The Development, Change, and Transformation ofRhetorical Style in Magazine Advertisements 1954^1999 Barbara J. Phillips and Edward F. McQuarrie Rhetorical advertising style consists of the method or manner by which ad content is expressed; an example is the use of rhetorical figures such as metaphor or rhyme. Two studies of rhetorical style in U.S. magazine advertisements from 1954 to 1999 are reported. A qualitative content assessment suggests that rhetorical figures were prevalent throughout the period. In addition, the content assessment suggests more layering of multiple figures and less explanation of figures over time. The content analysis supports these trends and clarifies that one kind of figure—a destabilization trope that includes pun, metaphor, and irony—increased in inciderice. Several possible explanations for these observed trends are considered, with a focus on how changes in rhetorical style may reflect the mutual adaptation of consumer and advertiser to changes in the advertising environment over this time period. Barbara J. Phillips (Ph D , University of Texas at Austin) is Associate Professor of Marketing, University of Saskatchewan. Edward F. McQuarrie (Ph.D., University of Cincinnati) is Professor of Marketing, the Leavey School of Business, Santa Clara University. Journal of Advertising, Volume XXXI. Number 4 \/iiiter 2002 Looking at ads in an issue of Good Housekeeping from 1954, a reader is struck by the unfamiliar images and odd turns of phrase. For example, an ad for carpets shows a fashionable woman draped in a rug while proclaiming, "A carpet beautiful enough to wear - but try and wear it out!" In another ad for toothpaste, a woman's mouth is covered with a glass plate, accompanied by copy that reads: "Colgate dental cream contains Gardol to form an invisible, protective shield around your tooth that fights tooth decay." These adsfi'omthe 1950s seem strange; it is difficult to imagine these images or the copy being used today. Anyone who has looked at old ads is familiar with this experience of strangeness or historical distance. Conversely, someone may glance at these old ads and experience instead a shock of recognition, an awareness that the ads' appeals to fashion and health are, at their root, entirely familiar. Here, the initial sense of age proves superficial, and an underlying continuity emerges as the dominant impression. But which intuition is correct? Have ads changed a great deal in the past 50 years, or have the underlying persuasive strategies remained basically the same? This paper explores issues of continuity and change in mass media advertising using the method of historical analysis (Smith and Lux 1993). Our focus is on the ways the rhetorical strategies used in magazine ads evolved over the last half of the twentieth century. Generally speaking, rhetoric pertains to the method or manner by which persuasion is attempted (Ong 1982). Rhetorical strategy also comprises specific stylistic devices (e.g., metaphor, rhyme) that may be used to attract the attention of consumers, provide pleasure, and evoke elaboration of the message (McQuarrie and Mick 1996). A focus on rhetorical strategy guides our inquiry into aspects of advertising that have changed versus those that have remained constant over the time period of the study. A primary motivation for undertaking an examination of ads from decades past is to gain the kind of perspective that only comes from distance. That is, as scholars, we are unlikely to grasp the distinctive characteristics of contemporary advertising unless we have something against which to compare it. Ads from many years ago offer a unique perspective on the ads produced today and may suggest new avenues for research into persuasive strategies. Moreover, though we cannot go back in time to conduct reader response studies with consumers of the past, observed changes in ads over time may reflect, in part, have remained the exception rather than the rule (see also Phillips and Gyoerick 1999). Sivulka 2001. Consequently. or consumption (Leiss. Tbe essence of tbe distinction is that the same content. We believe tbe diacbronic perspective can be equally fruitful wben tbe focus is on changes internal to tbe advertisements themselves. narrow time frame (e. Moreover. Finally. Ad content. can be expressed in multiple ways. an attribute can be claimed witb lengtby body copy or a pithy beadline.The Journal of Advertising actual changes in consumer behavior GPollay 1987). identifying cbanges in ads can potentially illuminate ways in which consumer response to advertisements has changed. cbange over time in tbe rbetorical stratagems attempted by advertisers may expand our understanding of tbe range of possibilities for persuading consumers. A rbetorical perspective emphasizes tbe importance and persuasive power of ad style. Most of tbe diachronic studies of advertising that bave been published treat ads as windows onto social values sucb as health (Lears 1983). From a rhetorical perspective. in principle. Altbougb ads may bave many individual and social uses (e. the present study focuses on changes in style. Rhetorical Figures Rhetorical figures are one of the few elements of advertising style that bave received sustained theoretical attention (Leigb 1994. as bas been argued by semioticians. historical studies. Marchand 1985). For example. likewise. time orientation (Gross and Sheth 1989).g. Existing diaehronic studies have shown that much can be learned about changes in consumption and society by treating advertisements as windows or mirrors onto external culture. For example. and Ursic 1986). Tbus. Ratber. p. Ursic. and settings. Previous researcb has tended to focus on cbanges in content (Messaris 1992) and left opportunities to identify stylistic cboices not yet described or given theoretical interpretation. diacbronic studies that focus on the advertisements themselves. whereas products appearing in ads that use an embellisbed. such as PoUay's (1985) groundbreaking description of changes in the size and layout of ad elements. Goodrum and Dahymple 1990. McGuire 2000. sucb as a particular brand attribute. as described bere.. an object can be depicted close-up or from a distance. the examination can focus on content or style or botb (Messaris 1997. Synchronic perspectives that emphasize either the timeless aspects of ads or cross-sectional comparisons across cultures or media vehicles have predominated (Rassuli and Hollander 1987). Stern 1992).. tbe study of cbanges and developments in advertising over time—the diachronic dimension of advertising—has been neglected in advertising research..g. such as the elderly (Ursic. Advertising Style When we look at ads over time. consumers may consider tbat products appearing in ads tbat use a matter-of-fact. tbey are conceived by tbeir makers as multifaceted attempts to influence consumers favorably. 