Psychology Theories

Psychology TheoriesBy Kendra Van Wagner, About.com Guide to Psychology Much of what we know about human thought and behavior has emerged thanks to various psychology theories. For example, behavioral theories demonstrated how conditioning can be used to learn new information and behaviors. Psychology students typically spend a great deal of time studying these different theories. Some theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely accepted, but all have contributed tremendously to our understanding of human thought and behavior. By learning more about these theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding of psychology's past, present and future. 1. Behavioral Theories 2. Cognitive Theories 3. Developmental Theories 4. Humanist Theories 5. Personality Theories 6. Social Psychology Theories Behavioral Theories Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills and behaviors.      What is Behaviorism?  Schedules of Reinforcement Classical Conditioning  What is Behavior Analysis? How Pavlov Discovered Classical Conditioning  Stages of Change Principles of Classical Conditioning  Conditioned Taste Aversions Operant Conditioning Cognitive Theories Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention.       What is Cognitive Psychology?  Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Theories of Intelligence  What Is a Genius IQ Score?  Perceptual Organization Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences Attention Memory 4 Explanations for Forgetting Left Brain vs. Right Brain Dominance Developmental Theories Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.     Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development  Social Learning Theory Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development  Attachment Theory Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Parenting Styles Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Humanist Theories Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s. While earlier theories often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems, humanist theories instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings. Some of the major humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.   What is Humanistic Psychology? Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs  Self-Efficacy Personality Theories Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. Whether we realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. Personality psychology looks at the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best known theories in psychology are devoted to the subject of personality.       What is Personality? Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality Freud's Psychosexual Theory Erikson's Psychosocial Theory Trait Theory of Personality The "Big Five" Theory of Personality     Murray's Psychogenic Theory Neurotic Needs Defense Mechanisms Jung's Archetypes Needs Social Psychology Theories Social psychology is focused on helping us understand and explain social behavior. Social theories are generally centered on specific social phenomena, including group behavior, prosocial behavior, social influence, love and much more.    What Is Social Psychology? The Bystander Effect Theories of Love    Leadership Theories Conformity Obedience What Is Behaviorism? Question: What Is Behaviorism? Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. --John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930 Answer: Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. There are two major types of conditioning: 1. Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. 2. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Major Thinkers in Behaviorism  Ivan Pavlov  B. F. Skinner  Edward Thorndike  John B. Watson  Clark Hull Important Events in Behaviorism 1863 - Ivan Sechenov's Reflexes of the Brain was published. Sechenov introduced the concept of inhibitory responses in the central nervous system.  1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the salivary response and other reflexes.  1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It was published. The article outlined the many of the main points of behaviorism.  1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the famous "Little Albert" experiment.  1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of Behavior was published.  1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden II in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles.  1959 - Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of Verbal Behavior."  1971 - B.F. Skinner published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues that free will is an illusion.  Criticisms of Behaviorism  Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.  Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcements or punishments. This occurs when a teenager has her driving privileges revoked. However. that pairs a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that causes a response. while negative punishment or reinforcement removes a stimulus. who used classical conditioning to teach dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell. . Negative reinforcement occurs when something unpleasant is removed due to the desired behavior. This occurs when something undesirable happens as the result of a behavior. For example. The dogs instinctively salivated when meat was presented. In general. Strengths of Behaviorism  Behaviorism is based upon observable behaviors. token economies. Every time the meat was presented. Over time. Negative punishment occurs when something desirable is taken away due to the behavior. B. A common use of behaviorism in modern therapy is the behavior modification plan. This contract between client and therapist delineates several concrete goals of therapy and the rewards or punishments associated with specific behaviors. positive reinforcement or punishment involves adding a consequence. and may be used alone or in conjunction with other therapeutic techniques. Eventually. someone with a phobia of snakes and a job at a pet store might become an expert in birds to avoid handling the snakes. Pavlov rang a bell. Behaviorism originated with Ivan Pavlov. pioneered by Ivan Pavlov. Classical Conditioning Definition: An early form of behaviorism. Shopping in the store is positive reinforcement for the act of driving. and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. behavioral techniques are often used in cognitive-behavioral therapy. A classic example is a child being given extra chores. The plan must meet specific criteria in order to be effective. People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced. Behaviorism Definition: A school of psychological thought that explains human reactions in terms of learned behavior. an idea that sometimes causes confusion. the neutral stimulus will begin to cause the response. Positive reinforcement occurs when a reward is given for desired behavior.F. even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement. Pavlov demonstrated this technique using dogs. Both reinforcement and punishment can be positive or negative. Pure behaviorism is not common today. For example. Skinner later added the concepts of reinforcement and punishment in his theory of operant conditioning. so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information when conducting research.  Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults. someone with a driving phobia might drive to her favorite store. Positive punishment can be a confusing concept. and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior. One of the best-known aspects of behavioral learning theory is classical conditioning. people do not respond exactly like Pavlov's dogs. The Unconditioned Stimulus The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally. eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. Introduction to Classical Conditioning Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that assumes that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. you also heard the sound of a whistle. Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. you may immediately feel very hungry. classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus. Pairing an anxietyprovoking situation. the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat. Classical Conditioning in the Real World In reality. however. The Conditioned Stimulus The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that. with pleasant surroundings . and automatically triggers a response. many dog trainers use classical conditioning techniques to help people train their pets. The Unconditioned Response The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. when you smell one of your favorite foods. the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus. the dogs would salivate. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food. numerous real-world applications for classical conditioning. There are. In our example. In this example. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. In our earlier example. The Conditioned Response The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. While the principles are still considered scientifically accurate and used in some situations. suppose that when you smelled your favorite food. In our example. When the bell was rung. it is important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process. For example. feelings. even when no meat was present. Other researchers expanded Pavlov’s work to include human conditioning. In this case. if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell. the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle. the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. For example. the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. such as performing in front of a group. Two other assumptions of this theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts. naturally. In order to understand how classical conditioning works. These techniques are also useful in the treatment of phobias or anxiety problems. pure classical conditioning is rarely used in clinical work today. helps the student learn new associations.." Pavlov wrote of the results. including behavioral modification and mental health treatment. Classical conditioning is often used to treat phobias. The dogs would first be exposed to the sound of the ticking metronome. In his digestive research. "We observed that. Salivation. salivating to the expectation of food is a conditioned reflex. which the animals had come to associate with the presentation of food. the previously neutral stimulus (the metronome) had become what is known as a conditioned stimulus that then provoked a conditioned response (salivation). "A stimulus which was neutral in and of itself had been superimposed upon the action of the inborn alimentary reflex. after several repetitions of the combined stimulation. and then the food was immediately presented. Ivan Pavlov was a noted Russian physiologist who went on to win the 1904 Nobel Prize for his work studying digestive processes. Pavlov noted that the dogs began to salivate after hearing the metronome. physiological process. anxiety and panic disorders. It occurs automatically in response to a specific stimulus and is not under conscious control. A conditioned taste aversion occurs when a neutral stimulus (eating some type of food) is paired with an unconditioned response (becoming ill after eating the food). this type of conditioning . Pavlov suggested that the salivation was a learned response. The dogs were responding to the sight of the research assistants' white lab coats. Pavlov's Dogs How Ivan Pavlov Discovered Classical Conditioning The concept of classical conditioning is studied by every entry-level psychology student. the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm. In a series of experiments. One interesting example of the practical use of classical conditioning principles is the use of taste aversion to prevent coyotes from preying on domestic livestock (Gustafson et al. After several conditioning trials. which is an unconditioned reflex. Unlike the salivary response to the presentation of food. Pavlov noted that the dogs would often begin salivating in the absence of food and smell. Pavlov then focused on investigating exactly how these conditioned responses are learned or acquired. However. The sound of a metronome was chosen to be the neutral stimulus. the sounds of the metronome had acquired the property of stimulating salivary secretion" (26). 1974). The Development of Classical Conditioning Theory Based on his observations. In addition to forming the basis of what would become behavioral psychology. It was while studying digestion in dogs that Pavlov noted an interesting occurrence – his canine subjects would begin to salivate whenever an assistant entered the room. or the stimulus that evokes a response naturally and automatically. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations. He opted to use food as the unconditioned stimulus. he noted. Pavlov and his assistants would introduce a variety of edible and non-edible items and measure the saliva production that the items produced. is a reflexive process. In other words. The Impact of Pavlov's Research Pavlov's discovery of classical conditioning remains one of the most important in psychology's history. so it may be surprising to learn that the man who first noted this phenomenon was not a psychology at all. He quickly realized that this salivary response was not due to an automatic. Unlike other forms of classical conditioning. Pavlov set out to provoke a conditioned response to a previously neutral stimulus. the conditioning process remains important today for numerous applications. For example. For example. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated. While Pavlov may not have been a psychologist. if you are trying to teach a dog to shake in response to a verbal command. you can gradually reinforce the shake response to make sure the behavior is well learned. Sponteneous Recovery Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. However.. while others describe the disappearance of a response. mutton was injected with a drug that produces severe nausea. Once the response has been acquired. this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. While Pavlov's discovery of classical conditioning formed an essential part of psychology's history. 69). his contributions to psychology have help make the discipline what it is today and will likely continue to shape our understanding of human behavior for years to come. coyotes then avoided sheep herds rather than attack them (Gustafson et al. Acquisition Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. In classical conditioning. For example. Discrimination . you can say the response has been acquired as soon as the dog shakes in response to only the verbal command. extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery. Principles of Classical Conditioning Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with classical conditioning. if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus). In one example. Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. if a rat has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit. more than 220 articles appearing in scientific journals cited Pavlov's early research on classical conditioning (Hock. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the response. taste aversions generally occur after just a single pairing. eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear. Extinction Extinction occurs when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. Between the years 1997 and 2000.does not require multiple pairings in order for an association to form. it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus. his work continues to inspire further research today. if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle). it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of hunger. After eating the poisoned meat. 1976). These elements are important in understanding the classical conditioning process. Ranchers have found useful ways to put this form of classical conditioning to good use to protect their herds. In fact. which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. Examples of Operant Conditioning We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Components of Operant Conditioning Some key concepts in operant conditioning:  A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. Through operant conditioning. a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. we should look only at the external.  Punishment. Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences" (1953). an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher. In these examples.F. In these situations. discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. In both of these cases of reinforcement. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement. the behavior increases. on the other hand. 2. he suggested. a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something. a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B. As a behaviorist. Instead. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In other words. Introduction to Operant Conditioning What Is Operant Conditioning? Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. For example. Skinner. such as praise or a direct reward. or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. For example. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. observable causes of human behavior. if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus.Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors. There are two kinds of punishment: . Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior. There are two kinds of reinforcers: 1. the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior. Positive Reinforcement Definition: In behaviorism. sometimes called a reinforcer. Many experts believe that reinforcement is more effective than punishment in shaping long-term behavior. the behavior decreases. Reinforcement Definition: In behaviorism. Examples: Despite a driving phobia. something undesirable is taken away as a consequence of the desired behavior. even those that are negative. In both of these cases of punishment. a parent might allow a child to stay up an hour late. Positive punishment. a reward is given for the desired behavior. 2. reinforcement refers to the consequences of desired behavior. Negative punishment. depending on its application. Carla was able to drive to the mall in order to shop at her favorite store. are simply ignored. The experience of shopping was positive reinforcement for the act of driving. Other behaviors. a parent might relieve a child from dishwashing duties for the evening. also known as punishment by removal. while those that are punished or are not reinforced tend to gradually end. Punishment focuses on negative behaviors. For example. Examples: Parents often use operant conditioning. is given for a specific desired behavior. positive reinforcement occurs when a reward. while reinforcement ignores those and focuses only on desired behaviors. such as rewarding good grades with ice cream.1. Operant Conditioning Definition: A form of behaviorism based on the premise that reinforced behaviors tend to continue. sometimes referred to as punishment by application. However. For example. occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. this will lead to an increase in the desired behavior. In negative reinforcement. Operant conditioning techniques are still used today in clinical therapy.F. Positive reinforcement must be individualized to the specific person receiving it. they are most often used as part of a cognitive-behavioral treatment plan. Over time. In positive reinforcement. Skinner and built on the classical conditioning work of Ivan Pavlov. What reinforces one person’s behavior may not have the same effect on someone else. Negative Reinforcement Definition: . Operant conditioning was pioneered by B. Reinforcement may be either positive or negative. involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Over time. Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. This schedule produces a high. The extra paperwork is a positive punishment for avoiding the meeting. . When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response. reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule. Negative Punishment Definition: In behaviorism. schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning process. Positive Punishment Definition: In behaviorism. This is a negative reinforcer of Michael's snake phobia. steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer. negative punishment occurs when something desired is taken away as a consequence of a certain behavior. but the response is more resistant to extinction. Over time. he does not need to work to address his snake phobia. positive punishment can decrease the likelihood that the behavior will continue. Once the response if firmly attached. Other behaviors are ignored.In behaviorism. 