The basics of Hypnosis

HypnosisFor the states induced by hypnotic drugs, see Sleep and Unconsciousness. “Hypnotized” redirects here. For other uses, see Hypnotized (disambiguation). “Hypnotist” redirects here. For other uses, see The Hypnotist. Hypnosis is a state of human consciousness involving fo- tered state of mind or trance, marked by a level of awareness different from the ordinary conscious state.[1][2] In contrast, Non-state theories see hypnosis as a form of imaginative role-enactment.[3][4][5] During hypnosis, a person is said to have heightened focus and concentration. The person can concentrate intensely on a specific thought or memory, while blocking out sources of distraction.[6] Hypnotised subjects are said to show an increased response to suggestions.[7] Hypnosis is usually induced by a procedure known as a hypnotic induction involving a series of preliminary instructions and suggestion. The use of hypnotism for therapeutic purposes is referred to as "hypnotherapy", while its use as a form of entertainment for an audience is known as "stage hypnosis". Stage hypnosis is often performed by Mentalists practicing the art form of Mentalism. 1 Etymology The term “hypnosis” comes from the Ancient Greek word ὕπνος hypnos, “sleep”, and the suffix -ωσις -osis, or from ὑπνόω hypnoō, “put to sleep” (stem of aorist hypnōs-) and the suffix -is.[8][9] The words “hypnosis” and “hypnotism” both derive from the term “neuro-hypnotism” (nervous sleep), all of which were coined by the Scottish surgeon James Braid around 1841. Braid based his practice on that developed by Franz Mesmer and his followers (which was called “Mesmerism” or "animal magnetism"), but differed in his theory as to how the procedure worked. Photographic Studies in Hypnosis, Abnormal Psychology (1938) 2 Characteristics A person in a state of hypnosis is relaxed, has focused attention, and has increased suggestibility.[10] The hypnotized individual appears to heed only the communications of the hypnotist and typically responds in an uncritical, automatic fashion while ignoring all aspects of the environment other than those pointed out by the hypnotist. In a hypnotic state an individual tends to see, feel, smell, and otherwise perceive in accordance with the hypnotist’s suggestions, even though these suggestions may be in apparent contradiction to the actual stimuli present in the environment. The effects of hypnosis are not limited to sensory change; even Session of Hypnosis, Richard Berg cused attention and reduced peripheral awareness and an enhanced capacity for response to suggestion. The term may also refer to an art, skill, or act of inducing hypnosis. The ability to be hypnotized has been described as heritable as shown in twin studies. Theories explaining what occurs during hypnosis fall into two groups. Altered state theories see hypnosis as an al1 2 2 the subject’s memory and awareness of self may be altered by suggestion, and the effects of the suggestions may be extended (posthypnotically) into the subject’s subsequent waking activity.[11] It could be said that hypnotic suggestion is explicitly intended to make use of the placebo effect. For example, in 1994, Irving Kirsch characterised hypnosis as a “nondeceptive placebo”, i.e., a method that openly makes use of suggestion and employs methods to amplify its effects.[12][13] 2.1 Definitions The earliest definition of hypnosis was given by Braid, who coined the term “hypnotism” as an abbreviation for “neuro-hypnotism”, or nervous sleep, which he contrasted with normal sleep, and defined as: “a peculiar condition of the nervous system, induced by a fixed and abstracted attention of the mental and visual eye, on one object, not of an exciting nature.”[14] Braid elaborated upon this brief definition in a later work, Hypnotic Therapeutics:[15] The real origin and essence of the hypnotic condition, is the induction of a habit of abstraction or mental concentration, in which, as in reverie or spontaneous abstraction, the powers of the mind are so much engrossed with a single idea or train of thought, as, for the nonce, to render the individual unconscious of, or indifferently conscious to, all other ideas, impressions, or trains of thought. The hypnotic sleep, therefore, is the very antithesis or opposite mental and physical condition to that which precedes and accompanies common sleep Therefore, Braid defined hypnotism as a state of mental concentration that often leads to a form of progressive relaxation, termed “nervous sleep”. Later, in his The Physiology of Fascination (1855), Braid conceded that his original terminology was misleading, and argued that the term “hypnotism” or “nervous sleep” should be reserved for the minority (10%) of subjects who exhibit amnesia, substituting the term “monoideism”, meaning concentration upon a single idea, as a description for the more alert state experienced by the others.[16] A new definition of hypnosis, derived from academic psychology, was provided in 2005, when the Society for Psychological Hypnosis, Division 30 of the American Psychological Association (APA), published the following formal definition: New Definition: Hypnosis CHARACTERISTICS The Division 30 Definition and Description of Hypnosis Hypnosis typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will be presented. The hypnotic induction is an extended initial suggestion for using one’s imagination, and may contain further elaborations of the introduction. A hypnotic procedure is used to encourage and evaluate responses to suggestions. When using hypnosis, one person (the subject) is guided by another (the hypnotist) to respond to suggestions for changes in subjective experience, alterations in perception,[17][18] sensation,[19] emotion, thought or behavior. Persons can also learn self-hypnosis, which is the act of administering hypnotic procedures on one’s own. If the subject responds to hypnotic suggestions, it is generally inferred that hypnosis has been induced. Many believe that hypnotic responses and experiences are characteristic of a hypnotic state. While some think that it is not necessary to use the word “hypnosis” as part of the hypnotic induction, others view it as essential.[20] Michael Nash provides a list of eight definitions of hypnosis by different authors, in addition to his own view that hypnosis is “a special case of psychological regression": 1. Janet, near the turn of the century, and more recently Ernest Hilgard ..., have defined hypnosis in terms of dissociation. 2. Social psychologists Sarbin and Coe ... have described hypnosis in terms of role theory. Hypnosis is a role that people play; they act “as if” they were hypnotised. 3. T. X. Barber ... defined hypnosis in terms of nonhypnotic behavioural parameters, such as task motivation and the act of labeling the situation as hypnosis. 4. In his early writings, Weitzenhoffer ... conceptualised hypnosis as a state of enhanced suggestibility. Most recently ... he has defined hypnotism as “a form of influence by one person exerted on another through the medium or agency of suggestion.” 5. Psychoanalysts Gill and Brenman ... described hypnosis by using the psychoanalytic concept of “regression in the service of the ego”. 6. Edmonston ... has assessed hypnosis as being merely a state of relaxation. 7. Spiegel and Spiegel ... have implied that hypnosis is a biological capacity. 8. Erickson ... is considered the leading exponent of the position that hypnosis is a special, They explain this by pointing out that. if the fore and middle fingers of the right hand. relaxation. The patient must be made to understand that he is to keep the eyes steadily fixed on the object. resolves “many of the mysteries and controversies surrounding hypnosis”. Subsequently.out of ten hypnotic techniques call for reclining posture. “indi- . including the use of “waking suggestion” and self-hypnosis.[27] Joe Griffin and Ivan Tyrrell (the originators of the human givens approach) define hypnosis as “any artificial way of accessing the REM state. or become spasmodically closed. 