Roman Empire in Chinese Sources

Acta Ant. Hung.51, 2011, 263–305 DOI: 10.1556/AAnt.51.2011.3–4.5 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES Summary: Through a careful examination of the accounts of Daqin (大秦) – presumably the Roman Empire – and Fulin (拂菻) – Byzantinum –, we can depict a picture of how the Chinese imagined another ancient empire far away in the West. The Chinese annals not only give information on and the interpretation of the name of that mysterious country but also add details about its geography, administration, economy – including agriculture, domesticated animals and products –, trade and the envoys sent by Daqin (大秦) people. Such a description could be remarkable on its own but the accounts also emphasise the similarities between the two great empires that might have originated in their same cultural level. Key words: Chinese sources, Roman Empire, trade, envoy In the present paper I would like to give a brief introduction of five classical Chinese sources, namely the Hou Han shu (後漢書), the Wei lüe (魏略), the Jin shu (晉書), the Wei shu (魏書), and the Song shu (宋書), that provide us more or less information about the Roman Empire. As compared to the description of Daqin (大秦), probably the Roman Empire in the Chinese records, with the Roman auctors’ descriptions of the Eastern part of the Empire, we can discover a large number of similarities. Since the early 19th c. Sino-Roman relations and the ancient Chinese sources of Daqin have been considerably popular fields of research. Although most of these works give a useful translation of the Chinese chronicles, they mostly emphasise linguistic problems. For this reason these publications do not give a complete picture of the connections between Daqin and the Roman Empire. By using the great and influential achievements of earlier scholars in the present work I would like to offer another point of view. My idea is not to translate the records of Daqin and add commentaries or to sum up the several problems connected to this field: specialists have already done the hard work, have carefully analysed the texts and pointed out the numerous linguistic and identificational problems. The only remaining task is to analyse the accounts by another approach. It is not more than a word-to-word comparison between the descriptions provided by Chinese annalists 0044-5975 / $ 20.00 © 2011 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 264 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL and our recent knowledge of the Roman Empire. The information supported by western auctors and archaeological data from Roman sites could reflect on the authenticity of these Chinese Histories and might help to solve some of the several problems. However, the present work is only a small part of a complete comparison of how the Chinese and Romans imagined each other.1 I. A SHORT REFLECTION ON THE HISTORY OF SINO-ROMAN RELATIONS One of the most detailed works is still China and the Roman Orient. Researches into their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records by the first compiler of ancient Chinese chronicles, F. Hirth.2 In his elaborate work there are various Chinese descriptions including not only the Roman Empire but the Byzantine world, too. In 2000 Arkenberg digitalised the translations provided by F. Hirth for the East Asian Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E.–1642 C.E.3 While it is also available online, it only includes the translations without the Chinese originals, as well as essays and references. At the same time there are some typing errors, too. In the first decades of the 20th c., the famous sinologist É. Chavannes re-evaluated the interpretations of the a Hou Han shu4 and the Wei lüe,5 and also added details to the identificational problems of place names and date of the Wei lüe. Following the first pioneers, in 1915 P. Pelliot published his researches on the relations between Lijian (犂鞬) and Daqin.6 Similarly, P. Boodberg brought out his results in the Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies in 1936.7 The monumental studies published by K. Shiratori in 1956 essentially changed the images of Daqin. In ‘A Study on T’iao-chih條支’ he made an examination of Tiaozhi (條支) as the neighbour of Daqin.8 ‘Chinese Ideas Reflected in the Ta-ch’in Accounts’ gives an excellent summary of the results of this field. At the same time he points to the utopistic elements of the description of Daqin.9 ‘The Geography of the Western Region Studied on the Basis of the Ta-ch’in Account’ outlines the problems 1 For the above reasons I have not retranslated the Chinese texts or dealt with linguistic and identificational problems. I have used a summary of the translations provided by F. Hirth, D. D. Leslie, K. H. J. Gardiner, and J. E. Hill completed with some own ideas. Although, because of the limits of the paper, it is not possible to include the Chinese originals, I have given the classical Chinese characters – principally used in the original texts provided by F. Hirth – whenever it was reasonable. 2 HIRTH, F.: China and the Roman Orient. Researches into their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records. Hong Kong 1885. 3 ARKENBERG, J. S.: East Asian Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1642 C.E. 2000. http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/romchin1.html 4 CHAVANNES, É.: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Heou Han chou. TP 8 (1907) 149–244. 5 CHAVANNES, É.: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Wei lio. TP 6 (1905) 519–571. 6 PELLIOT, P.: Li-kien, autre nom du Tats. TP 16/5 (1915) 690–691. 7 BOODBERG, P.: Two notes on the History of the Chinese Frontier. HJAS 44 (1936) 283–307. 8 SHIRATORI, K.: A Study on T’iao-chih條支. MRDTB 15 (1956) 1–23. 9 SHIRATORI, K.: Chinese Ideas Reflected in the Ta-ch’in Accounts. MRDTB 15 (1956) 24–72. Acta Ant. Hung. 51, 2011 THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 265 of various place names and their identification,10 while in ‘A New Attempt at the Solution of the Fu-lin Problem’ K. Shiratori investigated the relations between Daqin and Fulin (拂菻).11 E. H. Schafer defined the different products of the Roman Empire using the Chinese records of Daqin. ‘The Pearl Fisheries of Ho-p’u’ published in 1952 contains the list of Roman pearls,12 while in 1963 he collected the numerous products of the western countries,13 although principally from the reign of Tang Dynasty (唐時). In 1971 Y. Harada also made a research on the pearls of Daqin.14 The monumental work on Chinese civilisation published by J. Needham15 includes a comprehensive overview of the Daqin accounts, however, accepting the achievements of F. Hirth without reservation. In 1999 E. G Pulleyblank also made a huge step towards the interpretation of place names by collecting and analysing the Chinese chronicles.16 Although in some publications on Sino-Roman trade relations there is also a chapter on Daqin according to the Chinese records, in most cases they only repeat previous works, as J. Thorley in his study ‘The Silk Trade between China and the Roman Empire at its Height, circa A.D. 90–130’.17 Although he proposed some new ideas on these questions, he neglected the linguistic background of the ancient Chinese sources. In his essay published in 1978 on Sino-Roman trade relations, J. Ferguson18 unfortunately did not include the Chinese records of the Romans. In contrast with the previous authors, M. G. Raschke gives a hypercritical synthesis of the theories about Daqin and the connections between Rome and China in his dissertation.19 At the same time in the Trade and Expansion in Han China Y. Yü offers an eastern aspect of Sino-Roman contacts,20 just like Zhu Jieqin (朱杰勤) and Zhang Xinglang (张星烺) in the Zhongxi jiaotong shike huibian (中西交通使科汇 编) summarising the achievements of F. Hirth.21 10 SHIRATORI, K.: The Geography of the Western Region Studied on the Basis of the Ta-ch’in Account. MRDTB 15 (1956) 73–155. 11 SHIRATORI, K.: A New Attempt at the Solution of the Fu-lin Problem. MRDTB 15 (1956) 156– 329. 12 SCHAFER, E. H.: The Pearl Fisheries of Ho-p’u. JAOS 72 (1952) 155–168. 13 SCHAFER, E. H.: The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T’ang Exotics. Los Angeles 1963. 14 HARADA, Y.: East and West (II). MRDTB 29 (1971) 57–79. 15 NEEDHAM, J.: Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 1. Cambridge 1961. 16 PULLEYBLANK, E. G.: The Roman Empire as known to Han China. JAOS 119.1 (1999) 71–79. 17 THORLEY, J.: The Silk Trade between China and the Roman Empire at its Height, circa A.D. 90–130. G&R 2.18 (1971) 71–80. 18 FERGUSON, J.: China and Rome. ANRW II. 9.2. (1978) 581–603. 19 RASCHKE, M. G.: New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East. ANRW II. 9.2 (1978) 604– 1233. 20 YÜ, Y.: Trade and Expansion in Han China. Los Angeles 1967. 21 朱杰勤 (ZHU JIEQIN) – 张星烺 (ZHANG XINGLANG): 中西交通使科汇编 (Zhongxi jiaotong shike huibian). 第一册 (di yi ce). 北京 (Beijing) 2003. Acta Ant. Hung. 51, 2011 266 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL The complex analysis of the Daqin and Fulin accounts was published in The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources by D. D. Leslie and K. H. J. Gardiner.22 Although it is a detailed collection of this field, it does not include the Chinese and western originals, and uses the preconception of Daqin as the entire Roman Empire. Recently another complex dissertation on Chinese sources was put forward by J. E. Hill. He gave a complete translation and a detailed examination of the Hou Han shu in 2003,23 and the Wei lüe in 2004,24 both of them available online. Furthermore, in Through the Jade Gate to Rome. A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the ‘Western Regions’ in the Hou Hanshu he offered a more specified analysis of the Hou Han shu.25 II. INTRODUCTION INTO THE CHINESE SOURCES Starting the analysis of the Daqin accounts, we have five sources compiled during the 2nd–6th c. C.E. Two of them referred to the period between the 3rd–5th c. C.E. and typically these contemporary sources are the most detailed (see Diagram 1). III.1. The Hou Han shu The Hou Han shu was compiled by Fan Ye (范曄),26 who lived between 398 and 445 during the reign of the Liu-Song Dynasty (劉宋朝). In his work juan (卷)27 8628 and 88, the chapter of Xi yu zhuan (西域傳),29 contains several pieces of information about the Romans. There are numerous descriptions of the countries from Khotan to the Roman Empire in the division of the westernmost world, altogether 22 realms. 22 LESLIE, D. D. – GARDINER, K. H. J.: The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources. Rome 1996. HILL, J. E.: The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. The Xiyu juan “Chapter on the Western Regions” from Hou Hanshu 88. 2003. http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_ han_shu.html 24 HILL, J. E.: The Peoples of the West from the Weilue魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢. A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi. Published in 429 CE. 2004. http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html 25 HILL, J. E.: Through the Jade Gate to Rome. A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the ’Western Regions’ in the Hou Hanshu. Lexington 2009. Other works: DUBS, H.: A Roman City in Ancient China. London 1957; BALL, W.: Rome in the East. The Transformation of an Empire. London – New York 2000; YOUNG, G. K.: Rome’s Eastern Trade. International commerce and imperial policy, 31BC – AD 305. London – New York 2001. 26 The texts in the several editions are not entirely assigned to him, the chapter of Zhi (志) is the work of another compiler. See HIRTH (n. 2) 6–7. 27 Meaning ‘chapter, volume, scroll’. 28 後漢書:卷八十六南蠻西南夷列傳第七十六 (Hou Han shu: Juan liushiliu Nan man Nan yi Liezhuan di qishiliu). HIRTH (n. 2) 97–98. 29 後漢書:卷八十八西域傳第七十八 HIRTH (n. 2) 98–101. 23 Acta Ant. Hung. 51, 2011 some new commentaries were added to the original work.31 The division on the western countries contains the records of Daqin. and although it was printed during the reign of the Song Dynasty. Acta Ant. that in the 7th c. F. 2) 6–10. and in English on the odd ones: HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n.2. 25) 2–58. 51.吳朝). The relating chapters of the Hou Han shu in Chinese: HIRTH (n.30 III. 2011 . is quoted in the geo30 HIRTH (n.蜀朝. Although the original version of his work is lost. which summarised the history of the Wei. the San guo zhi (三國志). In his monumental work in 1885. In Chinese on the even pages. Hung.E. Shu and Wu Dynasties (魏朝. 2) 97–101. 5) 519–520. The Wei lüe The Wei lüe was compiled by the historian Yu Huan (魚豢) before the year 297 C.267 THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 2500 2000 1500 HHS WL JS WS SS 1000 500 0 number of characters Diagram 1 – Quantitative comparison of the Daqin (大秦) accounts During the investigation of the text it should be considered. Hirth compared the different editions of the Hou Han shu and he did not find remarkable changes in them. there are many other copies. 31 On the date of the Wei lüe CHAVANNES: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Wei lio (n. still in many ways it uses the statements of the Hou Han shu and the Wei lüe. it is more reticent than the Hou Han shu and the Wei lüe. who lived between 549 and 618 and was followed by Fang Qiao (房喬). HIRTH (n. 2) 17. 24) http://depts. 2) 16.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue. 33 HILL: The Peoples (n. 2) 101–102. the Wei shu37 refers to the period between 386 and 556. while Pei Songzhi (裴松之) reprinted this work in 429 C. the annalist in the court of the Northern Qi Dynasty. who died before 297. The Wei shu The history of the Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏朝). 811. Although this gap was filled with the relevant parts of the Bei shi (北史) compiled during the 7th c.. HIRTH (n.4. 36 Fang Qiao died in 648 C. there are some differences between the two texts. A Manual. HIRTH (n.E. but presumably he never left the boundaries of China.36 III. E. 38 HIRTH (n. since 29 chapters are missing.html#aboutText 34 HIRTH (n.E. WILKINSON.38 The compiler was Wei Shou (魏收).35 compiled during the 7th c. Hung.E. Hence he had only second hand data from the earlier histories and the descriptions of travellers and merchants. 