209}. and Jhally 1986. Ritson and Elliott 1999). Similarly. In contrast.In summary. Fox 1984).g. the goal of this paper is to gain a more complete understanding of the range of possibilities for persuasion by examining changes over time in the rhetorical strategies used by advertisers. McQuarrie and Mick 1996. Twitchell 2000. consumers can use style to infer properties of brands. ads have been studied as mirrors whose changes over time reflect changes in the presentation of social groups. Kline. Style can carry a great deal of information. women (Busby and Leichy 1993). which by definition adopt a diachronic perspective. materialism (Belk and Pollay 1985). wbereas a diacbronic investigation focused on advertisements tbemselves could. . Schudson 1984). an advertiser's style decision represents a choice from among a set of available persuasive tactics. have tended to focus on a particular. art tbeorists. Wbereas ad content consists of verbal statements of attribute possession and visual depictions of objects. West 2000) or bave taken an institutional perspective on the evolution of advertising in society (e.g. or specific products or brands (e. Scott 1994. or minorities (Humphrey and Schuman 1984). people. plain-spoken style and a simple font are inexpensive and everyday. key advertising individuals (e. examine either content or style. grandiloquent design are expensive and fasbionable. Twitcbell 1996). and it is the potentially dynamic nature of tbis cboice over time tbat is of interest. should not be confused with either information or brand information per se. Belk 2001. alone or as part of an assemblage. given tbe constant underlying constraints and opportunities posed by baving a two-dimensional surface on wbich to arrange pictures and words. A diachronic study of tbis type has tbe potential to reveal important cbanges in bow advertisers crafl tbeir appeals. The Diachronic Perspective For tbe most part... Motbersbaugh. Huhmann. and literary critics (Mick 1986. Thus.g. ad style consists of the method or manner by wbicb tbat content is expressed. tbe usefulness of tbe content/style distinction rests on tbe intrinsic separation between wbat is said about and shown witb tbe brand versus bow it is said or sbown. " Tropes. can be defined as artful deviations from audience expectation. of course. Stern 1988. A key advantage of content assessment is that it allows an integrated perspective. We then conducted a content analysis to validate trends uncovered in the content assessment. selection of a time interval that is too short would ultimately blur into a more traditional crosssectional analysis. complex schemes of reversal. There are scattered hints that rhetorical figures have been a staple of magazine ads for decades (Corbett 1990. Thus. based on all ofthe elements of an ad. and complex tropes that rest on a destabilization of meaning. The purpose was to take an open- ended look at advertisements across time to identify aspects of rhetorical strategies not heretofore discussed in the literature on ad style. Leigh (1994) finds that 74% of all ads with a headline contained a rhetorical figure. and analyzing the evidence in order to tell the story" (Marzolf 1978. An example of a scheme would be tbe rhyming headline for a diet drink from a 1981 issue of Good Housekeeping: "The chocolate taste without the chocolate waist. Note that rhetorical figures can occur in either the words or the pictures of an ad (McQuarrie and Mick 1999. First proposed by historical researchers in journalism. sucb as metaphor or pun. simple tropes that rest on a substitution of meaning. in turn. We use McQuarrie and Mick's (1996) taxonomy to distingTaish different types of rhetorical figures. providing no opportunity to observe the variations that might exist. However. a good time interval is one that is long enough to allow variation to surface if present but short enough to ensure that a finding of invariance remains a realistic possibility. p. to emerge as a result of an extended period of immersion. which include metaphor.. using the historian's method of reading. Therefore.g. For example. such as ellipsis. in contrast. For this reason. was selected for study." Schemes and tropes can be further distinguished in terms of the underlying rhetorical operation that constructs the figure. Few would be surprised. Thus. This taxonomy distinguishes schemes (e. At the other extreme. whereas content analysis works best at quantifying previously identified ad components. advertising researchers bave tended to emphasize the more quantitative approaches associated with content analysis (Kolbe and Burnett 1991). from 1954 to 1999 in the United States. tropes are more demanding and run a greater risk of incomprehension. Another trope (a pun) is found in the carpet ad that is described in the same paragraph with a play on the word "wear. Sheldon 1956). content assessment requires "extensive reading of great quantities of [publications].Winter 2002 and Franke 2002.g. In light ofthe preceding. metaphor) as two major categories of figure. Phillips 1997). and other devices. We began with a discovery-oriented procedure known as content assessment. Kitcb 1998). rhyme) and tropes (e. 15). Content Assessment and Content Analysis We conducted two studies to investigate changes in the use of rhetorical strategies over time. the ad for Colgate in the first paragraph of this paper contains a trope (in this case.g. pun. and Wells (1998) suggest that the