2.[28] Variations and alternatives to the original hypnotic induction techniques were subseMain article: Hypnotic induction quently developed. he did not use the term “suggestion” but referred instead to the act of focusing the conscious mind of the subject upon a single dominant idea. for programming in our instinctive knowledge initially (after Dement[23] and Jouvet[24] ) and then for adding to this throughout life. and the mind riveted to the one idea of the object held above the eyes. the pupils will be at first contracted: They will shortly begin to dilate.[26] Braid’s original description of his induction is as follows: James Braid’s Original Eye-Fixation Hypnotic Induction Method Take any bright object (e. it is true. with a vibratory motion. hold it from about eight to fifteen inches from the eyes.[22] They see the REM state as being vitally important for life itself. most probably the eyelids will close involuntarily. after they have done so to a considerable extent. subsequent “nonstate” theorists have viewed it differently. it will be found.g. In general. puts us into a trance. There are several different induction techniques. however. Braid’s main therapeutic strategy involved stimulating or reducing physiological functioning in different regions of the body. and optical fixation followed by eye tion” technique. It is suggestion that rules hypnotism. in the same position. and have assumed a wavy motion. this method is still considered authoritative: “It can be safely stated that nine Hypnosis is normally preceded by a “hypnotic induc. in a sense.e. all learning is post-hypnotic.. etc.2 Hypnotic induction of hypnotic suggestions. Braid later acknowledged that the hypnotic induction technique was not necessary in every case and subseinward or outward. when properly understood. focusing attention. which explains why the number of ways people can be put into a hypnotic state are so varied: anything that focuses our attention. I define hypnotism as the induction of a peculiar psychical [i. desire him to begin anew. Often. this was interpreted as a muscular[29] closure. a lancet case) between the thumb and fore and middle fingers of the left hand. but that the eyeballs must be kept fixed. also known as “Braidism”.[30] Bernheim’s conception of the primacy of verbal suggestion in hypnotism dominated the subject throughout the 20th century. including the induction used in the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS). One of the most influential methods was Braid’s “eye-fixation” technique. If this is not the case. that the eyelids close with a vibratory motion. mental] condition which increases the susceptibility to suggestion.[31] Contemporary hypnotism uses a variety of suggestion forms including direct verbal suggestions.3 Suggestion Main article: Suggestion When James Braid first described hypnotism. defining their role. altered state of functioning. that owing to the consensual adjustment of the eyes.” method of putting the subject into a “hypnotic trance". the most widely used research tool in the field of hypnotism. Braid placed increasing emphasis upon the use of a variety of different verbal and non-verbal forms of suggestion. However. Hippolyte Bernheim shifted the emphasis from the physical state of hypnosis on to the psychological process of verbal suggestion. leading some authorities to declare him the father of modern hypnotism.[21] 3 are carried from the object toward the eyes. It will be observed. but it is not the necessary preliminary. seeing it as a means of heightening client expectation.2. Traditionally. In his later works. Many variations of the eye-fixation approach exist. giving him to understand that he is to allow the eyelids to close when the fingers are again carried towards the eyes. or the patient allows the eyeballs to move. the [hypnotic] sleep that may be induced facilitates suggestion. and enable the patient to maintain a steady fixed stare at the object. the same brain state in which dreaming occurs” and they suggest that this definition. at such position above the forehead as may be necessary to produce the greatest possible strain upon the eyes and eyelids. however. extended and a little separated. and the mind riveted on the idea of that one object. and.3 Suggestion inner-directed.[25] quent researchers have generally found that on average it contributes less than previously expected to the effect 2. voice tonality. including mental nication that is directed primarily to the subject’s conimagery. A distinction is commonly made between suggestions delivered “permissively” and those delivered in a more “authoritarian” manner.2 Ideo-dynamic reflex come one of the most widely referenced research tools in Main article: ideo motor response the field of hypnosis. scious mind. therefore. Indeed. like based on a combination of behavioural. “full hypnotic”. In the be concealed from the subject’s conscious mind.[33][34] These concepts were introduced into hypno. .2. some of which were due to as metaphors or stories whose intended meaning may direct suggestion and some of which were not. albeit in a very small degree.called the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibiltion was introduced early on by James Braid who adopted ity (HGSHS). lethargy. and non-verbal suggestion in the form of mental imagery.[33] It should be noted that in Victorian psychology the word “idea” enSome hypnotists view suggestion as a form of commucompasses any mental representation.[32] matic.4 Susceptibility tism at the end of the 19th century by Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet.3. make use of indirect suggestions such and subjective responses. Different views regarding named somnambulism. most subsequent scales have measured the degree of observed or self-evaluated responsiveness to specific suggestion tests such as direct suggestions of arm rigidity (catalepsy). whereas hypnotherapeutic suggestions are usually post-hypnotic ones that are intended to trigger responses affecting behaviour for periods ranging from days to a lifetime in duration. The hypnotherapeutic ones are often repeated in multiple sessions before they achieve peak effectiveness.4 2 CHARACTERISTICS rect” verbal suggestions such as requests or insinuations. Hilgard developed the Stansuggestions and instructions. Howthe nature of the mind have led to different conceptions ever. Braid actually deand “hypnotic coma” stages. metaphors and other rhetorical figures of speech. which he termed the first and second cononeers of hypnotism did not refer to the unconscious scious stage of hypnotism. André Spanos.3. Soon after.[37] Jean-Martin Charcot fines hypnotism as focused (conscious) attention upon a made a similar distinction between stages which he dominant idea (or suggestion). including those of Clark L. 2. Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault and Hippolyte Bernof suggestion. Braid extended Carpenter’s theory to encompass the observation that a wide variety of bodily responses besides muscular movement can be thus affected. the subject’s conscious mind. Hans Eysenck.[33] whereas others view it as a means of communicating with the "unconscious" or "subconscious" mind. Carpenter had observed from close examination of everyday experience that under certain circumstances the mere idea of a muscular movement could be sufficient to produce a reflexive.Main article: Hypnotic susceptibility ory describes conscious thoughts as being at the surface of the mind and unconscious processes as being deeper Braid made a rough distinction between different stages in the mind. consisting of 12 suggestion test items following a standardised hypnotic eye-fixation induction script. or auto- Whereas the older “depth scales” tried to infer the level of “hypnotic trance” from supposed observable signs such as spontaneous amnesia. and physical manipulation. Harvard hypnotherapist Deirdre Barrett writes that most modern research suggestions are designed to bring about immediate responses. and this has be2. physiological Milton Erickson. such as Theodore Barber and Nicholas Friedlander–Sarbin scales developed in the 1930s. hypnotists who believe that “hypnotic susceptibility” scales based on experimental reresponses to suggestion are primarily mediated by the search. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic the. Braid. for example. Variations of the basic ideo-motor. in 1962. Hypnotists who believe that responses heim introduced more complex hypnotic “depth” scales are mediated primarily by an “unconscious mind”. and catalepsy. Braid coined the term “mono-ideodynamic” to refer to the theory that hypnotism operates by concentrating attention on a single idea in order to amplify the ideo-dynamic reflex response. contraction or movement of the muscles involved. these early cliniconcept of subliminal suggestion depends upon this view cal “depth” scales were superseded by more sophisticated of the mind. Harvard.[35] Braid. theory of suggestion have continued to exercise considerable influence over subsequent theories of hypnosis. The most influential were the Davis–Husband and conscious mind. meaning “by the power of an idea”. Bernheim and other Victorian piof hypnosis. and Ernest Rossi. have tended to make more use of direct verbal Weitzenhoffer and Ernest R. The Stanford. adopted the term “ideodynamic”. The first few decades of the 20th century. memories. By contrast. the idea of sucking a lemon can automatically stimulate salivation.[36] he later replaced this with mind but saw hypnotic suggestions as being addressed to a distinction between “sub-hypnotic”. Ronald Shor and Emily Carota Orne developed a similar group scale The first neuropsychological theory of hypnotic sugges. his friend and colleague William Carpenter’s theory of the ideo-motor reflex response to account for the phenomenon of hypnotism. or ideo-dynamic.1 The conscious and the unconscious mind Hull. to explain a broad range of “psycho-physiological” (mind–body) phenomena. a secretory response. ford Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility in 1959. etc. [43] Although he rejected the transcendental/metaphysical interpretation given to these phenomena outright. Fantasizers score high on absorption scales. or train of ideas. purpose. as I have so repeatedly proved by causing them to maintain a steady fixed gaze at any point. Neurypnology (1843). Mesmerism. There is some controversy as to whether this is distributed on a “normal” bell-shaped curve or whether it is bi-modal with a small “blip” of people at the high end. report imaginary companions as a child and grew up with parents who encouraged imaginary play. […] The great object in all these processes is to induce a habit of abstraction or concentration of attention. an ancient Persian text describing a wide variety of Oriental religious rituals. and he saw correlations between many of the “metaphysical” Oriental practices and his own “rational” neuro-hypnotism. and totally rejected all of the fluid theIndividuals with dissociative identity disorder have the ories and magnetic practices of the mesmerists. he referred to what In as much as patients can throw themselves into the nervous sleep. Braid accepted that these accounts of Oriental practices supported his view that the effects of hypnotism could be produced in solitude. and manifest all the usual phenomena of Mesmerism. through their own unaided efforts. Dissociaters often have a history of childhood abuse or other trauma. Historically & Physiologically Considered. without the presence of any other person (as he had already proved to his own satisfaction with the experiments he had conducted in November 1841). Hypnotism. which she terms fantasizers and dissociaters.400 years. whilst he is unconscious of.[39][40][41] 5 he had previously witnessed in oriental regions. for additional proof to the same effect. or as the Magi of Persia and Yogi of India have practised for the last 2. and most other susceptibility scales convert numbers into an assessment of a person’s susceptibility as 'high'. in which I found many statements corroborative of the fact. especially those involving voluntary burial and apparent human hibernation. and practices. documented the characteristics of the "trance"(Hypnotic Trance) state in 1027. Last May [1843]. that the eastern saints are all self-hypnotisers. In corroboration of my views. learned to escape into numbness.2 Avicenna HIP. beliefs.3. 'medium'. a book lately published. or 'low'.[38] Hypnotizability Scores are highly stable over a person’s lifetime. and to forget unpleasant events. Approximately 80% of the population are medium. the “School of Religions”. it is obvious that there is no need for an exoteric influence to produce the phenomena of Mesmerism.2 Avicenna Avicenna (980–1037). followed by later wrote: those with posttraumatic stress disorder.1 Precursors According to his writings. find it easy to block out real-world stimuli without hypnosis.[44] 3. personally unknown to me. or indifferently conscious to.[45] . Franz Mesmer. favored me with a letter expressing his approbation of the views which I had published on the nature and causes of hypnotic and mesmeric phenomena. As he highest hypnotisability of any clinical group. every other object. and recommended me to look into the Dabistan. throwing themselves into their ecstatic trances by each maintaining a steady fixed gaze at the tip of his own nose. etc. He first discussed some of these oriental practices in a series of articles entitled Magic. Their association to “daydreaming” was often going blank rather than creating vividly recalled fantasies. or action. in which the subject is entirely absorbed with one idea. At that time hypnosis as a medical treatment was seldom used until the German doctor. 10% are high and 10% are low. Braid began to hear reports concerning various Oriental meditative practices soon after the release of his first publication on hypnotism. He drew analogies between his own practice of hypnotism and various forms of Hindu yoga meditation and other ancient spiritual practices. for religious purposes. or that the same may arise by the patient looking at the point of his own finger.. Research by Deirdre Barrett has found that there are two distinct types of highly susceptible subjects. reintroduced it in the 18th century. who had long resided in India. a Persian physician. adopting means essentially the same as those which I had recommended for similar purposes. concentrating their whole mental energies on the idea of the object looked at.[42] 3 History Main article: History of hypnosis 3. Braid’s interest in these practices stems from his studies of the Dabistān-i Mazāhib. spend much time daydreaming. Both score equally high on formal scales of hypnotic susceptibility. a gentleman residing in Edinburgh. On much recommendation I immediately sent for a copy of the Dabistan. such as electricity or galvanism. a Board of Inquiry started to investigate whether animal magnetism existed. Among the board members were founding father of modern chemistry Antoine Lavoisier.4 James Braid In Braid’s day. psychological] agents employed by Mesmer. mits the efficacy of the moral [i. “This felthe exercise of his profession.e. in In writing the majority opinion. one Charles d'Eslon (1750–1786).3 3 HISTORY Franz Mesmer Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) believed that there is a magnetic force or “fluid” within the universe that influences the health of the human body. and psychology. with respect to the physical effects of the principle of imagination (more particularly in cases where they co-operated together).. Benjamin Franklin. Therefore.6 3. from common sleep or the waking condition. later referred to as making “Mesmeric passes”. I do not allege that this condition is induced through the transmission of a magnetic or occult influence from my body into that of my patients.ory and practice of Mesmerism and developed his own art. or Nervous Sleep. formed from the last name of Franz Mesmer. should. Franklin said. their placebo-controlled experiments using d'Eslon’s methods convinced them that mesmerism was most likely due to belief and imagination rather than to an invisible energy James Braid (“animal magnetism”) transmitted from the body of the mesmerist. he had concluded that the same effect could be created by passing the hands in front of the subject’s body.” ing them to his command. and are all consistent with generally admit- . nor do I profess. in several respects. to produce the higher [i. Dugald Stew. Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind (1818). into which it may be thrown by artificial It appears to me. supernatural] phenomena of the Mesmerists. who ad- contrivance. My pretensions are of a much more humble character. They investigated the practices of a disaffected student of Mesmer. He experimented with magnets to impact this field in order to produce healing. and though they concluded that Mesmer’s results were valid.[46] to salvage elements of Mesmerism by replacing the superIt may here be requisite for me to explain. was intentionally used to separate practitioners of mesmerism from the various “fluid” and “magnetic” theories included within the label “magnetism”. pretation based upon “common sense” laws of physiology which frequently occurs in the following pages. an influential academic philosopher of the "Scottish method of hypnotism as a more rational and common School of Common Sense". and which differs. Braid quotes the following passage from I mean a peculiar condition of the nervous sysStewart:[47] tem. encouraged physicians in his sense alternative. the Scottish School of Common Sense provided the dominant theories of academic psychology and Main article: James Braid (surgeon) Braid refers to other philosophers within this tradition throughout his writings. By around 1774. natural theory of “animal magnetism” with a new interthat by the term Hypnotism. by my processes. Joseph-Ignace Guillotin. In 1784. at the request of King Louis XVI. are incomparably more curious than if he had actually demonstrated the existence of his boasted science [of “animal magnetism"]: nor can I see any good reason why a physician.[46] 3. and an expert in pain control.e. any more than that Mesmer left Paris and went back to Vienna to practise he should hesitate about employing a new physmesmerism. ical agent.. that the general conclusions established by Mesmer’s practice. this mesmerism must be a fraud. The word “mesmerize”. scruple to copy low Mesmer is not flowing anything from his hands that whatever processes are necessary for subjectI can see. Braid therefore revised the theFollowing the French committee’s findings. which. Braid extended Carpenter’s theory to encompass the influence of the mind upon the body more generally. Rational Mesmerism. examined Braid’s writings shortly [50] Despite briefly toying with the name “rational Mes.5 Hysteria vs. studied hypnotism at the Paris School and briefly visited the Nancy School. who was influenced more by the Mesmerists. and therefore referred to the 3. Charcot. Hypnotism might therefore not inaptly be designated.hypnotherapy clinic and subsequently became an influstead the role of ordinary physiological and psycholog. that it was an extension of normal psychological Braid soon assimilated Carpenter’s observations into his functioning. Chevreul claimed that divinatory pendulae were made to swing by unconscious muscle movements brought about by focused concentration alone. Hippolyte Bernments throughout his career in order to refute practices heim discovered Liébeault’s enormously popular group that invoked supernatural forces and demonstrating in. At the request of Azam.6 Pierre Janet “ideo-dynamic” response and coined the term “psychophysiology” to refer to the study of general mind/body Pierre Janet (1859–1947) reported studies on a hypnotic subject in 1882. while Bernheim had a clinic in Nancy (known as the "Nancy School"). the two most influenBraid worked very closely with his friend and ally the tial figures in late 19th-century hypnotism. In 1898 Janet was apsia resembling sleep. The eminent neurologist Dr. after Janet had completed his PhD. rector of the psychological laboratory at the Salpêtrière In his later works Braid reserved the term “hypnotism” in 1889. an early neuro-psychologist who introduced the “ideo-motor reflex” theory of suggestion.After decades of debate.[48] neurologist Dr. argued that hypnotism was an abnormal state of nervous functioning found only in certain hysterical women. which dealt for cases in which subjects entered a state of amne. The study of hypnotism subsequently ical processes such as suggestion and focused attention in revolved around the fierce debate between Jean-Martin producing the observed effects. 3. 1860) into French and presented Braid’s research to the French Academy of Sciences.with psychological automatism. The psychiatrist Albert Moll subsequently continued German research.his followers. Paul Broca. known as the “Paris School” or the “Salpêtrière School”).[49] dissociation. he spoke of a pointed psychology lecturer at the Sorbonne. in contra-distinction to the Transcendental Mesmerism of the Mesmerists.ential hypnotist. which had investigated Mesmerism in 1784. the French Academy of Science. Charcot’s theory is now just a historical curiosity. Charcot and Hippolyte Bernheim. George Miller Beard took Braid’s theories to America. [51] tention was to enhance the ideo-motor reflex response. developing his own sophisticated hypnotic quent “dominant idea” upon the subject’s body by means psychotherapy based upon the concept of psychological of the ideo-dynamic principle. and others.after his death. Bernheim’s view dominated. realising that the effect of focusing at. beyond the muscular system. the founder of psychoanalysis. and that its effects were due to suggestion. suggestion For several decades Braid’s work became more influential abroad than in his own country. At first Freud was an enthusiastic proponent of hypnotherapy. his works were translated into German by William Thierry Preyer.3. Bernheim argued that anyone could be hypnotised. at the turn of the century. He claimed that it manifested in a series of physical reactions that could be divided into distinct stages. Charcot subsequently appointed him diinteraction. and in “mono-ideodynamic” principle to emphasise that the eye. most notably Dr. rivalled Freud’s attempt to provide a more comprehensive theory of psychotherapy. eminent physiologist Professor William Benjamin Carpenter. a country doctor.Auguste Liébeault. A classic example of the ideo-motor principle in action is the so-called “Chevreul pendulum” (named after Michel Eugène Chevreul). carrying out informal experi. which amplified the effect of the conse. except for a handful of followers. Braid ultimately chose to emphasise the unique Azam’s enthusiasm for hypnotism influenced Ambroiseaspects of his approach. publishing Hypnotism in 1889. own theory. He “initially hypnotised patients and pressed on their foreheads to help them concentrate while attempting to recover (supposedly) repressed . Professor of Physiology at Jena University. France became the focal point for the study of Braid’s ideas after the eminent 3.1902 he became chair of experimental and comparafixation induction technique worked by narrowing the tive psychology at the Collège de France. Carpenter had observed instances of expectation and imagination apparently influencing involuntary muscle movement. John Milne Bramwell. Meanwhile.[52] Janet reconsubject’s attention to a single idea or train of thought ciled elements of his views with those of Bernheim and (“monoideism”). For other cases.7 Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Charcot operated a clinic at the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital (thus. merism”.6 Pierre Janet 7 ted principles in physiological and psychological science. Étienne Eugène Azam translated Braid’s last manuscript (On Hypnotism. 