawa provinces in Cameroon. Fulfulde, Bagirmi, fui   24000 speakers in Chad 156.000 speakers in Central African Republic (1996). West Central Fulfulde, Maasina, ffm Main article: Maasina Fulfulde   900.000 speakers in Mali (1991) 7000 speakers in Ghana (1991) Fulfulde, Borgu, fub    280.000 speakers in Benin (2002) 48.000 speakers in Togo (1993) also spoken in Nigeria Pular Main article: Pular language Alternative name is sometimes given as Pula-Fuuta, derived from the FuutaJalon region where it is spoken.     2.550.000 speakers in Guinea (1991) 50.000 speakers in Mali (1991) 136.000 speakers in Senegal (2002) 178.000 speakers in Sierra Leone (1991) Pular is an official regional language in Guinea, and many speakers are monolingual. The language has borrowed a lot from Arabic and French, but also from English, Portuguese, Maninka, Susu, Wolof and others. Western Pulaar  Mauritania, Senegal and The Gambia Writing systems Main article: Fula orthographies Latin alphabet When written using the Latin alphabet, Fula uses the following additional special "hooked" characters to distinguish meaningfully different sounds in the language: Ɓ/ɓ, Ɗ/ɗ, Ŋ/ŋ, Ɲ/ɲ, Ƴ/ƴ (i.e., implosive B, implosive D, velar N [sounds like "ng" in "king'], palatal N, ejective Y). The apostrophe (ʼ) is used as a glottal stop. In Nigeria ʼy substitutes ƴ, and in Senegal ñ is used instead of ɲ. Sample Fula alphabet a, aa, b, mb, ɓ, c, d, nd, ɗ, e, ee, f, g, ng, h, i, ii, j, nj, k, l, m, n, ŋ, ny (or ñ or ɲ), o, oo, p, r, s, t, u, uu, w, y, ƴ The letters q, x, z are used in some cases for loan words. In the Pular of Guinea an additional letter, ɠ, is also part of the orthography. Arabic script Fula has also been written in the Arabic script or Ajami since before colonization. This continues to a certain degree and notably in some areas like Guinea. See also  Macrolanguage References Works  Arnott, David W. (1970). The nominal and verbal systems of Fula. Oxford: Clarendon Press.  Wilson, W. A. A. (1989). Atlantic. In John Bendor-Samuel (Ed.), The NigerCongo Languages, pp. 81–104. Notes 1. ^ "...malgré son extension géographique et ses variations dialectales, le fulfulde reste une langue profondément unie." Ka, Fary. 1991. "Problématique de la standardisation linguistique: Le cas du pulaar/fulfulde." In N. Cyffer, ed., Language Standardization in Africa. Hamburg: Helmut Buske verlag. Pp. 35-38. Fula orthographies From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to:navigation, search The Fula language is written mainly in a modified Latin alphabet today, but was and still is in some places written in a modified Arabic alphabet called Ajami script. Contents [hide]    1 Latin-based orthographies o 1.1 Background o 1.2 Writing Pular o 1.3 Alphabets by country  1.3.1 Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania  1.3.2 Guinea  1.3.3 Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia  1.3.4 Mali, Burkina Faso  1.3.5 Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad 2 Arabic-based (Ajami) orthographies 3 Other scripts Latin-based orthographies Background The Latin alphabet was introduced to Pular-speaking regions of West and Central Africa by Europeans during, and in some cases immediately before, colonization. Various people - missionaries, colonial administrators, and later during the colonial period, scholarly researchers, devised various ways of writing the Pular language they encountered. One issue similar to other efforts by Europeans to use their alphabet and home orthographic conventions to write African languages with unfamiliar sounds was how to represent the implosive b and d, the ejective y, the velar n (the latter being present in European languages, but never in initial position), prenasalised consonants, and doubled vowels (the latter being as significant in Pular for meaning as tone differences are in other languages). Major influences on the current forms used for writing Pular were decisions made by colonial administrators in Northern Nigeria and the Africa Alphabet. A major conference on African language orthographies held in Bamako in 1966 confirmed this trend. Nevertheless, orthographies for the language and its variants are determined at the country level. So while Pular writing uses basically the same character sets and rules (such as for doubling vowels) there are some variations. Writing Pular This section requires expansion. Some rules:   Long vowels are doubled To accentuate a consonant, double the consonant or write " ' " before the consonant. Example, "temmeere" = "te'meere". Alphabets by country Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania a, aa, b, mb, ɓ, c, d, nd, ɗ, e, ee, f, g, ng, h, i, ii, j, nj, k, l, m, n, ŋ, ñ, o, oo, p, r, s, t, u, uu, w, x, y, ƴ Guinea Version 1: a, b, ɓ, nb, d, ɗ, e, f, g, ɠ, ng, h, i, j, nj, k, l, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, o, p, r, s, t, c, u, w, y, ƴ Version 2 (with keyboard-ready characters): a, b, bh, nb, c, d, dh, nd, e, f, g, ng, gn, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, w, y, yh Matching the two versions: bh = ɓ (as in bheydugol); dh = ɗ (as in dhuytugol); q = ɠ (as in qaagnagol, or qermugol); gn = ɲ (as in gnaamugol); yh = ƴ (as in yhettugol). Note: As native speakers of Pular from Fuuta Jalon, we are unable, so far, to find words that use the ŋ and nj characters. Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia a, b, ɓ, c, d, ɗ, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, mb, n, nd, ng, nj, ŋ, ñ, o, p, r, s, t, u, w, y, ƴ, ' Mali, Burkina Faso a, aa, b, mb, ɓ, c, d, nd, ɗ, e, ee, f, g, ng, h, i, ii, j, nj, k, l, m, n, ŋ, ɲ, o, oo, p, r, s, t, u, uu, w, x, y, ƴ Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad a, aa, b, mb, ɓ, c, d, nd, ɗ, e, ee, f, g, ng, h, i, ii, j, nj, k, l, m, n, ŋ, ny, o, oo, p, r, s, t, u, uu, w, x, y, ƴ Arabic-based (Ajami) orthographies The Arabic script was introduced into the West African Sahel with Islam several centuries before European colonization. As was the case with other languages such as Hausa, Muslim Fulas who went through Koranic education adapted the script to writing their language. This practice, while never formally standardized, followed some patterns of customary use in various regions. These usages differ on some details, mainly on how to represent certain consonants and vowels not present in the Arabic language. Other scripts There has been at least one effort to adapt the N'Ko script to Pular of Guinea. Fulfulde Language Family Report Author: Annette Harrison Cartographer: Irene Tucker SIL International 2003 1. Introduction 2. Maps 2.1 Fulfulde language continuum 2.2 Western area 2.3 Central area 2.4 Niger and Nigeria 2.5 Eastern Area 3. Bibliography 1 Introduction Fulfulde is a language of the Niger-Congo family, in the West Atlantic branch. In Senegal and Guinea the language is called Pulaar and Pular, respectively. Seventeen African countries from Senegal to Sudan are home to Fulfulde speakers. They are designated by names such as Haalpulaar‟en, Fula, Fulbe, Peul, Fulani, and Fellata. This is not the first attempt to map the location of Fulfulde speakers in West Africa. In 1952 De Lavergne de Tressan gathered information from various informants in what was then called the French Sudan. The CNRS (Centre National de Recherche Scientifique) mapped the Fulfulde language continuum and added the names of major dialect areas, information not included by De Lavergne de Tressan. In addition, research organizations in several West African countries have published atlases which include linguistic mapping of Fulfulde dialects within those countries. This latest effort at mapping the Fulfulde dialect continuum draws on these maps, library research, maps and