2. this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. positive punishment occurs when a negative consequence is applied in response to an undesired behavior. Partial Reinforcement In partial reinforcement. On days that she does not go out. Examples: Maria wants to combat her agoraphobia. Over time. Generally. Examples: Michael has a phobia of snakes. Examples: Julia has a social phobia that causes her to skip meetings where she might have to speak. but works in a pet store where they are sold. The principles of negative reinforcement may actually worsen a phobia. Over time. She decides that every time she skips a meeting. Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. she will have to do an extra hour of paperwork. she locks her prized laptop in a closet. There are four schedules of partial reinforcement: 1. the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus when a desired behavior occurs. Schedules of Reinforcement In operant conditioning. There are two types of reinforcement schedules: 1. he's become such an expert in bird care that he is promoted and now only works in the bird department of the store. allowing it to only be perpetuated. this can decrease the frequency of the undesired behavior. It differs from positive reinforcement as the stimulus is taken away rather than given when the behavior happens. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement. she decides that the use of the laptop is worth making at least a short daily trip. Continuous Reinforcement In continuous reinforcement. as he does not need to interact with snakes. the response is reinforced only part of the time. John B. B." History of Behavior Analysis Behaviorism was largely established through the influential work of three theorists:  Ivan Pavlov  John B. This analysis is pursued in three relatively distinct ways:  In the experimental analysis of behavior per se. 4. philosophical.  In applied behavior analysis. which addresses historical. Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. and methodological issues. This schedule produces a slow. These concepts continue to play an influential role in behavior analysis. and cultural importance. Skinner later introduced the concept of operant conditioning in which reinforcement leads to a desired behavior. which undertakes research on basic behavioral processes in a temporal and biological context. which extends these processes and research procedures to behavior in a social context. and therapy. . His research demonstrated that an environmental stimulus (i. publishing his landmark article Psychology as the Behaviorist View It in 1913 and establishing behaviorism as a major school of thought.F. behavior modification. Watson  B. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. theoretical. salivating at the sound of the ringing bell).e.  In the conceptual analysis of behavior.F. Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. steady rate of response.2. the Division of Behavior Analysis is perhaps unique in its emphasis on behavior as a subject matter in its own right. establishing classical conditioning as a learning method.e. ringing bell) could be used to stimulate a conditioned response (i. Division 25 of the American Psychological Division is devoted to the area of behavior analysis. Skinner Pavlov discovered the conditioning reflex during his studies with dogs. social. especially to behavior-environment relationships of relatively immediate individual. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval. 3. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Watson extended Pavlov's theory to apply to human behavior. According to Division 25: "Among the APA divisions that advance psychology as a natural science. What Is Behavior Analysis? Question: What Is Behavior Analysis? Answer: Behavior Analysis Defined Behavior analysis is a school of psychology based upon the foundations and principles of behaviorism. His work introduced operant conditioning. These treatments include the Lovaas Method and ABA (applied behavior analysis) and utilize techniques such as discrete trial training. even when the meat was not present. while behavior that is punished or not reinforced is eventually stopped. After receiving his doctoral degree at age 22. Pure cognitive theory largely rejects behaviorism on the basis that behaviorism reduces complex human behavior to simple cause and effect. In operant conditioning. “Information processing” is a commonly used description of the mental process. and childcare. The basic principles of behavior medication are often adapted for use in educational settings. the workplace. who was able to train dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell. the trend in past decades has been towards merging the two into a comprehensive cognitive-behavioral theory. Pavlov was able to condition the dogs to respond to a new stimulus (the bell). reinforcement is seen as more effective than punishment in changing behavior. Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory Stages of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget's Background Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. The dogs’ salivation was an automatic response to the presence of meat. By pairing the presentation of the meat with the ringing of a bell. B. Skinner elaborated on Pavlov’s theory. Eventually. social cognitive theory can be seen in advertising campaigns and peer pressure situations. Cognitive Theory Definition: Cognitive theory is a learning theory of psychology that attempts to explain human behavior by understanding the thought processes. It is also useful in the treatment of psychological disorders including phobias. The assumption is that humans are logical beings that make the choices that make the most sense to them. comparing the human mind to a computer. Today. Social cognitive theory is a subset of cognitive theory. Learning Theory and Phobias From Behaviorism to Cognitive Theory Learning theory is a broad term that includes multiple theories of behavior that are based on the learning process.Applications of Behavior Analysis Behavior analysis has proven to be a particularly effective learning tool for helping children with autism or developmental delays acquire and maintain new skills. Piaget formally began a career that would have a profound impact on both . Both reinforcement and punishment can be either negative or positive. the dogs salivated when they heard the bell. Primarily focused on the ways in which we learn to model the behavior of others. Learning theory is rooted in the work of Ivan Pavlov. However.F. depending on whether a positive or negative reward is being given or taken away. behavior that is reinforced continues. Behaviorism Pavlov’s theory is known as classical conditioning. This allows therapists to use techniques from both schools of thought to help clients achieve their goals. The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schema’s is known as assimilation. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs. this new information is used to modify. As experiences happen.Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new information. Based upon his observations. furry. add to. seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema. or ideas.psychology and education. such as a dog. while other believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes. New schemas may also be developed during this process. After using a technique known as factor analysis to to examine a number of mental aptitude tests. a child might believe that all dogs are small. Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next. a child may have a schema about a type of animal. skills and talents. Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. there is no standard definition of what exactly constitutes 'intelligence.Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation. In Piaget's view. In Piaget’s view. general ability. The process is somewhat subjective. early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations. Accommodation involves altering existing schemas. modifying the previously existing schema to include this new information. The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years. a process known as accommodation. he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults. Equilibration . Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. Albert Einstein called Piaget’s discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it. In the example above. For example. Spearman concluded ." Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Theories of Intelligence While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology. Accommodation . as a result of new information or new experiences. it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Key Concepts Schemas . they simply think differently. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development.' Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single. Assimilation . The child will take in this new information. and have four legs. Charles Spearman . or change previously existing schemas.General Intelligence: British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence. or the g factor.A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. After working with Alfred Binet. because we tend to modify experience or information somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. While there has been considerable debate over the exact nature of intelligence. p. The abilities that he described were:  Verbal comprehension  Reasoning  Perceptual speed  Numerical ability  Word fluency  Associative memory  Spatial visualization Howard Gardner .  Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to. 1904). 1985. selection and shaping of. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single. general ability. he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. real-world environments relevant to one’s life" (Sternberg.  Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.Multiple Intelligences: One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. no definitive conceptualization has emerged.that scores on these tests were remarkably similar.' which is comprised of three different factors:  Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities. general ability. The eight intelligences Gardner described are:  Visual-spatial Intelligence  Verbal-linguistic Intelligence  Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence  Logical-mathematical Intelligence  Interpersonal Intelligence  Musical Intelligence  Intra personal Intelligence  Naturalistic Intelligence Robert Sternberg . Louis L. Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence. while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on other. 45). Today.Primary Mental Abilities: Psychologist Louis L. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests. While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single. 1938). Thurstone . His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures. Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities" (Thurstone. psychologists often account for the . He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed (Spearman. Many teachers utilize multiple intelligences in their teaching philosophy and work to integrate Gardner’s theory into the classroom. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences What Are Multiple Intelligences? When you hear the word intelligence. spatial-visual and linguistic intelligences3 Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. Language and intelligence are good a visualizing Writing things. painting and the visual arts  Enjoys reading and writing  Recognizes patterns easily  Good at debating or giving persuasive speeches Potential Career Choices  Able to explain things well  Architect . Intelligence is often defined as our intellectual potential. memorizing information and reading. Gardner’s theory also suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research4. interpersonal. Gardner suggests that people don’t possess just one intellectual capacity. These individuals are often good People who are strong in linguisticwith directions as well as maps. Gardner first outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. graphs and charts  Good at remembering written and spoken information  Enjoys drawing.  Artist Visual-Spatial Intelligence Strengths: Visual and Spatial  Engineer Judgment Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence People who are strong in visual-spatial Strengths: Words. but have many different intelligences including musical. well. where he suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences. personality traits and abilities. Characteristics of Visual-Spatial These individuals are typically very Intelligence good at writing stories."1 Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences.many different theoretical viewpoints when discussing intelligence and acknowledge that this debate is ongoing. something that can be measured and a capacity that is difficult to change. This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. One such conception is the theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner. the concept of IQ testing may immediately come to mind. other views of intelligence have emerged.  Enjoys reading and writing  Good at putting puzzles together Characteristics of Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence  Good at interpreting pictures. and that his eight different "intelligences" simply represent talents. something we are born with. These critics argue that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad. however. In recent years. both when writing and speaking. and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as “existentialist intelligence”2. the theory of multiple intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with educators. charts. In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess. Despite this. verbal intelligence are able to use words videos and pictures. performing actions and physical control. rather than hearing or seeing Potential Career Choices  Dancer  Builder  Sculptor  Actor Musical Intelligence Strengths: Rhythm and Music People who have strong musical intelligence are good and thinking in patterns. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers. rhythm and notes Potential Career Choices  Musician  Composer  Singer  Music Teacher  Conductor Interpersonal Intelligence Strengths: Understanding and Relating to Other People Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good understanding and interacting with other people. relationships and patterns. Characteristics of Musical Intelligence  Enjoy singing and playing musical instruments  Recognizes musical patterns and tones easily  Good at remembering songs and melodies  Rich understanding of musical structure. rhythms and sounds. Motor Control Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement. desires and intentions of those around them. Characteristics of Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence  Good at dancing and sports  Enjoy creating things with their hands Excellent physical coordination Tends to remember by doing. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance. . motivations. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent handeye coordination and dexterity. recognize patterns and logically analyze problems.Mathematical Intelligence Strengths: Analyzing Problems and Mathematical Operations People who are strong in logicalmathematical intelligence are good at reasoning.  Characteristics of LogicalMathematical Intelligence  Excellent problem-solving skills  Enjoys thinking about abstract ideas  Likes conducting scientific experiments  Good and solving complex computations Potential Career Choices  Scientist  Mathematician  Computer programmer  Engineer  Accountant Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Strengths: Physical Movement. Often uses humor when telling stories  Potential Career Choices  Writer / Journalist  Lawyer  Teacher Logical . exploring the environment and learning about other species.Characteristics of Interpersonal Intelligence  Good at communicating verbally  Skilled nonverbal communicators  See situations from different perspectives  Create positive relationships with others  Good at resolving conflict in groups Potential Career Choices  Psychologist  Philosopher  Counselor  Sales person  Politician Intrapersonal Intelligence Strengths: Introspection and SelfReflection Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional states. exploring relationships with others and assessing their personal strengths. According to Gardner. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments. Characteristics of Naturalistic Intelligence  Interested in subjects such as botany. hiking and exploring the outdoors  Doesn’t enjoy learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature Potential Career Choices  Biologist  Conservationist  Gardener  Farmer Potential Career Choices Theory of cognitive development The Theory of Cognitive Development. feelings and motivations. gardening. Characteristics of Intrapersonal Intelligence  Good at analyzing their strengths and weaknesses  Enjoys analyzing theories and ideas  Excellent self-awareness  Clearly understands the basis for their own motivations and feelings  Philosopher  Writer  Theorist  Scientist Naturalistic Intelligence Strengths: Finding Patters and Relationships to Nature Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory 5 and has been met with more resistance than his original seven intelligences. is a developmental stage theory first developed by Jean Piaget. including day-dreaming. biology and zoology  Good at categorizing and cataloguing information easily  May enjoy camping. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis. Piaget's four stages Sensorimotor period . individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interesting in nurturing. these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions. the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping. an infant might reactions phase months repeat the motion of passing their hand before their face. instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage. often to the amusement of friends and family. motoric actions. "Coordination of vision and touch--hand-eye coordination.The Sensorimotor Stage is the first of the four stages of cognitive development. coordination of schemes and 4 Coordination of [1] intentionality. passive reactions.[2]). "Infants become more objectoriented. Secondary circular reactions. The differentiation between means and ends also occurs. caused by classical or operant conditioning. circular reactions months infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of phase a desired object." [1] As primary circular weeks-4 an example of this type of reaction. holding what Piaget . secondary circular reactions." [1] "Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it. moving beyond self-preoccupation. repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object. "Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event that initially occurred by 2 First habits and 6 chance). or the repetition of an action involving an external object begin." This stage is associated primarily 8-12 secondary circular months with the development of logic and the coordination reactions stage between means and ends. Development of habits. At this stage. "In this stage. infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical. and 3 Secondary 4-8 differentiations between ends and means." [1] "An infant progresses from reflexive."[1] This stage is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and prehension. following moving or interesting objects with the eyes. Also at this phase. This is an extremely important stage of development. and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). This is perhaps one of the most important stages of a child's growth as it signifies the dawn of logic[2]." [1] "Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages"[1]: Sub-Stage 1 Simple Reflexes Age Description Birth-6 weeks "Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors"[1]. Main focus is still on the infant's body. for example. can begin[2]. for example. moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. Over the first six weeks of life. [3] An example is an experiment performed by Piaget and Barbel Inhelder.[3] Thinking is still egocentric: The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others."[1] "Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant's most important accomplishments.[3] Three views of a mountain are shown and the child is asked what a traveling doll would see at the various angles. the child learns to use and to represent objects by images. tasks that the child can do mentally rather than physically. this stage marks the beginning of goal orientation.[3] Although there is an advancement in progress.[3] Other examples of mental abilities are language and pretend play.[3] An example is a child believing that the sidewalk was mad and made them fall down.[3] Egocentrism occurs when a child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and that of another person's. During this stage.calls the "first proper intelligence."