years from the early 1950s through the end ofthe century can be identified as a time period when product discourse is .. cross-sectional analyses show rhetorical figures to be a common feature in magazine advertisements in the early 1990s. comparing. such as rhyme. sifting. Toncar and Munch 2001). rhyme. Synchronic. By defmition. Selection of Time Period A crucial decision in any historical inquiry is the choice of a time interval (Smith and Lux 1993). is provide quantified data suitable for statistical analysis.. Rhetorical figures. they are incomplete and undercoded and require closure by the audience. A finding of change over time is likely to be obtained if researchers choose a sufficiently long interval of time. their redundancy or overcoding makes them easier to comprehend than tropes. What content assessment cannot do. such as antithesis. Scott. schemes deviate from expectation by relying on excessive regularity. A secondary purpose was to make a preliminary identification of trends in the use of rhetorical strategies over time. Although content assessment has been used in journalism to analyze magazine images (e. the use of rhetorical figures in ads over time has not been examined. but it is not known whether the use of rhetorical figures has held constant or varied over time. McQuarrie and Mick (1996) provide an extensive listing and classification of rhetorical figures commonly found in ads. Hirschman. weighing. the interval following World War II and the Korean War. there are simple schemes of repetition. for our purposes. a content analysis was undertaken following the content assessment. deviate by lacking order. a metaphor) by which the consumer is invited to equate toothpaste with a protective shield. In addition. for example. content assessment can serve as a discovery procedure and reveal aspects of the rhetorical structure of advertisements that had not been previously noted. if patent medicine ads from the 1870s used different rhetorical strategies than today's pharmaceutical ads. in both pictures and words. Finally. magazines were an important advertising medium. Stern 1993). We do not intend to imply that these interpretations are the only possible or correct ones. a magazine traditionally targeted toward men. Phillips 1997. The resulting propositions regarding changes and constancies over time were allowed to emerge from the data in a grounded theory approach to content assessment (Strauss and Corbin 1998). and refined when the researcher returned to the same issues of Time in an iterative process. Another advantage of magazines is that. for example. a general interest magazine. called weak implicatures (McQuarrie and Mick 2002.g. The researchers revisited the propositions and the ads many times over a two-year period. Comparisons were made. the two-dimensional physical character of magazine ads did not fundamentally change during this time. fi-om earlier to later issues of the magazine and from later to earlier. Contrary to expecta- . rhetorical figures are open to many different interpretations. Study 1: Content Assessment Procedure One ofthe researchers analyzed all ofthe sample issues of Tiine to formulate the initial propositions ofthe study. "rhetorical questions appear to be used across all time periods"). In addition. these magazines were selected because they were some ofthe only titles that had heen published continuously throughout the entire period of interest. were an important stylistic device in advertising throughout the period. Then the first researcher analyzed the sample ads from GH and SI in the same manner. though most are national in scope. the second researcher similarly examined these magazines. in keeping with the immersion approach typical of grounded studies generally and content assessment studies in particular. ads throughout the period are generally the same size and rely primarily on photography {Pollay 1985). crosschecking the preliminary propositions and generating new possibilities. Ursic. examining the visual and verbal styles of the ads and looking for changing and unchanging elements over time. These interpretations are primarily intended to suggest how consumers might have received these ads. When the first researcher was satisfied that the set of preliminary propositions arising from the content assessment of Time was complete. and Ursic 1986). Once preliminary propositions were generated (e. By their very nature. 15 issues of Time. As part of our discussion ofthe content assessment. many titles are targeted toward specific audiences and can he examined on that basis. constituting 8. Particular attention was paid to the major categories of rhetorical figure noted in McQuarrie and Mick's (1996) taxonomy. One issue from each title was seleeted in turn from the years 1954 to 1999 for a total of 46 issues (16 issues of GH. throughout the time period.4% and 8. Three magazines were selected for this study: Time.The Journal of Advertising centered in mass media texts. we introduce a variety of ads as examples and present our interpretations of their meanings. whereas ads for ice cream appear in the summer. This time period.. and Good Housekeeping (GH). All the ads in each selected issue were examined. we wanted to examine whether advertisers changed the types of rhetorical figures directed at men and women to exploit these differences. and S7 and in both verbal and visual form. respectively (McCann-Erickson WorldGroup 2000). ads for cold remedies appear in the winter. Magazine Sample Ads in magazines were selected for examination in this study. Selecting all of the magazine issues from the same season might have limited the number of different products that appeared in the ads. expanded. almost 50 years in length. Results Continuity: Rhetorical Figures Are Present Throughout the Period. Selections were rotated across months to ensure that the broadest possible mix of products was represented in the ads studied. Sports Illustrated (Sl). tested. they were discussed by both authors.7% of all national ad spending in 1950 and 1999. The second researcher then examined these two magazines. and the propositions were expanded on the basis of the types