2) 110–114. HIRTH (n. 35 晉書:卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan).34 Although there is some uncertainty about the original text of the Wei lüe and its compiler Yu Huan. 2011 . The Jin shu The third important history is the Jin shu.washington. Hirth assumes that at least one other text existed. 2) 14–15. However. 2) 13–14. Although the information on Daqin refers to the interval between 265 and 419 C.: Chinese History.268 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL graphical accounts. 51.32 In the surviving work Yu Huan does not refer to the sources of his information.3. 2)17. is strongly questionable. who lived between 506 and 572. III. The San guo zhi was compiled by Chen Shou (陳壽).. but besides this the whole work is not less reliable than other classical records in the period. he was a descendant of the former Wei House. 37 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di Jiushi Xi yu). the remaining version of this work is one of the most detailed sources of Daqin.39 32 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi). Acta Ant. which was issued in the 11th c. the accuracy of the recent version of the Wei shu. HIRTH (n.. The compiler of the Jin shu was Fang Xuanling (房玄齡). As his family name suggests.33 Regarding the authenticity of the Wei lüe F. 39 HIRTH (n. Princeton 2000. 2) 103–104. C. see LESLIE–GARDINER (n. 41 HIRTH (n. and refers to the period between 420 and 478. 1. 2) 102. Since. THE MEANING OF THE TERM DAQIN The common feature of the Chinese histories displayed above is that they use the term Daqin to denote a great empire in the west. Hirth stated during the examination of the Hou Han shu. 5) 519–520. At the same time he points out that the textual errors and changes can be considered as oversights. the Song shu was compiled by Shen Yue (沈約). the above works42 were compiled by the officers of the Historiography Bureau based on the materials collected during the previous dynasties. the Chinese scholars were more responsible and literate than the monks in the West. M. alternative sources were lacking. J. such errors are less frequent. far away in the West. 2) 16.: Introduction. 22) 19–24. 40 宋書:卷九十七 列傳第五十七 夷蠻 (Song shu: Juan Jiushiqi Liezhuan di wushiqi yi man). the section of memoirs. As parts of the standard histories. 220.43 The information on Barbarians and other foreign nations is usually in the Liezhuan (列傳). 45 HIRTH (n. D. 2) 8–9.41 IV. and in the monographs called Zhi (志). compiled by the historian Yu Huan.40 Like the Jin shu. (eds. The Ch’in and Han Empires.44 Moreover. Cambridge 2008. Since. HIRTH (n. The Song shu The fifth Chinese record of Daqin. 51. K. Vol. 39) 501–507. the historian of the Liang Dynasty (梁朝) during the 6th c. the Song shu also includes only little information on the Romans. 43 LOEWE. In TWITCHETT. Furthermore the different groups of chapters were formed to satisfy various purposes and to show a different point of view. For more details. it is impossible to trace the texts back to their first origin. – FAIRBANK. 2011 . Acta Ant.): The Cambridge History of China.45 V. 44 WILKINSON (n. these standard histories were not always devoid of historical mistakes and misunderstandings. As F. THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE TEXTS Although by using the Chinese sources it is roughly possible to picture how an ancient empire could imagine another one. 221 B. D. – A. is not considered as one of the canonical histories: CHAVANNES: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Wei lio (n. in his opinion. In addition the surviving works could have been modified. one should treat these kinds of information carefully. 1–20. here 3–4. 42 Although the Wei lüe. Hung. in many cases. the compilers used archaic data from the archives of former dynasties or based themselves on earlier sources by means of the scissors-and-paste method.5.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 269 III. foreign. In TWITCHETT. 2) 98. The Ch’in and Han Empires. not Han. He offered musicians and magicians from a country called Daqin which is the west of the sea (海西). HIRTH (n. and more commonly denominated themselves as Zhongguo (中 國). Cambridge 2008. and 前漢書:卷九十六上 西域傳第六十六上 (Qian Han shu: Juan jiushiliu shang Xi yu Liezhuan di liushiliu shang). Hill suggests. 25) 256. 2) 101. the Chinese very rarely used the term Qin for themselves.e. TP 22/2 (1923) 97–125. 2011 .49 Or perhaps. here 119–120. as Loewe stated. Great Qin (秦).51 However. HIRTH (n. C. Acta Ant. depending on the context. not Daqin to name the foreigners’ home. HIRTH (n. the term Daqin could be translated as the city of Rome. 46 Although the Shi ji (史記) and the Han shu (漢書) also mentioned conjurors.50 The character of Qin is possibly an allusion to the name the Great Qin Empire which the Chinese used in this period for themselves. 2) 97. 1. 22) XXI–XXVI and 232. 48 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi). 20–102. D.: The State and Empire of Ch’in. 49 It is not the main topic of this paper to overview the different arguments in this debate or to identify the exact position of Daqin. D. HIRTH (n. There is a great summary of the various opinions in LESLIE– GARDINER (n. i. 56 I.e. which is why the foreign nations gave the name Daqin. 55 晉書:卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan).270 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL The first allusion to this state is in juan 86 of the Hou Han shu. see BODDE. 47 後漢書:卷八十六南蠻西南夷列傳第七十六 (Hou Han shu: Juan liushiliu Nan man Nan yi Liezhuan di qishiliu).): The Cambridge History of China. 2) 111. J. Roman territory or the Roman Empire. 53 後漢書:卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). E.47 Moreover. 43) 20. P. vol. 50 HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n. 2) 111.53 as the Wei lüe54 and the Jin shu55 gives a socalled explanation for using the term Daqin: the people of this state are tall and openhearted just like the Chinese.46 According to the text in the year 120 the king of the Shan (撣) Empire sent an embassy to the Han (漢) Court. as J. HIRTH (n. 2) 100. – FAIRBANK. (eds. 52 LOEWE (n. refers to the Roman Empire. To the history of Qin Empire. – A. they used the term Lixuan (黎軒). K. 221 B. the Wei lüe already mentioned jugglery as a major feature of the Daqin people. The Wei shu57 also emphasises that the Daqin people are honest and tall and their carriages and flags are like the Chinese ones. it should be noted that. although they wear hu (胡)56 clothes. HIRTH (n. 51 PELLIOT. 51. D. Hung. See: 史記:卷一百二十三大宛列傳 第六十三 (Shiji: Juan yibaiershisan Dayuan di liushisan). Although it is still a subject of debate whether it means the entire empire with Rome as its capital or only the eastern provinces. HIRTH (n. 220.48 It is widely accepted among the scholars of this field that the name Daqin. 57 魏書卷一百二列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier Liezhuan di jiushi Xi yu). 2) 103. 54 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi).: La théorie des quatre fils du Ciel. because of its rigour.52 Moreover the Hou Han shu. Tiaozhi and the Great sea (大海). 2) 69. The city of Chisan (遲散) is in Haixi and before you reach this country you must go north to the city of Wudan (烏丹). HIRTH (n. C. 111. 377–462. HIRTH (n. (eds. – A. According to them Daqin is located at Haixi (海西). 62 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi). although with slow winds it may last one year. which is another day.63 (Map 2) By the land route from the city of Angu one must go north to Haibei (海北) and then turn west towards Haixi and then head south to reach the city of Wuchisan 58 YÜ. D. K.61 3400 li (里) west of Anxi there is the kingdom of Aman (阿蠻). and 宋書:卷九十七 列傳第五十七 夷蠻 (Song shu: Juan Jiushiqi Liezhuan di wushiqi yi man). 61 後漢書:卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba).): The Cambridge History of China. 2011 . – FAIRBANK. which takes one day. Vol. D. which is on the border of Anxi. The country is the west of the sea. Hirth translated the character du (都) as division.e. 60 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi). one must take a ship and directly cross Haixi. 2) 98–99.62 It says that from the city of Angu (安穀). (Map 1) The Wei lüe also informs about the location of Daqin. and travel 960 li southwest to the kingdom of Yuluo (于羅). and then another river southwest. and without wind perhaps three years. In TWITCHETT. 1. 220. from here one must turn south and cross a river. Geography Besides the explanation of the name Daqin all of the five Chinese sources describe the geography of this westernmost state. Cambridge 2008. See: 晉書:卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan). The journey takes two months with favourable winds. 63 F. while the Song shu only says that Daqin and Tianzhu (天竺) are far away on the western ocean (迥出西溟). which is why it is commonly called Haixi. In the southwest you cross a river by boat. 2) 110–111. HIRTH (n.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 271 Another interpretation of the texts and a possible reason for the term Daqin is that by the growing geographical knowledge the Chinese began to realize that there was another civilized empire resembling theirs. This is the extreme west frontier of Anxi. DESCRIBING DAQIN VI. 51. Acta Ant. There is a river running out of the west of this country and there is also another great sea.59 Furthermore the Wei lüe also indicates that it is west of Anxi (安息). 2) 101. i. 102.58 VI.60 Besides these data the Hou Han shu gives more details. 59 後漢書:卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). Hung. here 379 and PULLEYBLANK: The Roman Empire (n. 3600 li west of Aman one reaches Sibin (斯賓). J. 221 B. The Jin shu locates Daqin at the west of the west sea (在西海之西). 2) 110. 16) 71. So altogether there are three major cities. west of the sea. Y. HIRTH (n.: Han foreign relations. HIRTH (n. 2) 99. HIRTH (n. The Ch’in and Han Empires.1. not as city. where one should proceed southwards by sea and then reach Daqin. 21) 311. Map 2 – Sea route according to the Wei lüe.272 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL Map 1 – Localisation of Daqin according to the Hou Han Shu. Based on LESLIE–GARDINER (n. Hung. 51. Based on LESLIE–GARDINER (n. Acta Ant. 2011 . 21) 311. there are many different points of view. E. Hung. 114. i. Due the difficulties. 2) 100. Based on LESLIE–GARDINER (n. however. (烏遲散). 159.65 Liusha (流沙). 114.html#11_11 http://depts. Asia Major 9 (1963) 58–144. 243–251. Moreover. 2) 100. 2) 140. HIRTH (n. For the Wei lüe: e. 149–151. i. Weak Water.g. 66 In the Hou Han shu and in the Wei lüe. It takes one day to cross the river by boat. 154–155. HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n. Three of the chronicles include a chapter on the incorrect beliefs of the former sources.html#11_8 http://depts. G. See: 後漢書:卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba).THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 273 Map 3 – Land route according to the Wei lüe.e. (Map 3) There are numerous studies on the identification of the place names listed above. LESLIE–GARDINER (n. the analysis of the other parts of these texts in their complexity might mean a huge step towards the precise identifications.g.washington. Acta Ant.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 206–265. the Han shu (漢書) mentioning legendary places in the far west. PULLEYBLANK. HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n. 180–183. 227–233. then make a round at sea and after crossing the Great sea you reach Daqin. 51. e.washington.64 However there is still not an adequate solution to these questions. 2011 .washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. PULLEYBLANK: The Roman Empire (n. 25) 220–222. and 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Liezhuan sanshi). 2) 155–158. HIRTH (n.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. the exact determinations of these places would not have influenced how the Chinese imagined the Romans. 481–483.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 21) 311. 22) 180–186. which generally takes six days.html#11_9 http://depts. and 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi).washington. For instance the Ruoshui (弱水).edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. HIRTH (n. LESLIE– GARDINER (n.html#11_12 65 In the Hou Han shu and in the Wei lüe. 22) 251–253.e.g.html#11_7 http://depts. 25) http://depts.: The consonantal system of Old Chinese. HIRTH (n.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 後漢書:卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). 16) 76. Flowing Sands.html#11_4 http://depts.66 64 For the Hou Han shu: e. here 77 and 221.washington. The Wei lüe even adds the list and the location of these kingdoms. Hung.69 Besides the above information. 1) 209. 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di Jiushi Xi yu). See: 後漢書:卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). J. HIRTH (n. 2) 112.: Remarques sur les mouvements du Taoisme politico–religieux au II siècle ap. 2) 99. TP 5. 68 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. 71 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi). 22) 273. C. i. Xiandu (賢督) Sifu (汜復) and Yuluo. 73 Without mentioning the vassal states. 2) 103. HIRTH (n. In HIRTH (n. Wei lüe and in the Wei shu. there is a third geographical account in the analysed histories. 74 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi). and 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第 九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di Jiushi Xi yu). 2) 111. 2011 .20 (1963) 3–21. 72 晉書:卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan). RASCHKE (n. namely Zesan (澤散). STEIN. HIRTH (n. 114. 9).74 (Map 4) 67 In the Hou Han shu. HIRTH (n. Xi Wang Mu (西王母).71 the Jin shu72 and the Wei shu73 all say that the territory of Daqin is several thousand li in all directions and has more than four hundred smaller cities. 70 後漢書:卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). 69 SHIRATORI: Chinese Ideas (n. A. and also says that there are many others.70 the Wei lüe. HIRTH (n. 51. 