database information from the Ethnologue, and data from field linguists working in most countries where Fulfulde is spoken. A bibliography follows. In addition to the wide geographic area, the great challenge to mapping this continuum consists more in the social dimensions and dynamism of the language. Roger Labatut writes, “...ce n‟est pas à la „géographie linguistique‟ qu‟on devra avoir recours mais à une „sociographie linguistique‟... (Labatut 1973:165) [we are not dealing with “linguistic geography,” but with “linguistic sociography”]. Fagerberg (1979) grouped the sixteen Fulfulde dialects spoken in Senegal into three major “dialect blocks,” which correspond to three distinct “cultures” and lifestyles. This idea of grouping the dialects by “linguistic sociology” and cultural-linguistic affinity seems a good one for a map like this. Instead of splitting the continuum into as many subdialects as can possibly be identified, we have attempted to group subdialects according to areas of clear communication and shared socioethnic identity. “Clear communication” relates to the linguistic concept of intelligibility which is based on the genetic relationship between speech varieties. The more closely related the speech variety, the lower the barrier to clear communication. This in turn allows for the use of one written standard shared between those closely related speech varieties. By “linguistic sociology” and “cultural-linguistic affinity” we mean that factors such as traditional homeland, cultural heritage, lineage, occupation, and religion strengthen bonds of self-identity, giving special cohesion to a particular group of speakers so that variation in speech becomes relatively unimportant to them. The ideal map of the Fulfulde continuum would be multidimensional, depicting more layers of “linguistic sociology” and “cultural-linguistic affinity” as well as the traditional map of “linguistic geography,” allowing for the reality that in most locations parallel dialects of Fulfulde are spoken. Several Fulfulde dialect areas on the continuum have names, locations, and general definitions that are more or less generally agreed upon by linguists, anthropologists, and others. These are the Pulaar of Senegal, Pular of Guinea, Fulfulde of Maasina, Fulfulde of Nigeria, and the Fulfulde of the Adamawa highlands in Cameroon. Historically these were areas of Fulani political dominance at some point; today they are part of modern West African nations where there are large Fulani populations. These are also the areas where the Fulani and their language are well documented resulting in a significant body of literature both about the Fulani, their language and providing educational materials for literacy programs. It is worthy to note that these materials are accessible to people living outside of Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, and Cameroon. In countries such as Burkina Faso, Benin, and Niger, the Fulani and their language have also been well documented, but in comparison the quantity of information and the body of literature available is not nearly as significant as in the first group. Documentation from countries such as Chad, the Central African Republic, and Sudan appears more sparse and difficult to locate. For the areas which are best documented, we hope we have done our homework well so that the Fulfulde dialect areas are represented according to and in agreement with the many scholars in these countries. For the remaining areas, particularly in Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Chad, and the Central African Republic, most of the information comes from people currently working in those countries. Whenever possible we have followed the guideline of the "autonym" (what the speaker of the language calls his or her language), when labeling dialect areas. The difficulty is that when asked, most speakers simply say they speak "Fulfulde," whether a religious leader in a Senegalese urban locale or a nomadic herder in eastern Niger. We cannot label every division as "Fulfulde," so we have attempted to find some additional modifier used by Fulfulde speakers which often produces an autonym which is a derivative of historico-political identity or geographic location. For example, the name of the Fulfulde dialect spoken in the region where the towns of Dori, Burkina Faso, Tera, and Niger are found is derived from the historical name for that region, the Liptaako, to make "Liptaakoore." The Fulfulde spoken in northern Niger and parts of Chad, Cameroon, and the Central African Republic is identified by a name derived from the sociocultural class and heritage of its speakers, the Wodaabe, to make "Wodaande." The Fulfulde map is an abstract representation of where we believe the speakers of these varieties to be geographically located. We have done our best to represent boundaries as "fuzzy" without allowing the indistinctness of a perceived line of linguistic change to be unhelpful in its vagueness. We have attempted to represent the gradually changing nature of a language continuum through graduating shades of color; the precise points of change cannot be said to be exactly represented on the map. Special acknowledgement and thanks are due to Irene Tucker as coauthor and cartographer for this project. Special thanks for their important contributions to this map go to: Jean Baumbach, Ted Bergman, Sanni Brah, Ed Brye, George Cail, Kim Cone, Scott and Mary Crickmore, Aboubakar Diallo, Umar Djaouné, Keith and Lorraine Doust, Barrie Evans, Cameron Hamm, Jennifer Harper, Byron Harrison, Doug Higby, Kendall Isaac, Keith and Debbie Kanavel, Keejo Laabol, Isaac Matchoudo, Ron Nelson, Andrew Persson, Mike Rueck, Ken Satterburg, Juerg Stalder, René Vallette, Milton Watt, as well as Steve and Ann White. An important reason for publishing this map is to solicit further information from others knowledgeable in this area. We would appreciate receiving critiques so that the map can be updated and refined as our collective knowledge increases. 2 Maps 2.1 Fulfulde language continuum 2.2 Western area 2.3 Central area 2.4 Niger and Nigeria 2.5 Eastern area Bibliography Adamu, Mahdi, and A. H. M. Kirk-Green, eds. 1986. Pastoralists of the West African Savanna. Manchester: Manchester University press. Anderson, Stephen E. 1976. On the description of consonant gradation in Fula. Studies in African Linguistics VII(1):93-136. Alhassoumi Sow, Salamatou. 1986. La situation du Peul dans le Niger-Ouest: Problèmes et perspectives d'une enquête dialectale. Mémoire pour l'obtention du DREA. Niamey: Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales. Alhassoumi Sow, Salamatou. 1987. Quelques aspects du Fulfulde-hawsa (parlers peuls orientaux du Niger): Esquisse des différences dialectales avec les parlers occidentaux. Mémoire pour l'obtention du DEA. Niamey: INALCO. Alhassoumi Sow, Salamatou. 1989. Problemes de dialectologie peule: la designation des parlers. Papers on Fulfulde Language, Literature and Culture, 68-77. Kano: Bayero University. Arnott, D. W. 1966. The tense system in Gombe Fula. Afrika und Ubersee XLIX:1-3. Arnott, D. W. 1970. The nominal and verbal systems of Fula. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Arnott, D. W. 1974. Some aspects of the study of Fula dialects. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 1:8-18. Arnott, D. W. 1986. Fula languages studies: present position and future prospects. In Pastoralists of the West African Savanna, 87-100. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Aubréville, A. d'. 1936. Les forêts de la colonie du Niger. Bulletin du Comité d'études historiques et scientifiques de l'A.O.F. 19(1)46-57 (noms des végétaux en peul). Azarya, Victor. 