lOMoARcPSDSummary: Book "Organizational Behaviour", chapter 1-15 Organizational Behaviour for IB (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected]) lOMoARcPSD Chapter 1: What is organizational behaviour? 1. Demonstrate the importance of interpersonal skills in the workplace. Soft skills team working, communicating effectively, leadership and cultural awareness. These interpersonal skills are essential for managerial effectiveness: easier to hire and keep qualified people. 2. Describe the manager’s functions, roles and skills Managers get things done through other people. They make decisions, allocate resources and direct the activities of others to attain goals. Managers do their work in an organization, which is a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals. Managers perform four management functions: 1. Planning process that includes defining goals, establishing strategy, and developing plans to coordinate activities. 2. Organizing determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom and where decisions are to be made. 3. Leading function that includes motivating employees, directing others, selecting the most effective communication channels and resolving conflicts. 4. Controlling monitoring activities to ensure that they are being accomplished as planned and correcting any significant deviations. Managers perform 10 different, highly interrelated roles. As shown on p. 5, these can be grouped as: Interpersonal roles a. Figurehead role performing duties that are ceremonial in nature. b. Leadership role training, motivating and disciplining employees. c. Liaison role contacting outsiders who provide the manager with information. Informational roles a. Monitor role collecting information from outside organizations and institutions. b. Disseminator role transmitting information to organizational members. c. Spokesperson role representing the organization to outsiders. Decisional roles a. Entrepreneur role initiating and overseeing new projects that will improve their organization’s performance. b. Disturbance handlers taking corrective action in response to unforeseen problems. c. Resource allocators being responsible for allocating human, physical and monetary resources. d. Negotiator role discussing issues and bargain with other units to gain advantages for their own unit. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected]) lOMoARcPSD Management skills: Technical skills ability to apply specialised knowledge or expertise. Human skills ability to work with, understand and motivate other people, both individually and in groups. Conceptual skills mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations. Managers engage in four managerial activities: 1. Traditional management decision making, planning, and controlling 2. Communication exchanging routine information and processing paperwork 3. Human resource management motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing and training. 4. Networking socialising, politicking and interacting with outsiders. Managers who are successful (defined in terms of the speed of promotion within their organization have a very different emphasis from managers who are effective (defined in terms of the quantity and quality of their performance and the satisfaction and commitment of their employees). 3. Define organizational behaviour. Organizational behaviour a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behaviour within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness 4. Show the value to OB of systematic study. There are certain fundamental consistencies underlying the behaviour of all individuals that can be identified and then modified to reflect individual differences. Behaviour is generally predictable, and the systematic study of behaviour is a means to making reasonably accurate predictions. Systematic study can be time-consuming. Evidence-based management (EBM) basing managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence. Intuition gut feeling not necessarily supported by research, often based on inaccurate information. Core values of science: Accuracy Objectivity Scepticism Open-mindedness Intuition • Gut feelings • Individual observation • Commonsense Systematic study • Looks at relationships • Scientific evidence • Predicts behaviours Use evidence as much as possible to inform your intuition and experience promise of OB. 5. Identify the major behavioural science disciplines that contribute to OB. Psychology science that seeks to measure, explain and sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected]) Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost labour managers must deal with the difficult task of balancing the interests of their organization with their responsibilities to the communities in which they operate. at the same time. Sociology study of people in relation to their social environment or culture. Stimulation innovation and change stimulate employees’ creativity and tolerance for change. Improving customer service management needs to create a customer-responsive culture. Changing European demographics age and gender. Coping with ‘temporariness’ learn to live with flexibility. Improving quality and productivity excess capacity translates into increased competition. you need to understand how their culture. Working with people from different cultures to work effectively with people from different cultures. Managing workforce diversity organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender. Embracing diversity replace melting-pot assumption by one that recognises and values differences. improve their organization’s productivity and the quality of the products and services they offer. Identify the challenges and opportunities managers have in applying OB concepts. and that is forcing managers to reduce costs and. race. Responding to globalisation: Increased foreign assignments manage a workforce that is likely to be very different in needs. geography and religion have shaped them and how to adapt your management style to their differences. See page 11. at the same time.lOMoARcPSD Social psychology area of psychology that blends concepts from psychology and sociology and that focuses on the influence of people on one another. ethnicity. while. Demonstrate why there are few absolutes in OB. Improving people skills explain and predict the behaviour of people at work. spontaneity and unpredictability. aspirations and attitudes. Change has been a major area receiving considerable investigation how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance. Contingency variables situational factors: variables that moderate the relationship between two or more other variables. 6. Implications workforce diversity has implications for management practice they have to shift their philosophy from treating everyone alike to recognising differences and responding to those differences in ways that ensure employee retention and greater productivity. sexual orientation and inclusion of other diverse groups. Anthropology study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. age. 7.com) . Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Coping with anticapitalism backlash management practices need to be modified to reflect the values of the different countries in which an organization operates. not discriminating. Managers need to create an ethically healthy climate for their employees. 8. Positive organizational scholarship how organizations develop human strengths. Managers want to understand the source of workplace deviance in order to avoid a chaotic work environment. Productivity performance measure that includes effectiveness and efficiency. It challenges organizations to think about how to exploit their employees’ strengths rather than dwell on their limitations. Improving ethical behaviour members of organizations are increasingly finding themselves facing ethical dilemmas. where they can do their work productively and confront a minimal degree of ambiguity regarding what constitutes right and wrong. Model abstraction of reality. see page 25. There is little management can do to alter them. Reasonable levels of employee-initiated turnover facilitate organizational flexibility and employee independence. and they can lessen the need for management-initiated layoffs. Turnover voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization. It implies a concern for both effectiveness (achievement of goals) and efficiency (ratio of effective output to the input required to achieve it) Absenteeism failure to report to work. Helping employees balance work-life conflicts Creating a positive work environment to realise a competitive advantage. foster vitality and resilience and unlock potential. The complexity of our model is increased when we acknowledge that people behave differently in groups or alone. Each level is constructed on the previous level. Organization system-level variables OB reaches its highest level of sophistication when we add formal structure to our previous knowledge of individual and group behaviour. Deviant workplace behaviour (antisocial behaviour or workplace incivility) voluntary behaviour that violates significant organizational norms and. but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization. Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) discretionary behaviour that is not part of an employee’s formal job requirements. Group-level variables the behaviour of people in groups is more than the sum total of all the individuals acting in their own way. and the ability to link computers within organizations and between organizations have created a different workplace for many employees. and workplace deviance can also have a considerable financial impact. Independent variables presumed cause of some changes in a dependent variable. represents attitude rather than behaviour. Job satisfaction positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. Organizations benefit when absenteeism is low. threatens the wellbeing of the organization or its members.com) . Dependent variable key factor that you want to explain and that is affected by some other factor. situations in which they are required to define right and wrong conduct. Individual-level variables people enter organizations with certain intact characteristics that will influence their behaviour at work. so managers need to develop new skills. the Internet. in so doing. Compare the three levels of analysis in this book’s OB model.lOMoARcPSD Working in networked organizations computerisation. a simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. perceptual speed. There is no significant difference in job productivity between men and women. verbal comprehension. strength. hair textures and other physical characteristics. It relates to employment outcomes such as personnel selection decision. An individual’s overall abilities are essentially made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical. b. deductive reasoning. reasoning and problem solving. namely the preference for work schedules. inductive reasoning. First. the workforce is aging. Other biographical characteristics: Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. and similar characteristics. Contrast the two types of ability. see page 35. 3. there is an issue that does seem to differ between genders. the issue is not whether people differ in terms of their abilities. performance declines with increasing age. They clearly do. Age the relationship between age and job performance is likely to be an issue of increasing importance during the next decade for two primary reasons. Age – productivity unrelated d. Biographical characteristics personal characteristics that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. along with culture and ethnic origins. Second. spatial visualisation and memory. Ability an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are number aptitude. a. misconceptions and unsupported opinions than whether women perform as well on jobs as men do.com) . Physical abilities capacity to do tasks that demand stamina. Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe how they are relevant to OB.lOMoARcPSD Chapter 2: Foundations of individual behaviour 1. From management’s standpoint. as suggested by the positive correlations among specific intellectual ability dimensions. but it falls among non-professionals during middle age and then rises again in the later years. Race it is in characteristics like skin tones. Age – satisfaction satisfaction tends to continually increase among professionals as they age. c. performance evaluations. General mental ability (GMA) overall factor of intelligence. dexterity. Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB. that people may use to group themselves and others into ‘races’ biological heritage people use to identify themselves. pay and workplace discrimination. Age – turnover the older you get. Intellectual abilities abilities needed to perform mental activities – for thinking. Gender few issues initiate more debates. The issue is knowing how people differ in abilities and using that knowledge to increase the likelihood that an employee will perform their job well. However. Age – absenteeism is partially a function of whether the absence is avoidable or unavoidable. 2. the less likely you are to quit a job. absence and turnover (the rate at which an employer gains and loses employees). What is known is that workers who are the victims of religious discrimination have higher levels of health problems. 3. Define shaping and show how it can be used in OB. Motor reproduction processes after a person has seen a new behaviour by observing the model. but also indirectly by observation. we need to understand how people learn. Seniority – absenteeism negative c.lOMoARcPSD Employment tenure the length of time that a worker has spent with the same employer. Four processes have been found to determine the influence that a model will have on an individual: 1. reading. This process then demonstrates that the individual can perform the modelled activities. \ a. Theories of learning: Classical conditioning type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Is relatively permanent. Learning a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. however. Define learning and outline the principles of the three major theories of learning. the watching must be converted to doing. there has not been a great deal of research into these affects to date. Retention processes a model’s influence depends on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available. Operant conditioning type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behaviour leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Learning involves change. the probability that the behaviour will be repeated declines. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. If we want to explain and predict behaviour. The influence of models is central in the social-learning viewpoint. Seniority – turnover negative d. 2. Behaviours that are positively reinforced are given more attention. 2. 4. 4. 3. 5. Is acquired through experience.com) . The concept was part of Skinner’s broader concept of behaviourism a theory which argues that behaviour follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner. learned better and performed more often. Reinforcement processes individuals are motivated to exhibit the modelled behaviour if positive incentives or rewards are provided. Social-learning theory the view that people can learn through direct experience. Seniority – productivity positive b. If a behaviour fails to be positively reinforced. 1. Seniority – job satisfaction positive Religion is clearly having an effect in the workplace. or just hearing about someone else’s experiences. Attentional processes people learn from a model only when they recognise and pay attention to its critical features. lOMoARcPSD Shaping behaviour systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. There are four ways to shape behaviour: 1. Positive reinforcement following a response with something pleasant (learning) 2. Negative reinforcement following a response by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant (learning) 3. Punishment causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behaviour (unlearning) 4. Extinction eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour (unlearning) See page 46 for schedules of reinforcement, the two major types are: Continuous reinforcement reinforcing a desired behaviour each time it is demonstrated. Intermittent reinforcement reinforcing a desired behaviour often enough to make the behaviour worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated. a. Ratio schedules depend on how many responses the subject makes. Fixed-ratio schedule initiating rewards after a fixed or constant number of responses. Variable-ratio schedule varying the reward relative to the behaviour of the individual (very powerful!). b. Interval schedules depend on how much time has passed since last reinforcement. Fixed-interval schedule rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. The critical value is time, which is held constant. Variable-interval schedule rewards are distributed in time so that reinforcements are unpredictable (very powerful!). OB Mod application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting. The typical OB Mod programme follows a five-step problem-solving model: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Identify critical behaviours Develop baseline data Identify behavioural consequences Develop and implementing an intervention strategy Evaluate performance improvement One problem with behaviourism is that thoughts and feelings immediately follow environmental stimuli, even those explicitly meant to shape behaviour. This is contrary to the assumptions of behaviourism and OB Mod, which assume that people’s innermost thoughts and feelings in response to the environment are irrelevant. 6. Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics and learning. Evidence strongly supports the idea that the structure of intellectual abilities generalise across cultures. The relationships between for example age and performance are not different across cultures. Chapter 3: Attitudes and job satisfaction Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected]) lOMoARcPSD Attitudes evaluative statements or judgements concerning objects, people or events. 1. Contrast the three components of an attitude. Researchers have assumed that attitudes have three components: Cognitive component the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. Affective component the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. Behavioural component an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. 2. Summarise the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Cognitive dissonance any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes. Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance and, hence, the discomfort. The desire to reduce dissonance depends on: the importance of the elements creating it the degree of influence the individual believes he has over the elements the rewards of dissonance The most powerful moderators of the attitude-behaviour relationship are: the importance of the attitude attitudes that individuals consider important tend to show a strong relationship to behaviour. its correspondence to behaviour the more closely the attitude and the behaviour are matched or correspond, the stronger the relationship. its accessibility attitudes we remember easily are more likely to predict our behaviour. whether there exist social pressures discrepancies between attitudes and behaviour are more likely to occur when social pressures to behave in certain ways hold exceptional power. whether a person has direct experience with the attitude the attitude-behaviour relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers to something with which the individual has direct personal experience. 