Dimitra Rousioti, Gregory StournarasTHE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN CRETE AT THE END OF THE BRONZE AGE: SETTLEMENTS WITH SHRINES* The excavation and publication projects of postpalatial settlements with urban shrines in eastern Crete provide us with the opportunity to examine the role of the shrines within the settlements as well as the importance of religion for the postpalatial communities.This paper focuses on the settlements of Kavousi-Vrondas, Halasmenos and Karphi that are characterized by their LM III C occupation date and the uncovering of a shrine at the edge of the habitation area. In addition reference will be made to the evidence from the partially excavated site of Kephala Vasilikis and the LM IIIB site of Gournia (fig. 1). The topography of the postpalatial shrines in urban context led scholars in the past to propose that religion in the postpalatial period was of minor importance because the shrine was often founded at the edge of the settlement and not in a central area. In this paper we explore the topography and spatial organization of those settlements where enough architectural elements were uncovered. It will be argued that shrines of public character were basic elements in the postpalatial communities and defined the existence of the settlement itself. We chose to concentrate on Eastern Crete, because this is an area rich in postpalatial settlements, which has been excavated and published to a great extent1. * This presentation was based on a project funded by the Institute for Aegean Prehistory in 2005. We are deeply grateful to Thomas Brogan, Eleanor Huffman and Evi Sikla for the warm hospitality in INSTAPEC. We are also grateful to Dr Metaxia Tsipopoulou (Ministry of Culture), Professor Kevin Glowacki (University A&M), Panagiota At Vasiliki Ierapetras excavations were conducted between 1994 and 1996 on the imposing hill of Kephala located about 600m to the west of the well-known EM-LM I settlement. At least 10 buildings scattered across the hill with the steep slopes and the flat table-shaped summit were located and partially investigated (Eliopoulos 1998, 301-304). The buildings, which according to the excavator belong to a LM III C-Protogeometric settlement, cover part of the top of the hill (220 × 70m) and extend to the N and NE (fig. 2). However the limited excavation work and the poor preservation of certain buildings do not allow any safe conclusion about urban development at the site. Building E, located at the SW edge of the hill, was characterized by the excavator Th. Eliopoulos as the Temple Complex. The building, which has been fully investigated but not published, is dated to LM IIIC Early or Middle period with possible additions and alterations of Protogeometric date (Eliopoulos 1998, 306, 309). Building E, the size of which (25m. × 17m.) and the internal organization are noteworthy, consists of 8 rooms (grouped in three wings) with different orientation, interior constructions and probably function as well. In Room 3 a series of constructions were uncovered indicating a distinct function: benches Pantou (University of Buffalo) and Professor Yannis Lolos (University of Thessaly) for their constructive commends. 1. Postpalatial shrines were also uncovered at Knossos, Gazi and and Kannia, however they are not included in this study as there is no sufficient evidence for their contemporary settlements. A basic feature of the Kavousi-Vronda settlement is the exploitation of all the available terraces for the construction of multiple building complexes of different sizes. Distribution and display of wealth as well as social stratification are indicated by the large amount of decorated drinking cups of exceptional size and the parts of bovine and agrimi skulls. a hearth and a central stone construction in which. Day Preston 1997). 130132). 86-88). However Room 4. The architecture and the finds of those buildings indicate functional independence as all of them contain residential and storage rooms. Klein – Glowacki 2009. Harriet Boyd first undertook limited excavation in 1900. figs. On the low hill Vronda south of the modern village of Kavousi. 14). a snake tube. the southernmost Room 4 contained a group of finds in situ which could be associated with the performance of cult: at least two figures of goddesses with up-raised hands. clay stands and plaques. however the uncovering of fragments of the female figure on a throne can be interpreted as later disturbance of Room 4 and not as indication of cult performances.490 DIMITRA ROUSIOTI. The rest of the rooms of the building were interpreted as residential and store rooms as based on their finds2. 306307. 395-401. a rounded stone-baityl was incorporated (fig. However no small finds securely used in cult practices could be related to the above constructions (Eliopoulos 1998. while traces of a small clay hearth and a platform can also be identified. Glowacki recently suggested these complexes consist of house-units and reveal several stages of construction. probably intended for display as wall decoration or hangings (Day Preston – Snyder 2004. according to the excavator. Gesell. 