Psicología Educativa Anita Woolfolk

Instructor’s Resource Manual (Revised) for Woolfolk Educational Psychology Tenth Edition prepared by Robin Rackley Texas A&M University Boston New York San Francisco Mexico City Montreal Toronto London Madrid Munich Hong Kong Singapore Tokyo Cape Town Sydney Paris Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The contents, or parts thereof, may be reproduced with Educational Psychology, Tenth Edition, by Anita Woolfolk, provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not be reproduced in any form for any other purpose without written permission from the copyright owner. To obtain permission(s) to use the material from this work, please submit a written request to Allyn and Bacon, Permissions Department, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116 or fax your request to 617-848-7320. ISBN-10: 0-205-52198-3 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-52198-2 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 10 09 08 07 06 Contents Section Introduction Part One Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Part Two Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Lecture Outlines and Activities Teachers, Teaching, and Educational Psychology Cognitive Development and Language Personal, Social, and Emotional Development Learner Differences and Learning Needs Culture and Diversity Behavioral Views of Learning Cognitive Views of Learning Complex Cognitive Processes Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning Motivation in Learning and Teaching Engaged Learning: Cooperation and Community Creating Learning Environments Teaching for Learning Standardized Testing Classroom Assessment and Grading Handouts Teachers, Teaching, and Educational Psychology Cognitive Development and Language Personal, Social, and Emotional Development Learner Differences and Learning Needs Culture and Diversity Behavioral Views of Learning Cognitive Views of Learning Complex Cognitive Processes Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning Motivation in Learning and Teaching Engaged Learning: Cooperation and Community Creating Learning Environments Teaching for Learning Standardized Testing Classroom Assessment and Grading 1 12 25 42 57 69 80 94 107 117 131 139 152 166 178 190 202 214 224 237 244 253 259 265 271 281 286 292 299 307 Topic Page Introduction Educational psychology is the study of psychology in education. It involves the application of psychological principles in educational settings and requires in-depth knowledge of basic psychological principles. These principles can assist a teacher’s understanding of classroom learning and activity. Educational psychology is also about understanding educational settings and their effects on learners and teachers within these settings. Therefore, the field of educational psychology is not only concerned with the applications of knowledge but also the generation of knowledge. Educational settings require the development of new theories to describe behavior within them, and the existing psychological knowledge we have helps us make sense of these contexts. Courses in educational psychology differ on many dimensions that influence an instructor’s needs and priorities in the course. These dimensions include the instructor’s prior teaching experience (K-12 or college teaching experiences, experience in teaching this particular course), teaching philosophies of the instructors, the purpose of the course (it may be part of a teacher education program, or it may be part of a general suite of offerings in a psychology department), the students (second-year students, juniors, seniors, or graduate students), and whether field experiences accompany the course. Depending on a constellation of factors, the course may be taught quite differently. The instructor’s resource manual is developed around the expectation of multiple types of users, and the organization of the text is such that the instructor can locate those materials he or she may find useful. The research base for knowledge in educational psychology is important and many activities included here involve research in some fashion. Organization of the Instructor’s Resource Manual The manual is organized into two parts each with fifteen sections corresponding to the fifteen chapters in the text, Educational Psychology, Tenth Edition, by Anita E. Woolfolk. Within each section of part one, you will find: • • • • • • • • • A teaching outline Learning objectives A chart of instructor’s supplements for the chapter A list of acetate transparencies for use with the chapter A chapter outline with corresponding activities and handouts Activities Discussion questions MyLabSchool.com questions Additional resources The Teaching Outline provides a detailed outline of the chapter. The Learning Objectives are the same as those in the actual text but are included here for your convenience. The Activities and Handout Masters are designed to give you ideas about activities you might use to enhance your teaching. The handout masters that accompany these activities will provide you with some materials to support your instruction. The Additional Resources section will direct you to materials that can be used to supplement the chapter. The material in this instructor’s guide is organized in relation to the chapters in the textbook. Each chapter has a grid that provides a broad outline of the contents of the chapters and indicates the activities that are available for extending the content of the text. The kind of activity is also indicated. Activities may be classified as follows: • • • • • • Using the chapter case Cooperative activities Research activities Field experiences Connections Link to Companion Website Part two contains Handout Masters for each chapter. • • Link to MyLabSchool.com Other teaching activities Using the Chapter Case At the beginning of each chapter of the text, there is a brief case that asks you, “What would you do?” In the activities related to this case, you will find suggestions for how to use this case. The use of cases can serve as discussion starters, summaries of theoretical principles, or illustrations of particular classroom problems. In this manual, activities that use the case often involve cooperative activities or activities with technology. Thus, in most instances, you will not find a separate activity for the case but will, instead, find a reference to where an activity using the case might be found. Cooperative Activities Because educational psychology involves complex knowledge (declarative and procedural knowledge), students may benefit from sharing ideas, comparing products, or generating joint plans. Many of the activities included here are cooperative but could also be done individually. Cooperative activities described in the manual vary in complexity from very simple tasks that can be used to break the routine of the course to more complicated activities that involve more coordination. The activities described involve mostly in-class work. For instructors who are uncomfortable with group activities or prefer a different style of teaching, activities in other categories may be more appropriate. Research Activities The activities included under this category include a variety of activities. These vary from experiences in which the students’ own research skills are developed to ones in which students summarize what is known about a particular topic and critique available research. The goal of these activities is to help the student develop skills as a critical consumer of research and to rely on evidence for teaching practices. Field Experiences The opportunity to observe and participate in classrooms is an important element of the knowledge acquisition desired in an educational psychology class. Activities in this group involve students observing and collecting information in classes, interviewing teachers, and a variety of other tasks. com/woolfolk10e) and MyLabSchool. Connection activities will direct you to these and suggest activities that might use these. You should remember. Links to Companion Website and to MyLabSchool These activities take advantage of the material available on two websites: the Companion Website for the text (http://www. however. remember to get the appropriate clearances from the school administration. Other Teaching Activities In this group.mylabschool. Connections The textbook has many connections to research. that most activities can be reconstructed in an alternative format. teaching. you will find some additional activities. If your students are going to be collecting data of any sort in classrooms or in the college community. you will need to check with your Institutional Review Board for Research with Humans about the necessary precautions and permissions that must be in place before such information can be collected. Teachers who prefer not to rely on groups may find activities here that are more appropriate to their teaching methods.com (http://www.Reminder: If you have students working in classrooms.com.ablongman. and real life in the margins of the various chapters. . and Educational Psychology 1 Teachers. Example: Taking turns 2.1. Subject-Specific Knowledge for Teaching E. Teacher Preparation and Quality What is Good Teaching? A. allows for prediction c) Experimentation: Changes are introduced and results are noted. IV. Characteristics of Learners and Their Cultural Backgrounds F. Academic Subjects Taught B. Teachers. Teacher-Student Relationships B. A bilingual first grade 2. What Would You Do? Do Teachers Make a Difference? A. allows for determination of cause and effect-single-subject experimental designs Microgenetic studies d) 2. V. Settings in which Students Learn G. Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning 1. General Teaching Strategies C. Example: Skipping grades B. A suburban fifth grade 3. 1 . II. Inside Four Classrooms 1. Teaching. Curriculum Materials/Programs for Their Subject Area And Grade Level D. Role of time in research a) Longitudinal studies b) Cross-sectional studies III. Goals and Purposes of Education The Role of Educational Psychology A. An inclusive class 4. and Educational Psychology Teaching Outline I. Common Sense Answers and those Based on Research 1. Teaching. Example: Helping low achieving students 3. An advanced math class Expert Knowledge A. Types of research studies a) Descriptive: Describes what is happening in class (i) Ethnography: Descriptive research about naturally occurring events (ii) Participant observation: The researcher is part of the action (iii) Case study: In-depth investigation b) Correlational: Indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two events/measurements (negative or positive). Diversity 1. Theories for Teaching 1. Scholarship 2. X. Convergences 1. IX. and Educational Psychology VI.1. Theory Point/Counterpoint: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education? Becoming a Professional Diversity and Convergences in Educational Psychology A. Academic achievement 2. Teaching. Teachers. 6. VIII. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. 7. 5. 2. 4.” 2 . Theory 3. What is the No Child Left Behind Act? Does teaching matter? What is good teaching? What do expert teachers know? What are the greatest concerns of beginning teachers? Why should I study educational psychology? What roles do theory and research play in this field? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 1) Transparencies (T1-T7) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 1) MyLabSchool • “Teaching Respect” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 1) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint • “Jazz teacher. XI. Teachers As Researchers a) Action Research C. Principle 2. =========================================================== Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. Practice Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses 3. 3. VII. Research methods B. Teachers.1. Teaching. and IQ The Results of Successful Single-Case Experiments 3 . Achievement. and Educational Psychology Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Components of Good Teaching A Plan to Ready Yourself for Your First Day of Teaching Expert and Novice Teacher Think about a Discipline Problem Three Types of Correlations Correlations do not Show Causation Possible Explanations for Correlations among Attentiveness. and Educational Psychology Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 1 CHAPTER OUTLINE ACTIVITIES Evaluating Web sites 1.10 Journals in the Field of Educational Psychology 4 .6 Best Teacher Competition 1.2 Observation: Tasks and Process 1.5 Survey of Teacher Roles 1.2 Group Contract 1.9 1.1 Creating and Maintaining Groups 1.4 1.8b Most Effective Teacher Summary 1.7 Most Effective Teacher Competition 1.1.6 Beginning Teachers Role of Educational Psychology 1.10 National Board of Professional Teaching Standards Beginning Teachers Psychology and Education What Research has to Say Contribution of Educational Psychology Companion Website Research Research 1.5 Characteristics of Expert Teachers 1.8 1.3 Excellence in Teaching Survey of Teacher Roles 1.8a Best Teacher Summary 1.5 1.0 TYPE HANDOUTS 1.1 Evaluating a Web Site 1.7 1. Teaching.2 Planning a visit to schools See Activity 1.4 Concept Map: Expert Teachers 1. Teachers.9 Categories of Attributes Cooperative Field Experience Case Analysis Do Teachers Make a Difference? What is Good Teaching? Research Cooperative Expert Knowledge 1.0 Lecture Outline 1. Teachers. at the school. Some instructors are concerned about the use of groups in a college class because group discussion can be unfocused. you will find a checklist to use in evaluating the quality of a Web site. Using Handout Master 1. you should ask students to check how well they are implementing their contract. • Provide tasks that are possible to complete within the class. 1. Prevention is better than cure. If your goal is to use the same groups throughout the semester.” Once students have completed this task. all students may not participate equally or benefit equally. 1. Students will need to contact the school principal for permission to visit.3. You should ask them to make notes of some initial responses to the questions on the handout. have them compare their conclusions with those of the practicing teachers described in the text. ask your students to plan a visit to a nearby school.1.5 to respond to the case presented in “What Would You Do?” to determine which teacher should be recognized for “excellence in teaching. Students should be directed to use the checklist in Handout 1. The use of “base groups” (Johnson & Johnson.2 Observation: Tasks and Process This activity requires your students to visit a school and articulate their expectations and conclusions about their visit. • Monitor student progress. Some instructors assign students to groups based on students’ previous test grades to maintain a balance of high and low achievers in each group. however. and Educational Psychology Activities 1. Random assignment of students to groups also works well. and after they have looked around for a while. They are asked to compare expectations to what they observe. 1991) can limit many of the problems typically experienced by groups. The questions in the handout master are divided into three parts: before the visit. Once students have been assigned to a group.1 Creating and Maintaining Groups Many of the suggestions in this manual involve students working together.1 with 2 or 3 sites so that they can become familiar with some of the criteria for judging the quality of a site.3 Excellence in Teaching Modify activity 1. Your task as an instructor will be to: • Assign students to groups. you may not have access to information that would allow you to do so. and interpersonal difficulties may emerge. From time to time throughout the semester. Many problems are eliminated when students make their expectations explicit.0 Evaluating Web Sites There is a great deal of information on the World Wide Web and much of it is not of particularly high quality.1. 1. 5 . Teaching. Maintaining the groups. In Handout 1.2). ask them to develop a contract for conduct within the group (See Handout Master 1. in which they describe the attributes of their “best” and “most effective” teachers. The activity combines some individual work and some group work. which asks them to list general categories of attributes that might characterize best and most effective teachers.8a and 1.6 National Board of Professional Teaching Standards Shulman’s characterization of expertise is described in the textbook.5 and have students ask five teachers to rate each of the “seven roles” of teaching according to the degree of importance and strength in each role (teacher as motivator.ablongman. Have your students visit the CW.com Web site (www. It offers a number of resources for education students.new-teacher.” Students should work alone on this part of the activity. Once completed. Which areas are the strongest for them? In what ways will these strengthen weak areas? 1. leader. and information on substitute teaching. and reflective professional). students should be arranged in groups to discuss their decisions.8 Psychology and Education Have your students read the following article: 6 . This is part of a commercial site from Peak Learning Systems. and Educational Psychology 1. See http://www.4 Survey of Teacher Roles Distribute Handout Master 1.” http://www. model.5 Characteristics of Expert Teachers [This activity can be used with the case presented in “What Would You Do?” in Chapter 1 of the text. “National Board of Professional Teaching Standards. Have your students look at the section on being a substitute teacher. Chapter 1.7. These categories might be expected to resemble the areas of professional knowledge proposed by Shulman (see text by Woolfolk).8b. The National Board of Professional Teaching Standards has developed standards for what teachers should know and do. Tabulate and summarize the findings for your sample.9. including new teacher articles. 1. Select a subject area and age range and download the standards for that group. What could be misleading? Then have your students consider each of the seven roles of teaching in relation to their own perceptions of their teaching goals and abilities. students in groups will summarize the strengths and weaknesses of the teachers mentioned. altering the instructions provided here to fit the content of that case] This activity can be done using Handout Masters 1. counselor.1.nbpts. job search tips.9. ask students to complete Handout Masters 1.7 Beginning Teachers Have your students visit New-Teacher.com/woolfolk10e. Have them list five ways in which substitute teaching is different from the kind of teaching they might expect to do in their classes. You should look to see if students actually name the same teacher as “best” and “most effective. First.6 and 1.org/standards/stds.cfm#downloadpdfs. instructional expert. 1. How does the characterization of expert teaching seen here compare to that of Shulman? 1. Teachers. manager. Teaching. Students should then complete Handout 1. eConnect and Extend. and click on the Web link. Have your students critique the interpretations that might be made of this summary.com).6 through 1. Using Handouts 1. scientific method can do the same for teaching and teacher education (Gage. You make a great. The directions should be deliberately ambiguous so that students return with a variety of types of articles (e. (Eds. pp. L. I believe.. 8). (1987). equality of educational opportunity. popular. and Rosenshine. mistake if you think psychology. R. a very great. radar. Over the decades.e. 7 . Have those roles changed? What kinds of methods did Thorndike recommend be used in research? 1. i.1. Students should be grouped in small groups of four to answer the following questions. I do not believe that with greater specificity or by reducing the whole to its most essential parts we can produce the kind of prescriptions that have made the space shuttle. it [research on the scientific basis of teaching] calls for the same kind of steady effort that improved cures for Hodgkin’s disease. N. p. and Educational Psychology Thorndike. and human longevity.). 1. Gage. The following quotes can be used as prompts for a discussion about the value of educational psychology. Rather.. The contribution of psychology to education. The art and craft of teaching. 1. Teaching. Hard gains in soft science. or laser beam possible. surgery for detached retinas. is something from which you can deduce definite programs and schemes and methods of instruction for immediate school use. Teachers. The aspiration to create a prescriptive science of educational practice is. D. E. (1910). 413. For a follow-up discussion question. Journal of Educational Psychology. January). Talks to teachers NY: Random House. being a science of the mind’s laws. research) that will provide the basis of a general discussion of what constitutes good evidence. Bloomington.10 Contributions of Educational Psychology Berliner. students might consider what aspects of teaching they consider more of an art than a science. freedom from racial discrimination in employment. (1985). Thorndike? [Two students should take responsibility for presenting the role of education. IN: Phi Delta Kappan.9 What Research Has To Say Have your students consider the statement.. What are the roles for education and psychology envisioned by E. Eisner. “Students should be grouped according to ability.” How could they find out if this is true or false? What would it take to convince you of the truth of this statement? Assign students the task of locating an article in the library that addresses this question.g. social roles for women. An intermediary inventive mind must make the application. W. L. and the other two should present the role of psychology]. 5-12. from Berliner and Rosenshine). 53-59). E. The natural and social sciences have contributed magnificently to these advancements of the human condition. hopeless (Eisner. Psychology is a science and teaching is art: And sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. Educational Leadership. (1983. by using its originality (William James. more intuitive than formally learned. 2. and effective? When would it be a liability to be personable or approachable? When would it be an advantage? Indicate whether each of the studies described below is an experimental or correlational study and what could be learned from these. 3. 5. caring. 4.com/). Two groups of athletes begin a fitness program. Psychologists give fine-motor tests to a group of boys and girls to determine if there is a relationship between sex and fine-motor dexterity. can the study of educational psychology be helpful to teacher candidates and to practicing teachers? MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. and Educational Psychology Discussion Questions 1. You may choose to assign students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it. sports psychologists give one group explicit instructions regarding nutrition while advising the other group to continue eating their regular diet. the job of teaching is often the same. a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www. Is it possible to be personable. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. Define and differentiate purposes of educational psychology. Social and Moral Development. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. Instructors give three groups of children different types of computer training to determine which type of computer training is most effective in teaching word-processing skills. Students can e-mail these answers to you. In your opinion. Teaching.mylabschool. To determine the impact of nutrition. Teachers. Clip 1: Teaching Respect (4:36) 1. Should teachers’ jobs and salaries depend on how much their students learn? What would happen to curricula and attention to students’ differences? Despite the length of service or expertise. We hear a lot from educators and politician’s today about accountability. In what ways does this teacher demonstrate the principles of “expert teaching?” 8 . MLS Video Lab Module 1: Personal. Educational Psychology.1. Should this be the case? What changes in a teacher’s job might occur as a function of increased experience or expertise? Students often identify teachers who were not very personable or approachable as among their most effective teachers. 36.. Educational psychology and the reform of teacher education. Shane. 31. effective teaching strategies. 237-254. Calderhead. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Educational Leadership. What made this person a good teacher? Answers will vary. (1993). (Ed. 2. Colvin. & Anderson. T. Mahwah. C. H. Educational Psychology. (1996). M.). G.. (1991). Developing teachers’ theories of teaching: A touchstone approach. good role model.). P. Wiseman. knowledge of how to motivate a variety of learning styles.. Zimmerman. 73-82. D. Educational psychology: A century of contributions. C. D. (1991). Conceptualizing reflection in teacher development. Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter REFERENCES Andre. A. Teachers. it held their interest and helped accomplish her goal of teaching about respecting each other.. S. Murphy.R. 2. 12(3). Yaxley. (1990).1. Larke. Think of a teacher you had who influenced you.. G. Killon. Teaching. Educational Horizons. J. Educational Horizons. but may include knowledge of the subject matter. B. 69(1). D. B. Epistemological perspectives on educational psychology. S. 9 . Helping new teachers to become thoughtful practitioners. J. (1994). • The film shown was an appropriate level for her students. D. L. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. A. 31. P. London: Falmer Press. O’Donnell. & Schunck.. and Hegland. (1990). (1990). Blumenfeld.. (2001). G. (2003). Teaching educational psychology (A special issue of Educational Psychologist). 1015. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Philips. 5-11. understanding of the backgrounds and needs of students. The minority mentorship project: Changing attitudes of preservice teachers for diverse classrooms. 14-16. R. P. London: Falmer Press. & Levin. Educational psychology’s healthy growing pains. (Eds. C. and Gates. 68(4).I. Mahwah. and Educational Psychology Answer may include: • She showed effective classroom management. and good classroom management. Mahwah. (Eds. Action in Teacher Education. J. 48(6). A process for personal theory building.. Improving education for the 21st century. J. and Morey.). A special issue of Educational Psychologist. C. • She was sensitive to the differences in her students and made each one feel his or her contribution was worthwhile. Educational Psychologist.. H. 183-186. and Todnem. P. (1990). and Bradley. To light a fire: Great teachers in America. David C. 30 minutes.O. 50 minutes. $40 (nonmembers). AND AUDIOCASSETTES In pursuit of the expert pedagogue. From AERA Videotape Sales. DC 20036. From ASCD. video. Sara Lightfoot. Teachers who serve on the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards answer questions from peers and respond to their concerns. http://www. video. this tape consists of testimonials about teachers who have made a difference in the lives of both ordinary and wellknown people. video. (Annenberg CPB Collection. This emotionally charged video is a morale booster.msu.gov/updates/PresEDPlan/ 10 . video. Early findings indicate that among the most important differences is problem solving ability. 22 minutes. color. According to Sara Lightfoot.ed. which expert teachers share with experts in such other fields as chess or physics. New York. 10 minutes. This video examines the scientific method and the ways in which data are collected and analyzed in the lab and the field. 1990) USEFUL WEB SITES Expert Teachers The National Center for Research on Teacher Learning: Disseminates research on teacher learning.” Lightfoot describes what makes certain schools good and some teachers memorable. Understanding research. Their strategy has been to find and study expert and experienced teachers and to compare them with ordinary or novice teachers in order to discover how they differ in their behavior and their approaches to tasks. Washington. From Insight Media. She highlights the problems and promise of American Schools and stresses the need to put learning back into teaching. http://ncrtl. Berliner and his colleagues in a University of Arizona research project are trying to understand the nature of expertise in pedagogy. Box 19700. VIDEOTAPES. 30 minutes. 2162 Broadway.nbpts. and Educational Psychology FILMS. Developed for ASCD’s celebration of 1985 as year of the teacher. This video takes you into the classrooms of two teachers who were selected after a nationwide search of America’s outstanding educators. as conveyed through relationships.edu/ The National Board of Professional Teaching Standards: The goal of this organization is to raise teaching standards. Part of Bill Moyer’s World of Ideas series. Teachers make a difference. From PBS. NY 10024-6620. 30 minutes. The video examines the challenges in developing a national certification system. To purchase: $30 (AERA members).org/ President Clinton’s Call to Action for American Education in the 21st Century: http://www. From PBS. P. Teachers. “The currency of a good teacher is ideas. a professor of education at Harvard’s Graduate School of Education. Teaching. Standards: National Teacher Certification.1. ed. Predicting the Need for Newly Hired Teachers in the United States to 2008-09: http://nces. Teachers.html 33 Ways to Start the First Year Off Right A Little Planning Pays Big Dividends: From the Virginia Education Association.gov/pubs/FirstYear/index. and Educational Psychology National Center for Educational Statistics.nea.org/teachexperience/bk2sk020610. http://www. Teaching.gov/programs/quarterly/vol_1/1_4/3-esq14-g.html 11 .1.asp First Year Teachers What to Expect Your First Year of Teaching: Tips and suggestions for first-year teachers.ed. http://www. Development is relatively orderly 3. 1. Maturation 2. Activity 3. 