3. Compare and contrast the major job attitudes. Most of the research in OB has looked at three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment. A few other attitudes attraction attention from researchers include perceived organizational support and employee engagement. Job satisfaction a positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. When people speak of employee attitudes, they usually mean job satisfaction. Related to job satisfaction is job involvement the degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it and considers performance important to self-worth. Another loosely related concept is psychological empowerment employees’ belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job and their perceived autonomy in their work. Organizational commitment the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. So, high job Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected]) lOMoARcPSD involvement means identifying with your specific job, while high organization commitment means identifying with your employing organization. There are three separate dimensions: 1. Affective commitment an emotional attachment to an organization and a belief in its values. 2. Continuance commitment the perceived economic value of remaining with an organization compared to leaving it. 3. Normative commitment an obligation to remain with an organization for moral or ethical reasons. The relationship between organizational commitment and job productivity is strongest for new employees, and it is considerably weaker for more experienced employees. As with job involvement, the research evidence demonstrates negative relationships between organizational commitment and both absenteeism and turnover. Perceived organizational support (POS) the degree to which employees believe an organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. Research shows that people perceive their organization as supportive when rewards are deemed fair, when employees have a voice in decisions, and when their supervisors are seen as supportive. Employees with strong POS perceptions are more likely to have higher levels of organizational citizenship behaviours and job performance. Employee engagement an individual’s involvement and satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for, the work he or she does. Highly engaged employees have a passion for their work and feel a deep connection to their company, disengaged employees do not. 4. Define job satisfaction and show how it can be measured. The two most widely used approaches to measure job satisfaction are: Global rating a response to the question ‘All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job?’ Respondents circle a number between 1 and 5. It is not time-consuming. Summation score made up of a number of job facets identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employee’s feelings about each. Typical elements here are the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion opportunities and relations with co-workers. Respondents rate the on a standardised scale, and researchers add the ratings to create an overall job satisfaction score. It helps managers to zero in on where the problem exists. The concept of job satisfaction is inherently so broad that the single question captures its essence. 5. Summarise the main causes of job satisfaction. Of the major job-satisfaction facets, enjoying the work is almost always the one most strongly correlated with high levels of overall job satisfaction. Interesting jobs that provide training, variety, independence and control satisfy most employees. Jobs involving solving unforeseen problems, performing complex tasks and learning new things have been associated with higher levels of work satisfaction. In other words, most people prefer work that is challenging and stimulating over work that is predictable and routine. Education, job security, job autonomy, work/life balance and employee participation are all strongly correlated with increased job satisfaction. Good benefits do appear to satisfy employees, but high pay levels much less so. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected]) One theoretical model.com) . such as labour-market conditions. Moreover. but the correlation is stronger than what we found for absenteeism. Evidence suggests that job satisfaction is moderately correlated with OCBs. and go beyond the normal expectations in their job. satisfied employees might be more prone to go beyond the call of duty because they want to reciprocate their positive experiences. extravert. The relationship also seems to apply in reverse: dissatisfied customers can increase an employee’s job dissatisfaction. People who are emotional stable. Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction. Evidence indicates that an important moderator of the satisfaction-turnover relationship is the employee’s level of performance. Other factors. are important constraints on an employee’s decision to leave their current job. Job satisfaction and OCB it seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an employee’s organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB). Job satisfaction and job performance happy workers are more likely to be productive. namely the exit-voice-loyalty-neglect framework. is helpful in understanding the consequences in dissatisfaction. personality also plays a role. Satisfied employees would seem more likely to talk positively about the organization. and have positive core self-evaluations are more satisfied with their jobs than those with negative core self-evaluations. Job satisfaction and customer satisfaction satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. Job satisfaction and absenteeism there is a consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism. competence and worth as a person. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Job satisfaction and turnover satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover. help others. such that people who are more satisfied with their jobs are more likely to engage in OCBs. Core self-evaluations bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities. expectations about alternative job opportunities and length of tenure with the organization.lOMoARcPSD Job satisfaction is not just about job conditions. but the correlation is moderate to weak. 6. a perfectly good candidate could have just been in a bad mood when the survey was taken. and result from. stealing at work. If employers want to control the undesirable consequences of job dissatisfaction. Heredity factors determined at conception. the dissatisfaction. they will respond somehow. The key is that if employees don’t like their work environment. that is. By far the most common means of measuring personality is through self-report surveys. rather than try to control the different responses. Despite the overwhelming evidence of the impact of job satisfaction on the bottom line. describe how it is measured and explain the factors that determine an individual’s personality. Observer-ratings surveys provide an independent assessment of personality. but that doesn’t mean there are no cultural differences in job satisfaction. one’s biological. undue socialising and tardiness. Another problem is accuracy. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. they should attack the source of the problem. the person could fake answers on the test to create a good impression. research in personality development has tended to better support the importance of heredity over the environment. most managers are either unconcerned about or overestimate worker satisfaction. 1. 7. with which individuals evaluate themselves by rating themselves on a series of factors such as ‘I worry a lot about the future. a co-worker or another observer does the rating. Define personality. Instead of self-reporting. Personality traits enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour. Personality appears to be a result of both hereditary and environmental factors. Researchers argue that these behaviours are indicators of a broader syndrome that we would term deviant behaviour in the workplace (or employee withdrawal). There are two approaches that have become the dominant frameworks for identifying and classifying traits. the more important that trait is in describing the individual. Evidence suggests that employees in Western cultures have higher levels of job satisfaction than those in Eastern cultures. so if we want to better understand the behaviour of someone in an organization.lOMoARcPSD Job satisfaction and workplace deviance job dissatisfaction predicts a lot of specific behaviours including substance abuse. research suggests that observer-ratings surveys are a better predictor of success on the job. Chapter 4: Personality and values Our personalities shape our behaviours. Personality the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.com) . The ore consistent the characteristic and the ore frequently a trait occurs in diverse situations. However. Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions. Show whether job satisfaction is an important concept globally. In other words. Even though the results of self-report surveys and observer-rating surveys are strongly correlated. physiological and inherent psychological makeup.’ One weakness of these measures is that the respondent might lie or practice impression management. namely the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Big Five Model. it helps if we know something about their personality. It appears that similar factors cause. job satisfaction across cultures. A highly conscientious person is responsible. hardworking. The terms are defined as follows: Extraverted (E) versus introverted (I) extraverted individuals are outgoing. Those at the other end of the openness category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm. reliable. persistent. organized. The higher levels of job knowledge then contribute to higher levels of job performance. Judging (J) versus perceiving (P) judging types want control and prefer their world to be ordered and structured. Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous. Extraverts tend to gregarious. Employees who score higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job knowledge. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types. disagreeable and antagonistic. They focus on details. The MBTI can be a valuable tool for increasing self-awareness and providing career guidance. Thinking (T) versus feeling (F) thinking types use reason and logic to handle problems. The preponderance of evidence shows that individuals who are dependable. dependable and persistent. managers probably shouldn’t use it as a selection test for job candidates. and achievement-oriented tend to have higher job performance in most if not all occupations. Big Five Model a personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions. Introverts are quiet and shy. timid and quiet. Highly agreeable people are cooperative. Intuitives rely on unconscious processes and look at the big picture.lOMoARcPSD 2. curious and artistically sensitive. Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted. Demonstrate how the Big Five traits predict behaviour at work. Identify the key traits in the Big Five personality model. Agreeableness a personality dimension that refers to an individual’s propensity to defer to others. But because results tend to be unrelated to job performance.com) . 4. Extremely open people are creative. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous. warm and trusting. Feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions. assertive and sociable. Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and assess its strengths and weaknesses. It is a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. Extraversion a personality dimension that captures one’s comfort level with relationships. 3. organized. Conscientiousness a personality dimension that measures reliability. disorganized and unreliable. self-confident and secure. thorough. Introverts tend to be reserved. and assertive. careful. These classifications together describe 16 personality types. depressed and insecure. anxious. probably because highly conscientious people exert greater levels of effort on their jobs. Although conscientiousness is the Big Five trait most consistently related to job Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. People who score low on agreeableness are cold. sociable. Emotional stability a personality dimension taps a person’s ability to withstand stress. able to plan. Openness to experience a personality dimension that addresses one’s range of interests and fascination with novelty. Sensing (S) versus intuitive (N) sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order. This may occur because agreeable individuals are poorer negotiators. Agreeable individuals are less likely to engage in organizational deviance. take charge sorts of people. Conscientious people are generally performance-oriented They have more trouble than less conscientious people learning complex skills early in the training process because their focus is on performance rather than on learning. more specific. Extraversion is a relatively strong predictor of leadership emergence in groups. One downside of extraversion is that extraverts are more impulsive than introverts. whether the person sees himself or herself as capable and effective. One upside of low emotional stability. they are more likely to be absent from work and engage in risky behaviour. but only slightly. job satisfaction and low stress levels. don’t adapt as well to changing contexts. open people are more likely to be effective leaders. Still there are downsides to conscientiousness. they are so concerned with pleasing others that they often don’t negotiate as much for themselves as do others. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. You might expect agreeable people to be happier than disagreeable people. especially artistically. As a result. Identify other personality traits relevant to OB. are more committed to their goals and persist longer at attempting to reach these goals. It appears that conscientious people. Also. open individuals are more comfortable with ambiguity and change than are those who score lower on this trait. Of the Big Five traits. Conscientious people live longer than less conscientious people. perhaps because they have more social skills. extraverts tend to be happier in their jobs and in their lives as a whole. they don’t exhaust the range of traits we can use to describe someone’s personality. Individuals who score high on openness to experience are more creative in science and in art than those who score low. probably because they’re so organized and structured. open people cope better with organizational change and are more adaptable in changing contexts.com) . One downside of agreeableness is that it is associated with lower levels of career success (especially earnings). is that when in a bad mood. Finally. Although the Big Five traits have proven to be highly relevant to OB. such people make faster and better decisions than emotionally stable people in bad moods. and they generally are more assertive than introverts. and whether the person feels in control of his or her environment or powerless over the environment. Now we’ll look at other.lOMoARcPSD performance. We discussed in chapter 3 that core self-evaluations relate to job satisfaction because people with positive core self-evaluations see more challenge in their job and actually attain more complex jobs. because they tend to take better care of themselves and engage in fewer risky behaviour. They also perform better than others because they set more ambitious goals. the other traits are related to aspects of performance in some situations. emotional stability is most strongly related to life satisfaction. personality attributes that have been found to be powerful predictors of behaviour in organizations: Core self-evaluation the degree to which an individual likes or dislikes himself or herself. They tend to perform better in jobs that require significant interpersonal interaction. extraverts are more socially dominant. All five traits have other implications for work and for life: People who score high on emotional stability are happier than those who score low. conscientious people are often less creative than less conscientious people. Because creativity is important to leadership. Compared to introverts. 5. and they are. High self-monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public persona and their private self. situational factors. High risk-taking managers make more rapid decisions and use less information in making their choices than did the low risk-taking managers.’ is consistent with a high-Mach perspective. cannot cope with leisure time 5. It has been found that high Machs flourish: when they interact face-to-face with others rather than indirectly when the situation has a minimal number of rules and regulation.lOMoARcPSD Machiavellianism the degree to which an individual is pragmatic. incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time and. are always moving. ‘If it works. whether high Machs make good employees depends on the type of jobs. Evidence indicates that high self-monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behaviour of others and are more capable of confirming than are low self-monitors. thus allowing latitude for improvisation when emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts low Machs. This propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require before making a choice. They also receive better performance ratings. Narcissists are rated by their bosses as less effective at their jobs than others.com) . win more. and show less commitment to their organizations. Thus. have a grandiose sense of self-importance. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability in adjusting their behaviour to external situations. Risk taking people differ in their willingness to take chances. Type A’s: 1. strive to think or do two or more things at once 4. In addition. Type B’s are rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate in an endless growing series of events in an ever-decreasing amount of time. are more likely to emerge as leaders. feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place 3. high self-monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers. Type A personality aggressive involvement in a chronic. require excessive admiration and have a sense of entitlement. measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire. use it. maintains emotional distance and believes that ends can justify means. if necessary. decision accuracy was the same for both groups. against the opposing efforts of other things or other people. and are more likely to occupy central positions in an organization. Narcissism the tendency to be arrogant. High Machs manipulate more. They never suffer from a sense of time urgency with is accompanying impatience. are persuaded less and persuade others more than do low Machs. receive more promotions (both internal and cross-organizational). Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. who is exactly opposite. Interestingly. walking and eating rapidly 2. In contrast to the Type A personality is the Type B. are obsessed with numbers. can relax without guilt and so on. particularly when it comes to helping others. Self-monitoring a personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external. Yet high-Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors. aggressiveness and success motivation. they’re not the same. pleasure. obedience and equality. proactives have many desirable behaviours that organizations cover. honesty. The content attribute says that a mode of conduct or an end-state of existence is important. Not surprisingly. Instrumental values preferable modes of behaviour or means of achieving one’s terminal values. Evidence indicates that proactives are more likely than others to be seen as leaders and more likely to act as change agents within an organization. show initiative. The intensity attribute specifies how important it is. Define values. Terminal values desirable end-states of existence. Contemporary work values whilst it must be recognised that there will be significant variations within groups. It presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the propensity to Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. good or desirable. Values cloud objectivity and rationality. take action and persevere until meaningful change occurs. self-respect. depending on the organization and the situation. Although personality and values are related. Identify the dominant values in today’s workforce. This system is identified by the relative importance we assign to values such as freedom. the goals a person would like to achieve during their lifetime. it is useful to recognise that groups tend to reflect similar values and this can be a valuable aid in explaining and predicting behaviour. Value system a hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity. Values generally influence attitudes and behaviour. and we don’t always act in ways that are consistent with our values. Other actions of proactives can be positive or negative. They contain a judgemental element in that they carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right. 