1993. Sedentarization and ethnic identity among the Fulbe: a comparative view. In Unity and diversity of a people, edited by P. K. Eguchi, and V. Azarya, 35-60. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology. Ba Amadou, Hampate. L'enfant peul. Oeuvre en 2 volumnes. Cahiers du Sud. Ba Amadou, Hampate. 1966. The Fulbe or Fulani of Mali and their culture." Abbia 14-15:55-87. Ba, Cheikh: 1986. Les peul du Senegal. Etude géographique. 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Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Trimingham, J. Spencer. 1968. The influence of Islam upon Africa. New York: Praeger. Vanderaa, Larry. nd. Fulfulde grammar. Mission Protestante au Sahel (CRWM). Weekes, Richard V., ed. 1978. Muslim peoples: A world ethnographic survey. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 133-138, 420-422. Wenek, Sophie. n.d. Champions de beauté et de courage. In Sciences et voyages, 15-20. Wenek, Sophie. n.d. J'ai laqué les ongles des magnifiques Bororodji du Niger. In Sciences et voyages, 7-14. Wilson, Wendy. 1984. Resource management in a stratified Fulani community. Ph.D. dissertation. Haward University. Fula Greeting Ritual Fulani War From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to:navigation, search The Fulani War of 1804-1810, also known as the Fulani Jihad or Jihad of Usman dan Fodio, was a military conquest in present day Nigeria and Cameroon. Expelled from Gobir by his former student Yunfa in 1802, Islamic reformer Usman dan Fodio assembled a Fulani army to lead in jihad against the Hausa kingdoms of the north. Realizing the threat that Usman's forces posed, Yunfa assembled the other Hausa rulers to oppose him. The Hausa rulers dealt the jihadists a number of initial setbacks, most notably at the Battle of Tsuntua (December 1804), in which Usman lost more than 2,000 men, 200 of whom are said to have known the Koran by heart. The following year, however, Usman's forces seized Kebbi and established a permanent base at Gwandu. Building on popular discontent caused in part by famine and by Hausa taxation, the jihadists continued to advance, taking the Gobir's capital Alkalawa in 1808 and killing Yunfa. Usman united the conquered lands under his Fulani Empire. The success of the jihad inspired a number of later West African jihadists, including Massina Empire founder Seku Amadu, Toucouleur Empire founder Umar Tall, Wassoulou Empire founder Samori Ture, and Adamawa Emirate founder Modibo Adama. References  "Usman dan Fodio". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Fula jihads From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Fula or Fulani jihads, were a series of independent but loosely connected events across West Africa between the late 17th century and European colonization, in which Muslim Fulas took control of various parts of the region. It is also sometimes referred to as "Fulani revolution." A jihad state is a territory that was established by political and religious Muslim leaders who conquer a region by offensive war, invoking jihad ("struggle" in Arabic). The rulers often assumed honorific titles such as in the Fulani Empire, Emir, an Arabic title which can mean general as well as prince or governor, or a derivate in a local language. Another title was Almamy (from Imam) used by rulers of Kingdom of Fouta Djallon. These states are listed in rough chronological order below. Contents        1 2 3 4 Bondu Fuuta Jalon Fuuta Tooro Fulani Empire o 4.1 Fulani jihad states 5 Massina Empire 6 Toucouleur Empire 7 References Bondu Main article: Bondu A small state in present day Senegal in which Muslim Fulas took control in the late 17th century. Fuuta Jalon Main article: Kingdom of Fouta Djallon The Fouta Djallon located mainly in present day Guinea as well as parts of Guinea Bissau, Senegal, Sierra Leone was a major state with a written constitution and ruling alternance between the 2 main parties: the Soriya and the Alphaya. The Fouta Djallon state was born in 1735 when Fulani Muslims decided to rise against the non-Muslim Fulanis and Djalonkes rulers to create a confederation of provinces. Alpha Ibrahima Sory Maoudho was elected as the first Almaamy in 1735 at the capital Timbo in present day Guinea. The Fouta Djallon state lasted until 1898 when the French colonial troops defeated the last Almamy (Ruler) Bokar Biro Barry, dismantled the state and integrated it into their new colony of Rivières du Sud, which became Guinea. Fuuta Tooro Main article: Kingdom of Fouta Tooro Under the unifying banner of Islam, the Muslim Fulas revolted in 1776 under the leadership of Sileymaani Baal. The following Islamic revolution created the new kingdom of Fuuta Tooro under a government called the Almamate (a term derived from the Pulaar borrowing of the Arabic al-imaam). Before formal colonization this state was weakened by French incursions and the effort by El Hadj Umar Tall to carry his jihad eastward (see also Toucouleur Empire, below). Fulani Empire Main article: Sokoto Caliphate At the beginning of the 19th century under Usman dan Fodio the Fulani became the leaders of a centralized Fulani Empire which continued until 1903 when the Fulani were divided up among European colonizers. Fulani jihad states The term jihad state is historically used in reference to the 19th century Islamic conquests in Western Africa, especially the Fulani jihad or Fulbe (from Fulɓe) jihad, a phrase referring to the state-founding jihad led by Usman dan Fodio in the first decade of the 19th century in and around Nigeria. Most of these states were in colonial times brought into the British Northern Nigeria Protectorate around 1901-1903. The jihad states in the region controlled by the empire included:                     Abuja, replacing the former Zuba; the ruler's title was Sarkin Zazzau, from 1828 also Emir Adamawa (now partially in Cameroon), founded in 1809; title BabanLamido Agaie, founded in 1822; title emir Bauchi emirate, founded in 1805; title Lamido (laamiiɗo in Fula language), meaning "ruler" (similar meaning to Emir ) Gombe, founded in 1804; title Modibo Gombe. Gwandu, a major Fulbe jihad state, founded in 1817; title Emir Hadejia, replaced Biram (title Sarkin Biram) in 1805; new title Sarkin Hadejia, from 1808 also styled Emir Jama`are, founded in 1811; style Emir. Jema`an Darroro, founded in 1810; title Emir Kano replaced the old (Hausa) Kano state in March 1807; the old title Sarkin Kano is still used, but now also styled Emir Katagum, founded in 1807; title Sarkin Katagum, also styled Emir Katsina replaced the old (Hausa) Katsina state in 1805; the old title Sarkin Katsina is still used, but now also styled Emir. Kazaure, founded in 1818; title Emir, also styled Sarkin *Arewa (apparently imitating neighbours) Keffi, founded in 1802; title Emir Lafiagi, founded in 1824; new title Emir Lapai, founded in 1825; style Emir Mubi, founded in 18..; title Emir Muri, founded in 1817, style Emir; 1892-1893 de facto French protectorate, 1901 part of Northern Nigerian British protectorate Sokoto, the center of the Fulani jihad, established on 21 February 1804 by Usman dan Fodio, title Amir al-Mu´minin, also styled Lamido Julbe; on 20 April 1817 Sokoto was styled sultanate (title sultan, also styled Amir al-Mu´minin and Sarkin Musulmi), the suzerain of all Fulbe jihad states; in 1903 the British occupied Sokoto Sultanate Zaria, superseded the old Zazzau state (title Sarkin Zazzau) on 31 December 1808; new style first Malam, since October/November 1835 Emir, also styled Sarkin Zaria and Sarkin Zazzau Massina Empire Main article: Massina Empire Located in what is now central Mali, this state lasted from 1818 until 1862. Inspired by the recent Muslim uprisings of Usman dan Fodio in