The Existential Theories of Rollo MayExistentialism is concerning with the meaning of human life. Rollo May introduced European existential thought into American psychology. Humanism and Existentialism are similar, but one difference is noted: Humanists see people as basically good; existentialists see human nature as neutral. Whether the person becomes good or evil is a matter of personal choice. One can decide to be good or evil. May’s “nervous breakdown” in Europe he defined this way: “the rules, principles, values by which I used to work and live simply did not suffice anymore.” Others would call this an existential crisis: what is the meaning of my life? May decided to “listen to my inner voice”. He returned from Europe and enrolled in Union Theological Seminary to study the basic questions related to the human experience. There he met the eminent Paul Tillich, Protestant theologian and existential philosopher. In his second book, The Springs of Creative Living: A Study of Human Nature and God (1940), he defined healthy religion: “Call it confidence with the universe, trust in God, belief in one’s fellow-men, or what not, the essence of religion is the belief that something matters—the presupposition that life has meaning.” The healthy religious person has found meaning in life, and the atheist is one who has not. His doctoral dissertation, published as The Meaning of Anxiety, was heavily influenced by the Danish theological Soren Kierkegaard: anxiety results from any threat to one’s existence. May was a distinguished professor, and a prolific scholar. In his books, he discussed the philosophical themes of meaningful existence, love, will, freedom, destiny, courage, creativity, beauty, and innocence. Tenets of Existentialism The following terms and concepts make up May’s theory of personality: * Dasein (literally, to be there): all-hereness; an individual’s experiences and interpretations of the world right here, right now; the person is a “being-in-the-world”; caught up in the world, taking a stand on one’s life, active and engaged at all times. This dynamic process of choosing, valuing, accepting, rejecting, means that humans are constantly becoming something different. M odes of Existence: umwelt, mitwelt, eigenwelt: a familiar concept among existentialists. Our existence consists of these three categories: the physical aspects of both the internal and external environments, the personal relationships of the individual, and the individual’s consciousness. Each of us lives in all three worlds simultaneously. * * Alienation: one’s estrangement from some aspect of his or her existence (nature, others, or self), resulting in loneliness, emptiness, and despair. Freedom: the most important principle of existentialism: freedom to choose allows each of us to transcend the immediate circumstances of our lives; we do not have to be victimized by nature, others or self, unless, of course, this freedom is * What are you going to do with the time that you have here? Death can be literal. genetic factors. but one can also die symbolically by not leading the authentic life. “man’s ability to stand outside himself”. what it means to be. living in positive relationships.” The following terms and concepts relate to May’s specific applications of existential philosophy to psychology: * Human Dilemma: the fact that humans can view themselves as both the subject and the object at the same time. but we can interpret.” The inevitability of death should be a major incentive to live the full and meaningful life. May refers to these facts as our destiny . * Responsibility: With freedom comes the assumption of full responsibility for what we have become. or “the pattern of limits and talents that constitute the ‘givens’ in life. Ontology: the study of existence.have to be victimized by nature. * * Death: “To grasp what it means to exist. Humans can see themselves as an object to which things happen. . * Thrownness: the givens in life. Both the individual’s will (movement in a certain direction to fulfill specific goals) and wish (the imaginative playing with the possibility of future courses of action) are related to his/her intentionality. unless. we are continually influenced by stimuli presented to us (Skinner’s theory). minimizing anxiety: these are the criteria for authenticity. whether we respond or not to the stimuli depends on our rationality (Rogers’ theory). we can view ourselves viewing. our ability to self-relate is what distinguishes us from the rest of nature. the self-actualizing person. Two ontological questions: What does it mean to be a human being? What does it mean to be me? * * Phenomenology: the study of what is given in human consciousness: the person’s consciousness and levels of awareness are studied in order to find meaning in that person. This is all you get. a metacognitive skill. this freedom is underdeveloped or denied. the human capacity to perceive selectively and to assign meaning to objects and events in the world. and with ourselves. all emotional and mental experiences must relate to (intend) objects or events outside the person. creating challenges for personal growth. Nothing or no one can be blamed for who we are. nature destroys through earthquakes and volcanoes. one needs to grasp the fact that he might not exist. Each of us may begin an ontological analysis of our experiences in nature. * Intentionality: the means by which the dichotomy between subject and object is partially overcome. Your years on earth are not a dress rehearsal. Freedom and responsibility are inseparable. the relationship between the thinking person and the outside world. our own personal limitations that characterize