Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452, 10.1111/j.1741-4113.2012.00888.x ‘Rati Viparite’: Gitagovinda and Erotic (Trans)migrations in Nineteenth Century Bengal I Rangeet Sengupta* Jadavpur University Abstract The paper deals with some of the translations and adaptations of Gitagovinda, a 12th century Sanskrit text, in the late 18th and 19th century Bengal. These translations and derivative adaptations were shaped by the colonial experience in Bengal and reveal important strands of colonial discourse and exchange. The English translation of the text by William Jones (in 1789), the famed philologist and the founder of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, served as one of the seminal texts of Orientalist exploration in South Asia. Also discussed in the paper are Rasamaya Dasa’s Bengali translation of Gitagovinda (published in 1817) and the several adaptations of the text published by the Battala printers. The ambivalence about eroticism in the text has been discussed, along with the subsequent histories of the text as a cultural commodity in colonial Bengal. My paper deals with the myriad histories of Gitagovinda as a text in late eighteenth and nineteenth century Bengal. There were efforts, spurred by the colonial encounter in South Asia, to interpret Gitagovinda as an allegorical discourse – symbolically encapsulating spiritual truth. Yet, as the Kolkata Book Market flourished, other ideations of the text became widespread – the predominant amongst them being the interpretation of the text as an elaborate depiction of sexual ⁄ erotic encounter. I would contend that the biographies of Gitagovinda as a commodity in colonial Bengal bring into play contending discourses, especially those which interpret the central concept of rasa. While a mundane reading of the word equates it with ‘seminal fluid’, a sublimated reading interprets it as ‘aesthetic essence’, or even as ‘the sap of spiritual ecstasy.’ Rasa, in its physical form as semen, circulates through physical bodies and engenders elaborate figurations of exchange, control and power. Rasa, according to aesthetic interpretations of the word, would circulate as commodified texts through networks in the book market. The British arrived as traders in Bengal and ended up being its rulers. As traders, they could have indulged in unabashed commercial exchange of commodities. However, as rulers, they needed to redefine exchange of commodity as an ethical enterprise – a project to establish order and participate in a cultural exchange of ideas. The biographies of Gitagovinda parallel this ambivalence – it was both interpreted as a sacred scripture (evoking sublimated rasa of spiritual devotion) as well as an obscene text (evoking mundane, erotic rasa). It is in this ambivalence that the problematic nature of colonial commodity may be discerned and its discourses of symbolic power fully revealed. In a short essay in which he tried to define the dominant traits of Bengali lyric poetry, Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay (the famed novelist, editor and the crafter of India’s national song) would say: Bengali lyric poets can be classed into two groups. One of the groups tries to situate and visualize man amongst the beauties of the natural world; the other group endeavors to distance itself from external nature and concentrates on the human heart. One, venturing to search for the ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd full lips. reveals various curious strands of thought. is perhaps symptomatic of the late phase of Bengali Renaissance.00888. ‘‘Vidyapati o Jayadeva. He effusively lauds his Motherland as being: ‘richly-watered.’2 Bankimchandra’s criticism of Jayadeva hence has far more extensive roots – it reflects ambiguity about representing the materiality of existence which pervaded much of the colonial discourse in Bengal. enlightens all by the glow of its inner spirit …. indolent. caste oppression. 10.2012. especially Bharatchandra.x . uses physical nature as its guiding lamp and enlightens all objects by Nature’s radiant glow. vine-like arms. it was among my countrymen in Bengal’ (Jones. obscene and physical world. is applicable to Bharatchandra …. could not better be explored but by his fellow countrymen in Bengal. Radha. Earlier in the essay. Their poems reveal inertia of spirit and an inclination for the amorous. The dichotomy of inner ⁄ outer nature. Tagore would depict the socio-cultural realities of 19th century Bengal in many of his short stories – the rampant illiteracy. verdurous with harvested crops. Jayadeva’s poem was hence not merely a remnant of the middle ages. ‘fertile in the productions of human genius’. Bharatchandra. Krishna-Charitra 99). Bankimchandra suggests that the first group of poets use external nature (vajya prakriti) to reveal and enlighten objects (vastu).’’ 85) Bankimchandra’s essay. Bankimchandra would emphasize that Jayadeva is an archetype for a group of poets. languid eyes’ of women. ‘Whatever I have said about Jayadeva. the cowherd-maidens of Vrindavan (Chattopadhyay. sedentary lifestyle. On the other hand. Bankimchandra’s writing was a precursor to this trend.’’ 86). ‘‘Vidyapati o Jayadeva. his effort to establish Krishna as a historical figure. Bankimchandra connects this worldliness with the verdurous plenty of Bengal. cooled by the vernal breeze. ‘‘Discourse. famous for his euphonic and erotic verses. a pastoral poem. was thus considered by Bankimchandra to be a successor of Jayadeva. William Jones (the famed philologist and the founder of Asiatic Society of Bengal) would claim that Bengal. the 18th century Bengali poet. He would add.1111/j. the spokesperson of the second group is Vidyapati. his ‘‘Vande Mataram’’ (which went on to be the national song of India) praises the very traits of Bengal which he blames in the 1886 essays as the cause for Bengal’s moral degradation.1 Infact. The foremost exponent of the first group is Jayadeva. child marriages and poverty.’’ x). lotus stalks. (Chattopadhyay. the blossomed flower … the murmur of bees and cuckoos’ and along with it ‘brows.’ he declared (Chattopadhyay. Jayadeva was the 12th century poet of the Sanskrit poem Gitagovinda. a veritable ‘Cartesian rupture’. he would celebrate the eternal. unmaligned beauty of his ‘Golden Bengal’in many of his poems and lyrics. This necessarily involved ambiguity about the erotics of exchange – the colonial ⁄ commercial exchange was often metaphorically equa- ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. trailing vines. in which he uses lush and erotic imagery to depict the amatory exchanges between Krishna and his cowherdess-consort. richly-fruited. He states that Jayadeva’s poetry always describes ‘sweet-scented nights. published in 1886. He surmised that as Aryans settled in Bengal. Dipesh Chakrabarty has discussed how the dialectical tensions between the realist (bastab) and idealist ideations of Bengal and its social reality informed much of Tagore’s poetry and prose (Chakrabarty 51–4). its hot and humid climate and its fertile lowlands made Aryans lose their tejas (vigor) and adopt a docile. it was for Bankimchandra emblematic of a trend which had contemporary parallels. it was this inertia of spirit and indulgence in eroticism that had led to Bengal’s (and India’s) degradation – its enslavement by British imperialism. He said in his inaugural discourse on the Institution of the Asiatic Society: ‘if in any country or community such an union could be effected.442 Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I human heart.1741-4113. soft mountain winds. Bankimchandra scoffs at the narratives which depict Krishna’s amatory dalliance with the Gopis. In his Krishna-charitra. the other. Gitagovinda represents erotic discourse by using metaphoric formalizations which evoke and allude to earlier Sanskrit poetry (among others. Ultimately.00888. the mistrust itself is a more ambiguous figurative trope. was however. during which they pined for each other’s love.Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I 443 ted with conjugal ⁄ erotic exchange between two cultures. then. William Jones was not merely bringing about a cultural exchange. which would pioneer orientalist explorations of the continent. Radhakanta. Moreover. who helped the British judges in the disposition of cases concerning native subjects.1111/j. and recreate its euphonic Sanskrit poetry into English prose. in the early months of 1789. Gitagovinda has been a remarkable achievement of post-classical Sanskrit literature.3 Gitagovinda. Banerjee 31). especially Radhakanta Tarkavagisha and Ramlochan. but sublimated into a discourse of spirituality.x . that Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda would be one of the first texts to be translated by the Orientalists in Bengal. This led to reconciliation and a climactic union between the lovers. Jayadeva’s Krishna is hardly an incarnation.1741-4113. the Governor-General of India. Ramlochan was more of a personal instructor – it was under his tutelage that Jones starts exploring Gitagovinda. Kalidasa’s Kumarasambhava). Jones suspected that the native jurists. Jayadeva brought about a synthesis of not only Sanskrit and Prakrit narratives but also experimented with moraic meters of Prakrit poetry (Mukhopadhyay 149–55). Similarly. he was also strategically entrenching Orientalist discourse in the ambiguous terrains of erotic ⁄ colonial encounter. This led to a period of separation. No wonder. it extends and often mingles with Jones’s interactions with the Sanskrit scholars. The companion of Radha acted as a messenger (duti) and described to each how much the other suffered in the beloved’s absence. Krishna surrendered himself at Radha’s feet and asked for forgiveness. This deep mistrust ultimately led Jones to master Sanskrit and bring about the compilation of Vivadabhangarnava and its subsequent translation into English (completed in 1796–1798 after Jones’s death. an innovative rendition as it expanded certain themes merely hinted in the earlier narratives and imbibed stray elements from later poetry and criticism (Sattasai of Hala. who assisted him in his Sanskrit studies. Gaudavaho of Vakpati. in A. Already famed as a linguist and a polyglot.’ (qtd. In a letter dated 17th March 1788 to Lord Cornwallis. Jones’s primary aim had been to compile a set of legal tracts for the Indians. in order to facilitate a more efficient judicial system. we can never be sure we have not been deceived by them. Dhyanyalokalocana by Abhinavagupta. 10. distorted scriptural texts and corrupted judgment. The subsequent years were spent in extensive study of Indian culture and the setting up of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (on 15th January 1784). by Henry Thomas Colebrooke). By deciding to translate such an influential text into English. Jones had been appointed puisne judge to the Supreme Court of Bengal on 4th March 1783. intercourse depicted in Gitagovinda was not to be projected merely as sexual.4 Many of these innovations were imbibed from folk narratives and non-Sanskrit ⁄ Prakrit poetry. The cultic worship of Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu had already been initiated centuries before the Common Era and had struck deep roots in the collective consciousness of the South Asians through the narrative yarns of the Mahabharata. Jayadeva described how Krishna’s amorous encounters with the other cowherdesses in the Spring-time had displeased Radha and made her spurn Krishna. Harivamsha. Jones had translated Gitagovinda as a translation exercise while endeavoring to master Sanskrit (Canon 304). Yet. Jones would declare: ‘… if we give judgment only