9 Clark L. In fact. which was originally fashioned for speed work and later adapted for the use of medical professionals. Struggling with the great expense of time that psychoanalysis required. He led many courses for physicians and wrote in 1964 the classic book Findings in Hypnosis. comedian and songwriter. Several years after Liébeault’s death in 1904. Coué developed a new orientation called “conscious autosuggestion". This became the founding text of the subsequent tradition known as “hypno-analysis” or “regression hypnotherapy”. Hypnosis & Suggestibility (1933). which contrasted with psychoanalysis and prefigured self-hypnosis and cognitive therapy. (1901–1980) was one of the most influential post-war hypnotherapists. and his approach remains in question. 3. After practising for several years as a hypnotherapist employing the methods of Liébeault and Bernheim’s Nancy School. followers such as Charles Baudouin viewed his approach as a form of light self-hypnosis. and double binds in place of formal hypnotic inductions. Hull HISTORY hypnosis. confusion techniques.11 Milton Erickson Milton H. the difference between Erickson’s methods and traditional hypnotism led contemporaries such as André Weitzenhoffer to question whether he was practising “hypnosis” at all. Perhaps the most well-known aspect of Elman’s legacy is his method of induction. his students routinely obtained states of hypnosis adequate for medical and surgical procedures in under three minutes. 3.10 Dave Elman Although Dave Elman (1900–1967) was a noted radio host. During the 1960s. 3. The first heart operation using hypnosis rather than normal anesthesia (because of severe problems with the patient) was performed by his students with Dave Elman in the operating room as “coach”. but that this would probably weaken the outcome: It is very probable.[53] and he soon began to emphasise hypnotic regression and ab reaction (catharsis) as therapeutic methods. He wrote a favorable encyclopedia article on hypnotism.8 Émile Coué Émile Coué (1857–1926) assisted Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault for around two years at Nancy. whether or not the subject was in a hypnotic state. and published an influential series of case studies with his colleague Joseph Breuer entitled Studies on Hysteria (1895). However. an eminent American psychologist. “metaphor” (actually analogies). Although Coué argued that he was no longer using hypnosis.12 Cognitive-behavioural The next major development came from behavioural psychology in American university research. Hull’s behavioural psychology interpretation of hypnosis. pub. Coué founded what became known as the New Nancy School. Erickson popularized a new branch of hypnotherapy.tributed to the development of the cognitive-behavioural lished the first major compilation of laboratory studies on approach to hypnosis: . known as Ericksonian therapy. His book and recordings provide much more than just his rapid induction techniques. Clark L. Erickson. in which he proved that hypnosis and sleep had nothing in common. Coué's method did not emphasise “sleep” or deep relaxation and instead focused upon autosuggestion involving a specific series of suggestion tests. Coué's method became a renowned selfhelp and psychotherapy technique. too.[54] Only a handful of Freud’s followers. were sufficiently qualified in hypnosis to attempt the synthesis. emphasizing free association and interpretation of the unconscious. Freud later suggested that it might be combined with hypnotic suggestion to hasten the outcome of treatment. Erickson had no hesitation in presenting any suggested effect as being “hypnosis”. however. emphasising conditioned reflexes.D. that the application of our therapy to numbers will compel us to alloy the pure gold of analysis plentifully with the copper of direct [hypnotic] suggestion. Their work had a limited influence on the hypnotherapeutic approaches now known variously as “hypnotic regression”. 3. translated one of Bernheim’s works into German. “hypnotic progression”. later to be retitled Hypnotherapy (published by Westwood Publishing). Hull In the latter half of the 20th century. However. Freud gradually abandoned hypnotism in favour of psychoanalysis. He wrote several books and journal articles on the subject. and “hypnoanalysis”. two factors con(1884–1952). a loose collaboration of practitioners who taught and promoted his views. M. Hull published many quantitative findings from hypnosis and suggestion experiments and encouraged research by mainstream psychologists.[55] 3. he also made a name as a hypnotist. however. he was not hesitant in passing off behaviour that was dubiously hypnotic as being hypnotic.8 3 memories”. characterised primarily by indirect suggestion. rivalled the Freudian psycho-dynamic interpretation which emphasised unconscious transference. automatic writing and • Addictions[85][86] sketches for creative purposes. Hypnotic methods have been used to re-experience drug states[66] and mystical • Habit control[87][88][89] [67][68] Self-hypnosis is popularly used to quit experiences. Cognitive and behavioural theories of the nature of 4.[57][58] may use hypnosis to treat depression. most notably the surrealist circle of André Breton who employed hypnosis.[59] along with scientifically proven cognitive therapies.Hypnotherapy [71][72][73] psychotherapy. sleep disorders. and entertainment. even those of Braid. resemble the cognitive-behavioural orientation in some respects. • Age regression hypnotherapy (or “hypnoanalysis”) Hypnotism has also been used in forensics.apists who are not physicians or psychologists often treat proaches to hypnotherapy. and [74][75][76] while certified hypnotherAlthough cognitive-behavioural theories of hypnosis posttraumatic stress. and ritual trances in preliterate tribal cultures. HypAt the outset of cognitive-behavioural therapy during the 1950s.[77] Modern hypnotherapy has been used in a variety of forms with varying success. however a study published • Cognitive-behavioural hypnotherapy. hypnosis was used by early behaviour therapists such as Joseph Wolpe[60] and also by early cognitive therapists such as Albert Ellis. and others.[65] Hypnotism has also been employed by artists for creative • Fears and phobias[79][80][81][82][83][84] purposes. Stage hypnosis can per• Psychotherapy[94] suade people to perform unusual public feats. compulsive gaming. Hull had introduced a behavioural psychology as far back as 1933. imagination.[62] Indeed. Kirsch. • Pain management[90][91][92][93] smoking. and human potentialities. and induce sleep hypnosis.[28] However. who is supported by Joseph ical/psychotherapeutic uses. and assumptions and have been integrated Hypnotherapy is a helpful adjunct having additive efby influential researchers and clinicians such as Irving fects when treating psychological disorders. promote weight loss.[70] • Skin disease[96] • Soothing anxious surgical patients . they share similar concepts. Spanos and Chaves introduced the term “cognitive-behavioural” to describe their “nonstate” theory of hypnosis in Hypnosis. and others. or clinical in 1958 by the Council on Mental Health of the Amerhypnosis combined with elements of cognitive beican Medical Association documented the efficacy of havioural therapy[58] [64] hypnosis in clinical settings. such as: Applications There are numerous applications for hypnosis Charcot demonstrating hypnosis on a "hysterical" Salpêtrière paacross multiple fields of interest including medtient. must be distinguished from cognitive-behavioural ap. the earliest theories and practices of hypnotism. religious hysteria. Steven Jay Lynn. which in turn was preceded by Ivan Pavlov. ious forms of cognitive-behavioural therapy overpsychologists. is a use of hypnosis in 2. self. alleviate stress and anxiety.[61] Barber. It is used by licensed physicians.Babiński. military uses.1 Hypnotherapy 9 1. smoking and weight management. anxiety.1 Hypnotherapy hypnosis (influenced by the theories of Sarbin[56] Main article: Hypnotherapy and Barber[28] ) became increasingly influential.