of stylistic variation found over time in each magazine. Consequently. Ursic. a magazine traditionally targeted toward women. GH. also ensures that trends in the stylistic devices appearing in ads have an opportunity to emerge. Sperber and Wilson 1986). The schemes and tropes defined by McQuarrie and Mick (1996) can be identified in the earliest to latest editions of Time. There is some evidence that male and female audiences read ads differently (Mick and Politi 1989. The interpretations serve simply to illustrate what the rhetorical strategies in the ads might have accomplished. and 15 issues of SI). The researcher moved back and forth across time. The content assessment indicates that rhetorical figures. for a total of 3758 ads. Other researchers have similarly argued that this time frame provides an era in which we can examine the changing face of advertising (Humphrey and Schuman 1984. the headline for an Isuzu Trooper ad reads "Cargo Ship" and is accompanied by a realistic picture of tbe sport utility vebicle." tbe ad's message seems to be that yogurt works well with tuna in a sandwich." "light. "you'll be booked." is verbal hut references tbe ad's image and reinforces tbe visual message: Eat tuna and yogurt more often. Beginning in the 1980s.Winter 2002 tions. Tbis sort of accompanying explanation has been termed "verbal anchoring" (Barthes 1977. the copy ofthe ad is set in waves. over time." When the reader turns over the page ofthe magazine. Tbe ad uses a verbal metaphor to equate the Trooper to a cargo ship because it has tbe most cargo space in its class. seems to decrease. Tbe copy layers a verbal pun. extensive." As these examples illustrate. Change: Ixiyering and Anchoring. more than one complex rhetorical figure may be used in an ad. The copy ofthe second ad points out this extra layering by adding another pun: "When you compare the Isuzu Rodeo to our Trooper. whether directed to men or viromen. the ad on page 17 layers onto tbe ad on page 15 to create a verbal epistropbe in whicb the word "ship" is repeated at the end of each headline. in tbe earlier part of our sample. Advertisers seem more and more willing to run tbe risk that consumers will fail to "get it. Neither of these messages is explained in the verbal copy of tbe ad. Instead. advertisers rely more and more on consumers to construct the appropriate conclusion. less verbal anchoring is noted by tbe end ofthe 1990s. Tbe first two are purely verbal puns: "A New School of Tbought" and "If you're fisbing for a way to eat bealtbier. Finally. when more complex rhetorical figures. 1991." tbat is. advertisers started layering figures across multiple ads in the same issue. consumers are instructed to equate tbe two images on tbe basis of tbe cbaracteristics "built for action. the way in wbich tbese figures are used has undergone a dramatic shift. saying the Trooper is a best buy for a "boatload of reasons. bighligbting tbe overall fishing metapbor.. it is the same as tbe previous ad in terms of layout. or the use of literal words to explain a rhetorical figure. be or she encounters another Isuzu ad on page 17. an ad for Mercury Cougar appeared in a 1991 issue of SI. they seem to be used alone. For example. Tbe ad shows a carton of yogurt dangling from a book surrounded by cans of tuna witb tail fins. verbal anchoring of rbetorical images. more tban one can of tuna is present. Phillips 2000) because it anchors in place the meaning ofthe ad's rhetorical figures.e.. perhaps implying tbat tbe tuna/yogurt combination should be eaten more often." In contrast. advertisers appear willing to assume more and more contextual knowledge on tbe part of consumers. An example that illustrates this progression is a comparison of metaphorical ads from earlier and later time periods. By the end of the 1990s. In essence." No additional tropes are present in the ad. reliance on consumers' knowledge of context to trigger a rhetorical figure increases." "soft. The ad incorporates one type of trope. layered figures. For example. which compares the image ofa man's shoe to the image ofa dog. the metaphor in a Dannon yogurt ad from a 1989 issue of Time lacks verbal explanation of its main message and is layered witb otber tropes. Over time. Although this ad is for the Isuzu Rodeo wagon." and "btbe. Tbe headline on page 17 reads "Kin Ship" and uses a pun to imply that tbe Rodeo is for families. verbal explanation ofthe figures." In addition. Tbis comparison is explicitly explained in the verbal copy. such as tropes. In effect. a visual metaphor." and copy that discusses the car's fea- . and typograpby. there did not appear to be any major differences between tbe rhetorical figures used in the general or specialized magazines. However." These phrases could imply tbat using yogurt in tuna is innovative and healthier than the alternative. verbal anchoring helps ensure consumer comprehension of the advertising message. Although tbe existence of rhetorical figures remains invariant over time. mayonnaise. Tbe example ad from an earlier time period appeared in a 1956 issue of Time. The last pun. on page 15 of tbe April 1. Tbe ad uses a fisbing metapbor to suggest that Dannon is the "bait" tbat will attract cans of tuna "fisb.. the copy offers three puns. the content assessment suggests tbat. though mayonnaise is not mentioned. background. Change: Increased Reliance on Consumers'Contextual Knowledge. In addition. In contrast to tbe extensive verbal ancboring of the early decades of our sample. are used in ads of the 1950s. The ad features a realistic image of the car witb the headline. issue of SI. advertisers moved from employing single rhetorical figures to using multiple. explicit verbal anchoring of rhetorical figures seems to give way to less complete anchoring and ultimately to ads tbat offer no literal. literal headlines and body copy) that explain bow consumers should interpret tbe ad's message. "8 Mean Pistons From Detroit. though the ad uses the scheme of alliteration in discussing the shoe's "Famous Four Features. In general. a phenomenon that we term "layering. rbetorical figures tend to be accompanied hy nonrbetorical verbal copy (i. At the same