160. GREGORY STOURNARAS and platforms across the walls. The excavation and cleaning efforts conducted on a regular base revealed an extensive settlement which crowned the summit of the hill (fig. Day and W. 4). a considerable quantity of pebbles. could be reached only by a narrow passage along the west edge of the steep cliff. The function of Building E cannot be securely identified due to the limited scale of excavation and the absence of publication of its architectural details and small finds. On the contrary. The site was reinvestigated from the late 1970’s until the 1990’s by the American School of Classical Studies under the guidance of G. As K. 2004. . Although the excavator proposed that both Rooms 3 and 4 were used for cult practices performed within a larger multi-functional building including storage rooms and residential areas. L. To date some 15 to 20 buildings of LM III C late period were uncovered along with small tholos tombs of SM-Protogeometric and Geometric period located to the north and NW of the settlement (Gesell – Day – Coulson 1995. Glowacki – Klein in this volume). Day Preston 1997. entrance and no communication with the rest of the building. which is the only one in the building that contains equipment in association with constructions related to cult activities. Dickinson 2006. 8-9). 68-92. Room 5 to the North of Room 4 also contained benches and a small hearth. To the East. 66-73. at an altitude of 420m. it is also possible that Room 4 functioned independently seeing that it had its own 2. between Building E and Building A there is an open area through which access to the north and central part of the building is possible (Eliopoulos 1998. layout and storage capacity (it contained at least 7 pithoi of large size) are concerned. Benches are built along the walls of the rectangular room. 3). The functional association of Building E with the nearby areas is unclear. Prent 2005. 105-106. rising higher than any other structure and it is exceptional as far as its dimensions. most likely reflecting the growth and change of population (Glowacki 2007. 307-309. pottery related to food preparation and consumption (Eliopoulos 1998. Coulson. In addition the evidence from Building A/B suggests the existence of some kind of central authority as the topography and the architectural sophistication indicate: the building sits on top of the summit of the hill. one of which is sitting on a throne. 100). These finds (a large number of goddesses with up raised hands. 348-349. The construction of Building G has much in common with the domestic architecture of the settlement. Nowicki 1987. clay plaques. The settlement was probably founded in LM III C early and was in use until the Subminoan period. kalathoi and snake tubes) along with the finds uncovered in situ in room 2 constitute a homogeneous group used during the cult practices performed in the southern part of the settlement (Gesell 1995. 123. Prent 2005. In addition. 1937-1938. 153. 79-80). 253254. 121. consisting of megaron-shaped structures and buildings built along different axes. 135. The town planning indicates the existence of organized habitation quarters. Although sherds of Protogeometric date have been reported from the area of the settlement. The settlement oc- cupies the slopes of the distinctive peak of Karphi and the nearby Koprana ridge (fig. 1992. whorls. 1997. pottery) do not safely suggest their use for cult purposes. which must have covered at least 3 hectares (Nowicki 1987. Myers et al. Glowacki – Klein 2009. the large long bench that abuts against the exterior part of the western wall of the building is a unique architectural feature that makes the western façade exceptionally impressive. 236-237. differentiate it from the multiple house complexes throughout the site (Glowacki 2007. 4. excavated on a low terrace at the southwest edge of the settlement. The evidence from the nearby cemetery of small tholos tombs supports these dates (Kanta 1980. The area is in close proximity to the so-called “Great House”. Myers et al. which had as a result the disturbance of the Late Bronze Age strata. 116-119). The building is located in a relatively isolated position and it is associated with an open area to the west (Klein 2004. In the case of Room 27 the discovery of 2 rhyta cannot support the identification of the place as a shrine. must have been a building of special status as topography and architecture indicate. “Small Shrine”) to places. 2001. 154-156). Despite the construction of Geometric cist graves inside the building and in the open area to the west. a building whose unusual size and the quality of finds led to its iden3. 5). Religious activity has been attributed to different places spread all over the settlement based on the discovery of portable objects that could have had a cultic use4. not necessarily cultic. no conclusion about the use of the site in this period can be reached because the material remains unpublished. At Karphi. in which fragments of goddesses with up-raised hands were uncovered. . One of the places identified as a shrine is the open area 16-17 in the eastern part of the settlement. 138. benches and platforms were uncovered in both rooms and the remains of a hearth are located in Room 2. 118-119)3.148m. various functions could be attributed. The association of the exterior part of Building G with cult is indicated by the large number of cult equipment spread over the open area. 150-151).5m) with a NE-SW orientation. Day Preston 2009. however the western façade and the fact that it is the only building with two rooms.THE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN CRETE AT THE END OF THE BRONZE AGE 491 Building G. the British excavations uncovered between 1937 and 1939 an extensive settlement in an area where a possible MM mountain shrine was previously founded (Pendlebury et al. 139. More specifically.5m × 10. In some cases conventional names had been given (“Priest’s House”. Gesell – Day – Coulson 1995. This led scholars to the suggestion that in Karphi a possible decentralization of the cult activity took place (D’ Agata 2001. Building activity took into consideration the tendency to exploit every single plot of the sloping area. the religious use of Building G is well attested by both the preserved structures and the small finds. 