nearby Hausaland, preacher and social reformer Seku Amadu led a Fula army in jihad against the Bambara Empire. The empire expanded rapidly, taking Djenné and establishing a new capital at Hamdullahi. It was eventually defeated by Umar Tall and incorporated into the Toucouleur Empire. Toucouleur Empire Main article: Toucouleur Empire El Hajj Umar Tall led armies east from his base in Futa Tooro and Dinguiraye to conquer Kaarta, the Bambara Empire, and Massina in the early 1860s. The Toucouleur controlled the region until French colonization, at which time the last leader of the state, Ahmadu Tall, fled to Sokoto. mtDNA of Fulani Nomads and Their Genetic Relationships to Neighboring Sedentary Populations Human Biology, Feb 2006 by Cerný, V, Hájek, M, Bromová, M, Cmejla, R, Et al Abstract Despite the large size of the contemporary nomadic Fulani population (roughly 13 million people), the genetic diversity and degree of differentiation of Fulanis compared to other sub-Saharan populations remain unknown. We sampled four Fulani nomad populations (n = 186) in three countries of sub-Saharan Africa (Chad, Cameroon, and Burkina Faso) and analyzed sequences of the first hypervariable segment of the mitochondrial DNA. Most of the haplotypes belong to haplogroups of West African origin, such as L1b, L3b, L3d, L2b, L2c, and L2d (79.6% in total), which are all well represented in each of the four geographically separated samples. The haplogroups of Western Eurasian origin, such as J1b, U5, H, and V, were also detected but in rather low frequencies (8.1% in total). As in African hunter-gatherers (Pygmies and Khoisan) and some populations from central Tunisia (Kesra and Zriba), three of the Fulani nomad samples do not reveal significant negative values of Fu's selective neutrality test. The multidimensional scaling of F^sub ST^ genetic distances of related subSaharan populations and the analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) show clear and close relationships between all pairs of the four Fulani nomad samples, irrespective of their geographic origin. The only group of nomadic Fulani that manifests some similarities with geographically related agricultural populations (from Guinea-Bissau and Nigeria) comes from Tcheboua in northern Cameroon. The Fulani (also known as the Foulah, Peulh, Peul, Fulfulde, or Fulbe) are an ethnic group of sub-Saharan Africa who live in 17 states and number almost 30 million people. Although most Fulani now live settled lives, they spring from an originally nomadic population. Both the settled and nomadic communities are collaborating. The settled communities cultivate the cereals (mainly sorghum) and raise a small number of domestic animals; the activities of the pastoral groups are concerned almost exclusively with animal husbandry. It must be stressed that cattle keeping is really the central point of cultural identity of all Fulani nomads. Because of the specific needs of this practice, more pronounced division of labor, resulting in longer time separation of the husband and wife, is encountered in Fulani society. Males deal with the pasture, and females sell milk and milk products in town markets. Nomadic Fulani are known from almost all localities of the West African savanna and the Chad basin. Archeological indicators date the origin of this nomadic population, on the basis of the rock art of the central Sahara, to about 5,000 years ago (Dupuy 1999); some indicators even suggest a Neolithic origin of the Fulani population (Ba and Dieterlen 1966). Some Fulani groups settled to form a number of important states: the kingdom of Tekrur on the lower Senegal River in the 11th century, the Massina Empire on the middle Niger in the 15th century, and the Sokoto Empire in the 19th century in northern and eastern central Nigeria. The modern Fulani, who live in sub-Saharan Africa between the Sahara and the tropical rain forests, can be divided into the settled Fulani (15 million people) and the nomadic Fulani (up to 13 million people), sometimes called the M'Bororo (or Bororo) or the Wodaabe. The nomadic Fulani live in the African middle savanna belt, from eastern Senegal to the Central African Republic, and are the most numerous nomadic group in this area. Linguistically, both Fulani groups (the herders and the agriculturalists) belong to the Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family (Ruhlen 1987). Fulani nomads remain detached from the settled Fulani. Over the course of the year they practice seasonal migration; in the rainy season they move with their herds to the north, and in the dry season they return to the south. The northsouth line varies by tribe and family but is generally about 500 km long (Dupire 1962). In addition to these seasonal movements, there is largescale migration, by which the nomadic Fulani have spread across the West African savanna and the Chad basin (Mohammadou 1975). From an anthropological perspective the Fulani are rather heterogeneous; they show similarities to other sub-Saharan populations, but some characteristics-such as pale skin, a long, straight nose, and thin lips-link them to North African groups. In the 1930s it was assumed that the Fulani had migrated into the Lake Chad region and further into the West African savanna from East Africa, and even Egyptian and Near Eastern origins were proposed (Tauxier 1937); on the basis of the Rh system, however, it has been possible to link these populations to West African groups (Excoffier et al. 1987). mtDNA Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa The mtDNA diversity of African populations is relatively well known, but not all regions and ethnic groups have been sufficiently sampled yet; indeed, the mtDNA data of people from such inaccessible areas as eastern Chad or the Congo basin have not been studied at all. From the phylogenetic point of view the mtDNA sequences from subSaharan Africa have been classified into L-type haplogroups (Chen et al. 1995, 2000; Watson et al. 1996, 1997; Rando et al. 1998; Bandelt et al. 2001; Pereira et al. 2001; Torroni et al. 2001; Brehm et al. 2002). About 30 sub-Saharan Ltype haplogroups have been identified, and their ethnic or geographic origins and coalescence times have recently been summarized (Salas et al. 2002, 2004; Kivisild et al. 2004; Rosa et al. 2004). It seems that the main diversifications originated in East Africa but that the West African regions also contributed to the recent, wide mtDNA diversity. The nomadic Fulani have not been studied with regard to mtDNA so far. The only samples (n = 61) from a Fulani-speaking population have been presented in research by Watson et al. (1996, 1997), who investigated a mixed sample of settled Fulani from Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria. Close relationships to the neighboring settled populations of West Africa (the Tuareg, Kanuri, Hausa, Songhai, Yoruba, and Mandenka) have been confirmed by other studies [e.g., Pereira et al. (2001) and Salas et al. (2002)]. This Fulani group cannot be separated from the other populations, even by the indexes of molecular diversity (Pereira et al. 2001; Trovoada et al. 2004). Rosa et al. (2004) has recently studied another group of sedentary Fulani (n = 77); these are Fulani from GuineaBissau, unique in their slight divergence from six otherwise similar populations in GuineaBissau. Their haplogroup profile shows high proportions of haplogroups L1b, L2a, and L3b in particular, although a few Eurasian haplogroups were also found among them. Study Aims The aim of this study is to present the HVS-I mtDNA sequences of nomadic Fulani groups from four different locations that have not yet been described in this way. There are four questions that