time. Tbat is. you quickly realize that it's all reiative. More generally.6 tures. Discussion The content assessment supports the proposition that the use of rhetorical style in magazine ads has grown increasingly more complex and elaborate over time.e. Advertising researcbers and practitioners have long noted that specific advertising techniques. White 1981) and rhetorical figures (Stern 1992). as advertisers have moved from assuming that even a simple figure must be explained to assuming that no explanation is required for even a complex layering of figures. Rossiter and Percy 1983. p. As suggested by Messaris (1997. It appears that advertisers increasingly have assumed a greater degree of competency with respect to consumers' ability to read and understand rhetorical figures and other stylistic devices (cf O'Donohoe 2001. Stating the Unspeakable: Avoiding Anchoring. Some messages implied by rhetorical figures in other ads go beyond sex and romance but remain within the sphere of potentially embarrassing topics. It features four women clad only in underwear sitting on powder kegs labeled "Dynamite" while the fifth woman sparks a lighter. especially visual images (Marchand 1985. Ads that rely on consumers' knowledge of context make their initial appearance in the 1970s. 225). the Aesop character of a tortoise is pictured as a visual metaphor for constipation and a rabbit is pictured for diarrhea. and to transfer cultural meanings to the product (McCracken 1989)." instructs readers to transfer these attributes from Nicklaus to the mower. in the absence of an explanation. However. 225). may imply more than can be legally expressed in literal words." Instead of anchoring the rhetoric. the ad does not appear to use a rhetorical figure. advertisers have similarly moved from telling consumers how to interpret rhetorical figures to showing them the figures and leaving the interpretation up to them. the use of rhetorical figures to imply an unspeakable message is not hmited to women's magazines but appears throughout the sample across all time periods.. the audience's interest in sports is assumed to be sufficient to enable comprehension. comparing the handling of the mower to that ofa golf cart. unanchored figures may be useful to the advertiser insofar as they cause consumers to self-generate inferences that could not be stated outright or that might be overly vulnerable to counterarguing if so stated. consumers who possess knowledge of the context of the ad (i. Jack Nicklaus was featured in an ad for Murray riding mowers in a 1973 issue of SI. Not surprisingly. despite the increased risk of incomprehension. Although these examples are taken from GH. It is in the latter role that advertisers increasingly rely on consumers' contextual knowledge to trigger or layer a figure. At first glance. Note that no literal words are provided to anchor tbis interpretation. p. Celebrities are found in the sample ads across all time periods and are used for attention. thus risk- . This ad creates a visual metaphor between Jack Nicklaus and the mower. By providing less verbal anchoring of these figures over time. The headline. The copy then adds a verbal metaphor. relying on the context ofthe ad to anchor a rhetorical figure occurs in GH as well. an ad for Naturflex lingerie appeared in a 1960 issue of GH. in a sports magazine) will understand that the headline is a metaphor comparing the car to the Detroit Pistons basketball team. For example. A handful of ads from GH and Sl support the idea that rhetorical figures can be used to extend the inferences that can be drawn from the ad's literal mes- The Journal of Advertising sage. to transfer liking to the product. can be employed to effectively convey a message that is otherwise problematic or unspeakable. p. these examples illustrate how. most of the noted ads' messages relate to sex and romance. ads from the later part ofthe period tend to use unanchored rhetorical figures and layer them more thickly. "Winners have a style all their own. on advertising literacy. In an ad for prescription medication in a 1987 issue of GH. One possible reason advertisers may vrish to eschew verbal explanation is that rhetorical figures in ads. Although the scene is rife with sexual innuendo. The ad requires readers to use their contextual knowledge of sports to understand who Jack Nicklaus is and what he stands for. The overall change in expected consumer competency is considerable. One type of rhetorical figure from SI that relies on contextual knowledge is the use of a sports celebrity as part of a metaphor. because this magazine has the narrowest content ofthe three magazines in the sample and perhaps the most homogeneous motivation for readership. the copy refers only to "exploding once and for all the notion tbat fashion means high prices. the copy is used to mask the unspoken message ofthe ad. and creates another link between the mower and the world of golf Although more common in SI. Whereas ads from the early part of the study's period tend to use only one rhetorical figure and explain it in words. this information is not provided. These techniques are thought to encourage consumers to draw conclusions about the product and the advertising message that go beyond what is stated in the ad (Messaris 1997. many such ads are found in SI. Why would advertisers choose to reduce the verbal explanation offered to consumers over time. 97). For example. For those ads in which a rhetorical figure was determined to be present. doctoral candidates in English literature. all of whicb advertised automobiles. RP2: Layering has increased over time.82 to . appeared the best candidate for analysis. Almost all of the visual figures were tropes. RP3: Anchoring has decreased over time.95. For reasons explained suhsequently. only a subset of tbe ads was used.3%). In contrast. we set out to quantify tbe preliminary trends identified in tbe content assessment hy means of a content analysis. the one general magazine in the sample. also were included in the content analysis. Because the content assessment had indicated tbat the trends were general across tbe magazines. these figures have heen found to increase