12 . Development takes place gradually B. Point/Counterpoint: Brain-Based Education Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Influences on Development A. Storing and transferring information 3. Organization: Tendency to organize thinking processes into psychological structures/schemes a) Simple b) Complex III. II. Various parts of the brain are involved with various functions 2. Specialization and integration a) Two hemispheres of the brain show lateralized development b) No mental activity is exclusively the work of a single part of the brain 6. treatment and evaluation C. Cognitive Development and Language 2 Cognitive Development and Language Teaching Outline I. Basic Tendencies in Thinking 1. People develop at different rates 2. What Would You Do? Definition of Development A. General Principles of Development 1. Social transmission B. Instruction and Brain Development a) Experiences b) Direct Teaching 7. Implications for teachers a) Cognitive functions are differentiated b) Cognitive development supported by enriched environments and flexible instructional strategies c) Neurological testing may assist in diagnosing.2. The Brain and Cognitive Development 1. The developing brain: Cerebral cortex a) Develops more slowly than other parts of the brain b) Parts of the cortex mature at different rates 5. The developing brain: Neurons a) Overproduction and pruning occurs (i) Experience-expectant (ii) Experience-dependent b) Plasticity c) Myelination 4. assimilation and accommodation 4.1) 1. 13 . 2. reversibility and seriation c) Teaching Guidelines (p.34) (i) Use concrete props and visual aids Provide opportunities to manipulate and test objects (ii) (iii) Make presentations and readings brief and well organized (iv) Use familiar examples (v) Provide opportunities to classify and group objects (vi) Present problems that require logical analytical thinking 2. classification. Cognitive Development and Language C. Disequilibration: Failure of a scheme to produce a satisfying result. Stage theory broadly defines the unvarying sequence of steps in the development of thinking abilities 2.2.2) b) Operations mastered at this stage: Conservation. realizes elements can be changed and retain original characteristics (identity): capable of reversible thinking (Fig. 32) (i) Use concrete props and visual aids (ii) Make instructions relatively short (iii) Help students develop ability to see others point of view (iv) Students may have different meaning for the same word (v) Provide for hands on practice (vi) Provide a wide range of experiences 4. Adaptation: Tendency to adapt to the environment through complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation a) Assimilation: when people use existing schemes to make sense of the world b) Accommodation: when a person must change existing schemes to respond to a new situation 3. Early childhood to the early elementary years: The preoperational stage (approximate ages 2-7) a) Beginning of logical mental actions (operations) b) Begins to form and use symbols (semiotic function) c) Has difficulty with reversible thinking d) Difficulty with two principles: Decentering and conservation e) Egocentrism: Tendency to see world from own view f) Collective monologue characterizes children’s speech (no real interaction takes place) g) Teaching Guidelines (p. Infancy: The sensorimotor stage (approximate ages 0-2) a) Development based upon information obtained through the senses or body movements b) Development of understanding of object permanence c) Development of goal-directed actions and reversible actions 3. so search continues through assimilation and accommodation Four Stages of Cognitive Development (Table 2. Later elementary to middle school years: The concrete operational stage (approximate ages 7-11) a) “Hands-on thinking” stage: Recognizes stability of physical world. Equilibration: A balance among organization. Alternative explanations for performance on conservation tasks D. VI. 1998) Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory A. Allows younger children to guide behavior and thinking 2. Did not detail the cognitive processes underlying developmental changes 2. Area where child cannot solve problem alone. Cognitive Development Depends on Interaction With 1. Theory consists mostly of general ideas 3. Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory 1. Language and cultural diversity 4. Dynamic assessment or assessment of learning potential 3. Children’s development does not fit consistently into stages B. achieved in areas of interest and experience c) Characterized by adolescent egocentrism d) Do we all reach the fourth stage? e) Teaching Guidelines (p. Siegler (1998. 2. 37) (i) Use concrete-operational teaching strategies and materials (ii) Provide opportunities to explore hypothetical questions (iii) Provide opportunities to solve problems and reason scientifically (iv) Teach broad concepts relevant to student’s lives Information-Processing and Neo-Piagetian Views A. Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared (Table 2. Cognitive Development and Language IV. and symbols D. Possible underestimation of younger children’s cognitive ability C. The Role of Learning and Development: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared G. Private Speech and the Zone F. Self-talk and learning E. Case (1992. V. 14 . The tools that the culture provides to support thinking B. but can with “scaffolding” 2. Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development All higher order mental processes such as reasoning are accomplished through the use of psychological tools such as language. Higher mental process are co-constructed first during shared activities 2. Did not detail the applications of his theories for teaching 5. Processes are internalized and become part of the child’s cognitive development C.2. 2000) B. The Role of Language and Private Speech 1. Students should be in situations where they have to reach to understand 4.2) 5. The people in the child’s world 2. The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 1. Inattention to the effects of children’s cultural and social group Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective A.3) 1. Junior and senior high: Formal operations (approximate ages 11-15) a) “Scientific” reasoning stage: Hypothetico-deductive and inductive reasoning b) This stage not necessary for survival. signs. Transitions to inner speech—helps solve problems 3. The Zone of Proximal Development (Fig. The Roles of Adults and Peers a) More knowledgeable other b) Scaffolding 2. Identify and build on family strengths 4. Language development 15 . Involve families in curriculum decisions 3. Vocabulary and meaning a) Average six-year old has a vocabulary of 8. Teaching Guidelines (p. Assisted Learning a) Requires scaffolding. Progression through stages 2. Cognitive Development and Language VII. Pronunciation: The distinctive sounds of a language a) By first grade.2. Piaget What Can We Learn 1. 5000 new words added c) Abstract words. Provide home activities Diversity and Convergence in Cognitive Development A. encouragement (see Table 2. Language development in the school years 1.3) b) Teaching Guidelines (p. Understanding and Building on Student’s Thinking 2. Vygotsky What Can We Learn 1. reminders. most phonemes mastered b) Intonation: Word emphasis may still cause problems 2. giving information. The Value of Play B. Metalinguistic awareness 6. Pragmatics 5. Activity and Constructing Knowledge 3. Grammar a) Early elementary-school years: mastery of syntax (word order) in their native language b) Early elementary-school years: Passive sentences understood but not generally used c) Elementary school: Complex grammatical structures first understood. Communicate goals of program to families 2. justice or economy still difficult in early years 4.000-14. Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teaching A. VIII. Diversity 1.56) 1. X. Diversity in Language: Dual Language Development B. IX. then used 3. prompts.000 words b) From ages nine to eleven.50) (i) Tailor scaffolding to student’s needs (ii) Provide access to powerful tools and support thinking (iii) Build on student’s cultural funds of knowledge (iv) Capitalize on dialogue and group learning Reaching Every Student: Using the Tools of the Culture The Development of Language A. Partnerships with families C. How does language usually develop during the school years. How does children’s thinking differ at each of the four stages of development Piaget described? 3. and what happens if children are learning two languages at once? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 2) Transparencies (T8-T16) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 2) MyLabSchool • “Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 2) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint • “Teaching babies to read.2. Cognitive Development and Language B. Convergence 1.” 16 . students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Play matters 4. XII. What are the similarities and differences between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s ideas about cognitive development? 4. XI. What are some general principles of human development? 2. Cognitive development requires physical and social stimulation 2. Challenge with support Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses Guidelines Included • • • • • Teaching the Preoperational Child Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child Helping Students to Use Formal Operations Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting Literacy ================================================================ Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. Teaching in the zone 5. Thinking needs to be active and challenged 3. What are the implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories for teaching students of different ages? 5. XIII. Middle Childhood. and Adolescence Schemes of Learning Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Reversible Thinking A Piagetian Class Inclusion Problem Some Piagetian Conservation Tasks Centration A Test of Problem-Solving Abilities: Concrete and Formal Operations Teaching Model Based on Vygotsky’s Theory 17 .2. Cognitive Development and Language Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T14a T15 T16 Lateralization and Brain Function Central Issues in Development during Early Childhood. 3 Evaluating a Web site Piaget’s Theory of Development 2.8 Vygotsky Review Companion Web site Research Comparison of Vygotsky And Piaget 2.7 Four Tasks That Assess Children’s Thinking 2.0 Using the Teacher’s Casebook 2.5 Water Levels 2.6 Cognitive Disequilibrium 2.7 Piaget Review Implications of Piaget’s Theory for Teachers Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory for Teaching Cooperative Technology 1.co m 2.0 Lecture Outline 2.10 Teacher Roles In The Classroom 2.9 Observation Checklist 2.2 Brain-Based Education 2.11 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 18 .6 Four Tasks That Assess Children’s Thinking 2.5 Cognitive Disequilibrium And Responses 2.1 What is this a Case of? 2.4 Concept Map: Piaget’s Theory 2.2.9 Field Experience Individual 2. Cognitive Development and Language Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 2 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? Defining Development ACTIVITIES TYPE HANDOUTS 2.4 Water Levels 2.10 Observation of Kindergarten 2.2 A Day in the Life of an Elementary School Teacher 2.1 Evaluating a Web Site 2.8 Piaget Review Individual Individual Field Experience MyLabSchool.3 A Day in the Life of A Secondary School Teacher 2.1 What Develops? Case Analysis Cooperative 2.11 Teacher Roles in Vygotskian and Piagetian Frameworks 2. Also have them review the abstracts about brain-based learning at the Eric Digest site that follows: http://www.2. When a student experiences perturbation or disequilibrium.3 Evaluating a Web site Using the guidelines for evaluating Web sites in Handout Master 1.6 to have students discuss possible responses to disequilibrating events. Some of these responses result in learning. Cognitive Development and Language Activities 2. which describe a day in the life of an elementary school teacher and a secondary school teacher.3.4 Water Levels Ask students to complete Handout Master 2. Each group should discuss whether a teacher’s knowledge of brain structure and function could really improve his/her teaching effectiveness. What are the limitations of some of the work described in these abstracts? 2. Students work in groups (using Handout Master 2.org/ . Ask them to read the information about what brain-based learning is that can be found at: http://www. Then have students explore the idea of cognitive equilibrium versus cognitive disequilibrium. very narrow? How did this make them feel—comfortable. 2.5 Cognitive Disequilibrium and Responses Ask students to identify an experience in which they felt something of true significance was learned. How would students assist a student who could not do this task? 2. Were they pushed just a little beyond their current level of learning or was the gap between what they already knew and what was being taught many levels away or.0 Using the Teacher’s Casebook The teacher’s casebook in the Woolfolk text provides examples of practical situations in which knowledge of educational psychology might be required. conversely. 2. uncomfortable? As students reflect.1 What Develops? Use Handout Masters 2.umaine.brainconnection. “What is this a case of?” The goal of this activity is to move students beyond a layperson’s analysis of a situation to one that involves complex professional knowledge.ericdigests.1) on the case described on page 26 and decide. they should speculate on how teachers create this ideal state of optimal level of cognitive disequilibrium. 19 . have your students visit the Child Link site at the University of Maine and evaluate the site: http://www. many responses are possible. Organize students in groups to answer the question.com/topics/?main=fa/brain-based. Chapter 2 of the Woolfolk text provides information about development and its implications for teaching.edu/Link/ 2.2 and 2.2 Brain-Based Education Divide your students into small groups. “What develops?” based on a comparison of the concerns of the elementary and secondary school teacher. others do not. Use Handout Master 2.1.5. for a tutorial on Vygotsky. What kind of special terminology applies to each theorist? 9. Click “here. and then independently. How did the theorist explain individual differences? 5. Each student should take a turn trying to describe the mental processes involved in doing this task. Students should determine the cognitive level of each child and write a summary paragraph explaining this conclusion. For example: 1. Chapter 2.8 as they go through the tutorial to check on their understanding of the key concepts in Piagetian theory. The students should be able to reference appropriate research (rather than commentary) in completing this grid.2. working in groups. then guiding the students as they practice the skill with the teacher’s help at first.7 MyLabSchool Piaget Review Have your students visit MyLabSchool. what stimulates cognitive development? 6. reading.com (http://www. Have each person in the class pair off with another student and select a simple arithmetic task.com) for a tutorial on Piaget. The modeling step often involves “thinking aloud. eConnect and Extend. teaching..7 and discuss the tasks.com/woolfolk10e. “Constructivism: Vygotsky. Where did the theorist stand on the nature/nurture issue? 4.6 Four Tasks That Assess Children’s Thinking Give the class Handout Master 2. What age range of individuals did the theory address? 2. 2. Jean. ask your students to present the tasks to three school-age children. select “Education—Educational Psychology” from the drop-down menu. They should use Handout Master 2. giving and taking tests).9 Comparison of Vygotsky and Piaget Students can apply what they know about Piaget and Vygotsky by comparing and contrasting the two theorists on core issues. Piaget’s Theory. According to the theorist. Research Navigator. As a field experience. 2.” In the Link Library section near the bottom. Click “Go. Using the information from the text and additional library resources. Are theories continuous or discontinuous models? 3. Scaffolded instruction often starts with the teacher modeling a skill for students.g. Did the theorist think his model was universal to the rest of the world or was it culture specific? 7. Cognitive Development and Language 2.8 Vygotsky Review/“Think Alouds” (see Companion Website for the text) Have your students visit CW. 20 . two of whom are the same age but are functioning at different achievement levels. What kind of investigative methods did the theorist use? 8.” in which the teacher describes the mental processes in which he/she is engaged.” Piaget. have students develop a comparison of the implications of Piagetian and Vygotskian theory for these kinds of tasks.” http://www. To locate the tutorial in MyLabSchool. How did each theorist differ in their approach to data collection? Have students develop a grid of important activities in the classroom that teachers do (e. 2.” Click the letter “P. use the following steps: Courses. Educational Psychology (on left).ablongman.mylabschool. how do you think deaf children learn sign language? MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. Observing students and teachers through objective strategies. Have students visit a kindergarten class. Suppose you are teaching the concept “clouds” to a third-grade and a tenth-grade class. From the information or philosophies provided can they determine which schools are operating from a developmental perspective? 2. Cognitive Development and Language 2.10 Observation of a Kindergarten Class Additional Resource for this activity: McNeely. The students should spend at least one hour and take notes on what they observe (see Handout Master 2. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. (1997). In this activity (using Handout Master 2. a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://mylabschool. In class discussion. L.10). Needham Heights. 3. How is student development supported in the class? Have students search the internet for at least three preschools/Kindergartens. Discussion Questions 1. Educational Psychology. You are on a textbook committee to select the social studies text for the eighth grade. Vygotsky’s theory that language usage promotes cognitive development has been used to justify extensive use of cooperative learning groups in elementary classrooms. Based on what you have learned about how spoken language emerges. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. They should describe how Piaget and Vygotsky might have differed on the kinds of advice they might have provided to students about how to play these roles.2.com/). Do you think it is possible for a teacher to accelerate cognitive development? Explain. What kinds of things would you expect to find in a good text for this age group? 2. Clip 3: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom (6:06) 21 . they should note characteristics of the class and what evidence they observed of Vygotskian principles in action. have students identify roles they anticipate playing in their classrooms (you might want to refer back to the activities with Chapter 1 in connection with this activity).11 Teacher Roles in Vygotskian and Piagetian Frameworks Some of the earlier activities were designed to have students process the information they knew about Vygotsky and Piaget. MA: Allyn & Bacon. S. Does working with other students at the same cognitive level supply the scaffolded learning that is necessary for children to grow within a zone of proximal development from assisted to unassisted performance? 5.9). MLS Video Lab Module 2: Individual Differences. How would your presentations and expectations differ? (Explain in terms of organizational changes and the development of more complex schemes.) 4. M. M. as well as related research on the development of private speech. 55. MA: Allyn & Bacon. Family literacy: connections in schools and communities. Washington.). L. S. Young Children.2. June). DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. M. Assisted learning during a math lesson may include adapting the assignment to the student’s level. (1992). DE. K. Cognitive Development and Language 1. and Markman. demonstrating how to solve a similar problem. Morrow. Foundations for Piagetian education. Literacy development in the early year: helping children read and write (2nd ed. giving prompts when the student needs to be reminded. Demonstrates preschoolers’ sensitivity to the nonperceptual features of natural kind categories. A survey of family literacy in the United States. E. and allowing revision. (Ed. Lanham. Myths and misconceptions about second language: What every teacher needs to unlearn. Duckworth. 40 (5). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Vygotsky believed children need to be guided and assisted in their learning. Newark. Morrow. M. An examination of teaching ideas in relation to Piaget. (1985). Maryland: University Press of America. McLaughlin. The having of wonderful ideas and other essays for teaching and learning.: International Reading Association. (1987). S. Gelman. (1995). 43-49. International Journal of Early Childhood. 21.. How do the teachers utilize peer interaction in this classroom? The use of centers encourages interaction among peers of all levels. Center for Applied Linguistics/National Center for Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning. Describe some ways a teacher can aid a student using assisted learning while conducting a math lesson. Young children’s inductions from natural common names for unfamiliar objects. S. L. Leitner. (1997). L. Jacob. DE: International Reading Association. thereby indicating that the young child’s thought is not as perception-bound as Piaget believed. 1535-1540. Offers a readable view of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of language and thought. L. Why children talk to themselves.). L. not just left alone to discover on their own. Child Development. giving detailed feedback. B. Bredekamp. 2. Morrow. A. July). Newark. (1987). Piaget believed that the most helpful interactions are between peers because peers are on an equal basis and can challenge each other’s thinking. (1989. New York: Teachers College Press. 46-52. (1995). These teachers do an excellent job of this with their centers. Boston. (1993). E. E. (1985. Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter REFERENCES Berk. 22 . Cognitive and social development in the second year of life: A neo-Piagetian perspective. H. NY. 22. a supportive environment helps.. The Mind.. AND AUDIOCASSETTES Adolescent mental development. upon encountering an especially noisy classroom. The video concludes that biology is not everything. NJ. sociologists. 1986) Language. and Cowan. Based on NAEYC’s 2005 book this video gives learners a brief introduction to the foundational ideas of the early childhood field. Cognitive Development and Language Pratt. Experts add a wealth of recent findings by anthropologists. who examines Piaget’s theory. W. M. and the personal fable. Examines Piaget’s formal operational stage and explains adolescent egocentrism. 832-839. color. and culture by studying how children use language in social communication. 1989) 23 . 08543. Basics of Developmentally Appropriate Practice. Piagetian cognitive functioning in students with learning disabilities. Considers the development of language and how psychologists hope to discover truths about the human mind. O. color. Call 1-800-257-5126. August-September). historians. Journal of Learning Disabilities. (From Allyn and Bacon and TR Productions. video. Mothers and fathers teaching 3-year-olds: Authoritative parenting and adult scaffolding of young children’s learning. (1988). video. VIDEOTAPES.) Language development. Research by developmental psychologist Laura Berk is featured in this video. Produced by RISE Learning Solutions. a series of seven videos. New York. 30 minutes. Riley. color. 1290 Avenue of the Americas. color. video. It also offers insights on the ways children and families deal with issues. 24. 1988) Nature and nurture. 30 minutes. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences. each one hour. P. Box 2053. ED-1412. color. 19 minutes. The evolution of language and the special human phenomenon of speech are considered in this video. (Discovering Psychology. Childhood. Suite 2245. This series offers an in-depth documentary on new scientific data and international context on the process of growing up. the imaginary audience.2. From Ambrose Video Publishing. Developmental Psychology. (PBS Series. P. video.. J. (National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1989. FILMS. 60 minutes. The video is versatile enough to be shown as part of any beginner-level discussion of DAP. P. color. G. and psychologists. one of the widely acclaimed Human Animal series. Twelve families on five continents filmed in their daily lives for over a year form the backbone of the series. Provides a discussion with noted early childhood educator Constance Kamii. by Carol Copple and Sue Bredekamp. Inc. It suggests that there may be a chemical predisposition to anger or to seeking high risk. in collaboration with NAEYC. looks at identical twins separated at birth and reports some fascinating findings—some 10-15% of children are born with a slight tendency to be very outgoing or very apprehensive. 1988). Viewers learn that there is an innate drive to communicate and that linguistic capacity is present even without speech and hearing.. reflects on the research concerning why children talk to themselves. video. This program. (Insight Media. Inc. video. Kerig. Children’s private speech. society. educators. 444-451. 1988) How young children learn to think. color. It reveals new information on the complex learning process of physical development and the role of genes and environment. N. 10104. 30 minutes. A substitute teacher. Running time = 41 minutes. Princeton. 53 minutes. http://www. P.org/ The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development: NICHD is the major federal agency dealing with child development and health.. $125. (1994) 28 minutes.000 members. 19 minutes. 1975) Formal Reasoning Patterns (1978) 32 minutes. color. 16 mm. color. 08543.davidsonfilms. NJ. Carefully translated English subtitles accompany Piaget’s presentation in French.nih. Available from Davidson Films at www. and a growing global alliance with a focus on the quality of educational and developmental services for all children from birth through age 8. $250. Cognitive Development and Language Piaget on Piaget.org/ Society for Research in Child Development: The purpose of the society is to promote research on human development. video. Preschool mental development. A learning guide is available on the Web site for this film. Piaget himself sets forth his ideas on the nature and development of knowledge and illustrates with some classic tasks administered to children.davidsonfilms. http://www.nacd.gov/ The National Academy of Child Development: NACD is an international organization of parents and professionals dedicated to helping children and adults reach their full potential.wolf-trap. ED-1412. The Institute is accessible on the Web by going to the main site for Wolf Trap and then selecting education. USEFUL WEB SITES The National Association for the Education of Young Children: Founded in 1926. NAEYC is the world’s largest organization working on behalf of young children with nearly 100. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. 30 minutes.com.2.naeyc. Princeton.org/ 24 . (Yale University Media Design. video. Inc. The site includes resources for parents and links to research articles. http://www. A learning guide is available on the Web site for this film.org/ Wolf Trap Institute for Early Learning Through the Arts: The goal of the organization is to help early childhood professional use the arts as part of their care and instruction of young children.srcd. http://www. The first few years: What to expect.com. 42 minutes. http://www. Available from Davidson Films at www. Compares Piaget’s view of the preschooler with the behaviorist approach to mental development and learning. O. This film focuses on secondary students. a national network of over 300 local. state. 1983) Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction. The video examines the critical parent/child relationship in the first five years: the effects in adolescence of traits learned in early childhood and the relationship between emotional and social development.nichd. (Insight Media. Box 2053. Call 1-800-257-5126. Visits a Head Start program and the Pacific Oaks School as examples of enriching a child’s learning environment to enhance development. color. and regional Affiliates. 3. Personal, Social, and Emotional Development 3 Personal, Social, and Emotional Development Teaching Outline I. II. What Would You Do? Physical Development A. The Preschool Years (Table 3.1) 1. Gross motor skills improve from ages 2 to 5 2. Muscles grow stronger, balance improves, and the center of gravity is lowered 3. Fine motor skills improve B. The Elementary School Years 1. Steady physical development 2. Wide variation among students 3. Most girls as large or larger than boys C. Adolescence 1. Puberty marks the beginning of sexual maturity 2. Changes during puberty are a source of concern for adolescents a) Anorexia nervosa b) Bulimia 3. Teaching Guidelines (p.66) a) Do not call unnecessary attention to physical differences b) Provide factual information on differences in physical development c) Recognize that students will be preoccupied with appearance and the opposite sex 4. The Brain and Adolescent Development a) Brains not fully developed until early 20s b) Trouble controlling emotions and avoiding risky behaviors c) Need more intense emotional stimulation Erikson: Stages of Individual Development A. Framework for Understanding Needs of Students in Relation to Society 1. Emergence of self, the search for identity, and the individual’s relationship with others. 