THE TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER INVENTORY - TCI INTRODUCTION Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) is a battery of tests designedto assess differences between people in seven basic dimensions of temperament and character. Temperament refers to automatic emotional responses to experience that are moderately heritable and stable throughout life; the four measured temperament dimensions are Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, Reward Dependence and Persistence. In contrast, character refers to self-concepts and individual differences in goals and values, which influence voluntary choices, intentions, and the meaning of what is experienced in life. Differences in character are moderately influenced by socio-cultural learning and mature in progressive steps throughout life. The three measured character dimensions are Self Directedness, Cooperativeness and Self Transcendence. Each of these aspects of personality interacts with one another to motivate adaption to life experiences and influence susceptibility to emotional and behavioural disorders. The unique feature of this tool is that it is suitable for measuring both normal and abnormal behaviour patterns. THEORETICAL BASIS The TCI is based on the biosocial theory of personality. Biosocial Theory is a theory in behavioral and social science that suggests the attribution of disorders of personality and conditions of mind to the reaction of biologically determined personality traits to environmental stimuli. In an effort to integrate information from diverse sources Cloninger (1986) sought to provide a model of personality that was both complete and anchored in specific neuropharmacological mechanisms. He wished to develop a general model to explain the differences between patients with somatisation disorder (Briquet’s syndrome) and generalized anxiety disorder. Earlier, Eysenck in his Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), had described hysterics and others with somatic anxiety as neurotic extraverts and neurotics with cognitive anxiety as neurotic introverts. Cloninger wanted to develop a general model that applied to both normal and abnormal personality like Eysenck’s, but felt that his model was unacceptable. Eysenck’s model was based on the phenotypic (observed) structure of personality. Phenotypic variation is the product of the interaction of both genetic and environmental factors, and Eysenck assumed that the phenotypic and genotypic structures are the same. This is the same as saying that genetic and environmental factors influence behaviour in the same way. Cloninger opposed this view and asserted that genetic and environmental influences do not influence behaviour in the same way. He also felt that 2 dimensions are too few to provide a comprehensive model of personality. Hence, he developed a neurobiologically based operant learning model to guide the rational development of descriptors of temperament (Cloninger, 1987-1991). He hypothesized that the temperament systems in the brain were functionally organized as independently varying systems for the activation, maintenance and inhibition of behaviour in response to specific classes of stimuli. Behavioural activation involved the activation of behaviour in response to novelty and signals of reward or relief of punishment or non-reward, so individual differences in inhabitability were called ‘Harm Avoidance’. Behaviour that was previously rewarded was later maintained for a while without continued reinforcement, and individual differences in such maintenance were called ‘Reward dependence’. The TPQ was developed to test these hypotheses and to evaluate their adequacy as a general model of personality. has been strongly related to the TCI temperament variables. validity indicators have been developed only for the full TCI. However. the 3 character dimensions involve both an intellectual perspective about self/non-self boundaries and an emotional perspective.7 to 14 years and above 15 years of age. but persistence was originally scored as a component of reward dependence. and unconditional equanimity and patience. The version of the TCI appropriate content and reading level for children aged 7-14 was developed in collaboration with child psychiatrists Joan Luby and Kimberli McCallam. TCI also helps in assessment of comorbid psychopathology. Likewise. from this self-concept are derived feelings of community. The 4 character dimensions were added to the TCI. sanguine (reward dependence) and phlegmatic (persistence). harm avoidance. novelty seeking. The name of test was changed when the character scales were added and Persistence was recognized as a fourth. from this self concept are derived feelings of mystical participation. selfesteem. differential diagnosis and treatment planning of psychiatric disorders. compassion. reward dependence and persistence were all measured. informant ratings and interviewers.self report. from this self-concept are derived feelings of personal integrity. . the character scales are designed as targets for psychotherapeutic development. The TCI 125 is a shorter. honour. Differential responses to psychoactive drugs including antidepressants and antianxiety agents. According to Cloninger’s psychobiological theory. character development involves changes in the propositional memory system. However. The child and adolescent version is now being studied in normative and clinical samples. separately