elaboration hecause the consumer must figure out the ad's message (McQuarrie and Mick 1999.4%. We test the significance of tbese changes by dividing the sample approximately at the midpoint and conducting chi-square analyses of the incidence of specific types of figures in the early (1956-1974 issues) versus late (1977-1998 issues) time periods (see Tahle 1). consumers' pleasure in "solving the puzzle" of a rhetorical figure can lead to increased attention (McQuarrie and Mick 1996) and a positive attitude toward the ad (McQuarrie and Mick 1992. Schemes or tropes were tben differentiated as to the underlying rhetorical operation on tbe basis of McQuarrie and Mick's (1996) typology: repetition or reversal for schemes and substitution or destabilization for tropes. Peracchio and Meyers-Levy 1994). Over the entire period. were trained to conduct tbe content analysis. ads tbat explicitly spell out the meaning of a rhetorical figure to consumers may lead to dislike of tbe ad (Phillips 2000). Schemes were found in 25.3% of ads in Time magazine contained one or more figures in tbe headline or picture. Analysis We graphically portray trends of interest in the data using moving averages of three issues in Figures 1 and 2. but visual figures were far from rare (17. the judges examined the body copy for the presence of additional figures and categorized these as schemes or tropes. it was categorized as a scheme or trope. Tbe coders analyzed the headline and picture of each of tbe ads for the presence of rhetorical figures. Results Incidence of Rhetorical Figures. The judges then examined the body copy of ads with figures for anchoring. as reported by Leigh (1994) and McQuarrie and Mick (1996). On tbe basis of tbe findings from tbe content assessment. Study 2: Content Analysis Procedure Because the content analysis had the limited objective of validating tbe insigbts uncovered in tbe content assessment. tbe following research propositions were developed for examination in the content analysis: RPl: Rbetorical figures appear in all time periods in verbal as well as visual form. in total. Differences between tbe coders were resolved by discussion. 816 ads from Time magazine were examined. In general. nonanchored rhetorical figures may provide benefits that outweigh this risk. Two judges. Huhmann. an additional 85 ads from SI. Figures were more common in the beadline (44%) than in the picture. Perreault and Leigh's (1989) reliability index values for the coding judgments ranged from .6% of ads and tropes in 36. The coders were not informed of tbe conclusions drawn from the content assessment until after they bad completed all of tbe content coding. 54. suggesting that satisfactory reliability was achieved. As expected from RPl.Winter 2002 ing incomprehension of their advertising messages? Some recent research suggests that complex. and Franke 2002}' increased elaboration in turn may increase the memorability of the ad (Kardes 1988). If a figure was determined to he present. Before considering all tbe possible explanations for the observed changes in ad style over time. All 15 issues of Time magazine that had been examined in the content assessment were included in the content analysis. Doctoral students were selected hecause the coding task was difficult and required specialized knowl- edge of rhetorical figures. Mothershaugh. These results are consistent witb content analyses of ads appearing in the late 1980s and 1990s. In addition. Time magazine. They coded anchoring as present if the body copy spelled out in literal terms tbe meaning of a figure appearing in tbe headline or picture. Tbe content analysis enables both a more reliable estimate of trend strengtb and a more fine-grained analysis of change at the level of specific types of figures tban is permitted by a content assessment. The presence of additional figures in the body copy provided an indicator of whether the ad was layered. rhetorical figures appeared in all time periods across the sample. Our results extend previous work hy demonstrating that rhetorical figures have been a staple of magazine advertising for . pun.The Journal of Advertising 8 Figure 1 Types of Rhetorical Figures Appearing in the Headiine or Picture 50. even as the layering of figures in ads became more common. 40. and 1968.. Time period 10: period 3. and 1971.g. and 1998. 1980. so have they tended to layer more tropes into the hody copy. and 1962. Incidence of Anchoring. In light of the preceding results. 1989.0% -. 1962. the use of body copy to anchor the meanings of these figures decreased (RP3). 1980.0% o o '€ g. hut the incidence of schemes shows no consistent pattern (see Figure 1 and Tahle 1). For the content analysis. and 1977. irony) rather than simpler substitution tropes (e. In terms of trends. The incidence of ads with figures (N=450) that also layer tropes into the body copy increases with time. 1962. we examined the incidence of tropes in the body copy of -Destabilization tropes Time magazine. but the increase is more marked in the case of visual figures.0% P 10. 1977. unlike tropes. Time period 11: period 4: 1965. we focus our test of this proposition on ads that feature a destabilization trope in the headhne or picture (N=200).. 1974. Time period 13: period 6. The content analysis again supports the thrust of the content assessment and quantifies the ahsolute level of the layering phenomenon. 1968. and 1965. it is the . Time period 12: period 5. do not really require anchoring. The content assessment suggested that layering became more common over time (RP2). 1992. 1983. Just as ads have incorporated more and more of the most demanding kind of trope over time. rhetorical question. Incidence of Layering of Figures.1977. the content analysis shows that the incidence of tropes increases over time. 1992. 1983.7% in the later period (see Table 1). 1971.0% 6 10 7 11 12 13 Time Period • Schemes Notes: Each Time Time Time Time Time Time Time Tropes point represents a moving average taken across three issues of period 1: 1956. hyperbole). and 1980. 20. period 7: 1974. and 1983. and 1992. many decades and by providing the first estimate of the incidence of visual figures. metaphor. and 1989.g.0% - 0. and 1986. 