a person’s existence over which he or she has no control: one is born. of course. value and act on these facts any way we want. others or self. Thrownness cannot be changed. Authenticity: the fully-functioning person. thrownness determines the conditions under which we exercise our personal freedom. one dies. with relationships. neurotic guilt is the result of giving up and taking no risks for growth and expansion of self. without an adequate system of values. relaxation * Eros: the desire for union with another person. “if you don’t stand for something. in adulthood: those which transcend the immediate situation in time and encompass past and future. May’s definition of normal anxiety: “the apprehension cued off by a threat to some value which the individual holds essential to his existence as a self. nourishment. * Love: the authentic love relationship must have these four types of love: * Sex: biological drive. any natural function . Normal and Neurotic Anxiety: anxiety and freedom always go together. to empathize with others. normal guilt can be used constructively when it is recognized and consciously reduced by appropriate action. gratification. and significance. all in the name of safety and security. and give up possible personal growth. you’ll fall for anything”: values and commitment go hand in hand. will. we are alienated from the world and lose our sense of identity.Intentionality. goal is to continue the experience. worth. Neurotic anxiety is the feeling that comes when one decides to conform. search for beauty and truth is more important that actually finding it. like anxiety. and to be future-oriented. an expansion of eros. success. satisfied by intercourse. goal is termination. moving forward into the unknown is anxiety producing. holding mature values is more important than satisfying those values.e. extending outward toward the good of the community and the larger world. Through these three cognitive constructs the person experiences his identity. income. Neurotic anxiety. without concern for reciprocity. In infancy: love. unconditional positive regard * Daimonic: from Greek. mature values allow a person to deal effectively with reality. Healthy anxiety should be recognized and accepted as inevitable. care. and to seek wholeness or interrelatedness among our experiences with others * Philia: friendship or brotherly love. Without functional values. i. accept conditions of worth of others. an unfortunate companion of freedom of choice. there is a sense of helplessness and aimlessness. and to form meaningful interpersonal relationships. * Values: what we deem important and meaningful. leading to psychological stagnation and intense feelings of guilt. a relaxation in the presence of the other * Agape: unselfish giving of one’s self to another. people depend on things outside themselves to indicate worth and significance—status. it is part of the human condition. is the subject of therapy. in childhood and adolescence: approval. acceptance of the other person and enjoyment of him/her.” Anxiety is necessary for growth and expansion of self. and wish are three of the most important concepts in May’s theory. * * Normal and Neurotic Guilt: normal guilt comes when one doesn’t live up to his/her potential as a human being. possessions. meaning both divine and diabolic. status among peers and autonomy from parents. prestige. Anxiety is defined as the resulting response to anything that threatens our freedom. exercises his freedom and senses his being. good (Christ). Therapy should be an encounter between two selves coming together and sharing their existence. Dawning Awarenesses ¨ Security of the known serves as a barrier to individual growth ¨ Identity is borrowed and personal affirmation comes from being somebody’s something ¨ Bound by past decisions. according to May: * * * * They give us a sense of personal identity They give us a sense of community They support our moral values They allow us to deal with the mysteries of creation Some myths are exclusive to some cultures. death. these are narratives that make sense in a senseless world. but if it becomes an obsession. myths provide universal themes to the individual regarding birth.that has the power to take over the whole person—sex. others and self. our earliest memories become our personal myths. empathy for the client is a key ingredient. memory and myth are inseparable. and violence. independence. Some myths are undesirable because they don’t encourage kinship. unwilling to make new ones ¨ Changing perceptions of the past can change the present ¨ The importance of the past is to learn from it and use it to reshape the . On pages 137-138. to help the client find meaning in circumstances s/he would otherwise find meaningless or hopeless. review the eight “dawning awarenesses” that are listed and choose one that could apply to your life. either now or in the past. evil (Satan). and guide human existence. Psychotherapy: the goal is to convert neurotic anxiety and guilt to normal anxiety and guilt. Great literature gives expression to all-important aspects of human nature. that influence our perceptions about the world. eros. May believes that this myth has resulted in narcissism. it takes over the whole person without regard for the person’s well-being or the well-being of others. love. An example is the American’s myth of rugged individuality whose goal is to live isolated from others and needing no one. The desire to achieve is a kind of affirmation of self. Optional Assignment: 1. to help the client actualize his/her potentialities. marriage. Zenophobia is explained by the fact that an outsider may not share one’s myths and is therefore to be