Stroboscope Stroboscopic effect Spectrometer Conoscopy lens (optics) A kaleidoscope Diffraction grating Fraunhofer diffraction Isentropic Caustic StigmaticCyclotron Carcinotron backward wave oscillator Particle accelerator LINAC- linear particle accelerator Betatron particle accelerator A magnifying glass makes a cyclically moving object appear to be slow moving phenomenon when continous motion is represented by series of instantaneous samples used to measure properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum observations of a transparent specimen in a cone of converging rays of light converges or diverges light cylinder with mirrors containing loose, colored objects set of parallel slits used to disperse light used to model the diffraction of waves when the diffraction pattern is viewed at a long distance constant entropy alkaline solution used to neutralize the acid in the discharge water arrangement of two points such that a cone of rays passing through one also passes through the other device used for accelerating charged particles to high energies amplifies microwave signals in which the traveling wave produced is reflected backward so as to sustain the wave oscillations. machine that accelerates particles to extremely high energies. Particle accelerators are used to produce beams greatly increases the velocity of charged subatomic particles. uses the electric field induced by a varying magnetic field to accelerate electrons (beta particles) to high speeds in a circular orbit. convex lens 1. A simple convex lens has a focal length that varies slightly depending on the wavelength of the light passing through it. When such a lens is used as the objective of a telescope, this effect results in (b) spherical aberration. (d) nothing! The premise is wrong. A convex lens has the same focal length for all wavelengths of light passing through it. (a) dispersion. (c) chromatic aberration. 2. Suppose that a microscope has an objective whose focal length is 1.00 mm and an eyepiece whose focal length is 25.0 mm. What is the magnification? (b) 625× (a) 25× (c) 0.0400×. This device doesn’t magnify. It makes the specimen look smaller. (d) we need more information to calculate the magnification. 3. Suppose that a pane of crown glass, with a refractive index of 1.52, is immersed in water, which has a refractive index of 1.33. A ray of light traveling in the water strikes the glass at 45° relative to the normal and travels through the pane. What angle, relative to the normal, will the ray of light subtend when it leaves the pane and reenters the water? (b) 54° (a) 38° (c) 45° 4. Suppose that the numerical aperture of a microscope objective in air is 0.85. The medium between the lens and the specimen is replaced by water, which has a refractive index of 1.33. The numerical aperture of the objective (a) does not change. (c) decreases to 0.639. (b) increases to 1.13. (d) cannot be calculated from this information. 5. According to the law of reflection, (a) a ray of light traveling from a medium having a low refractive index to a medium having a higher refractive index (b) a ray of light traveling from a medium having a high refractive index to a medium having a lower refractive index is reflected at the boundary. A cassegrain-type reflecting telescope has an objective mirror with a diameter of 300 mm and an eyepiece with a focal length of 30 mm.900 (c) 0. Suppose that the speed of red visible light in a certain transparent medium is 270. The magnification is (a) 100×. (b) physical stability becomes more and more important.11 (d) it cannot be calculated from this information.810 (b) 1. (b) can focus the sun’s rays to a brilliant point.000 km/s. (d) impossible to calculate from this information. (d) is ideal for use as the objective in a refracting telescope. 6. (b) 10×.000×. What. (a) the image resolution decreases in direct proportion. approximately. (d) none of the above. 7. What is the critical angle of light rays inside a gem whose .is reflected at the boundary. (c) a ray of light always reflects from a shiny surface in a direction exactly opposite the direction from which it arrives. (c) the light-gathering area increases in direct proportion. is the index of refraction for this substance with respect to red light? (a) 0. 10. (d) dimmer and dimmer objects can be seen. 9. 8. A diverging lens (a) can collimate converging rays of light. As the magnification of a telescope is increased. (c) is also known as a convex lens. (c) 9. No net torque acting on the rigid body A rigid body in mechanical equilibrium is neither undergoing linear nor rotational acceleration. (a) 25° (c) 67° (b) 65° (d) 90° Light beam will follow a curved path in a gravitational field. Carnot's theorem a principle in thermodynamics: an engine working in a reversible cycle is at least as efficient as any other engine working between the same limits of temperature The casimir effect is a small attractive force that acts between two close parallel uncharged conducting plates. in other words. light is bent by gravity. Compton effect the increase in wavelength of electromagnetic radiation. however it could be translating or rotating at a constant velocity. Couple two forces are not along the same line they create a net torque Conditions for the equilibrium of a rigid body 2. which governs its resistance to the action of a force . Moment of inertia about a 1. No net force acting on the rigid body 1. 