1986. and 1974. metonym.0% 2 30. 1986. Time period 8: Time period 9: period 2: 1959. 1989. and 1995. Schemes. 1971. Closer examination of the trope data shows that the increased incidence over time stems mostly from an increased usage of more complex destabilization tropes (e. 1959. 1965.8% in the early period to 42. from 31. The incidence of destabilization tropes increases in both the headline and the picture. 1995. The content assessment finally suggested that. 1968. ads that had a figure in the headline or picture. 7 22. For a more precise estimate of trends in anchoring and layering.Winter 2002 Table 1 Change in the Incidence of Rhetorical Figures in Time Magazine Ads Incidence 1954-1974 Incidence 1975-1999 Trend" A.66 C. ° Except where noted. that most threaten consumer comprehension. irregularity of tropes. independent of the time period. it is possible in principle for a given ad to be scored as both anchored and layered.1 11.20** 7. however. because of some intrinsic characteristic ofthe product. the incidence of "pure" trope layering increases even more markedly relative to the raw coding of anchoring and layering {see Table 1 and Figure 2). If some product categories make heavy use of figures in their advertising. for a total N=816. we refined the analysis by identifying ads that were anchored but not layered with tropes in the body copy. irony) Substitution trope (metonym. it is destabilization tropes. Headline and Picture Trope^ Scheme^ Destabilization trope (pun. Picture Only Destabilization trope 11. Note. for a total N=450. The content analysis thus supports the content assessment in documenting both more layering and less anchoring of figures over time..30*** <1 Headline Only Destabilization trope 8. ''This analysis is based on the 94 ads containing a destabilization trope in the headline or picture in the 1956-74 portion and the 106 such ads in the 1975-1999 portion. and other key terms.5 24. then what appears to be a trend in overall advertising strategy (i. We similarly identi- fied ads with figures in the headline or picture (N=450} that were layered in the hody copy with tropes but not anchored. confining the analysis again to ads with a destabilization trope in the headline or picture (N=200). that makes anchoring hoth possible and potentially desirable for the advertiser.01** ^ See the text for a definition of tropes.6% in the later period (see Tahle lj. Body Copy Trope layering (given a figure in the headline or picture)'^ Trope layering and no anchoring in body^ Anchoring (given a destabilization trope in the headline or picture)*^ Anchoring and no trope layering in 31. '^ This analysis is based on the 258 ads containing a figure in the headline or picture in the 1954-1974 portion and the 192 such ads in the 1975-1999 portion. metaphor.67* 10.7 15. the analysis is based on 477 ads appearing in the 1954-1974 portion of the sample and 339 ads appearing in the 1975-1999 portion. Moreover.8 13. that body copy in an ad can contain dozens of sentences and hundreds of words. and if the former category became more common in the later period.0 19. Finally. consistent with the content assessment. the analyses just reported could he confounded if the mix of products advertised in Time magazine changed over the period. most call for anchoring.24*** 8.6 31.3 20. Thus. and likewise.01** 1.8 41.8 17. hyperbole) 32.24 14.7 30.e. The incidence of "pure" anchoring declines even more markedly over time. a growing reliance on the most demanding kind of trope) may only .5 42.3 41.4 5. for a total N=200.3 6.3 13. as the label suggests.6 10. the violation of ordinary canons of usage.5% in the earlier period to 22. whereas others do not. rhetorical question. schemes. The trend data show that anchoring in the body copy of ads with a destabihz ation trope in the headline or picture declines over time.90*** D.9 27. therefore.0 3.3 23. and this occurred in many cases in our sample. from 41. and Franke 2002). reflect a changing mix of products advertised in Time magazine. the present study adds to the weight of evidence that hierarchical taxonomies of rhetorical figures that make distinctions at multiple levels are empirically useful. Huhmann. Mothersbaugh. metaphor. More exactly. 597) similarly find significant differences hetween substitution and destabilization tropes. The content analysis refines and adjusts the findings of the content assessment in one important respect: The use of complex destabilization tropes such as puns. it appears unlikely that the trend data for Time magazine can be dismissed as resulting from a change in the mix of products advertised in Time over the period. and Franke (2002. p. we repeated the analyses using 179 ads for automobiles appearing in both Time and Sl. Thus. The trend data for automobile ads replicated the pattern of results found for ads for a broad spectrum of products appearing in Time magazine. To rule out this threat. 10% 0% 6 7 10 12 13 Time Period •Trope Layering Without Anchoring n -Anchoring Without Trope Layering Notes: Each point represents a moving average taken across three issues of T.me magazine. Huhmann. By the same token. Experiment 2). (See Figure 1 for the issues for each time period. .10 The Journal of Advertising Figure 2 Layering Versus Anchoring 50% n 40% CO T3 30% - o r 20% - o n a. The content analysis also extends understanding of rhetorical strategies hy reinforcing the necessity of distinguishing among different types of rhetorical figures. Advertisers appear to have developed an increasing preference for the kind of figure most hkely to evoke elaboration on the part of consumers and most able to support a substantial degree of elabo- ration (Mothershaugh. and irony has increased in the headlines and pictures of ads. the simple fact that one type of trope hecomes more common while the other does not argues for the importance of making distinctions at the level of what McQuarrie and Mick (1996) characterized as the rhetorical operation—tropes constructed by the operation of destabilization versus tropes constructed by substitution. Discussion Evolution of Rhetorical Strategies. Thus. destabilization