we seek to answer: (1) What is the mtDNA profile of the sample-does it include haplogroups of East or of West African origin? (2) Are the sampled Fulani genetically homogeneous, and do they reveal similar degrees of molecular diversity? (3) Are there genetic differences between the nomadic and sedentary Fulani populations? (4) What are the genetic relationships between the Fulani and their neighbors? Materials and Methods Sampling. Biological samples (buccal swabs) were collected from Fulani nomads at different places within their geographic range across the Chad basin and the West African savanna. The Chad basin samples come from the middle Logone River in Chad (Bongor area, n = 49) and from the territory of Cameroon south of the Benue (Tcheboua area, n = 40). A third sample set comes from the eastern part of Burkina Faso, south of the city of Fada Ngourma (Tindangou area, n = 47), and the fourth and final sample set was collected in the western part of Burkina Faso, south of the city of Bobo Diulasso (Banfora area, n = 50) (Figure 1). Camps were visited during the dry seasons (January-February 2002-2004), when the nomads rested at the southern extremity of their lines of migration. The only exception is the sample from Tcheboua (Cameroon), where the Fulani have recently settled. All possible measures were taken to avoid sampling individuals with a known common maternal ancestor. The samples were secured under conditions of informed consent, and with the authorization of the ministries of education of the countries concerned. Laboratory Methods. DNA was isolated from the buccal swabs using the method described by Cerný et al. (2004), and the HVS-I was amplified with the primers F-15971 (5'-TTA ACT CCA CCA TTA GCA CC-3') and R-16410 (5'-GAG GAT GGT GGT CAA GGG AC-3')- Products were purified using the QIA-quick PCR purification kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) and then sequenced using the BigDye Terminator v3.1 cycle sequencing kit (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, California) with the F-15971 forward primer on an ABI Prism 3100 Avant Genetic Analyzer. Samples that contained length heteroplasmy (a homopolymeric tract of cytosines between positions 16184 and 16193) were also sequenced with the reverse primer R-16410. Data Analysis. The sequences were aligned using DNA Alignment 1.0.0.7. (Fluxus Technology Ltd., Germany) and BioEdit 5.0.9 (Hall 1999). Each sequence was compared to the Cambridge Reference Sequence between nucleotide positions (np) 16030 and 16370 (Andrews et al. 1999). Individual haplotypes were ranked into haplogroups according to the published phylogenetic literature (Watson et al. 1997; Rando et al. 1998; QuintanaMurci et al. 1999; Alves-Silva et al. 2000; Bandelt et al. 2001; Pereira et al. 2001; Torroni et al. 2001; Salas et al. 2002, 2004; Rosa et al. 2004; Kivisild et al. 2004) and controlled for possible new clades with the help of the Network software (Fluxus Technology Ltd.). Gene diversity, nucleotide diversity, and the average number of pairwise differences were calculated using Arlequin 2.000 (Schneider et al. 2000). Irregularities in the distribution of the average number of pairwise differences were tested using the raggedness index (Harpending 1994), which gives higher values for stable populations and lower values for expanding populations. Selective neutrality was analyzed using the methods of Tajima (1989) and Fu (1997). For the purposes of the mtDNA study some previously published HVS-I data have been taken from the literature (Table 1). The criteria of selection were geographic proximity to or possible genetic relationship with Fulani nomads, available sequences of np 16030-16370, and population samples with n > 20. To evaluate the genetic distances between the populations, we calculated F^sub ST^ (the pairwise difference method) using Arlequin 2.000. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis based on F^sub ST^ distances was carried out using Statistica software. The genetic structure of the populations and their different regional groupings were further evaluated by analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) (Excoffier et al. 1992). Admixture proportions were calculated using the Admix 2.0 software (Dupanloup and Bertorelle 2001). Variations at np 16182-16185 and length polymorphic polyC regions were not taken into account in all analyzed samples. Results mtDNA Haplogroups. The total sample from the four geographically distinct Fulani populations (n = 186) yielded 58 haplotypes, which were classified into 14 haplogroups (see Appendix 1); as expected, a significant majority belonged to sub-Saharan type L. The most numerous haplogroups are L3b (determined by the motif 16124, 16223, 16278, and 16362) and L3d (determined by the motif 16124 and 16223); these two haplogroups could not be distinguished from each other when only the HVS-I sequence was available. However, because both share the same geographic origin in West Africa, the HVS-II motif and RFLP polymorphisms were not further studied for a more specific molecular determination. Together, the L3b and L3d haplogroups contain 62 sequences with 12 haplotypes. The second well-diversified haplogroup found in the Fulani nomads sample is L1b (50 sequences, 10 haplotypes), with the determining HVS-I motif 16126, 16187, 16189, 16223, 16264, 16270, 16278, and 16311, the origin of which also lies in West Africa (Salas et al. 2002, 2004). All the other haplogroups identified are represented by conspicuously lower numbers; the most numerous among them, comparatively speaking, are L2b and L2c, which are also of West African origin. It is interesting that the otherwise common L2a haplogroup (determined by mutation at np 16294) is not present to any great degree in the overall sample. The distribution of the haplotypes in each of the sampled Fulani populations is quite even-all the aforementioned (more numerous) haplogroups were present in each population sample at comparable frequencies. In addition, it is worth noting that 15 sequences (8.1%) of North African/Eurasian origin (U5, V, J1b, and one sequence corresponding to the Cambridge Reference Sequence) occurred. We have detected new mutations in the L1b haplogroup, which is otherwise well classified by HVS-I mutations at np 16126, 16187, 16189, 16223, 16264, 16270, 16278, and 16311 (Salas et al. 2002). The L1b network (Figure 2) shows that most of the Fulani mtDNA sequences fall within clade L1b1, which is determined by the presence of a mutation at np 16293 plus the aforementioned L1b motif. One haplotype with a mutation at np 16170, not yet reported elsewhere, was observed for one individual from Banfora (Burkina Faso), and two new haplotypes-one presenting a mutation at np 16093 (one Fulani from Bongor, Chad) and the other a mutation at np 16255 (one Fulani from Tindangou)-were also observed. Also, in the L1b* haplogroup there is a new haplotype with a mutation at np 16368. Molecular Diversity. The indexes of genetic diversity for all four Fulani samples are given in Table 2. The gene diversities reach values between 0.893 and 0.953 (for the merged population, 0.936). This measure, considered equivalent to heterozygozity in haplotype studies (Schneider et al. 2000), together with the nucleotide diversity and the average number of pairwise differences attains values similar to those known from other subSaharan populations (Cerný et al. 2004). On the other hand, the relatively low levels of the raggedness index are interesting; in one sample from Burkina Faso (Tindangou) this index even attains statistical significance. Tajima's D test of selective neutrality, based on the infinite-site model of the studied groups, was