inherited temperament dimension.Cloninger’s four factor model can be seen as a modern interpretation of the ancient 4 temperaments: melancholic (harm avoidance). The test measuring the temperament dimensions only was originally called the Tri-dimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ). The correlations between the original scale scores and the TCI temperament scales are very high. In TPQ. Accordingly. choleric (novelty seeking). effectiveness. TCI has broad applications and is used to account for individual differences in both normal and abnormal behaviour patterns. conscience and charity. anger (novelty seeking). Such self-concepts modify the significance or meaning of what is experienced. ALTERNATE VERSIONS: TCI is a family of tests designed for varying types of informants. The characterologic aspects of personality involve individual differences in self-concepts about goals and values. Self-transcendence is based on the concept of self as an integral part of the universe and its source. love (reward dependence) and tenacity (persistence). in contrast to the temperaments that involve differences in autonomic emotional reactions and habits. thereby also changing emotional reactions. 125 item version of the TCI which was derived to provide a convenient screener for personality disorders. now the 4 temperaments are understood to be genetically independent dimensions that occur in all factorial combinations rather than mutually exclusive categories. The 4 temperaments can also be seen to correspond to the 4 basic emotions of fear (harm avoidance). The character scales are designed to distinguish whether the person has any personality disorder and the temperament scales allow the differential diagnosis of categorical subtypes of personality disorders as well as types of normal temperament. cooperativeness is based on the concept of the self as an integral part of humanity or society. It is useful in practical clinical work notable in diagnosis. leadership and hope. whereas temperament involves differences in procedural memory. It can be used on varying age group. Self-directedness is based on the concept of the self as an autonomous individual. religious faith. In contrast. whether it is mature or immature. normative data for all are not available yet. Such balance helps reduce response set problems. The replies to items on individual scales are expected to usually be balanced for true and false responses. German. The self-report questionnaires are paper and pencil tests where the subject answers true or false to a series of questions about their likes and dislikes. The profiles can be scored either by the hand scoring method or by the available computerised program. the style of behaviour. Thus.The TPQ and TCI have been translated into several languages like Czech. Serbian. There is also a revised version TCI-R. Swedish. The S is asked to answer all the questions fairly rapidly. emotional reactions. novelty seeking and reward dependence. Whereas the original TCI had statements that the subject should indicate whether true or false the TCI-R has a five point rating for each statement. interests. . that is. Scoring is simply done by adding one point for each item answered appropriately. attitudes. Persistence facilitates mature character development. Japanese and Norwegian. the items are phrased so that both true and false responses can increment the scales. goals and values. However. CONFIGURAL ANALYSIS OF THE TCI The classification and description of multidimensional profiles is called configural analysis. ADMINISTRATION AND SCORING Using TCI is easy and self-explanatory. and the character dimensions primarily determine whether an individual has a personality disorder. The subtypes of personality disorders can be understood largely in terms of the interaction of 3 temperament dimensions – harm avoidance. can be described primarily in terms of the interaction of the 3 temperaments. It provides a clinically important bridge between dimensional and categorical approaches to describing differences between people. Fig. inhibited serenity seeking passive inactive patient quiet introverted stoic Slow tempered frugal Low novelty seeking In the above figure. harm avoidance and novelty seeking and the expected behaviour patterns from their various combinations are shown. . 1 Interaction of 2 personality dimensions. apprehensive High Harm avoidance Fatiguable. novelty seeking and harm avoidance High novelty seeking Impulsive Exploratory Fickle Danger seeking Aggressive Competitive Overactive Impatient Talkative Extraverted Cofident. energetic Hyperthymic Cheerful Unwavering/stubborn Boastful/overconfident Reflective Rigid Loyal Excitable quick tempered extravagant Hypothymic easily distressed conflicted/wavering uncertain/indecisive Cautious. carefree Low harm avoidance Uninhibited. the interaction between the two temperaments. reward dependence and harm avoidance High reward dependence ambitious industrious persistent heroic persuasive/pushy perseverant gullible sympathetic/warm quick sentimental moody passive avoidance submissive/deferential indirectly manipulative dependently demanding Cofident.Fig. 2 Interaction of 2 personality dimensions. inhibited cunning/devious ineffectual/reserved underachieving alienated/cynical tough minded detached emotionally cool reward dependence In the above figure. . the interaction between the two temperaments. harm avoidance and reward dependence and