The Influence of Phonesthesia on the English Language8/4/05 4:20 PM BENJAMIN K. SHISLER Go to my language page Go to my homepage The Influence of Phonesthesia on the English Language This document is Copyright 1997 by the author. "The validity of a phonestheme is, in the first instance, contextual only: if it fits the meaning of the word in which it occurs, it reinforces the meaning and, conversely, the more words in which this occurs, the more its own meaning is strengthened." M. L. Samuels Part 1 Introduction The Myriad Manifestations of Sound Symbolism Secondary Sound Symbolism The Universality of Sound Symbolism Phonesthetics The Origins of English Phonesthemes Why a Phonestheme is not a Morpheme Research on Sound Symbolism: Academic versus Private Sector Part 2 Cratylus About the Dictionary of English Phonesthemes Glossary of Related Terms Homepage of Benjamin Shisler The Dictionary of English Phonesthemes Introduction Scientific studies are now proving what poets and logophiles have intuited since the dawn of language: in our minds, sound and meaning are inextricably related. The ancient Greek philosophers wrote sagely about this phonetic and semantic relationship, but, until recently, many of their intriguing observations have been ignored. Modern linguists call the relationship between sound and meaning sound symbolism, but most assume that it plays only a minor role in language. The general principle , they assume, is that sound and meaning relate only arbitrarily . According to this view, called symbolism, we say things the way we do merely out of custom, habit, or circumstance. The evidence accumulated from the past three decades challenges this http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Studios/9783/phonpap1.html Page 1 of 5 The initial cluster /gl/ (light. and cuckoo. a bird. glare. Imitative sound symbols often have component phonesthetic sound symbols. glint {ablaut variant of glent}. a cry. Corporeal sound symbolism. or a bird-brained person. click can be a noun. bang. glimpse. Secondary sound symbolism Secondary sound symbolism is the study of minor aspects of sound symbolism including ablaut modification. gloss. they perhaps hold the secret to how more advanced language developed. or an intransitive verb. glade (a open passage through a wood. Phonesthetic sound symbolism. malapropisms. and phonesthetic sound symbolism. or sound type that is directly associated with a meaning. glitter. a cough. understudied. sound cluster. gleam). Another example is the use of a deeper voice to symbolize largeness. and a cuckoo can be a sound. Imitative sound symbols can range from "wild" to "tame. glance. also known as conventional sound symbolism or phonetic symbolism. http://www. falls then rises. but. plays an influential role in the English language. reduplication. because their use is so prevalent in the animal kingdom.com/SoHo/Studios/9783/phonpap1. this paper will deal no more with it." A wild symbol. emotional or unemotional. It occurs. glisten. gleam. gleed (live coal). Some examples of imitative sound symbols are the words whish. is the use of certain non-segmentable sounds to express or reflect the internal state of the speaker. lower}. An imitative sound symbol can often play a wider grammatical role than a corporeal sound symbol. also known as iconism. glim (shine. rhyming slang. My favorite examples are the manys ways that English speakers can "sing" a single word: depending on the intonation pattern (the starting pitch. glister. An example of a synesthetic sound symbol is the rising intonation to mark the end of a question.The Influence of Phonesthesia on the English Language 8/4/05 4:20 PM assumption. and the study of phonesthemes and phonesthesia is called phonesthetics. moonglade (moonlight on water).html Page 2 of 5 . glow. glum (look sullen) {probable ablaut variation of gloom}. a hiccup. The shared cultural response to a phonestheme is called phonesthesia. Wild symbols are not often included in dictionaries. and it is clear that sound symbolism plays a far larger role than hitherto recognized. to a greater or lesser extent. For example. henceforth. such as frrrrppp. A non-segmentable sound. A corporeal sound symbol is usually punctuated as its own sentence. and their use in writing is fully accepted. subsumes four primary typological significations: corporeal sound symbolism. a transitive verb. glare. and mostly unanalyzable. shine). imitative sound symbolism. glimmer. Synesthetic sound symbolism is the use of sound to symbolize something that is not sound. a grassy open or cleared space in a forest). glance}. such as a grunt. Imitative sound symbolism is the use of onomatopoeia. in the following words: glass. and whether the pitch rises. tap. glaze {from gaze. but its actual component speech sounds may only vaguely resemble the imitated sound. synesthetic sound symbolism. gloom. also known as expressive symbolism. spoonerisms. friendly or cold. enthusiastic or sarcastic. and folk etymology. An imitative sound symbol represents a sound actually heard. glare. In this paper. The Myriad Manifestations of Sound Symbolism Sound symbolism. or an interjection . gloat. is the use of sound symbolic elements called phonesthemes. Tame symbols. or rises then falls) the connation of the word can be involved or detached. an aspect of sound symbolism. breaks the phonetic or orthographical conventions of a language. but. Corporeal sound symbols are