6.lOMoARcPSD Type A’s do better than Type B’s in job interviews. demonstrate the importance of values and contrast terminal and instrumental values. Values are important to the study or OB because they lay the foundation for our understanding of people’s attitudes and motivation and because they influence our perceptions. Linking individual’s personality and values to the workplace: Personality-job fit theory a theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. competence. Some beliefs or values don’t say much about a person’s personality. 7.com) . Proactive personality people who identify opportunities. Values are often specific and describe belief systems rather than behavioural tendencies. because they are more likely to be judged as having desirable traits such as high drive. Values have both content and intensity attributes. Values basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. There are different types of jobs. thrift and persistence. 3. The five personality factors identified the Big Five model appear in almost all cross-cultural studies.000 IBM employees in 40 countries about their work-related values and found that managers and employees vary on five value dimensions of national culture: Power distance a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. where women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society. Individualism a national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups. commitment to the organization. Personality-organization fit if an organization faces a dynamic and changing environment and requires employees who are able to readily change tasks and move easily between teams. Identify Hofstede’s fine value dimensions of national culture. Differenes tend to be in the emphasis on dimensions and whether countries are predominantly individualistic or collectivistic.lOMoARcPSD leave a position depend on the degree to which individuals successfully match their personalities to a job. Because values differ across cultures. and they leave organizations that are not compatible with their personalities. an understanding of these differences should be helpful in explaining and predicting behaviour of employees from different countries. The fit of employees’ values with the culture of their organization predicts job satisfaction. He surveyed more than 116. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. On one of the most widely referenced approaches for analysing variations among cultures was done by Hofstede. People are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values. The key points of this model are: 1. Masculinity a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favours traditional masculine work roles of achievement. Long-term orientation a national culture attribute that emphasises the future. Uncertainty avoidance a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them. People in jobs congruent with their personality should be more satisfied and less likely to voluntarily resign than people in incongruent jobs. There do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality among individuals. it is more important that employees’ personalities fit with the overall organization’s culture than with the characteristics of any specific job. and low turnover. 8. Femininity a national culture attribute that has little differentiation between male and female roles.com) . Collectivism a national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them. Societal values are characterised by assertiveness and materialism. 2. power and control. not on reality itself. 2. Attribution theory an attempt to determine whether an individual’s behaviour is internally or externally caused. These techniques are frequently valuable: they allow us to make accurate perceptions rapidly and provide valid data for making predictions. 3. Internally caused behaviours are those we believe to be under the personal control of the individual. Selective perception the tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis of one’s interest. We use a number of shortcuts when we judge others. Fundamental attribution error the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgements about the behaviour of others. They can do get us into trouble. We blame people first. External caused behaviour is what we imagine the situation forced the individual to do. 2. People’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is. Identify the shortcuts individuals use in making judgements about others. such as humane orientation and performance orientation. The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important. It allows us to speed-read others. 3. we can draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation. not the situation. experience and attitudes. Hofstede has been one of the most widely cited social scientists ever. It is our success but their failure. Define perception and explain the factors that influence it.lOMoARcPSD Short-term orientation a national culture attribute that emphasises the past and present respect for tradition and fulfilment of social obligations. Despite a few concerns. Self-serving bias the tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors. The main difference with Hofstede is that it added dimensions. Consistency does the person respond the same way over time? Errors or biases distort attributions. Halo effect the tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic. Chapter 5: Perception and individual decision making 1. Perception a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviours in different situations. However. Explain attribution theory and list the three determinants of attribution. and his framework has left a lasting mark on OB. background.com) . the target or the situation in which the perception is made see page 111. The GLOBE team identified nine dimensions on which national cultures differ. A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. they are not foolproof. Consensus if everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way. That determination depends largely on three factors: 1. Because we see what we want to see. but not without the risk of drawing an inaccurate picture. These factors can reside in the perceiver. But how individuals in organizations make decisions and the quality of their final choices are largely influenced by their perceptions. though often necessary. Decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem a discrepancy between the current state of affair and some desired state.com) . Select the best alternative The rational decision-making model relies on a number of assumptions Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. In many cases. This characteristic is particularly relevant when we consider performance expectations on the job. Identify the decision criteria 3. Individuals in organizations make decisions they make choices from among two or more alternatives. Individual decision making is an important part of organizational behaviour. scrutiny or investigation. and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception. 1. Allocate weights to the criteria 4. 5. Explain the link between perception and decision making. Business schools generally train students to follow rational decision-making models. The terms self-fulfilling prophecy and Pygmalion effect have evolved to characterise the fact that an individual’s behaviour is determined by other people’s expectations. our judgements have important consequences for the organization: Employment interview evidence indicates that interviewers make perceptual judgements that are often inaccurate. 4.lOMoARcPSD Contrast effects evaluation of a person’s characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics. We often think the best decision maker is rational characterised by making consistent. Performance evaluation subjective evaluations of performance. are problematic because of all the errors we’ve discussed thus far affect them. The awareness that a problem exists and whether a decision needs to be made is a perceptual issue. One specific manifestation of stereotypes is profiling a form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled out – typically on the basis of race or ethnicity – for intensive inquiry. even when those perceptions are faulty. These decisions follow a six-step rational decisionmaking model a decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome. valuemaximising choices with specified constraints. Define the problem 2. If we are to improve how we make decisions in organizations. Develop the alternatives 5. They generally draw early impressions that very quickly become entrenched. Self-fulfilling prophecy a situation in which a person inaccurately perceives a second person. Stereotyping judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs. despite the fact that they may not contain a shred of truth when applied to a particular person or situation. Apply the rational model of decision making and contrast it with bounded rationality and intuition. we need to understand the decision-making errors that people commit. Evaluate the alternatives 6. One of the problems of stereotyping is that they are widespread and often useful generalisations. Performance expectations people attempt to validate their perceptions of reality. We selectively gather it. the first acceptable one we encounter. Bouded rationality a process of making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity. that is. Because it is so unquantifiable. There is growing recognition that rational analysis has been overemphasised and that. But while intuition can be invaluable in making good decisions. we can’t rely on it too much.com) . These come from attempts to shortcut the decision process. these shortcuts are helpful. The limited information-processing capability of human beings makes it impossible to assimilate and understand all the information necessary to optimise. Decision makers engage in bounded rationality. from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information. So people satisfice. it is fast. Self enhancement Self-serving attributions Confirmation bias the tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgements. There are three meta biases that result in decision biases: Availability shortcut Availability bias the tendency for people to base their judgements on information that is readily available to them. relying on intuition can improve decision making. rather than an optimal one. and it is affectively charged. Anchoring bias a tendency to fixate on initial information. The key is not to either abandon or rely solely on intuition but to supplement it with evidence and good judgement. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. gut feelings and convenient rules of thumb.lOMoARcPSD Well-defined problem Clear criteria and criteria rating Complete (or at least reliable) information Stable preferences ability to identify all the relevant options in an unbiased manner. people tend to rely too heavily on experience. The rational decision-making process assumes that we objectively gather information. Intuitive decision making an unconscious process created out of distilled experience. meaning that it usually engages the emotions. To minimise effort and avoid difficult trade-offs. 6. they seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient. List and explain the common decision biases or errors. Its defining qualities are that it occurs outside conscious thought: it relies on holistic associations. leads to over or underestimation. it is hard to know when our hunches are right or wrong. So the solution represents a satisficing choice. but an accumulating body of research tells us that decision makers also allow systematic biases and errors to creep into their judgements. In many instances. they can lead to severe distortions of rationality. or links between disparate pieces of information. but we don’t. in certain instances. However. impulses. Formal regulations intended to get individuals to act in the intended manner. that one would have accurately predicted that outcome. Overconfidence bias Victim blaming holding the victims of a crime. Organizations can constrain decision makers. it means overthinking problems. Performance evaluation managers are strongly influenced in their decision making by the criteria on which they are evaluated.com) . are more likely than men to engage in rumination. Finally. have opposite effects on escalation of commitment. The more bidders there are. Explain how individual differences and organizational constraints affect decision making. So. making it nearly impossible for them to change routines or objectively process new information. At the extreme. the more likely that some of them have greatly overestimated the good’s value. Hindsight bias the tendency to believe falsely. Randomness error the tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events. the evidence indicates that women analyse decisions more than men do. In so doing. characteristics and behaviours. some decision makers become controlled by their superstitions. Egocentric accounting occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would credit them. Reward systems influences decision makers by suggesting to them what choices are preferable in terms of personal payoff. an accident or any type of abuse maltreatment to be entirely or partially responsible for the unfortunate incident. Individual differences create deviations from the rational model. namely achievement striving and dutifulness. achievement striving individuals appear to be more susceptible to the hindsight bias. Gender overall. Better-than-average-effect the tendency for people to evaluate themselves as better than average on desirable skills. Low self-esteem (accurate self-assessment) are generally accurate in assessing their competencies relative to others. they limit the decision maker’s choice. whereas dutiful people are less likely. Women. people with high self-esteem appear to be especially susceptible to the self-serving bias. First. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Rumination refers to deflecting at length. Illusion of control Illusory correlations seeing the relationship one expects in a set of data even when no such relationship exists. Personality two facets of conscientiousness.lOMoARcPSD Escalation of commitment an increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information. Logic predicts that the winner’s curse gets stronger as the number of bidders increases. creating deviations from the rational model. 7. achievement striving people are more likely to escalate their commitment. after an outcome of an event is actually known. in general. In terms of decision making. Second. beware of auctions with an unexpectedly large number of bidders. Winner’s curse a decision-making dictum which argues that the winning participants in an auction typically pay too much for the winning item. 8. 3. Utilitarianism a system in which decisions are made to provide the greatest good for the greatest number. proficiencies. 2. Rights this calls on individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges. It allows the decision maker to more fully appraise and understand the problem. self-confidence. Historical precedents choices made today are largely a result of choices made over the years. Other traits associated with creative people include independence. Creativity the ability to produce novel and useful ideas. but it can encourage a sense of entitlement that reduces risk taking. a low need for structure and perseverance in the face of frustration. the ability to use analogies. if not impossible. Define creativity and discuss the three-component novel and useful ideas. 9. an internal locus of control. 1. including seeing problems others can’t see. Ethical considerations should be an important criterion in organizational decision making.lOMoARcPSD System-imposed time constraints organizations impose deadlines on decisions. knowledge. but can result in ignoring the rights of some individuals. creative thinking skills and intrinsic task motivation. These conditions create time pressures on decision makers and often make it difficult. but it can create an overly legalistic work environment that hinders productivity and efficiency. It protects the interests of the underrepresented and less powerful. they have to get out of the psychological ruts many of us fall into and learn how to think about a problem in divergent ways. The potential for creativity is enhanced when individuals have abilities. particularly those with minority representation in the organization. to gather all the information they might like to have before making a final choice. and the talent to see the familiar in a different light. Contrast the three ethical decision criteria. Expertise is the foundation for all creative work. It promotes efficiency and productivity. as set forth in documents such as the European Convention on Human Rights. Creative-thinking skills encompasses personality characteristics associated with creativity. Three-component model of creativity the proposition that individual creativity requires expertise. Whistle-blowers are individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders. innovation and productivity. But to unleash that potential. Most people have creative potential they can use when confronted with a decision-making problem. tolerance for ambiguity. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. There are three different ways to frame decisions ethically. People who score high on openness to experience and intelligence are more likely than others to be creative. The use of rights as a criterion protects individuals from injury and is consistent with freedom and privacy. Justice requires individuals to impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially so that there is an equitable distribution of benefits and costs. and similar expertise in their field of endeavour.com) . risk taking. recognition and attention. the next need becomes dominant. Alderfer attempted to rework Maslow’s need hierarchy to align it more closely with empirical research. sex and other bodily needs. Higher-order needs are social.com) . Lower-order needs are physiological and safety needs. Early motivation theories represent a foundation from which contemporary theories have grown. belongingness. a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. Define the three key elements of motivation Motivation the processes that account for an individual’s intensity. satisfying or personally challenging. The differentiation between the two orders was made on the premise that higher-order needs are satisfied internally. From the standpoint of motivation. Safety security and protection from physical and emotional harm. esteem and self-actualisation needs. achieving one’s potential and self-fulfilment. An individual could be focusing on all three need categories simultaneously. as each need is substantially satisfied. The three key elements in our definition are: 1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory a hierarchy of five needs in which. 