from the opinions of the native lawyers and scholars. Kavyamimamsa by Rajashekhara among others). a ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. this exchange was to serve as a sublimated discourse for mundane exchange – the British were not merely exchanging ⁄ procuring commodities (so it would be believed) but wisdom. It had served as a devotional text for the Vaishnavas. he is predominantly a cowherd in the idyllic land of vraja.2012. the Bhagavat Purana and several other pauranic texts. In his essay ‘‘On the Mystical Poetry of the Persians and Hindus’’. in Masnavi of Rumi and the Srimad Bhagavatam. This ambiguity about the scholars was also reflected in Jones’s treatment of texts like Gitagovinda. (364) Jones elaborates that language has a mystical function and states that in poetry there is often an allegorical failure of utterance. the circling arbours resound with the notes of the Cocil and the murmers of honeymaking swarms. Abhijit Mukherji and Rosane Rocher’s studies of the scholars who collaborated with Jones chart out a fascinating discourse of collaboration and evasion. He confesses that the songs of Jayadeva and Hafiz are likely to be misinterpreted. sinking under the magnitude of the subject. Jones discovers such language in the hymns of Spenser (On Love and Of Beauty) and ‘in a higher key with richer embellishments’ in the songs of Jayadeva and Hafiz. Colonial exchange can hence be sublimated as exchange of wisdom. Brian A. ‘‘Gitagovinda. helped him in the study. compilation and translations of the legal code. are pierced with anguish. Now the hearts of damsels. ‘[Y]ou may be assured.’’ 375). Jones does convey a generous note of sensuality in many of his passages. mistrust and influence. he is reluctant to lay down exact boundaries between sacred and profane love. in which the limits between vice and enthusiasm are so minute as to be hardly distinguishable. Jones. the miner who had ‘just opened’ the ‘Sanscrit mine. He states: [N]ow.444 Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I student of the famed Jagannatha Tarkapanchanana. He establishes the link between the ‘nuptial contract’ of Radha and Krishna and the Songs of Solomon. He realises the perilous nature of his enterprise. that has wantoned round the beautiful clove-plants breathes now from the hills of Maylaya. 10. which it sometimes extends beyond the bounds of cool reason. whose lovers travel at a distance.’’ 376) ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. paralleling the polyvalence of Jayadeva’s erotic discourse. and often to the brink of absurdity. omitting passages that are ‘luxuriant’ and ‘bold’ for ‘an European taste’– and yet pretends that this metamorphosis has not resulted in any essential change. Hatcher reminds us that Jones ‘harbored deep suspicions about the veracity and reliability of his pandit interlocutors’ (Hatcher 691). He recreates much of the reference to spring-time fecundity in the Third Song of Gitagovinda (the very passage to which Bankimchandra refers to in his essay): The gale. ‘‘On the Mystical Poetry. (Jones.00888.x . ‘who Pythagoras.’ This ambivalence is characteristically Jonesian. see Cohn 16–56).2012. Letters 2:756). though a warm imagination may carry it to a culpable excess. He translates verse into prose. that not a single image or idea has been added by the translator’ (Jones. and about the precarious evocation of the ‘language of command’ (for the use of the phrase in this context. In the ambiguity of Jayadeva’s treatment of love. for an ardently grateful piety is congenial to the undepraved nature of man. the possibility of it to lapse into the realm of subversion. Yet.1741-4113. the eruption of the obscene and the figuration of love as ‘voluptuous libertinism. whose mind. Jones’s reluctance stems from a decided hesitance in arriving at a conclusion about the function of language. he also praised their erudition and would claim that he gained exquisite pleasure from conversing easily with that class of men. he claims.1111/j. Thales and Solon’ had conversed with (Jones. we must beware of censuring it severely. Jones saw a reflection of his ambiguous relationship with his instructors. and must allow it to be natural. has recourse to metaphors and allegories. admitting the danger of a poetical style. Jones admits of presence of eroticism in Indian poetry.’ simultaneously aims to ‘out-pandit the pandits’ (Teltscher 224) as well as affirm ‘that Pythagoras and Plato derived their sublime theories from the same fountain’ (Cannon 246). yet. and struggling to express its emotions. ’ as a metaphor. Jones’s translations would initially result in quite a stir in Europe. Rasamaya Das’s translation would run into several editions and would later be published in cheaper adaptations from Battala.’’ 378) Jones’s omissions are also significant. spiritual love. The Battala Printing Presses produced a huge corpus of cheap books.00888. Jones leaves out the references to the ‘drops of sweat’ (shramajalakanabhara) that appear on her body. she would be luminous like lightning in the dark sky. and kisses them with ardour. A Bengali edition of the text was prepared by Rasamaya Das and published by the Baptist missionaries of Serampore in 1817.’ Jones is quite articulate in this passage: ‘… she floats on the waves of desire.1111/j. however. while she warbles with exquisite melody. Jones uses the simile. Kolkata’s Grub Street. Dalberg’s translation. There would be several German translations – F. which recreates Jones’s English translation into German. open your loins!’