2. Psychosocial: All humans have the same basic developmental needs; society must provide for these needs 3. Stages: Eight developmental crises/conflicts need a positive resolution for healthy future development (Table 3.2) B. The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative 1. Trust versus mistrust: Infant develops sense of trust when needs for food and care are satisfied; trusting is more important as realization of separateness from the world grows 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt: Development of confidence and control; call for protective but not overprotective parents III. 25 3. Personal, Social, and Emotional Development IV. Initiative versus guilt: Zest for initiating activities balanced against need for restraint; learning about adult roles through pretend games and increased ability to perform grown-up tasks 4. Teaching Guidelines (p.69) a) Encourage children to make and act on choices b) Provide opportunities for success c) Encourage make believe with a wide variety of roles d) Be tolerant of accidents and mistakes while encouraging autonomy C. Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry Versus Inferiority 1. Industry: Desire to do productive work with a growing sense of competence; difficulty can result in feelings of inferiority 2. Industrious childhood leads to well-adjusted adulthood 3. Teaching Guidelines (p.70) a) Allow students to set and work toward realistic goals b) Provide opportunities for students to show independence and responsibility c) Provide support to students that appear discouraged D. Adolescence: The Search for Identity 1. Identity: The organization of person’s drives, abilities, beliefs, and history into a structure of self 2. Identity versus role confusion: Answer to the question, “who am I?”, is based on earlier resolutions 3. Identity statuses a) Identity achievement–committed to pursuing choices b) Identity foreclosure–commitment without exploration c) Identity diffusion–individuals do not explore or commit d) Moratorium–exploration without commitment 4. Consequences of different statuses 5. Teaching Guidelines (p.72) a) Provide models for career choices and other adult roles b) Be tolerant of fads that do not offend others c) Provide realistic feedback and support E. Beyond the School Years 1. Intimacy versus isolation: Ability to have a close personal relationship 2. Generativity versus stagnation: Caring for the needs of future generations in a broad sense; productivity and creativity are essential features 3. Integrity versus despair: Integrity means consolidating one’s sense of self Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development A. Bioecological Model of development (Fig. 3.1) 1. Bio – people bring their biological selves to the developmental process 2. ecological – social contexts in which people develop are ecosystems because they are in constant interaction and influence each other B. Lessons for teachers 1. Influences in all social systems are reciprocal 2. Many dynamic forces interact to create the context for individual development 3. 26 3. Personal, Social, and Emotional Development V. Important Social Contexts 1. Families a) Parenting Styles (i) Authoritarian (ii) Authoritative (iii) Permissive b) Culture and Parenting c) Divorce (i) Teaching Guidelines (p. 75) 2. Peers a) Peer cultures b) Who is likely to have problems with Peers c) Peer aggression (Guidelines p.80) (i) Instrumental aggression (ii) Hostile aggression (iii) Overt aggression (iv) Relational aggression d) Bullies e) Victims f) Social Skills (Table 3.3) 3. Teachers a) Academic and Personal Caring b) Teachers and Child Abuse (i) Indicators of Child Abuse (Table 3.4) (ii) Responsibility to Report Child Abuse Self Concept: Understanding Ourselves A. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem: Self-concept is a cognitive structure representing a composite of ideas, feelings, and attitudes a person has about himself or herself; Selfesteem is an affective reaction involving an evaluation of the self-concept. B. Structure of self-concept is hierarchical. 1. General concept is made up of more specific concepts and is a general view of self 2. Secondary concepts are made up of more specific concepts such as nonacademic self-concept as well as self-concept in English and mathematics 3. A third level of differentiation includes perceptions of physical ability, appearance, and relations with peers and family 4. Hierarchical structure is strongest in early adolescence. 5. Self-concept is more situation specific in adults C. How Self-Concept Develops 1. Evolves through constant self-evaluation in different situations 2. Young children tend to make self-concept appraisals based on their own improvement over time 3. As they move toward middle school, children compare their performance with their own standards 4. Self-concept continues to evolve, influenced by parents/family in early years, friends/peers in later years D. Self-Concept and Achievement E. School Life and Self-Esteem C. 27 3. Personal, Social, and Emotional Development VI. Higher self-esteem is related to more positive attitudes and success in school Student self-esteem is influenced by teachers’ caring, feedback, and evaluation Lack of competence in an area that is not valued does not threaten self-esteem Greatest increases in self-esteem come when students become more competent in areas they value 5. Suggestions for Encouraging Self Esteem (Table 3.5) F. Point/Counterpoint: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem? G. Diversity and Identity 1. Diversity and Perception of Self a) Girls gradually lower their perceptions of their own ability relative to boys (Fig. 3.2) b) Boys in most ethnic groups are more confident than girls c) Few studies of non-Caucasian groups 2. Personal and collective self-esteem H. Ethnic and Racial Identity 1. Ethnic Identities: Outcome and Process a) Outcomes (i) Assimilation (ii) Separated (iii) Marginalized (iv) Biculturalism b) Processes (i) Unexamined ethnic identity (ii) Ethnic identity exploration (iii) Resolution 2. Racial Identity: Outcome and Process 3. Racial and Ethnic Pride Emotional and Moral Development A. Emotional Competence (Table 3.6) 1. Critical for academic and personal development 2. Guidelines (p. 94) a) Create a climate of trust b) Help students recognize and express feelings c) Help students recognize others emotions Provide strategies for coping with emotions d) e) Help students recognize cultural differences when dealing with emotions B. Theory of Mind and Intention 1. Theory of mind 2. Perspective taking ability C. Moral Development D. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (see Table 3.7) 1. Pre-conventional (Stages 1, 2): Judgments based on a person’s own needs and perceptions 2. Conventional (Stages 3, 4): Taking into account expectations of society and law 3. Post-conventional (Stages 5, 6): Judgments based on principles that go beyond specific laws 4. Moral dilemmas: Hypothetical situations in which no choice is absolutely right—used to evaluate moral reasoning 5. Level of moral reasoning related to both cognitive and emotional development 1. 2. 3. 4. 28 3. Personal, Social, and Emotional Development VII. VIII. IX. X. Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory 1. Stages are not separate, sequenced and consistent 2. Other aspects of moral maturity were not taken into account 3. Cultural differences in moral reasoning are ignored F. Gender Differences: The Morality of Caring 1. Major criticism of Kohlberg’s theory was its reliance on male samples 2. Carol Gilligan proposed an alternative theory 3. Justice and caring are important to both girls and boys G. Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices 1. Moral vs. Conventional Domains (Table 3.8) 2. Implications for Teachers (Guidelines p. 100) H. Diversity in Reasoning I. Moral Behavior 1. Influences on moral behavior a) Modeling b) Internalization c) Self-concept 2. Cheating a) Males more likely than females b) Low achieving students more likely than high achieving c) More likely for students focused on performance goals as opposed to learning goals d) More likely for students with academic self efficacy Diversity and Convergence in Personal/Social Development A. Diversity 1. Maturation rates among cultures 2. Gender differences 3. Parenting styles among cultures 4. Differences in the development of identity 5. Moral reasoning seen as rules to some, social convention to others B. Convergences 1. Self concept differentiated over time 2. Identity formation is challenging Peer rejection harmful to all 3. Summary Table E. Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses Guidelines Included ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom Encouraging Initiative in Preschool Children Encouraging Industry Supporting Identify Formation Helping Children of Divorce Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation Encouraging Emotional Competence Supporting Personal and Social Development Family and Community Partnerships: Building Self-Esteem 29 3. Personal, Social, and Emotional Development =============================================================== Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. How does physical development affect personal and social development in adolescence? 2. What are Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, and are there any implications of his theory for teaching? 3. How does Bronfenbrenner’s framework describe the social systems that influence development? 4. What are the roles of peers, cliques, and friendships in students’ lives? 5. What can teachers do to deal with aggression and bullying in schools? 6. How do relationships with teachers support student development? 7. How can teachers foster genuine and appropriate self-esteem in their students? 8. How does ethnic identity develop? 9. What are Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning and what are some of the challenges to his work? 10. What encourages cheating in classrooms, and how can teachers respond? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 3) Transparencies (T17-T23) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 3) MyLabSchool • “Social Skills Development” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 3) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint • “Lincoln High School.” Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T17 T18 T19 T20 T21 T22 T23 Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Comparing Erickson’s and Piaget’s Stages The Structure of Self-Concept Four Statuses of Identity Stages of Moral Development: Kohlberg and Gilligan Using “Caring for Strangers and the World” as a Teaching Theme Indicators of Emotional Abuse and Neglect 30 3 Reducing the Incidence of Cheating & Plagiarism 3.2 Center for Adolescent Development & Developmental Tasks of Adolescence 3. Personal.6 3.2 Resolving Developmental Crises Moral Development 3.7 3.9 Should They Have Done It? 3. and Teachers 3.3.11 What Are Their Concerns? 3.9 31 . and Emotional Development Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 3 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? The Work of Erickson ACTIVITIES TYPE HANDOUTS 3. Social.6 What is Right? 3.8 Sociogram Peer Nominations Locating Sources on the Internet Concept Map: Links To Other Chapters Challenges for Children 3.5 Cheating and Plagiarism 3.7 Unpopular Children Companion Website Field Experience Individual Individual Connection Individual or Cooperative Individual or Cooperative Technology Technology Technology Socialization: Family.1 Encouraging Positive Resolutions of Erikson’s Developmental Crises 3.3 Interviewing Children about Friendship 3.1 Resolving Developmental Crises Case Analysis Individual 3.5 Helping Unpopular Children 3.0 What Kind of Knowledge Is Needed? 3.4 Moral Dilemmas 3.8 Learning about Social Relations 3. Peers.4 What is Right? 3.10 Challenges for Children 3.0 Lecture Outline 3. Students can be asked to summarize the teacher’s response and identify the reasons for the particular response. Examine the list of “Developmental Tasks of Adolescence. Personal. eConnect and Extend.” http://www.1). and (3) an 11. open-ended clinical interviewing technique. L. eConnect and Extend. “What would you do?” Each teacher discussed how he or she would help solve the problems involving Stephanie and Allison.2 Center for Adolescent Studies & Developmental Tasks of Adolescence Have your students visit the CW. The student should also be able to comment on what kind of knowledge (see Chapter 1) the teacher was drawing upon. p. Make sure that your students have received the necessary and appropriate permission to interview children and record their responses. (1991). The Center’s Web site provides an extensive list of resource links to various aspects of adolescence. ask the group to come to a consensus about the best way to solve the problem.2 by deciding on what kind of crisis is being resolved. (2) an eight to tenyear-old. How do the three children differ in their responses? Why do they differ? 32 . Chapter 1.3. The Center for Adolescent Studies at Indiana University provides information and resources about adolescence and engages in ongoing research about adolescent transitions. ask them to identify what kind of knowledge would be helpful in solving the problem. Prepare a list of questions to ask including: What is a friend? Why is it nice to have a friend? Students should interview each child separately. assuring the youngsters that their answers will be confidential. Have each student take responsibility for understanding and presenting the perspective of one of the teachers who responded to the case. Encourage students to use a tape recorder to ensure accuracy. 132. Stress the importance of taking accurate notes.” http://www.ablongman. “Robert Havighurst: Developmental Theorist.ablongman. Have your students go to the CW.to l5-year-old.3 Interviewing Children about Friendship Adapted from Berk. Chapter 1. Are all these tasks necessary? Which ones are more important to middle school students in seventh and eighth grade? Which tasks can teachers help students complete successfully? 3.com/woolfolk10e. This activity explores children’s social-cognitive understanding of friendship using Piaget’s flexible. Instructor’s manual child development (2nd ed.” Have your students evaluate this list. 3. 3.) Boston: Allyn & Bacon. and Emotional Development Activities 3.0 What Kind of Knowledge Is Needed? Assign students to groups of four. Copyright 1991.com/woolfolk10e. Have students apply their knowledge as they complete Handout Master 3. Social. Reprinted with permission of Allyn and Bacon. Have students locate three children to interview about their understanding of friendship: (1) a five to seven-year-old. In addition. Once each student has presented their teacher’s response.1 Resolving Developmental Crises This activity will assist students to learn about Erickson’s theory of the developmental crises faced by individuals (see Handout Master 3. “Center for Adolescent Studies. 3. When he gets in trouble. Personal. Yes.3. In a classroom discussion about stealing. because cheating is against all the rules of the school. He cries if anyone talks loudly near him. What is Right? 3. He prefers to work alone and he will barely answer the teacher’s questions. he blames other children for provoking him. He will not say anything when he is in a group. No. James is 10 years old.4 Moral Dilemmas The following scenario is a Kohlbergian moral dilemma.5 Cheating and Plagiarism Using Handout Master 3. 4. He is taller than most of the other children in his class. you will find the heading. 5. Michael is 9. rather than Kohlberg’s theory? Use Handout Master 3. The following problem is posed. her parents will probably reward her by letting her go to a movie. He picks on children in the class who are smaller and weaker than he is. He is a bully. she will be punished severely. because if she cheats and gets a good grade on her test. 33 . Social. because cheating is unfair to all the other individuals in the class. No.3. She has not been doing very well and is considering cheating on an upcoming math test. Her parents often become abusive when she gets bad grades. He is easily intimidated and a number of the other children make his life miserable by teasing him. have your students list the reasons why college students cheat and what could be done to reduce the incidence of cheating and plagiarism. and Emotional Development 3. Are the responses categorized differently. No. Should she cheat on the exam? 1. When confronted about his behavior. 3. her parents will think she is a good daughter and will be proud of her.6 On page 100 of your textbook. Sharon is a student in a math class. A person should complete his or her own work. because if she gets caught. because if she cheats and does well on the test. Have your students classify the responses that follow the dilemma according to Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. “Connect and Extend. depending on whose system for describing the development of moral reasoning one uses? 3. Yes. How should you respond? Would your interpretation of and response to the problem be different if you subscribe to Gilligan’s theory of moral development. he waits for an opportunity to get back at a child who has complained about him.7 Unpopular Children Read aloud the descriptions of the following unpopular children.” in the margin.4 to record your responses. the teacher finds that many students express the opinion that it is all right to steal if you don’t get caught. 2. Before asking questions about disliked individuals. If students have access to a classroom of students (kindergarten through high school).) Some sociometric tools ask students for names of people that they dislike. Try to establish a personal relationship. 3. She tries to please the teacher by telling tales on the other children. This information may allow you to draw the conclusions necessary.3. Then ask the students in a class to list in confidence the three people in the class with whom they would most like to work. This is especially useful with younger children who might not know how to spell somebody’s name. using effective communication. Set firm limits and stick with difficult children. (You may want to provide a list of class members that is numbered so the students can just write down the number. Personal. You will probably find that some children are not nominated by anyone as a “liked” individual. Group processes in the classroom (6th ed. P.. Since diffuse friendship patterns are more supportive of individual students. In classrooms with centrally-structured friendship patterns.8 Learning about Social Relations Schmuck. etc. intervene early. most students have at least one or two close friends. and Schmuck. A sociogram reveals friendship patterns in a classroom. The teacher punished one child because Jane told her that the child had hit another student. There is some possibility that asking students about disliking individuals can raise anxiety for some students or even provide rehearsal of negative thoughts. R. No one in the class likes Jane. in which leadership roles are dispersed. you should consider whether the information you would learn would be helpful. Without overreacting. 2. Brown Company Publishers. and most are not chosen as friends. they could assess student friendship patterns with the two activities. only a few students are highly liked. more complete use of intellectual abilities. Group processes in the classroom. Experiment with cooperative learning and peer tutoring to improve performance. a few are strongly disliked.6 and an example of a peer nomination form can be found in Handout Master 3. Help all students learn social skills. but give them extra help in improving their behavior. Sociometric test: Explain to the class that everybody likes some people and dislikes other people. a teacher should try to change a centrally structured class to a more diffusely structured class. In classrooms with diffusely-structured friendship patterns. (1992). The teacher tries to discourage this behavior. An example of the sociogram appears in Handout Master 3. recognizing feelings. What would they do if all three children were in one class? Here are a few suggestions for coping with the problems of unpopular children: 1. Establish clear expectations for all students’ behavior. IA: Wm.5. and Emotional Development Jane is 10 years old. Here are some suggestions for encouraging change adapted from Schmuck and Schmuck (1992). before a pattern of rejection is established. Social. but Jane persists in telling her when anyone in the class does anything wrong. Dubuque. 3. There are also some people who like one person a lot and some people who don’t like that person at all. tend to have a more positive classroom climate. you should 34 . therefore. Before asking such questions. 4. It is helpful to the teacher in making plans for the class to know how people in the class really feel about one another.). and a more positive attitude toward self and others. C. such as anticipating the consequences of behaviors.7. The following activity can be done in class for practice. Have your students complete Handout Master 3. Do not give up on them. Classroom groups with diffuse friendship patterns. Discussion Questions 1.. Personal. the principal of an elementary school suspended three kindergarten children for playing “cops and robbers. or is it an area that should be left to the family and church? Are teachers moral educators. You may want to have students do this activity in groups. Handout Master 3.9 Should they have done it? Recently. Use any search engine to locate Web communities for teens (e.11 What are Their Concerns? Your students are likely to remember the concerns of teenagers quite well. Ask them to go to one of the Web communities for teenagers or young people and find out what they believe to be the pressing concerns for teenagers. how would you go about implementing change? What are the limitations of this kind of information? 3. The school has a “zero tolerance” policy with respect to aggressive actions.apa. Ask students to locate additional links to complete the handout and provide themselves with a compendium of information related to the challenges facing children. initiative. and Emotional Development very carefully consider what information you think you will get and whether you could find that information without risking hurting anyone.10 Challenges for Children Chapter 3 provides a brief description of many of the challenges faced by children and youth today. Social. 3.com/teens/). Sociogram: Ask the students to construct a sociogram for positive choices. regardless of their intentions? 2.3. Have them prepare a summary of arguments from the information on this site that might be used to criticize or support this action. In what ways might a failure to resolve earlier crises be manifested positively in an adolescent who is attempting to establish his or her identity? In other words.g. They should answer the following questions: Does the classroom have a diffusely-structured or centrally-structured friendship pattern? What other conclusions can you make? If changes seem desirable. What does “identity formation” mean? On what is one’s sense of identify based? Is identity fixed or variable? Explain your answers. how would failure to develop trust (or autonomy. Because of the availability of the World Wide Web. Have your students go the Web site of the American Psychological Association (www. What is moral education? How is morality learned? Should public schools be concerned with moral education. it is easier than ever before to locate important information about necessary resources for assistance or information. or industry) hinder an adolescent in the identity versus role confusion stage of development? 35 .” The children had been seen pointing imaginary guns at one another. http://www.about.org) and search for information about school violence in the site’s search feature.8 provides a list of some links to important agencies. 3. You might want to discuss this issue with your class. 3. apathy. a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. Moral action does not necessarily follow directly from moral judgment. Social and Moral Development. William Glasser talks about self-concept in terms of failure and success identities. In a classroom discussion about stealing. aggression. Possible answers may include discussion of taking the perspective of others. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. But is it necessary for moral judgment to precede moral action? That is. MLS Video Lab Module 1: Personal. For the second part of the question. Name two principles discussed in your textbook that are demonstrated in this video. the teacher finds that many students express the opinion that it is all right to steal if you don’t get caught. and peer relationships. can one behave in a moral way if one cannot make a cognitive statement about how a person “should” behave? 5. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. in which this kind of intervention would be helpful. How should a teacher respond? Would the socioeconomic level of the students influence the teacher’s response? MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. socialization. Clip 2: Social Skills Development (3:34) 1. This teaches children to see things from another’s perspective and to learn how to handle a similar situation in the future. and Emotional Development 4. what kind of experience can a teacher provide to help a student change a failure identity to a success identity (to develop a more positive self-concept)? 6. Personal.3.com/). A student conflict resolution team encourages the students to talk through the problem and arrive at a solution themselves.mylabschool. 2. The “failure identity” is characterized by loneliness. morality of cooperation. 36 . and withdrawal for delinquency. autonomy and initiative. How does a student conflict resolution team help students learn appropriate positive social skills? Describe an instance. other than a playground conflict. look for situations that take place in the classroom or other school venue. the “success identity” is characterized by the ability to give and receive love and the feeling of doing something that is important to oneself or others. Given these characteristics. and explain how they apply to this scenario. Social. Educational Psychology. Self-efficacy in changing societies. (1997). Gilligan. The effects of value clarification and moral development curricula on school-age subjects: A critical review of recent research. Inc. and theirs. T. FILMS. AND AUDIOCASSETTES An American stepfamily. Steinberg. Females are 10 times as likely as males to become anorexic—usually bright. Educational Leadership. 325-364. 37 . Greater expectations: overcoming the culture of indulgence in America’s homes and schools. L. Where is school along the path to prison? Educational Leadership. A. D. dealing with former spouses. (1991. 48 (5). Crisis in youth fitness and wellness. MA: Harvard University Press. Helping students understand and accept sexual diversity. J. Personal. The moral child: nurturing children’s natural moral growth. August). 154156. J. 433-440. Damon. September). verbal. Phi Delta Kappan. hers. September). V. New York: Free Press. and Emotional Development Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter REFERENCES Bandura. A. 49 (1). Cambridge. & Sylvester. New York: Free Press. Educational Leadership. (1979). (1991. Educational Leadership. September). (1982). Latchkey children and susceptibility to peer pressure: An ecological analysis. Toronto. Sorting out the self-esteem controversy. New York: Cambridge University Press. February). October). 73 (2). (1986). This program examines the problems of conflicting loyalties and rivalries. aggressive teenagers and young women in their early twenties. 49 (1). Vogel. Sears. 93-94. (1991. (1988). video. and the three categories of kids—his. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences.3. 57. W. 49 (1). (1993. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association (101st). VIDEOTAPES. Developmental Psychology. W. Students in caring school and classroom communities. A. R. Social. & Battistich. R. 25-30. #CC-1164. 14-16. Damon.. 54-57. Lockwood. H. Canada. Review of Educational Research. Kohn. (1991. 26 minutes. C. In a different voice. Don’t spoil the promise of cooperative learning. (1995). Walker. (1991. 48. P. The video explores how it starts and how it can be detected and cured. Solomon. Beane. Anorexia. A. video. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. and depression are the cause and result of their illness.is anybody listening? video. the issues are discussed. video. Children of divorce. In this Phil Donahue program.. video 30 minutes. Childhood sexual abuse. Social. Bulimia. confusion. and explores with some anorexics how they were cured. Studies are now making clear that children of divorce almost never recover totally from the pain. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. Inc. instead. This program offers specific advice on how to recognize teens in danger of committing suicide and successfully intervene. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. in the short and long term. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. From Insight Media. a clinical social worker trained to talk with sexually abused children discusses the effects of child abuse on the child. The program also offers tips on selecting a daycare center. 19 minutes. 25 minutes. 26 minutes. 28 minutes. 28 minutes. video.. and Emotional Development Anorexia and bulimia. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. This program looks at the ways in which adult women learn to work out problems caused by their sexually abusive fathers and how they seek to protect their own children from a recurrence of the pattern. the tell-tale signs of such abuse. guilt. The second concerns a family devastated by sexual abuse. The third examines the lives of runaways in Los Angeles. 