feared. craving for power or achievement. What is the client trying to express by the presenting problems?. anger. all of life is a constant search for the optimal level of each of our personality traits. rage. loneliness. Myths serve four purposes in our lives. and therefore may cause possible friction between people from those cultures. may be either creative and healthy or destructive. * Importance of Myth: May agreed with Jung that myths give expression to the universal truths of human nature. freedom. or usually both. I can’t change.future ¨ Appreciation of every day living is thwarted by worry about negative events in the future ¨ Being “good enough” is the goal. life-affirming) 4. and (2) to encourage them to take steps toward autonomy. Assuming responsibility is a basic condition for change. Define the concepts of existential vacuum and existential guilt. learn to accept your own limitations and the limitations of others ¨ Living in the present is hindered by preoccupation with past or future. since I will eventually die? Will I be forgotten when I’m gone? If it is all meaningless. 3. mature. How are you avoiding freedom and the risks that come with it? Sartre: to exist is never to be finished with choosing. Summarize your thoughts about all this freedom that existentialists believe that you have. .” Existential themes in therapy often involve finding the authentic self. clients often come in without a clear sense of purpose and feel worthless. The importance of aloneness: to be alone and enjoy yourself is essential to building a solid relationship with another. and choose one to write about from personal experience. dependent. Describe someone that you know who seems to be “trapped in a doing mode to avoid the experience of being. clients who don’t take personal responsibility by persistently blaming others will not profit from therapy: “This is way I am. alienation are uprootedness are often issues for the client who has not found an intimacy in young adulthood.” Or “I am the way I am because I had alcoholic parents. 2. why should I bother? The existential vacuum: Frankl’s term for the emptiness and hollowness that is inherent in life’s meaninglessness. a personal identity. to recognize aloneness as a human condition is important Relationships can be based on personal deprivation or personal fulfillment. Existential questions bring clients into therapy: Who am I? Why am I here? What do I want from life? What gives my life purpose? Where is the source of meaning in my life? Is there any point to what I do now. the difference between needing someone (clinging. there is no genuine connection to others and that there is no significant meaning to them. we are our choices. parasitic) and wanting someone ( healthy. that there is no depth. Loneliness. A great fear of clients: that they may discover that they are nobody. What do you expect? I am the classic ACOA (adult child of an alcoholic). I’ve always been this way.” Goals of therapy: (1) to help clients recognize how they have given away their power to another. Clients must be able to ¨ Accept the awesome freedom and responsibility to act ¨ Recognize the ways that they are not living authentic lives ¨ Make choices that move them closer to their capabilities ¨ Move beyond the narrow and compulsive trends that block their freedom ¨ Recognize and learn to manage the anxiety that comes with being alive and connected ¨ Remove themselves from the role of victim and the perception of their own powerlessness ¨ Bring out and activate the latent aliveness inherent in all of us . by taking a stance. What do you think about that? 7. existential isolation and meaninglessness Normal anxiety serves as a motivator for change. and learning how to tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty. Individuals often attempt to avoid any kind of anxiety by creating the illusion of security. What are your thoughts and feelings about your own dying? How would you take the existential proposition to form a more positive view of death? Awareness of your own mortality. working and striving towards self-actualization. a commitment to loving. freedom. To find meaning is life comes as a by-product of social engagement. the inevitability of your death. learning to get comfortable in the “gray area”. One must think about death if we are to live our lives to the fullest and realize that each present moment is crucial. performing an action. being closed to new experiences and avoiding the leap into the unknown Therapists can help hesitant clients to face life squarely. reducing our choices and constricting our lives.”? Anxiety is an inevitable aspect of being human. Summarize the beliefs that an existential therapist would bring into the therapeutic relationship. 5. making a decision. neurotic anxiety is out of proportion to the situation. Distinguish between normal anxiety and existential anxiety. and the brevity of your living give significance to your life. 6. How are you doing at “learning how to tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty. Yalom recommends that therapists talk directly to the client about the reality of death. Logotherapy: a term used by Frankl to describe therapy designed to help clients find meaning in life.Existential guilt: a guilt derived from a sense of being incomplete or not living up to what we could become. unavoidable when confronted with the “givens of existence”: death. may serve as a motivation for growth. ¨ Be fully aware of their restricted existence and the possibilities that lie before them ¨ Engage in self-confrontation. introspection and meta-cognitive analysis of self ¨ Join the therapist in a journey into self-discovery .