primitive. A phonestheme is a sound.geocities. glower {blend of glow. shining) is often cited as an example of an English phonestheme. is a sound that does not play a syntactic role. There has been much research on synesthetic sound symbolism. represent sounds in a conventional way. glent (glean. I will present evidence demonstrating how phonesthesia. falls. such as click. heebie-jeebies and walkie-talkie. called a phonestheme. philologists have proposed some universal sound symbols. triviality. A spoonerism is an erroneous or humorous transposition of two or more sounds in a word or phrase. port for the other." A malapropism is an erroneous or humorous substitution of one word or phrase for another. psycholinguistics. An erroneous malapropism is not usually due to what is popularly referred to as a Freudian slip. "universal. and poetics. Nevertheless. that sound component. -iculum. kittycorner derives from catercorner. large size. Blending is the process whereby the sounds of two or more words are combined to form a new word. For example. small size." in this context. For example. A persistent folk etymology is the tale that posh is a seafaring acronym for "port in. As lexicology once might have been. or rapid movement. The evidence suggests that malapropisms are most often caused by mere phonetic similarity. In English. Blending is obviously very closely related to phonesthetics. reduplication signals silliness. The sound of an object whizzing by in the air is often represented by fricatives.The Influence of Phonesthesia on the English Language 8/4/05 4:20 PM Ablaut modification is the process whereby new words are formed by the modification of the vowel of an already existing word. phonetics. Because of folk etymology.html Page 3 of 5 . Reduplication is the use of a repeated sound segment in a lexeme." There is a soundsymbolic. would get two cabins. Gang-bang is an interesting term because its extremely serious referent is juxtaposed with its silly-symbolizing reduplicative form. in order to avoid the relentless sun. in English. starboard out.geocities. The symbol /I/ is found suffixes across many languages to denote smallness. Exceptions to universal sound symbols abound. see the end of my Dictionary of English Phonesthemes. the idea is fairly simple: if multiple words share both a similar meaning and a similar sound component. seems to mean only "occurs in more than one language.com/SoHo/Studios/9783/phonpap1. Abrubt sounds and acts are often represented by plosives. starboard for one way. Universal sound symbols seem to be few in number and weak in potency. Nasal sounds are often used to represent ringing or reverberation. Folk etymology is the study of fanciful but erroneous tales of the origins of words. For examples of ablaut modification. The Universality of Sound Symbolism Most sound symbols are bound to a specific language. Related to /I/ is /i/ which is often used to represent high-frequency sound. and slow movement. a king of England once knighted a delicious cut of meat and decreed that it be called henceforth "Sir Loin. /U/ and /a/ are often used to low-frequency sound. -let. http://www. Greek -lein. big and small denote the opposite of what the universal sound symbols /I/ and /a/ predict. phonesthetics is a nebulous and subjective field residing on the fringes of psychology. A more sound-symbolic folk etymology is the tale of the origin of sirloin: supposedly. and L -icellum." Phonesthetics Phonesthetics is the study of the aesthetic symbolism of sounds. I think. softness. can be identified and defined." because rich people cruising in the tropics. sharpness. or informality. reduplication plays only a small role in word formation. My favorite spoonerism is "shining wit . word-formational phenomenon that is also referred to as folk etymology: the substitution of an unfamiliar morpheme for a familiar. However. Examples are English -ling. Old English -icel. ultimately derive from a single language. Indo-European. poignant (intense. the slang or private language used by a particular group or class. French. spicy). From a phonesthetic perspective. in so far as it is semantically expressive. or inspired element. etc. rub out). the lexicon actually has an underlying order: most English words. how there is an underlying order to our seemingly arbitrary lexicon. pugilist. smash). Phonesthemes are furthermore a glimpse into our linguistic future: English will not last forever. stinging. pungent). pitter (make small sounds like a grasshopper). it is sound. irradiated. motives. that nonetheless conforms phonesthetically to the *peuk words. The following English words derive from the IE root *peuk (prick): impugn (to challenge the integrity or veracity of. as statements. Old Norse.com/SoHo/Studios/9783/phonpap1. and the cogeneric names are created by means of this infused. a fine powder formerly used to prevent ink from spreading. etc. energy. poof. The English lexicon contains more lexemes than that of any other language. punctuate. to talk volubly but without much sense) {from paternoster}. poignant. purr. sharply painful. pygmy. and how new words are born and how meanings evolve. a union between its meaning and any of its sounds.) which is potent in the following words: pipe. just as a starry sky is a window into our cosmological past. pungent (having a stiff and sharp point. delete. puff." M. painful. puke. The Origins of English Phonesthemes It is important to note that phonesthemes seem to outlast languages and. and the pedigreed sounds of Indo-European echo in virtually every utterance we make. salesman. our vocabulary seems to be an eerie reconstruction (or recapitulation) of Indo-European. patter (the quick talk or chatter of a comedian or entertainer. From our most common words to our most elaborate. peep. or Latin. by hap-hazard favoritism. the most important linguistic element is not vocabulary.. savory. and the ripple extends. or veracity. so to are phonesthemes a window into our linguistic past. telling. pugilistic. fuck {hypothetical}. to assail by words or arguments. and then send forth this sound (or sounds) upon predatory expeditions into domains where the sound is at first a stranger and a parasite. pop. emboss. 