2. and practising managers still regularly use these theories and their terminology in explaining employee motivation. are lazy. autonomy and achievement. His revised need hierarchy is labelled ERG theory a theory that posits the three groups of core needs: existence. So if you want to motivate someone. dislike responsibility and must be coerced to perform. While general motivation is concerned with effort toward any goal. He didn’t assume that these needs existed in a rigid hierarchy. Self-actualisation drive to become what one is capable of becoming: includes growth. acceptance and friendship. shelter. we’ll narrow the focus to organizational goals in order to reflect our singular interest in work-related behaviour. thirst. exciting. Intensity how hard a person tries. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected] Intrinsic task motivation is the desire to work on something because it’s interesting involving. you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying the needs at or above that level. organizational goals 3. Social affection. 2. Identify four early theories of motivation and evaluate their applicability today. Chapter 6: Motivation concepts 1. direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. and external factors such as status. Direction effort that is channelled toward. whereas lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied externally. McGregor’s Theory X the assumption that employees dislike work. and consistent with. Physiological includes hunger. Persistence how long a person can maintain effort. relatedness and growth. This motivational component is what turns creativity potential into actual creative ideas. the theory would say that although no need is ever fully gratified. Esteem internal factors such as self-respect. Apply the predictions of cognitive evaluation theory to intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.com) . If cognitive evaluation theory is correct. So the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction.lOMoARcPSD McGregor’s Theory Y the assumption that employees like work. feel like they fit into their organizations and may perform better. Cognitive evaluation theory a theory which states that allocating extrinsic rewards for behaviour that has been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation. especially in large organizations. McCelland’s theory of needs a theory which states that achievement. Third. The best managers are high in their need for power and low in their affiliation. Verbal extrinsic rewards increase intrinsic motivation. are creative. supervision and salary – that. There are a number of contemporary theories that have a reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilised. 3. Self-concordance the degree to which a person’s reasons for pursuing a goal is consistent with the person’s interests and core values. and the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction. First. people tend to credit themselves. Need for affiliation (nAff) the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. neither will they be satisfied. The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned. Hygiene factors factors – such as company policy and administration. Herzberg proposed the two-factor theory also called motivation-hygiene theory a theory that relates to intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates with extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. to achieve in relationship to a set of standards and to strive to succeed. 4. people will not be dissatisfied. When things are going well. it would make sense to make an individual’s pay noncontingent on performance in order to avoid decreasing intrinsic motivation. but the research methodology he used looked only at satisfaction and not at productivity. high achievers are strongly motivated. People who pursue work goals for intrinsic reasons are more satisfied with their jobs. The criticisms of the theory include the following: The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its methodology. Need for power (nPow) the need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise. when jobs have a high degree of personal responsibility and feedback and an intermediate degree of risk. seek responsibility and can exercise self-direction. power and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation. a high need to achieve does not necessarily make someone a good manager. the needs for affiliation and power tend to be closely related to managerial success. Need for achievement (nAch) the drive to excel. Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and management by objectives. Contrarily. whereas tangible extrinsic rewards undermine it. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. they blame failure on extrinsic environment. Second. when adequate in a job. 6. This means that an individual believes that they can achieve the goal and want to achieve it. and independent rather than interdependent. Three other factors have been found to influence the goals-performance relationship: 1. for an explicit time period. Verbal persuasion becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. Goal commitment an individual is determined not to lower or abandon the goal. which drives a person to complete a task. expectations and other cognitive variables that are known to affect behaviour. Goal specificity Participation in decision making Explicit time period Performance feedback 5. The best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through: Pygmalion effect a form of a self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something to be true can make it true. anticipatively set. 2. In its pure form. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected]) . Enactive mastery gaining relevant experience with the task or job. Self-efficacy is increased by communicating to an individual’s teacher or supervisor that the person is of high ability. National culture Management by objectives (MBO) a programme that encompasses specific goals. Task characteristics evidence suggests that goals seem to have a more substantial effect on performance when tasks are simple rather than complex. 2. Self-efficacy (also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory) an individual’s belief that they are capable of performing a task. then you’re more confident you’ll be able to do it in the future. reinforcement theory ignores feelings. Reinforcement theory a theory which says that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Vicarious modelling becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task. It is most effective when you set yourself similar to the person you are observing. If you’ve been able to do the job successfully in the past. with self-generated feedback. Galatea effect occurs when high performance expectations are communicated directly to an employee. Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity theory. It is not a theory of motivation.lOMoARcPSD Goal/setting theory a theory which says that specific and difficult goals. with feedback on goal progress. Managers can help their employees achieve high levels of self-efficacy by bringing together goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory. attitudes. There are four ways self-efficacy can be increased: 1. 3. Arousal leads to an energised state. 4. page 152. Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory. lead to higher performance. 3. equity theory focused on distributive justice perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. Given payment by time. under rewarded employees will produce less or poorer quality of output. Change their inputs Change their outcomes Distort perceptions of self Distort perceptions of others Choose a different referent Leave the field The theory establishes the following propositions relating to inequitable pay: A. One key element is perception of justice. C. the key addition under organizational justice was procedural justice the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. over rewarded employees will produce more than will equitably paid employees. 6.lOMoARcPSD 7. Self-inside an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization. when employees perceive inequity. But increasingly equity is thought of from the standpoint of organizational justice an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. Historically. Equity theory a theory which says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. over rewarded employees will produce fewer. Given payment by quantity of production. units than will equitably paid employees. 4. There are four relevant comparisons: 1. but high-quality. Given payment by quantity of production. 4. Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees. Based on equity-theory. Other-outside another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization. 3. composed of distributive. Self-outside an employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside the employee’s current organization. under rewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees. they can be predicted to make one of six choices: 1. Beyond distributive justice. procedural and interactional justice. D. Other-inside another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization. 2.com) . Given payment by time. 2. Explanations clear reasons for the outcome that management gives to a person. B. Two key elements: Process control opportunity to present one’s point of view about desired outcomes to decision makers. 3. 5. when addressing perceived injustices. they should realise that employees are especially sensitive to unfairness in procedures when bad news has to be communicated. This can act to increase or decrease effort. Task identity completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. it says that employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe that effort will lead to a good performance appraisal. salary increases or promotions. it’s important that a manager is consistent. Chapter 7: Motivation: from concepts to applications 1. and is open to appeals. concern and respect. 2. Rewards-personal goals relationship the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. Expectancy theory theory which says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Skills variety requirements for different tasks in the job. it is especially important to openly share information about how allocation decisions are made. Interactional justice the perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity. It focuses on three relationships: 1. follow consistent and unbiased procedures. makes decisions based on accurate information. Thus. they need to feel that they have some control over the outcome and feel that they were given an adequate explanation about why the outcome occurred. and that the reward will satisfy the employees’ personal goals. and engage in similar practices to increase the perception of procedural justice. for employees to see a process as fair. 3. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards such as bonuses. 2. In more practical form. Job characteristics model (JCM) a model that proposes that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: 1. Performance-reward relationship the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. Second. Managers can take several steps to foster employee’s perceptions of fairness. See page 161 for integrating contemporary theories of motivation. 8. 3. Effort-performance relationship the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. Also. unbiased. First. managers need to focus their actions on the source of the problem. Task significance the job’s impact on the lives or work of other people. for procedural fairness. 9. Explain to what degree motivation theories are culture bound. Describe the job characteristics model and evaluate the way it motivates by changing the work environment. Job design the way the elements in a job are organized.com) . Compare contemporary theories of motivation.lOMoARcPSD Thus. when managers have bad news to communicate. lOMoARcPSD 4. and helps employees better understand how their work contributes to the organization. Job enrichment vertical expansion of jobs. which increases the degree to which the worker controls the planning. the model predicts that motivation. Weaknesses training costs are increased. 2. It organizes tasks so as to allow the worker to do a complete activity. called the motivating potential score (MPS). execution and evaluation of the work. deteriorating or remaining at a constant level. And supervisors may also have to spend more time answering questions and monitoring the work of recently rotated employees. Compare and contrast the three main ways jobs can be redesigned. It also has benefits for the organization because when employees have a wider range of skills. Opening feedback channels lets employees know how well they are performing their jobs and whether their performance is improving. which increases the number and variety of tasks that an individual performs. Feedback amount of direct and clear information on performance. 3. increases responsibility and provides feedback so individuals will be able to assess and correct their own performance. which is calculated as follows: MPS = (Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance) / 3 x Autonomy x Feedback If jobs score high on motivating potential. increases the employee’s freedom and independence. Three alternative work arrangements: Flexitime flexible work hours. Autonomy level of discretion in decision making. management has more flexibility in scheduling work and adapting to changes. Identify three alternative work arrangements and show how they might motivate employees. The core dimensions can be combined into a single predictive index. and productivity is reduced by moving a worker into a new position. A manager can enrich an employee’s job by: Combining tasks takes existing and fractionalised tasks and puts them back together to form a new and larger module of work. Establishing client relationships increases the direct relationships between workers and their clients. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Strengts it reduces boredom. It also creates disruptions. Job enlargement results in jobs with more diversity. Forming natural work units means that the tasks an employee does create an identifiable and meaningful whole. 5. Job enlargement horizontal expansion of jobs. Expanding jobs vertically gives employees responsibilities and control that were formerly reserved for management. increases motivation through diversifying the employee’s activities. Job rotation the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another.com) . performance and satisfaction will be positively affected and that the likelihood of absence and turnover will be reduced. Members of the work group have to adjust to the new employee. Representative participation a system in which workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees. Teleworking people who work mainly in their own home or mainly in different places using home as a base. and you may get better-qualified. Quality circles a work group of employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems. Opportunity to perform absence of obstacles that constrain the employee. more highly motivated employees who will stay with the organization longer.lOMoARcPSD o Strengths: reduces absenteeism and frequently improves worker productivity. o Weaknesses: less direct supervision of employees and more difficult to coordinate teamwork. We consider four major strategic rewards decisions that need to be made. teleworking can increase feelings of isolation and reduce job satisfaction. Give examples of employee involvement measures and show how they can motivate employees. higher productivity. who use both a telephone and a computer to carry out their work. 1. employees will become more motivated. recommend solutions and take corrective actions. o Weaknesses: difficult to find compatible pairs of employees who can successfully coordinate the intricacies of one job. The underlying logic is that if we involve workers in the decisions that affect them and increase their autonomy and control over their work lives. What to pay: establishing a pay structure Pay more. For employees with a high social need. High levels of performance are partially a function of the opportunity to perform. The two most common forms representative participation takes are works councils and board representatives. larger labour pool from which to select. less turnover. which Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. improved morale and reduced office-space costs. There are three major forms of employee involvement: Participative management a process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors. o Weaknesses: it is not applicable to every job. 5. Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay programmes can increase employee motivation. o Strengths: flexibility. It can increase motivation and satisfaction for those to whom a full-time job is just not practical. investigate causes. more committed to the organization. o Strengths: it allows an organization to draw on the talents of more than one individual in a given job and it increases flexibility. more productive and more satisfied with their jobs. But pay is often the highest single operating cost for an organization.com) . Success on a job is facilitated or hindered by the existence or absence of support resources. Job sharing an arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40hour-a-week job. Employee involvement a participative process that uses the input of employees and is intended to increase employee commitment to an organization’s success. A way of thinking about employee performance is as a function (f) of the interaction of ability (A) and motivation (M) and opportunity to perform (O) performance = f(A x M x O) 4. 6. Employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) a company-established benefits plan in which employees acquire stock. 2. Flexible spending plans allow employees to set aside up to the euro amount offered in the plan to pay for particular services. Rewards are intrinsic in the form of employee recognition programmes and extrinsic in the form of compensation systems. Piece-rate pay plan a pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed. It’s a strategic decision an organization must make. Differentiate emotions from moods and list the basic emotions and moods. Core-plus plans consist of a core of essential benefits and a menu-like selection of other benefit options from which employees can select and add to the core. 4. It is an umbrella concept that encompasses both emotions and moods. Merit-based pay plan a pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings. Moods feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus. often at below-market prices. Flexible benefits: developing a benefits package Flexible benefits a benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits package individually tailored to their own needs and situation. Affect a broad range of feelings that people experience. Skill-based pay (also called competency-based or knowledge-based pay) a pay plan that sets pay levels on the basis of how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do. Show how flexible benefits turn benefits into motivators. with clear trade-offs. Profit-sharing plan an organization wide programme that distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability.lOMoARcPSD means that paying too much can make the organization’s products or services too expensive. as part of their benefits. 7.com) . How to pay: rewarding individual employees through variable-pay programmes Variable-pay programme a pay plan that bases a portion of an employee’s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance. Chapter 8: emotions and moods 1. 