1988. video. VHS or Beta $149. #EC-1165. Inc. behavioral. and whether the physical abuse of children can be prevented. color. This program explains the addictive nature of anorexia and bulimia. Produced by NBC News. Inc. color. It talks to teens who have attempted suicide about their reasons for trying and their lives after treatment and profiles a Texas community that banded together to stop a rash of teen suicides. video. A nutritionist demonstrates the extremes to which people with these disorders commonly go because of their addiction.3. Dying to be heard. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. This program covers the range of problems in the area of physical abuse of children: the kinds of adults likely to abuse their children physically. Personal. and their possible effects on cardiovascular and central nervous system. In the first. shows how anorexia develops and demonstrates its symptoms. VHS or Beta: $149. A therapist who deals with sex offenders describes the common characteristics of offenders. #EC-1380. color. the ways in which abuse should be dealt with. 26 minutes. This specially adapted Phil Donahue program examines the legacy of divorce for children. they continue into adulthood with academic. how the abusive parents can break the cycle of their own behavior and whether and how they should be punished. this program presents three real stories told by teenagers who experienced these events. Eating disorders. Inc. 26 minutes. Inc 38 . the effects on the children. a teenage girl tries to break up her new family after her mother remarries. explains their inability to acknowledge that they are thin enough. anger. Inc. Childhood physical abuse. Bulimics alternate between gross overeating and vomiting. This program deals with the delicate subject of sexually and physically abused children. video. Behind closed doors: Crisis at home. and displacement that the divorcing parents have inflicted on them. video. showing how they turned tragedy into triumph. 19 minutes. video. Child abuse. and psychological problems. This program covers the personality profiles of the likeliest anorexia patients. Low self-esteem. From “The Human Animal” Series. It also demonstrates the enormous influence of peer pressure and the seductive advertisements in the mass media. Personal. Focuses on modern threats to survival of the family. This program presents a group of inner-city youngsters who describe the experience living in the center of a drug-infested culture. 1990) 39 . Kolhberg’s stages are illustrated in interviews with adolescents. part of the series “The Human Animal. and discusses what can be done about it. starting with preschool children and continuing into young adulthood. explains why alcohol presents increased health and safety risks for children and adolescents. video. color. Inc. video. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. video. 25 minutes. From Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Suicide occurs in every racial. Broken homes. the cries for help. From Films for the Humanities Sciences. Family and survival. police officers. video. Kids talk to kids about drugs. Less than 5% of American households fit the profile of the traditional nuclear family. This For Kid’s Sake documentary examines school problems and run-ins with the law. Keeping kids off drugs. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. estranged children. suggests and clarifies why alcohol is so easily abused by youngsters. 28 minutes. 28 minutes. This program offers specific guidance to working parents with children who are left on their own after school. This documentary features the stories of four youngsters and their families who talk about the presumed causes. preoccupied parents. Social. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. 52 minutes. The scene is New York City. Educational and law enforcement specialists explain how parents can provide for the physical safety and emotional needs of their children. Inc. and economic group. but they could come from any of America’s urban areas. (Insight Media. This specially adapted Phil Donahue program centers on the plight of poor children growing up in single parent households. Inc. 1986. 52 minutes. 58 minutes.3. Inc. Latchkey families. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. Experts examine the problems facing children who are growing up without fathers and the seemingly irreversible cycle of poverty that especially affects minority families. ethnic. Each youngster tells how he learned to say “no” to drugs in the face of pressures that could overwhelm any impressionable child. Inc.” film. it shows the damage done by alcohol and the process of rehabilitation. as well as the long-term physical and psychological disorders caused by alcohol consumption. 23 minutes. religious. video. Family and survival. unemployment. Traces moral development. Inc. Morality: The process of moral development. and shows how children are affected. and inattentive. color. Family in crisis. corporate nomads—these are today’s commonplaces. and the warning signals. video. video. Suicides leave survivors guilt-ridden for not recognizing the warning signs. Films for the Humanities & Sciences. including divorce. 28 minutes. Why are some children susceptible to drugs? A school principal. By visiting alcoholism treatment centers. and parents in a high-incidence neighborhood confront the question. battered wives. and how rules for conduct can best be set and chores assigned so that experience can help teach children maturity and independence. Inc. Kids under the influence. drug counselors. 16 mm film. 28 minutes. and Emotional Development Everything to live for. VHS or Beta. 16 mm film. Inc. Presents a comprehensive researchbased overview of self development during middle childhood. 1988) Suicide: The teenager’s perspective. and a psychotherapist to discuss ways to stem adolescent suicide. video. Box 2053. Helping teachers and parents to confront the issue of AIDS with respect to their own children and speaking directly to teenagers. Or call 1-800-257-5126 (in NJ. Campcut Film Distributors. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. sexual abstinence by teenagers. 52 minutes. teenagers who have attempted suicide. in this case. video. Teenage pregnancy is not a new problem. #CC-1438. Social. 19 minutes. Inc. 26 minutes. Former NBA star Julius Irving is the host. 28 minutes. NJ 08543. video. 1971) No more secrets. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. color. 1987) Teenage pregnancy. without moralizing. Inc. 30 minutes. and shows how children can be encouraged to share their secret with those who can help put an end to the abuse. This program discusses the long-term damage that results from sexual abuse. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. O. color. young mothers and their babies are at high risk to suffer abuse. 16 mm film. video. Teenage suicide. and describes some of the behavior patterns to which family and friends should be alert. the friends have been trained to recognize the signs of impending suicide. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. offers the personal stories of children and adults who were abused as children. follows the trial of an adult accused of abusing eight girls. and cognitive developmental. (Virginia Tech Intellectual Properties. #CC-1688: Films for the Humanities and Sciences. video. how one seemingly innocent liaison can lead to death. Teen parents who drop out of school cannot earn enough to raise a family. This Phil Donahue show brings together parents of teenage suicide victims. and provides an overview of Kohlberg’s theory and the social learning approach to moral development.. (MP 402. Practical suggestions for fostering self-esteem are offered. Reviews the classic experiments on morality performed by Stanley Milgram. (Films for Humanities and Sciences. social learning. Teenage suicide. with special attention given to Kohlberg’s stages. and Emotional Development Moral development. This documentary explores some of the reasons why teens commit suicide. 24 minutes. Preventing teen pregnancy. and education about contraceptives. but the social costs are higher than ever. color. 1975) Moral judgment and reasoning. Describes moral development from three theoretical perspectives: psychoanalytic. This program deals with one promising solution to the problem of teen suicide: Peer groups. A variety of vignettes illustrate moral development. video. 17 minutes. (CRM. 28 minutes. Inc. this program shows. 609-452-1128). P. This program recommends sex education beginning in the preteens. Personal. Telling teens about AIDS. 26 minutes. 40 . Self-esteem in school age children. Princeton. color. 28 minutes. This program follows several teenagers through the births of their children and subsequent changes in their lives. video. Inc.3. Teenagers are accustomed to going to their friends with their problems. video. the recent increase in suicide. al-anon. and drug prevention programs. When society’s problems walk through the door. Champaign. 28 minutes. entertaining film designed for high school students that illustrates the potentially negative consequences of peer pressure. Susan De MerresmenWarren and Elliot Turiel.davidsonfilms. Sections of this site also provide specific activities for children. http://www. Christopher Reeve hosts this look into the first year of human life. Dr. Order from Research Press. USEFUL WEB SITES American Psychological Association: APA provides a powerful search engine so that you can search for information on any topic that you want.com. http://www.3. VHS or Beta. video. Personal. Order from Insight Media. film or video.aacap.apa. The impact of the classroom environment on children’s development. This is a fast-paced. Social. Dept. Describes the classroom environment of three teachers and their implications for children’s development.org American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: This organization helps families understand the developmental.org 41 . Do today’s teenagers know all about sex? Phil Donahue’s audience of teenagers tells a panel of sex educators what they really know and what they would like to know. 19 minutes.aa. K. http://www. IL 61821. 28 minutes. color. #CC-1234. 28 minutes. NY. Classroom teachers will find that this film contains excellent discussion topics for health education. and Emotional Development Telling teens about sex. This 30-minute film (1993) profiles three schools that have instituted programs to address the non-academic concerns of their students. This film identifies the progress of moral thinking starting in preschool years and continuing to its unfolding in young adults. 1980) What’s the difference being different?. Available from Davidson films at http://www. #EC-1626. Morality: The Process Of Moral Development (1978). color. $125. 52 minutes. 2162 Broadway. (Davidson Films. social development. (212) 721-6316. Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages are illustrated through an interview conducted by Drs. or call (217) 352-3273.org Al-Anon/Alateen: This organization provides support for the family members of alcoholics. Personality develops during the first year. color.org/ Alcoholics Anonymous: AA is an organization that helps people with alcohol problems. and how they learn to adapt and communicate with the individuals who are their children. Demonstrates how a multicultural program can be implemented in a school system. It shows students and teachers participating in activities that increase feelings of self-worth and understanding of others. Box 3177. The program watches how three sets of parents respond to the different personalities of their infant daughters. video. The bizarre trial of the pressured peer. http://www. The discovery year. film. color. video. emotional. 18 minutes. and behavioral disorders affecting children and adolescents. color. New York. understanding others. and knowledge acquisition components 2. bodily-kinesthetic. and practical (see table 4. Creative/Experiential intelligence: Involves coping with new experiences and is characterized by insight and automaticity 3. Disabilities and Handicaps E. Person First Language D. II. What Would You Do? Intelligence A. Emotional Intelligence 1. and naturalistic) see table 4. understanding self. musical. Multiple intelligences go to school see table 4. logical-mathematical. Four broad abilities: perceiving. spatial. performance components. Intelligence: One ability or many? 2. Expectations and assumptions may be self-fulfilling prophecies 2. Learner Differences and Learner Needs 4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs Teaching Outline I. but each test also requires some specific abilities F. Labels may. Multiple Intelligences 1. Spearman: There is one general intelligence factor or mental attribute ‘g’ that is used to perform any mental test. creative.2 G. Some children are exceptional because they need special education/services B. 120) 42 .4. Analytic/Componential intelligence: Involves the component mental processes that lead to more or less intelligent behavior: metacomponents. however. What does Intelligence Mean? 1. and reshaping it. understanding and managing emotions 2. Group versus individual IQ tests (Guidelines pg.1 2. Gardner: There are at least eight separate intelligences (linguistic. Binet’s dilemma: How to identify children at risk for school failure a) Intelligence quotient: Comparison of mental age and chronological age b) Deviation IQ: Score identifying where a person’s score lies in the distribution of scores for that person’s age group 2. Disorders. Practical/Contextual intelligence: Involves selecting an environment in which one can succeed.3) 1. Intelligence as a Process: Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence – analytic. adapting to that environment. Emotional intelligence goes to school see table 4.2 H. Measuring Intelligence 1. Labeling or “diagnosis” of exceptionalities can stigmatize and help students 1. if necessary I. integrating. protect students and/or open doors to special help C. Surface-processing approaches underscore memorization B. The rights of students and families: Family and community partnershipsproductive conferences (see guidelines pg. B. Intelligence and achievement: IQ scores strongly predict school achievement. Between-Class Ability Grouping 1. Within-Class and Flexible Grouping 1. For low-ability students. Formation of separate ability-based classes 2. Revised in 1990. but are not good predictors of success in life 3. Heredity and environment affect intelligence Ability Differences and Teaching (Guidelines pg. 1997. Least Restrictive Environment E. 129) D. What are learning preferences? 1. Point/Counterpoint: Is Tracking an Effective Strategy? Learning Styles and Preferences A.0 reject. Several instruments available to assess students’ learning preferences a) Instruments have been criticized for lack of reliability and validity b) Tailoring instruction to learning styles c) Learning may be enhanced if students study in preferred settings d) Students may not expand repertoire of strategies if their instruction is too closely tailored to their learning style preferences C. appropriate public education for all students with disabilities who participate in special education. Cognitive Style 3. 125) A. Deep-processing approaches underscore the meaning of concepts 3. IV. V. The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting Smarter? 2. Section 504 Protections (see Table 4. does not improve learning and may cause problems 3.5) a) b) 43 . There are not exceptions the law requires . Individual preferences for particular approaches and environments 2. Cognitive Spatial Ability 2. High-ability or cross-grade groupings are effective B. Learning preference Individual Differences and the Law Legislation relevant to educating children with special needs A. 1.4. PL 94-142: Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975) 2. What does an IQ Score Mean? 1. Visual/Verbal Distinctions (see Table 4. Offers positive results when based on current performance and is sensitively tailored to student needs C. Cautions about Learning Preferences 1.4) 1. Learner Differences and Learner Needs III. Individualized education program C. 2004 now requires states to provide a free. Group test is much less accurate than individual test Group tests require reading and writing skills more than individual tests J. Common with reading and math in elementary schools 2. social behavior. or interruption of language development E. not a single condition 2. Intellectual disability current name for mental retardation 2. Student characteristics 4. inattentive. Reaching Every Student: Higher Order Thinking (see Table 4.11) c) Deficiencies apparent before age 18 4. Hyperactivity is a set of behaviors. and have difficulty in responding appropriately and little control of behavior b) Main difficulty for children is in directing and maintaining attention 3. Teaching students with learning disabilities: Promising approaches to teaching learning disabled students include training in information processing and emphasis on study skills B.6) A. Students with Intellectual Disabilities 1. Student should never be classified as mentally retarded on the basis of IQ scores alone (See Table 4. social inadequacy (Table 4. Language disorders: Absence. Definition a) Low IQ score: Below 70 on the WISC-R b) Deficient adaptive behavior. and arithmetic. or voicing problems 2. Treating and teaching students with ADHD a) Certain stimulants bring manageable behavior but can cause negative side effects b) Improving academic learning and social skills are based using behavioral principles c) Stress on personal agency C. delay. Little agreement on definition 2. writing.4. Most definitions agree that students with learning disabilities have at least average intelligence and significant academic problems 3. Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders (see Guidelines pg.9) D.11) 3. The Most Common Challenges (Table 4. Speech disorders: Articulation disorder. Goals for teaching students with intellectual disabilities (see Guidelines pg. Indicators of ADHD (See Table 4.10) 1. Students with learning disabilities 1. Learner Differences and Learner Needs VI. 143) 1. Students with Communication Disorders (See Table 4. the environment. and personal interests b) Transition programming: Preparing the student to live and work in the community F. Examples from DSM-IV-TR (Table 4. 141) a) Basic reading. Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders 1. stuttering.12) 44 . difference.8) a) Children are physically overactive. Behavior that deviates enough to interfere with growth and development or the lives of others 2. stronger. The Terman study of gifted students–Gifted tend to be larger. Teaching gifted students (see Table 4. Overrepresentation of ethnic and racial minority in disability categories 2. Interventions Students who are Gifted and Talented A. Who are these students? 1. difficulty in facing emotions. What is the origin of these gifts? 1. and potentially of lasting importance. Students who are Deaf C. Suicide (Table 4. impatience with friends and peers C. Convergence 1. attention deficit-hyperactivity disorders. Seizure disorders (epilepsy): Seizures that result from uncontrolled firing of neurons in the brain B. Identifying and Teaching Gifted Students 1. VIII. extremely advanced for their age. Recognizing gifts and talents a) Teacher observation successful in identifying special abilities 10 to 50 percent of the time b) Individual IQ tests are imperfect but are the best single predictor of academic giftedness 2. and healthier than the norm 3. Anxiety disorders: Anxiety. Differences among individuals quite small 2. Cerebral palsy and multiple disabilities 2. Students with Vision Impairment D. Theory of mind 2. The work of gifted children is original. X. Some gifted students are more emotionally stable and become better-adjusted adults B. XI. isolation from peers. Students with Health Impairments 1. Autism Spectrum Disorders 1. shyness. and depression Disruptive Behavior Disorders: include conduct disorders.4.13) 4. Prevention Less Prevalent Problems and More Severe Disabilities A. Underrepresentation of ethnic and racial minority in gifted programs B. IX. Intelligence tests predict school success similarly for all students Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook Connections to Praxis II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses a) b) 45 . oppositional defiant disorders c) Eating disorders d) Mood disorders e) Tic disorders 3. Diversity 1. What problems do the gifted face? Boredom. 2. XII.14) Diversity and Convergence in Learning Abilities A. Drug Abuse 5. Learner Differences and Learner Needs VII. how will you identify and teach students with hearing. 3. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. In your classroom. 5. as well as those who are gifted? Instructor Supplements for This Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 4) Transparencies (T24-T37) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 4) Companion Website (Chapter 4) MyLabSchool • “Strategies for Teaching Diverse Learners” video clip 46 . Learner Differences and Learner Needs Guidelines Included ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ Interpreting IQ Scores Grouping by Achievement Family and Community Partnerships: Productive Conferences Teaching Students with Below Average Intelligence Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems ====================================================== Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. and specific learning disabilities.4. 4. and behavior problems. 2. vision. What are the potential problems in categorizing and labeling students? What is your personal concept of intelligence? What is your stance on ability grouping? Should you adapt lessons for students with varying learning styles? What are the implications of the Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act (IDEIA) and section 504 for your teaching? 6. language. Part B during the 1999-2000 School Year Least Restrictive Environment Indicators of ADHD: Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder What IDEA ‘97 Says about ADHD 47 . Learner Differences and Learner Needs Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T24 T25 T26 T27 T28 T29 T30 T31 T32 T33 T34 T35 T36 T37 Examples of Person-First Language The Theory of Multiple Intelligences An Example of a Lesson Plan on Solving Algebraic Equations Incorporating Multiple Intelligences in Planning A Lesson Plan for Helping Students Develop More Effective Conceptions of Intelligence Sternberg’s Triachic Theory of Intelligence Three Styles of Mental Self-Government Illustrations of Items Used in Intelligence Tests The Modern Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale The Renzulli Three-Ring Model of Giftedness Characteristics and Problems of Students with Special Gifts and Talents Percentage of Children Aged 6-21 served under IDEA.4. 4 Interview on IQ testing 4.6 Should We Teach to Match Learning Styles? 4. and Inclusion Cooperative Prevalent Problems and Mild Disabilities Less Prevalent Problems and More Severe Disabilities Section 504: Protection for Students Students Who are Gifted and Talented 4.1 What is Intelligence? 4.6 Checklist for Monitoring Behavior 4.2 An Educational Plan 4.10 Special Needs Students as Tutors 4.0 Lecture Outline Ability Differences and Teaching Cognitive and Learning Styles Changes in the Law: Integration.11 Assisting the ADHD Child 4.5 Guide to Literature Search 4.13 Examination of Special Education Services Technology Research Field Experience Individual Cooperative 4.5 Should We Group According to Ability? 4. Mainstreaming.4.8 Indicators of Learning Problems 4.7 Myths and Facts about Mental Retardation HANDOUTS 4.9 Technology for Special Needs 4.12 Teaching Students with Mental Retardation 4. Learner Differences and Learner Needs Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 4 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? Individual Differences in Intelligence ACTIVITIES 4.0 Interpreting Scores 4.3 Individualized Educational Program 4.9 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 48 .2 Rising IQ Scores 4.7 Adapting Instruction for Different Learners 4.8 Working with Special Needs Children TASKS Individual Research Companion Website Field Experience Field Experience Cooperative Connection Cooperative 4.4 Technology for Special Needs: Resources 4.1 Concept Map: Adapting Instruction for Learner Differences 4.3 Evidence of Multiple Intelligences 4. 3 Evidence of Multiple Intelligences Have students observe a class of their choosing. 49 . arguing that it a sound explanation for the rise in IQ scores. One team should take the “pro” position on the argument that the group has read. Remind students to consult the guidelines in their text for interpreting IQ scores. The author points out that IQ scores have been rising in recent years.4. as well as the article itself. Pairs of students could then role play. 4.. Have each group read a section of the article that includes one of Neisser’s major hypotheses for the explanation of rising scores. suggesting that the argument is an insufficient explanation. Use this labeling technique to introduce information about latent traits. Once they have collected this information. Have an additional group perform the same task. Their task while in this class is to observe whether students have opportunities to express a variety of types of intelligences as discussed by Howard Gardner. and other sources.com/woolfolk10e. 4.0 Interpreting Scores Have your students “invent” three or four children with test scores derived from the group administered intelligence test. Once groupings of characteristics have been agreed upon. You can use this as an in-class activity or an out-of-class activity.2 Rising IQ Scores Have your students visit the CW. providing these descriptions to one another as they play the roles of teacher and parent. They should pay special attention to whether the teacher comments on abilities other than reading and math ability and whether the students engage in tasks that require more diverse skills than these. class meetings. Compare the results of the two groupings.1 What is Intelligence? Have your students (with appropriate permissions in place) ask five people to describe three characteristics of intelligent people.” www. 4. have students provide a single label to define the category. Chapter 4. eConnect and Extend. “Rising Scores on Intelligence Tests. They should write a description of the child that they might present to a parent in response to a parent’s request to know “how smart” his or her child is. Divide students into groups. Learner Differences and Learner Needs Activities 4. able to solve problems) on a separate card and have a subgroup of the class group those characteristics that appear to go together. The other team should take the “con” position. Each team should use what they know from the text.ablongman. place each characteristic (e. Then have the class divide into two teams. Use this categorization to lead a discussion of what things are usually considered to be evidence of “intelligence” and the consistency with which people make judgments of what characteristics go together.g. 4. For example. 4.edweek. The task of the group is to come to a consensus on whether students should be grouped by ability. he or she must now use the materials for the opposite point of view to convince his or her peers to oppose grouping. Handout Masters 4.teachers. In class. Some questions might be: What is the value of IQ testing? What useful information does it provide? How valid is IQ testing? Are children likely to be misclassified? After the visit. A small number of students should be selected to present the arguments to the entire class. 4. A useful starting site is the online edition of Education Week that is available at www. The other half of the groups in the class should prepare the opposite argument.org http://www. Have students brainstorm the kinds of questions that they will be asking the psychologist.4 Interview on IQ Testing Arrange to have a school psychologist. have students who prepared particular positions swap notes with someone who prepared the opposite position. and 4) the contribution of discussion to learning. In addition.5 Should We Group According to Ability? This activity will likely require more than one class period and students must do some preliminary work before the first class on this topic. Students should refer to the textbook in preparing their arguments. Students should come to class with a prepared set of arguments for the position they were asked to adopt. The remaining students should attempt to develop counterarguments to those presented. a member of a child study team. Assign the other two to locate material that opposes this practice. 2) criteria for judging the quality of a source.131) listed under “Connect and Extend to the research” should be used with this task.net/lessons/ 50 . the group members are likely to entertain a larger number of different ideas in this form. When groups have completed their initial task. Organize students into groups of four.6 Should We Teach to Match Learning Styles? Divide the class into groups.thegateway. if a student prepared an argument in support of ability grouping.org/. Have them redesign the lesson to accommodate specified types of learners. 3) the personal nature of much of the material on this topic. How will they use the information in the future? Students should select the 10 best questions from among those generated and be able to explain why these are good questions to ask. Among the issues to which the instructor may want to draw attention are: 1) the quality of sources available on the Web. 4. Assign two people in each group to locate material on the Web that supports the practice of tracking or grouping according to ability. They are to argue the point of view opposite the one they prepared. students should analyze the information they gained from the experience. Learner Differences and Learner Needs 4. http://www. or a counseling psychologist visit your class. Half of the groups in the class should prepare a set of arguments to support the proposition that teachers should teach to match learning styles.1 and the suggestions in the textbook (p.7 Adapting Instruction for Different Learners Have students locate a lesson plan on the Internet (see two sources below) or use a lesson plan they have already developed. The goal of this exercise is to provide students with an experience of cognitive conflict as they attempt to argue a position different than one to which they had developed some commitment. have all the students who worked on either “pro” or “con” arguments summarize their arguments. The Elementary Journal. 