246). 1992. in functional association with the road system which run through the whole site. Prent 2005. 77-78). It is a free-standing two-room structure (measuring 3. although the finds (clay stands. in association with a possible political-administrative decentralization (Day Preston – Snyder 2004. According to surface survey data the uncovered part (0. Prent 2005. In addition to Room 106 of the so-called “Commercial Quarter”. in the north range of the Lasithi mountains and at an altitude of 1.6 hectares) comprises only a small section of the original settlement. with an independent entrance and an open space to the east (fig. whereas the whole settlement is estimated to cover 20 hectares. flourished and abandoned before the end of LM III C period (Coulson – Tsipopoulou 1994. The excavations conducted in Room 1 uncovered stone constructions identified as benches or shelves along the south and west wall as well as a platform in the north part of the room. 139. a seal and pottery with special use. The building although located on the inaccessible crest that marks the northern edge of the LM III C site. which led to the identification of the area as a shrine. On the contrary. 118). According to the excavators the settlement has a small period of use. but they possibly belong to a deposit pit (Pendlebury et al. 1937-1938.492 DIMITRA ROUSIOTI. The settlement is located on the top of a relatively abrupt mound to the south of the Cha gorge and has unimpeded view towards the fertile plain of the north Ierapetra Isthmus and the Mirabello Gulf. usually consisted of a large room with a hearth and two or three small rooms used for food preparation and storage (Tsipopoulou – Nowicki 2003. 158). 263. Coulson 1999. the important group of 5. 75-76). Seiradaki 1960. Tsipopoulou 2004a. The excavators report that some of the finds. figs. The town planning at Halasmenos took into consideration the configuration of the mound: the majority of the buildings had a NW-SE orientation and most of the open areas were formed by the projecting natural rock. like kalathoi (Gesell 1985. The following architectural phase was characterized by expansion of the main room to the south and the construction of small subsidiary rooms to the west (Rutkowski 1987. 75). 136. Area 16-17 was identified as an open air shrine due to the discovery of a group of finds consisting of unspecified fragments of goddesses with up-raised hands. a triton shell and a clay stand. but also in one of the small rooms indicate the performance of rituals: at least five goddesses with up raised hands and fragments of many others. It has been suggested that the building has at least two architectural phases and that during the first phase it consists of a single large rectangular room (Room 1). 6). 135. whorls. 317318). Day Preston – Snyder 2004. 562-563. 1992. placing it among the largest settlements in the area (Tsipopoulou – Nowicki 2003. Myers et al. 8-12). Klein – Glowacki 2009. objects uncovered mainly in Room 1. shells. at Halasmenos at the north end of the Ierapetra Isthmus the Greek-Αmerican excavations conducted from 1992 onwards uncovered an extensive settlement at an altitude of 240m (fig. 562). The north wall of the main room was not preserved and had collapsed over the cliff (Gesell 1985. Prent 2005. The habitation areas uncovered so far were adjacent to each other. In addition. It is a free standing building. However the function of the whole place remains unclear5. The NW part of the settlement is characterized by a distinctive building area: . 79. To date an area of at least 3 hectares has been excavated. tools. 326. its independent access to the road system of the settlement as well as the differentiation of the finds uncovered indicate that area 16-17 probably did not belong to the “Great House” and had an autonomous function. GREGORY STOURNARAS tification as a building of special status. The position of the shrine at the border of the settlement and at the edge of the cliff is comparable to the position of the shrine (Room 4) at Kephala Vasilikis. Lastly. Rutkowski 1987. The open area 16-17 was originally interpreted as part of the “Great House”. it was accessible through a well organized road system. YasurLandau 2006). 7). However the absence of any evidence of direct communication. a clay plaque with human head. it was established. 79. Tsipopoulou 2005. were not actually used in the place they were uncovered. 29. but it is unclear whether the open space was functionally related to it (Day Preston – Snyder 2004. the so-called Temple can be safely identified as a shrine based on its layout and small finds. 259-262. 103-106. Buildings and courts extended on three distinct terraces have been uncovered as well as a small tholos tomb. 2004. The shrine consisted of two rooms of different size and was probably associated with storage rooms to the SE (Tsipopoulou 2001. 