19) 854. Lüfen (驢分). 2)101.274 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL Map 4 – Vassal states in the Wei lüe. Furthermore there are numerous vassal states belonging to it. R.e.67 These fabulous places reflect on the Chinese idea of the terra incognita68 influenced by their own mentality and the concepts of Taoism. 114. and 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi). 104. 2) 100. Acta Ant. Mother of the Western King. HIRTH (n. The Hou Han shu. Qielan (且蘭). 77 it is generally accepted that they are influential metropoleis or even provinces. who think Zesan is Cyprus and Lüfen is probably Cilicia. LESLIE–GARDINER (n.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.html#21_1 76 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. Gardiner. P. 10) 105–110. 8) 9. 21) 143–144. 75) 141–142.washington.washington.html#15_1 http://depts.washington.washington.html#19_1 http://depts. 268–272. 2) 149–151.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.washington.html#20_1 http://depts.html#17_5 http://depts.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. Leslie and K. 22) 190–192. 2) 111. 190–198.html#17_2 http://depts. 24) http://depts. however approximate they are.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.html#19_3 http://depts.washington.html#17_1 http://depts. Hung. 24) http://depts.80 while the Jin shu adds the extension of the city as over a hundred li.washington. 78 PELLIOT: Note (n.washington.washington. here 141–142. LESLIE–GARDINER (n. HILL: The Peoples (n. J. 2) 101. Although the text uses the term wang (王) to indicate their relation with Daqin. SHIRATORI: A Study (n. PELLIOT.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. Acta Ant.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 81 晉書:卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan).html#16_2 http://depts.81 Expanding these descriptions.79 VI. HIRTH (n. 79 HILL: The Peoples (n.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. E.g.washington. 22) 189–196. 117. 2011 . HIRTH (n. The capital of Daqin The histories also give information about the capital of Daqin.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 77 With the exception of Yuluo. This is more than reasonable concerning the distance between China and these places which hinders the transmission of information. According to the Wei lüe it lies at the mouth of a river.75 Apart from the determinations of D. JA 18/11 (1921) 139–145.html#17_7 http://depts.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.2.html#18_1 http://depts. Hill gives a possible interpretation of these accounts: depending on the textual background he stretches the interpretation of Daqin and Daqin du (大秦都). ZHU (朱)–ZHANG (张) (n.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 275 It is likewise difficult to reasonably identify these states. 22) 189. would be too exaggerated.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. the Wei shu adds that the name of 75 E.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.76 the places identified by most of the scholars line a trade (?) route.html#16_1 http://depts. It is also noteworthy that some scholars think these names could not refer to a region of an eastern province but the whole Roman Empire.html#20_3 http://depts. SHIRATORI: The Geography (n.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.washington.washington. D.html#section17 80 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi). J.html#16_3 http://depts.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.html#17_8 http://depts. H.washington.78 Although in this case the distances mentioned in the text.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.: Note sur les anciens itinéraries chinoise dans l’orient romain. HIRTH (n.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.washington. even though there are many studies on this topic.html#15_2 http://depts. 51.washington. F. HIRTH (n. however there are some further pieces of information in the sources that may help to resolve the problem.90 It is more than complicated to take a side. 207–213. Leslie and K. They also supposed that Andu refers to Augusta Antonina.washington.84 While the Jin shu does not give more details. and the capital of Daqin is Rome. 2) 103. Acta Ant. HIRTH (n. 88 HIRTH (n. 82 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di Jiushi Xi yu). 22) 102. According to them. each city. 2) 103.85 the Wei shu86 reports in a different way: the residence of the king is in the middle of the city and there are eight high offices to rule over the four cities. D. 90 HILL: The Peoples (n. 86 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 HIRTH (n. Gardiner89 noted that the term Andu for the capital of Daqin only appears in the Wei shu.82 According to the Hou Han shu there are five palaces in the capital.87 There are also numerous studies on the identification of the capital of Daqin. which is smaller than according to the former sources (only 60 li) because of the earthquake destroying the city of Antiochia ad Orontem in 532. Besides the linguistic considerations the Chinese chronicle referring to the period between 386 and 556 describes the extension of the capital. Furthermore in his view the information of the four cities refers to the four regions of Antioch completed with the Suburbia. 2011 . J.276 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL the capital is Andu (安都). the royal city is divided into five smaller cities and the source also adds the dimensions of them. 84 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). H. D. Moreover.88 However. Hirth states that the city described above is Antiochia ad Orontem and the term Daqin applies to the Roman East. (Map 5) D. HIRTH (n. Leslie and K. 83 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). including the royal city.html#11_14 91 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). has eight offices to rule over the four cities. 2) 99. ten li from each other. D. 2) 111. 2) 99. J. 87 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. J. HIRTH (n. And in the royal city there is also an office which rules the four cities. and he visits all of them within five days. E. 24) http://depts.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 85 晉書: 卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan). Administration There are some details about the administration in the Hou Han shu:91 each day the king goes to the palaces to hear the cases. 51. he mainly based his opinion on the records of the Wei shu. 89 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. HIRTH (n. Hung. 22) 186–187. 2) 183.83 The Wei lüe repeats this information and also says that there is an office of archives.3. more precisely the four divisions of the country. Gardiner give another interpretation of the account. 2) 101. VI. Hill also accepted this last statement. H. After the king has returned to the palace. 51. Hirth there are thirty-six generals responsible for the official documents. 104) 761.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 277 Map 5 – Map of Antioch based on excavations. he closes the meeting. but chosen for his merits. He also consults the public matters with the thirty-six generals. Acta Ant. 2) 111–112. 2) 41. such as the ordinary storms of wind and rain. Hung. 92 In the translation published by F. without feeling angry about this. The Wei lüe93 emphasises that the previous king does not dare to show anger. he examines the contents of the bag. A man with a bag follows the royal carriage and every time when somebody has a matter to be reconsidered by the king. It also adds that the king judges the cases from early in the morning till late in the night and the next day he goes to another palace. In every palace there is a department of archives and there are thirty-six generals to discuss the matters of the state. 93 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). the king is replaced by another. 2011 . In DOWNEY (n. HIRTH (n. he throws an application into the bag. HIRTH (n. When an unexpected calamity occurs in the country. It takes five days to visit all of the palaces. If one of the generals does not take part in the consultation. and decides whether the claims are legal or not.92 The king of Daqin is not a permanent ruler. F. the king calls for the officials of the four cities. 195 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di Jiushi Xi yu).99 that the Wei shu indicates four subdivisions and the royal residence on its own. 199 HIRTH (n. 198 K.278 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL The Jin shu94 only repeats the previous data.96 However. 2) 101. if the capital of Daqin refers to the City of Rome. not the emperor of a state. Leslie and K. 7–8 and 19. In any case it may be hypothesised. Nevertheless the Chinese histories. Gardiner argue that the city of Antioch could not be the capital of the Roman Empire. In minor cases he will censure. the Wei shu95 adds more details. 196 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. HIRTH (n. If anyone has a matter to decide. By the same token.100 Moreover. Hirth. because they could not have the exact information on the Roman Empire. It is still unclear whether the five cities refer to the regions of the capital or to independent cities with walls around them. that the Wei shu incorrectly used the term Andu for the capital of Daqin. Moreover. comparing the account with the cityscape of Rome. when there were elementary changes in the Roman administration. the king judges. 9) 59. Shiratori – although in another context – gave the interpretation of the term. D. 2) 210. Leslie and K. as well as I. HIRTH (n. After the king has ratified their decision. it is still uncertain which augustus it could be. J. 197 Although this would also mean that the data of the Wei shu refers to the period before 386. in the eastern provinces as well as in the whole Roman Empire. there are some essential differences. Nevertheless. Hung. J. Under Augustus’ reorganisation Rome was divided into fourteen instead of the former four city regions. O. but in important cases will replace the responsible officer. it should be noted that the text refers to the period between the 4th and 5th c. 2011 . although the Aurelian Wall did not include the whole area of the XIV Regions. as D. D.98 which could roughly be compared to the Roman terms Urbs Roma Beata and Urbs Roma Felix more commonly used during the 4th c. 100 ROBINSON. The selected passages of the Wei shu also raise other problems. 194 晉書: 卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan). only because of the linguistic considerations. it is put into effect. 22) 187. as by F. Every time when the necessities of the state demand this or any of the four regions has a matter to discuss. there are several differences between them. One possible reason for this is. H.: Ancient Rome. 51. might have mistakenly considered a prosperous administrative centre as the capital of the Roman Empire. namely Regio VII and V. See SHIRATORI: Chinese Ideas (n. City planning and administration. H. 2) 103. Every third year the king goes out and mingles with the public. the king would only have authority over the City. however. Comparing the description of the Wei shu with the text of the other sources. London – New York 2003. So far as the term wang indicates the ruler of the Roman Empire. it cannot be excluded that Andu refers to the city of Rome. D. Acta Ant.97 Andu means Still City. Gardiner suggest. which is more likely a praefectus urbi. 103 LIEBESCHUETZ. H. A. (Map 6) However. as F. 105 Although incorrectly citing the Hou Han shu. M.: Antioch. 51. not cities. each surrounded by walls. during the 4th c. H. 329. Daqin du could not indicate Rome but Constantinople. RASCHKE (n.105 Then again Downey in his topography did not con- 101 JONES. on the island of Orontes. Hirth incorrectly matched Antioch with the selected passages of the Wei shu. It might refer to the comitatus or rather the consistorium.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 279 Map 6 – Map of Antioch based on Strabo’s description. framed the four regions. In DOWNEY (n. 2011 . Hung. W. there were essential changes in the life of Antioch. The rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire were principally resident in Constantinople. 18) 854. 2) 210–211. which is not mentioned by Strabo. according to M.102 It cannot be excluded that the four cities refer to the territorial villages of Antioch.101 while the description of the Wei shu suggests that the royal duties mostly kept them in the capital. Hirth surmised that the Regia on the island of Orontes was the main centre and the three principal divisions on the southern side of the river. The emperors of the Western Roman Empire were often away from Rome. Oxford 1972. although there is only scanty information on their administration and locality. although if the term wang refers to the augustus of the Eastern Empire. 104) 761. 101)367–373.: The Late Roman Empire. Hirth pointed out. G. City and Imperial Administration in the Later Roman Empire. 104 HIRTH (n. Following Strabo’s description. Indeed. J. was extended and the region of the Suburbia also became increasingly built-up. G. 102 Acta Ant. Raschke citing Downey’s work. JONES (n. Although in this case the distances given in the source would be exaggerated. at the same time the contribution of these bodies scarcely suits the records of the chronicle. By raising new buildings the palace.103 In case the Wei shu described five regions. and the Suburbia.104 Antioch could not be ignored again. Oxford 1964. built in the 3rd c. Besides. the meaning of the five regions/cities and the consultative officers controlling them is still unclear. not the Wei shu. 119–120. 3 Vols. 112 It is also possible that the thirty-six generals refer to the growing importance of the city council. This contribution of the prominent members of the city council had just become more influential in that period and started to efface the other councillors. Acta Ant. E. meaning ‘many’ or ‘countless’ as some Japanese scholars have suggested. Princeton 1961.109 The interpretation of the term wang as a Roman emperor is also accepted by J. 113 LIEBESCHUETZ (n. However. However.: Római társadalomtörténet [The Social History of Rome]. washington. 