5] Knowledge of phonesthemes can help one understand how the mind grapples with new and old words. whether borrowed from Germanic. puncture.. etc. pounce (claw. or we might say. to strike out. remove. annihilate. how (and why) similar words fit together. Greek.geocities. but it is highly likely that at least some of its phonesthemes will last until the end of human language itself. A slight emphasis punctures the placid function of a certain sound-element. no-one can say how far. purl (gentle murmuring or bubbling sound like the water of a shallow stream flowing over stones).. Daunting at first though it may be. fighting. pat (dab).The Influence of Phonesthesia on the English Language 8/4/05 4:20 PM "Every word. the initial cluster /p/ (explosive vocal sounds. rather than etymological. obliterate. penetrating.html Page 4 of 5 . attack. causing a sharp or irritated sensation. may establish. or mark for deletion. caustic. Bloomfield [Hinton. pathetic. From IE *peuk derives an English phonestheme. "The signification of any word is arbitrarily attached to some sound-element contained in it. challenge as false). call in question. to swoop upon and seize something with or as if with talons. racy. Why a Phonestheme is not a Morpheme http://www. pash (dash. a fine powder for making stenciled patterns. to repeat mechanically without considering the meaning. Patter is a good example of a word that doesn't relate etymologically to *peuk. point. edit. expunge (cancel. piercing. pointed. phenomenon. Someone ignorant as to whether tip and top were cognate would nonetheless have no trouble psychologically associating the two words. Phonesthesia is a phonetic. sprinkle). and pop" of cereals. There are numerous of these sorts of studies. The semantic content of a morpheme.word has something to do with earliness but only a fraction of gl. Research on Sound Symbolism: Academic verses Private Sector Various scientific studies have been proposed and conducted to prove or disprove claims about sound symbolism. often.words have anything to do with light or shining. For example. From the nomenclature of cars. If English were truly not a sound symbolic language. crackle. and another study on noun vowels verses verb vowels. applications of phonesthesia. Unfortunately. to the "snap. and the /s/ of cats are minimal signs of the same morpheme. morphemes can be inserted only in certain locations within a word. Sound has proven to be a profitable tool in the never-ending struggle to manipulate people. I need not mention how much corporations spend on advertising and advertising research. some linguists consider phonesthemes to be nothing more than particular type of morpheme. many of these usually conclude that people associate certain sounds with certain sensations. the /z/ of boys.com/SoHo/Studios/9783/phonpap1. Confusing the issue is the word morpheme itself. Virtually all instances of the same morpheme derive from the same etymon. this need not be the case for phonesthemes. a morpheme is a set of minimal signs with identical content. As discussed in the section in the previous section. has both a characteristic sound and a meaning. if not Machiavellian. sound symbolism is ubiquitous in product names and slogans.geocities. Morphemes are said to be segmentable: unlike phonesthemes. which is often directly present in dictionary denotations. Not surprisingly. A minimal sign is a linguistic sign that does not contain smaller elements. A morpheme. such as the initial cluster /gl/ also has a characteristic sound and a meaning. is more potent than that of a phonestheme. A phonestheme. by far. but I don't find them particularly interesting. For example. the /Iz/ of stitches. Phonesthemes can appear anywhere in a word and they never play a syntactic role. just about every proto. I read one study of male names verses female names. has conducted the most extensive research on the practical.The Influence of Phonesthesia on the English Language 8/4/05 4:20 PM There are many obvious similarities between a phonestheme and a morpheme. morphemes play a syntactic role in a word. a common definition of morpheme is "the smallest meaningful language unit" which seems to blur the distinction between morphemes and minimal signs. such as the prefix proto-. Most practical research on phonesthesia is being conducted outside the walls of academia. advertisers would be out of much of their current business. Indeed. Properly. Go to Part 2 http://www. The private sector.html Page 5 of 5 . Morphemes can change the part of speech of a word and. A phonestheme is a type of minimal sign: the same speaker always pronounces instances of the same phonestheme in the same way.