tropes place the greatest demands on consumer processing resources (McQuarrie and Mick 1996) and are most likely to fail to be comprehended by consumers (McQuarrie and Mick 1992. Advertisers in turn adapted to these changes hy placing increasing emphasis on the most deviant of rhetorical figures. puns. That is.g. are surely clever enough to please professional peers. The content assessment identified layering of multiple rhetorical figures and absence of anchoring as rhetorical strategies not previously discussed in the literature and suggested that layering became more common even as anchoring became less frequent. and not figures per se. as this category includes pun and irony as well as metaphor. aided by the advent of new technologies. deviant tropes offered both an aesthetic reward for processing the ad and a means of provoking the consumer to self-generate the desired message rather than counterargue the advertiser's statement of it. More layering of deviant tropes was advantageous for overcoming consumer ennui with the surfeit of advertising. which indicates that. Consumers became more reluctant to attend to any particular advertisement.. Metaphorical thinking often is said to he analogous to pictures. and as a consequence. bored with established persuasive approaches. this explanation fails to explain why it is only destabilization tropes. The argument would he that. layered.Winter 2002 Changes in Advertising Over Time. most notably the drastic increase in time spent watching television. along with many other aspects of culture. pictorial metaphorical thinking is contrasted with literal. and removing explanatory anchoring. linear. by making greater use of tropes such as metaphor. it stands to reason that print advertising.. it begs the question of why the increase is observed at the level of destabilization tropes. society over the period. in this case. Why did this occur? Although the trend seems well established. or tricky formulations that would interest and impress professional peers. However. The content analysis confirmed these propositions. and in any case. would tend to become more pictorial.S. In summary. However. not mutually exclusive to the first explanation. Less anchoring was needed in light of increased consumer competence. the initial explanation regarding a mutual adaptation by consumers and advertisers appears to be the only alternative that accounts for all the stylistic changes noted in the content analysis. Increased professionalization among advertising copywriters. there grew to he more advertisements for more products through more avenues to consumers who had more and more discretionary income. At the same time. but at the same time. trope layering) in the hody copy. once these technologies became available. would point to the increased diffusion of visual media in U. consumption became ever more central to U. its interpretation can only he speculative at this point. consumers now spend more time processing visual stimuli.e. clever. Consumers. Several types of schemes. the notion that a metaphor is a word picture is hardly a scientific proposition. society (Cross 2000). over the period 1954-1999. as the history of modern advertising lengthened—Marchand (1985) su^ests that modern advertising and consumer culture were fully developed hy some point in the 1920s— boredom with straightforward appeals drove a search 11 for novelty on the part of copywriters. ask what you can do for your country"). adapted to this change hy becoming more and more competent at processing ads. in later periods. A related explanation would argue that. advertisers were wont to try them. as they were exposed to more and more advertising. Our preferred explanation is that a mutual adaptation of advertisers and consumers to a changed advertising environment underlies the observed trends. and hiked these demands still further by offering fewer literal explanations of these figures. again not mutually exclusive. such as Adobe Photoshop and Quark Express. combined with competition for prestige within the profession. as a consequence of the diffusion of television. advertisers increased their usage of the most demanding kind of figure. Similarly. layering these figures. "Ask not what your country can do for you. Although no less speculative. that increase in usage over time. More specifically. may have led to more and more emphasis on cute. placed further demands on consumers by adding tropes to the body copy. and the like.S. as well as in an unwillingness to anchor these novel formulations (because professional peers needed no such assistance). such as antimetabole (e. If. A somewhat different alternative explanation. enormous strides following 1980 in computer graphics software. President Kennedy's appeal. likewise. made it possible to produce new kinds of elaborate and complex images easily. might have been responsible for a perceived change in the direction of increased usage of more complex rhetorical strategies. verbal thinking. This horedom manifested itself in an increased use of metaphor. The consequence for advertisers was that . Some other possible explanations of the trends uncovered in this study. they became more disinterested in advertising in general. would include the following. it is hard to understand how graphics software per se could drive an increase in a particular type of verbal expression (i. the diachronic data are consistent with the idea that consumers became less and less inclined to engage advertisements over the period. this alternative suggests that a selffocused professional community of copywriters. Early research on rhetorical figures in advertising built an argument for their theoretical importance by pointing to the ubiquity of this styhstic device (e. Richard Whitman Fox andT. Mainstream theories of consumer response to advertising have few explanations for the ubiquity of rhetorical figures." Jourfia/jsm Quarterly. "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Roots ofthe Consumer Cxilture." Journal of Consumer Research. 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Report "The Development_Change_and_Transformation of Rhetorical Style"