[1] "Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen." Also. there are still limitations such as egocentrism and animism. the child picks their own view compared to the actual view of the doll. Two substages can be formed from preoperational thought.[3]  The Symbolic Function Substage Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 4. or true creativity.[3] The child however is still not able to perform operations.[3] The child is able to form stable concepts as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs. Piaget describes the child at this and curiosity juncture as the "young scientist. "By the end of the sensorimotor period. objects are both separate from the self and permanent. words. heard. months means to meet goals. or touched.[3] Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities. "Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental representations. they experiment with new behavior." [1] This 5 Tertiary circular 12-18 stage is associated primarily with the discovery of new reactions."[1] [edit] Preoperational Period The Preoperational stage is the second of four stages of cognitive development.[3] Children tend to pick their own view of what they see rather than the actual view shown to others. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage. according to Piaget. and drawings. The hallmark of the preoperational stage is sparse and logically inadequate mental operations." conducting pseudoexperiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges [2]. (Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for mentally acting on objects.[3] .[3] By observing sequences of play. Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year. a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs. "Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to objects.[3] The child is able to formulate designs of objects that are not present. novelty." [1] This 6 Internalization of 18-24 stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of Schemes months insight. the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective [2]. Important processes during this stage are: .[3] Psychologist Patricia Greenfield conducted a task similar to Piaget's beaker experiment in the West African nation of Senegal. it is noted that there are different age differences in reaching the understanding of conservation based on the degree to which the culture teaches these tasks. it is a sign that they are at the preoperational stage of cognitive development. The Intuitive Thought Substage Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7.[3] There may have been discrepencies in the communication between the experimenter and the children which may have altered the results.[3] When one of the beakers is poured into a taller and thinner container. volume. which follows the Preoperational stage.[3] The child usually notes that the beakers have the same amount of liquid. children who are typically younger than 7 or 8 years old say that the two beakers now contain a different amount of liquid. However when asked if there are more dogs than animals. begin the use of primitive reasoning.[3] It has also been found that if conservation is not widely practiced in a particular country. the awareness that altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties.[3] Children tend to become very curious and ask many questions. matter.[3] Another example is when a child is shown 7 dogs and 3 cats and asked if there are more dogs than cats. a child is represented with two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. and area as well.[3] Therefore. length. The child would respond positively. as they build up symbolic images through internalized activity.[3] Other cultures such as central Australia and New Guinea had similar results.[3] Centration and conservation are both involved in preoperational thought.[3] Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic compared to the others.[3] The child also fails to show conservation of number.[3] Piaget called it the intuitive substage because children realize they have a vast amount of knowledge but they are unaware of how they know it. the concept can be taught to the child and training can improve the child's understanding.[3] Her results stated that only 50 percent of the 10-13 year olds understood the concept of conservation. occurs between the ages of 7 and 12 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic.[3] If adults had not gained this concept.[3] Centration is noticed in conservation. Such fundamental errors in logic show the transition between intuitiveness in solving problems and true logical reasoning acquired in later years when the child grows up.[3] They are unable to grasp the concept that a certain liquid can stay the same regardless of the container shape. the child would once again respond positively.[3] The child simply focuses on the height and width of the container compared to the general concept.[3] Piaget believes that if a child fails the conservation-ofliquid task.[4][5] Studies have been conducted among other countries to find out if Piaget's theory is universal. This stage. Piaget considered that children primarily learn through imitation and play throughout these first two stages. they would be unable to understand the point of view of another person.[3] Children at this stage are unaware of conservation.[3] In Piaget's most famous task.[3] [edit] Concrete operational stage The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget's theory.[3] There is an emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the way they are. a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 equals t.[6] They use hypothetical-deductive reasoning. Conservation—understanding that quantity. imaginary audience that involves attention getting .The ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order.Seriation—the ability to sort objects in an order according to size. (See also Falsebelief task). [6] In this stage. devising plans to solve problems and systematically testing solutions. For instance. Decentering—where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide. For this reason. For example. If A is taller than B. and systematically deduce. however. including the idea that one set of objects can include another. then A must be taller than C). or conclude. if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.[6] This stage. [edit] Formal operational stage The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in Piaget's theory.[6] Adolescents are changing cognitively also by the way that they think about social matters.[6] Adolescents begin to think more as a scientist thinks.[6] The logical quality of the adolescent's thought is when children are more likely to solve problems in a trial-and-error fashion. Elimination of Egocentrism—the ability to view things from another's perspective (even if they think incorrectly). "shades of gray".[6] During this stage the young adult is able to understand such things as love. then returned to their original state. t−4 will equal 4. only solve problems that apply to actual (concrete) objects or events. as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations. For example.[6] The abstract quality of the adolescent's thought at the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent's verbal problem solving ability. taller cup. which follows the Concrete Operational stage. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think it's under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer. Reversibility—the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed.[6] Adolescent Egocentrism governs the way that adolescents think about social matters and is the heightened self-consciousness in them as they are which is reflected in their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility. and Jane comes back. size or other characteristic. and perform 'transitive inferences' (for example. logical proofs and values. shape. and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks. Children in this stage can. commences at around 13 years of age (puberty) and continues into adulthood. length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items. and B is taller than C. reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available. the original quantity. which means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses. Transitivity. individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think abstractly. leaves the room.[6] Adolescent egocentrism can be dissected into two types of social thinking. which is the best path to follow in solving the problem. and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer. show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box. or any other characteristic. Classification—the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance. During this stage the young adult begins to entertain possibilities for the future and is fascinated with what they can be. More broadly. or his neo-nativist critics. and revised ideas of domain generality-but from a newer dynamic systems approach. For example. cognitive developmentalists were influenced by "neo-nativist" and evolutionary psychology ideas. said to occur before the early preoperational stage.4. Michael Commons presents evidence for four postformal stages: the systematic. school. society and the world. Dynamic systems approaches harken to modern neuroscientific research that was not available to Piaget when he was constructing his theory. not from a revised Piagetian perspective. logic. which allows them to break into learning within that domain. suggesting that language was more important than Piaget implied. that one object cannot pass through another).  A "sentential" stage has been proposed. This suggests more of a "smooth integration" of learning and development than either Piaget. During the 1980s and 1990s. as Piaget himself noted.g. metasystematic. some psychologists.behavior. paradigmatic and cross paradigmatic. some cognitive developmentalists argued that rather than being domain general learners. These ideas de-emphasized domain general theories and emphasized domain specificity or modularity of mind. and Richards. 