1 erg = 1 dyne cm = 1 g·cm2/s2 Two numerical measures of the inertia of a body: 2.4? Assume that the gem is surrounded by air. Mass.refractive index is 2. Huygens' principle Every point on a wave-front may be considered a source of secondary spherical wavelets which spread out in the forward direction at the speed of light. 1 lambert (la) = 10000/π (cd/m²) 1 flame (flm) = 4 footcandle Luminous flux. Centripetal acceleration caused by constantly change of direction of motion for a object that moves in a circular path the object has an acceleration named centripetal acceleration Centripetal – inward 1 (cd/m²) = 1 nit (nt) Illumination. lumen (lm) = 1 candela · steradian (ca · sr) Photometers are used to measure the intensity of the light produced by an unknown source in terms of a standard source. Angular magnification The ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the image forme d by an optical instrument to the anglesubtended at the eye by the object being viewed. Achromatic prism deviates light without dispersion. which measures its resistance to the action of a torque about the same axis. The new wave-front is the tangential surface to all of these secondary wavelets. The wave equation is an important second-order linear partial differential equation for the description of waves Brillouin scattering. Heisenberg's uncertainty The position and momentum of a particle cannot be principle simultaneously measured with arbitrarily high precision. candela (cd) = 1 lumen per steradian (lm/sr) 1 lumen (lm) = 4 · pi mean spherical candlepower Centrifugal – outward 1 candela = 1 lumen/steradian. Chromatic prism deviates light with dispersion. occurs when light in a medium interacts with time-dependent optical density variations and changes its energy (frequency) and path.specified axis. lux (lx) = 1 lumen per square meter (lm/m²) = 1 metercandle (mc) Luminous intensity. . Alpha particle positively charged nuclear particle. but not quite parallel to each other. Rossby waves occur in layers of fluid which are bounded by two planes almost perpendicular to an axis of rotation. Delta particle a very shortlived hyperon Gamma particle.Rayleigh scattering. are a type of mechanical wave possible in rotating fluids. Rayleigh wave a type of seismic surface wave that moves with a rolling motion that consists of a combination of particle motion perpendicular and parallel to the main direction of wave propagation. Love wave a type of seismic surface wave in which particles move with a side-to-side motion perpendicular to the main propagation of the earthquake. the scattering of sunlight off the molecules of the atmosphere. Inertial waves. Brillouin scattering. Scattering of light from acoustic modes Compton scattering is an inelastic scattering of a photon by a free charged particle. Plasma oscillations. also known as inertial oscillations.it is more penetrating than alpha radiation and beta radiation but has less ionizing power and is not deflected in electric or magnetic fields. also known as langmuir waves are rapid oscillations of the electron density in conducting media such as plasmas or metals. elastic scattering of light or other electromagnetic radiation by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light. Rayleigh scattering. deflected by magnetic and . A solid crystal of sodium iodide creates a pulse of light when radiation interacts with it. MicroR meter— used to count radioactive radiations.electric field. Ferromagnetic Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Viscosity Of A Fluid . shows small penetration and produce great ionization Beta particle – deflected by magnetic and electric field.a strongly interacting particle that is made up of a quark/antiquark pair and has an even integer spin. Lepton . derivative (the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function) is zero. All leptons have lepton number 1 Gravitron .a class of fermion whose members participate in weak. show much greater penetration and produce less ionization Muon .for horizontal Rolle's theorem states that a real-valued differentiable fluid flow. electromagnetic. Meson .a fundamental subatomic particle that is 207 times heavier than an electron.a theoretical particle having no mass and no charge that mediates (carries) the gravitational force. Néel Temperature the temperature at which ferrimagnetic and anti ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic. Geiger counter – used to count radioactive radiations that will ionize the gas of the counter tube.the measure of how resistive the fluid is . The graviton is a boson. Bernoulli effect . Drift velocity is the average velocity of a charged particle Ferrimagnetism a property exhibited by materials whose atoms or ions tend to assume an ordered but nonparallel arrangement in zero applied field below a certain characteristic temperature known as the néel temperature. an increase in the function which attains equal values at two distinct points must velocity of flow will result in a have a point somewhere between them where the first decrease in the static pressure. and gravitational interactions. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the measure of the internal resistance.to flow. Eotvos .force felt by a body being held at rest in a rotating reference frame Charles theorem .the cgs unit of kinematic viscosity. Coriolis acceleration . Nutation . tends to oppose and damp out motion. Stoke . Poise . Acoriolis = -2(angular velocity)(radial velocity) The coriolis force is a fictitious force exerted on a body when it moves in a rotating reference frame. Serves as a mechanics for transforming kinetic energy into thermal energy. equal to 1 cm2 s-1.a quantity in which no force is involved. equal to 1 g cm-1 s-1.the plane of the moon's orbit about the earth rotates with respect to the .the cgs unit of dynamic Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity viscosity.Any general displacement of a rigid body can be represented by a translation plus a rotation Eulers’theorem The general displacement of a rigid body with one point fixed is a rotation about some axis. Varignon's theorem The theorem that the moment of a force is the algebraic sum of the moments of its vector components acting at a common point on the line of action of the force. Friction is the resistive force kinetic friction (the frictional force tending to slow a body in acting between bodies that motion). 1/10 pa s. to density . static friction (the frictional force opposing placing a body at rest into motion) The study of friction is called tribology. Centrifugal Force .acceleration corresponding to the coriolis force.a unit of angular acceleration equal to 10-9 s-2. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid. 6 years. Pauling is also one of only two people to be awarded nobel prizes in different fields. and determine it principal moments of inertia with . and the only person to win in multiple sciences. The rotation about c (largest principal axis) is stable. rotation about b (middle principal axis) is unstable. the other being marie curie. Rotational stability Consider a rotating body. A parameter describing the degree of stability is given by For rotation about the a-axis. For rotation about the c-axis or . Radius of gyration is a quantity with units of length obtained by dividing the moment of inertia i by the mass of the object m and taking the square root.ecliptic with a period of 18. and rotation about a (smallest principal axis) is "mostly" stable. Precession . the only woman to win in two fields. She was the first woman to win a nobel prize.the periodic circular motion of the axis of a rotating body due to an external torque. Linus Pauling the only person to be awarded two unshared nobel prizes. Spherical aberration An optical aberration caused blurring of the image produce on a concave mirror due to the convergences of rays John Bardeen american physicist the first person to have won the nobel prize in physics twice Marie Curie famous for her pioneering research on radioactivity. Paul Dirac formulated the dirac equation. caused by the inability of the lens to bring the various colors of light to focus at a single point. Mechanical work is the amount of energy transferred by a force acting through a distance. a positively charged electron Carl david Anderson He is best known for his discovery of thepositron in 1932. british biochemist the first to received twice the nobel prize for chemistry. Tesla The mks unit of magnetic field strength.Frederick Sanger. . Chromatic aberration Color distortion in an image produced by a lens. equal to 10^4 gauss. which describes the behaviour of fermions and predicted the existence of antimatter/positron. The gravitational field strength is roughly constant close to the earth's surface. Force 1. a and b.A force is a push or pull. 3.they do not act perpendicular to the surfaces in contact.the force that holds the nucleus of an atom together. They occur when one object slides or attempts to slide along another . This is the force that holds bonds together. . Strong nuclear force . The production of the force is due to small forces between microscopic imperfections in the surfaces. This acts perpendicular to the surface Weight is the force exerted on an object in a gravitational field. but along them.e. and thus the two objects exert a force on each other. They are basically electromagnetic in nature . more precisely. "something" that causes a body to accelerate. 2. They are a tangential contact force .the electrons on the surface of one object repel the electrons on the surface of the other object. Electromagnetic forces forces caused by the attraction between positive and negative charges. When there are two objects. and is proportional to the mass of the object and the strength of the gravitational field. Gravitational forces .the attraction of any two masses to each other. contact forces are the forces exerted when two objects touch. 