3. Intrinsic rewards: employee recognition programmes Important work rewards can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Emotions intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. The three most popular types of benefits plans: Modular plans are predesigned packages of benefits. Gain sharing a formula-based group incentive plan. with each module put together to meet the needs of a specific group of employees. Bonus a pay plan that rewards employees for recent rather than historical performance. Identify the motivational benefits of intrinsic rewards. The key to good decision making is to employ both thinking and feeling in one’s decision. Emotions can turn into moods when you lose focus on the event or object that started the feeling. informal. Evolutionary psychology an area of inquiry which argues that we must experience the emotions we do because they serve a purpose. and social interactions cause people to be in a good mood. tranquillity and poise at the low end. self-assurance and cheerfulness at the high end and boredom.lOMoARcPSD Emotions are reactions to a person or an event. Positivity offset the tendency of most individuals to experience a mildly positive mood at zero input (when nothing in particular is going on). or dining activities are more strongly associated with increase in positive mood than formal or sedentary events. The basic emotions: Anger Fear Sadness Happiness Disgust Surprise When we group emotions into positive and negative categories. Stress Social activities people in positive moods seek out social interactions. 2. Some of the primary influences on moods and emotions: Personality affect intensity individual differences in the strength with which individuals experience their emotions. Positive affect a mood dimension that consists of specific positive emotions such as excitement. stress. Negative affect a mood dimension that consists of emotions such as nervousness. but moods are usually not directed to a person or an event. Research suggests that physical. And. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. and anxiety at the high end and relaxation. We must have the ability to experience emotions to be rational. 3. they become mood states because we are now looking at them more generally instead of isolating one particular emotion. Discuss whether emotions are rational and what functions they serve. good or bad moods can make you more emotional in response to an event.com) . because our emotions provide important information about how we understand the world around us. sluggishness and tiredness at the low end. see page 203. Emotions are critical to rational thinking. Day of the week and time of the day Weather evidence suggests that weather has little effect on mood illusory correlation occurs when people associate two events but in reality there is no connection explains why people tend to think that nice weather improves their mood. by the same token. Identify the sources of emotions and moods. The arguments in favour of EI include: Intuitive appeal people who can detect emotions in others. Emotions provide valuable insights into understanding employee behaviour. It offers two important messages: 1. they tend to hold onto emotions longer. and they display more frequent expressions of both positive and negative emotions. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. EI predicts criteria that matter more and more evidence is suggesting that a high level of EI means a person will perform well on the job. on the job especially. control their own emotions. Contrast the evidence for and against the existence of emotional intelligence.com) . see page 212. Describe affective events theory and identify its applications. Employees and managers shouldn’t ignore emotions and the events that cause them. 2. and handle social interactions well will have a powerful leg up in the business world. we experience fewer negative emotions. It can help you. Affective events theory (AET) a model which suggests that workplace events cause emotional reactions on the part of employees. Gender women are more emotionally expressive than are men. Deals with one’s felt emotions. Deep acting trying to modify one’s true inner feelings based on display rules. The model demonstrates how workplace hassles and uplifting events influence employee performance and satisfaction. even when they appear to be minor. anger and resentment can eventually lead to emotional exhaustion and burnout. 4. which then influence workplace attitudes and behaviours. because they accumulate. Show the impact emotional labour has on employees. 5. Deals with one’s displayed emotions. except anger. Emotional dissonance inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project. if you separate emotions: Felt emotions an individual’s actual emotions. Emotional labour an employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work. 6. Emotional intelligence (EI) the ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information. Bottled-up feelings or frustration. so as we get older. Displayed emotions emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. Surface acting hiding one’s inner feelings and forgoing emotional expressions in response to display rules. they experience emotions more intensely.lOMoARcPSD Sleep Exercise Age research implies that emotional experience tends to improve with age. Apply concepts about emotions and moods to specific OB issues.com) . Creativity supervisors should actively try to keep employees happy because doing so creates more good moods. Group two or more individuals. and as a result. which influences levels of repeat business and levels of customer satisfaction. Negotiation people who suffer damage to the emotional centres of their brains may be the best negotiators because they are not likely to overcorrect when faced with negative outcomes. Chapter 9: Foundations of group behaviour Work groups have properties that shape the behaviour of members and make it possible to explain and predict a large portion of individual behaviour within the group as well as the performance of the group itself. who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Define group and differentiate between different types of groups. Also. Leadership by arousing emotions and linking them to an appealing vision. Contrast the experience. Job attitudes people who had a good day at work tend to be in a better mood at home that evening. selecting positive team members can have a contagion effect as positive moods transmit from team member to team member. Selection employers should consider EI a factor in hiring employees. Emotional contagion is the process by which peoples’ emotions are caused by the emotions of others. Deviant workplace behaviours people who feel negative emotions are more likely than people who don’t feel negative emotions to engage in deviant behaviour at work. which in turn leads to people to be more creative not proven. EI has nothing unique to offer. Customer service a worker’s emotional state influences customer service. The arguments against EI include: EI is too vague a concept EI can’t be measured The validity of EI is suspect some critics argue that because EI is so closely related to intelligence and personality. Finally. 7. leaders increase the likelihood that managers and employees alike will accept change. Motivation organizations that promote positive moods at work are likely to have more motivated workers. interpretation and expression of emotions across cultures. 1. Decision making moods and emotions have important effects on decision-making. interacting and interdependent. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. once you control for these factors. Managers can use humour and give their employees small tokens of appreciation for work well done to improve their employees’ moods. the members cooperate more. 8.lOMoARcPSD EI is biologically based EI is neurologically based in a way that’s unrelated to standard measures of intelligence and that people who suffer neurological damage score lower on EI and make poorer decisions than people who are healthier in this regard. group members are more positive. research indicates that when leaders are in good moods. especially in jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction. Informal group a group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Friendship group people brought together because they share one or more common characteristics. 3. Why do people join groups? Security Status Self-esteem Affiliation Power Goal achievement 2. Studies indicate that they have their own unique sequencing of actions. Temporary groups with deadlines don’t seem to follow the usual five-stage model. such a group appears in response to the need for social contact. 2. 5.com) . It is possible to further subclassify groups: Command group a group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given managers. which occurs exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time 4. characterised by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. Performing stage the fourth stage in group development. 1. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Adjourning stage the final stage in group development for temporary groups. Interest group people working together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. 4. A transition initiates major changes. Forming stage the first stage in group development. Identify the five stages of group development. characterised by much uncertainty. during which the group is fully functional. Storming stage the second stage in group development. A transition takes place at the end of this first phase. characterised by intragroup conflict. Task group people working together to complete a job task.lOMoARcPSD Formal group a designated work group defined by an organization’s structure. This first phase of group activity is one of inertia 3. Their first meeting sets the group’s direction 2. Five-stage group-development model the five distinct stages groups go through: 1. Norming stage the third stage in group development. characterised by close relationships and cohesiveness. Group property 3: Status a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. In addition. This pattern is called the punctuated-equilibrium model a set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity. it can be helpful to look at the topic of role expectations through the perspective of the psychological contract an unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from an employee and vice versa. what their level of output should be. Deviant workplace behaviour. just being part of a group can increase an individual’s deviant behaviour. Other types of norms include appearance norms. These norms are extremely powerful in affecting an individual employee’s performance. Show how role requirements change in different situations. Role identity certain attitudes and behaviours consistent with a role. and the like. you are susceptible to conforming to the group’s norms. Probably the most common group norm is a performance norm.com) . A second phase of inertia follows the transition 6. and resource allocation norms.lOMoARcPSD 5. Also called antisocial behaviour or workplace incivility. how to get the job done. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. There is considerable evidence that groups can place strong pressures on individual members to change their attitudes and behaviours to conform the group’s standard. Role perception an individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation. It is likely to flourish where it is supported by group norms. As a member of a group. what level of punctuality is appropriate. The group’s last meeting is characterised by markedly accelerated activity. it differentiates group members. social arrangement norms. you desire acceptance by the group. threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. In the workplace. in so doing. Because of your desire for acceptance. Group property 1: Role a set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Conformity the adjustment of one’s behaviour to align with the norms of the group. 4. Reference groups important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform. Role expectations how others believe a person should act in a given situation. Role conflict a situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations. Demonstrate how norms and status exert influence on an individual’s behaviour. Group property 2: Norms acceptable standards of behaviour within a group that are shared by the group’s members. Work groups typically provide their members with explicit cues to how hard they should work. also called antisocial behaviour or workplace incivility voluntary behaviour that violates significant organizational norms and. 3. Increase intergroup competition. Status tends to be derived from one of three sources: 1. 3. Group property 4: Size twelve or more members is a large group. Someone whose personal characteristics are positively valued by the group typically has higher status than someone who has fewer valued attributes.com) . To encourage group cohesiveness. managers can: 1. An individual’s personal characteristics. based on each member’s unique contributions 6. Set group goals so that the group has a common purpose to strive toward 2. 3. Stimulate competition with other groups 6. Engage in peer evaluation so that each person’s contribution to the group is evaluated by each group member 4. A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals. Group property 5: Cohesiveness the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. Strengths of group decision making: Groups generate more complete information and knowledge. Make the group smaller Encourage agreement with group goals Increase the time members spend together Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership in the group 5. There are several ways to prevent social loafing: 1. which again focuses the group on the shared outcome 3. Groups lead to increased acceptance of a solution. Contrast the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups. People whose contributions are critical to the group’s success tend to have high status. Weaknesses of group decision making: Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. One of the most important findings related to the size of a group has been labelled social loafing the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. 4. 7. people who control the outcomes of a group through their power tend to be perceived as high status. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members 7. The power a person wields over others. Because they likely control the group’s resources. 5. Physically isolate the group. Show how group size affects group performance. distribute group rewards. in part. 2. See relationships on page 244. seven or less a small group.lOMoARcPSD Status characteristics theory a theory which states that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups. If possible. They offer increased diversity of views. 2. Accuracy group decisions are generally more accurate than the decisions of the average individual in a group.lOMoARcPSD Conformity pressures in groups. Group discussion can be dominated by one or a few members. Groupshift a change in decision risk between a group’s decision and an individual decision that a member within the group would make. Research consistently shows that individuals working alone generate more ideas than a group in a brainstorming session.com) . Whether groups are more effective than individuals depend on the criteria you use to define effectiveness. Having discussed group decision making and its pros and cons. groups almost always stack up as a poor second to the individual decision maker. A problem is presented and then the group takes the following steps: Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Leaders should actively seek input from all their members and avoid expressing their own opinions. Brainstorming an idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives while withholding any criticism of those alternatives. but they are less accurate than the judgements of the most accurate group member. brainstorming. o Encourage group leaders to play an impartial role. especially in the early stages of deliberation. we now turn to the techniques by which groups make decisions. Acceptance the nod again goes to the group. Speed individuals are superior. What can managers do to minimise groupthink? o Monitor group size. Nominal group technique a group decision-making method in which individual members meet face-to-face to pool their judgements in a systematic but independent fashion. 8. Interacting groups typical groups in which members interact with each other face-to-face. Compare the effectiveness of interacting. In terms of efficiency. o Appoint one group member to play the role of devil’s advocate. Creativity groups tend to be more effective than individuals. nominal and electronic meeting groups. o Use exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group and intensifying identity protection. the shift can be toward either conservatism or great risk. Group decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility. These techniques reduce some of the dysfunctional aspects of group decision making. Two by products of group decision making have the potential to affect a group’s ability to appraise alternatives objectively and to arrive at quality decision solutions: Groupthink a phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action. But effectiveness cannot be considered without also assessing efficiency. coordinate projects. until all ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion takes place until all ideas have been recorded. Contrast groups and teams. They can make products. Teams can do a variety of things. each member presents one idea to the group. 9. Analyse the growing popularity of using teams in organizations. In problem-solving teams. members share ideas or offer suggestions on how Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. 3. As organizations have restructured themselves to compete more effectively and efficiently. refocus. allowing for anonymity of comments and aggregation of votes. presenting a single idea. and disband. 4. efficiency and the work environment. Compare and contrast four types of teams. Members meet as a group. Evaluate evidence for cultural differences in group status and social loafing.lOMoARcPSD 1. Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas. Each member takes a turn. Work group a group that interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility. 2. Problem-solving teams groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality. Work team a group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs. The four most common types of teams: 1. Electronic meeting a meeting in which members interact on computers. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision. as well as the effects of diversity in groups. 3. provide services. Teams have the capability to quickly assemble. each member independently writes down ideas on the problem. American groups (individualistic) loaf more than Chinese groups (collectivistic). After this silent period. offer advice. deploy. but before any discussion takes place. they have turned to teams as a better way to use employee talents. 2. and make decisions. The extensive use of teams creates the potential for an organization to generate greater outputs with no increase in inputs. negotiate deals.com) . The group discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them. Chapter 10: Understanding work teams 1. and the impact of this attribute on turnover. see page 267! 1. Identify the characteristics of effective teams. The four contextual factors that appear to be most significantly related to team performance are: Adequate resources Effective leadership especially important in multi-team systems systems in which different teams need to coordinate their efforts to produce a desired outcome.com) .lOMoARcPSD work processes and methods can be improved. 4. namely conscientiousness. Technical expertise 2. Allocation of roles see page 271. management should ensure that: Trust is established among team members. Interpersonal skills Personality of members three of the Big Five traits are especially important for team performance. 