(Gitagovinda V. approaches his temples. A French version was also produced in 1850 by Hippolyte Fauche. Gitagovinda and its myriad adaptations became quite popular in Bengali. where Krishna awaits her. Radha – anguished by Krishna’s absence. affected by a glance from his eye. Riemenschneider’s 1818 translation (Vatsyayan 228). was the version that Goethe read and remarked. which interprets the poem as a Vaishnava allegory of sacred. This bit of elision is indeed symptomatic of how Jones’s revisioning of the images of Gitagovinda endeavors to maintain the allegorical veil of lovemaking as spiritual communion – and sanitize it of the mundanity of sweat and grime. Fr. Christianus Lassen located original Sanskrit manuscripts. stands meditating on the lotos of his face. should be able to sustain the paradoxical ambivalence of the colonialist exchange.1741-4113. Dalberg’s 1802 translation.x . He also incorporated Chaitanyadasa’s late 16th century commentary on the poem. Rasamaya Das translated the poem in rhymed.13. a reference to the woman-on-top position). the duti urges Radha to hasten off to the Jamuna-bank.5 In the Fourteenth Song (Seventh Canto). will be to shine on the blue bosom of Murari. often producing ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. O thou. He does not refer to the subsequent advice of the messenger: ‘Loosen your clothes. As print culture spread in Calcutta in the early decades of the 19th century. ‘The reward of thy speed.’ He. H. W. leaves out references to ‘rati viparite’ which obviously bears subversive undertones and hints at a reversal of the gendered discourse of power. 10. producing an annotated Sanskrit text. Two such editions are Sri Jayadeva Goswami krita Sri Gitagovinda Mul Grantha: Payaradi Chande Virachita (published from the Kumartuli Shastraprakash Press in 1850) and Jayadeva Kaviraj Goswami krita Sri Gitagovinda Mul Grantha: Taha Rasamaya Dasa katrik Payaradi Chande Virachita (published by the Kamalaya Press in 1851). (Jones. imagines that he must be reveling with another ‘voluptuous beauty. Balabodhini. and closes her eyes dazzled with the blaze of approaching Cama: and now this heroine in love’s warfare falls exhausted …. Many of these early versions were retranslations of Jones’s English translation. ‘Love’s war. Here is a passage in which the duti describes to Radha the dalliance of Krishna with the milk-maids: One of them presses him with her swelling breast. ‘what strikes me as remarkable are the extremely varied motives by which an extremely simple subject is made endless’(Goethe and Schiller 395). on pretence of whispering a secret in his ear. Another.2012. ‘‘Gitagovinda. textual interpretation and a Latin translation in 1836.’ Interestingly. who sparklest like lightning. von Majer’s version (also in 1802) and A. She tells Radha as she would lie on Krishna’s dark chest during communion (she uses the phrase ‘rati viparite’. In the Eleventh Song (Fifth Canto). A third. see Stoller Miller 93). payar metre (a moraic meter of 8–6 beats) – the most popular Bengali metrical form.Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I 445 Some of his images are also frankly erotic. untie your belt. the Larger Recension of the Gitagovinda evolved later and was mostly influenced by the Vaishnava theistic interpretation of the text as an allegory of spiritual love. The Shorter Recensions do not have the mangalasloka verses at the end of each canto. about the variants of its two main recensions and ultimately.00888. heterodox interpretations made their presence felt throughout the history of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.446 Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I texts which were considered to be subversive and obscene by the enlightened Renaissance intelligentsia. Rasa. hence has a physical dimension and its exchange and circulation (as a commodity) charts the flow of energy in the cosmos. and later by the government itself. These traditions of Sahajiya Vaishnavism would grow in stature in and after the 17th century (Dasgupta 115). leads to divine joy.1741-4113. many of the ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. The influential commentaries of the Larger Recension. Yet.1111/j. These were later added to the text with an intention to emphasize its sacrality and imbibe it in the traditions of devotional Vaishnavism (Stoller Miller 192). especially in specific centres in Bengal like Shrikhanda and Khardaha. 10. It was often at the centre of the debates about the nature of the text. the marginalized lower-middle class urban and rural populace identified with the polyvalence of Battala Book Market – often to the scandalized disapproval of the elite. For orthodox Vaishnavas. late 16th to early 17th century) had been the cornerstones of Vaishnava revivalism. like Sri Rupa Goswami (who wrote the theological elaboration on spiritual moods. The growth in number of readers led to a democratization of readership and a redefinition of public taste. which embodied the svarupa (true form) of the Krishna as the male principle. especially Kumbhakarna’s Rasikapriya (15th century) and Chaitanyadasa’s Balabodhini (c. Jayadeva ‘intentionally blurred’ the distinctions between these two interpretations of the word in his poem (Stoller Miller 219–20).6 The dialectical strands of prem (spiritual. Accordingly. rasa is a reference to spiritual mood or perhaps the ecstasy derived from spiritual communion with Krishna. in his seminal study of these traditions. about the interpretations of Vaishnava theology of love. The Sahajiyas thought of men and women to be representatives of Krishna and Radha and hence earthly communion. for Sahajiyas rasa is the current of love flowing through physical bodies. Sahajiyas adopted the poetic paraphernalia of the orthodox Vaishnava and read the basic image the other way’ (Dimock 15). As Sumanta Banerjee elaborates in The Parlour and the Streets. upholding the orthodox interpretations of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s Gaudiya Vaishnavism. pointed out that for these heterodox Vaishnavs ‘[t]he distinctions between spiritual and carnal