4. or. Weak nuclear force . Friction forces are another type of contact force.the sliding motion is resisted by the static object. producing a force on each object. a force is normally thought of as the push or pull of a on b. The weight is due to the attraction between the object and another large body (i. The earth). There are four types of forces.a force that causes unstable atoms to undergo radioactive decay. One type of contact force is the normal contact force. by a process not yet known. there is a centre of mass.compression pushes away from the centre of the object in both direction. the centre of mass can be found by suspending the lamina from a point and marking the vertical line from the point of suspension.the state produced when two forces are squashing an object in the opposite directions. There is tension causes by the two sides both pulling the rope in opposite directions. For objects with 3d symmetry and constant density. the centre of mass is at the centre of the body. Centre of mass Tension is the state that an object is in when two forces are pulling it in opposite directions. or where the mass all appears to be.that a body is sitting on and is of the same magnitude that the body pushes the surface with. where the two lines coincide. The centre of mass is the same as the centre of gravity. Compression is the opposite state to tension . These two terms both mean the point at which the weight of an object acts. They are due to the kinetic energy lost in pushing the fluid out of the way of the object and the frictional force between the fluid and the object. Tension in a wire pulls on both ends towards the middle of the wire . The gravitational pull of the earth or any other sufficiently large body on an object close to it is called that object�s weight. For all other objects. For a lamina. This is repeated for a different point of suspension to find the centre of mass.81 ms-2 (it is an acceleration. For example. One example of this is the rope in a game of tug-of-war. This is the force that prevents the body sinking into the surface. as shown in the equation w = mg. The gravitational field strength of the earth at sea level in britain is 9. but it is not as easy to find. a book sitting on a horizontal surface: Drag forces are the forces produced when an object moves through a fluid. as weight is a force). This is found by multiplying the mass of the object by the gravitational field strength. Equations of motion forces are vector quantities. and therefore are represented as . the following symbols are used: 3. the object that for force is acting on and the nature of the force. 1. Any height on the y-axis represents a velocity this diagram shows a velocity time graph. The gradient of the line represents the acceleration In the equations of motion. The forces should be labelled with the object exerting the force. The following should be remembered: 2. See previously for notes on resolving vectors. Free-body force diagrams are often used to represent the forces on a particle or body they involve taking the body separately from all the other objects in a situation and representing the forces that exist on it. The area under the graph represents the displacement V= u= x or s = a= t = time final initial velocity velocity displacement acceleration Looking at a graph representing motion under a constant acceleration: .vectors. Displacement is a vector quantity . the body is said to be in equilibrium. on a velocity. This is the distance from a point in a particular direction. The speeed and acceleration of a body in free fall can be found using light gates or ticker-timers. The time whilst the beam is broken can be measured. as the velocity is equal to the displacement divided by the time. This is because acceleration = velocity / time. . Newton's second law: Free fall Projectiles Newton's laws of motion Newton's first law: When this is the case. Newton developed three laws that are the basis of much of the modern science of motion. the gradient. time graph is displacement. time graph. The length of tape between two points gives the distance moved. A light gate consists of a beam of light that is broken by a card attached to a body. The area under the velocity. In the same way. . Has a direction associated with it.e. Substituting the second equation into the first. and thus from the length of the card the speed measured ( ). A body will remain at rest or continue to move at a constant velocity as long as the forces on it are balanced or zero. it can be seen that: and rearranging this we get . Acceleration can be measured by taking two velocity measurements and dividing by the time between them ( ).i. and calculations on these two components can then be done seperately. The gradient.from the area under the graph. A ticker timer places 50 dots on a piece of tape passing through it (attached to the body in case). we get: These equations can be applied in any situations with constant acceleration. it can be seen clearly that: looking at the gradient of the graph. and thus the velocity and acceleration can be measured as below. Motion should be resolved into mutually perpendicular directions before the equations are applied. The motion of a projectile can be split up into horizontal and vertical components. in this case in motion. . This means that