2. these tasks are involved in planning and scheduling work. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. making operating decisions. Organizational demography the degree to which members of a work unit share a common demographic attribute. Team progress is monitored closely. but from different work areas. 4. Diversity of members the key is for diverse teams to communicate what they uniquely know and also what they don’t know. Work design. Problem-solving and decision-making skills 3. 3. who come together to accomplish a task. Virtual teams teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. Process variables reflect those things that go on in the team that influences effectiveness. race. The resources and other contextual influences that make teams effective. sex. 4. For virtual teams to be effective. openness to experience and agreeableness. Typically. they rarely have the authority to unilaterally implement any of their suggested actions. 3. educational level or length of service in an organization. Size of teams the most effective teams have five to nine members. The efforts and products of the virtual team are publicised throughout the organization. The team’s composition. such as age. assigning tasks to members. taking action on problems and working with suppliers and customers. Cross-functional teams employees from about the same hierarchical level. a team requires three different types of skills: 1. A climate of trust A performance evaluation and reward system that reflects team contributions The team composition category includes variables that relate to how teams should be staffed: Abilities of members to perform effectively. 2. Self-managed work teams groups of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors. The key components of effective teams can be subsumed into four general categories. It has been suggested that three tests be applied to see if a team fits the situation. Mental models team member’s knowledge and beliefs about how the work gets done by the team. 5. Specific goals must be specific. These work design characteristics motivate because they increase member’s sense of responsibility and ownership of the work and because they make the work more interesting to perform: Freedom Autonomy Skill variety Task identity Task significance Process variables: Potential group effectiveness + Process gains – Process losses = Actual group effectiveness Common plan and purpose it provides direction and guidance under any and all conditions. interpersonal conflicts are not. Rewarding: providing incentives to be a good team player encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive (individual) ones and continue to recognize individual contributions while still emphasizing the importance of teamwork. Effective teams also show reflexivity a team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary. Show how organizations can create team players. and approach.com) . Team efficacy teams have confidence in themselves. goals. task conflicts may be helpful. Training: creating team players individualistic people can learn. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Social loafing successful teams make members individually and jointly accountable for the team’s purpose. measurable.lOMoARcPSD Member preferences high performing teams are likely to be composed of people who prefer working as part of a group. Conflict levels effective teams can be characterised as having an appropriate level of conflict. realistic and challenging. 6. The following are the primary options managers have for trying to turn individuals into team players: Selection: hiring team players make team skills one of the interpersonal skills in the hire process. Decide when to use individuals instead of teams. It provides the information that individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data to identify and evaluate alternative choices. 2. It provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfilment of social needs. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our message as originally intended. A return message regarding the initial communication. Does the work create a common purpose or set of goals for the people in the group that is more than the aggregate of individual goals? 3. It is selected by the sender. how well they are doing. Can the work be done better by more than one person? A good indicator is the complexity of the work and the need for different perspectives.lOMoARcPSD 1. 2. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Describe the communication process and distinguish between formal and informal communication. It reduces uncertainty It coordinates actions Effective communication is crucial for task performance. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. Chapter 11: Communication Communication the transference and understanding of meaning. Are the members of the group interdependent? Using teams makes sense when there is interdependence between tasks – when the success of the whole depends on the success of each one and the success of each one depends on the success of the others. 1. the symbols in it must be translated into a form that can be understood by the deceiver decoding. It determines whether understanding has been achieved. It fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done. who must determine whether to use a formal or informal channel: o Formal channels communication channels established by an organization to transmit messages related to the professional activities of members. Show how the understanding of teams differ in a global context. o Informal channels communication channels that are created spontaneously and that emerge as responses to individual choices. 7. The message is the actual physical product from the sender’s encoding. But before the message can be received. The receiver is the object to whom the message is directed. Identify the main functions of communication. Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message. The key parts of this model are: The sender initiates a message by encoding a thought. Communication serves four major functions within a group or organization: It acts to control member behaviour in several ways. and what can be done to improve performance if it’s below expectations. Communication process the steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transfer and understanding of meaning.com) . Nonverbal communication the two most important messages that body language conveys are the extent to which an individual likes another and is interested in their views and the relative perceived status between a sender and receiver. o Advantages: supports other communications and provides observable expression of emotions and feelings o Disadvantage: misperception of body language or gesture can influence receiver’s interpretation of message. logical and clear. The best communicators are those who explain the reasons behind their downward communications. 4. o Disadvantage: the more people a message must pass through. the greater the potential distortion and misunderstandings. Upward communication communication that flows to a higher level in the group or organization. among managers at the same level. The vertical dimension can be further divided into downward and upward directions. There are three basic methods to transfer meaning: Oral communication o Advantages: speed and feedback. Chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Well thought out. All-channel permits all group members to actively communicate with each other.com) . It is often necessary to save time and facilitate coordination. among members of work groups at the same level. Downward communication communication that flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower level. communicate in headlines not paragraphs. so selfmanaged teams. and lateral communication and provide examples of each. Contrast formal communication networks and the grapevine. or among any other horizontally equivalent personnel. Intonations or emphasis we give to words. written and nonverbal communication. support your headlines with actionable items and prepare an agenda to make sure you use your boss’s attention well. o Disadvantage: time-consuming and lacks feedback. upward. Contrast oral. 5. Wheel relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all the group’s communication. Communication can flow vertically or laterally.lOMoARcPSD 3. try to reduce distractions.The way individuals space themselves in terms of physical distance also has a meaning. Written communication o Advantages: often tangible and verifiable. Facial expressions also convey a meaning. Lateral communication when communication takes place among members of the same work group. but also solicit upward communication from the employees they supervise. Formal organizational networks can be condensed into three common small groups of five people each. Contrast downward. To engage in effective upward communication. when there is ambiguity. Electronic communications include: E-mail uses the internet to transmit and receive computer-generated text and documents. It is not controlled by management. It gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization. o Advantages: quickly written. it is difficult to get emotional state understood Privacy concerns Instant messaging and text messaging o Advantages: fast and inexpensive Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. and helps tap into employee anxieties. of current decisions and future plans Openly discuss worst-case possibilities – they are almost never as anxiety-provoking as the unspoken fantasy 6. The grapevine also serves employees’ needs. identifies issues that employees consider important. Analyse the advantages and challenges of electronic communication. so informal. and it has low costs for distribution. It is perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal communiqués issued by top management. It has three main characteristics: 1.lOMoARcPSD Grapevine an organization’s informal communication network. The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization communication network. Rumours emerge as a response to situations that are important to us. and under conditions that arouse anxiety. It is largely used to serve the self-interests of people within it. sent. 2. o Disadvantages: Misinterpreting the message Not appropriate for communicating negative messages Overuse of e-mail Removes inhibitions and can cause emotional responses and flaming. 3. Reducing rumours: Announce timetables for making important decisions Explain decisions and behaviours that may appear inconsistent or secretive Emphasize the downside. The fact that work situations frequently contain these three elements explain why rumours flourish in organizations.com) . as well as the upside. and stored. Knowledge management (KM) the process of organising and distributing an organization’s collective wisdom so the right information gets to the right people at the right time. o Advantages: alternative to expensive and time-consuming travel. Handle multiple cues simultaneously 2. distracting and unsecure. Show how channel richness underlies the choice of communication channel. KM provides an organization with both a competitive edge and improved organizational performance because it makes its employees smarter. motivations. Research has found that channels differ in their capacity to convey information.com) . 8. Video conferencing permits employees in an organization to have meetings with people at different locations. o Disadvantages: blogs could be construed as harmful to a company’s reputation. Be very personal Channel richness the amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode. background and other personal characteristics. Identify common barriers to effective communication. about news. When done properly. A number of barriers can retard or distort effective communications: Filtering a sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favourably by the receiver. Some are rich in that they have the ability to: 1. 7. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. generally displayed in reverse chronological order. A model of media richness has been developed to explain channel selection among managers. can be seen as too informal Networking software Internet or web logs a website where entries are written. events and personal diary entries. experience. Facilitate rapid feedback 3.lOMoARcPSD o Disadvantages: intrusive. Selective perception the receivers selectively see and hear based on their needs. Cultures tend to differ in the importance to which context influences the meaning that individuals take from what is actually said or written in light of who the other person is. Emphasise description rather than interpretation or evaluation. There are four specific problems related to language difficulties in cross-cultural communications: 1. How can you communicate more stickily? Simplicity Unexpectedness Concreteness Credibility Emotional Stories When should you use the SUCCES principles? When remembering its critical When word of mouth is critical Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. 3. Barriers caused by word connotations words imply different things in different languages. 4. The following four rules can be helpful to reduce misperceptions. Show how to overcome the potential problems in cross-cultural communication.lOMoARcPSD Information overload a condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity.com) . 2. Gender differences 9. Cross-cultural factors clearly create the potential for increased communication problems. or both. Barriers caused by semantics words mean different things to different people. Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis. Emotions how the receiver feels at the time of receipt of a communication influences how they interpret it. 4. written communication. Practice empathy. 2. High-context cultures cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communication. misinterpretations and misevaluations when communicating with people from a different culture: 1. Language Communication apprehension undue tension and anxiety about oral communication. Barriers caused by tone differences Barriers caused by differences among perceptions people who speak different languages actually view the world in different ways. Low-context cultures cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication. 3. Assume differences until similarity is proven. Summarize the conclusions of trait theories. 2. age. Nonsanctioned leadership provided outside the formal structure of the organization. Leadership the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. Physical traits are height. social. gender. openness to experience and emotional intelligence. face. Management use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members. conscientiousness. then we could teach leadership: we could design programmes that implanted these behavioural patterns in individuals who desired to be effective leaders. Behavioural theories of leadership theories proposing that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from nonleaders. and to inspire organizational members to want to achieve the visions coping with change. Researchers sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behaviour: Initiating structure the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of subordinators in the search for goal attainment.lOMoARcPSD When you don’t have much power Chapter 12: Basic approaches to leadership 1. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Formal influence provided by the possession of managerial rank in an organization. to create visions of the future. Height is related to leadership: Taller people are more likely leaders Get higher salaries Have a more social esteem 3. However. Organizations need strong leadership and strong management for optimal effectiveness. Leaders to challenge the status quo. if there were specific behaviours that identified leaders. Trait theories of leadership theories that consider personality. Traits can predict leadership extraversion. Managers to formulate detailed plans. weight etcetera. create efficient organizational structures and oversee day-to-day operations coping with complexity.com) . Define leadership and contrast leadership and management. Identify the central tenets and main limitations of behavioural theories. or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Trait theories assume that leaders are born rather than made. Traits do a better job at predicting the emerge of leaders and the appearance of leadership than in actually distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders. physical. Ohio State studies the most comprehensive and replicated of the behavioural theories resulted from research that began at Ohio State University in the late 1940’s. hair. com) . have gained wider recognition.or relationship-oriented. Position power influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization.lOMoARcPSD Consideration the extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterised by mutual trust. Drawing from the Ohio State and Michigan studies. Fiedler created the least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire for this purpose an instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task. takes a personal interest in the needs of employees. trust. Production-oriented leader a leader who emphasises technical or task aspects of the job. as a result. it is necessary to match the leader with the situation. while relationshiporiented leaders perform best in moderate control situations. Fiedler contingency model theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader. The next step in the Fiedler model is to evaluate the situation in terms of these three contingency variables. 4. Blake and Mouton proposed a managerial grid based on the styles of concern for people and concern for production a nine-by-nine matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles. Task structure degree to which job assignments are procedurised (structured or not) 3. Several approaches to isolating key situational variables have proven more successful than others and. Fiedler believes a key factor in leadership success is the individual’s basic leadership style. 2. which includes power to hire. Assess contingency theories of leadership by their level of support Leadership effectiveness is dependent on the situation and another to be able to isolate those situational situations. discipline. So he begins by trying to find out what that basic style is. After an individual’s basic leadership style has been assessed through the LPC questionnaire. fire. and accepts individual differences among members. promote and give salary increases. Fiedler has identified three contingency dimensions that define the key situational factors that determine leadership effectiveness: 1. and respect subordinates have in their leader. and regard for their feelings. University of Michigan studies also came up with two dimensions of leadership behaviour: Employee-oriented leader leader who emphasises interpersonal relations. respect for subordinates’ ideas. Leader-member relations degree of confidence. Task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of high and low control. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. the leader needs to use a supportive and participative style. 4. but there are problems with the LPC questionnaire and the practical use of the model: The logic underlying the LPC is not well understood Studies have shown that respondent’s LPC scores are not stable The contingency variables are complex and difficult for practitioners to assess More recently. the leader needs to display high task orientation to compensate for the follower’s lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get the followers to ‘buy into’ the leader’s desires. the leader needs to give clear and specific directions.com) . 2. Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory (SLT) a contingency theory that focuses on follower’s readiness. If followers are both able and willing. The emphasis on the followers in leadership effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leader. therefore there are only two ways in which to improve leader effectiveness: Change the leader to fit the situation. 1. If followers are unable and willing. Fiedler has reconceptualised his original theory. 3. If followers are unable and unwilling to do a task. If followers are able and unwilling. There is ample evidence to support Fiedler’s conclusions. Hersey and Blanchard identify four specific leader behaviours – from highly directive to highly laissez-faire. Cognitive resource theory a theory of leadership which states that stress unfavourably affects a situation and that intelligence and experience can reduce the influence of stress on the leader. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected] Fiedler views an individual’s leadership style as being fixed. the leader doesn’t need to do much. Change the situation to fit the leader. Readiness refers to the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. It is the level of stress in the situation that determines whether an individual’s intelligence or experience will contribute to leadership performance. In contrast to Fiedler. 2. and greater job satisfaction. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected]) . 4. House identified four leadership behaviours: 1. 3. it is the follower’s characteristics that are driving the leader’s categorization decision. Achievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level. less turnover. The positive findings for in-group members shouldn’t be totally surprising. testing path-goal theory has not proved to be easy. Path-goal theory a theory which states that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings. The term path-goal is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers get from where they are to the achievement of their work goals and to make the journey along the path easier by reducing roadblocks. Even though it is the leader who is doing the choosing. Directive leader lets followers know what is expected of them. Supportive leader is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers. House assumes leaders are flexible and that the same leader can display any or all of these behaviours depending on the situation. Leader/member exchange (LMX) theory a theory that supports leaders’ creation of in-groups and out-groups. Participative leader consults with followers and uses their suggestions before making a decision. schedules work to be done and gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks. Due to the complexity of the theory. 5. Contrast the interactive theories path-goal and leader-member exchange.lOMoARcPSD Internal ambiguities and inconsistencies in the model itself as well as problems with research methodology in tests of the theory are reasons why the model is disappointing. Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton developed a leader-participation model a leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations. 6. Identify the situational variables in the leader-participation model The way a leader makes decisions is as important as what she or he decides. given our knowledge of self-fulfilling prophecy. visionary. Direct leader is preferred. 8. West equality and achievement is highly prized. 7. leaders are seen as and expected to be more powerful.lOMoARcPSD The model is normative – it provides a sequential set of rules that should be followed in determining the form and amount of participation in decision making. Show how framing influences leadership effectiveness. It is a decision tree incorporating twelve contingencies and five alternative leadership styles: page 329. leadership is more about relationships than results. Other studies have clustered Europe into east and west and north and south: East power differentials are expected or accepted and leaders that. it is claimed. Turkey. In these countries. Cluster 3 Mediterranean cluster (Greece. trustworthy and decisive) are endorsed universally as positive attributes for leaders. The implication for leadership practice is that when moving from a low-power distance country to a high-power distance. One investigation identified three clusters: Cluster 1 The Anglo culture (UK and Ireland) has similar values and expectations to the US. are born into an influential family are valued. for example. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. build on their strengths and fill gaps in their competencies. Demonstrate the importance of cultural awareness for global leaders. whereas endorsement of other traits is more culturally contingent (e. Coaching leader is preferred. Provide organizational leadership by creating internal and external networks of influence. orderly and risk taker).g. Cluster 2 Scandinavian countries share the same values as the Angelo cluster but differ in one respect that affects their whole approach to leadership.com) . there is a concern for quality of life in general. Portugal. Most studies detect leadership patterns between European countries characterized by similar values and behavior. Spain. For this cluster. South employees prefer to rely more on supervisors. Assess the basic similarities and differences of leadership across Europe. style and culture around the globe. the leadership style may need to move from democratic to autocratic. Chapter 1: Contemporary issues in leadership 1. North leaders favor greater involvement with subordinates. domineering. The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness study found that some traits (e. An example that identifies three competencies of effective global leaders: Personal mastery a high degree of self-awareness to monitor their own behavior. Instead of the competitive individualism of the Anglos. Autocratic style is more accepted. as determine by different types of situations. so leaders that have humble beginnings and work their way to the top tend to be respected. Italy. including alliances and partnerships as well as formal acquisitions and mergers. compassionate. Leaders have a participative style.g. France). Leadership is seen as achieving results through empowering and motivating people. Building organizational and individual competence by seeking and using differences of thought. intelligent. The next two contemporary leadership theories view leaders as individuals who inspire followers through their words.lOMoARcPSD Traditional approaches to leadership – those we considered in chapter 12 – ignore the importance of the leader as a communicator. 2. 4.com) . 3. self-confident and achievement-oriented. 2. through words and actions. Charismatic leaders are likely to be extraverted. Engaging in emotion-inducing and often unconventional behavior to demonstrate courage and convictions about the vision. The four characteristics of the charismatic leader are: 1. 2. a new set of values and. There is an emotional contagion in charismatic leadership whereby followers catch the emotions their leader is conveying. Conveying. Communicating high performance expectations and expressing confidence that followers can attain them. 3. Most experts believe that individuals also can be trained to exhibit charismatic behaviors and can thus enjoy the benefits that accompany being labeled as a charismatic leader. A review of various definition finds that a vision differs from other forms of direction setting in several ways: Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. by his or her behavior. 4. not just with words. Change-oriented They have a vision Role model They are willing to take personal risks to achieve that vision They are sensitive to follower needs They exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary. ideas and behaviors. Research suggests that personality is also related to charismatic leadership. 3. using passion as a catalyst for generating enthusiasm. Charismatic leadership theory a leadership theory which states that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors. Framing a way of using language to manage meaning. An individual needs to develop an aura of charisma by maintaining an optimistic view. The vision provides a sense of continuity for followers by linking the present with a better future for the organization. Define charismatic leadership and show how it influences followers. A person can learn to become charismatic by following a three-step process: 1. Charismatic leaders influence followers via a four-step process: 1. and communicating with the whole body. The individual brings out the potential in followers by tapping into their emotions. 2. It is true that individuals are born with traits that make them charismatic. An individual draws others in by creating a bond that inspires others to follow. Articulating an appealing vision a long-term strategy for attaining a goal or goals. setting an example for followers to imitate. It is especially important to an aspect of leadership ignored in the traditional theories: the ability of the leader to inspire others to act beyond their immediate self-interests. This enhances follower self-esteem and self-confidence. It is a way for leaders to influence how others see and understand events. A vision is incomplete unless it has an accompanying vision statement a formal articulation of an organization’s vision or mission. 4. The perils of this ego-driven charisma at is worst are leaders who allow their self-interest and personal goals to override the goals of the organization. bringing this energy and commitment to the workplace. They have four basic leadership qualities: 1. People in the organization must also believe that the vision is attainable. but it is just harder to define such visions and align them with the larger goals of the organization as a whole. Charisma appears to be most successful when the follower’s task has an ideological component and the environment involves a high degree of stress and uncertainty. because the visions tend to be created by top executives. Desirable visions fit the times and circumstances and reflect the uniqueness of the organization. 2. Also. Vision taps people’s emotions and energy. Unfortunately. Visions should be able to create possibilities that are inspirational and unique and that offer a new order that can produce organizational distinction.lOMoARcPSD A vision has a clear and compelling imagery that offers an innovative way to improve. and connects to actions that people can take to realize change. Another situational factor limiting charisma appears to be the level in the organization. It probably has more direct relevance to explaining the success and failures of chief executives than of lower-level management. Individual capability Team skills Managerial competence Ability to stimulate others to high performance Plus a fifth dimension: a paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. charismatic leaders who are larger-than-life don’t necessarily act in the best interest of their organization. especially where charisma is enmeshed with an outsized ego. Level-5 leaders leaders who are fiercely ambitious and driven but whose ambition is directed toward their company rather than themselves. its effectiveness may depend on the situation. Charismatic leadership may affect some more followers than others. Many of these leaders used their power to remake their companies in their own image. It should be perceived as challenging yet doable. Charisma may not always be generalizable. Properly articulated.com) . when they are under stress or when they fear for their lives. a vision creates the enthusiasm that people have for sporting events and other leisure-time activities. realizable. which recognizes and draws on traditions. visions have that clear articulation and powerful imagery are more easily grasped and accepted. 5. People are especially receptive to charismatic leadership when they sense a crisis. A vision is likely to fail if it doesn’t offer a view of the future that is clearly and demonstrably better for the organization and its members. with superior imagery and articulation. Some people’s personalities are especially susceptible to charismatic leadership. 3. Lower-level managers can create visions to lead their units. Leaders don’t necessarily need to be charismatic to be effective. The key properties of a vision seem to be inspirational possibilities that are value centered. Transformational leaders leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers. lower employee stress and burnout and higher employee satisfaction. Transformational leadership builds on top of transactional leadership and produces levels of follower effort and performance that go beyond what would occur with transactional approach alone. Transformational and transactional leadership complement each other. for instance the Ohio State studies. Followers of transformational leaders are more likely to pursue ambitious goals. they’re not equally important. Like charisma. Fiedler’s model and path-goal theory have concerned transactional leaders leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirement. Contrast transformational leadership and transactional leadership and discuss how transformational leadership works. it also engenders commitment on the part of followers and instills in them a greater sense of trust in the leader. They pay attention to the concerns and defines the characteristics that differentiate these two types of leaders. lively) communication style in explaining the success of entrepreneurial firms. 4. because one study found that vision was even more important than charismatic (effusive. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Most of the leadership theories presented in Chapter 12. dynamic. it appears that transformational leadership can be learned. Define authentic leadership and show why ethics and trust are vital to effective leadership. Transformational leaders encourage their followers to be more innovative and creative. Measures of charisma and transformational leadership may be roughly equivalent. the overall evidence indicates that transformational leadership is more strongly correlated than transactional leadership with lower turnover rates. Vision also explains part of the effect of transformational leadership. higher productivity.lOMoARcPSD 3.com) . be familiar with and agree on the strategic goals of the organization and believe that the goals they are pursuing are personally important. In summary. Finally. trust provides the opportunity for disappointment or to be taken advantage of. Competence encompasses an individual’s technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills. There are three types of trust in organizational relationships: Deterrence-based trust trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust is violated. The primary quality. predictability and good judgment in handling situations. but whether leaders gain access to the knowledge and creative thinking they need to solve problems depends on how much people trust them. produced by authentic leadership is trust. Consistency relates to an individual’s reliability. But trust is not taking risk per se. Openness Part of leader’s task has been. Trust a positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically. we disclose intimate information or rely on another’s promises. Authentic leaders leaders who know who they are. By its very nature. and the punishment is actually imposed if the trust is violated. directed toward self-serving ends. rather it is a willingness to take risk. It is a promising way to think about ethics and trust in leadership because it focuses on the moral aspects of being a leader.lOMoARcPSD Although charismatic leadership theories and transformational leadership theories have added greatly to our understanding of effective leadership.com) . Socialised charismatic leadership a leadership concept that states that leaders convey values that are other-centred versus self-centred and who role model ethical conduct. Unethical leaders are more likely to use their charisma to enhance power over followers. Transformational or charismatic leaders can have a vision. 3. Loyalty the willingness to protect and save face for another person. Trust and trust-worthiness modulate the leader’s access to knowledge and cooperation. or the leader is more concerned with his own needs or pleasures. know what they believe in and value. The five key dimensions that underlie the concept of trust are: 1. Their followers would consider them to be ethical people. therefore. for example. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Integrity honesty and truthfulness. It will work only to the degree that punishment is possible. and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly. consequences are clear. encourage open communication and stick to their ideals. 4. Leadership effectiveness needs to address the means a leader uses in trying to achieve goals. they do not explicitly deal with the role of ethics and trust. working with people to find and solve problems. and continues to be. Inconsistent behavior is likely to irrevocably break the trust. as well as the moral content of those goals. The term opportunistic refers to the inherent risk and vulnerability in any trusting relationship. 5. Trust involves making oneself vulnerable as when. The two most important elements of this definition are that it implies familiarity and risk. 2. Ethical leaders are considered to use their charisma in a socially constructive way to serve others. but sometimes the vision is wrong. and communicate it persuasively. They share information. It does not appear that having a mentor is important to one’s career. whatever actions leaders exhibit are irrelevant. Demonstrate the importance of mentoring. Trust exists because the parties understand each other’s intentions and appreciate each other’s wants and desires.lOMoARcPSD Knowledge-based trust trust based on behavioral predictability that comes from a history of interaction. Many leaders create mentoring relationships. A smile and comforting gesture. called a protégé.com) . self-leadership and virtual leadership to our understanding of leadership. regardless of the situation. the greatest of which appears to be developing and maintaining trust. That nonverbal component doesn’t exist with online interactions. The first argument proposes that leadership is more about appearances than reality. Trust is not necessarily broken by inconsistent behavior. The second argument directly attacks the notion that some leadership will always be effective. see page 354. There are two perspectives that challenge the widely accepted belief in the importance of leadership. harsh words can be softened by nonverbal action. namely career functions and psychosocial functions. Mentoring relationships have been described in terms of two broad categories of functions. Successful mentors are good teachers. A mentor is a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee. Online leaders confront unique challenges. can lessen the blow behind strong words like disappointed. This mutual understanding is developed to the point that each can effectively act for the other. They do this by developing leadership capacity in others and nurturing followers so they no longer need to depend on formal leaders for direction and motivation. Identification-based trust trust based on a mutual understanding of each other’s intentions and appreciation of each other’s wants and desires. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. It exists when you have adequate information about someone to understand them well enough to be able to accurately predict is or her behavior. In face-to-face communications. So what is important in being characterized as an effective leader is projecting the appearance of being a leader rather than focusing on actual accomplishments. Attribution theory of leadership a leadership theory which says that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals. unsatisfactory. Some principles for better understanding the creation of both trust and mistrust: Mistrust drives out trust Trust begets trust Trust can be regained Mistrusting groups self-destruct Mistrust generally reduces productivity 6. for instance. Self-leadership a set of processes through which individuals control their own behavior. Identify when leadership may not be necessary. 