love and poetic and doctrinal expression are wiped away.2012. On the other hand. Hindu and Christian reformers. As Barbara Stoller Miller had elucidated in her masterful study of the text and its variants. It is important to understand that this ambivalence about the nature of love described in Gitagovinda was not a colonial innovation. It is here that Jayadeva’s poem carved out its own niche. engaged in with an awareness of its cosmic significance. Renaissance counterparts. sold as a commodity in the alleys of North Kolkata. the earliest texts found by Stoler Miller are Shorter Recensions of the text. It is this rasa. Thus his text became polyvalent. in union with rati (the feminine counterpart) that materialized as bija (seed) (Dasgupta 133). Rasamritasindhu). selling quite profibably and spawning several imitations – derivative and associated narratives of sacred and profane love. No wonder. was also considered as the re-enactment of Krishna’s cosmic play – the union of the male and female principles. As Stoller Miller points out. perhaps for the first time in its eventful textual history. Edward Dimock. Such a communion. sublimated love) and kam (erotic love) inscribed and reinscribed each other as Gitagovinda. for Sahajiyas. Yet. She surmises that the mangalasloka verses enable the sublimation of the erotic encounters that the text describes. It is evident that for the Sahajiyas the word rasa would hold quite a different meaning.x . Krishna Keli (‘sports of Krishna’). These urbane forms often incorporated ritual obscenity – sometimes displacing earlier rural forms to urbane settings.00888. the Governor of Bengal (Rocher 628). She suspects that Krishna has been unfaithful. extempore poetic renditions (kabigan) and devotional songs (kirtan) (S. had written a digest in 1783 named Puranarthaprakasha (Revelation of the Puranas). say. James Long. Jones’s pandit. As popular culture evolved in Kolkata. Radhakanta’s exegesis of the Puranas can be seen as an effort to reassert the allegorical significance of the pauranic narratives. however.1741-4113. She mockingly welcomes Krishna as ‘Kubja’s Lord’ (‘Kubjar nath’). Dwija Vishwanath describes: ‘Softly Krishna approaches her ⁄ And tied her locks with his lotushands’ (162). these narratives became veritable commodities in the popular book market. panchali composers like Dasarathi Ray (1805–1857) and kirtan composers like Madhusudan Kan (1818–1868) became immensely popular. Krishna assures Radha that wherever he might stay. scion of the Shobhabazar Raj Family and an important supporter of Company’s rule in Kolkata. Long also lists other derivative texts. In other words. Many of these narratives about Krishna-Radha were published by the Battala printing presses and went through several editions. It is evident. Propelled by generous patronage from the local zamindars and the nouveau riche and adored by the masses. Nilmani Patani. His brief descriptions of these texts enable us to identify a common theme – Anangamanjari (‘loves of Krishna and Radha’).8 The proliferation of these texts signaled a subversive ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. Banerjee. This surfaced as subversive narrative songs (panchali). The urban re-settlement of these migrating.2012. An 1850 edition of Krishna Keli describes how Radha’s companion visits Krishna at Mathura and compels him to return to Vrindavan for a while.x . Radha Krishna Bilas (‘gives Krishna and Radha’s life’).Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I 447 Sahajiya adherents claimed Jayadeva to be their progenitor. Radhakanta was a member of the sabha (scholarly gathering) of Nabakrishna Deb. urban experience. Descriptive Catalogue of Bengali Works 100). The proliferation of erotic narratives in the popular book market became a matter of concern for the administration and the social reformers – both indigenous and European – who were scandalized by this and endeavored to put a leash on this growing trend. Radhakanta Tarkavagisa. Krishna Lila Rasadoy (‘Krishna’s Courtship’). at the behest of Warren Hastings. as estrangement had given rise to apprehension. Radha is initially reticent to meet Krishna. Logic in a Popular Form 84–5). which acquired newer meanings in a new environment (S. indulging in amorous activities with Kubja. subversive voices in Kolkata engendered a re-evaluation of Krishna-Radha romance. 10. Long would remark that Gitagovinda was a work which had been ‘very popular and very indecent’ (Long. Ram Basu (1787–1829). Man Bhanjan (‘Krishna’s removing of his wife’s jealousy’). the mundane interpretations of Krishna-Radha romance became increasingly popular. which lists 1400 Bengali books and pamphlets published in the previous sixty years. Banerjee. Duti Sambad (‘Krishna’s message to his spouse Radha’). These popular urban discourses often challenged the orthodox ideations of the divine and reformulated them according to the new. Horu Thakur (1738–1808). Chaitanyadasa. that they would have definitely read the erotic exchanges of Gitagovinda in quite a different way than. he always thinks of Radha. prepared two descriptive catalogues of Bengali books and pamphlets (in 1853 and 1855). Unish Shataker Kolkata 40) Kabiyal-poets like Lakshmikanta. Ras Bilas (‘Krishna and the Gopis’). his maid in Mathura. Jones did not create a new discursive space – he and his contemporaries merely situated their discourse of power amidst the conflicting registers and inflections of pre-colonial era.1111/j. At the same time. Nitai Bairagi (1751–1818). the so-called libidinous excesses in many of these and related texts also made them infamous. renowned educator and Anglo-Irish priest.7 In Kalankabhanjan. In his second catalogue. the florist of the royal court (malini). Bharatchandra Ray’s adaptation of the Vidyasundar story. Krishna prays to the Devi: ‘I am Mahavishnu Vasudeva. Pulakan Dipika. and soon. Bharatchandra had composed Annadamangal at the behest of Raja Krishnachandra Ray of Nadia. 