there is no net change. This can also be written as: Linear momentum is defined as p = mv (base units kg m s-1) For this reason. Force = change in momentum/time. bodies Always concerns two forces . . is called the principle About a they pair of forces on two This different of the conservation of linear momentum. therefore. the constant of proportionality = 1. the forces will be a newton's third law pair. This shows that the effect of a small force for a large amount of time and a large force for a small amount of time is equal. When a exerts a force on b. It is generally stated in ns. Act for the same time. Act on different objects. This gives the base unit definition for the newton. Be equal in magnitude. Newton i About forces on a single body Concerns any number of forces Putting this into base units. time graph. The acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and takes place in the same direction as the force. the following must be true: 1. Newton's third law: The forces must 2. The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the resultant force and takes place in the same direction. It may also be seen as the area under a force. This change in momentum is called impulse.Acceleration is caused by unbalanced forces. The two bodies put together always have the same momentum as did at the start. If all these are true. For two forces to be newton's third law pair. force x time = change in momentum. Using the si system. Differences between newton i and newton (iii) In any collision. 5. leading to a resultant force in a particular direction. f = ma. b exerts an equal and opposite force on a. Be opposite in direction 4. the momentum of the bodies is totally Newton iii transfered. Be of the same type. 3. forces are equal and opposite Only applies when a body is in equilibrium. or as force in the direction of the velocity multiplied by the velocity. represent energy transfer. Always the same type of force. there is a loss in energy. The symbols for this are p= kg m2 s-3. It may also be useful to note that power in an electrical circuit is found by multiplying the current by the . and the car moves for 10m. In symbols. This is called an inelastic collision. it is the average force in the correct direction. Mechanical energy it is called an elastic collision. The only collision of this type is when one object that is in motion collides with a stationary object of the same mass. How much work has been done by the car? Power is the rate at which energy is transferred. expressed as energy / time. Otherwise. If the collision does not lead to a loss in energy.The forces can be different types. energy may be lost in the collision. or work is done. therefore. For a constantly changing force where there is no fixed pattern to the changing of the force. Forces always equal and opposite Always applies. Work is the term used to The base units for work are. then it is the area under a force. One very inelastic collision is the collision between two sponge balls. Example: A car's engine develops a force of 1000 n. kg m2 s-2. displacement graph. If the force is changing constantly. If there are two forces and they are in equilibrium. Collisions However. Work is the force in the direction of a displacement multiplied by the displacement. This energy is kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy associated with motion.one for each type of force. When it falls back down to the lower lake again.the way in which things are arranged. It is usually concerned with the separation of two bodies. When water in a pumped storage plant is pumped up to the higher lake. The energy is a consequence of the position of bodies on which forces act. An object of mass 8 kg is pushed with a force of 50n for Potential energy 2m. deforming a spring by squeezing it gives it potential energy. For example. Kinetic energy is defined as k. All other types of energy flow from these two types of energy. some of which it then loses to the . Gravitational potential energy is Electromagnetic potential energy. There are two main types of energy . = �mv�.8v�) v�= 100(2 / 8) = 25 v = 5ms-1 Potential energy exists in four Gravitational potential energy. voltage.e. It is energy associated with configuration . it looses this gravitational energy but gains in kinetic energy. What is the velocity of the object? k. it gains gravitational potential energy. types . = �mv� 100 = �(0.kinetic energy and potential energy. potential energy where the forces that act on the bodies involved are gravitational. one of them usually having a very large gravitational force (i. it gains energy. Example.Energy Kinetic energy. When a mass is accelerated (by the application of a force). The earth).e.e. The efficiency of a mechanical system is defined as the fraction useful energy out / energy put in. These two types of energy re. That is lost is transferred into internal energy. or efficiency = work out / work in. The general form of electromagnetic potential energy is responsible for a vast range of things. g is the gravitational field strength. the electromagnetic potential energy between them changes. and it gains electromagnetic potential energy. This internal