4.5 with this activity. Students should then work together to suggest a set of guidelines for teaching students who are mentally retarded in mainstreamed classes. Bob and Tom. Have your students complete the listing of Internet resources that was started in Handout Master 4.4). Have them summarize the current knowledge on this topic.3 provide examples of educational plans for two children. You might wish to copy and distribute the final composite list the students develop. L. 2 and 4. Give your students the reference above and ask them to find additional research articles that address the issue of special needs students as tutors. Have your students examine their own computers and their help systems for accommodations made for special users. 3.org/ 51 . Have your students discuss with a teacher what kinds of strategies he or she might use to assist the child with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Tutors and their students scored higher on a variety of reading tests when compared to students in a control condition.aamr.4. They might begin by using the listing of types of special problems students might have (see text by Woolfolk) and using that list to organize their search.6 provides a checklist that a child might use to help monitor his or her own performance. Have your students develop a comprehensive list of devices/supports that are available that can help students with special needs. The following Web site for the American Association of Mental Retardation would also be helpful: http://www. T.. 4.9 Technology for Special Needs Technology can help your students to work with children with special needs by providing accessibility to students. Learner Differences and Learner Needs 4. by supporting the skills they have. It requires the child to note assignments and rate his or her own behavior in various aspects of the school day. 1. They are most likely to find this kind of information by consulting the help systems on the computer. and by providing easy access to a variety of resources available on the Internet (see Handout Master 4. Use Handout Master 4. Organize your class into pairs and ask students to identify the key problems they might experience if they were the classroom teacher who was responsible for implementing these plans. 4. Reverse-role tutoring: The effects of handicapped students tutoring regular class students. 87.11 Assisting the ADHD Child Handout Master 4. 4.8 Working with Special Needs Children Handout Masters 4. 2.4. B.10 Special Needs Students as Tutors Top. 413-24.12 Teaching Students with Mental Retardation Have students decide how teaching students who are mentally retarded would be different from teaching children of typical intelligence. Top and Osguthorpe (1987) showed that learning disabled students and behaviorally disordered students benefited from the experience of tutoring. & Osguthorpe. (1987). R. They should refer to the textbook for information about retardation. 13 Examination of Special Education Services Invite a number of teachers to your class to engage in a panel discussion about the evaluation. Can children with hyperactivity disorders learn effectively in school without medication? 2. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you.mylabschool. Some of the following questions may be helpful. Learner Differences and Learner Needs 4. 3. 5.setting components encourage students to perform to the best of their individual abilities and give feedback to the teacher on the level of understanding of each student. 5. which score would you be more concerned about? Consider more valid? What hypotheses might you entertain about the student? 3. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. placement. or what should they be doing. The questions and goal. to adapt the lesson for students with varying learning styles? The use of centers allows students to work at their own pace.4. and educational programming for students with special needs in their classrooms. 4. How frequently are handicapped students placed in their classes? What types of handicapping conditions have been represented? What types of special teaching methods or adaptations have they tried? Have any types of handicaps been more difficult to accommodate than others? Is there any type of teacher training not provided by their college programs that they feel would be helpful to them in working with handicapped students? Discussion Questions 1. Do labels have the negative influences people think they do? 4. 1. 2. MLS Video Lab Module 2: Individual Differences. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. they are “recycled” through the same material on the assumption that repetition will produce learning. If there was a large discrepancy (in either direction) between a child’s performance level in school and his or her measured IQ score. What are the main difficulties you would anticipate in having a special needs students “included” in your class? What kinds of support or assistance would you need and where might you find it? MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. 52 . a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www. The methods of keeping track of where the students have gone ensures that they visit every center. but groups of students should generate questions about teaching special needs children who are in the age groups they hope to teach. Educational Psychology. Clip 4: Strategies for Teaching Diverse Learners (2:34) 1. What are these teachers doing. as well as helps the teachers see where the students are strong and where they need more attention. Often when students fail a grade or course. Use the concept of cognitive style to argue against this.com/). 60. & Ackerman. New York: Doubleday. J. D. (1989). T. A. (1993). In our own terms: Children living with physical disabilities.. Singapore. (1993). 125-131. Spielberger and J. R. A. (1987). M. Taking charge of ADHD. Inc. R. Singapore: Child’s Play. Letch. A. A. Learning disabilities: New directions for assessment and intervention. & Montague. Dykman. 1. C. Behavioral subtypes of attention deficit disorder. A. (1994). D. & Nero. Althea. P. (1989). If a teacher finds that a student has moved through all centers quickly and needs additional challenges. Manning. 1332-141. New York: Guilford Press. and listening. McKinney. M. Ltd. they can spend as much time on an activity as needed. Issues in the education of students with attention deficit disorders: Introduction to the special issue. MA: Allyn and Bacon. (1996). How does this method of teaching allow for the needs of gifted students. Straight talk about mental testing. (1993)..). H. New York: The Free Press. E. WI: Gareth Stevens. he or she can quickly ascertain what is needed on an individual basis without affecting the other students in the class. R. H. B. (Eds. T. Hocutte. 60. Beisser. Jensen. Exceptional Children. Cambridge. A. Montague. R. Becker.). McKinney. H.. D. Special people. (1993). Needham Heights.. (1981). (1989). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. T. Fiore. The psychophysiology of intelligence. NJ: Erlbaum. (1916). In contrast. (Vol. Anticipation of gains in general information: A comparison of verbal aptitudes. R. (1982a)... Harvard University. reading comprehension. 53 . Barkley. Binet. D.. Gardner. J. Flying without wings. Needham Heights. 1-33). A. (1995). MA: Allyn and Bacon. 163-173. Who cares about disabled people? Child’s Play Ltd. as well as learning challenged students? Because the students move at their own pace. Eysenck. M. 103-106.) Advances in personality assessment. J. London: Dinosaur Publications. The measurement of intelligence. N.4. B. Educational interventions for students with attention deficit disorder. In C.. pp. I have epilepsy. & Hocutte. Self-talk for teachers and students. J. & Goldsmith-Phillips. a student who is having trouble getting through all the centers may need the activities altered to make it possible for him or her to finish. (1982b). (1989). A model for intelligence. A. MA: Harvard Project Zero. Exceptional Children. M. Eysenck. A. 60. Educational assessment of children with attention deficit disorders. Exceptional Children. J. Butcher (Eds. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. N. Jordan. (1983). P. C. (Ed. 60. Milwaukee. Bergman. & Payne. Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter REFERENCES Adams. Inc.. Learner Differences and Learner Needs 2. Exceptional Children. Hillsdale. London: Macmillan. D. The second in a series of three programs begun with So many children. Encouraged by the moral of the story. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. 52 minutes. Learner Differences and Learner Needs Rose. Journal of Genetic Psychology. S. D.4. Alexandria. Children with learning disabilities face an inordinate amount of frustration. these programs show the children. Wechsler. 143-153. video. Intelligence. Zentall. New York: Macmillan. video. now adolescents. Lives on the boundary: The struggles and achievements of America’s underprepared. A language for Ben. 125 N. Documents the moving story of 40 mentally retarded people who broke free from their handicaps to achieve world-wide acclaim on the stage of the Sydney Opera House. Research on the educational implications of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. (1993). A delightful story of a young child with impaired hearing who becomes discouraged in his efforts to join in a football game at a local playground.. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. Stoddard. Inc. video. Upon returning home.” which comes to life on screen through a captivating dance interpretation. Viewers are given a new image of handicapped people as they demonstrate their potentials and their rightful place in the mainstream. 9 minutes. (1958). (MTI/Coronet) Children no more. R. and tension in their daily lives. video. (From MTI/ Coronet. and the change in public feelings toward the mentally handicapped. West St. This is a vital addition to the mainstreaming movement. 90. video. S. The nature of intelligence and the principles of cognition. 70 minutes. The only deaf child in the class. Telephone orders: (703) 549-9110. their development. New York: Free Press. 3-15. I’m Dan. 51 minutes. (1986). (1923). G. C. 60.) How difficult can this be?. The meaning of intelligence. teachers. he reads the fable. he is helped by a “signing” teacher. 50 minutes. FILMS. Sternberg. anxiety. AND AUDIOCASSETTES Many of the following materials are available through the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. VIDEOTAPES. VA 22314-2798. Spearman. Inc. (From PBS Video) 54 . Hi. Inc. and community have given him the selfconfidence to be his best. (1989). Geniuses: A framework for intellectual abilities and theories of them. the boy runs outside to try again. This is the story of Ben’s first year in an English nursery school. 239-250. M. schoolmates. Bellevue intelligence scale--Data on the youth of intelligence between sixteen and twenty-one years as measured by the Education Index #11. “The Tortoise and the Hare. There are more questions than answers – should he be taught to speak? Will he prefer to continue school among deaf or hearing children? – but it is clear his parents. This unique and highly acclaimed program allows viewers to experience learning disabilities firsthand. (1943). Breaking free. Exceptional Children. 10. Learning styles expert. Regular lives. Learning/teaching styles and brain behavior. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. video. 52 minutes. How strongly do physical. Box 2053. A videotaped case study helps apply what is presented in the video. Inc. So many children. 53 minutes. What do we really know about learning styles and reading and math achievement. 30 minutes. Many videos are available on exceptionality from Films for the Humanities & Sciences. (PBS Video) Social expectations of the learner and students’ ability/inability to respond. approximately 45 minutes. Inc. and communities interested in obstacles. audio.4. Rita Dunn. Stock #612-20447c2. (From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. Inc. audio. This is the first in a series of three programs that document 20 years in the lives of five mentally handicapped people. teachers. (800) 257-5126. video. Learner Differences and Learner Needs Learning disabilities. video. 30 minutes. O. Princeton. a supportive environment helps to produce well-adjusted adults while a hostile home can produce the contrary. Nature and nurture. The third segment in the series about five mentally handicapped children. A panel of experts on learning styles answers questions from an audience of ASCD members and presents conclusions of learning styles research. video. strategies.. Stock #612-87551c2. and emotional elements influence the learning that takes place in your class? Stock #612-87574c2. Stock #614-106. they are leading full and active lives and appear to have fulfilled much of their potential. Now between ages 25 and 31. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. (From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. This program from the critically acclaimed “Human Animal” series looks at identical twins separated at birth and finds that biology is not everything. One percent of us. Training intellectual skills – A triarchic model. P. Hear the research on learning styles and learn how the findings can be applied easily and economically in your classroom. This segment looks at parents’ efforts to come to terms with their children’s disabilities. Inc. Learn how schools have boosted test scores and created more positive classroom environments by adapting teaching strategies to individual learning styles. v2. color. audio. Stock #612-20232c2. and goals of mainstreaming as a way to integrate people with disabilities into the ordinary routines of living. 39 minutes. Stock #612-20372c2. A nine-year-old boy is profiled as his parents and teacher detail the problem he faces in school and home.) Recent research on learning styles and practical implications for supervisors and teachers. 19 minutes. audio. explains her research and observations. Classroom examples show teachers how to accommodate different learning styles. audio. 55 . NJ 08543.) Learning – Matter of style. video. This video provides a model for parents. This program examines the frequently misdiagnosed and misunderstood problem and the importance of early diagnosis and treatment. Inc. sociological. Psychologist Robert Sternberg discusses his theory of intelligence and how it can be applied to the teaching of thinking skills. video. ldanatl. video. Epilepsy: Taming the brain storm.add. Causes. 19 minutes. video. video. Hearing. Explores misconceptions related to epilepsy and looks at recent advances in research. Autism: Childhood and beyond. Discussion of current therapies. 26 minutes.ed.edu/ Disabilities IDEA law (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act): http://www. video. video. video. Points out how to recognize pressures on gifted teens. Effective behavioral programming. isolated. video. which offer an effective cure for a substantial number of dyslexics.gov/offices/OSERS/IDEA/the_law. Phil Donahue program about intelligent and accomplished.html Attention Deficit Disorder Association: http://www. USEFUL WEB SITES Multiple Intelligences Project Zero: http://pzweb. and treatment are discussed. Down’s syndrome. 26 minutes. Demonstrates the use of specially-adapted colored lenses. video. 26 minutes. 14 minutes. and reviews the future of the Right of Education Movement. and how this is diagnosed and treated in the public school system.org/ 56 . This program explores some of the difficulties encountered by the hearing impaired and examines principal methods of communication: signing and reading. 26-year-old man is profiled. Dyslexia: One corrective procedure. video.harvard. This film or video examines traditional attitudes toward handicapped individuals. video.4. the latest research is reviewed. Learner Differences and Learner Needs Autism: Breaking through. reviews legislative history. Medical and psychological research is discussed on this Phil Donahue program.org/ Learning Disabilities Association of America: http://www. but emotionally immature. Eight video tapes demonstrating the use of behavioral procedures for training mentally handicapped persons. 28 minutes. symptoms. and vulnerable adolescents. Nearly five hours of instruction. Difficulties in learning to read and write. 19 minutes. Gifted adolescents & suicide. 28 minutes. Dyslexia: Disabled or different. Education for all children. 5. and values that guide behavior in a group. 2. II. Banks’ 5 dimensions of multicultural education (Fig. 5. 57 . Culture and Group Membership: Defined by the knowledge. S. American Cultural Diversity 1. and Society 1. and stay in school longer 2. Individuals. The U. Factors maintaining a cycle of poverty a) Health Environment and Stress b) Low expectations and low academic self concept c) Peer influences and resistance cultures d) Tracking: Low-SES students may be tracked into “general ability” classes that emphasize memorization and passive behavior e) Home Environment and Resources Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement (Fig. 5. get higher grades. Family attitudes toward education are important in considering a relationship between SES and achievement 3. children are complex beings who are members of many groups simultaneously b) Membership in a particular group does not determine behavior Economic and Social Class Differences A. High-SES students of all ethnic groups score higher on achievement tests.2) Major concern: Some ethnic groups score lower than the average on A. What Would You Do? Today’s Diverse Classrooms A. One in six Americans under age 18 lives in poverty 2. regardless of the groups to which they belong B. Culture and Diversity 5 Culture and Diversity Teaching Outline I. traditions. has the highest rate of poverty for children among industrialized nations B. attitudes.1) a) Content integration b) Understanding relationship of knowledge and belief c) Reducing prejudice d) Creating social structures to support learning e) Using teaching methods to reach all students 2. standardized tests III. Cautions in Interpreting Cultural Differences a) Differences should not be considered in isolation.350 for a family of four 3. Social Class and SES 1. rules. Goal of a multicultural education is to educate all students. IV. Groups. Poverty and School Achievement 1. Defined as income less than $19. Gender-role identity 3. Short-term effects: Test performance 2. criticism. Point/Counterpoint: Do Boys and Girls Learn Differently? Language Differences in the Classroom A. social. engineering. a schema of organized knowledge about a group 3. In early years. Continuing discrimination E. Dialects and Pronunciation B. Definition: A variation of a language spoken by a particular ethnic. Gender-role stereotyping in the preschool years 4. little difference in intelligence tests. Sex discrimination in classrooms a) Teachers give boys more comments. Sexual orientation (see Table 5. Dialects 1. Home environment and resources 3. Long-term effects: Disidentification 3. and sexual orientation 1. and correction than girls b) Teachers can perpetuate stereotypes by asking boys to do physical tasks. What is prejudice? 2. but tests have been balanced so that neither sex is favored C. to be leaders. 58 . praise. In schools in which there are no significant gender-based differences in mathematics achievement. The Legacy of Discrimination 1. Differences may be due to discrimination or socioeconomic status Changing Demographics: Cultural differences 1. Combating stereotype threat Girls and Boys: Differences in the Classroom A. Girls tend to do better in math when they work in cooperative groups D. Stereotype Threat 1. with low-SES children having more trouble adjusting to the school norms 2. Cultural compatibility D. C. or regional group 2. be secretaries B. asking girls to arrange flowers. gender-role behaviors. Culture and Community V. Sexual Identity: includes gender identity.5. Childrearing styles may differ between low-SES and middle-class families. Cultural conflicts 4.182) 1. VI. little difference in mental and motor development 2. Gender bias in the curriculum: Stereotyped views of gender roles 5. Eliminating Gender Bias (Guidelines pg. The development of prejudice a) Prejudice may be learned from family and friends b) Extreme prejudice may develop as part of authoritarian personality c) Prejudice about groups can be represented as stereotypes.2) 2. or science 2. teachers are enthusiastic about and have strong backgrounds in mathematics. Sex Differences and Mental Abilities 1. In school years. 5. Goal is to Eliminate Racism. Develop/Maintain Their Cultural Competence 3. Definitions of bilingualism include the idea that an individual speaks two languages 3. Resilient Classrooms a) Safe. Research on Bilingual Programs Creating Culturally Inclusive Classrooms A. Dialects and teaching a) Focus on understanding the child b) Accept the dialect as valid but teach the standard form of English or dominant language c) Teachers may need to repeat instructions using different words B. Bilingual education: Two approaches a) Teach all subjects in English as early as possible b) Teach students in their primary language and increase Englishlanguage instruction over time 8. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy. native-language maintenance instruction (see Table 5. Classism and Prejudice B. Students must: 1. Myths about bilingual students (Table 5. Bilingualism 1.3) 9. Two aspects to proficiency in a second language: Face-to-face communication and academic uses of language a) Face-to-face communication skills takes about two years to develop b) Academic skills take between five to seven years to develop 7. Resilient Students a) Actively engaged in school b) Good interpersonal skills c) Confidence in their own ability to learn d) Positive attitudes towards school e) Pride in ethnicity f) High expectations 2. Develop a Critical Consciousness to Challenge the Status Quo C. but this problem diminishes by age four 6. 59 . Difficulties of being bilingual and bicultural 4. Bilingual Education 1. Language acquisition is slower when two languages develop simultaneously. Experience Academic Success 2. Sexism. Transition approach vs. Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students C. orderly environment b) Positive teacher-student relationships c) Two strands binding students to the classroom 3. Fostering Resilience (ability to survive despite difficult circumstances and/or threats to development) 1.4) 2. Higher degrees of bilingualism are associated with increased cognitive abilities 5. Culture and Diversity VII. Increase in numbers of children for whom English is not their native language 2. Cultural Values and Learning Preferences 3. XI. academic self determination) Relationship Strand (caring teacher-student relationships. effective home-school relationships) VIII. Culture and Community (i) (ii) Self-Agency Strand (academic self efficacy. effective peer relations. Constructing a Resilient Classroom ( Guidelines pg. Diversity in Learning 1. Know your students (Guidelines pg. Social Organization 2. Teach your students Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses Guidelines Included • • • Avoiding Sexism in Teaching Family and Community Partnerships: Building Learning Communities Culturally Relevant Teaching ========================================================== Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. Convergences: Teaching Every Student 1. Respect your students 3. Socioliguistics a) Study of the courtesies and conventions of conversations across cultures questioned b) Participation structure: Students need to know the communication rules.5) Diversity and Convergence A. and how to communicate—Different groups of children bring different participation structures to the classroom c) Sources of misunderstandings B. the when. 193.and upperincome students? 60 . What is the difference between the melting pot and multicultural education? 2. Cautions about Learning Styles Research a) Validity of learning styles research has been strongly questioned b) Dangers of promoting stereotypes by describing cultural groups by global characteristics c) Identifying ethnic-group differences may be misleading 4. Fig. 5. behavioral selfcontrol. 199) 2. Why does the school achievement of low-income students often fall below that of middle. What is culture and what groups make up your own cultural identity? 3. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. 3.5. X. where. IX. What are some examples of conflicts and compatibilities between home and school cultures? What is the school’s role in the development of gender differences? What is effective teaching in bilingual classrooms? What are examples of culturally relevant pedagogy that fit the grades and subjects you will teach? How can you create a resilient classroom? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 5) Transparencies (T38-T45) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 5) MyLabSchool • “Teaching in Bilingual Classrooms” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 5) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint • “Separating boys from girls.5. Culture and Diversity 4. 7. 6. 8. 5.” Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T38 T39 T40 T41 T42 T43 T44 T45 Bank’s Dimensions of Multicultural Education Cultural Diversity and Individual Identity Projected Number of Children in Poverty Gender Schema Theory Two Approaches to Balanced Bilingual Instruction Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum Reform The Impact of Stereotype Threat on College Students’ Standardized Test Performance Student-Teacher Interaction Differences in Diverse Classrooms 61 . 5 5. Different.5 Teaching ESL Students Companion Website 5.6 Status in the Classroom Links to Other Chapters 62 .0 Lecture Outline Social Class Differences Girls and Boys: Differences in the Classroom Language Differences in the Classroom Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms Bring it All Together: Teaching Every Student 5.2 5.2 Cultural Differences: Sources of Conflict 5.3 The National Center for Children in Poverty 5.6 Lesson Planning Individual or Cooperative 5.8 Status in the Classroom 5.3 Patterns of Differentiation 5.1 What to do? Similar.4 Who is in? 5.0 5. Culture and Community Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 5 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? Today’s Multicultural Classrooms ACTIVITIES 5.5.4 The Same Kind of Poverty? TYPE Cooperative Cooperative Cooperative Companion Website Technology 5. or Neither 5.1 Cultural Differences: Sources of Conflict HANDOUTS 5.7 Field Experience Individual Lesson Planning Concept Map: Culturally Compatible Classrooms 5. Culture and Diversity Activities 5. teachers.ncrel. They should search the internet for materials related to this question. Organize your students into small groups of four or five students and ask them to compare the responses of the four teachers on page 195 of the textbook. Russians). 5. have the students work in groups to discuss possible sources of clash between the culture of the school and that of the home. Different. 63 . 5.” http://www.0 What to do? The description of the case includes the idea that the two newly assigned children in the class are creating serious challenges for the teacher.g. you will find links to sources on students at risk.com/woolfolk10e. 5.ablongman.5.gov/index. Ask your students to consider what they might do as teachers to minimize these difficulties. Once all groups have presented their arguments to the larger group..1. “National Center for Children in Poverty. At this Web site. focus on differences among groups (Asians or African-Americans).2 Cultural Differences: Possible Sources of Conflict Using Handout Master 5. Ask students to note which arguments were persuasive and why.ed. This site has lots of statistics and advocacy information about children living in poverty. Ask your students to compare and contrast the impact of poverty on rural children and urban children.4 The Same Kind of Poverty? One of the misconceptions that people have is that there are more poor people (and children) who live in cities than live in rural areas. eConnect and Extend.asp) provides data about students. as well as links to early education resources. These sources are only starting points for students to explore the communalities/differences in the experience of poverty in rural and urban environments. Chapter 5. Which teacher had the best suggestions for how to respond to the difficulties in the classroom? What criticisms would you have of the various responses? 5. or Neither Divide your students into three sets of groups to consider whether a multicultural education should focus on similarities among groups (e.1 Same. Give students 20 minutes to come up with a set of arguments that they will then share with the class.org/sdrs/). Two useful sites in this regard are: The National Center for Education Statistics site (http://nces. See if students can generate additional categories or examples. and schools. have a general discussion on the issue. The North Central Regional Educational Laboratory has a program called “Pathways to School Improvement” (http://www.3 National Center for Children in Poverty Have your students visit the CW. Italians. or should not be concerned with either similarities or differences. students should draw a diagram of the class and the location of each child. They need to consider the strengths and limitations of these suggestions. socioeconomic status in the lessons. students should characterize the children in terms of identifiable characteristics (e. race. Assign students to small groups to consider how they would use these suggestions when organizing group learning in their classes. “Ideas for Working with ESL students.2 and 5. What evidence is there for pervasive individual differences in learning styles? 