7. And effective leaders help their followers to lead themselves. The structure of words in a digital communication also has the power to motivate or demotivate the receiver. Controls are minimal at this level. inadequate or below expectations. This argument contends that in many situations. You don’t have to be an effective leader as long as you look like one. This definition implies a potential that need not be actualised to be effective. strong motivational skills to stimulate all employees to fulfill the vision. It is important to recognize explicitly that leadership is just another independent variable in our overall OB model. Direction of influence Leadership focuses on the downward influence on one’s followers. Vision. however. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led. They negate the leader’s influence. regardless of what country the leader is in. Power does not. Differences between power and leadership: Goal compatibility power does not require goal compatibility. providing encouragement. for the most part. job and organizational variables can act as substitutes for leadership or neutralize the leader’s influence on their followers. make a leader’s influence not only impossible but also unnecessary. dynamism. on the other hand. emphasises style. Leaders achieve goals. foresight. They act as a replacement for the leaders influence. This conclusion is very important because it flies in the face of the contingency view that leadership style needs to adapt to cultural differences. Leadership. Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. Define power and contrast leadership and power. and a dependency relationship. Research emphasis Leadership research. Power a capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. It has gone beyond the individual as the exerciser of power because power can be used by groups as well as by individuals to control other individuals or groups. The result led two members of the GLOBE team conclude that effective business leaders in any country are expected by their subordinates to provide a powerful and proactive vision to guide the company into the future.lOMoARcPSD Certain individual. A number of the elements making up transformational leadership appear to be associated with effective leadership. In contrast. Explain how to find and create effective leaders. trustworthiness. Neutralizers make it impossible for leader behavior to make any difference to follower outcomes. the research on power has tended to encompass a broader area and to focus on tactics for gaining compliance. and power is a means of facilitating their achievement. Assess whether charismatic and transformational leadership generalize across cultures. 8. It minimises the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. The validity of substitutes and neutralizers is controversial. merely dependence. and excellent planning skills to assist in implementing the vision.com) . Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency B’s relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires. Substitutes. Chapter 14: Power and politics 1. 9. positiveness and proactiveness are the elements of transformational leadership that appear universal. Legitimate power the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.com) . their organizational commitment and their performance. 3. is broader than the power of coerce and reward. Referent power influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits. Dependency is increased when the resource you control is important. however. Identify nine power or influence tactics and their contingencies. Coercive power a power base that is dependent on fear. Personal power is power that comes from an individual’s unique characteristics. Specifically. It can come from the ability to coerce or reward. or it can come from formal authority. the less power you place in the hands of others. coercive power. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. The personal sources of power are most effective. If you can remove something of positive value from another or inflict something of negative value.lOMoARcPSD 2. the more that you can expand your options. hopes and aspirations. Expert power influence based on special skills or knowledge. scarce and non-substitutable. you have coercive power over that person. It develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person. Moreover. Power tactics ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions. it includes acceptance by members in an organization of the authority of a position. actually can backfire in that it is negatively related to employee satisfaction and commitment. Reward power compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable. the greater the power A has over B. you have reward power over that person. Conversely. prestige. whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. they become dependent on you. The greater B’s dependency on A. Contrast the five bases of power. Legitimate power. Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers. We can divide the bases or sources of power into two general groupings – formal and personal – and then break each of these down into more specific categories. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees’ satisfaction with supervision. needs. Research has identified nine distinct influence tactics: Legitimacy relying on one’s authority position or stressing that a request is in accordance with organizational policies or rules Rational persuasion presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request is reasonable. If you can give someone something of positive value or remove something of negative value. one source of formal power. Inspirational appeals developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s values. If you an create a monopoly by controlling information. or anything else that others crave. Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an organization. if organizational resources are not scarce. It is possible for an organization to be politics free. and symbolic protest. Distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate political behaviour. Some tactics are more effective than others. whistleblowing. or friendly behaviour prior to making a request. which is a key element in being effective. Identify the causes and consequences of political behaviour. Personal appeals asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty. When employees in organizations convert their power into action. Pressure using warnings. bypassing.lOMoARcPSD Consultation increasing the target’s motivation and support by involving him or her in deciding how the plan or change will be accomplished. and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective. Individual factors Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. There are factors that influence political behaviour and provide favourable outcomes increased rewards and averted punishments. Political behaviour activities that are not required as a part of a person’s formal role in the organization but that influence. we describe them as being engaged in politics. Politically skilled are able to exert their influence without others detecting it. evidence indicates that rational persuasion. Ingratiation using flattery. 4. But that doesn’t describe the organizational world most of us live in. the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. 5. Politically skilled are more effective in their use of influence tactics. inspirational appeals and consultation tend to be the most effective. On the other hand. or attempt to influence. More effective when the stakes are high. Political skill the ability to influence others in such a way as to enhance one’s objectives. Coalitions enlisting the aid of other people to persuade the target or using support of others as a reason for the target to agree. if all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests. regardless of the tactics they’re using. It has been found that using a single soft tactic is more effective than using a single hard tactic and that combining two soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or a combination of hard tactics. Illegitimate political behaviour extreme political behaviour that violates the implied rules of the game – sabotage. praise. Exchange rewarding the target with benefits or favours in exchange for following a request. Legitimate political behaviour normal everyday politics – complaining. pressure tends to frequently backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine tactics.com) . Those with good political skills have the ability to use their bases of power effectively. Specifically. See page 378 for the preferred power tactics by influence direction. repeated demands and threats. Self-serving senior managers Chapter 15: Conflict and negotiation 1. High Mach personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his or her self-interest. It encompasses a wide range of conflicts that people experience in organizations: Incompatibility of goals Differences over interpretations of facts Disagreements based on behavioural expectations Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected]) . it is unlikely that he or she will attempts to do so. Organizational investment the more a person has invested in the organization in terms of expectations of increased future benefits. The point in an ongoing activity when an interaction crosses over to become an interparty conflict. Zero-sum reward practices Democratic decision making High performance pressures employees will do whatever is necessary to make sure the numbers come out favourably. or is about to negatively affect. Promotion opportunities Low trust Role ambiguity Unclear performance evaluation system the greater the likelihood that an employee can get away with politicking. something that the first party cares about. Expectations of success if an individual has a low expectation of success in using illegitimate means.lOMoARcPSD High self-monitors Internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favour. Organizational factors Reallocation of resources decline of resources results in employees to engage in political actions to safeguard what they have. the ore likely that individual is to risk illegitimate political actions. Conflict a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected. Perceived job alternatives the more alternative job opportunities an individual has. the more that person has to lose if forced out and the less likely he or she is to use illegitimate means. Define conflict. which hinders the completion of organizational tasks. Differentiate between the traditional. Relationship conflict is almost always dysfunctional. Process conflict conflict over how work gets done. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (
[email protected] 2. because it increases personality clashes and decreases mutual understanding. Low levels of process conflict and low to moderate levels of task conflict are functional. Human relations view of conflict the belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group. human relations and interactionist views of conflict. Task conflict conflict over content and goals of the work. It was seen as a dysfunctional outcome resulting from poor communication. a lack of openness and trust between people and the failure of managers to be responsive to the needs and aspirations of their employees. The interactionist view does not propose that all conflicts are good. There are three types of conflict that differentiate functional conflict from dysfunctional conflict: 1. because it stimulates independent thinking. Relationship conflict conflict based on interpersonal relationships. Dysfunctional conflict conflict that hinders group performance. This has positive effects for decision quality. Functional conflict conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance. Traditional view of conflict the belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided. 3. 2. Interactionist view of conflict the belief that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but that it is also an absolute necessity for a group to perform effectively. because it stimulates discussion of ideas that helps groups perform better.com) . Minority dissent a minority disagrees with a majority task conflict. misunderstandings and noise in the communication channels. 3.com) . Try to justify point of view of majority. regardless of the impact on other party to the conflict. The first step in the conflict process is the presence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise. because on average people don’t prefer being a minority. then the potential for opposition or incompatibility becomes actualised in the second stage. leadership styles. 2. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. cognition and personalisation. Personal variables personality. Felt conflict emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety. Behaviour does not always accurately reflect a person’s intentions. emotions and values. tenseness. jurisdictional clarity. These conditions have been condensed into three general categories: Communication represent the opposing forces that arise from semantic difficulties. reward systems and the degree of dependence between groups. Confirming to point of view with majority (even without fully understanding it) 3. Stage III: intentions Intentions decisions to act in a given way.lOMoARcPSD Less polarization Less confirmation bias Divergent thinking and higher complexity Majority dissent convergent thinking Being confronted with majority leads to tension. member-goal compatibility. Using two dimensions – cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns) and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy their own concerns) – five conflict-handling intentions can be identified: Competing a desire to satisfy one’s interests. intensions. Stage II: Cognition and personalisation. Structure size. Perceived conflict awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise. degree of specialisation in the tasks assigned to group members. Conflict process a process that has five stages: potential opposition or incompatibility. Try to verify point of view of majority. 1. If the conditions cited in Stage I negatively affect something that one party cares about. Outline the conflict process. frustration or hostility. Stage I: Potential opposition or incompatibility. behaviour and outcomes. There are between these two points makes up each one’s aspiration range. Stage V: Outcomes The action-reaction interplay between the conflicting parties results in consequences. Intentions are not fixed. see page 407. they might change because of reconceptualization or because of an emotional reaction to the behaviour of the other party. 5. The essence of distributive bargaining is negotiating over who gets what share of a fixed pie. people have an underlying disposition to handle conflicts in certain ways. which marks the lowest outcome that is acceptable – the point below which they would break off negotiations rather than accept a less-favourable settlement. Compromising a situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something. and fosters an environment of self-evaluation and change. Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining. encourages interest and curiosity among group members. Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions. Each negotiator has a target point that defines what he or she would like to achieve.lOMoARcPSD Collaborating a situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties. which acts to dissolve common ties and eventually leads to the destruction of the group. During the course of a conflict. The destructive consequences of conflict on a group’s or an organization’s performance: uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent. 5. Distributive bargaining negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources: a win/lose situation. actions and reactions made by the conflicting parties. Define negotiation. 4. Fixed pie the belief that there is only a set amount of goods or services to be divvied up between the parties. However. Conflict management the use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict. provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released. Each also has a resistance point. 4. Avoiding the desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict. Negotiation a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. As long as there is some overlap between both Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Accommodating the willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent’s interests above their own. Stage IV: Behaviour The behaviour state includes the statements.com) . stimulates creativity and innovation. Apply the five steps of the negotiation process. The conditions include two parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns. It hinders the development of an integrative solution. and a willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility. Many negotiations are a mix of the two approaches. Fixed-pie assumptions assumption of incompatibility and identical priority of interest. Problem-solving: Expanding the pie Log-rolling: issues of higher or lower importance Cost-cutting: taking care of risks and costs for other Requires honest exchange of information about underlying concerns! Bias in negotiation Rigid thinking cognitive flexibility is crucial for integrative solutions. so a perceived zero-sum or win-lose situation. 6. Clarification and justification 4. 2. a sensitivity by both parties to the other’s needs. Closure and implementation Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. Dawson’s Gambits: Always flinch at the first offer Give your largest concession first Deferring responsibility Make deliberate mistake Integrative bargaining negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win/win solution.lOMoARcPSD negotiator’s aspiration range. The negotiation process is made up of five steps: 1.com) . there exists a settlement range in which each one’s aspirations can be met. Preparation and planning as part of you strategy. It is more common in inexperienced negotiators. Definition of ground rules 3. you should determine yours and the other side’s best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA). Bargaining and problem solving 5. the ability to trust one another. who attempts to facilitate creative problem solving through communication and analysis. Assess the roles and functions of third-party negotiations. Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by Mauro Silva (msbsilva@outlook. skilled in conflict management. Arbitrator a third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement. individuals or group representatives reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through direct negotiations. Gender men and women do not negotiate differently.com) .lOMoARcPSD 7. they may turn to a third party to help them. In integrative negotiations positive moods and emotions appear to lead to more integrative agreements. because their anger induces concessions from their opponents. but gender does affect negotiation outcomes. 9. Occasionally. Mood/emotions in distributive negotiations it appears that negotiators who show anger negotiate better outcomes. because positive moods are related to creativity. Describe cultural differences in conflict and negotiation. Mediator a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning. Conciliator a trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent. Consultant an impartial third party. Show how individual differences influence negotiations. persuasion and suggestions for alternatives. In such cases. There are three factors that influence how effectively individuals negotiate: Personality it appears that several of the Big Five traits are related to negotiation outcomes. 8.