1777). In 1829. since the 16th century. who guides him.1741-4113. Texts like Radhatantram (c. This heterodox envisioning of the Radha-Krishna story became popular and appeared in print.9 Long. Vidyasundar depicts the love affair between Vidya. It is the malini who acts as the medium between the young lovers. Beshea Rahasyea. and Sundar. Charu Chita Rahasea. Prem Rahasyea. Lakshmi Janarda Bilas. in the second part of his religio-historical verse narrative (mangalkavya). also depicts such a prayer to the Goddess. Annadamangal. He prays to Kali. When this becomes known. Sundar is caught and imprisoned by the King of Burdwan. In Radhatantram. Kam Shastra 1920. 1st ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. The Devi appears before him and asks him to practice kulachara (ritual sexual rites). in this mortal form I am practicing austerities in order to commune with you’ (qtd. Radha becomes the Goddess Supreme who helps Krishna to achieve liberation and bliss. the princess of Burdwan. However.448 Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I counterpointing of the dominant allegorical interpretation of the text (colonial as well as Gaudiya Vaishnava). with an increased focus on the feminine principle (Giri 522–3). Ashutosh Bhattacharya links the text with Jayadeva and other Vaishnava poets who had written erotic verses as well as with the tradition of Sanskrit poetics which focuses on rasa-s (sentiments or emotions) (Bhattacharya 817). Like Gitagovinda. Krishna incarnates as a mortal in order to obey the Goddess’s command and the devi herself reincarnated in the form of Radha-Padmini.00888. would become one of the most popular Bengali poetic compositions of the 18th century. in his Descriptive Catalogue recapitulates: Of Erotic subjects there are various books which have passed through many editions of prose and poetry and have a wide circulation. Vidya becomes pregnant. and a famous illustrated edition of Annadamangal would be published by Gangakishore Bhattacharya in 1816. Bharatchandra’s Annadamangal. Amritaratnabali. Bharatchandra’s piece also involves a duti or a messenger. Ramprasad Sen (the famous Sakta) had composed their versions of the romance. Prem Taranga. thus enabling his entry into Vidya’s bedroom. Krishnaram Das. Several other poets. Moved by the descriptions of Vidya by a bard. Like Jayadeva’s poem. Krishna prays to the Devi for siddhi (yogic potencies). Prem Natak. It also indicates the influence of Shakta revivalism in 18th century Bengal. Sundar’s poetic acumen (this is influenced by the Chaura Panchashika of Dandin) wins the King’s heart and he eventually grants him life. in Giri 524). Balaram Chakraborti. Shringar Tiluk. Sundar travels to Burdwan under the guise of a student in order to meet Vidya.x . Bharatchandra’s text would be immensely popular in Battala. I have incarnated as Krishna. Bankimchandra’s linking of Jayadeva with Bharatchandra hence reflects thematic and structural association of these texts. Radha prays to Kali for Krishna companionship (73–4). Vidyasundar is thought to be an exposition on the various emotions associated with love.1111/j. 10. three different editions of Vidyasundar would be released in the same year. Anandabhairav (1832). as the Adi Ras. Kunjari bilas. In Dasarathi Ray’s Sri Krishner Mathura Lila Varnan (1850). Their love is consummated. Prem Ashtok. The thematic device of lovers praying to Kali for accomplishing a communion has been quite common in the 18th century in the Kalikamangal ⁄ Vidyasundar tradition. Vishwanath Deb would publish several editions of Vidyasundar. O Beauty. Prem Bilas. Ratimanjari and Adiras.2012. and especially Vidyasundar. the prince of Kanchi. Amritarasabali had synthesized the Krishna-Radha narrative with the Tantric structure of Shiva-Parvati dialogue. along with other erotic pieces like Rasamanjari (also by Bharatchandra). Hemlata Ratikanta. Vidya’s father. like Kanka. The Krishna-Radha communion hence achieves a newer significance. As. Descriptive Catalogue of Bengali Works 73–4) What is remarkable is the engagement with the critical concept of rasa. Members of the elite mainstream occasionally composed and published erotic works – Madanmohan Tarkalankar. Stri Charitra. by Rasik Chandra Roy 8 vo. Shringar Ras. by Yadu Chatturjyea Ramani Lila. by Jayadeva 16 mo. Rati Shastra. Shringar tilak. Rasatarangini.1111/j. by Rasik Chandra Roy 8 vo. the editor of the Tattwabodhini Patrika. Ramani ranjan. by Bishvanath Tarkalangkar Videa Sundar by Bharut Chandra 8 vo. Returns Relating to the Publications in Bengali Language 1–62): Name of the Press Name of the Book. evident from the names of these books. Even Akshaykumar Datta. had composed Anangamohan (Basu 145). 1817. their travels etc. 10. (Long. 122 0 2½ 3750 ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2000 In 4 months nearly the whole sold. the upholder of conservative Hindu values. Ras sagar. 1st ed. a most popular tale.1741-4113. Author Anglo Indian Union Press Anglo Indian Union Press Annadamangal by Bharat Chandra Adi Ras. 62 0 8 500 Mythological history of Durga and Siva Slokas on different kinds of women. with 16 filthy plates. 47 0 4 500 An indecent poem 8 vo.2012. Ras manjari. an organ for disseminating enlightened Brahmo values. These works are beastly equal to the worst of the French school. his Rasik Tarangini (1855) became extremely popular. Following is a list of associated works and their circulation numbers according to Long’s data (Long. Ratibilas.1820.Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I 449 ed. Long’s 1855 catalogue of ‘515 persons connected with Bengali Literature’ names many of the publishers of these books. wrote Rasa Tarangini. 