energy is very difficult to tap and therefore is often regarded as lost energy. The efficiency of systems varies. change in gravitational potential energy=mg h. referred to as internal energy. or heat. when a spring is stretched. and the ability of batteries to produce energy. When close to the earth�s surface. This type of electromagnetic potential energy is also referred to as elastic potential energy. put together. The molecules in bodies are in a state of constant motion. but no Nuclear potential energy causes the potential energy of nuclear fuels. It can only be changed from one form into another.turbines in the system that generate electricity. the k.i. also known as thermal energy. the bonds in it are distorted. The principle of the conservation of energy states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. It takes energy to put them there. Electromagnetic potential energy is caused by the arrangement of charges into structures that they would rather not be in . When there is an inelastic collision between two objects. When they move relative to each other. and h is the change in height of the body concerned. where m is the mass of the object concerned.e. Circular motion .e. including the energy in food. For example. This energy is converted into electromagnetic potential energy. and is given by the following formulae: Straight line velocity is a vector quantity . i. When plotted on a graph. but can have different straight line velocities.angular velocity. When working with circular motion.e.turning force and equilibrium direction as well as speed. The adoption of the radian as a unit of angle allows a new concept to be worked with . as energy is always lost thorough friction between the moving parts. A radian is the segment of the circle that is produced when a part of the circumference the length of the radius is (about 6.) This The time period of a rotation (the time that it takes for radians of rotation) is given makes sense. the time period can be expressed in terms of angular velocity. and the vibration of subatomic particles. This is given by the formulae . as it is the circumference divided by the straight line velocity of the object. depending on the radius of the circle that it rotates in (the distance from the centre of the circle to the object. motors. This is in hertz (hz).mechanical system is 100% efficient. This is given the symbol different places on the same system have the same angular velocity. and therefore in a system with circular motion. the straight line velocity is changing all the time. circular motion appears in the form of a sine wave.3) radians in a circle. and therefore the unit is rad s-1. There is an acceleration. springs. it is convenient to be able to use a unit more allied with reality that the degree. including pendulums. This the radian. Many systems in nature exhibit circular motion. as reciprocal. In the same way. its frequency can be measured.it is dependant on Statics . This is the number of radians that a rotating object turns through in 1 second. 1. thus moment = fd. there is another condition. That the sum of the moments about a point are zero. They do not cause translational acceleration. a moment is always referred to in newton metres and energy in joules. . giving f=mv2/r. A combination of these methods may be needed to find the answer in a situation. The units for moment are n metres. there are three equations that one can usually write down: 2. This is the centripetal force . only rotation. as they are equal and opposite. 1.needed to change velocity. as clockwise and anticlockwise moments are possible. Unknown forces can usually be found by: 2. Resolving horizontal of vertical vectors. 3. That the total force in any other direction (usually vertical) is zero.the force towards the centre of the circle. Calculating the moments around a point. Not only must the sum of all forces in any direction be 0. so by convention. A torque is the turning moment caused by a set of two or more forces that tend to cause a rotational acceleration. The sum of the moments about any point must be zero. or kg m s-2. When looking at a statics problem. and thus finding the unknown A pair of equal and opposite forces that do not act on the same line can cause rotation. Thus a body can be in translational equilibrium and not in rotational equilibrium. Again. which is given by substituting the equation for the acceleration into newton's second law. If a body is in equilibrium. It is quantified as the magnitude of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot. but they do cause rotational acceleration. a torque does not cause any translational acceleration. then. This is called the principle of moments. That the total force in any one direction (usually horizontal of vertical) is zero. The moment of a force is a measure of the turning force provided by that force. but the sum of the moment turning the body in one direction must equal the sum of the moments turning the body in the opposite direction. it follows that there must be a force present. This is the same units as those for work done. This pair of forces is called a couple. Moment is a vector quantity. .force.