101) 4–6. 103) 167. 2011 . to find the most eligible successor. Or. the Wei lüe and the Jin shu could point to the City.111 Although it is also worthy of note that the number thirty-six might have been a pseudo-number in ancient China.113 According to the Antiochicus the structure of the city was founded upon the council as the tree on its roots. xi 133–138. ALFÖLDY. HILL: The Peoples (n.washington. Hill. Or.114 These curiales gave advice and appointed men to act the duties of the governor. 51. 24) http://depts.106 Accepting F. 111 CROOK. Hung. Hill thinks this is not more than a fabulous story. 112 More details: YANG LIEN-SHENG: Numbers and Units in Chinese Economic History. by using the divina providentia.107 Hence it is presumable that the capital of Daqin in the Wei shu might not be equal with Rome. the number of the amici principis was not permanent and defined. 108 J. The resignation of the king might be due to a powerful governor. the passages of the above works about replacing the previous king whenever calamities come unexpectedly and named a more meritorious one108 might be comparable to the elevation of the optimus princeps. G.103) 101. the emperor often consulted with other magistrates and consiliums. Hirth’s suggestion it cannot be excluded that there might be some connections with the eight-eight officers and the principales. who suggests that the thirty-six generals in the sources might be the consulares and the consilium principis110 However.115 106 DOWNEY. HJAS 12. who by replacing him could attain a higher stage in his cursus honorum. Imperial Councils and Counsellors from Augustus to Diocletian. 612–650.html #11_26 and HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n. here 104–114. 103) 172–174.: A History of Antioch in Syria from Seleucus to the Arab Conquest. On this basis the duty of the new emperor is. 107 LIEBESCHUETZ (n.html#11_18 109 JONES (n. E. G. but the descriptions of the other histories such as the Hou Han shu. moreover.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 153.: Consilium Principis. he emphasised the various problems of identifications and reconstructions. Budapest 2002.280 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL fute the existence of five regions. more detailed: LIEBESCHUETZ (n. here 218. xxxv 6. 110 HILL: The Peoples (n.1/2 (1949) 216–225. 24) http://depts. J. moreover. 114 Libanius. 25) 258– 259.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 115 Libanius. New York 1975. the fact of replacement might also mean a utopistic interpretation of the rapid succession of Roman emperors during the 3rd c. the term Daqin referred to different things depending on the context. Or. Or. Hill suggested. Hence it cannot be excluded that it was a greater unit than the Roman Orient but they did not know its precise extension. See: Libanius. In Libanius’ works there is information about the duties of the governors: they had to listen to acclamations. Just as Dio Cassius120 noted in connection with the earthquake in 115 C. Moreover. 116 LIEBESCHUETZ (n. in special cases. The assumption that the term wang might have referred to a provincial governor could be proved by the selected passages of Libanius about the authority of the governor. might be the reduction of the city magistrates’ power since the second half of the 4th c.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 281 According to the Hou Han shu the thirty-six generals were responsible for the affairs of a whole state. 103) 123–124. Moreover it is also Libanius118 who mentioned that the governor could work with the jurisdiction and taxation during the whole night until the morning. not only a city. 101) 724. 117 Acta Ant. 118 Libanius. and complaints. However. Although the Romans often ascribed special meaning to natural phenomena. 2011 . xxvi 33–34. Hence the source might not have deemed them important enough to allude to them. 5. who could even refuse to obey the emperor and not publish his edicts. lxviii 25. this could also refer to the provincial assembly of Syria composed by the delegates of the seventeen cities. At any rate they presumably elected their own officers. On their roles in Egypt: JONES (n. Libanius also mentioned the eighteen tribes of Antioch. 106) 17–18. it is also possible that. it would be easy to identify Daqin as the Roman Orient or the province Syria. According to the annalist Trajan had to leave his palace through the windows and live in the hippodrom for a few days. Starting from this it cannot be excluded that the Chinese histories mistakenly identified the public buildings of Antioch as the five palaces of Daqin.121 If we accepted that the term Daqin du refers to Antioch.116 A possible reason why the Wei shu did not mention the thirty-six generals. just as the Wei lüe said. it is more likely that the Chinese did not have enough information about the exact extension and the political system of the Roman Empire.119 Moreover. nevertheless their appointment and role in the administration are still not clarified. it is worthy of note that unexpected storms coming from the Mons Silpius and other disasters were quite common in the region of Antioch. administration of Antioch. as J. 653–656. although they could also have played a significant role in the 4th c. As such. sometimes demonstrations. E. 51. who had to report to the governor. 120 Cassius Dio. 121 DOWNEY (n. The latter usually took place in a public area such as the theatre. some of these public facilities could be used for a palatium. xlviii 15. Hist. Hung. 119 At the same time the five palaces might be in Rome as well.117 Thus the Chinese chronicles might have believed that a provincial governor is the king of Daqin.E. there is still no consensus on the exact meaning of the terms above.132 122 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). (eds. The relays and postal stations in the sources could be compared to the Roman mutationes and mansiones. e. 128 JONES (n. According to them the people of Daqin have walled cities.): Travel and Geography in the Roman Empire. 126) 57–61. On the officers: TILBURG (n. HIRTH (n. they have a relay (亭) every 10 li and a postal station (置) every 30 li like the Chinese. 2) 111. H. C.128 It is also interesting to compare the Roman images of raedae with the Chinese descriptions. Thorley suggested131 that the term shuijing in the sources might be an evidence that the Chinese confused crystal and glass. 96–103. 132 The term shuijing is also mentioned in the Hou Han shu. 17) 77. HIRTH (n.127 A similar system was in use in the Roman Empire where an evectio or a diploma was necessary to lease the stations.: Transport and communication in the Roman state: the cursus publicus.g. 131 THORLEY (n.126 The Chinese tings (亭) mentioned in our sources were originally built only for official use but occasionally private travellers could also rent them for a certain amount of money. On their capacity: TILBURG. However. 124 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). C. London – New York 2001. M.: Some Thoughts on the Origin of the Chinese Word „Boli”. HIRTH (n. 2) 99. 130 On the different meanings of the various glass products: BRILL. 51. They travel by small carriages covered with a white canopy accompanied by beating drums and waving flags. Liuli (琉璃) refers to both opaque glass and glass-like glaze. 後漢書:卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). SRAA 2 (1991/1992) 129–136. used for long-distance travel. 2) 101. Indianapolis–Cambridge 2006. In ADAMS. 125 晉書: 卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan).282 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL VII. R. The Wei lüe124 and the Jin shu125 also add that they understand the hu writing and have multi-storeyed public and private buildings. 129 晉書: 卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan). London – New York 2007. HIRTH (n. 127 YÜ: Trade (n.130 J. 2011 . 126 JONES (n. 101) 831.: Traffic and Congestion in the Roman Empire. and shuijing (水精) could mean crystal stone and crystal glass. Acta Ant. – LAURENCE. 62. A. 101) 830.: The Government of the Qin and Han Empires: 221 BCE – 220 CE. R. too. 1) In the Jin shu129 there are also some details of the buildings: their walls were covered with opaque glass (琉璃). HIRTH (n. 123 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). About the cursus publicus: KOLB. while the official use was free. On their use and equipment: LOEWE. 109–110. HIRTH (n. LIFESTYLE IN DAQIN The Hou Han shu122 and the Wei lüe123 give other details of the lifestyle in Daqin. the stone relief of a carriage in the village of Maria Saal. 2) 111. 2) 101. Here the king’s residence and the pillars of the palace are made from crystal. Hung. 20) 32–33. here 129–130. 2) 100–101. pillars were made of crystal (水精) and the king’s residence of coral (珊瑚). (Fig. 2) 103. 2) VIII. HIRTH (n.ubi-erat-lupa. They shave their hair/beard and. 2011 . Moreover.134 (Fig.org/site/datenblatt/datenblatt. 224–230. HIRTH (n. as F. cf. that the histories used these terms for the ornaments and covers of buildings. ADAM. not for their exact materials. 134 135 Acta Ant.133 In this case they might be comparable with the various Roman building materials such as the polychrome stuccos and wall mosaics especially used in the eastern part of the Empire. resemble the Chinese and wear embroidered/hu clothes.: Roman Building: Materials and Techniques. J. Hirth pointed out. 2) 111. G. it is more likely. HIRTH (n. POPULATION The Hou Han shu. However. London 2005.asp?Nr=1107. Hung. 1 – Roman stone relief from the Virunum II cemetery http://www. Reiter. P. the locals are tall and virtuous. 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). 2) 239.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 283 Fig. 2) 101. HIRTH (n.135 the Wei lüe136 and the Wei shu137 also describe Daqin as a densely populated area. Such details of Daqin people 133 HIRTH (n. 138 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). 2) 111. can use magic. PICCOTTINI. as the Wei lüe138 adds. where people live close to each other. 51. 136 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi).: Grabstelen.und Soldatendarstellungen sowie dekorative Reliefs des Stadtgebietes von Virunum und Nachträge zu: CSIR-Österreich II/1–4. 137 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di Jiushi Xi yu). The Chinese may well have claimed that the Daqin people originally came from China because they might have heard this from various foreign peoples who with this formulation may have wanted to emphasise that the Roman Empire was on the same cultural level as the Chinese. Leslie and K. 2011 . Moreover. According to D. Hirth suggested the records might refer to scraping their chin or simply cutting their hair. Gardiner139 the passage on Daqin people who shave their hair is a mistake of the Chinese annalists. as this was not common among the Romans. As the two scholars point out. J. 140 Acta Ant. H. 133) 229. not everybody imitated them. Both opinions might be the evidence of the Daqin people’s civilisation as emphasised earlier. In ADAM (n.284 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL Fig.140 Although there is no similar information in the 139 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. The Wei lüe also adds details on the handcraft of the Daqin people when writes that they make bows and arrows. this contradicts their argument that these passages presumably describe the Daqin people. as F. Hung. D. 2 – Textile fragments from Szemlőhegy. At the same time it could refer to their appearance: although the emperors’ portraiture generally influenced the taste of common people. not the emperor of the state. since the reign of Hadrian it had become more usual for the emperors to grow a beard. 22) 48. 2) 112. especially not in the Hellenistic East. HIRTH (n. 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). could refer to their appearance or more likely to their intrinsic properties and civilisation. However. 51. Chrys. where trading was strictly controlled by the cursus publicus.: The Ituraeans and the Roman Near East.148 IX. On the prices of goods of the eastern trade during the 1st c. 2. 6. 2) 111. although the Syrian caravan-trade could have played a more significant role. Acta Ant. 2) 111. willows. bamboos and so on. donkeys and silkworms. wild animals such as tigers and lions were common in the mountains around Antioch so much so that the authors write about their role in amphitheatric games and other spectaculars.1. the inhabitants plant grain. 144 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). Hom. HIRTH (n. HIRTH (n. 151 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di Jiushi Xi yu). Although especially during the 4th c. According to these records the region has many different types of trees.: YOUNG 199–201. 150 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). 149 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). According to the Hou Han shu143 and the Wei lüe144 there are no bandits but fierce tigers and lions who threaten travellers. breed horses. 106) 23.141 it might be an interesting parallel with the famous Syrian archers during the Roman period.146 Hence it is possible that these beasts were more dangerous to the travellers than the bandits. 2011 .THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 285 other sources. KOLB (n. 141 142 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. 2) 103. 148 JONES (n. just as the Chinese chronicles stated. Hung. mules. A. 2) 100. 38. 145 J.145 Moreover. Cambridge 2010. HIRTH (n. comites commerciorum and praefecti annonae. YOUNG (n. MYERS. This might be comparable with the Roman Empire. According Young the effect of the long-distance trade on the Roman foreign policy and the economic motivations are strongly questionable. 2) 101. too. such as pine trees. various affrays between thieves and travellers were more common in the area of Antioch. HIRTH (n. Moreover. ad Stag. 143 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). HIRTH (n.149 the Wei lüe150 and the Wei shu151 all give information about the agriculture of Daqin. Agriculture and domesticated animals The Hou Han shu. 101) 824–828. There is also an interesting passage in the Hou Han shu147 on the honest and reliable traders of Daqin. 