the expected behaviour patterns from their various combinations are shown. apprehensive High Harm avoidance Fatiguable. carefree Low harm avoidance Uninhibited. energetic Oppositional/defiant Directly confronting Detached indifference imperturbable unambitious self-willed practical Cautious. high novelty seeking and reward dependence High novelty seeking impulsive exploratory fickle libertarian skilfully charming coolly poised unconventional excitable quick tempered extravagant attention-seeking self-indulgent passionate insecurely vain/narcissistic detached Low reward dependence Tough minded Privacy seeking Self-effacing dispassionate modest unimaginative reflective rigid loyal Ambitious High reward dependence sentimental authoritarian scrupulous unaffected/candid warm/direct traditional stoic slow tempered loyal Low novelty seeking In the above figure. the interaction between the two temperaments. reward dependence and novelty seeking and the expected behaviour patterns from their various combinations are shown.Fig. 3 Interaction of 2 personality dimensions. . 1 Clusters of personality traits associated with various combinations of basic stimulus-response characteristics Basic stimulus-response characteristics Personality cluster Novelty seeking Harm avoidance Reward dependence Impulsive vs. extreme combinations (high or low) of pairs of the 3 temperament dimensions of NS. high --high Self-effacing low ---low Passive-avoidant vs. These configurations are called profile types and correspond to the 8 traditional categories of personality disorder as shown in the table. low low ---Hypothymic high high ---Scrupulous vs. TABLE NO. HA and RD produce certain second order traits summarized in the following table – TABLE NO. ---low high Alienated ---high low Furthermore. extreme combinations of all these 3 dimensions produce 8 possible configurations are summarized in the table below.In general. low ---high Opportunistic high ---low Narcissictic vs.2 Personality disorder Antisocial Histrionic Passive-aggressive Explosive Obsessional Schizoid Cyclothymic Passive-dependent TRADITIONAL PERSONALITY CATEGORIES Novelty seeking Harm avoidance Reward dependence High Low Low High Low Low High High High High High Low Low Low High Low Low Low Low Low High Low High High . high low ---Rigid low high ---Hyperthymic vs. ---high high Oppositional ---low low Gullible vs. Adequate data is currently available to classify individuals into temperament types based on novelty seeking. descriptions of the 8 third order profile types in terms of their second order characteristics are shown below – TABLE NO. rather it recognizes the typical interaction patterns arising from particular multidimensional configurations over the course of development and the degree of stability of the multidimensional profiles observed empirically. vs. For interpretation & categorization purposes. The categorical labels primarily help to remind the clinician about expected interaction patterns.3 Personality clusters associated with traditional categories Second order personality clusters impulsive hyperthymic scrupulous narcissistic passivegullible vs. Likewise. . not to replace the full quantitative information about each dimension. harm avoidance and reward dependence. an individual who is extreme (high or low) on the three temperaments in the designated direction should be classified as a case of that temperament. 0-34%). For e. All others are classified as ‘mild’ cases on the basis of their pattern of deviation above or below the median on all the 3 temperaments.g. the breakdown of individuals is extended into 3 groups of equal size in terms of their percentile scores on each dimension: low (lowest 1/3rd. an individual who is high in novelty seeking. avoidant vs.Combining the descriptions in the previous 2 tables. vs. Rigid hypothymic opportunistic self-effacing oppositional alienated impulsive Opportunistic Oppositional impulsive narcissistic Gullible Passivehypothymic Narcissistic avoidant Personality disorder Antisocial Histrionic Passive-aggressive Explosive Obsessional Schizoid Cyclothymic Passive-dependent Rigid hypothymic Rigid Opportunistic Self-effacing Self-effacing alienated alienated Oppositional Gullible Passiveavoidant hyperthymic hyperthymic scrupulous scrupulous This clustering or categorization is not simply an arbitrary process. high (highest 1/3rd. 34-66%).67-100%). individuals who are average (34-66%) on all 3 temperaments are classified as average or ‘flexible’ in type. low in harm avoidance and low in reward dependence is a severe case of the antisocial temperament type. vs. Specifically. in accord with the above table. The utility and biological significance of median splits has been empirically supported in the prediction of antidepressant drug responses in depressives. average (middle 1/3rd. flamboyant and unrestrained. orderly & regimented. no need for novel stimulation resistance or slow to engage in change conventional. Indifferent. sensation seeking. vigorous. energy. Positive thinking. shy. Reserved. fatigable. bold. calm and secure. disorderly. frugal & detached. excitement and adventures intolerant to routine & introduce change LOW SCORERS Relaxed & optimistic. less energy recover slowly from minor illnesses and stress Exploratory & curious.4 describes the different temperament and character types – SCALES HIGH SCORERS Worrying & pessimistic. Seek thrills . Fear of uncertainty (HV2) Shyness with strangers (HA3) Confident. Not easily Attention span is < distracted. energy and . TEMPERAMENT HARM AVOIDANCE Anticipatory worry and pessimism VS Uninhibited optimism (HA1). Gallant. Prefer to take risks. reflective. Lack confidence asthenic. impulsive.DESCRIPTION OF TEMPERAMENT & CHARACTER TYPES Table No. Don’t waste their money. analytical and require detailed Excitable. anticipate harm and failure. controlled or restrained. extravagant & enthusiastic. bold & confident. rarely bored from routine Fatigability VS vigor NOVELTY SEEKING Exploratory excitable VS Stoic rigidity Impulsiveness VS reflection (NS2) Extravagance VS reserve (NS3) Reflective. make decisions decisions. And feelings. forward and outgoing Highly energetic and dynamic recover quickly from minor illnesses and stress. Pessimistic worriers. Get over quickly when humiliated and embarrassed. quite and inactive Unassertive and shy. Enjoy exploring. dramatic. information when making impressionistic. Extravagant with their money. optimists. difficulty in adapting to changes in routine. Adapt to changes. Rarely break quickly poor impulse control. Difficulty in getting over humiliating and embarrassing situations Cannot tolerate uncertainty. rules. fearful & doubtful. outgoing. Disinterest in social relationships. feelings. purposeless. Blame other people and external circumstances. blaming & unreliable. Show their emotions easily. coolly detached rarely moved by sentimental appeals. Independent. quitting & pragmatist Immature & fragile. habits congruent with long term goals. Not to accept responsibility for their Sentimentality (RD1) Attachment VS detachment (RD3) Dependence VS independence (RD4) Dependent on emotional support. They form warm and lasting social relationships sensitive to rejection and slights. detached. and distant Neither depends on nor actively seeks emotional support from others. dependent. Self contained. independent. Discuss their experiences and feelings openly. Prefer privacy. Alienated. habits incongruent with long term goals. understanding individuals. Disorderliness VS regimentation (NS4) REWARD DEPENDENCE Practical & cold. hard working. Sentimental & warm. ambitious & overachiever. modest & underachiever. Sentimental. Frugal and stingy Organized. Express anger outwardly. responsible & reliable. purposeful. Easily hurt by criticism. dedicated withdrawn & detached. orderly. Don’t like fixed rules and regulations and routines. perseverant & perfectionist Mature & strong. Experience vicarious emotions easily. self striving. methodical and systematic. Prefer intimacy over privacy. & attached. Slow to lose their temper. resourceful & effective. Industrious & diligent. practical. Tough minded. gives up easily. inert & ineffective. Accept responsibility for their attitudes PERSISTANCE CHARACTER SELFDIRECTEDNESS Responsibility VS Blaming(SD1) . Prefer strict rules. Seek support please others. self sufficient. Reluctant to make decisions.Prefer to spend money than to save it. Quick tempered and disorderly. Unresponsive to social pressure inactive & indolent. self accepted. sympathetic. Recognize their attitudes. behaviors & problems reflect their own choices. Goal congruent. proactive. Rarely lack ideas. Imagine in other people's shoes. Empathy VS Social disinterest (C2) Helpfulness Vs Unhelpfulness (C3) Compassion VS revengefulness (C4) . Unable to delay gratification. unhelpful. purpose. Hurting others physically. unwilling to respect the goals and values of others. Act in accord with their long term goals. work as part of a team Compassionate. Sense of meaning and direction in their lives. either overt or disguised. emotionally and Socially tolerant. Self acceptance VS self striving (SD4) Congruent second nature VS Bad habits (SD5) Self defeating and weak willed. and meaning in their lives. Self centered. good habits. Uncertain about long term goals. Accept other people. revengeful & destructive. Social acceptance VS Social intolerance (C1) Tolerant and friendly. egotistic or selfish. opportunistic. Feel Safe and self trusting in many tempting situations. Intolerant and unfriendly. Very comfortable with their actual mental and physical features. Self striving. Productive. Insensitive. don't seem very concerned about other's feelings. critical. hopeless and ineffective. empathetic. Accept their strengths and limitations. neither accept not enjoy their actual mental and physical features. Resourceful and effective. forgiving. encouraging or reassuring. Activities guided by long term goals. Socially intolerant. competent and innovative individuals. charitable and benevolent. Unreliable and irresponsible. actions. helpful. Helpless. highly attuned to and considerate of other people's feelings. Self confident. Incompetent when faced with obstacles. Prefer to work alone Revengeful. Self discipline. they don't enjoy revenge. Low self esteem. impatient with critical of other people.and behavior. Purposefulness VS lack of goal direction (SD2) Goal oriented or purposeful. Struggle to find direction. compassionate & constructive. Reliable and trustworthy. supportive. Resourcefulness VS inertia (SD3). helpful. ethical & COOPERATIVENESS principled. Extraordinary strong connection to nature. they are fuzzythinking idealists. impatient. In TCI. and other spiritual phenomena. poverty or injustice. creative and original. magical thinking. genuinely scrupulous and sincere persons. Unwilling to accept unscientifically explained things.e. absent