not significant in any of the samples. Fu's F^sub S^which is much more sensitive to population demographic expansions and is highly significant (p ≤ 0.001) in all agricultural populations [see Pereira et al. (2001, Table 3)]-is significant only for the Fulani sample from Bongor. Significant levels were obtained from merged Fulani groups in the Chad basin or when all four Fulani samples were merged (n = 97). However, the Fulani from Burkina Faso, when taken together, did not attain a statistically significant value. Neglecting the hypothesis of selection, the nonsignificant values of the D and F^sub S^ statistics provide an indication of reduced demographic expansion hitherto observed mainly in hunter-gather populations such as the Pygmies or Khoisan (Excoffier and Schneider 1999). Comparison with Other Populations. The populations listed in Table 1 were compared using F^sub ST^ values. The most important finding was that none of the sampled Fulani groups were differentiated from the others. No F^sub ST^ distance between any pair of Fulani nomads is statistically significant (data not shown). Considering the actual geographic distances between the Fulani groups in the Chad basin and those in the West African savanna (about 2,000 km), this finding is extremely interesting. On the other hand, the sampled Fulani groups differ from all other neighboring settled populations, including the Fulbe (Fulani) reported by Watson et al. (1997); the only exception to this is the Fulani sample from Tcheboua (Cameroon), which is not differentiated from three populations of the Central Sahel (the Hausa, Fulbe, and Yoruba). The F^sub ST^ distances of 29 analyzed African populations were plotted on a graph using MDS analysis (Figure 3); populations of the Western Sahel group, except Mandenka, were not included because of their outlier position. The clear separation of three Fulani groups is evident at first glance; the only population not differentiated from the rest is the Fulani sample from Cameroon. It is worth noting the special position of the Mandenka, the only population from the Western Sahel, which is relatively close to the Fulani samples. Genetic Structure. Genetic structure was approached through AMOVA. When all the population samples were considered as a single group, 6.37% (p Admixture Analysis. The question of the maternal origin of the Fulani was investigated using Admix 2.0. This software was developed to estimate the contribution of parental populations to the population under study. Data were entered according to group C from the AMOVA (i.e., the Mandenka were not considered; see Table 3); the mutation rate was 0.00005 per year. Admixture coefficients (m^sub Y^) were calculated from allele frequencies without taking into account the molecular divergence between the alleles. Because the exact period of Fulani migration cannot be estimated from archeological studies, we selected 4,000 years rather intuitively as the time to the possible admixture event. Bootstrap estimates of the coefficients and their standard deviations were calculated using 1,000 replicates. The results are summarized in Table 4 and show that none of the selected groups made a dominant contribution to the mitochondrial pool of the sampled Fulani. The only weakly prominent parental populations are from the Nile valley. Discussion HVS-I analysis of four Fulani populations revealed the different proportions of the mtDNA gene pool. A major role is played by West African mtDNA haplogroups, such as L1b, L3d, L3b, L2b, L2c, and L2d, which together make up 79.6% of the whole. The far from negligible presence of some haplogroups from western Eurasia (8.1%), such as U5, U6, and J1, is not particularly surprising in a sub-Saharan context because these haplogroups currently appear in North Africa. This may suggest an ancient origin of the nomads in the more northerly mountain massifs of the Central Sahara (Dupuy 1999). According to our own anthropological examination (data not shown), the non-sub-Saharan haplogroups are not carried by "West Eurasian-like" individuals, as might be anticipated, but were rather detected in common "Fulani type" peoples. The analyzed samples of the Fulani show levels of genetic diversity similar to those of their neighbors in the West African savanna and the Chad basin. However, like hunter-gatherers (Pereira et al. 2001) and some others (Cherni et al. 2005), the Fulani-particularly the groups from Burkina Pasoshow nonsignificant values of Tajima's D and Fu's Fs statistics, meaning that the signal of demographic expansion was lost by subsequent population events (Bandelt and Forster 1997; Excoffier and Schneider 1999). The Fulani's lower values of the raggedness index are also interesting in this regard. It can be hypothesized that the mating pattern is the main difference encountered between the nomadic and settled populations. Similar relationships have been observed in Africa between hunter-gatherers and farmers; Pygmies (as hunter-gatherers), for example, offer their girls to neighboring food producers but do not obtain any girls in return (Sebesta and Lebzelter 1933; Bailey 1991), and for this reason their mtDNA gene pool remains constant and is gradually reduced over time-Pygmies mainly have the haplogroup L1c (Destro-Bisol et al. 2004). An even more remarkable reduction of genetic diversity can be observed among the Khoisan, another African hunter-gatherer population; their mtDNA gene pool contains mainly the haplogroups L0d and L0k, which occur in virtually no other populations (Vigilant et al. 1991; Salas et al. 2002). These observations are probably not due to inconsistencies in the our field sampling strategy, because results consistent with the diversity levels of common African agricultural populations were obtained when the same field sampling strategy was used among sedentary Chadic-speaking peoples in northern Cameroon (Cerny et al. 2004). The samples of the studied Fulani groups differ from practically all the neighboring populations, the only exception being the recently settled (one generation) Fulani of Tcheboua, where three nonsignificant comparisons were observed. There is no differentiation from the Hausa, Fulbe, and Yoruba peoples reported from Niger and Nigeria by Watson et al. (1997). Some differences of the maternal gene pool between the nomadic and sedentary Fulani populations are also apparent from research conducted in physiological characteristics, for example, lactase persistence; the incidence of this trait among sedentary Fulani is far lower than among their nomadic counterparts (Holden and Mace 2002). The genetic relationships of the sub-Saharan populations presented in this study, and particularly among the Wolof, Serer, Fulani, and Mandenka, are little different from those revealed by classic genetic polymorphisms (Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994), where the Fulani of Senegal (described as Peuls, from the French) were differentiated from the Fulani of Nigeria. As far as we are aware, however, the samples of Cavalli-Sforza and colleagues come mainly from settled Fulani populations. It is worth noting that, according to protein polymorphisms, the Fulani of Senegal are closer to the Wolof and Serer and more distant from the Mandenka (Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994, pp. 181-182), whereas the Mandenka are linked to the populations of northern Nigeria (such as the Hausa or Fulani). The similarity among the Fulani, Serer, and Wolof (all from Senegal) is so strong that these three groups even form a discrete cluster (Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994, p. 169). This does not correspond to the results of this study, which show