91-92. consequently. the unbuilt space that probably surrounded it and its distinct architecture suggest its functional autonomy (Gesell 2004. The postpalatial shrine was built during the LM III B period (Russell 1979. Gesell 1985. In addition. the shrine is always located at the edge of the settlement and is approached through the road system and open courts. 135-136. snake tubes. 9-11). 329-330). Rethemniotakis 1997. XLVIIIe) in an area where no traces of earlier cult existed. in each settlement there is a public shrine with distinct architecture and finds. 136). These LM IIIC shrines are characterized by the relatively small dimensions and the limited number of rooms. 2009. The special function related to cult practices is well-established by the finds : numerous figures of goddesses with upraised hands. The settlements discussed share the following common features: they all consist of residential. 185-186. 28. which were possibly related to an attempt for social differentiation (Paschalidis 2006. 221-224). administrative and religious buildings suggesting that the postpalatial communities of eastern Crete had an economic. distribution and exchange of goods had as a result the remodeling of the countryside during the LM III C period in the area of the Ierapetra Isthmus and the Mirabello gulf and. kalathoi. 72. 139. some of them equipped with specially formed installations. Similarities can be also traced in the cult equipment consisting of a goddess with up raised hands and fragments of others as well as snake tubes and a tripod offering table (Fotou 1993. It can be suggested that the absence of a political center controlling the production. 99). Kanta 1980. However the accessibility to open areas. 150). on a low terrace. the flourishing of numerous small independent settlements. the special association with the system of communication as well as by the distribution of built and open areas in the settlements. Whittaker 1997.) which can be identified as a public shrine came to light. clay plaques. The location of the building at the NE edge of the settlement. the easy accessibility from a road system and an open court and the possible bench construction in the interior. the architectural independence. The placement of the shrines at the edge of the settlements offered unlimited visibility of the sea and land routes (figs. × 13m. in association with the homogeneity of the cult objects indicate their use as places of public worship. 129-138. For each settlement its shrine would have been a reference point and a landmark. 81-82. 124-130. 2005. The public character of the shrines is suggested by the placement within the settlement. The building shares common features as far as architecture is concerned with the LM III C public shrines judging by its small dimensions. pottery related to the preparation and the consumption of food (Tsipopoulou 2005. During the Geometric period a limited reuse took place in the area of the largest megaron related to food and liquid consumption (Tsipopoulou 2004b.THE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN CRETE AT THE END OF THE BRONZE AGE 493 at least three attached megara surrounded by courts were uncovered in the most prominent part of the site.5m. independent from possible administrative buildings (fig. 2004. The building is equipped with a series of stone benches and portable objects some of which were uncovered in a clear functional association with them. political and social organization. Eliopoulos 2004. a rectangular building (5. Prent 2005. These postpalatial settlements with buildings used exclusively for cult purposes seem to comprise a network for the control of the production activities. εικ. although building activity in each site does not follow a specific pattern. Lastly. 8). the settlement at Gournia provides an interesting alternative. . 320. which precludes the possibility to be simultaneously in use by a large number of celebrants. In contrast to these settlements that were all established in LM III C. To the north of the megara. pithoi. a stand in the shape of an altar. Gournia.). in R. (ed. 63-79. Η Ύστερη Εποχή του Χαλκού και η πρώιμη Εποχή του Σιδήρου στην περιοχή του κόλπου του Μιραμπέλλου στην ανατολική Κρήτη. 2009. 137-151. 16. society and ethnicity on Crete at the end of the Late Bronze Age. 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Postpalatial settlements with shrines in eastern Crete.THE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN CRETE AT THE END OF THE BRONZE AGE 497 Fig. 5). Fig. . 6. 3. fig. The LM IIIC settlement at Kavousi-Vrondas (Gesell – Day Preston – Coulson 1991. 5. . 1). IX. GREGORY STOURNARAS Fig.498 DIMITRA ROUSIOTI. fig. 4. pl.). Fig. The LM IIIC settlement at Karphi (Pendlebury 1937/1938. Karphi. 6. The LM IIIC settlement at Halasmenos (Tsipopoulou 2004. Fig. The Temple (based on Rutkowski 1987. 2). 7. fig. . 2).THE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN CRETE AT THE END OF THE BRONZE AGE 499 Fig. fig. GREGORY STOURNARAS Fig. Fig.500 DIMITRA ROUSIOTI. View from the site of Kavousi-Vrondas towards Mirabello Gulf. LM IIIC sites with public shrines and possible administrative buildings. 8. 9. . Fig. 11.THE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN CRETE AT THE END OF THE BRONZE AGE 501 Fig. View from the site of Halasmenos towards Ierapetra Isthmus. View from the site of Halasmenos towards Mirabello Gulf. 10. . 3). . fig. 12.502 DIMITRA ROUSIOTI. 1992. LM IIIB shrine at the center of the LM I town of Gournia (Myers et al. GREGORY STOURNARAS Fig. 13.