minded. Rarity scale: . Transpersonal identification (ST2) Spiritual acceptance VS rational materialism (ST3) VALIDITY INDICATORS: DESCRIPTION OF VALIDITY SCALES. incorporated stable ethical principles. has T score of 70 or more or 30 or less which correspond to the extreme 5th percentile). Wise & patient. manipulative or deceitful. the scale of unlike items. the number true. united with universe. If incongruence is between the profile of the validity scales and the self description of personality on the content scales suggests invalidity. rather than something of which they are an integral part. There are predictable relationships between the performances styles of test taking that correspond to the reported personality of the respondent. Endorsement of many such infrequent items across the entire range of personality . The validity indicators of TCI are Rarity scale. Believe in miracles. individuals who are described as submissive on the TCI content dimensions are predictably more likely to be acquiescent (i. the scale of like items.. Extreme scores on any of the validity scales should raise caution in the process of interpretation of the self report description of the respondent (that is. self serving. unfairly. unimaginative. View nature as an external object to be manipulated instrumentally. extrasensory perception. there are several scales which can be used to judge the validity of the set of responses. transcend their self boundaries. seem in another world i.it includes the least frequently endorsed item response from each of the 25 subscales. Integrated conscience VS Self serving advantage (C5) SELF TRANSCENDENCE Creative self forgetfulness VS self consciousness (STI) Honest. creative & self forgetful. pride & lack of humility tendency to be aware of their surroundings. TCI validity scales provide a profile of the performance style of the test taker. And a single item inquiring directly about honesty. unimaginative & self conscious. For example. Opportunistic. Accept only materialism and objective empiricism. 1.financially. biased. to answer true when in doubt ) in test taking where are those who are oppositional are more likely to answer false when in doubt.e. rarely deeply moved by art or beauty. the Runs scale. are absorbed. Trying to prevent war. Normative data has been obtained on these validity indicators in order to allow objective statements about the probability that a particular response pattern has occurred by chance. It is best to consider the scores on both of these scales. 5. T scores and percentile scores. 2. it is easier to decide that a test is invalid due to random or very inconsistent responses than to overly consistent answering. The scale of unlike items has 21 pairs of items usually answered in opposition. A very high score might indicate that the respondent is consciously trying to portray himself in a certain manner and is being overly careful to answer all questions in the same direction In order to manipulate the test outcome. of runs = 120 3. as well as for each of the lower order temperament and character traits.AVERAGE . The high no.These two scales provide a measure of the extent to which the respondent is consistent in his responses. For interpretation.VERY LOW 17-33% . 1993). USE IN CLINICAL ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT PLANNING Interpretation of the TCI scores for both clinical subjects and normal individuals is based on the scores obtained in a community sample of 300 normal adult individuals (Cloninger et al. These scores are provided for each of the higher order temperament and character dimensions. individuals can be divided into 6 equal groups using the following cut off points for the percentile scores: Percentile scores: 0-16. Average no.dimensions is expected to indicate a deliberate effort to depict oneself in a highly unlikely way or careless disregard for the content of item being endorsed. respondent is given the opportunity to acknowledge or deny honesty in responding to the items. both true of both false).7% . Thus low score indicates inconsistency in answering. If the answer is yes. In addition to above 5 scales. The scale of like items consists of 29 pairs of questions which are usually answered in the same way (that is. Item 230 in the TCI is “I have lied a lot on this test”. Clearly. Scales of like items and scales of unlike items:. of runs may indicate a uniform response pattern. Each score sheet for the TCI higher and lower order temperament and character traits provides raw scores. Again responding without regard to content. 4. of runs out of possible 240 may indicate deliberate alternation responses without regard to content. Runs: . Number of true endorsements (Numtrue):. one true and one false. Very low no.The runs scale counts the number of sequences of consecutive true or false answers.The no. the test is considered to be invalid. of items endorsed true is useful to indicate an overall tendency to answer yes more or less frequently than usual.LOW 34-66.7% . The observed scores on the self-directedness character dimension were low. notable very high Novelty Seeking. high RD) corresponds to the histrionic type of temperament.. the raters should be well informed about the respondent’s history. which is associated with low risk for immaturity and personality disorders. people who are very low in self-directedness nearly always (>90%) have a personality disorder. It provides a rough estimate of the possible