[69] • Relaxation[95] Some people have drawn analogies between certain aspects of hypnotism and areas such as crowd psychology.[78] improvement. sports. • Ericksonian hypnotherapy education. Physicians and psychologists lapped and influenced each other. The therapeutic practices of hypnotherapy and var. because hypnosis results in memory hardening which increases the confidence in false memories. terminology. eating disorders. The American Medical Association currently has no official stance on the medical use of hypnosis. Clark L.[58][63] 4 notherapy should not be used for repairing or refreshing memory. “Blanche” (Marie Wittmann). physical therapy and rehabilitation.4. such as these. whether within the 4. scientists have temporarreduction in pain from hypnosis compared with placebo.[107][108][109] and it has been Treating skin diseases with hypnosis (hypnodermatology) has performed well in treating warts. The results showed that it is primarily the subject’s responsiveness to suggestion. and childbirth. How4.[75] she reviews the clinical research on hypnosis with dissociative disorders. hypnosis can influence the development or progression of cancer. A 1996 meta-analysis studying hypnosis combined subjects participating in 27 different experiments. and atopic studied as a way to soothe skin ailments. in which both theories involve the presence of activity in pain receptive regions of the brain.3 Other medical and psychotherapeutic uses UK health services. according to the American Cancer Society. but was able to reduce pain in environment. Michael Nash wrote: gestion and placebo in reducing pain.[104][105] Hypnosis for IBS has received moderate support in the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guidance published for 4. patients hospitalised for cardiac and pulmonary ailments [111] pain experienced during burn-wound debridement. and insomnia and describes successful treatments of these complaints.1.[103] a wider range of subjects (both high and low suggestible) than hypnosis. In her 1998 book of hypnotherapy case studies.”[120] Hypnosis has been used as a pain relieving technique during dental surgery and related pain management regimens as well. pain relief in response to hypnosis is said to be the result of the brain’s dual-processing functionality.[110] dermatitis.using hypnosis. The hypnosis instructs the [116][117][118][119] may also be managed with hypnosis. boost the immune system of people with cancer. they lay the groundwork for changes in their future actions.[123] The American Psychological Association published a In a July 2001 article for Scientific American titled “The study comparing the effects of hypnosis. ordinary sugTruth and the Hype of Hypnosis”. A meta-study researching hypnosis as a quit-smoking tool found it had [126] while a 2007 study of A number of studies show that hypnosis can reduce the a 20 to 30 percent success rate.[121] Additionally.2 Pain management ever. but specific suggestions and images fed to clients in a trance can profoundly alter their behavior. As they rehearse the new ways they want to think and feel.[106] It has been used as an aid or alternative to chemical anesthesia.1. duction from hypnosis when compared with placebo. found that smokers who used hypnosis to quit smoking [112][113] bone marrow aspirations.[125] The success rate for habit control is varied. Researchers like Jerjes and his team have reported that hypnosis can help even those patients who have acute to severe orodental pain. psoriasis. cerwhereas less suggestible subjects experienced no pain retain types of memory loss. stomach it is smaller than it really is and hypnopedia reSome practitioners have claimed hypnosis might help inforces alimentary habits.1.. This effect is obtained either through the process of selective attention or dissociation. ily created hallucinations. and a difference in the processing of the stimuli by the hypnotised subject.10 4 APPLICATIONS • Sports performance[97][98] • Weight loss[99][100][101] In a January 2001 article in Psychology Today. The study found that highly suggestible individuals experienced a greater . Nausea and other symptoms related to incurable diseases hypnosis with hypnopedia. The In[127] doubled their chances of success.. false memories.[103] [114] Hypnosis is effective in reducing pain from and cop.Controversy surrounds the use of hypnotherapy to reable scientific evidence does not support the idea that trieve memories. especially those from early childhood or . irritable bowel syndrome... ternational Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis found that hypnosis relieved the pain of 75% of 933 Hypnosis may be useful as an adjunct therapy for weight loss. Meyerson and Uziel have suggested that hypnotic methods have been found to be highly fruitful for alleviating anxiety in patients suffering from severe dental phobia. compulsions. Orand delusions in the laboratory so that these dinary non-hypnotic suggestion also caused reduction in phenomena can be studied in a controlled pain compared to placebo. “avail. that is the main determinant [124] Hypnotherapy has been studied for the treatment of of causing reduction in pain.1 Irritable bowel syndrome context of hypnosis or not.[103] ing both treatments ing with cancer [128] The virtual gastric band procedure mixes CBT alone. smoking cessation.with cognitive-behavioural therapy found that people uslost more weight than people using [115] and other chronic conditions.[122] For some psychologists who uphold the altered state theory of hypnosis.[102] Harvard psychologist Deirdre Barrett wrote: A hypnotic trance is not therapeutic in and of itself. and she described specific ways this is operationalized for habit change and amelioration of phobias. whereas others use hypnotic recordings. the overall conclusion of the study was that there was no evidence that hypnosis could be used for military applications. and physical well-being. also conducted by the CIA.[133] Furthermore. physical manipulation.[137] 4. negative behaviours.4 Stage hypnosis Main article: Stage hypnosis Stage hypnosis is a form of entertainment. that this can be done.[133] Research into hypnosis in military applications is further verified by the MKULTRA experiments.[135] The full paper explores the potentials of operational uses. traditionally employed in a club or theatre before an audience. without corroborative evidence. uncontrollable behaviour.3 Self-hypnosis (supposed) past-lives. . Ormond McGill's New Encyclopedia of Stage Hypnosis describes an entire “fake hypnosis” act that depends upon the use of private whispers throughout. clinical or experimental. motivation and subject expectancy. commonly involving the use of autosuggestion.[132] 4. To obtain compliance from a resistant source. some people use devices known as mind machines to assist in the process.X. there are no reliable accounts of its effective use by an intelligence service. The technique is often used to increase motivation for a diet.2 Military A recently declassified document obtained by the US Freedom of Information Act archive shows that hypnosis was investigated for military applications. participant selection. many people believe that hypnosis is a form of mind control. The use of hypnosis in intelligence would present certain technical problems not encountered in the clinic or laboratory.”[129] Past life regression.[138] The desire to be the centre of attention. it would be necessary to hypnotise the source under essentially hostile circumstances. relaxation. arousal. However. to distinguish a true memory from a false one.3 Self-hypnosis Main article: Self-hypnosis Self-hypnosis happens when a person hypnotises oneself. Stage hypnotists typically attempt to hypnotise the entire audience and then select individuals who are “under” to come up on stage and perform embarrassing acts.[134] According to Congressional testimony.[133] However. Due to stage hypnotists’ showmanship. People who practise selfhypnosis sometimes require assistance. for example. According to the document. while the audience watches. quit smoking.