90 0 4 1000 Muktalatabali. Sambhog Ratnakar. Rassin’du Prem Bilas.x . Rasrasamrita. Bhabanicharan Bandyopadhyay. Indecent. by Shib Chandra Banerjy ManBhanjan. clever but obscene Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. who taught in the Sanskrit college. wrote Duti-bilash. 136 0 5 1000 8 vo. 432 0 8 16 mo. Ras ratnakar. 90 0 4 1000 On the quarrels between Krishna and Radha A tale of the loves of Jiban and Tara Gitagovinda. Rati Kali. by Kali Das Bangala Press Bisvaprakash Press Chaitanya Chandrodoy Press Chaitanya Chandrodoy Press Chaitanya Chandrodoy Press Harihar Press Harihar Press Kamalaloy Press Lakhmibilas Press Size Price* Pages Rs. 192 0 3 1200 An indecent tale of two lovers. by Kali Krishna Das 18 mo. An indecent drama 12 mo. Copies Long’s Comments 16 mo. Krishna and his wife’s ascent – account of a jeweled tree The sports of Krishna 18 mo. 66 0 4 1000 Jiban Tara. Panchanan Banerjee composed four of these books. Rasomanjari.00888. 16 0 1 ⁄ 4 1000 Chapalachitchapala Natak. Stri Pulakhon Dipika. 163 0 8 1000 A poem in praise of Krishna Jiban Tara. by Durgaparsad Bhattacharjyea Krishna Kela. Long’s list of books published in 1857 reveals a huge popularity of many of these pieces. by Dasharath Roy of Burdwan 12 mo. the Government imprisoned Mahesh. the police was requested to issue warrants.1741-4113. Kolkata. 450 1 0 1000 With ten illustrations Duti Sambad. F. Copies Long’s Comments Name of the Press Name of the Book. Long’s returns for the books published in 1853–1854 in Kolkata. 230 0 4 1000 Extracts from Brahma Vaivarta Purana relating to Krishna Krishna removing his wife’s jealousy Popular Songs on the adventures and history of Krishna – filthy. he made an appeal to the Chief Magistrate of Calcutta. Infact. in 1855. I have left out various editions of the Panchalis. If anything was found to be obscene.00888. In December 1853.x . Cockburn. Fredric James Halliday. Returns Relating to Native Printing Presses 90–1). Anna is no longer in use. G. Videa Ratna Press *Price is given in Rupees and Annas. The subsequent editions of Gitagovinda would evidently respond to these changes. 40 0 1 1500 Videa Ratna Press Man bhanjan by Kali Krishna Das Panchali Part 2. His research primarily deals with the sculpting of South Asian prose aesthetics in the 18th and 19th centuries and the ways in which these developments were buffeted by colonial discourses and ideation ⁄ s. which (Long tells us) had been ‘[i]n great request among Vaishnabs’ (94–5). which specifically mentions Krishna. Author Size Purnachandrodoy Press Shastra Prakash Press Annada Mangal 18 mo.450 Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I Continued Price* Pages Rs. [I have retained Long’s spellings of the names of authors. Later. Books like Vidyasundar and Rasamanjari were thought to be obscene. Sixteen Annas make a Rupee. nine hundred of those copies had been already sold (James Long. he appealed to the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal. 1856. Short Biography Rangeet Sengupta has completed an MPhil. except one. Radhabazar’s Hindu Patriot Press had published an edition of Rasamanjari (1600 copies) while Kamalalay Press had already sold the entire set of 1200 copies of Vidya Sundar that it had printed (92–3). mentions the number of copies sold along with the number of copies printed. by Krishna Lal 12 mo. For example. Due to the initiative of the Chief Magistrate. the Obscene Books and Pictures Act was passed on 21st January. Chaitanya Chandrodoy Press had printed thousand copies of Annada Mangal in that year. Banstola’s Khirodh Sindhu Press had already sold 900 copies of the 1000 copies that it had published of Man Bhanjan. and is presently pursuing a PhD in English from Jadavpur University. Long voiced out his concerns about the rampant ‘obscenity’ in Bengali books and demanded laws for curbing these trends. several indigenous organizations participated in the drives to cleanse the printed discourse of any vestiges of erstwhile obscenity. The Sabha members kept a watch on the material printed by the Battala publishers. As. 60 0 3 1000 12 mo.1111/j.10 Keshab Chandra Sen established Ashlilata Nibarani Sadha on 20th September.] The list suitably illustrates that the erotic signifiers in Gitagovinda. According to the report. tr. Vishambhar and Madhusudan Sil on the charge of printing obscene material and they were subsequently fined.2012. in 1855. 1870 (Basu 152–3). and publishers who sold them were penalized. In the subsequent development of institutional censorship and nationalist surveillance. 10. His research also focuses on the history of ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. Vidyasundar and other derivative works had served as profitable commodities in the Battala book market. The list is not exhaustive. publishers ⁄ printers and books. Dasgupta. similar to Radha’s ‘voluptuous’ adversary in Gitagovinda. in the period between 1890 and 1910 (the period relevant to the present discussion). Logic in a Popular Form: Essays on Popular Religion in Bengal. 1984.2012. India. 4 For discussions about these texts. Bhattacharya. 3 For readings from these texts charting out the myriad developments of the Krishna myth. he represented in his works ‘two completely contradictory images’ of the Bengali rural experience (Chakrabarty 151). Krishna was pleased by her devotion and had transformed her into a woman of exceptional grace. Kolkata: New Sanskrit Press. Dasa. Colonialism and its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India. The Place of the Hidden Moon. Rasamaya. 10. English Law in India. ‘Vidyapati o Jayadeva. Banerjee. Basu. New York: Oxford University Press. see Roy 53–5. Provincializing Europe: Post Colonial Thought and Historical Difference. Garland. The National Library. Obscure Religious Cults. Mathuranath Mitra’s Press published Vidyasundar. He destabilized the dichotomy in his later works. Ashutosh. Bryant. 