that the mtDNA gene pool of the sampled nomadic Fulani is conspicuously different from that of the Serer and Wolof. The samples obtained from herding groups in the southern part of the Chad basin (Chad and Cameroon) and the West African savanna (eastern and western Burkina Faso) display perhaps closer relationships to the samples of the sedentary Mandenka, as suggested by the MDS constellation; a similar finding has also been reported by Rosa et al. (2004). Y-chromosome data of 22 African populations, including the Fulani from Burkina Faso and northern Cameroon, were analyzed by Cruciani et al. (2002). The main result of Cruciani's study is that different populations from northern Cameroon (Fali, Ouldeme, Daba, and some mixed samples) reveal traces of backmigration from Asia to Africa because of a high proportion of haplotype 117. However, the Fulani sample from northern Cameroon considered by Cruciani and colleagues shows a rather low frequency of this haplotype, and the Fulani, which have a high frequency of haplotype 43, are situated as outliers. Cruciani et al. (2002) also showed that the Fulani from Burkina Faso have reduced diversity, because only two Y-chromosome haplotypes were observed in their sample. In the introduction we mentioned several hypotheses for the origin of the (nomadic) Fulani. One well-known hypothesis is that the Fulani come from the Nile valley (e.g., Tauxier 1937). Analysis of F^sub ST^ distances, however, shows no close relationship between the sampled Fulani and the analyzed Nilotic populations. Admixture analysis, however, does not exclude the possible parental role of the Nilotic populations because the admixture coefficient for these populations is high. It is necessary to state that the conclusiveness of this finding is rather low. Further geographic sampling, particularly from Niger and other parts of the Sudanic belt of Africa, is needed to acquire a deeper insight into the genetic structure of the nomadic people of the African Sahel. Acknowledgments We wish to express our gratitude to the volunteers for their confidence and their helpful participation in the study. We are indebted to Peter Forster for his mtDNA data proofreading of some of the samples. This project was supported by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (grant 404/03/0318) and the Mellon Fellowship program (CAORC). 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BRDICKA2 1 Department of Anthropology and Environment, Institute of Archeology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Letenská 4, 118 01 Prague 1, Czech Republic. 2 Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, U nemocnice 1, 128 20 Prague 2, Czech Republic. 3 Département de Linguistique et Langues Nationales, Institut des Sciences des Sociétés, CNRST, 03 BP 7047 Ouagadougou 03, Burkina Faso. Human Biology, February 2006, v. 78, no. 1, pp. 9-27. Copyright © 2006 Wayne State University Press, Detroit, Michigan 482011309 Cerný, V "mtDNA of Fulani Nomads and Their Genetic Relationships to Neighboring Sedentary Populations". Human Biology. FindArticles.com. 04 Jun, 2010. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3659/is_200602/ai_n17186281/ Copyright Wayne State University Press Feb 2006 Provided by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights Reserved The Fulani people, also called Fulbe (pl. Pullo) or Peul, are well known for the delicate decoration of utilitarian objects such as milk bowls that reflect their nomadic and pastoral lifestyle. The history of the Fulani in West Africa begins in the fifth century A.D. Islamized early on and traveling constantly, they did not develop a tradition of figural, sculpted art. The complex nature of art among this large and long-established group in West Africa is widely recognized but still understudied. A Long Itinerary Although the migrations of the Fulani cattle herders, as well as their physical appearance, have generated a variety of hypotheses about their origins outside the region, current studies demonstrate that Fulani culture belongs to the West African context. Their language, the Pular or Fufulde, onto which some pre-Berber components are grafted, is of the Niger-Congo group. The ancestors of the Fulani, among other groups, seem to have been pushed from the Sahara southward at the onset of its desertification around the third millennium B.C. Established in southern Mauritania at the beginning of the Christian era, Fulani people developed a strong presence in Futa Toro in Senegambia from the fifth to the eleventh century. From there, they migrated further east. Fulani people were among the first Africans to convert to Islam. Between the eighth and the fourteenth century, Fulbe-speaking people of Takrur had produced a class of Muslim clerics, the Torodbe, who would take on proselytizing activities across the entire western Sudan. Increasingly, the memory of their previous pastoral religion was lost, except in some subgroups such as the Bororo or Wodaabe (i.e., "Isolated"), who remained animists and nomads. Between the eleventh and the seventeenth century, the Fulbe gradually extended their grazing territory from over much of the West African savanna up to Borno. They usually took no part in the political life of the surrounding entities, and were sometimes subjected to heavy taxes. To resist taxation and military conscription or acquire more grazing land, Fulani waged religious wars in the nineteenth century. From these jihads, or holy wars, Muslim theocracies emerged, for instance, the Sokoto caliphate that became, under the leadership of Usman dan Fodio (cUthman ibn Fudi), the largest single West African state of the nineteenth century. Over the centuries, Fulani migrations have interacted with all the other groups in western and central Sudan. Today, Fulani people live in nearly every country of the West African savanna, between Senegal and Cameroon. Traces of Fulani Culture in Tassili Examination of certain rock paintings in the Tassili-n-Ajjer suggests the presence of proto-Fulani cultural traits in the region by at least the fourth millennium B.C. Scholars specializing in Fulani culture believe that some of the imagery depicts rituals that are still practiced by contemporary Fulani people. At the Tin Tazarift site, for instance, historian Amadou Hampate Ba recognized a scene of the lotori ceremony, a celebration of the ox's aquatic origin. In a finger motif, Ba detected an allusion to the myth of the hand of the first Fulani herdsman, Kikala. At Tin Felki, Ba recognized a hexagonal carnelian jewel as related to the Agades cross, a fertility charm still used by Fulani women. Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Citation Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. "The Fulani/Fulbe People ". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/fula_2/hd_fula_2.htm (October 2002) The Hausa-Fulani is a culture common towards the north. Hausa and Fulani are two different ethnic groups, but have been combined together after the fulani war. The most common spoken language is Hausa Language, which is very similar to Swahili. Hausa is more commonly known for trade and their culture. The Fulani are traditionally known for herding cattle, goats and sheep across the country. Hausa has beautiful architecture, often bright and colorful, but is not well known for it. Fulani are mostly known to be more social and economic, but are also traders in certain areas. Most Fulani's spend long times alone on foot, moving their herds. As a tradition, the hausa-fulani people dress in long colorful robes, that are mostly embroidered or decorated with different fabrics cloths. 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Preface by Roger Labatut; Illustrations by Christian Seignobos. Geuthner Dictionnaires. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner and Garoua, Cameroun: Procure des Missions, 1989. Osborn, Donald W., David J. Dwyer and Joseph I. Donohoe, Jr. A Fulfulde (Maasina)-English-Frenchy Lexicon: A Root-Based Compilation Drawn from Extant Sources Followed by English-Fulfulde and French-Fulfulde Listings/Lexique Fulfulde (Maasina)-Anglais-Français: Une compilation basée sur racines et tirée de sources existantes suivie de listes en anglais-fulfulde et français-fulfulde. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1993. Seydou, Christiane. Dictionnaire pluridialectal des racines verbales du peul: peul-français-anglais/A Dictionary of Verb Roots in Fulfulde Dialects: Fulfulde-French-English. Collection Dictionnaires et Langues edited by Henry Tourneux. Paris: Editions Karthala and ACCT (Agence de la Francophonie), 1998. Taylor, Frank William. A Fulani-English dictionary. Oxford, The Clarendon press, 1932 and New York: Hippocrene Books, 1995. Taylor, Frank William. "Some English Words in Fulani and Hausa." Journal of the Royal African Society (London) Vol. 20 (1920/21). Tourneux, Henry and Yaya Daïrou. Vocabulaire peul du monde rural: Maroua-Garoua (Cameroun). Paris: Karthala and Garoua: DPGT (Développement Paysannal et Gestion de Terroirs), 1999. Economics Grayzel, John Aron. "The Drought and Fulfulde-Speaking Herder: Farmers in Doukolomba (Mali)," in < I>Report Institute for Development Anthropology, pp. 43-48. Colloquium on the effects of drought on the productive strategies of Sudano-Sahelian herdsmen and farmers 1. Institute for Development Anthropology: Binghampton, N.Y. 1976. Grayzel, John Aron. "Markets and Migration: A Fulbe Pastoral System in Mali," in World of Pastoralism: Herding Systems in Comparative Perspective edited by John G. Galaty and Douglas L. Johnson, pp. 35-67. New York: Guilford Press, 1990. Grayzel, John Aron. "Libido and Development: The Importance of Emotions in Development Work," in Anthropology and Rural Development in West Africa edited by M.M. Horowitz and T.M. Painter, pp. 147-65. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986. Riesman, P. "The Fulani in a Development Context: The Relevance of Cultural Traditions for Coping with Change and Crisis," in Life Before the Drought edited by E.P. Scott, pp. 171-91. Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1984. Education Adama, Hamadou. "L'école franco-arabe camerounaise: bilan et perspectives," in Cameroun 2001, pp. 89-136. Paris: L'Harmattan, 2001. Adama, Hamadou. "L'enseignement privé islamique dans le Nord-Cameroun." Islam et Sociétés au sud du Sahara: Revue de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme (Paris) 13 (1999): pp. 7-40. Adama, Hamadou and Aboubakary Modibbo Amadou. "Itinéraires d'acquisition du savoir arabo-islamique dans le Nord-Cameroun." Annales de la Facultés des Arts, Lettres et Sciences Humaines de l'Université de Ngaoundéré (Ngaoundéré) 3 (1998): pp. 5-38. Balde, Aissatou MBambe. The Schooling Experiences of fulani Muslim Girls in the Fouta Djallon Region of Guinea: Forces Influencing Their Retention in a Rural Secondary School of Dalaba. Ph.D., Ohio University, 2004. Boyd, Jean. "Distance Learning from Purdah in Nineteenth-Century Northern Nigeria: The Work of Asma'u Fodiyo." Journal of African Cultural Studies (London) 14, no. 1 (2001): pp. 7-22. Brenner, Louis. Originality of Thought and Method in West African Islamic Teaching: A Fulfulde Example. Working Papers 31. Brookline, MA: African Studies Center, Boston University, 1980. Junaid, M.I. Education and Cultural Integrity: An Ethnographic Study of the Problems of Formal Education and Pastoral Fulani in Sokoto State, Nigeria. D.Phil., York (UK), 1988. Saikou, Balde. "L'éducation de la fille dans l'ancienne famille foulah." Outre-Mer: Revue générale de colonisation (Paris) 9, no. 4 (December 1937): pp. 322-330. Umar, A. The Planning of Radio for Adult Education Among the Pastoral Fulani: A Reconstructionist Approach. Ph.D., Aberystwyth (Wales), 1988. Usman, Lantana Martha. Analysis of Nigeria's Nomadic Education Policy on the Socio-Economic Development of Fulbe Women and Girls. Ph.D., University of Alberta, 2002. Geography Boutrais, J. "Entre nomadisme et sédentarité: les Mbororo à l'ouest du Cameroun," in Le développement rural en questions. Paysages, espaces rureaux, systèmes agraires: Maghreb, Afrique noire, Mélanésie edited by C. Blanc-Pamard, et. al., pp. 225-56. Collections Mémoires 106. Paris: ORSTOM, 1984. Boutrais, J. "L'expansion des éleveurs peul dans les savanes humides du Cameroun," in Pastoralists of the West African Savanna. Selected Studies Presented and Discussed at the Fifteenth International African Seminar Held at Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, July 1979 edited by M. Adamu and A. Kirk-Greene, pp. 145-60. International African Seminars, New Series 2. Manchester: University Press, in association with the International African Institute, 1986. Schareika, Nikolaus. "Environmental Knowledge and Pastoral Migration among the WoDaaBe of south-eastern Niger." Nomadic Peoples: Commission on Nomadic Peoples, International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences (Montreal) 5, no. 1 (2001): pp. 65-88. Health and Nutrition Arensdorff, L. "La médecine chez les Peuls du Fouta Djallon." Revue d'ethnographie et de sociologie, No. 4 (1913): 2615. Castle, Sarah. "‘The Tongue is Venomous': Perception, Verbalisation and Manipulation of Mortality and Fertility Regimes in Rural Mali." Social Science and Medicine (Oxford) 52, no. 12 (2001): pp. 1827-41. Krönke, Frank. "hilfesuchverhalten und die Barrieren der Nutzung des öffentlichen Gesundheitswesens bei pastoralnomadischen FulBe im Tschad." Anthropos (Sankt Augustin) 99, no. 1 (2004): pp. 25-38. Ristorcelli, Michel. "Le traitement indigène de la trypanosomiase chez les Peuls du Fouta-Djallon (Guinée française)." Journal de la Société des Africanistes 9, no. 1 (1939): pp. 1-2. White, C. "Food Shortages and Seasonality in WoDaaBe Communities in Niger." IDS Bulletin 17, no. 3 (1986): pp. 1926. History See Abd al-Zahir. al-Dawah al-Islamiyah fi Gharb Afriqiyah wa-qiyam dawlat al-Fulani. Abdul-Karim, L. Bashir. The Role of the Kanuri Traders in the Development of Fombina. BA Dissertation, Kano, 1973. See Abdullahi. On the Search for a Viable Political Culture. Adama, Hamadou and Thierno Mouctar Bah. Un manuscrit arabe sur l'histoire du Royaume de Kontcha dans le NordCameroun (XIXème - XXème siècle). Rabat: Institut des études africaines, Université Mohamed V, 2001. Adamu, M. "The Role of the Fulani and Twareg Pastoralists in the Central Sudan, 1405-1903," in Pastoralists of the West African Savanna. Selected Studies Presented and Discussed at the Fifteenth International African Seminar Held at Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, July 1979 edited by M. Adamu and A. Kirk-Greene, pp. 55-61. International African Seminars, New Series 2. Manchester: University Press, in association with the International African Institute, 1986. Albasu, S.A. "The Jihad in Hausaland and the Kano Fulani." Nigeria Magazine 53, no. 1 (1985): pp. 52-4. Arnett, Edward John. The Rise of the Sokoto Fulani, Being a Paraphrase and in Some Parts a Translation of the Infaku'l Maisuri of Sultan Mohammed Bello. Kano: Emirate Printing Dep., 1922. Bâ, Amadou-Hampâté and Jacques Daget. L'empire Peul du Macina. Abidjan, Dakar, Lomé: Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines, 1984. Ba, Oumar. "Des sites historiques au Tagant." Journal de la Société des Africanistes 43, no. 2 (1973): pp. 245-246. Bah, Thierno Mouctar. 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