25) 194–197. camels. E. HIRTH (n. cypresses. THE ECONOMY OF DAQIN IX. Reassessing the Sources. 147 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba).142 There is also an allusion in the histories to the public safety in Daqin. 128) 96–103. the antique sources emphasise the safety of the main routes. 146 DOWNEY (n. 22) 71. 51. 2) 100. These passages might fit the eastern regions of the Roman Empire. 4. but spruce. especially the agriculture of province Syria could be compared to the descriptions of the Chinese sources. Nat. xi 75–78. 165 THORLEY (n. according to F. To the End of the Third Century After Christ. 161 MAGIE. 2) 256. Hist. T. 4. 162 HIRTH (n. 22) 227. Or. 25) 479–480. acacia and the laurel. According to Dalby it was the Bombyx Arabia and the Bombyx Assyria. too. Princeton 1950. H. Babylonia for its mules. perhaps it was not evident for them that the special Chinese silk was made by cocoons.156 In Syria the breeding of horses. Baltimore 1938. T. xi 26. DALBY.159 So it could not be excluded that as the Hou Han shu.78. Hung. A. Pliny the Elder gave a detailed report of silkworm raising on the island of Cos. Gardiner emphasised that the existence of mulberry trees for silkworms is unlikely in the Roman Empire. 158 Libanius.164 In his explanation about the Chinese records on silkworm breeding J.: Empire of Pleasures.157 Moreover. Thorley165 suggested that it was a so-called trick by Parthian merchants.162 D. although the antique auctors mentioned silkworms held by Romans. Vol. Nat.163 However. D. 17) 77–78. 153 154 Acta Ant. the Wei lüe. millet.160 But wild silk and the Chinese Bombyx Mori were presumably not equal. F.153 There they grew wheat. the passage on silkworm breeding is still a disputed point of research.161 Although the Romans knew that the silk in Cos was made by silkworms. Apamea and Arabia were famous for their horses. M. T. Baltimore 1938. 51. 154) 152–153. especially the timber of Mount Ida. 156 BROUGHTON. They lied to the Chinese that the Romans knew the secret of Bombyx Mori to prevent the overland trade 152 Cod. 2011 . Plinius. Besides these pieces of information. J. some other famous trees were the Syrian sumach. In FRANK. here 127–130. Leslie and K.154 Besides the cypress. 155 HEICHELHEIM (n. (ed. For instance the cypress was so common in the territory of Antioch that its exploitation was regulated by law.: Roman Syria. HEICHELHEIM. here 617. 157 HEICHELHEIM (n. Iust. 188. xviii 63.: Roman Asia Minor. HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n. rice. fir and plane were quite rare. 2) 255–260. Vol. (ed. 154) 135. 160 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. R. pines were not curiosity in Asia Minor. donkeys. 11.155 However. Hirth the Morus Nigra occurred in the Roman Orient and even in Italia. Luxury and Indulgence in the Roman World. In FRANK. Petra and the region of Gaugamela for their camels.): An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome. 818. 121–257.286 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL These passages might be parallel with the flora of the Roman Oriens.152 The Roman Near-East. mules and camels was important. 22) 225. so the Wei shu write about the so-called Assyrian silk in Pliny’s text. Libanius158 characterised Antioch as a famous centre of pasture and breeding. S.: Roman Rule in Asia Minor. 164 HIRTH (n. hemp and many other kinds of grain. 163 LESLIE–GARDINER (n.): An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome. Pliny the Elder informs us that Syria could provide Egypt with wheat when it suffered from hunger. D. New York 2002. 159 Plinius. Hist. 499–916. so they could not be confused. Metals. 169 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). while the Wei shu172 transmits four. Based on these it cannot be excluded that the Chinese information on the silkworms in Cos are not first-hand. 170 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). 2) 112. 2011 . G. 19) 622–623. Because of the partial information on silk production they naturally started to use their own terms for the Daqin silkworms.2.169 naming thirty-four items opposed to the fourteen mentioned in the Hou Han shu.170 By reporting seven items. still inform on it.1. Raschke suggested that silkworm breeding was not a secret monopoly of the Chinese and many of the Central-Asian states knew it. so they did not know the exact method of Roman sericulture. precious stones. moreover. 2) 102. Hung. MAGIE (n. M. gems and other materials The most detailed list of metals. in his theory he probably overrated the Parthian influence and authority.168 (Diagram 2) IX. unless in connection to silkworms. 2) 103. 171 晉書: 卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan). 51. HIRTH (n. Since in China the importance of the Bombyx Mori was the same as of the other domesticated animals. 173 宋書: 卷九十七 列傳第五十七 夷蠻 (Song shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di wushiqi yi man). HIRTH (n. 167 Acta Ant. gems and precious materials in Daqin is offered by the Wei lüe. There is no information on growing mulberry trees. HIRTH (n. 172 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di jiushi Xi yu). he did not count with the possibility of maritime connections.167 the Chinese chronicles presumably referring to the 2nd–3rd c. 2) 112–114.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 287 between the two states. 168 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). This could also explain that although there is no mention of silkworms in the Roman sources after the 1st c.. the Jin shu171 only gives an essence of the previous lists.2.166 Nevertheless the passages on growing mulberry trees and breeding silkworms in Daqin might not contradict the Roman reality. 2) 100. 161) 52. although it arrived to the west only in the 6th c. it might not be a surprise that they mention it among the significant animals of Daqin. the Song shu173 three pieces of these precious materials. Natural resources and other products All of the five sources give an introduction of the products in Daqin. 2) 101. However. moreover the Wei lüe adds an extra product list. (Diagram 3) 166 RASCHKE (n. IX. HIRTH (n. HIRTH (n. too. It is also a problem that the Bombyx Mori is a domesticated animal of the Romans in the Chinese chronicles. HIRTH (n. Thorley174 emphasises the importance of the Hispanian and Balkanian gold mines. minerals and other precious materials IX.1. 51. Hung. Acta Ant. Describing the mining of precious metals in the Roman empire J. the Wei lüe and the Jin shu all emphasise the importance of gold (金) in their product list.1. the first two sources also mention silver (銀) and give the exchange rate of gold and silver money. Nevertheless 174 THORLEY (n. pearls. Metals The Hou Han shu. 2011 .288 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL 40 30 20 Diagram 2 – Products of Daqin (大秦) 12 10 8 metals 6 pearls 4 jade+minerals 2 jade+minerals 0 HHS WL JS others metals WS SS Diagram 3 – Metals. 17) 76. Moreover.2. as well as motherof-pearl (車渠) also appear in the Wei lüe.html #12_12 183 FERGUSON (n. Moreover. Methods and Problems. the Wei lüe actually refers to various types of pearls. its identification is quite problematic. According to J. 18) 591.181 J. Moreover. Hung. Pearls There are many different kinds of pearls named in all of the five sources.179 Copper (銅).: Earnings and Costs: Living Standards and the Roman Economy. 51. there is no mention in the sources that Daqin had exported all these products. In the Roman Empire there were copper fields in Kurdistan. IX.2. Besides moonlight pearls (明月珠).2.washington. the possible trade between Rome and China was conducted by middlemen. H. as J. Tin was also processed in Asia Minor.180 Cyprian copper and iron from Pontus were prepared in Asia Minor. Hill southern gold might refer to bronze. Oxford 2009. The Wei lüe also mentions southern gold (南金). Yet the exact identifications are problematic and. the region of Beirut and principally in the outskirts of Germanicia. lead (錫) and tin (鉛) only appear in the Wei lüe product list. xxxii 47. 622–623. as E. and in the southern region of Palestine.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. (eds.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 289 their mining also played a significant role in the eastern provinces of the Empire.176 According to J. Shafer184 pointed out concerning 175 Strabo xvi. A. Hist.): Quantifying the Roman Economy.182 However. E. but there is information on famous craftsmen in the province. 24) http://depts. 177 HILL: The Peoples (n. on Cyprus. E.washington. E. c784 §26. 180 HEICHELHEIM (n.html 176 #12_2 178 Plinius. Lebanon and other parts of the province Syria. however. 179 Acta Ant. and Rhodus. Lydian iron was used for weapons. RATHBONE. iron (鐵). for instance in the Nabatean region also mentioned by Strabo.175 In Asia Minor there was only a more insignificant quantity of gold and silver. 299– 326. Rathbone stated. genuine white pearls (真白珠). 154) 157. Hill177 the 1:10 gold-silver exchange rate in the Hou Han shu and the Wei lüe is very close to Pliny’s 1:11 ratio. BROUGHTON (n. 184 SCHAFER: The Pearl (n.1. Nat. Hill emphasised that China produced all these metals and had no need to import them.178 although as D. In BOWMAN. in the area of Cilicia. so the existence of Roman objects in China should not be expected as evident. the ratio of 1:12 might have been most significant from Augustus’ time to Diocletian. Moreover. snake (蛇珠) or simply shining (夜光珠) pearls. 2011 . 156) 827–829. to China or anywhere else. 156) 826–827. A. emphasising their whiteness and brightness. 302.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 182 HILL: The Peoples (n. Ferguson183 showed. 24) http://depts. 12) 155. D. – WILSON. Iron was found near Jericho and in the spring of the Jordan. by simultaneously using different names of pearls. 181 BROUGHTON (n. 187 Plinius. xxxvii 121–122. 196 Plinius. Lesbos. LESLIE–GARDINER (n.290 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL the meaning of mother-of-pearls. 186.186 Pliny the Elder also deals with the pearls from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. xxxvii 143. There are nine different gems listed.191 while J. Marc. Chavannes identified it as a kind of blue-green jasper. Galatia. xxxvii 37. Hist. moreover he emphasises the brightness of the pearls from the Mare Rubrum.g. ix 106.2. Nat. the exact meaning of this term is still not clear. Phyrgia. Hist. Nat. ipsa crystallina splendoris caerulei. just as the Hou Han shu. 2) 73. 193 E. Nat. Antiochian and Palmyran jewellery workshops in her paper on the Roman pearl fashion. 113. Nat.190 IX. 195 Plinius. Related to moonlight pearls Y.194 the amethyst of Egypt. 4) 182. M. Nat. Ókor 2 (2006) 32–37.3. xxxv 40. 190 Amm.1. Nat. here 35. which “fulgorem siderum rapiens. 186 Acta Ant. the chronicles. 85–86 .185 Furthermore. washington. 51.196 He also writes about the agate in Cyprus. Hist. 14) 72.: Az igazgyöngy Rómában [Pearls in Rome]. However. The Hou Han shu. Nat. Petra. M. Jades. 191 CHAVANNES: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Heou Han chou (n. Székely mentions the Alexandrian. E. the Hou Han shu also adds the bluish green gems (青碧). É. it is also possible that in some cases these terms referred to some kinds of minerals. also mention amber (虎珀). The identification of cihuang (雌黃) as orpiment and of xionghuang (雄黃) as realgar is generally accepted by the translators. HILL: The Peoples (n. 192 HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n. Rhodus197 and mentions the greenish topaz from the region of the Mare Rub- 185 HARADA (n. who in connection with the eastern provinces emphasised the Syrian amber. the Wei shu and the Jin shu both mention the luminous jade (夜光璧). xxxvii 134. SZÉKELY. Hist. 150. 159–161.192 The Wei lüe is much more detailed than the other histories. xxxvii 62. their translation is quite problematic. gems and other minerals In the Chinese chronicles there are also some allusions to the different jades in various colours. HIRTH (n. A detailed description of the different gems and minerals is offered by Pliny the Elder. moreover. 197 Plinius. Hist. xxxvii 149.193 Furthermore. Hist.”189 At the same time Ammianus Marcellinus also mentioned Persian and Indian pearls. Hill suggested the nephrite or peridot.187 He stated that mother-of-pearl was most precious after diamonds188 and writes about white stones too. cinnabar and alabaster. however.html#12_12 194 Plinius. 25) 276–277. xxxvii 141. such as the ceraunia. Arabia and Persia. 24) http://depts. 22) 208. 2011 . 188 Plinius. xxiii 6.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. Harada stressed that they were bigger than the Chinese ones and also added that they were principally found in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. 189 Plinius. Hung. Hist. xxxvi 61. and Armenia – which has a special type close to the crystals in colour195 – and other gems from the Syrian and Assyrian region. especially in the Roman Orient as proved by Pliny the Elder206 and the Roman glass sherds found in the People’s Republic of China. In 干福熹 (GAN FUXI) (著): 中国古 代玻璃技术的发展 (Zhongguo Gudai Boli Jishu de Fazhan). HILL: The Peoples (n. 201 THORLEY (n. 干福熹 (GAN FUXI): 丝绸之路促进中国古代玻璃技术的 发展 (Sichou zhi Lu Cujin Zhongguo Gudai Boli Jishu de Fazhan).205 Roman glass production was significant. the scholar did not take into consideration that some of the chronicles refer to the period after the Sassanian conquer and that the term yu (玉) could simply mean ‘gem’. dark blue. bluish-green. GAN. 15) 199. Hist. 51. although it might refer to a glass-like gemstone. 134) 224–230. E. 200 NEEDHAM (n. Nat. LAING.html#12_12 203 LESLIE–GARDINER (n.200 J. while the Cappadocian is azure purple. not transparent glass.: A Report on Western Asian Glassware in the Far East.207 198 Plinius. – BRILL.: Rómaiak Kínában? A ganquani (甘泉) 2. Hist. white. 24) http://depts. 205 HILL: The Peoples (n. Needham suggested that the bright. 246–252. 