effect of current mood and anxiety on temperament and character traits. whereas about 40-50% of those who are only low have a personality disorder. suggesting that this patient probably has a personality disorder. or borderline personality disorder.VERY HIGH The distinction between low and very low. Next. In addition. they have scores on selfdirectedness and cooperativeness that are about 2 points lower on average at follow up. Individuals who are very low or very high are much more consistent and intense in their emotional responses and characterological attitudes than those with moderate deviations.67-83. suggesting he tends to give up easily when faced with frustration or fatigue. long term behaviour and present medical disorders. or high and very high has been found to be reliable and useful for precision in clinical description. the low average Cooperativeness scores suggest that he has developed some ability to accept and respect other people. i. there is little or no tendency for change in personality as measure on a re-test. which places this patient just above the lower third of the general population on this measure of maturity (58 is the 33rd percentile). high RD (primarily high sentimentality and attachment) are rarely observed in narcissistic. In the general population. However. description and classification of temperament and character scores should be highly individualized. Thus.e. The observed combination of temperament traits (low HA. high NA. The observed temperament type in this case is typical histrionic (ie. Format example of formulation for Global description of personality on the TCI The most distinctive features in this profile are very low HA and very high NS in the context of chronic depression. For instance. The combined score on Self-directedness and cooperativeness is 59. Next. The observed high reward dependence score suggests that this patient tends to be sentimental and warm. dedicated and attached. integrated conscience) were average. suggests that this patient manifests a cluster B personality disorder. Format example of Clinical/diagnostic interpretation of the TCI profile The observed low scores (27 points. Optimally. the overall evaluation. it is useful to have a rough orientation of the current level of the subject’s mood and anxiety states. However. Several indicators suggest that histrionic personality disorder is the most likely diagnosis in this case. and compassionate. In interpreting profiles. antisocial. In contrast. This average pattern is influenced in opposite ways by the onset of new episodes of depression and by the improvement from treatment. The observed temperament profile.g. compassion. Low HA. empathy. the observed scores on the Persistence scale were very low. social acceptance . most of the observed scores on the cooperativeness subscales (e. high NS and high RD). The observed combination of low HA and high NS suggests that a spectrum of second order traits dominates this patient’s behaviour. or 30th percentile) on the self-directedness scale suggest that this patient has some probability of having a PD. For the assessment of the TCI. suggesting a . psychiatric patients. were found to have harm avoidance scores that average 2 points higher when followed up 6 months later.3% . to be empathetic. clinicians should consider the variation in scores to be expected between occasions.HIGH 84-100% . most of whom were mildly depressed when tested initially. These features are more frequently observed with histrionic than with antisocial or borderline individuals. Harm avoidance is predicted to increase susceptibility to depression in addition to anxiety.B and C resp. high novelty seeking or high harm avoidance predicted personality disorder (if present) from cluster A. 3.reasonably well developed social sensibility. APPLICABILITY OF THE TCI 1. HA and RD were correlated with low basal dopaminergic activity. Individuals high in reward dependence are predicted to be sensitive to social loss. ********************************************************************************** . 4. thus it may help us in differential diagnosis of the clusters. The converse is not necessarily true: that is individuals who are high in harm avoidance do not necessarily have an anxiety disorder. In addition. Cloninger suggested that the 3 original temperaments from TPQ. All available studies confirm that individuals with all types of anxiety disorders are high in harm avoidance. Dysthemic individuals are expected to be low in self directedness which is characterized by the feeling of emptiness. 2. Being high in both harm avoidance and novelty seeking produces internal approach avoidance conflicts that make it difficult to be happy and hopeful. high serotonergic activity and low basal noradrenergic activity. Studies have shown that individuals with personality disorder or low self directedness are expected to have frequent comorbid dysthymia and depression. respectively. structural neuroimging and genetics. In addition. low reward dependence. which produces reactive dysphoria with hypercortisolemia. the observed low persistence scores also match traditional clinical concepts of histrionic personality. The presence of any personality disorder was strongly determined by low scores in self directedness and cooperativeness. TCI has been used for investigating the neurobiological foundation of personality together with other research modalities like molecular neuroimaging. NS.