2008. 1817. Kolkata . 2007. 3rd ed. only as an ‘initial’ strategy. ——. C.’ Anushtup 45.4 (2011): 143–55. had been a hedious. The 19th century Calcutta narratives project her as Krishna’s mistress in Mathura – and models her as one of the contenders for Krishna’s love. Shashibhushan. 1886. Kolkata: Seagull. However. The Parlour and the Streets: Elite and Popular Culture in Nineteenth Century Calcutta. Edwin. 10. according to the conventional accounts of Harivamsha and Srimad Bhagavatam.x Works Cited Banerjee. Chakrabarty. Bankimchandra. New York: Cambridge University Press.com 1 Tagore’s ‘division of labor’ between poetry and prose was adopted. He is interested in South Asian traditions of discourse and eroticomysticism. Dwija. The Life and Mind of Oriental Jones. 5 Gitagovinda V. Krishna Keli. Mullik Road. Chattopadhyay. Publisher’s Note The second part of this article has been published in the May issue of Literature Compass. Chicago and New York: University of Chicago Press. 6 For an elaborate analysis of the sacred and profane dimensions of Love described in the Gitagovinda. 1966. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. as Chakrabarty asserts. Kolkata has a copy of this text which is bound with Rasamaya Dasa’s translation of the Gitagovinda (1850 edition). ‘Adiraser Boi: Ainer Shashan. Cannon. ——. see Bryant. Gitagovinda. Mukherjee and Co. 9:5 (May 2012) 387–393. Ramkrishna Mallick’s Press at Chorabagan published Vidyasundar and Rasamanjari.. see Siegel.Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I 451 printed book in Bengal. Dipesh. 2000. Adiras and Ratimanjari. 10 For an extensive discussion on the implications of the Obscene Books and Picture Act on printing in Kolkata. 1996. Email: rangeetsen@gmail. see Stoller Miller 93. The close association of these two texts is evident.00888. Anil Chandra. 1990. 1975. Krishna: A Sourcebook.1111/j. Vishwanath. Bernard. 9 In 1829.13. Edward. Notes * Correspondence: 188 Raja S. Kolkata: A. Dimock. 1850.00887.2012. Pitambar Sen’s Press at Sealdah published Vidyasundar (See Basu 144).x .1741-4113. Kolkata: Firma KLM. 2002. Kolkata. 8 The author of this panchali is unknown. 81– 8.’ Bibidha Prabandha. Bangla Mangalkavyer Itihas. hunchback chambermaid in Mathura’s palace. Serampore: Jyanakar Press.1111/j. 1989. 7 Kubja. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452.700032 Kolkata West Bengal 700032. Kolkata: Anushtup.1741-4113. Swapan. Sumanta. 1969. see Stoller Miller 28–37. I myself have translated the Sanskrit and Bengali excerpts. 2 If not stated otherwise. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Unish Shataker Kolkata o Saraswatir Itar Santan. Cohn. ed. Kolkata: Seagull. Le Gitagovinda et le Ritou Samhara.’ Texts of Power: Emerging Disciplines in Colonial Bengal. ‘The Career of Radhakanta Tarkavagisa. Kavi Jayadeva o Gitagovinda. Garland Cannon. ‘European Jones and Asiatic Pandits. Kolkata: Calcutta Gazette Office. Rocher. Abhijit. ª 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Literature Compass 9/6 (2012): 441–452. Goethe. A Descriptive Catalogue of Bengali Works.x . Johann W. Returns Relating to Native Printing Presses and Publications in Bengal. London: Bell. Giri. London and New York: Oxford University Press.4 (1989): 627–33. Kolkata: Dey’s Publishing. Stoller Miller. in 1857. 1909. 1997. 1970. the Songs of Jayadeva.1 (1985): 43–58. James. Mukherji. ——.452 Gitagovinda in Nineteenth Century Bengal I Fauche. Kolkata: John Gray. L.’ Asiatic Researches 3 (1792b): 376–404. Harekrishna. Kolkata. Dasarathi. ——. 22. Sacred and Profane Dimensions of Love in the Indian Traditions as Exemplified in the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva.1741-4113. 5th ed. Barbara. Jones. Christianus. Print. Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press. The Letters of William Jones. 1836. an Eighteenth Century Pandit in British Employ. ——. Ray.. Ed. Gitagovinda Jayadevae Poetae Indici Drama Lyricum. Hippolyte. Delhi: Oxford University Press. and Friedrich Schiller. 1850. New York: Oxford University Press. Kolkata: Dey’s Publishing. Long. Rosane. 2 vols.’ Asiatic Researches 3 (1792a): 353–75. India Inscribed: European and British Writing on India: 1600–1800. Vatsyayan. 2007. 2 vols. Ed.’ Journal of the American Oriental Society 109. ——. Print. Gunilla Lindberg-Wada. ‘On the Mystical Poetry of the Persians and Hindus. Teltscher.2012. Kapila. Bonn: Koenig et van Borcharen. Mukhopadhyay. Lassen. Trans. Kolkata: Sanders. Brian A. ‘What’s become of the Pandit? Rethinking the History of Sanskrit Scholars in Colonial Bengal. 2006.’ Journal of the Asiatic Society 27. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1855b. Siegel. 2nd ed. 1855a. Bangla Sahitye Krishnakathar Kramavikas. Schmitz. Paris: Chez tous les libraries assortis en ouvrages de litterature orientale. Returns Relating to the Publications in Bengali Language. 2007. ‘The Gitagovinda: A Twelfth Century Sanskrit Poem Travels West. Kate.’ Modern Asian Studies 39. Roy. 2000.00888. Selections from the Records of the Bengal Government vol. ——. Hatcher. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 1850.. Delhi. ‘A Discourse on the Institution of a Society. ‘Gitagovinda. The Gitagovinda of Jayadeva: Love Song of the Dark Lord. Satyabati. or. 32.’ Asiatic Researches 1 (1789): ix–xvi. Selections from the Records of the Bengal Government vol. 1995. Cones and Co. 10. Lee. 1859. ‘Disciplining the Printed Text: Colonial and Nationalist Surveillance of Bengali Literature. Sri Krishner Mathura Lila Varnan. D. Ed. 30–62. 1978. William. Partha Chatterjee.1111/j. Correspondence between Goethe and Schiller.3 (2005): 683–723. 221–31.’ Studying Transcultural Literary History. Tapti.
Report "‘Rati Viparite’; Gitagovinda and Erotic (Trans)Migrations in Nineteenth Century Bengal I, 2012"