24) http://depts. R. At the same time the identification of the term shuijing is also problematic. fiery red and purple. In GAN. too. Plinius. J. FA 54 (2008/2010) 131–154.washington. – SHOUYUN . 202 NEEDHAM (n. J. J. K. such as polychrome stuccos and wall mosaics. 上海 (Shanghai) 2005.204 Naturally it is still possible that in other passages the term liuli referred to glass or a glass-like gemstone. 2011 . F.199 J. Gardiner point out that besides the term boli (玻璃) used for transparent glass.washington. black. luminous gems described by the Chinese annals might be the clorophane which contains calcium fluoride. F.203 Through the interpretation of term liuli the description of Daqin buildings in the Jin shu could also be noteworthy. Both the Hou Han shu and the Wei lüe mentioned the liuli which in the latter one occurs in ten colours: red.g. 22) 213.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 291 rum. The walls made from liuli might refer to a glasslike glaze which could be comparable with the various Roman building decoration techniques. 204 ADAM (n. Hist. sír római vonatkozású üveglelete [Romans in China? The Roman glass finding in grave 2 of Ganquan (甘泉)]. 17) 79.edu/silkroad/texts/ weilue/notes11_30. here 109. 199 Acta Ant. 207 E. Nat. xxxvii 107–108. H. depending on the context liuli could also mean a natural gemstone and produced glass. E Hill suggested that it might refer to the glass produced in Daqin. yellow.198 Connected to the Persian jasper he remarks its sky-blue colour and also adds that the Phyrgian is purple. T. D. Leslie and K. D. HOPPÁL. 15) 200. xxxvii 115. Hung.): Ancient Glass Research along the Silk Road. 安家瑶 (AN JIAYAO): ’中国的早期玻璃器皿 [Early Glass Vessels in China] 考古学报 (Kaogu Xuebao) 4 (1984) 414–447. here 415. Thorley noted that the mention of the existence of different jades in Daqin might have been the result of a Parthian trick to hinder Sino-Roman trade relations. It could also mean crystal or transparent glass. light blue. The term is often translated as opaque. Nat.202 Moreover. H. Singapore 2009. 41–108. (eds.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. xxxvi 190–199.201 However. BAI 5 (1991) 109– 121.: The Silk Road and Ancient Chinese Glasses. as jade was not known to the Romans. green.html #12_12 206 Syrian sites: Plinius. 2) 103. 25) 273–275. xxxii 21. Such is the case of the haiji rhinoceros (駭雞犀)211 in the Hou Han shu the Wei lüe and the Jin shu. D. too. 210 BROUGHTON (n. É. 24) http://depts. tortoise shell (玳瑁) and there are some products which are still difficult to identify. See: 宋書: 卷九十七 列傳第五十七 夷蠻 (Song shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di wushiqi yi man). as Pliny also cited. Gardiner this special product rather meant simply the horn of rhinoceros. 2011 . Hill. J.212 According to D. E. although coral did not have real value for the Romans. large cowries (大貝).213 The idea of fighting cocks and rhinoceros seems more likely since.217 The Wei lüe also mentions the kingfisher feathers (翠爵羽翮).edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/ notes11_30. and informs that they were often replaced by glass.214 The term white horses with red manes (白馬硃髦215 and白馬朱鬣216) occurs only in the list of the Wei lüe and the Wei shu. Hist. 22) 202.html#12_12 and HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n. 215 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). Hirth in his translation separated the term into white horses and red hairs. and translated this as fighting cocks. HIRTH (n. but raised their connection. and HILL: The Peoples (n.218 which is named in the Song shu. 2) 102. 47–50. Other precious products. sometimes like crystal or jasper. 51.210 The Chinese annals also listed ivory (象牙). Pliny the Elder also mentions some glass-like minerals such as the cetionis from Aeolis. the cocks mainly from Rhodus and Tangara were famous for their violent nature and their combats. See: LESLIE–GARDINER (n. HILL: The Peoples (n. while the Song shu only mentions rhinoceros (犀).292 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL Furthermore. 213 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. Nat. Leslie and K. 214 Plinius.washington. HIRTH (n. 128.2. H. Cavannes believed the term rhinoceros might refer to a mineral stone with magical features which could affray chicken when mixed with rice. More precisely kingfisher gems and feathers. 2) 112. Hill related the term haiji (駭雞) to the term xi (犀) which means rhinoceros. which sometimes looked like glass. F. E. 22) 210. HIRTH (n. He also describes glass-like minerals among the leucochrysos.1. 23. edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. Nat. 217 HIRTH (n. possibly meant a sort of coral.208 IX. 2) 112. 2) 73. x. 156) 829.html#12_12 212 CHAVANNES: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Heou Han chou (n. 216 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di jiushi Xi yu). Hist. xxxvii 156.4. 24) http://depts. Hung.209 In the Roman Empire corals from Arabia and the Mare Rubrum were exported and a coral workshop in Magnesia was famous.219 Although it is still not clear whether the term refers to 208 Plinius. not identified materials Both the Hou Han shu and the Wei lüe mention the red coral (珊瑚) and the langgan (琅玕) which.washington. 209 Acta Ant. 218 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi Zhuan di sanshi). 4) 181–182. 211 J. 219 With different characters: 羽之珍. besides the identification as whitish chalcedony suggested by J. HIRTH (n. edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. The term could also be translated as mysterious bears. Hill proposed that it might have been used for divination. So this might be a possible explanation why the Chinese annalists used the term red chi. Gardiner believed that it might be a sort of a reptile.222 The Periplus also mentions the rhinoceros horn from the African area and the tortoise shell from the region of the Mare Rubrum among its trade products. 6. too.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 293 the kingfisher feathers or a kind of bluish-green gem similar to the colour of the bird.225 while J. J. 13) 133. 2011 . 22) 203.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.html#12_12 230 Plinius.228 According to D. 13) 91. Hist.washington. 225 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. according to the description provided by Pliny the Elder. Leslie and K. Hist. 2) 73. HIRTH (n. 22) 203. H. see CASSON. viii 98. However. there was a significant confusion between the real cinnabar and the Indian dragon’s blood. D. E. Nat. He also mentions Numidian bears.229 There is an interesting allusion to weasels mentioned by Pliny. xxxiii 116.html #12_12 223 Periplus 3–4. Nat. Hill’s opinion the term could be identified as mongooses. H. In this case the latter might refer to the sea turtles or the tortoise shell. J. Leslie and K. Hirth and J. 220 F. such as the black bears (玄熊). Moreover. 24) http://depts. Princeton 1989. 221 Acta Ant.html #12_12 227 Plinius. D. E. 130–131.227 Hence it cannot be excluded that the Chinese annals identified the red chi as this Indian cinnabar which was used as a drug and a pigment.220 There are some more special animals mentioned in the Wei lüe.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. H. 24) http://depts. as F.221 or the more problematic shenkui (神龜).: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. SCHAFER: The Golden Peaches (n.223 Horses from Syria and Arabia were mentioned above and Pliny the Elder also adds some ideas connected to the bears such as the Spanish belief of using the bears’ brain as a magical poison or their fat as medicine. Nat. viii. J. 224 Plinius. 229 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. Gardiner the poison-avoiding rats (辟毒 鼠) in the Wei lüe might refer to weasels.washington. D. Hirth and J. 226 HILL: The Peoples (n. 228 SCHAFER: The Golden Peaches (n.224 It is also problematic to identify the exact meaning of the term red chi (赤螭). 222 HILL: The Peoples (n. Hist. Especially since. L. the socalled dragon-blood in the Roman world.230 It is also Pliny who says that the Gallic weasel could be useful as an antidote for the sting of asp and another kind is an enemy of the serpents. which were fed on rue when fighting with serpents for the mice. Schafer’s and J. 15) 203. Periplus 30. More details to the Periplus. Schafer also mentions the Persian mongooses sent to the Chinese Empire. 136.226 This red resin is mentioned in both Pliny’s Natural History and the Periplus in connection with India. Hill suggested that it might refer to the leaves of the dracaena cinnabari. Needham suggested. meaning a small hornless or baby dragon. while in E. E.washington. 24) http://depts. for the Indian cinnabar instead of the more common term long (龍) meaning dragon. HILL: The Peoples (n. E. H. Needham suggested the latter. Hung. although their African origin is still doubtful. NEEDHAM (n. 51. NEEDHAM (n. xxix. Plinius.2 nem kell? IX.19. Hung. 2) 262–263. which are close to the lists of the Chinese histories.237 Furthermore. HIRTH (n. 51. The exact identification of the hair of water-sheep is still problematic. e. 3) However. however.washington. Furthermore. xxxvii 204. Using microscopic analysis he realised that the fine textile was different from the silk because its thread is pointed and it has dual refraction in polar light. Extending this information on the hair of water-sheep – the fine brocade made from this is called Haixi cloth (海西布) –. Hist.236 (Fig.232 IX. five of them also occur in the Wei lüe. the Wei lüe also mentions the cocoons of wild silkworms and the bark of trees (木皮).edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/appendices.231 Although some of the Daqin products in our Chinese sources are still problematic to identify it is worthwhile to emphasise the passages by Pliny connected to the most precious materials in the Roman world. The similar feature of the two passages is the description of the water-sheep cloth as a fine. FERGUSON (n. J.294 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL Furthermore. 233 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). Chavannes emphasised238 the manufacture of bysuss was kept in secret and it is rather unlikely that the Chinese had any knowledge of it. Hill concluded during his research that there is no material that could be doubtlessly identified as byssus and Lajos Nagy mistakenly used the term for the textile of Szemlőhegy. 4) 183. He also suggested that 231 Plinius. According to F. J. É. Nat. the flesh and maw of the latter could be used against the poison of serpents. 2) 113. 234 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). the Wei lüe is again more detailed. 237 HILL: The Peoples (n. veil-like textile (細布).html#d 238 CHAVANNES: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Heou Han chou (n. Budapest 1935. 17) 77. 15) 200–201. The Hou Han shu234 names only six kinds of material. 2011 . which according to the source is in fact from the cocoons of wild silkworms (野蠶繭). Needham writes about byssus-manufacturing. Hirth the term might refer to the byssus made from the pinna squamosa of the Mediterranean and Italian region. Hist. L. THORLEY (n. 18–20. Nagy suggested that the fine linen found at Szemlőhegy might be the silk-like product of the pinna nobilis.3. 235 HIRTH (n. both sources mention raw materials of animal origin used for threads. 236 NAGY L. E.235 In 1912 Lajos Nagy during the excavation of the Szemlőhegy mummy grave found a byssus-like material. Nat.g. Textiles It is also the Wei lüe233 which gives the most detailed list of the various textiles and clothes of Daqin mentioning twenty-one products.2. 2) 100. 232 Acta Ant.: Az aquincumi múmiatemetkezések [The Mummy Burials of Aquincum]. Some scholars accept this identification. 18) 590. HIRTH (n.(Diagram 2) The Hou Han shu describes fine threads made from the hair of water-sheep (水 羊毳). 24) http://depts. 243 The latter only occurs in the Song shu.239 The wild silk produced by the cocoons of wild silkworms (野繭絲). 156) 823. 235) 11. 242 BROUGHTON (n. 2011 . 4) 183. Hist. according to the passage in Pliny’s Natural History mentioned above. 2) 249–251. even Pliny is vague whether the asbestos could be identified as a kind of textile or a mineral. might be a tree grown in the Southern Asian region. and the Song shu all mention the so-called ‘fire-washed cloth’ (火浣布/火布243). Hung. based on the opinion of D. 51. 244 HIRTH (n. M. J. 245 Plinius. 22) 71.240 The annalist writes about a kind of fine cloth dyed with the leaves of the trees241 which. the legendary agnus scythicus might come from the mysteriousness of bysuss-production. Raschke rejects the byssus-identification and treats the wool of the water-sheep (水羊毳) as a legend. xxxvii 124. the Jin shu. Moreover. H. G. In NAGY (n. Gardiner.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 295 Fig. the Wei lüe. Acta Ant. Researchers agree244 that it might refer to the fireproof textile called asbestos in the Natural History. might refer to the silkworms bred in Cos. LESLIE–GARDINER (n. Nat. Besides this he could not exclude that the Chinese had heard about the legend of the agnus scythicus. See: 宋書: 卷九十七 列傳第五十七 夷蠻 HIRTH (n. 239 RASCHKE (n. CHAVANNES: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Heou Han chou (n. 19) 854. 2) 240 102. 3 – Wall mosaic from Ostia. SHIRATORI: A New Attempt (n. if it existed.242 The Hou Han shu. the scholars pointed to the description of the silk from the tree by Strabo. 11) 208–209. might have been a rare and precious material. Leslie and K. D.245 However. while the bark of the trees. 241 Strabo III c175 § 10. 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). Nat. In BORHY. (eds. 2011 . and the Chinese cited it because of its rarity. Lund 1966. in the latter sources there are some unique materials not 246 BROUGHTON (n. 17) 77. 2) 253–254. The gold woven textiles also occur in Pannonia and its neighbourhood. 29–30. 2) 101. Ókor II. – SZÁMADÓ. 223–236. 