1999. Additionally. and personal fable which involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.4)[citation needed] proposed that there may be . thought differently from Piaget. Oliver. This is based on the contextual influences in the child's life like his/her immediate family. Section C5. First. Piaget's theory is 'domain general'. as its goal). One important finding is that domain-specific knowledge is constructed as children develop and integrate knowledge. and how these impact the child's development. Commons. even young infants appear to be sensitive to some predictable regularities in the movement and interactions of objects (e. Kurt Fischer suggested two. In this vein. [edit] Post Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian stages After Piaget:  Postformal stages have been proposed.g. Traill (1978. such as Vygotsky and Bruner. that a hand repeatedly reaching for an object has that object. children come equipped with domain specific theories. development does not always progress in the smooth manner his theory seems to predict. Proposed by Fischer. suggest that the stage model is at best a useful approximation. or in human behavior (e. or unpredicted gaps in the developmental progression. 2003. More recent work has strongly challenged some of the basic presumptions of the 'core knowledge' school. sometimes referred to as 'core knowledge'. etc). Biggs and Biggs. understanding of physics. had envisioned.  Searching for a micro-physiological basis for human mental capacity. (Commons & Richards. of language.[6] [edit] Challenges to Piagetian stage theory Piagetians' accounts of development have been challenged on several grounds. Section 8. Another recent challenge to Piaget's theory is a new theory called Ecological Systems Theory. 'Decalage'. These basic assumptions may be the building block out of which more elaborate knowledge is constructed. not just a particular path of motion. predicting that cognitive maturation occurs concurrently across different domains of knowledge (such as mathematics. Moularity implies that different cognitive faculties may be largely independent of one another and thus develop according to quite different time-tables. 2004). "pre-sensorimotor" stages ("M−1L". These two debates are present in nearly every smaller part of the field. this notion had lost favour. 2003. or domain-specific cognition. often called subitizing. A major topic in cognitive development is "nature vs. The issue has not yet been resolved experimentally. or nativism versus empiricism. Empiricists study how these skills may be learned in such a short time. Another deals with larger numbers in an approximate fashion. so the idea was quite plausible. (Traill 2005 / 2008). neurobiological development.[1] [edit] Navigation . Many of his claims have since fallen out of favor. many modern cognitive developmental psychologists. It then turned out. some influential researchers posit a set of so-called "core domains" in which children show sensitivity to various patterns of information. conceptual resources. One deals with small numbers. Cognitive development Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing. Another is the question of convergance or homology with animals when humans have similar cognition. by the time of Piaget's death in 1980. forming his "theory of cognitive development". or learning. nurture". RNA concentrations had indeed been shown to correlate with learning. perceptual skill. … … ) — developed in the womb and/or transmitted genetically. Those commonly cited include: [edit] Number Infants appear to have two systems for dealing with numbers. [edit] Postulated physical mechanisms underlying "schemes" and stages Piaget himself (1967) considered the possibility of RNA molecules as likely embodiments of his still-abstract "schemes" (which he promoted as units of action) — though he did not come to any firm conclusion. and that did not fit in with observation. recognizing that the term "innate" does not square with modern knowledge about epigenesis. One main problem was over the protein which (it was assumed) such RNA would necessarily produce. "M−2L". Jean Piaget was a major force in the founding of this field. [edit] Core systems of cognition Nativists theorize that children are born with many innate cognitive systems designed to tackle problems that the human species have faced over a very long evolutionary time. The debate is over whether these systems are learned by general-purpose learning devices. Moreover. However. favor a nonnativist framework wherein "core systems" and believe that the "core systems" approach is less theoretically warranted than a more general dynamic systems or "neuroconstructivist" approach. and other topics in cognitive psychology. due to work such as that of Holger Hydén. Nevertheless. 2001. 2004). that only about 3% of RNA does code for protein (Mattick. At that time. Hence most of the remaining 97% (the "ncRNA") could now theoretically be available to serve as Piagetian schemes (or other regulatory roles now under investigation). but its theoretical aspects have been reviewed. surprisingly. A large portion of research has gone into understanding how a child conceptualizes the world. The modern consensus is that this draws on many innate systems.[3] [edit] Language acquisition A major. adults can use natural language to store additional navigational information. children are not born knowing what force is. . more complex ways. however. these principles can be used to define social cognitive theory. [edit] Neuroscience During development.Very young children appear to have some skill in dead reckoning. well-studied feat of cognitive development is language acquisition. but differs from other learning theories such as behaviorism in several important ways. There is some evidence that children less than 72 hours old can perceive such complex things as biological motion. the human mind expands far beyond these simple forms of cognition. For example. In general. Tenets of Social Cognitive Theory Expert opinions differ on exactly what separates social cognitive theory from the more general social learning theory. further experiments show that children did not really understand what was being asked of them. However. [edit] Creation of new representational resources Of course. Many of his claims have fallen out of favor. Social Cognitive Theory Understanding the Effects of Social Cognitive Theory on Phobias Social cognitive theory is a subcategory of cognitive theory that focuses on the effects that others have on our behavior. For example. he claimed that young children cannot conserve number. It is a form of learning theory. When the experiment is done with candies. children show interesting patterns of neural development and a high degree of neuroplasticity. [edit] Whorf's hypothesis Whorf believed that a person cannot think what they cannot say in language. but they are capable of eventually learning. especially the first few years of life. Making them use their language skills for something else makes them perform like children or rats. [edit] Quine's bootstrapping hypothesis Quine suggests that words are commonly used to help create new thoughts. This basic "sense of direction" does not change very much through development. they show no confusion about which group has more items.[2] [edit] Essentialism Young children seem to be predisposed to think of things in an essentialistic way. Later in life. and the children are asked which set they want rather than tell an adult which is more. [edit] Visual perception One of the original nativist versus empiricist debates was over depth perception. [edit] Piaget's theory Jean Piaget believed that people move through stages of development that allow them to think in new. Self-efficacy is a fundamental belief in one’s ability to achieve a goal. friend. go through a negative experience such as falling down the stairs can also lead to a phobia. The degree of self-efficacy that a learner possesses directly affects his or her ability to learn. Each element of the commercial. Social cognitive theory can also be used in the treatment of phobias. While watching others can greatly lower the level of fear.1. or even stranger. Social Learning Theory An Overview of Bandura's Social Learning Theory . Social Cognitive Theory in Daily Life Social cognitive theory is frequently used in advertising. In this situation. repeated practice is generally the best way to get rid of the phobia entirely. Notice how different the commercials shown during Saturday morning cartoons are from those shown during the evening news or a late-night movie. people do not always apply what they have learned. a process known as vicarious learning. when our parents were our greatest influences and role models. Individual choice is based on perceived or actual consequences of behavior. The more perceived commonalities and/or emotional attachments between the observer and the model. Although learning can modify behavior. is chosen to help that demographic identify with the product. Many people with phobias genuinely want to overcome them and have a strong belief in their ability to do so. you will be much more successful in doing so. just watching someone else perform the behavior without fear can be enough to break the phobic response. It is not uncommon for a parent’s distaste for spiders or rats to become a full-blown phobia in her child. However. Although we often think of peer pressure as solely a teen phenomenon. Many phobias stem from early childhood. from the actors to the background music. not only through their own direct experiences. 3. If there is a good relationship of trust and rapport with the therapist. live in a specific neighborhood. whether a parent. In some cases. Watching someone else. Commercials are carefully targeted toward particular demographic groups. the therapist calmly goes through whatever process is being asked of the individual seeking help. and so we tend to change our behaviors to fit in with whatever group we most strongly identify with. However. People learn by observing others. or have our hair done at a certain salon simply because it is expected of someone in our social class or peer group? Social Cognitive Theory and Phobias Social cognitive theory may explain why some people develop phobias. People are more likely to follow the behaviors modeled by someone with whom they can identify. 4. If you believe that you can learn new behaviors. they get stuck when trying to unlearn the automatic fear response. 2. the more likely the observer will learn from the model. it is generally best to combine the techniques of social cognitive theory with other cognitive-behavioral therapies. modeling the behavior can help. how many of us drive a particular car. And who hasn't at one time or another realized the power of peer pressure? We all want to belong. " -Albert Bandura. 2. observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors. they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed. Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning: 1. Observational Learning In his famous "Bobo doll" studies. A symbolic model. A live model. which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books. People can learn through observation. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll. Social Learning Theory. While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories. Fortunately. Certain . While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior. if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.' 3. Mental states are important to learning. and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior. or online media. Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Known as observational learning (or modeling). arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior. A verbal instructional model. and a sense of accomplishment. Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory. such as pride. films. environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior. television programs. Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward. 3. The Modeling Process Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. 1977 What is Social Learning Theory? The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. His theory added a social element. Intrinsic Reinforcement Bandura noted that external."Learning would be exceedingly laborious. satisfaction. most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed. Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. 2. this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors. not to mention hazardous. Basic Social Learning Concepts 1. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory. Retention can be affected by a number of factors. it is not necessary to think of these three schools of thought as competing elements. The first and second forces were behaviorism and psychoanalysis respectively. if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective. Each branch of psychology has contributed to our understanding of the human mind and behavior. you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.  Motivation: Finally. In 1962. so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning. in order for observational learning to be successful. Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual’s potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization. Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic. but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning. with mental and social problems resulting from deviations from this natural tendency. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology was that people are innately good.  Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information. in which he described humanistic psychology as the "third force" in psychology. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:  Attention: In order to learn. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement. either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take the role of personal choice into account.requirements and steps must also be followed. Humanistic psychology added yet another dimension that took a more holistic view of the individual. . you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. humanistic psychology began as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious motivations that drove behavior while behaviorism studied the conditioning processes that produced behavior. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. you need to be paying attention. Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being. For example. Major Thinkers in Humanistic Psychology  Abraham Maslow  Carl Rogers Important Events in Humanistic Psychology  1961-Journal of Humanistic Psychology was established. Humanistic Psychology The "Third Force" In Psychology During the 1950s. However.  Retention: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. which dominated psychology at the time. We can only rely upon the individual's own assessment of their experience. Essentially.There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Components of Personality While there are many different theories of personality. What Is Personality? Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. the importance of individual experience makes it difficult to objectively study and measure humanistic phenomena. In addition to this. A brief definition would be that personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts.  Humanistic psychology helped remove some of the stigma attached to therapy. and made it more acceptable for normal. education. the first step is to understand exactly what is meant by the term personality.  Humanistic psychology continues to influence therapy. is that we cannot.Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment.Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. and behaviors that make a person unique. healthy individuals to explore their abilities and potential through therapy. humanistic psychology also credits the environment's influence on our experiences. Personality research has led to the development of a number of theories that help explain how and why certain personality traits develop. How can we objectively tell if someone is self-actualized? The answer.Personality is a psychological construct. and other social interactions. . of course.  Takes environmental influence into account. humanistic psychology gives more credit to the individual in controlling and determining their state of mental health. but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.  Multiple expressions .  Impact behaviors and actions . feelings. and other areas.  Observations are unverifiable—there is no accurate way to measure or quantify these qualities. 1962-American Association for Humanistic Psychology was formed. feelings. Strong Points of Humanistic Psychology  Emphasizes the role of the individual.  Psychological and physiological . healthcare.  1971-Humanistic psychology becomes an APA division. Whether we realize it or not. it also causes us to act in certain ways. close relationships. personality psychologists instead use conceptions of personality that can apply to everyone. personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life. people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations. these daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to what personality psychologists do. Criticisms of Humanistic Psychology  Often seen as too subjective. While our informal assessments of personality tend to focus more on individuals. Some of the fundamental characteristics of personality include:  Consistency . It can also be seen in out thoughts. rather than focusing solely on our internal thoughts and desires. While many different leadership theories have emerged. 2. qualities of the followers. while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. According to this theory. at the time. Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation.8 Major Leadership Theories Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors. leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality. “Great Man” Theories: Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born.  Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Some of these major perspectives on personality include:  Type theories are the early perspectives on personality. Leadership Theories . most can be classified as one of eight major types: 1. no leadership style is best in all situations. and destined to rise to leadership when needed. F. Behavioral theorists include B. The term “Great Man” was used because. trait theory assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. and aspects of the situation. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. 3.  Trait theories viewed personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based. These theories suggested that there are a limited number of "personality types" which are related to biological influences. Different schools of thought in psychology influence many of these theories.Theories of Personality There are a number of different theories about how personality develops. Trait Theories: Similar in some ways to “Great Man” theories. Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. . and emphasize the influence of the unconscious on personality. rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account.  Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the development of personality. But if particular traits are key features of leadership. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.  Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud. Skinner and John Watson. mythic. including the leadership style. especially in terms of military leadership. not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic. Success depends upon a number of variables. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers. in terms of developmental stages and learning styles. and group performance. Management Theories: Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”) focus on the role of supervision. but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. Constructivism — particularly in its "social" forms — suggests that the learner is much more actively involved in a joint enterprise with the teacher of creating ("constructing") new meanings. We can distinguish between  "cognitive constructivism" which is about how the individual learner understands things. Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. not on mental qualities or internal states. If behaviourism treats the organism as a black box. this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders. not born. they are reprimanded or punished. however. organization. . 7. In participative theories. 5. Behavioral Theories: Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made. 6. Managerial theories are often used in business. Situational Theories: Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variable. Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.4. they are rewarded. cognitive theory recognises the importance of the mind in making sense of the material with which it is presented. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. it still presupposes that the role of the learner is primarily to assimilate whatever the teacher presents. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making. Constructivist Theory Constructivism is the label given to a set of theories about learning which fall somewhere between cognitive and humanistic views. when they fail. Rooted in behaviorism. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. 