[139] Books by stage hypnotists sometimes explicitly describe the use of deception in their acts. meanwhile. having an excuse to violate their own fear suppressors and the pressure to please are thought to convince subjects to 'play along'. or reduce stress. the document states that: It would be difficult to find an area of scientific interest more beset by divided professional opinion and contradictory experimental evidence…No one can say whether hypnosis is a qualitatively unique state with some physiological and conditioned response components or only a form of suggestion induced by high motivation and a positive relationship between hypnotist and subject…T. is often viewed with skepticism. stating that “it is impossible. and improve self-esteem and confidence only when they have been completely trained about their clinical side effects and while under supervision when administering it.[136] 4. There is no good evidence. Many of these programs were done domestically and on participants who were not informed of the study’s purposes or that they would be given drugs. Barber has produced “hypnotic deafness” and “hypnotic blindness”. for example.[130][131] Psychiatric nurses in most medical facilities are allowed to administer hypnosis to patients in order to relieve symptoms such as anxiety.[133] The study concludes: 11 It is probably significant that in the long history of hypnosis. where the potential application to intelligence has always been known. stagecraft. Self-hypnosis is claimed to help with stage fright.4. and no clear evidence whether 'hypnosis’ is a definable phenomenon outside ordinary suggestion. and trickery. The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association caution against recovered-memory therapy in cases of alleged childhood trauma. suggestibility. the effects of stage hypnosis are probably due to a combination of psychological factors. analgesia and other responses seen in hypnosis—all without hypnotizing anyone…Orne has shown that unhypnotized persons can be motivated to equal and surpass the supposed superhuman physical feats seen in hypnosis.[135] the CIA experimented with utilizing LSD and hypnosis for mind control. the Pavlov’s ideas combined with those of his rival Bekhterev “nonstate” interpretation emphasises their similarity. regard ‘suggestion’ use of task-specific subjective strategies (Spanos).12 5 5 The state versus non-state debate THE STATE VERSUS NON-STATE DEBATE If a subject after submitting to the hypnotic procedure shows no genuine increase in susceptibility to any suggestions whatever. sometimes describing it as a specific sleeplike neurological state comparable to animal hibernation or yogic meditation.e. it is often claimed that whereas the older “spe. its most general goal being to behave like a hypnotised person as this is continuously defined by the operator and understood by the client.. response expectancy (Kirsch). When Braid introduced the concept of hypnotism. signaling all of them and replacing from normal cognitive. there seems no point in calling him hypnotised.[141] The central theoretical disagreement is known as the “state versus nonstate” debate. Pavlov also suggested that Put simply. behavioural.[140] replicated without hypnotic induction. Platonov. is connected up with all the notic trance and interpret the effects of hypnotism as due internal and external stimuli which can reach to a combination of multiple task-specific factors derived the cortex. and the active selves. he equivocated over the nature of the “state”. on account of the whole preceding sciousness.lower-brain-stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic [143][144] cial state” interpretation emphasises the difference be. i. Changes in brain activity have been found in some studies of highly responsive hypnotic subjects. therefore. 5. in normal circumstances without . is associated with a pattern mostly of alpha waves [147] However. Pavlov himself primarily to a specific. in later writings. goaldirected striving.” Nonstate theorists rejected the idea of hyplife of the adult.quently influenced the writings of Western behaviourally tributed to hypnotic suggestion. Soviet theories of hypnotism subseonly accounts for a small proportion of the effects at.[145][146] The state of light to medium hypnosis. Hippolyte Bernheim became known as the leading proponent of the “suggestion theory” of hypnosis. and therefore it can call forth all ogy. In particular. most of which can be oriented hypnotherapists such as Andrew Salter. The as the most simple form of a typical reflex in personality psychologist Robert White is often cited as man. at one point going so far as to declare that there is no hypnotic state. They may indicate that suggestions genuinely produce changes in perception or experience that are not simply a result of imagination. while at other times he emphasised that hypnotism encompasses a number of different stages or states that are an extension of ordinary psychological 5. what these results indicate is unclear. Overall. tween hypnosis and ordinary psychological processes. Hypnotic behaviour is meaningful. regardless of how fully and readily he may respond to suggestions of lid-closure and other superficial sleeping behaviour. often referred to as “hypnotic trance” or an “altered state of conSpeech. such as social role-perception and favorable motithose reactions of the organism which are norvation (Sarbin). that responses to suggestions were learned asState theorists interpret the effects of hypnotism as due sociations triggered by the words used. These changes vary depending upon the type of suggestions being given. and uniform psycholog.2 Conditioned inhibition and physiological processes.conditioning. only heightened suggestibility.wrote: ical or physiological state of some description. There is a general consensus that heightened suggestibility is an essential characteristic of hypnosis. We can. best example of a conditioned reflex response in human beings. and social psycholall of them.I. abnormal. active imagination and positive cognitive mally determined by the actual stimuli themset (Barber).1 Hyper-suggestibility Braid can be taken to imply. and became the basis of hypnotic psychotherapy in the Comparisons between hypnotised and non-hypnotised Soviet Union.3 Neuropsychology 5. However. where the body undergoes physical and mental relaxation. He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis did not significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli.[142] providing one of the first nonstate definitions of hypnosis in a 1941 article: He also believed that hypnosis was a “partial sleep” meaning that a generalised inhibition of cortical functioning could be encouraged to spread throughout regions of the brain. Braid appears to have moved from a more “special state” understanding of Ivan Pavlov stated that hypnotic suggestion provided the hypnotism toward a more complex “nonstate” orientation. that hypnosis is largely a state of heightened suggestibility induced by expectation and focused attention. as documented in the writings of his folsubjects suggest that if a “hypnotic trance” does exist it lower K. ual would respond with autonomic. somewhat sleepy and/or more diffuse in their attention. Sarbin drew analogies between roletaking in hypnosis and role-taking in other areas such as method acting. enhanced theta is observed during hypnosis when there is task performance or concentrative hypnosis. and role-taking. The team screened subjects before the study and chose 12 that were highly susceptible to hypnosis and 12 with low susceptibility. but not when the highly hypnotizable individuals are passively relaxed. achieving similar scores regardless of their mental state. This is an area involved with higher level cognitive processing and behaviour.4 Dissociation Main article: Dissociation (psychology) Pierre Janet originally developed the idea of dissociation of consciousness from his work with hysterical patients. tion suggestion given to subjects in hypnosis activated Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as “discolour-processing regions of the occipital cortex. He believed that hypnosis was an example of dissociation. This area of the brain has been shown to respond to errors and evaluate emotional outcomes.