249 In the Jin shu. A.): Brigetio kincsei. vii 196. R. L. B. 51. Besides these T. while in the Hou Han shu and the Wei lüe there is also information on the gold painted tapestry (黃金塗/金塗布). DALBY (n. Furthermore. szarkofágban talált fémfonal-töredékek természettudományos vizsgálata [The natural scientific analysis of the fragments of metal thread found in sarcophagus 2].247 The gold threaded carpets and embroideries (金縷繡/織成金縷罽248/刺金縷 繡及積錦縷罽249) were mentioned by the Hou Han shu. Viminacium and Heténypuszta. 248 In the Hou Han shu. Details in JAKÓ M. Hist. 161) 163. E. Thorley the special cloth was made in the manufactories of Levant. In SIPOS (n.: Fémfonallal díszített textiltöredékek Heténypusztáról [A textile fragment decorated with metal thread from Heténypuszta]. In: Meddelanden fran Lunds Universitets Historiska Museum 1964–1965.296 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL Fig. GEIJER. E. SIPOS. Hung.246 According to J. 4 (2003) 47–50. S. A Unique Textile Fragment from Hungary. Pliny the Elder also writes of their special value. The latter also mentions the gold woven jiangde canopies (絳地金織帳). the Wei lüe and the Jin shu. not its practical usage. Broughton writes about the asbestos-producing manufactories in Cyprus. 4 – Tapestry decorated with metal thread. HIRTH (n. viii 196. Budapest 1999. sz. THORLEY (n. There are fragments from Brigetio. 250 Plinius. 156) 823. HIRTH (n. 249) 47. 晉書: 卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan). These textiles in the Chinese sources might be comparable with the Attalicae vestes and the Attalica aulaea woven with gold which were famous among the Romans. – THOMAS. 2) 100. HIRTH (n. E.250 (Fig.: A 2. 247 Acta Ant.: The Viminacium Gold Tapestry. 4) The varicoloured damask (雜色綾) occurs in the list of the Hou Han shu and the Wei lüe. turmeric? (鬱金).THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 297 mentioned by other annals. muer (木二).255 (Diagram 2) The slightly detailed group is at the end of the roughly thematised product-list. the baze cloth (巴則布). HILL: The Peoples (n. 254 Plinius. Nat. Hirth yiweimuer (一微木二). baze (巴則布) a clinging textile.251 Moreover.252 Furthermore. the textile manufactories in Laodicea. Hill yiwei (一微). BSOAS 23 (1960) 323–350. Although the identification of these Daqin textiles is problematic. although the former names one. douna (兜納). the multicoloured carpet (五色毾). Cilicia was a significant centre of textile production and there is also information of hemp trade in Ephesus. 24) http://depts.254 IX. was a boiled mixture of different fragrances. Gardiner yiweimu (一微木). The Wei lüe displays ten more items. the chiffons and damasks of Uscha. H. the latter eleven of these materials. 24) http://depts.253 Pliny the Elder also mentions the Seres – probably the Chinese – silk. LESLIE–GARDINER (n. 22) 74.washington. Hill the aluode (阿羅得布) is a kind of fine silk cloth. such as the yiwei (一微). purple-red. 2011 . Hung. the Wei lüe also emphasises the good quality of these textile products. myrrh (木二) and storax (蘇合).washington. J.html# products and http://depts. 251 According to J. Hist. Perfumes and herbs The various perfumes. the long lasting cloth of Dura Europos.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.edu/silkroad/ texts/weilue/weilue. green. O.washington. Berytos. the multicoloured wool serge (五色九色首下 毾). herbs and spices make up the third category of the Daqin products. the multicoloured tao cloth (五色桃布) and the varicoloured dou baldachin (五色鬥帳). the woven carpets and cloths of Nawrash and Tiberias. HIRTH (n. 255 On the identifications and use of the various products: WOLTERS. wensu (溫宿布) is presumably a cotton-wool cloth. such as the ten-coloured – yellow. 156) 822–823. 154) 191–192. 253 BROUGHTON (n. white. golden-yellow and misty-yellow – wool rug (黃白黑 綠紫紅絳紺金黃縹留黃十種氍毹). red.256 diti (狄提).html #12_12 252 HEICHELHEIM (n. here 323–344.html#12_12 Acta Ant. xi 76. 51. Only the Hou Han shu and the Wei lüe contain information. frankincense (薰陸). D.4. to J. There are data of the purple-dyed silk also from the Near-East. 256 According to F. Beth Mechuza and Scytopolis were famous all around the Roman world. the dudai cloth (度代布). the falu cloth (發 陸布).html#products and http://depts. rue oil? (芸膠) and altogether twelve different species of aromatic plants (薰草木十二種香).edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. mimi (迷迷). the feichiju cloth (緋持渠布). Tyros.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. W. according to the Hou Han shu. Leslie and K. violet. Byblos.washington. E. the feichi cloth (緋持布). the variety of the production could be compared to the ’cloth-industry’ in the Roman Oriens. HILL: The Peoples (n. to D. The fine linens of Borsippa and Naarda in Babylonia. the aluode cloth (阿羅得布). white aconite (白附子). and was re-dyed because of its roughness. black. purple. Both sources mention the storax (蘇合) which. which was imported by the Romans. 2) 74. the varicoloured dou (五色鬥帳) is perhaps multicoloured spiral curtain. E.: The ‘Po-ssu’ Pine Trees. Egypt and Colchis were also important for their fine linens. the wensu cloth (溫宿布). the eastern trade of the Roman Empire had a remarkable income at this time. The different perfumes in Asia Minor played a significant role in the trade of the province. thin clothing and some kind of pressed textiles. storax. AETAS 4 (1996) 57–67. HIRTH (n.259 including copper. Ecsedy added. 183–184. the Hou Han shu261 and the Jin shu262 emphasise the importance of sea trade. storax and oils from Syria. here 63. 187–191. However. 2) 176–177. singing boys. TRADE AND ENVOYS During the description of the Daqin economy. 2) 101. 266 ECSEDY I. 258 Acta Ant. HIRTH (n. such a statement of the annals might be a reflection of the Chinese traditions. namely that the foreign envoys were provided with gold coins after arriving to the borders of Daqin. 51. to the same merchants. 263 HIRTH (n. 262 晉書: 卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan). with the purpose of increasing their own profit. 2) 100. as well as expensive silver vessels. see SCHOFF W. flint glass.265 Although these details might only mean a trick of Daqin merchants illustrating the generosity of their country.: Kereskedelem a Selyem-úton: nomád közvetítés az iráni sztyeppén [Trade along the Silk Road: Nomadic mediation in the Iranian steppe]. delicious wines. 25) 22–23. tin and lead. repeated by th e Jin shu. the Chinese emperor often raised his own prestige by sending official envoys to welcome the merchants and embassies. According to F. 257 For a detailed list. H. see BROUGHTON (n. realgar. which might have been misunderstood by the Chinese. 2) 100. sweet clover.258 It could be interesting to compare the different Daqin products with the list of the different goods exported to India in the Periplus. according to the Jin shu. gold and silver coins. HIRTH (n.260 X. 260 For the exact translation.: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century. New York 1912. Hirth263 these exaggerated details came from the merchants arriving to China in 166. beautiful young girls for the harem. 154) 131–134. Hung. 265 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). but not very expensive and not much. antimony and perfumes.264 It is also F. Moreover. They traded with Anxi and Tianzhu (天竺) and its profit is tenfold or.298 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL The various perfumes and herbs listed above could also be compared with the similar products from the eastern part of the Roman Empire. on which there is some profit when exchanging them for the money of the country. belts woven from different threads. thin clothing of the finest weaves and the choicest perfumes for the king. Hirth who links another passage of the Hou Han shu. it is worthy of note that the foreign currency of the travellers and envoys arriving to the borders of the Roman Empire were often changed for coins accepted by Romans. as I. coral and topaz. 261 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). 2011 .266 Therefore. HEICHELHEIM (n.257 while spices were exported from Egypt. 264 YOUNG (n. a hundredfold. 156) 615. 259 Periplus 49. Although it is problematic to outline the exact route of Gan Ying’s voyage. D.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 299 XI. In 97 C. 271 E. although the Song shu only gives a short explanation for the absence of diplomatic relations between Daqin and China. XI. YÜ (n. who wanted to protect the profit and therefore cut Daqin off from communication. The other annals roughly repeat the record of the Hou Han shu. 2 dated to 67 C. PULLEYBLANK: The Roman Empire (n. Gardiner remarked. 16) 78. Protector-General Ban Chao (班超)267 sent Gan Ying to Daqin. HIRTH (n.273 at any rate it is more than likely that he got further than any of the previous travellers. 274 後漢書: 卷八十八西域傳第七十八 (Hou Han shu: Juan bashiba Xi yu zhuan di qishiba). 58) 405–411. might support this theory. D. Gardiner pointed out269 such an envoy had to be founded because of the rumours about the existence of a mythical empire far away in the west and the needs to get to know it better. J. 宋書: 卷九十七 列傳第五十七 夷蠻 (Song shu: Juan Jiushiqi Liezhuan di wushiqi yi man). 270 The archaeological evidence of Romans such as the Roman ribbed glass from Ganquan (甘泉) grave no. the 267 The Protector-General of Western Regions was presumably seated near Karashahr and Kalgamaman. Delegation from Daqin – the Andun embassy Besides Gan Ying’s voyage there is another embassy mentioned in the Hou Han shu which was sent by Romans. Hung. 268 晉書: 卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan). H. 2011 . 271 However. Leslie and K. Acta Ant. J. as D. cut the Romans off from communication. 51. 207). HOPPÁL (n. 2) 101–102.274 Although the king of Daqin always wished to send envoys to China. HIRTH (n. in order not to lose their profit. 2) 100. For this reason it was only in the ninth year of the Yanxi period. He reached Tiaozhi but the sailors from the western frontier of Anxi warned him not to cross the sea. during the reign of emperor Huan (至桓帝延熹九年) that Andun. the Parthian merchants. 17) 75.272 there is no evidence that the Parthian trick could have been connected to Gan Ying’s journey and it is also uncertain whether it could be identified as a Parthian commercial conspiracy. 22) 141.2. 273 On the route and the exact localisation of the western borders of Anxi: LESLIE–GARDINER (n. 22) 146. 269 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. The first attempt of contact – the Gan Ying (甘英) envoy It is again the Hou Han shu which gives information about the first attempt to communicate with Daqin. Some scholars linked this warning to the information provided by the Andun (安敦) embassy in 166 about the Parthians. Leslie and K. H.E. HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n.g.E. 272 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. 22) 141–148. THORLEY (n.1.270 Gan Ying never reached Daqin because of the sailors from the western frontier of Anxi. 25) 481–483.268 As D. COMMUNICATION WITH DAQIN XI. HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n. the Parthians wanted to monopolise the trade and cut the communication between Daqin and China. Gardiner. D. 10) 145. the co-emperor of Marcus Aurelius could also be a possible identification. SHIRATORI: The Geography (n. 51. 4) 185.279 Nevertheless it is unlikely that it was an official delegation personally founded by the Roman emperor. 22) 153. 277 RASCHKE (n. D. For instance the passage of the fair and honest commerce with Anxi and Tianzhu which makes a tenfold profit or the story of the Parthian trick to cut the direct trade between Rome and China might have been an attempt to raise their gains. 2011 . the series of wars could cause a commercial crisis amongst the Syrian cities and their merchants which might have resulted in a demand to fasten the Sino-Roman relations. HILL: Through the Jade Gate (n. It is likely that the name Andun was a transcription of Antoninus which might refer to Marcus Aurelius. because of the Roman-Parthian war. 22) 154. As did E. Hirth suggested that the offerings of the Daqin king came from this area. Acta Ant. However. which could explain why they did not mean any speciality to the Chinese. 25) 293. 280 HIRTH (n. 281 HIRTH (n. LESLIE–GARDINER (n. Raschke277 pointed out. who with the purpose of increasing their own profit stated that they were a delegation sent by the emperor. the Roman merchants misinformed the Chinese in several ways. NEEDHAM (n. Leslie and K.282 Furthermore. 22) 156.300 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL king of Daqin sent envoys from beyond the border of Rinan (日南) and offered ivory. 276 HIRTH (n. the latter suggested to reconsider the meaning of the Chinese characters. 25) 27. 282 This is also accepted by É. G. therefore he was the senior augustus. 15) 198. Hirth. The members of the Andun embassy were presumably merchants. Leslie and K.278 On the other hand they suggested that the passage might refer to Antoninus Pius. 283 HIRTH (n. 279 LESLIE–GARDINER (n.283 275 三國志: 魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). 2) 173. LESLIE– GARDINER (n. PULLEYBLANK: The Roman Empire (n. 278 The assumption might be reasonable because Marcus Aurelius bore the title pontifex maximus. H. as M. Considering the contents of the list provided by the Hou Han shu there are no special products. Hung. K. which might lead to the assumption that the earlier annals were exaggerating in their descriptions. 19) 855. 2) 176–178. It is more likely to have been a commercial action. according to F. D. Shiratori. The Wei lüe only gives a short summary275 about this first record of direct communication between the two great empires.280 As the Chinese annals also recorded. J. as F. Lucius Verus. 2) 173–174. The Daqin travellers came beyond the border of Rinan which might refer to Annam on the Vietnamese coast. The Roman military advance and the capture of Seleucia and Ctesiphon in 165 C. Gardiner emphasised that Marcus Aurelius was more charismatic than Lucius Verus. D. Chavannes. who pointed out that the question cannot be clearly decided. H. 22) 151. CHAVANNES: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Heou Han chou (n. 16) 78. G.276 However. Hirth suggested. might have initiated such an envoy. LESLIE–GARDINER (n. Pulleyblank. rhinoceros horn and tortoise shell. 2) 111. J. 2) 176.E. HIRTH (n.281 F. Moreover. There is another record of an embassy in the Wei lüe. 291 LESLIE–GARDINER (n.: Rome and Persia in the Late Antiquity. 