64 . your students should develop a lesson plan on any topic that they might expect to teach during student teaching experiences. What elements of the designed lesson were specifically included with such accommodations in mind? What would students do procedurally to guarantee the inclusion of all children? 5.3. For each class. eConnect and Extend. Before the observation period. students should use Handout 5. Culture and Community 5. Ask them to clarify what this means and why it would matter educationally. ethnicity.5 Teaching ESL Students Have your students visit CW. Ask them to group the classes according to whether these are in the natural sciences. Chapter 5.7 Patterns of Differentiation Have your students visit two different classrooms for a one-hour period..4 to record the number of times specific children are called upon in favorable and unfavorable ways.8 Status in the Classroom Ask students to consider all the classes they are currently taking in college (without mentioning who is teaching them). They should include the following in their lesson plan: 1. ask them to consider what kinds of students appear to have high status in the class.com/woolfolk10e. 2. What is the relationship between special education and multicultural education? Why do some school systems assign disproportionate numbers of students from particular groups to special education classes? 2. During the observation period. Are there classes in which all the students have low status? Do the same kinds of students have high status in each kind of class? What behaviors signify students as having high status? Discussion Questions 1.5. gender) to answer such questions as “Were boys called upon more than girls?” 5.5. A clear statement of the topic Purposes of the lesson (what do they hope to accomplish) Materials and equipment needed Procedures for implementing the lesson Methods for evaluating the success of the lesson Have your students explain in detail how they will accommodate individual differences in gender. social sciences. 3. 5. using Handout Masters 5. At the end of the period. language.” http://www.ablongman. 5. or humanities using Handout Master 5.g. 4.6 Lesson Planning In this activity. What are they are and which approach does this teacher favor? The first approach introduces English as early as possible with little or no use of the students’ native languages. Planning and organizing for multicultural instruction. 65 . M. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research. (1990).mylabschool. assigning activities that are within the ability of the student to avoid frustration. E. Do you believe that schools reproduce the existing class and social structure—that students from lower socioeconomic classes are not really being prepared for upward social mobility? Explain. repetition. Reading. 2. 209-235. so it can be assumed that she uses the first approach. providing prompts and frequent feedback. College students’ perceptions of men and women choosing teaching and management. The teacher in this multicultural classroom teaches in English. MLS Video Lab Module 4: Cultural and Language Differences Clip 7: Teaching in Bilingual Classrooms (3:26) 1. K. Analyze the effects of poverty on a child’s ability to benefit from schooling. these students may begin to feel that their native language and culture are inferior.. 4. E. G. (1983). a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www.com/). (1982). Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. 24. (1988). 93-108. This teacher does not appear to speak a language other than English. 8. but asks other students to translate when necessary. W. Culture and Diversity 3. Sorting black students for success and failure: The inequality of ability grouping and tracking. and Weisberger. falling behind their classmates. Also. MA: Addison-Wesley. Urban Education. allowing responses in the native language. Discuss the roles of social class and culture in shaping similarities and differences among individuals. Chunn. focusing on key vocabulary concepts. Expectation states and interracial interaction in school settings. 2. What are some ways a teacher can overcome the language barrier in a multicultural classroom? Possible answers may include modeling. Brabeck.5. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. but she does seem to be aware of the importance of reinforcing each student’s individual culture. Brutsaert. 432-439. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. providing resources in the native language. Educational Psychology. Urban League Review. Cohen. 5. H. 841-857. There are two schools of thought on teaching ESL students that focus on the transition to English. (1989). In contrast. 11. proponents of native-language instruction believe that students will suffer academically by learning content in an unfamiliar language. and utilizing peers as interpreters. MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. Annual Review of Sociology. Additional Resources for Teaching This Chapter REFERENCES Baker. Changing sources of self-esteem among girls and boys in secondary schools. The effects of gender and sex role egalitarianism. Miller (Eds. M. A. Profiles several women who have attained high levels of prominence and accomplishment despite innumerable explicit and implicit barriers. In M.. J. 3/4 or 1/2 inch videotape. Hertz-Lazarowitz & N. The mismeasure of man. (1996). Westport. Designing groupwork: Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom. E. I.5. Greenwood Press. J. Nicki Giovanni. 26. Comanche Indian and founder of Americans for Indian Opportunity.). A. singer. R. McGill Journal of Education. H. Urban and rural schools research: Implications for school governance. Education and the struggle against race. Dr. (1989). New York: Routledge.). and Helen Reddy. (Films. Rendon. New York: Teacher’ College Press. 436-454. S. specialist in problems of newborn infants. New York: Cambridge University Press. R. Special report: Short answers to common questions about bilingual education. Culture and Community Cohen. J. S. Hyde. & Petersen. L. Selkow. Miller. (1994). 49. FILMS. class. R. & Hope. Interaction in cooperative groups: The theoretical anatomy of group learning (pp. Miller (Eds. L. S.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. all pointing to a new attitude and image women have about themselves. Cohen. Andersen & P. (1991). & Smith. (1992). Belmont. New York: Norton. New York: The Free Press. Lomotey. Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children.S. H. In R. (1984).. 16 mm. Gonzalez. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Maruyama. R.).. (1989).. LaDonna Harris. N. Gould. and Linn. Race. 203-229). W. American poet. Inc. E.. (1986) (Eds. Shirley Chisholm. Virginia Apgar. S. CT. VIDEOTAPES. 11. U. O. Race identity and representation in education. K. M. Educating a new majority: Transforming America’s educational system for diversity. Agenda. H. In R. New York: Cambridge University Press. Knechel. McCarthey. To make a difference: Teaching in the inner city. and gender (pp. Effective programs for students at risk. Slavin.. Interaction in cooperative groups: The theoretical anatomy of group learning (pp. 222-251. 228-249). C. M. 29-35. Social categorization and intergroup acceptance: Principles for the design and development of cooperative teams. Cummins. Assessing sex bias in testing. G. (1970). discuss a wide range of topics from politics to personal feelings. 82-87). Cuban. Collins (Eds. 21 (4).. & Harrington. congresswoman. 25 minutes. Teaching in multiculturally heterogeneous classrooms: Findings from a model program. (1992). Education and Urban Society. (1981). class. S. 7-23. & Crichlow. (1993). Mickelson. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. (1992). Hertz-Lazarowitz & N. CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. and gender inequality. L. C. Katherine Graham of the Washington Post. (1981). AND AUDIOCASSETTES Accomplished women. (1979). and Swanson. Review of Educational Research. The psychology of gender: Advances through meta-analysis. 1974) 66 . The impacts of role reversal and minority empowerment strategies on numerically unbalanced cooperative groups. P. video. These poignant vignettes present the problems. CNN’s award-winning “Special Reports” unit has put together a moving and highly sensitive view of the black man’s position in today’s world. Culture and Diversity Bilingual education: An inside view. I only want you to be happy. (Films Inc. Asians are one of the nation’s fast growing racial groups—a fact with enormous significance for our culture and the economy. 16 minutes. the reasons why people vent anger against minorities. and trying to nurture self-esteem in poor children. Young black men in American society are at risk. 26 minutes. 30 minutes. (University of California. Sexism. This program examines the resurgence of racially motivated violence and vandalism. 3/4 or 1/2 inch videotape. Available from Teacher’s College Press. 3/4 inch. and shows the toll taken on the children and their mothers by the problems of finding shelter and enough food to survive. (CRM. 29 minutes. the odds are one in 186. Some inner-city residents and experts. discuss black on black violence. 16 mm. A black American male has a one in 29 chance of being murdered. 26 minutes. realities. video. CNN special reports: Black men. Inc. Status treatments for the classroom. 25 minutes. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. myths. A 1994 videotape (30 min) that accompanies Elizabeth Cohen’s book on designing groupwork. 26 minutes. stereotyping. Samuel Bentances and Ben Wattenberg consider the possible sociological and political consequences of such a scenario in the specially adapted Phil Donahue program. Two sisters with very different views of the feminine role in American society discuss their ideas. video. 1976) Multicultural education: A teaching style. NY. for white men. 1978). the social and economic implications of racist acts. The Asianization of America.. 1/2 inch VHS. 1985) Black on black violence. Inc. video. 26 minutes. video. This program examines Asians’ successes in academia and to what extent they can or want to blend into the America melting pot. Children of poverty. (Turner Multimedia) Hablas Ingles?. Inc.) Racism in America. 26 minutes. and how a community successfully responded to its racial problems. Inc. The social fabric that binds black families and provides role models has disintegrated. Alvin Poussaint. All indications point to whites becoming the new American minority. (From Films Inc. 29 minutes. 67 . including Harvard psychiatrist Dr. Inc. From Films for Humanities & Sciences. This could be used to structure a discussion of role confusion. This program looks at the movement to make English the official language of the United States and presents the arguments on the issue. 16 mm. mean streets. and hidden values. video. The next minority: White Americans. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. video. This program profiles some of America’s children of poverty.5. video.. and the young men who have broken the cycle to achieve success. trying to prevent kids from becoming either the victims or the perpetrators of crimes. 52 minutes. The following titles on the topic of equity in schools are available from Insight Media. Culture and Community Woman and man.ed.org/subjects/mc. As part of the “Human Animal” series. http://www.cln.gov/parents/academic/help/partnership. 2162 Broadway. Educational resources.org/index.nmci. • • • • • • • Valuing diversity: Multicultural communication Prejudice: Eye of the storm Shortchanging girls. including curriculum and instructional resources can be found at http://www. NY. and respect among people of different racial.edchange.cln.5. ethnic and cultural backgrounds. awareness.html Multiculturalism Multicultural Pavilion—ESL and Bilingual Education: http://www.org/sdrs/ Partnership for Family Involvement in Education: http://www.ncrel.htm Community Learning Network: http://www.html Gender and Mathematics The Math Forum @ Drexel: Additional Resources on Women and Mathematics: http://mathforum. Phil Donahue speaks with men and women in many walks of life and finds the role differences between women and men beginning to fade.org/multicultural/sites/esl.org/library/ed_topics/equity_women/ 68 .org/ This is a Canadian site that provides information on multiculturalism. shortchanging America Increasing motivation through gender equity The psychological residuals of slavery Voices Dealing with diversity in the classroom USEFUL WEB SITES Poverty/At-Risk Students Pathways to School Improvement: http://www.html National MultiCultural Institute: The mission of this institute is to increase knowledge. New York. video. Learning: A Definition 1. What Would You Do? Understanding Learning A.6. Cognitive view: Learning as an internal process that cannot be observed directly. Behavioral Views of Learning 6 Behavioral Views of Learning Teaching Outline I. Behavioral view: Learning as a change in observable behavior B. Types of Consequences (Fig. Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing behavior every time it occurs to teach a new behavior faster 2. Learning is not always what it Seems Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning A. Intermittent reinforcement: Reinforcing behavior periodically (not every time) to maintain an established behavior (Table 6. 209) Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses A. Punishment: Use of punishers to decrease or suppress behavior a) Presentation punishment: Presentation of a punisher b) Removal punishment: Disappearance or removal of a reinforcer D. Reinforcement Schedules 1. Pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus 2. Operants: Deliberate actions influenced by the consequences that follow them 2. Permanent changes in knowledge or behavior brought about by experience. Pavlov’s Dilemma and Discovery: Classical Conditioning 1. Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned responses become conditioned responses to the formerly neutral stimulus (Guidelines pg. Repeated Pairings of two Events (Stimulus And Response) cause them to be Associated B. changes in behavior are a reflection of internal change 3. II.1) a) Interval schedules: Fixed or variable (based on time interval) b) Ratio schedules: Fixed or variable (based on number of responses) E. The Work of Skinner: Behavior can be changed by changes in its antecedents (stimuli that precede it) and/or its consequences C. Summarizing the Effects Of Reinforcement Schedules III. Reinforcement: Use reinforcers to strengthen behavior a) Positive reinforcement: Presentation of a pleasant stimulus b) Negative reinforcement: Disappearance or avoidance of an aversive stimulus 2. 69 . Operant conditioning: Effort to influence learning control of the consequences of behavior B. not merely through maturation or temporary conditions 2. IV.1) 1. 6. Key Concepts 1. and praise must be believable 2. Satiation: Requiring students to continue inappropriate behavior until they are tired of it 3. Behavioral Views of Learning V. Social isolation or time out: Often impractical or impossible to use 6. Response cost: Loss of reinforcer 5.6. Persistence: Variable schedules produce behaviors more resistant to extinction then a fixed schedule 3. Extinction: Removal of reinforcement leads to ceasing of behavior F. Positive practice: When students make academic errors. Some cautions: Teachers should pair punishment with reinforcement Guidelines pg. quiet reprimands most effective 4. the behavior must be specified. Focus is on the why of the behavior not the what 2. Speed of performance: Ratio schedules produce faster response time than interval schedules 2. have them practice correct responses 5. Selecting the best reinforcers a) Premack principle using a preferred activity as reinforcer for a less-preferred activity b) The less-preferred activity must precede the preferred activity 3. C. Guidelines pg. Cueing: Providing an antecedent stimulus just before a certain behavior is to occur.2) Applied Behavior Analysis A. Reprimands: Private. Reaching Every Student: Functional Behavioral Assessment and Positive Behavior Support 1. Reasons of problem fall into four categories a) Receive attention from others b) Escape from some unpleasant situation c) Get desired item or activity d) Meet sensory needs 1. Prompting: Providing students help in responding to cues (Figure 6. Methods for Encouraging Behavior 1. 70 . Negative reinforcement 2. Shaping: Reinforcing progress in successive approximations a) Reinforce each sub-skill b) Reinforce improvements in accuracy c) Reinforce longer and longer periods of performance d) Reinforce longer and longer periods of participation 4. 220 B. Antecedents and Behavior Change 1. nonjudgmental cues help prevent negative confrontations 3. Coping with Undesirable Behavior 1. Reinforcing with teacher attention a) Behavior improves when teachers give attention to constructive behavior while making rules explicit and ignoring problem behavior b) Praise must be contingent on the desired behavior. Antecedents (events preceding a behavior): Provide information about which behaviors will lead to positive and negative behavior 2. 223 7. 71 . Schedules of giving tokens a) When the system begins. exchanged often for rewards b) Once the system works. listening to a radio) 3. and consequences b) Doing Functional Behavioral Assessments (Fig. in mathematics b) Gives student the extra time and the support they need to learn 2. by being able to recycle through the information B. Tokens are symbolic rewards that can later be exchanged for prizes or privileges 2.g. 6. Positive Behavioral Supports: interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose a) Functional behavior assessment: procedures used to obtain information about antecedents. 6. When to use token reinforcement systems a) To motivate students who are completely disinterested and unresponsive b) To encourage students who have failed to make academic progress c) To deal with a class that is out of control 3. Contingency Contract (Fig. tokens are given continuously. Advantages a) Gives students the time to learn foundational information. Reward goes to the group if a single problem student behaves 4. behaviors. Home-based consequences: Parents provide reward based on school reports of tokens earned (do not use if parents may punish severely for poor reports) 4. Extrinsic rewards may undermine intrinsic motivation D. Disadvantages a) Teachers need a variety of materials to allow students to recycle through the objectives. Team-based good behavior game a) Give a discipline mark if a team member transgresses a “good behavior” rule b) The team with the fewest marks receives a special reward or privilege 2. Mastery learning: Students who do not reach a minimum level of mastery on a unit can recycle through the unit and take another form of the unit test 1. intermittent tokens are given and time between exchanges is longer 3.4) 1. Use caution in applying group behavioral consequences a) Negative peer pressure can be exerted b) Difficult students may need individual arrangements C. rather than encouraged. Behavioral Views of Learning VI. Group Consequences 1. Token Reinforcement Programs 1.3) Behavioral Approaches to Teaching and Management A. Reward is based on the good behavior of the whole group (e. for example. since repeating the same material probably won’t help b) It has not helped to erase achievement differences among students – individual differences still persist c) Some students may be frustrated. Individual contract with a student describes what behavior will earn which reward 2.6. 3) 2. Fine-Tuning already learned behaviors 3. Directing attention 2. Cognitive Behavior Modification and Self-Instruction 1. Self-Management (Guidelines pg. E. Direct teaching of how to use self-instruction through “private speech” (Fig. Bandura distinguished between enactive and vicarious learning 1. 236) 1.6) Problems and Issues A. Vicarious learning is learning by observing others C. Goal setting: Setting specific goals and making them public a) Higher standards lead to higher performance b) Student-set goals have a tendency to decline. 6. you have to remember it 3.2) E. Adds emphasis on thinking and self-talk to a behavior change program 2. Observational Learning in Teaching (Guidelines pg. Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems (Fig. Attention: Teachers must attract student’s attention to critical features of lessons 2. Factors that Influence Observational Learning (Table 6. Self-reinforcement G. 6. VIII. Enactive learning is learning by doing 2.5) Observational Learning and Cognitive Behavior Modification: Thinking About Behavior A. Arousing emotion F. Strengthening or weakening inhibitions 4. IX. Elements of Observational Learning 1. Monitoring and evaluating progress a) Self-recording/monitoring b) Self-evaluation 3. XIII. 234) 1. Reinforcers (Table 6. Motivation and reinforcement D. XI. In social cognitive theory. Criticisms of Behavioral Methods B. Models B. Strategies Point/Counterpoint: Should Students be Rewarded for Learning? Diversity and Convergences in Educational Psychology A. Self-instruction on skills associated with achievement 3. Diversity 1. Convergence Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses 72 . Ethical issues 1. Retention: To imitate behavior. Production: Practice makes behavior smoother and more expert 4.6. they need monitoring and reinforcement of high standards by the teacher 2. Goals 2. Teaching new behaviors 5. Observational Learning: Bandura distinguished between acquisition of knowledge and observable performance based on that knowledge B. X. XII. Behavioral Views of Learning VII. 6. Behavioral Views of Learning Guidelines Included • • • • • • Applying Classical Conditioning Using Praise Appropriately Encouraging Positive Behavior Using Punishment Using Observational Learning Family and Community Partnerships: Student Self-Management Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. What is learning? 2. What are the similarities and differences among contiguity, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning? 3. What are examples of four kinds of consequences that can follow any behavior, and what effect is each likely to have on future behavior? 4. How could you use applied behavior analysis (group consequences, token economies, contingency) to solve common academic or behavior problems? 5. What and how can students learn through observation? 6. What is cognitive behavior modification and how does it apply to teaching? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 6) Transparencies (T46-T52) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 6) Companion Website (Chapter 6) Acetate Transparencies for Use with This Chapter T46 T47 T48 T49 T50 T51 T52 Classical Conditioning Kinds of Reinforcement or Punishment Reinforcement Schedules Written Prompts: A Peer-Tutoring Checklist Guidelines for Effective Praise Example of a Task Analysis Kinds of Knowledge 73 6. Behavioral Views of Learning Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 6 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? Understanding Learning Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses ACTIVITIES 6.0 Most Likely to Succeed 6.1 Tutorial on Classical Conditioning TYPE Case Analysis HANDOUTS 6.0 Lecture Outline Companion Website 6.2 Reinforcement and Punishment 6.3 Behavioral Principles in the World 6.4 Behavior Problem Scenarios 6.5 What is Rewarding? 6.6 Schedules of Reinforcement 6.7 Do We Repeat the Past? 6.8 Tutorial on Positive Reinforcement 6.9 Analyzing an Intervention 6.10 Reinforcement Preferences 6.11 Video Game Analysis 6.11 Evaluating Instructional Software Cooperative 6.1 Differentiating Punishment and Reinforcement Individual Cooperative Research Individual Research Companion Website Research 6.2 Behavior Problem Scenarios Applied Behavior Analysis Research Technology Technology 6.3 Concept Map: Applying Behavioral Principles 6.4 Behavior Checklist 6.4 Survey of Reinforcement Preferences 6.6 Videogame Analysis Behavioral Approaches to Teaching and Management 6.13 Group Contracts Cooperative 6.7 Contingency Contracts 6.14 Self-Talk Field Experience Problems and Issues 6.8 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 74 6. Behavioral Views of Learning Activities 6.0 Most Likely to Succeed Read the case at the beginning of Chapter 6. At the end of the chapter, four teachers provide suggestions for what they would do in the situation. Students should select which solution proposed is best and explain why it is better than the other solutions proposed. 6.1 Tutorial on Classical Conditioning Have your students visit CW, Chapter 6, eConnect and Extend, “Classical Conditioning Review,” http://www.ablongman.com/woolfolk10e. They should go through the tutorial to consolidate their understanding of classical conditioning. 6.2 Reinforcement and Punishment Have your students describe at least three kinds of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement that they plan to use in their classrooms. How will they go about emphasizing the positive more than the negative? Will there be a way they can monitor themselves so that they are not giving out more negative consequences than positive consequences? Each group should provide a summary of their responses using Handout Master 6.1. 6.3 Behavioral Principles in the World Have your students keep track of behavioral principles they see in the real world during a day. 6.4 Behavior Problem Scenarios Divide your class into cooperative learning groups and give each group a scenario from Handout Master 6.2. Have each group determine an appropriate behavioral procedure or procedures to use to help solve the problem. In addition, have each group indicate what they would anticipate happening when they use the strategy. Go around the class and ask students to share their behavioral procedures. 6.5 What Is Rewarding? Have your students develop a survey to be administered to college students about what they regard as rewarding and what they regard as punitive. A preliminary survey might solicit information from students in terms of what a teacher would need to offer them in exchange for attending an additional week of classes. Based on these responses, a tentative list of possibly rewarding activities/items may be developed. A similar strategy might be adopted for identifying punishments. 6.6 Schedules of Reinforcement Ask your students to imagine that they are assisting a teacher who wants to use a token economy system in his or her class. The system involves reinforcing good behavior tokens that students can trade in at the end of the week for rewards or privileges. Have students give a specific example of how the teacher might use each of the following schedules in dispensing the tokens. Students should also indicate their impressions about the relative effectiveness (possible advantages and disadvantages) of using that schedule. 75 6. Behavioral Views of Learning 1. 2. 3. 4. 6.7 Fixed-interval Fixed-ratio Variable-interval Variable-ratio Do We Repeat the Past? Have your students explore the issue of whether teachers’ experiences with reward and punishment in their own childhood influence the methods by which they discipline children. Students should write a brief paper summarizing their findings. They should also note any difficulties they had in locating appropriate sources. 6.8 Tutorial on Positive Reinforcement Have your students visit CW, Chapter 6, eConnect and Extend, “Tutorial on Positive Reinforcement,” http://www.ablongman.com/woolfolk10e, and try the self-instructional module that is provided. 6.9 Analyzing an Intervention Have your students attempt an ABAB intervention (with the appropriate permissions) with a child. Use Handouts 6.3 and 6.4 to help guide this activity and record the information from the intervention. The students should first select a target undesirable behavior, record the frequency of this behavior during a 10-minute interval, introduce an intervention to reduce the incidence of this behavior (e.g., praising an alternative behavior), record the frequency of the undesirable behavior during a period in which the intervention is in place, and again record the frequency of the undesirable behavior after the intervention has been withdrawn. 6.10 Reinforcement Preferences Ask each student to have five friends answer the questions on Handout Master 6.5. As a class, tabulate the responses and discuss the frequency and variability of responses. 6.11 Video game Analysis Using Handout Master 6.6, have your students observe a child playing a video game. Their goal in doing so is to identify what they consider/observe to be reinforcing properties of the video game and the child’s affective responses to these. 6.12 Evaluating Instructional Software Behavioral principles are often strongly in evidence in the design of instructional software. You can have your students do this activity if your institution has an educational software library or if your students have educational software themselves. This activity is beneficial even if students are limited to analyzing the “help” functions of the word processing software they use. Ask your students to review the selected software and identify the general approach to learning adopted by the software designer (e.g., behavioral, cognitive) and what evidence they find of that general approach. For example, a software package that has “rewards” such as praise or other forms of reinforcement is using some version of behavioral learning theory. 