8. Relationship Theories: Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational theories”) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. which emphasises how meanings and understandings grow out of social encounters—see Vygotsky below. Nevertheless. and  "social constructivism". people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation. the leader retains the right to allow the input of others. According to this theory. when employees are successful. who demonstrated empirically that children’s minds were not empty. It is always interesting to find the same observations and ideas cropping up in quite different frameworks. On Dewey: this site as a whole is invaluable—bookmark it who   emphasised the place of experience in education. and postulated the mechanisms of accommodation and assimilation as key to this processing. Hence. conversational theories of learning fit into the constructivist framework.) The common-sense idea which fits most closely with this model is that of "stretching" learners. its attention to pre-existing ideas and understanding clearly has a lot to offer in post-compulsory education — most dramatically perhaps in the area of resistance to learning.  One strand of constructivism may be traced to the writings of John Dewey. "can do with help". The key to "stretching" the learner is to know what is in that person's ZPD—what comes next. for him. It is common in constructing skills check-lists to have columns for "cannot yet do". and "can do alone". He observed that when children were tested on tasks on their own. (See Daniels (1996) for an introduction to Vygotsky. but actively processed the material with which they were presented. and to the social learning theories of Albert Bandura. they rarely did as well as when they were working in collaboration with an adult. but that the process of engagement with the adult enabled them to refine their thinking or their performance to make it more effective. trying to understand the meaning to that learner of the material to be learned. Constructivist assumptions are also implicit in the notion of learning through reflection in professional practice. "Proximal" simply means "next". The ZPD is about "can do with help". particularly through the influential work of Jerome Bruner (who is credited with introducing Vygotsky to the West). While constructivism has received more explicit attention in schools than in postcompulsory education. you may see clear links between the idea of the ZPD and Winnicott's "potential space" which develops between baby and mother. It was by no means always the case that the adult was teaching them how to perform the task. The social dimension of learning is also central to the idea of situated learning and communities of practice. the development of language and articulation of ideas was central to learning and development. not as a permanent state but as a stage towards being able to do something on your own. . for them.In this sense. At the theoretical level connections can also be made with the Personal Construct theory of George Kelly (the coincidence of terminology is no accident). Another starts from the work of Piaget. in his theory of the "Zone of Proximal Development" (ZPD). Vygotsky Note that Zone of Proximal Development (or just "ZPD"—even better) has a very high score on the jargon index! But the most significant bases of a social constructivist theory were laid down by Vygotsky [1896-1934] (1962). The role of the teacher is to enter into a dialogue with the learner. The emphasis is on the learner as an active "maker of meanings". and to help her or him to refine their understanding until it corresponds with that of the teacher. If you are of a psychoanalytic turn of mind. although the interaction is a little more diffuse. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). thus mental representations are subjective. Vico. Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. Dewey. activity and dialogical process. on the social level. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation. and later. should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves. New information is linked to to prior knowledge. NOTE: A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors should never tell students anything directly but. The learner is an information constructor. consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior. Rorty. Piaget. Problem Based Learning (PBL). who lived during Russian Revolution. regardless of how one is taught. Originators and important contributors: Vygotsky. even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge. constructivism states that learning is an active. on the . constructive process.And Laurillard's conversational model of teaching in higher education is also based on constructivist thinking. Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. instead. Social Development Theory (Vygotsky) Summary: Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is constructed from the learner’s previous knowledge. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning). cognitive apprenticeship (scaffolding). More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934). Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge process. Originator: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934). Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Thus. inquiry and discovery learning. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. Bruner Keywords: Learning as experience. It asserts three major themes: Major themes: 1. Anchored instruction. Key terms: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Constructivism A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction. This is actually confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowing. Vygotsky’s work was largely unkown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky’s social development theory is one of the foundations for constructivism. Constructivism Summary: Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active. Key terms: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). In contrast. first. or concept. James V. (38 ) 332-37. 1978). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. or even computers. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). to mediate their social environments. 3. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher. M. or older adult. According to Vygotsky. coach. between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) View details of this theory >> . Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions. (1994). see:  Driscoll. a younger person. Originator: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934). Richard. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher. humans use tools that develop from a culture. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted. but the MKO could also be peers. MA: Allyn & Bacon. process. such as speech and writing. K.  Wertsch. 2. consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior. Needham.” (Vygotsky. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Human Development. learning occurred in this zone. 1996).  Crawford. Sohmer. as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. (1978). Vygotsky on learning and development. The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner.individual level. Cambridge. For more information. According to Vygotsky. P.  Vygotsky. MA: Harvard University Press. ways to communicate needs. (1996) Vygotskian approaches to human development in the information era. Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford. Psychology of Learning for Instruction. (1995). with respect to a particular task. Category: Constructivist Theories Social Development Theory (Vygotsky) Summary: Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development. Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. L. (31) 43-62.S. Educational Studies in Mathematics. The learner is an information constructor. preoperational. discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves. community. Originator: Jerome Bruner (1915-) Keywords: Inquiry-based learning. Originators and important contributors: Vygotsky. practice. Problem Based Learning (PBL). inquiry and discovery learning. concrete.” This learning that takes place is not necessarily intentional. Anchored instruction.Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger) Summary: Etienne Wenger summarizes Communities of Practice (CoP) as “groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly. Vico. concrete. Dewey. activity and dialogical process. Bruner Keywords: Learning as experience. Piaget. assimilation. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. accommodation. Rorty. Originator: Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Key Terms: Sensorimotor. New information is linked to to prior knowledge. and formal. preoperational. Category: Social Learning Theories Social Development Theory (Vygotsky) . Three components are required in order to be a CoP: (1) the domain. Originators: Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in 1991 and further elaborated in 1998. View details of this theory >> Discovery Learning (Bruner) Summary: Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). cognitive apprenticeship (scaffolding). Key Terms: domain. thus mental representations are subjective. and (3) the practice. (2) the community. constructivism View details of this theory >> Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget) Summary: Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development is a description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor. formal. identity. constructive process. learning View details of this theory >> Constructivism Summary: Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active. Originators: Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in 1991 and further elaborated in 1998. and (3) the practice. learning . Originator: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).Summary: Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development. practice. Key Terms: domain. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) View details of this theory >> Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger) Summary: Etienne Wenger summarizes Communities of Practice (CoP) as “groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly. Three components are required in order to be a CoP: (1) the domain. community.” This learning that takes place is not necessarily intentional. identity. Key terms: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior. (2) the community.