286 晉書: 卷三 帝紀第三武帝 (Jin shu: Juan san Di ji di san wu di).. which could have played an important role in the establishment of a commercial envoy described by the Chinese. Hung.287 During the year of 283 Carus advanced to Ctesiphon. Chavannes pointed out.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 301 According to the annals the Andun mission was the first direct communication between Rome and China. but after his death Numerianus returned the troops without negotiating for peace. 290 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. 285 Acta Ant. Gardiner also suggested. It is worthy of note that this delegation. 288 DIGNAS. Although the envoy in 120 sent by the Shan king could not mean a direct intercourse. 26. Nevertheless the numerous wars during the late 2nd c. 2) 112. which presumably arrived from the Burmese region. According to the Jin shu during the reign of emperor Wu. HIRTH (n. Neighbours and Rivals. suggested. in 133 C. 晉書: 卷九十七 列傳第六十七 四夷傳 (Jin shu: Juan jiushiqi Liezhuan di liushiqi Si yu zhuan).291 284 CHAVANNES: Les pays d’Occident d’après le Heou Han chou (n. as É. H. envoys came from Shule (疏勒) and offered bluish stone (青石) and golden belt (金帶) from Haixi. was established by the Shan king. E. XI. 22) 152. However. This happened in 285 and might have been.E.284 the sea route must have been known earlier because of the jugglers from Daqin arriving with the Shan embassy in 120 C. 289 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). 2011 . the delegations might have departed before Numerianus’ order. D. 287 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. 22) 159. the Roman jugglers arriving with the Shans also occurred later in the sources: the Wei lüe mentions the magicians as a main feature of Daqin.3. – WINTER. H. might have had an influence on the eastern trade and the economy of the eastern cities.290 The Shule delegation is also mentioned in the Hou Han shu but there is no allusion to Haixi or Daqin. D. as D. J. Cambridge 2007.289 In the third year of Yangjia (陽嘉三年時). So the presence of Daqin people in the Han Court could not count as a contact between the empires. Leslie and K. not by the Romans.285 Daqin and Linyi (林邑) sent envoys to the Chinese court. B. Other embassies connected to Daqin Besides the Roman delegation in 166 there are some other envoys in the chronicles connected to Daqin. offered lapis lazuli.288 Such an unexpected action by Carus’ successor could not exclude the foundation of an envoy to decrease a commercial crisis caused by the wars in the area. a result of Carus’ war against the Sassanids. However. considering that it might take years to get to China. 4) 185. as D. Leslie and K. HIRTH (n.E. 22) 152. 2) 103. J.286 Linyi might be located somewhere in South Asia and the route of the Daqin embassy was the same as in 166. 51. They presumably arrived from Kashgar and. washington. foreign tribes living in the eastern regions. mentioned by the Wei lüe might seem controversial because there is an allusion to the land route in another passage of the source.4. Leslie and K.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30.html#13_6 298 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. the Aman – Sibin – Yuluo line and the route via Haibei and Haixi. Gardiner also pointed out that the passage of the overland route. Based on the investigation of the Hou Han shu.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. 2011 .302 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL XI.html#13_5 http://depts. 51. Hung. D. The authenticity of these sources is quite questionable and dating their contents is also problematic. D. In connection with land routes the Hou Han shu describes a way from the western frontier of Anxi through Haibei and Haixi to Daqin. H. which had been unknown in earlier times. D.g. 296 LESLIE–GARDINER (n. They also suggested that this account might refer to the route from Anxi or Tiaozhi to Daqin.html#13_1 http://depts. HOW DID THE CHINESE IMAGINE THE ROMAN EMPIRE? – CONCLUSION Analysing the Chinese texts and the description of Daqin the first step is to treat the information in them carefully enough. The supposed way of Gan Ying. the term does not refer an ethnic group. Routes by land and sea There are two different types of routes in the Chinese histories: by land and by sea. D. HIRTH (n. 297 HILL: The Peoples (n. It is also stated that in earlier times only the sea route was known and that there was no information about the overland way. J. 294 魏書: 卷一百二〔一〕列傳第九十西域 (Wei shu: Juan yibaier [yi] Liezhuan di jiushi Xi yu). Gardiner defined three different sort of land-routes.296 The route in the Wei lüe and the Wei shu probably led along the South Vietnamese coast. D. One of the land routes was presumably used by Gan Ying and the Andun embassy travelling by sea. 24) http://depts. J. 293 三國志:魏書三十 烏丸鮮卑東夷傳第三十 (San guo zhi: Wei shu sanshi Wu wan Xianbei Dong yi zhuan di sanshi). 2) 113. H. 2) 104. A waterway is also mentioned leading to Yongchang (永昌) in Yizhou (益州). Acta Ant.washington. while Yongchang might refer to Yunnan (云南) and the UpperBurma region. LESLIE–GARDINER (n. 295 E.297 Furthermore. Moreover. 22) 170–171.washington. HIRTH (n. J. 22) 166–167. Gardiner suggested that the maritime route described in the annals was only used by the western travellers.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/notes11_30. from where curiosities come. H. Leslie and K.298 XII. The Wei lüe293 adds more details that were summarised in the Wei shu:294 the maritime route leads through the seven commanderies of Jiaozhi (交趾) which communicate with yi (夷)295 tribes. Leslie and K.292 Another account supposes a sea route known by the Hou Han shu: it stated that the western coast of Tianzhu communicates with Daqin and the precious things from Daqin can be found there. their description 292 D. 22) 170. it seems to me more reasonable that the Chinese could not have enough information to decide what the term Roman Empire exactly meant. supposing they came to China directly from the Roman Empire. M. Acta Ant.300 They did not know its exact extension or the details of administration and this might explain why most of the relevant information is connected to the eastern part of the Empire. but it is more than probable that not all of them came directly from the Roman Empire. i. Similarly. Although such a word-to-word comparison carried out in this paper is not without difficulties. but the accounts also emphasise the similarities between the two great empires that might have originated in their same cultural level. Hill that we might extend our Daqininterpretation. E. 51. However.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 303 was influenced by the distance between the two great empires which might have led to the fabulous stories about the Romans. It is also likely that the Chinese annals principally had second-hand data and some of these were provided by travellers and merchants arriving to China. they could not have the opportunity to see and understand its administrational and geographical connections. their existence in the 299 On the influence of Taoism: KALTENMARK. the administration and the power of the governor and the curiales – later principales –. domesticated animals and products –. the fierce tigers. trees and other plants all lead us to the Roman Oriens. Stanford 1969. There are several interpretations based on linguistic and geographical data and also on comparisons with the recent knowledge of the Roman Empire. Hung. might have crossed the borders of Rome. the Syrian archers and magicians. F. really had enough information about the exact operation of their country. STEIN (n. 69) 1963. economy – including agriculture. there are some details that might help to turn the scale. 97. First I accept the idea recently put forward by J. that depending on the context it might refer to the Roman Empire or a part of it. Moreover. It is still an open question whether the term Daqin refers to the whole Roman Empire or only to the Oriens. the products also refer to the East. too.: Europe and China: a Survey of Their Relations from the Earliest Times to 1800.299 In the light of these problems it is more significant that the Chinese annals had the claim to make a more-or-less complex description about Daqin. Although some of them. such as the Persian pearls or Indian perfumes and spices. Neither do we know what language they used to inform the Chinese. G. Such a description could be remarkable on its own.e.: Lao Tzu and Taoism. They not only give information and the interpretation of the name of the country but also add details on its geography. administration. Some of these foreigners might have come from different regions of India and the Vietnamese coast or even the Silk Routes. the geographical accounts such as the storms near Antioch. 300 A similar idea was formulated by HUDSON. we cannot be sure that the ’Romans’. London 1931. We do not know any details about these arrivals. Apart from the problematic localisation of place names. They may never have been in the Roman Empire or if they had a chance to visit it. Besides these problems the Chinese also had their own imagination and perhaps interpretation about the Romans which also featured in the sources. 2011 . trade and envoys sent by Daqin people. Hungary 301 More details in 新疆维吾尔自治区博物館 (XINJIANGWEIWUERZIZHIQU BOWUGUAN): 新疆 民丰县北大沙漠中古遗址墓葬区东汉合葬墓清理简报 (Xinjiang Minfengxian Beidashamo Yizhimuyangqu Donghanhe Zangmu Qinglijianbao).: Dionysos en Chine: remarques á propos de la coupe en argent de Beitan. F. A.: Recent Finds of Western-Related Glassware. 南京博物院 (NANJING BOWUYUAN): ’江苏邗江甘泉二号汉墓 (Jiangsu Hanjiang Ganquan Erhao Hanmu). GAN: The Silk (n. – BRILL.: Cosmopolitanism and the Tang. precious glass and metal products from the eastern coast of People’s Republic of China could fit the descriptions of the annals. LEE. 51. Krisztina Hoppál Doctoral School of Archaeology at Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE) Budapest H-1088 Budapest Múzeum krt. sometimes utopistic empire which produced several curiosities and luxurious products. 165– 182. R. J. Whether Daqin referred to the whole empire or only a part of it – or in my opinion the whole Empire but with information only about the eastern provinces –. GAN: Zhongguo (n.304 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL Daqin list might be explained with the special features of Roman long-distance trade as also depicted in the Periplus. Textiles and Metalwork in Central Asia and China.: Pour une archéologie des échanges: Apports étrangers en Chine. J. J. E.: China and the West. HOPPÁL (n. (eds. A. – SHOUYUN. T. 207). 207).): Ancient Glass Research along the Silk Road. AN (安) (n. LAING: A Report (n. 2011 . E. (eds. Acta Ant.: Glass and Bead Trade on the Asian See. 文物 (Wenwu) 5 (1990) 1–9.301 These luxurious finds. AA 51 (1996) 142–146. 207). M. However. Besides the textiles from the desert area. 文物 (Wenwu) 11 (1981) 1–10. none of these data linking Daqin to the eastern provinces could be decisive on its own. In JULIANO. BAI 9 (1995) 1–18. In GAN. JULIANO. H. AA 49 (1994) 21–33. A. A. BAI 5 (1991) 107–108. New York 2001.): Monks and merchants: Silk Road Treasures from Northwest China: Gansu and Ningxia. 4th–7th Century. – LERNER. various textiles. F. 6–8. together with the more-or-less complex description of Daqin in the texts could be an evidence for the Sino-Roman relations. 黎瑶渤 (LI YAOBO): 辽宁北 票县西官营子北燕冯索弗墓 (Liaoning Beipiaoxian xiguanyingzi Beiyan Feng Suofumu). – LERNER. PIRRAZOLI-T’SERSTEVENS. I. Introduction. 文物 (Wenwu) 3 (1973) 2–19. mostly unearthed from the burials of the most influential members of Chinese aristocracy. L. L. 292–330. J. 207). 文物 (Wenwu) 6 (1960) 9–12. BARATTE. Singapore 2009. LAING. LAING. but together they might be enough to view the problem in a new light. Hung. 207). The archaeological finds might support these descriptions. regardless of whether middlemen contributed to it. 初师宾 (CHU SHIBIN): 甘肃 靖远新出东罗马鎏金银盘略考 (Gansu Jingyuan xin chu Dongluoma liujin yinpan lüekao). according to the Chinese sources it was an enormous. 51. In HIRTH (n. Reiter.ubi-erat-lupa. List of Maps: Map 1 – Localisation of Daqin according to the Hou Han Shu. 21) 311. PICCOTTINI. Based on LESLIE–GARDINER (n.: Grabstelen. 104) 761. In DOWNEY (n. pearls. 235) 11. 2 – Textile fragments from Szemlőhegy. 21) 311. minerals and other precious materials Abbreviations: AA ANRW BAI BJb BSOAS FA G&R HJAS JA JAOS JPOS JRS MRDTB SRAA TP = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Arts Asiatiques Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt Bulletin of the Asia Institute Bonner Jahrbücher Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Folia Archaeologica Greece and Rome Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Journal Asiatique Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of the Peking Oriental Society Journal of Roman Studies Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko Silk Road Art and Archaeology T’oung Pao HHS WL JS WS SS = = = = = Hou Han shu (後漢書) Wei lüe (魏略) Jin shu (晉書) Wei shu (魏書) Song shu (宋書) Acta Ant. Map 6 – Map of Antioch based on Strabo’s description.org/site/datenblatt/ datenblatt. Based on LESLIE–GARDINER (n. cf. In ADAM (n. Map 4 – Vassal states in the Wei lüe.asp?Nr=1107.THE ROMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO THE ANCIENT CHINESE SOURCES 305 APPENDIX List of Figures: Fig. 4 – Tapestry decorated with metal thread. Map 2 – Sea route according to the Wei lüe. G. In SIPOS (n. Fig. 104) 761. 1 – Roman stone relief from the Virunum II cemetery http://www. 21) 311.und Soldatendarstellungen sowie dekorative Reliefs des Stadtgebietes von Virunum und Nachträge zu: CSIR-Österreich II/1–4. Fig. 1) 209. List of Diagrams: Diagram 1 – Quantitative comparison of the Daqin accounts Diagram 2 – Products of Daqin Diagram 3 – Metals. 133) 229. 2011 . 249) 47. Map 5 – Map of Antioch based on excavations. Map 3 – Land route according to the Wei lüe. Hung. In NAGY (n. 3 – Wall mosaic from Ostia. In DOWNEY (n. Based on LESLIE–GARDINER (n. Fig. 2011 KRISZTINA HOPPÁL .306 Acta Ant. Hung. 51.