76 6. Behavioral Views of Learning 6.13 Group Contracts Organize the class into small groups. Ask students how they would feel if you were to assign a “group term paper” on which everyone would get the same grade. Many students will already have had such experiences. Discuss their concerns. Ask them to develop a group contract that lays out their expectations of one another and the consequences for not meeting those expectations. Discuss the benefits of developing such a contract and the difficulties associated with implementing it. Have your students discuss what they would do if someone has not turned in the required work, the contract specifies a lowering of grade for failing to complete the work, and the lowering of the grade would result in the student losing his/her scholarship. What problems arise? 6.14 Self-Talk One of the strategies that teachers can use is to engage in positive self-talk in which they direct themselves through a task, comment on a task, etc. Have your students write 10 negative statements that they could make about a class (e.g., the children never listen). Ask them to write 10 positive statements that counter these negative self-statements. Have them repeat negative statements twice and ask them to note how they feel. Now have them repeat the positive statements and ask them to note how they feel. Discuss the benefits of positive self-talk and attempt to identify when it might be most important to do this in a classroom. Discussion Questions 1. Describe the different patterns of responding that are engendered by the four intermittent schedules of reinforcement. 2. A student seems very anxious about reading aloud in class. What behavioral principles could you use to reduce and hopefully eliminate this fear? 3. Describe what is meant by the “praise and ignore” approach to classroom management. What are the strengths and limitations of this approach? Give several examples of the types of incidents to which it might be applied. 4. Discuss how behavioral approaches to learning influence teachers’ behaviors in the classroom. 5. Discuss the benefits and potential problems with mastery learning approaches. Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter REFERENCES Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Ferster, C. B., and Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts. Jacobs, P., Meier, N., and Stolurow, S. (1966). A guide to evaluating self-instructional programs. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. McDaniels, T. R. (1987, May). Practicing positive reinforcement. Clearinghouse, 389-392. Meichenbaum, D. (1977). Cognitive behavior modification. New York: Plenum. 77 6. Behavioral Views of Learning Rogers, C., and Skinner, B. F. (November, 1956). Some issues concerning human behavior. Science, 1057-1066. Skinner, B. F. (1984). The shame of American education. American Psychologist, 39, 947-954 Schaps, E., & Lewis, C. (1991). Extrinsic rewards are education’s past, not future. Educational Leadership, 48(7), p. 81 Spalzo, F. J. (1985). Behavior analysis. Teacher Educator, 21(2), 15-25. FILMS, VIDEOTAPES, AND AUDIOCASSETTES Behavior modification in the classroom, 16 mm, 24 minutes. Shows teachers using behavior modification techniques to help students reduce distractibility and overcome daydreaming. (UCB, 1969) B. F. Skinner and behavior change: Research, practice, and promise, 16 mm, 48 minutes. Using a panel of social scientists, the film addresses the history, theory, ethics, and applications of behaviorism. (REPR, MG, 1975) B. F. Skinner on education, Parts I and II, 16 mm, 25 minutes. A discussion of Skinner’s views regarding freedom and control in the classroom as these relate to the purpose of schooling. (ASCD, 1972) Contracting, 3/4-or 1/2-inch video, 30 minutes. Explains the use of contracting in educational settings. (DMCPB) Conversations on learning, No. 1, 16 mm, 28 minutes. Dr. Robert Mager discusses the use of task analysis as a technique of teaching and determining measurable objectives. (EDUC) Learning, 16 mm, 3/4-inch Umatic, 1/2-inch VHS, 1/2-inch Beta, 30 minutes. Shows a variety of experiments (e.g., imprinting, behavior shaping, teaching language to a mentally retarded child) using principles of operant conditioning. Can be used as an introduction to the section on operant conditioning. (CRM, 1971) Operant learning, 16 mm, 10 minutes. Shows the use of operant techniques in a third-grade classroom in dealing with inappropriate, as well as appropriate problem-solving behaviors. (MSU, 1975) Pavlov: The conditioned reflex, video, 25 minutes, B & W. This documentary shows Pavlov’s pioneering work in behavioral psychology, including the famous dog experiment. From Films for the Humanities & Sciences, Inc. Positive reinforcement, 16 mm, 10 minutes. Illustrates a variety of possible reward circumstances that may be used following desired behavior. (MSU, 1975) Reinforcement, 16 mm, 8 minutes. Increasing Student Participation Skills. The film focuses on how teachers may use positive incentives (reinforcement) to increase student participation in class discussion. Focuses on the secondary level. (GLC, 1968) 78 3/4-inch Umatic. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics. Appropriate uses of reward and punishment to shape child behavior are illustrated. The Risks of Rewards: http://www. Viewers are asked at the end of the film to consider how to use behavior modification techniques without violating humanistic values. WAU.valdosta.usf. 16 mm. 1972) The Skinner revolution. 1/2-inch VHS. IU.utm. (From CRM. 22 minutes.htm Instructional Resources: http://www.html 79 . (REPR. Skinner that attempts to clarify his main ideas.org/1995-2/rewards. 1/2-inch Beta. 1978) USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses.htm Operant Conditioning: http://chiron. PST. ERIC Digests are in the public domain.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.coedu. A biographical sketch of B. 16 mm. 14 minutes. They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format. F.edu/research/iep/b/behavior.htm Other Websites Behaviorism: http://www. Behavioral Views of Learning Reward and punishment. 1/2-inch VHS.6.ericdigests.edu/behavior/instruct. Emphasize variety. 80 . Holds sensations from the environment for a brief time 2. and surprise d. Working Memory (or short-term memory): Holds the information that is currently activated 1. Retrieval: Getting at the information when needed 4. Sensory Memory: Capacity.. and contents III. The Model Uses Computer as Analogy 1. and Contents 1. Attention a) Is a limited resource—can only pay attention to one demanding task at a time b) Attention and teaching (Guidelines pg. Duration. Differ in their assumptions about learning 2.7. Content: Resembles the sensation from the original stimulus 5. duration. Knowledge guides new learning 2. Make sure the purpose of the lesson or assignment is clear to students c. Differ in their methods B. how to use a word processor) b) Specific knowledge is related to a particular task or subject c) No absolute line between general and domain-specific knowledge Information Processing Model of Memory (See Figure 7. Knowledge is the outcome of learning 3. Use signals b.1) A. curiosity. Cognitive Views of Learning 7 Cognitive Views of Learning Teaching Outline I. Capacity. Encoding: Gathering and representing information 2. General and specific knowledge a) General knowledge is useful in and out of school (e. Capacity: Very large 3. Control processes: Guides how and when information will flow through the system B. Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views 1. The Importance of Knowledge in Learning 1. What Would You Do? Elements of the Cognitive Perspective A. between one and three seconds 4. II. 253) a.2) b) Feature analysis: The stimulus is analyzed into features or components and assembled into a meaningful pattern (bottom-up processing) c) Top-down processing: Based on knowledge and expectation 6.g. Ask questions and provide frames for answering C. Duration: Fragile. Perception: The meaning we attribute to sensory memory a) Gestalt theory: People’s tendency to organize sensory information into patterns or relationships (Figure 7. Storage: Holding information 3. 7. 7. and schemas (i) (ii) Propositions and propositional networks (iii) Proposition—the smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false (iv) Propositional network—interconnected bits of information (v) Information may be stored and represented in propositional networks. personal events. Capacity. or structured more abstractly and based on meaning 2.5) a) Semantic memory is memory for meaning Stored as propositions. and conditional knowledge (Table 7.7. rules b) Procedural—knowing “how to” do something c) Conditional—knowing when and why to apply declarative and procedural knowledge 4. 3. Explicit memories: Semantic and episodic (Fig. Retaining information in working memory (Fig.3) a) Central executive b) Phonological loop c) Visuospatial sketchpad 3. specific facts. and contents of long-term memory a) Capacity: Unlimited b) Duration: Can remain in long-term memory indefinitely c) Access can be difficult d) Alan Paivio: Dual coding theory—information is stored as either visual images or verbal units. bits of information can trigger or activate recall of another (vi) Images are representations based on perceptions a) b) c) 81 . Cognitive Views of Learning D. Holds the information that is well learned 2. e) Information coded both ways may be easier to learn.4) a) Maintenance rehearsal (Craik & Lockhart) involves repeating the information in your mind b) Elaborative rehearsal involves connecting the information with something already known c) Chunking—grouping individual bits of information can somewhat circumvent the capacity of working memory 4.2) a) Declarative—verbal information. images. Contents of long term memory: Declarative. or the working memory would be overloaded and learning would cease Long-Term Memory: The Goal of Teaching 1. Capacity: Limited—five to nine separate new items at once Duration: Short. 7. personal preferences. Forgetting a) Interference—remembering new information interferes with the remembering of old information b) Decay—the activation level weakens until the information cannot be reactivated c) Is useful. about five to 20 seconds Contents: May be in the form of images. Structure of working memory (Fig. or both. procedural. duration. the better are the chances of retrieving the information later F. or a skill (iii) Story grammar (iv) Event schema 5. Evaluation C. Implicit memories a) Classical conditioning b) Procedural memory c) Priming 7. Monitoring 3. 266) a) Decay b) Interference Metacognition A. Planning 2. cues. Episodic memory: Memory for information tied to a particular place and time. Procedural knowledge – knowing how to use strategies 3. Levels of Processing Theories (Craik and Lockhart)—the more completely information is processed. Reconstruction—a problem-solving process that makes use of logic.7. especially events in one’s own life 6.3) Becoming Knowledgeable: Some Basic Principles A. Teach metacognitive strategies directly 2.8) b) 82 . Reaching Every Student: Metacognitive Strategies for Students with Learning Disabilities 1. V. 1. Development of Declarative Knowledge 1. Retrieval through the spread of activation 3.6) (i) Organize vast amounts of information (ii) Patterns or guides for understanding an event. Visual Images and Illustrations (Fig. Retrieving Information from Long-Term Memory 1. Only one small area of the memory network is activated at any time 2. Forgetting and Long-Term Memory (Guidelines pg. Teaching strategies (Table 7. Cognitive Views of Learning IV. 7. a concept. Conditional knowledge – knowing when and why to apply the strategies Three Essential Skills B. Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation: Three kinds of knowledge 1. 7. and other knowledge to construct a reasonable answer by filling in any missing parts a) Bartlett—stories recalled to be consistent with students’ schema b) Loftus—eyewitness testimony G. Schema are abstract knowledge structures (Fig. Storing and retrieving information in long-term memory a) Elaboration—the addition of meaning to new information through its connection with already existing information b) Organization—material that is well organized is easier to learn and to remember than bits of information c) Context—aspects of physical and emotional content are learned along with other information E. Declarative knowledge of self as a learner 2. Making it meaningful 2. Cognitive Views of Learning VI. Domain-Specific Strategies Diversity and Convergence in Cognitive Learning A. 7. and conditional knowledge? Why do student forget what they have learned? What is the role of metacognition in learning and remembering? What are the stages in the development of cognitive skills? 83 . Mnemonics (systematic procedures for improving one’s memory) a) Loci method b) Acronyms c) Chain mnemonics d) Keyword method 4. 6. X.4) 1. Convergences: Connecting with Families (Guidelines pg. Point/Counterpoint: What’s Wrong with Memorizing? Becoming an Expert: Development of Procedural and Conditional Knowledge A. IX. Individual Differences and Working Memory a) Developmental differences b) Individual Differences 2. Autonomous stage—whole procedure can be accomplished without much attention 4. procedural. 3. 4. Teachers can help students become experts through feedback and practice B. 5. 280) Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses 3. VIII. Individual Differences and Long-Term Memory 3. 2. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Individual Differences in Metacognition B. Automated Basic Skills 1. VII. Cognitive stage—rely on declarative knowledge and general problem-solving strategies 2. Rote memorization B. Diversity (Table 7.7. Guidelines Included • • • Gaining and Maintaining Attention Using Information Processing Ideas in the Classroom Family and Community Partnerships: Organized Learning ================================================================ Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. Associative stage—individual steps of a procedure are combined into larger units 3. schemas and scripts influence learning and remembering? What are declarative. What is the role of knowledge in learning? What is the human information-processing model of memory? How do perception. attention. Working Memory Model Working and Long-Term Memory 84 .” Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T53 T54 T55 T56 T57 T58 T59 T60 T61 T62 T63 T64 T65 T66 T67 T68 T69 The Information Processing System Display Used in Sensory Register Experiments Examples of Gestalt Principles Examples of Top-Down Processing Working Memory Model for Sensory/Working/Long-Term Memory Example of Organization of Information to Facilitate Memory Schema for the Word “Bison” Example of the Use of Images to Aid Recall Schemas and Memory Distortions Three Types of Memory Long-Term Memory Example of A Knowledge Structure Arranged as a Hierarchy Metacognitive Strategies Events of Learning and Instruction Standard Memory Model vs.7. Cognitive Views of Learning Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 7) Transparencies (T53–T 69) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 7) MyLabSchool ƒ “Memory” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 7) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint ƒ “Effective ways to teach mathematics. 7. Cognitive Views of Learning Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 7 CHAPTER OUTLINE ACTIVITIES TYPE HANDOUTS 7.0 Lecture Outline 7.1 Memory What would You do? Elements of the Cognitive Perspective The Information Processing Model of Memory 7.0 Planning for a Different Form of Learning Case Analysis 7.1 Limits of Attention 7.2 Memory Experiments 7.3 Short-term memory 7.4 Working Memory and Learning Disabilities Long-Term Memory: The Goal of Teaching 7.5 Episodic Memory 7.6 Memory and Curriculum 7.7 Role of Organization 7.8 Elaborative Rehearsal 7.9 Reconstructive Memory 7.10 Metacognition and Internet Use 7.11 Metamemory Becoming Knowledgeable: Some Basic Principles 7.12 Endangered Species Companion Website Research Cooperative Field Experience Individual Individual Individual Technology 7.2 Episodic Memory 7.3 Sleep Schema 7.4 Metacognition and Internet Search Metacognition, Regulation, and Individual Differences Field Experience Cooperative 7.5 Endangered Species 7.6 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 85 7. Cognitive Views of Learning Activities 7.0 Planning for a Different Form of Learning In the case described in the beginning of this chapter, a teacher struggles with trying to get her students to engage in more meaningful learning. Have your students develop a plan for how to change students’ minds about how to learn. 7.1 Limits of Attention Select two paragraphs from a text or newspaper. Ask two students to volunteer to come to the front of the class to read the passages aloud to the rest of the class. Direct the other students in the class to pay attention to both sets of material and warn them that they will be asked to recall the material once the reading is complete. Upon your signal, both students should read aloud to the rest of the class. Once they are finished, ask the students in the class to write down all they can recall from the task. Discuss with students why this task was difficult. Did they recall much? Why not? What strategies did they use to attend to BOTH? 7.2 Memory Experiments Have students visit CW, Chapter 7, eConnect and Extend, “NASA Ames Research Center Cognition Lab,” http://www.ablongman.com/woolfolk10e, and try the memory experiments. Students can try some of the experiments online that are described later in this manual. 7.3 Short-Term Memory Ask students to listen to the following words but not to take notes. TULIP CENTER CARPET BOOK WINDOW PONY RUSSIA LIME DISK SIDEWALK TABLE SALAD PHONE COFFEE PILLOW Ask them to write down as many words as they can. Then read the next list to them. This time, ask students to DO the things you say. BLINK COUGH CLAP LEAN SNEEZE SCRATCH SQUINT TWIST SQUEEZE WINK YAWN REACH STRETCH GARGLE KICK They should now write down the items they can remember. Give students the information about the words read aloud. Ask them to count how many they had correct. Compare and contrast performance on the word list with that of the actions. Use the comparison to address such concepts as the serial position effect, the possible benefits of organization (using the constraints of the possible actions of the body as an organizer), the role of elaboration, and the role of interference. 86 7. Cognitive Views of Learning 7.4 Working Memory and Learning Disabilities Using some of the journals listed in connection with Chapter 1, ask your students to locate from three to five articles on the linkage between working memory and learning disabilities. Ask them to summarize their findings. 7.5 Episodic Memory Use Handout Master 7.1 with this activity. Ask students in their groups to recall a favorite memory drawn from the school years between kindergarten and sixth grade. Try to make the memory as vivid as possible by recalling details through such prompts as the following: the look of the room (if indoors) or the environment (if outdoors), other people involved (their identities, clothing, actions), feelings remembered, and events that made the memory a lasting one. Ask students to recall a favorite memory drawn from the school years between seventh and twelfth grade. Using the same prompts, describe the circumstances of the memory. Compare the experiences. How does episodic memory differ for the two events? What does this suggest about the nature of the memory coding and recall for school events at these two levels of schooling? What does this suggest about the meaning of the experiences? 7.6 Memory and Curriculum Have students interview a classroom teacher briefly about the role of memory in the curriculum. Suggest the following questions: What type of memorization is required? What classroom activities are chosen to help students to retain the desired information? What strategies are effective at the specified grade level? How long are students required to retain information between its presentation and the required recall? What kinds of individual differences are apparent in students’ ability to remember information? Compare the responses among various interviews. What attempts are evident of teachers helping students to code information meaningfully for enhanced recall? 7.7 Role of Organization For this activity, tell students that you will help them to recall as many words as they can because you will give them some hints. The words they will hear are organized into four categories: fruits, flowers, cities, and countries. You will read a list of words aloud. Each set of four words will include a member of each category. In addition, each word in a set of four will begin with the same letter. Read the following words aloud (read from left to right). Performance on this list usually exceeds the typical fiveto-nine-item recall found on the initial list. Discuss the importance of organization. TOMATO RASPBERRY LEMON BANANA CANTALOPE GRAPE TULIP ROSE LILY BLUEBONNET CARNATION GERANIUM TORONTO RENO LONDON BOSTON CANCUN GENEVA TURKEY RUSSIA LUXEMBOURG BRAZIL CANADA GERMANY 87 7. Cognitive Views of Learning 7.8 Elaborative Rehearsal: The Role of Meaning in Memory Have the students study the following chart for one minute. They must memorize these symbols long enough to use them on a spelling test. They may remember them any way they can except by writing them. A B C D E F G H I Instruct the students to use the symbols above to represent the letters and administer a brief spelling test using the follow words: big, acid, cage, decide, face, headache. Tabulate the results. Compare the methods that the students used to memorize the symbols. Ask the students if they think they could remember the symbols if another test were given after one half hour of intervening discussion on another topic. Will the symbol-letter connection remain in long-term memory for a week, a month, or longer? Discuss. Now draw the diagram below on the chalkboard or on an overhead transparency. Students will notice that each letter fits into a box, or partial box, that becomes the symbol which represents the letter. Having understood this correspondence, what do the students predict will happen to the memory task? 88 7. Cognitive Views of Learning 7.9 Reconstructive Memory You might want to introduce this task in the middle of some of the others. Read the words aloud and ask the students not to take notes. When reading this list to students, OMIT the words printed in bold lettering. NIGHT YAWN SHEET QUIET SLEEP PAJAMAS MOON CLOCK LAMP LIGHT TOOTHBRUSH STARS PILLOW CURTAIN STRETCH SNORE ALARM BOOK DARK BLANKET READ DREAM TIRED BED Ask the students NOT to write anything but to move onto another task. After some time has passed, return to this task. Distribute the sheet of words represented in Handout Master 7.2 and ask students to check whether you had read each of the words aloud previously. Discuss the task. Some students will have falsely recognized some words as having been read aloud that in fact were not. Examine the various kinds of errors that were made and discuss the implications for an understanding of memory. For example, students may make “schema appropriate” errors and falsely remember items connected with “going to bed” but that were not actually listed. Also look for interference from previous lists read. 7.10 Metacognition and Internet Use Metacognition includes a) knowledge of oneself as a learner, b) knowledge of the effects of strategies, and c) knowledge of when to use particular strategies. Have your students access the Internet and conduct a search to locate a vacation rental with the following constraints (see Handout 7.4): • • • • Need the rental for one week Should be in a quiet, beachfront area Average temperature in the location should be 80 degrees Fahrenheit Can accommodate children Have students monitor their metacognition about their search by noting (using Handout 7.3) their thoughts about themselves as a learner (in this case, searcher), their knowledge of what strategies will produce results, and when they should use those strategies. 7.11 Metamemory Ask your students to conduct an interview with a child (approximately seven to 10 years old) about their knowledge of memory. The students will need to develop an interview protocol or guide for conducting the interview. They will need to consider how to ask a young child about his or her knowledge of memory or metamemory. Have your students share what they learn from children about their memories and discuss the implications of their knowledge of memory for effective learning. 89 7. Cognitive Views of Learning 7.12 Endangered Species The following exercise was provided by Dr. Robert Lebeau. The exercise is provided in Handout 7.4. The article on which it is based is: Temple, S. (1977). Plant-animal mutualism: coevolution with dodo leads to near extinction of plant. Science, 197, 887-886. The goal of the exercise is to make students aware of the role of prior knowledge in being able to formulate hypotheses. Students can become more knowledgeable by using knowledge they already have to explore new information. For example, a student who is a forestry major will most likely propose a different hypothesis than a student who is a psychology major. You can also use this exercise to reinforce the important role of metacognition in knowledge management. Students should work on this task alone, initially. Group members should then share answers, coming to consensus on the hypotheses to be proposed and the evidence to be sought. Students should make an audiotape of their discussion for use in subsequent activities. Each group should present their conclusions to the class, including the reasons for the decisions they made. Case Study of an Endangered Species: Calvaria major The Problem Calvaria major is a large tree, native to the island of Mauritius in the western Indian Ocean. Historical forestry records indicate that Calvarias were formerly common on the island and was frequently exploited for lumber. Today, however, only 13 old and dying trees are known to survive in what is left of the original forests of Mauritius. Experienced Mauritian foresters have estimated that these trees are all more than 300 years old. In other words, no young Calvaria major trees are currently growing to replace the older ones. The species is in danger of becoming extinct. Your Mission You are a member of a team of scientists that has been invited to the island to investigate the situation. Your team’s mission is to explain as well as possible why the species Calvaria major is failing to produce new trees and to recommend how the species might regenerate. Today, as you travel with other team members on an airplane to Mauritius, your task is to develop a plan for approaching this problem. You may adopt any strategy you wish for developing such a plan, but for our purposes today the outcome of your discussion should be organized in the two categories listed on the next page. 1. Your initial hypotheses regarding this problem. 2. Additional information you would want to know that might help you narrow these hypotheses and pursue possible solutions. Concepts and Definitions of Potential Value in This Task Declarative Knowledge: Knowledge of facts, definitions, generalizations, and rules; “knowing that.” Procedural Knowledge: Knowing how to perform activities; skills. Conditional Knowledge: Knowing when to apply declarative and procedural knowledge. 90 reasons why the fit is appropriate and why it is not. MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text.com/). and the regulation one exercises over. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. perceptions about one’s capacities to achieve designated levels of performance in given areas. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. 5. During the lesson on the skeletal system. what activities do the students use to enhance their longterm memory of the concepts? Use the terminology from this chapter in answering this question. or situations. 4. what type of memory were you utilizing? What type of memory did these students use when they answered the teacher’s questions? Working memory in both cases. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. Consider some of the implications of the victory of “Deep Blue” (a computer chess master) over the world champion Kasparov. one’s own cognition. Metacognition: Knowledge one has of. 2. the students might be using rehearsal with the teacher by answering his questions.7. MLS Video Lab Module 5: Approaches to Learning Clip 8: Memory (3:03) 1. Educational Psychology. Discussion Questions 1. 91 . How would you determine which provided the better explanation for learning? How do you promote the development of metacognition. or can you? Explain. Assuming the terminology had already been introduced. They are using elaborative rehearsal by tying the terms to a familiar song. How are factual knowledge and effective problem solving linked? How effective is levels of processing theory in explaining memory? Compare and contrast constructivist and symbol processing models of learning. Is the digital computer an appropriate model for the human information processing system? Give 2. When you first read this chapter. 3. Cognitive Views of Learning Schemas: Associative memory structures that store general knowledge about objects.mylabschool. Self-efficacy: Beliefs in one’s capacities to organize and execute actions required to manage given situations. a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www. events. V. Luria. mathematics. science. J. Impulsivity and strategy transfer: Metamemory as mediator. Levels of processing: Effect of number of decisions on prose recall. Acrostic-like sentences. 234-44. Metacognitive strategy training for ESL reading. Peck. literature. 415-22. P. Journal of Reading. 92 . S. 459-74. B. & Kurtz. L. Exceptional Children. New York: Cambridge University Press (reissued 1995). Reyes. Journal of Reading. TESOL Quarterly. (1983). D. and others. 