[150] A sociation of awareness from the majority of sensory and 2004 review of research examining the EEG laboratory even strictly neural events taking place. Gruzelier found that the highly susceptible subjects showed significantly more brain activity in the anterior cingulate gyrus than the weakly susceptible subjects. mental illness. Anna Gosline claims: 5.”[31] work in this area concludes: Hypnosis is not a unitary state and therefore should show different patterns of EEG activity depending upon the task being experienced. hypothesized that hypnosis causes the subjects to divide their consciousness voluntarily. Sarbin emphasised the difference between faking. there were no significant differences in brain activity between the groups. in which there is little subjective identification with the role in question. However.4 Dissociation hypnosis. premature to claim that hypnosis and meditation are mediated by similar brain systems and neural mechanisms. The highly susceptible group also showed much greater brain activity on the left side of the prefrontal cortex than the weakly susceptible group. Sarbin argued that hypnotic responses were motivated attempts to fulfill the socially constructed roles of hypnotic subjects. This interpretation of hypnosis is particularly relevant to understanding stage hypnosis in which there is clearly strong peer pressure to comply with a socially constructed role by performing accordingly on a theatrical stage. Hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind. whereby areas of an individual’s behavioural control separate from ordinary awareness. Throughout the study. thinking. This showed that even though the subjects were listening to the suggestive hypnotist they The induction phase of hypnosis may also affect the ac.still sensed the water’s temperature. the social constructionism and role-taking theory of hypnosis suggests that individuals are enacting (as opposed to merely playing) a role and that really there is no such thing as a hypnotic trance.[152][153] The main theorist who pioneered the influential roletaking theory of hypnotism was Theodore Sarbin. They all completed the task in the fMRI under normal conditions and then again under hypnosis.[151] 5.[154] tivity in brain regions that control intention and process conflict. etc. acting. and the individAnother study has demonstrated that a colour hallucina. and shamanic possession. But under hypnosis. however. before hypnosis.[148] This may therefore indicate that highly suggestible hypnotic subjects are simply activating to a greater extent the areas of the brain used in imagination.5. without any changes in the subjects’ perception or experience. called the Stroop task. This has led to the misconception that hypnotic subjects are simply “faking”. who developed the “neodissociation” theory of hypnotism.5 Neodissociation Ernest Hilgard.6 Social role-taking theory Gruzelier and his colleagues studied brain activity using an fMRI while subjects completed a standard cognitive exercise. the brain regions associated with motion detection are activated both when motion is seen and when motion is imagined. without real perceptual changes. both groups were consistent in their task results. in which the subject not only acts externally in accord with the role but also subjectively identifies with it to some degree. Hilgard then asked the subjects to lift their index finger if they felt pain and 70% of the subjects lifted their index finger. Hilgard made subjects take an ice water bath. It is.[149] 13 5. In our evaluation of the literature. One part responds to the hypnotist while the other retains awareness of reality. During their first task session. and feeling “as if” they are hypnotised. A socially constructed relationship is built depending on how much rapport has been established between the “hypnotist” and the subject . Hence. reflexive behaviour. They said nothing about the water being cold or feeling pain. relaxation. Daniel Araoz subsequently coined the acronym “TEAM” to symbolise the subject’s orientation to hypnosis in terms of “trust”. Barber argued that responses to hypnotic suggestions were mediated by a “positive cognitive set” consisting of positive expectations. Increasing the signal-to-noise ra• tio enables messages to be more clearly received. “attitude”. noted that similar factors appeared to mediate the response both to hypnotism and to cognitivebehavioural therapy (CBT).[155] • Alfred Binet 5. and placebo effect).14 6 SEE ALSO (see Hawthorne effect. In particular. expectation. Spanos and Chaves (1974) proposed a nonstate “cognitive-behavioural” theory of hypnosis. which may converge towards a steady state. and motivation.7 Cognitive-behavioural theory Barber.8 Information theory • Ivan Pavlov • An approach loosely based on Information theory uses a brain-as-computer model. and “motivation”.2 (suggestions). In adaptive systems. but also their interaction. feedback • increases the signal-to-noise ratio. may be regarded as an extension of Braid’s original conceptualization of hypnosis as involving “the brain and nervous system generally”. Pygmalion effect. On this model. 6 See also Psychologists such as Robert Baker and Graham Wagstaff 6. a complex hybrid of social compliance.[156] • 5. similar in some respects to Sarbin’s social role-taking theory and building upon the earlier research of Barber. attitudes. in particular systematic desensitization.9 Systems theory Morton Prince Marquis de Puységur Otto Georg Wetterstrand Modern researchers Theodore X. relaxation. social compliance.[28] Barber et al. and suggestibility that can account for • Hippolyte Bernheim many esoteric behavioural manifestations. research and clinical practice inspired by their interpretation has led to growing interest in the relationship between hypnotherapy and CBT..[157] • Dave Elman • George Estabrooks • Milton Erickson • Hans Eysenck • Alan Gauld • Jack Stanley Gibson . “expectation”. Hypnotic phenomena thus involve not only increased or decreased activity of particular subsystems.1 Historical figures claim that what we call hypnosis is actually a form of • Vladimir Bekhterev learned social behaviour.[59]:105[100] • James Braid (surgeon) • John Milne Bramwell • Jean-Martin Charcot • Émile Coué • Emile Dantinne • John Elliotson • James Esdaile • George Estabrooks • Abbé Faria • Sigmund Freud • Pierre Janet • Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault • Franz Mesmer • Albert Moll • Julian Ochorowicz 5. in this context. etc. Barber • Deirdre Barrett • Etzel Cardeña Systems theory. The hypnotist’s object is to use techniques to reduce interference and increase the receptability of specific messages 6. A central phenomenon in this regard is that of feedback loops. hypnosis is explained as an extension of ordinary psychological processes like imagination. which suggest a mechanism for creating hypnotic phenomena.[28] Hence.[63](p31) Systems theory considers the nervous system's organization into interacting subsystems. ” Columbia News. Amigó.1080/00029157. 2012. Douglas. Kobayashi K. • List of ineffective cancer treatments • Mind control • Neuro-linguistic programming • NLP flash technique • Recreational hypnosis • Scientology and hypnosis [12] Kirsch. J. J. “Clinical Hypnosis as a Nondeceptive Placebo”. Henry George. Contemporary Hypnosis 22: 39–45.edu. S. Kobayashi (1972). Judith W. 88 • Hypnotherapy in the United Kingdom [11] “hypnosis. (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach. and Their Applications to Human Welfare [15] Braid. [4] Coe W. Theories of hypnosis: current models and perspectives. Guilford Press. Retrieved on 2011-1001.10402209. (1994). 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