54. C.. Benton. M.. music. F. The mind of a mnemonist: A little book about a vast memory. What kind of brain chemistry can explain memory? Are different types of memory located at different areas of the brain? What is the process of forgetting? Is it possible to improve memory? This 28-minute program seeks answers to these and other fascinating questions about the brain and memory at several internationally renowned memory-research labs. J. (1986). L. see Susan Ferrar’s “You must remember this” (Education Life Supplement. Pharis. 29. 34-35). A. (1986). C. Jingle mnemonics using rhythm or rhyme. 3. in which each letter of a word stands for a piece of information. 75. Journal of Educational Psychology. and Liberto. 96-103. April 1989. 647-678. R. (1983). She describes three types and gives many examples from history. New York Times.. B. REFERENCES Bartlett. (1983). Carrell. Borkowski. L. A.. Glover. AND AUDIOCASSETTES Memory: Fabric of the mind. & Bruning. 75. F. Reid. Acronym mnemonics. J. (1968). 52. in which the first letters of each word should cue a response. New York: Basic Books. Learning strategies. P. Instructional strategies for second-language learners in content areas.. D. & Gale. (1991). Child Development. (1989). 583-90. medicine. Constructivism in education. Cognitive Views of Learning Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter PRINT RESOURCES For entertaining examples of mnemonics. Heller. 23. FILMS. & Molner. Hillsdale. From Films for the Humanities and Sciences.. Remembering. J. (1932). These are the three types: 1. VIDEOTAPES. Deshler. M. White. Steffe.7. pp. Pre-passage questions: The influence of structural importance. 2. How do you know what you know? Metacognitive modeling in the content areas. S. M. Journal of Educational Psychology. Inc. 35(2). G.. (1995). An instructional alternative for low achieving adolescents. L. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 382-90. org/pre-9213/schema. This 30-minute video combines extensive research with practical experience to offer teachers this three-step approach: Before reading: Help students bring purpose.edu/psych/illusion.7. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses. Teachers observe an exceptional teacher in action as she guides an elementary school class through all three steps.exploratorium.ericdigests. located at the Exploratorium in San Francisco. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics. http://www. Cognitive Views of Learning Teaching reading as thinking. prior knowledge.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at7lk5. Telephone: (703) 549-9110.ericdigests. provides a rich set of links to resources on various aspects of memory.htm Other Web Sites Illusions Gallery: This site includes information about various aspects of visual perception involved in recognition of scenes and objects..htm Schema Activation.htm Memory Links: This site.uml. Metacognition and Reading to Learn: http://www.edu/memory/links. and focus to assignments. During reading: Keep students involved with and accountable for reading.ncrel.org/pre-921/meta. Alexandria. 125 N. FAX: (703) 549-3891. USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. Construction. http://www. ERIC Digests are in the public domain.org/1995-2/reading.htm Metacomprehension: http://www.html Metacognition: The North Central Regional Educational Laboratory has a comprehensive overview of metacognition. and Application: http://www.html 93 . After reading: Ensure that students apply reading and go back to the text. Order from Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). VA 22314-2798.ericdigests. http://dragon. West St. They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format. Teaching Concepts through Discovery (Guidelines pg. Concept attainment (Table 8. Lesson components a) Examples and non-examples b) Relevant and irrelevant attributes c) The name of the concept d) A definition e) Visual aids can improve learning of many concepts (Fig.8. Teaching Concepts through Exposition (Guidelines pg. 294) 1. objects. not just accept the teachers’ explanations b) Inductive reasoning Discovery in action—gives students a chance to develop their intuitive thinking 2. Concepts and schemas C. 8. Extending and connecting concepts a) Have students use the concept b) Can use a concept “map” to illustrate understanding of a concept D.1) 3. Complex Cognitive Processes 8 Complex Cognitive Processes Teaching Outline I. A concept is a category used to group similar events. E. Concepts help organize information into manageable units B. Prototypes and exemplars a) Prototype—the best representatives of its category are built from experiences with many exemplars b) Categories have fuzzy boundaries and graded membership c) Exemplars—actual memories of members of a category used to compare with an item in question 3. or people 2. rather than rote learning 94 . Lesson structure a) Present examples and non-examples before discussing attributes or definitions b) Show a wide variety of examples to avoid undergeneralization or overgeneralization 4. ideas. Defining attributes or distinctive features 2.1) 2. What Would You Do? Learning and Teaching about Concepts A. Views of Concept Learning 1. Meaningful verbal learning. Structure and discovery—structure is the essential information underlying what is being studied a) Students must actively identify the principles for themselves. A concept is an abstraction that does not exist in the real world 3. Strategies for Teaching Concepts 1. Defining a Concept 1. 292) 1. II. Exploring possible solution strategies a) Algorithms—step-by-step prescription for achieving a goal.4) 3. delivering materials to students in the most efficient way b) Learning should progress deductively (from the general to the specific) 2.5) A. Complex Cognitive Processes III. A General Problem-Solving Strategy (IDEAL) 1. later elementary school Reaching Every Student: Learning Disabilities and Concept Teaching Problem Solving (Fig. A desired outcome 3. Factors that Hinder Problem Solving 1. Developmentally appropriate for students at. Making the most of expository teaching a) Most appropriate when trying to teach about the relationships among several concepts b) Students need background knowledge first F. Teachers present information in an organized way. 8. Point/Counterpoint: Should Students be Allowed to Use Calculators and Spell Checkers? E. Problem Solving: General or Domain-Specific? C. 8. An initial state 2. Steps in expository lessons (Fig. or above.8. The importance of flexibility a) 95 . Advance organizers act to better fit the students’ schema and the material to be learned—will provide scaffolding or support for the new information a) Comparative organizers activate already existing schema b) Expository organizers provide new information that students will need to understand the upcoming information c) Good advanced organizers have been shown to help students learn 3.3) a) Present advance organizer b) Present basic similarities and differences. Identifying: Problem finding 2. usually domain-specific Heuristics—general strategies that might lead to the right answer b) (i) Means-end analysis—dividing the problem into a number of intermediate subgoals and then figuring out a way to solve each subgoal (ii) Distance reduction (iii) Working-backward strategy (iv) Analogical thinking 4. A path for reaching that outcome B. 8. Defining goals and representing the problem a) Focusing attention b) Understanding the words c) Understanding the whole problem d) Translation and schema training e) Results of problem representation (Fig. Problems have: 1. acting. Anticipating. and looking back D. Response set 3. IV. using specific examples 4. Functional fixedness—the inability to consider unconventional uses for materials that have a specific function 2. Four dangers to avoid in promoting innovation a) Avoid excessive pressure that erodes a child’s intrinsic motivation b) Avoid excessive pressure so that the child regrets the time spent c) Avoid freezing the child into doing things in a safe. Creativity and cognition C. Effective Problem Solving: What Do the Experts Do? 1. Creativity in the Classroom 1. Focus on divergent thinking: Responses to divergent thinking tasks scored for originality. The ability to produce work that is original but still appropriate and useful 2. Defining Creativity 1. Innovators tend to be explorers. Creativity is specific. innovators 2. VI. Teachers are not the best judges of creativity D. Three components a) Domain-relevant skills b) Creativity-relevant processes c) Intrinsic task motivation 2. Learning tactics—specific techniques that make up the plans 3. technicallycorrect way d) Be aware of the psychological effects of emphasizing the child’s talents Becoming an Expert Student: Learning Strategies and Study Skills (Guidelines pg. The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation 1. Learning strategies and tactics 1. 96 . Expert knowledge a) Background knowledge that is elaborated and well practiced and can be used to organize information for easier learning and retrieval b) Pattern recognition c) Representation of the problem d) Large store of productions or condition-action schema about how to solve problems e) Planning and monitoring 2. Students must be exposed to a variety of different strategies F. Brainstorming a) Defer judgment b) Avoid ownership of ideas c) “Hitchhike” on other ideas d) Encourage wild ideas 2. 317) A. rather than general purpose 3. Assessing Creativity 1. fluency. “Invention” must be intentional B. Take your time—and play! E. Complex Cognitive Processes V. Novice knowledge Creativity and Creative Problem Solving A. and flexibility 2.8. What is the Source of Creativity? 1. Learning strategies—ideas for accomplishing learning goals (plans) 2. Effort and efficacy 3. KWL – Know. Stages of transfer for strategies a) Acquisition phase – receive instruction about a strategy and how to use it. Solved 3. Teaching for Positive Transfer (Guidelines pg. General transfer—when knowledge is applied to a dissimilar situation B. High-road transfer – consciously application of abstract knowledge learned in one situation to a different situation a) Forward-reaching transfer – looking forward to applying the knowledge gained b) Backward-reaching transfer – looking back to other problems to solve a current one 3. Specific strategies a) Underlining and highlighting b) Taking notes E. Epistemological beliefs Teaching for Transfer A. Transfer of learning strategies C. 97 . Direct instruction in schematic knowledge B. CAPS – Characters. Want to know. do it. ask. How can teachers help? a) Have students be actively involved in the learning process. Learned G. READS-review. because learning is situated What is worth learning? 2. Complex Cognitive Processes VII. Summaries D. Transfer cannot be expected. and how to apply the various strategies 5. When something previously learned influences current learning or when solving an earlier problem affects how a subsequent problem is solved 2. where. Reading Strategies 1. Low-road transfer – automatic transfer of highly practiced skills 2. Visual tools for organizing F. Defining Transfer 1. practice the strategy b) Retention phase – more practice with feedback c) Transfer phase – solve new problems that appear different than the original ones 4. Specific transfer—when knowledge is applied to a very similar situation 3. Applying Learning Strategies 1. Students must develop the desire to use these skills 6. Deciding what is important C.3) 1. 323) 1. examine. Problem. Students need to be taught conditional knowledge about when. summarize 2. Aim.8. Valuing learning 2. 3. A Contemporary View of Transfer (Salomon and Perkins) (Table 8. encourage them to form abstractions b) Over-learning—practicing a skill past the point of mastery 4. Complex Cognitive Processes VIII. 5. 4. and heuristics in problem-solving? How can teachers encourage creativity in their students? How could you apply new learning strategies and tactics to prepare for tests and assignments in your current courses? 6. Creativity and Diversity B.8. 3. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. X. Prior knowledge. What are three ways a teacher might encourage positive transfer of learning? Instructor Supplements for This Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 8) Transparencies (T70–T81) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 8) MyLabSchool “Managing the Use of Technology for Education” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 8) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint ƒ “High-tech teaching. 2. algorithms. What are the characteristics of a good lesson for teaching a key concept in your subject area? What are the steps involved in solving complex problems? What are the roles of problem representation. Diversity 1. skills vary 2. XI. Convergences Summary Table What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II Guidelines Included ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ Applying Bruner’s Ideas Applying Ausubel’s Ideas Problem Solving Encouraging Creativity Becoming an Expert Student Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting Transfer Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. Diversity and Convergences in Complex Cognitive Processes A.” 98 . IX. belief. Complex Cognitive Processes Acetate Transparencies for Use with This Chapter T70 T71 T72 T73 T74 T75 T76 T77 T78 T79 T80 T81 Understanding Complex Concepts Phases of the Concept Attainment Model Amy’s Molecule: An Eighth-Grader’s Concept Map The General Inductive Model Phases of Expository Teaching Four Different Ways to Present a Problem Problem-Solving Process Solving Problems Using Algorithms and Heuristics A Map to Guide Notetaking A Map to Organize Studying and Learning Using PQ4R Kinds of Transfer 99 .8. 7 Problem-Solving Courseware 8.3 8.5 Becoming an Expert Student: Learning Strategies and Study Skills The Need for Representation 8.8 Analyzing Learning Strategies Individual Technology Individual 8.4 Weetags Learning and Teaching about Concepts 8.3 Teacher Problem Solving: 8.0 Expert and Novice Teachers’ Problem Solving Learning a Concept: Weetags Experiment Teaching a Concept Effectively Role-Playing an Expository Lesson Discovery Learning in Action TYPE Case Analysis/ Field Experience Individual Cooperative Cooperative Research HANDOUTS 8.1 8.0 Lecture Outline 8.8.6 Teacher ProblemSolving 8.9 How Stuff Works Companion Website/ Technology Reading Strategies Teaching for Transfer 8.2 Example of an Expository Lesson Teaching Concepts in Diverse Classrooms Problem-Solving 8.4 8.1 Concept Map: Problem Solving 8.2 8. Complex Cognitive Processes Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 8 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? ACTIVITIES 8.4 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 100 . (The defining attribute is that the head and body are the same shape. Allyn & Bacon. subjects. Would the non-instances have been sufficient if the second one was omitted (the non-instance of two ears and four arms)? (No. (1988). MA. because then you could reach the conclusion that Weetags are defined by two ears and four arms. and observers.0 Expert and Novice Teachers’ Problem Solving Have your students interview new teachers and more experienced teachers about how they would respond to the dilemma in the beginning of this chapter. have them compare and contrast more expert and novice teachers’ problem solving. MA. Would it have been easier if you had been told the defining attribute at the beginning? Would it have been as interesting? 6. Students can refer to Handout Master 8. 253-55. 8. Strategies for teachers: Teaching content and thinking skills. (1986). Boston.2 Teaching a Concept Effectively Have students work in pairs or small teams to prepare and give a brief lesson on one concept. and Weil. Use the information from the text on the nature of problem solving to guide this discussion. What is the purpose of the non-instances? 3. M. Complex Cognitive Processes Activities 8.” to the class and ask them to figure out what weetags are.8.4 Discovery Learning in Action From Joyce. B.3 Role-Playing an Expository Lesson From Eggen. Models of teaching. D. End by asking students to generate a list of the strong and weak points of each teaching method. What irrelevant attributes did you consider as defining attributes? 2. Have the students alternate as they role-play presenters. & Kauchak. “Weetags. What effect does experience have? 8.1 Learning a Concept: Weetags Experiment Display or distribute Handout Master 8.1. Discuss with students how they would evaluate subjects’ attainment of the concept..2 as a role-play. 40-41. What process did you go through to formulate a definition? 5.) Discuss the following questions: 1. Was this an example-rule or a rule-example presentation? 8.) 4. In groups. D. 101 ..) Boston.4. Allyn & Bacon. P. 8. P. Analyze with students the elements of expository teaching and compare examples of discovery learning and expository teaching. Have the students perform and discuss the dialogue presented in Handout Master 8. (2nd ed. A bus driver leaves the terminus at 7:00 a. At the next stop. India. who illustrates the structures with plants found on the grounds of the school. two groups of tenth-grade students are engaged in the study of a botany unit that focuses on the structure of plant life. but I would like you not to take notes. At the next stop. Have your students read the lesson. categorization. the students build classifications of the plants based on the structural characteristics of their roots. five passengers get on the bus and eight get off. At the next stop. It is now raining and the new passengers are very wet. Working in pairs. At the next stop. six people get off and two get on. How many stops did the bus make? 102 . concept attainment. an instructor at Delhi University. Baveja presents the students with some new specimens and asks them to see if they can predict the structure of one part of the plant from the observation of another part (as predicting the root structure from the observation of the leaves). The inductive group has gained twice as much on the test of knowledge and can correctly identify the structures of eight times more specimens than the presentation cum illustration group. the pairs share their classifications and generate labels for them. and examples/non-examples? 8. Occasionally. At the first stop.8.5 The Need for Representation Read the following to your students. I am going to read a problem to you. four people get off the bus and seven more people get on. is taught by Bharati Baveja. stems. she asks them to collect some more specimens and fit them into the categories they have developed so they can determine how comprehensive their categories have become. and then use the questions that follow as the basis for discussion. the bus is empty. It has stopped raining and people are complaining less. It is the first run of the morning and. At the next stop. relevant and irrelevant attributes. one person gets off but no one gets on. Posttest: After two weeks of study. They discover that most of the new plants will fit into existing categories but that new categories have to be invented to hold some of them. The other group. four people get on but no one gets off. Finally.m. Contrasting lessons: At the Motilal Nehru School of Sports in the state of Haryana. and leaves. This group is presented with a large number of plants that are labeled with their names. One group is studying the textbook with the tutorial help of their instructor. Eventually Mrs. We will call this group the presentation cum illustration group. Mrs. Baveja employs concept attainment to introduce a concept designed to expand the students’ frame of reference and induce more complex classification. which we will call the inductive group. Periodically. the driver picks up seven passengers. Encourage them to critically evaluate the quality and appropriateness of the research methods and measurements used in the study. She also supplies the scientific names for the categories the students invent. Listen carefully. Discussion: What characterizes the discovery learning lessons that the inductive group experienced? How does the instructor use the following components of concept learning: concept labeling. Complex Cognitive Processes The following lesson compares an inductive approach to teaching a botany lesson with the more traditional teacher presentation method. save for the bus-driver. the two groups take a test over the content of the unit and are asked to analyze some more specimens and name their structural characteristics. Implement and evaluate the plan. The student would need to describe how he or she plans to improve time management in the course identified. D. 1. 8..2. Complex Cognitive Processes Students are usually counting the number of people on the bus as the problem structure suggests one of addition and subtraction.. Palmer. C. The student would need to describe how time management problems might be a problem in a course he or she is taking (e. Because they are being prevented from making any external representation that might allow them to go back and check. 4. Clearwater. Identify a course they are currently taking in which this weakness might be a problem. ask your students to identify three instructional problems faced by the teacher of that lesson. 2. They need to identify how these problems were solved in the context of the lesson. Develop a plan for addressing the weakness within the context of the course they identified.3. Your students will be able to self-score the inventory and develop a profile of their strengths and weaknesses in terms of their learning strategies. E. This activity can be used to demonstrate the important of external representations as supports for a limited working memory system.8. 8. they can easily check for the answer to the question.9 How Stuff Works 103 .g. 8. If the students could make any marks that represent the bus stops. Inc. Using Handout Master 8. 3. can you describe or categorize them? 8. A. Identify a weakness in their learning strategy profile.6 Teachers’ Problem Solving Have the students read the expository lesson in Handout Master 8. Examine the programs with these questions in mind: • What prior knowledge or skills do students require for solving problems in the program? • Does the program focus on certain domain-specific skills or does it promote general problemsolving skills? • Does the program promote the use of heuristics or algorithms as part of the problem-solving approach? If so...7 Problem-Solving Courseware Many of the titles a teacher will encounter in an educational software catalog are promoted as “enhancing problem solving. & Schulte.” Identify two pieces of problem-solving software designed for a specific content area.. (813) 442-7760). FL 34625-2116. Weinstein.. 1231 Kapp Drive. C. they are often unable to answer the question.8 Analyzing Learning Strategies Have your students complete the LASSI (Learning and Study Strategies Inventory. Ask them to analyze their profiles as described below. The inventory takes about 25 minutes to complete and score. physics). R. For example. The student should also evaluate his or her success. a student might have decided that Time Management was a problem. They need to indicate why the identified “problems” can be defined as problems. available from H & H Publishing Co. It shouldn’t just be an “addon. MLS Video Lab Module 9: Technology. Should learning strategies be taught explicitly? 4.mylabschool. but they can also be misused.8. repetition for memorization. Clip 17: Managing the Use of Technology for Education (7:38) 1. Answers will vary.” 104 . how automotive engines work) and analyze the description/explanation by answering the following questions: • • • What prior knowledge or skills does the reader need in order to understand the descriptions? What characteristics of the description/explanation make this an example of effective/ineffective instruction? What would you add to this information if you were going to teach this content in your class? Discussion Questions 1. Chapter 8. eConnect and Extend. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. Computers can be a useful problem-solving tool.” http://www.ablongman. determine when to use the computer to help teach concepts or problem-solve. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. Educational Psychology. Complex Cognitive Processes Ask your students to go to CW. “How Stuff Works. simulations. Look for ways that the computer can add value. How can you teach problem solving and still have students develop basic skills? 3. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. and when not to? Give examples. Answers will vary.g. as a teacher. etc. They should select a topic (e. Choose a concept in a subject area of your choice.. and design a lesson in which you use technology to facilitate learning. Why do you think research has shown teachers’ assessments of students’ creativity to be poorly related to the creativity these students have shown later in life? How could teachers be more on target? 2. The lesson should be improved by the use of technology. 2. such as for research. How do you. a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www.com/).com/woolfolk10e. What role does factual knowledge play in expert problem solving? MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. (2003). His book provides a theoretical base for understanding. & Stein. The ideal problem-solver: A guide for improving thinking. Stice. (1999). 350 Sansome St. Activities for limited English proficient students that combine reading. Problem solving: Critical thinking and communication skills. Freeman Hayes. & Woloshyn. W.. Publishers. F.. NY: Longman Pub. NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.D.F. L. Pressley. Sternberg. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. and Greenberg.... Learning and instruction: Upper Saddle River. and discussion.. Order TL#28 from Jossey-Bass Inc. Robert J. Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking. Co. R. J.) (1999). (1993). White Plains. DC: American Psychological Association. Little. Sternberg has distilled and simplified his Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence into a training program on critical thinking and problem-solving skills. J. (1987). (1989). 4. B. dialogue. Mahwah. T. NJ: Lawrence Erlbauam Associates. Nodine. & Ernst. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. (1996).C: National Academy Press. D.8. R. Intelligence applied. R. Developing critical thinking and problem solving abilities. W. H. The complete problem-solver (2nd ed). R. M. San Francisco. as well as increasing intellectual skills. Bransford. L.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Targeted for the junior and senior high school student. J. and creativity (2nd ed. (Eds. How people learn. M. D. Brown. Complex Cognitive Processes Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter PRINT RESOURCES Halpern.. J. B. D. MA: Brookline Books. R. E. I. (1991). learning. Vol. Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academic performance. 105 . Washington. R.. & Cocking. E. Cambridge. Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology. J. The following activities are applicable for this chapter: REFERENCES Bransford. (1986). CA 94104. This book offers methods for successfully teaching problem solving and critical analysis to students in all disciplines. V. A. The following title is an excellent source of additional application activities: Benjamin.. Ed. Hillsdale.. New York: W. It provides exercises that students can use to improve critical thinking skills.L. (1995). Washington. Mayer. ericdigests.org/1993/early. Crimes. and everyday examples in an entertaining look at creativity. 20 min. West St. Improving the Quality of Student Notes: http://www. CA 94928. that produces innovation? This four-part PBS series from IBM. The creative spirit.sdsu. Each features an actual scene from a classroom.htm Other Web sites Learning Strategies Matrix: This site presents a useful matrix of learning strategies that students may find useful. animation.htm Teaching Problem Solving--Secondary School Science: http://www.org/pre-924/critical. VIDEOTAPES.psychwww. the creative spirit.or in-service teachers.and videotape resources for critical thinking can be obtained by writing The Foundation for Critical Thinking. ERIC Digests are in the public domain.edu/Courses/ET650_OnLine/MAPPS/Strats.com/mtsite/ 106 . inventions. Alexandria. Seventh-grade social studies.html Learn To: This site www. ASCD Library of Teaching Episodes.org/pre-9212/problem.com sells thousands of step-by-step tutorials on a variety of skills. solutions. What human beings do when they behave intelligently.ericdigests. produced by Alvin H. which has been selected and edited for use with pre.htm Problem Solving in Early Childhood Classrooms: http://www. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses. CA 95404 or the Center for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique.ericdigests. http://edweb. Mindtools: http://www. Perlmutter. by A. 4655 Sonoma Mountain Road.learn2. The following is an example of a video from the ASCD Library of Teaching Episodes. Santa Rosa. VA 22314-2798. Ideas. Know when your thinking skills program is working by using this tape’s list of 12 characteristics that indicate growth in student thinking abilities.ericdigests.htm Critical Thinking in the Social Studies: http://www. A complete catalog of audio. They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format. Rohnert Park.org/1995-1/notes. 125 N. blends celebrity sketches. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics. Sonoma State University.. audio. USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. Costa. AND AUDIOCASSETTES The following resources can be ordered from Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Complex Cognitive Processes FILMS.8. How do they happen? And how can we nurture the process. Enacting tactics and strategies to accomplish the task a) Requires self-control and learning strategies III. 107 . Teacher’s sense of efficacy B. Reciprocal determinism (Fig. Self-efficacy. facilitation. What Would You Do? Social Cognitive Theory A. Motivation-self regulated learners know why they are learning 3.1) interaction of personal. What Influences Self-Regulation? 1. Self Regulated Learning 1. 340) D.2) 1. Sources of efficacy a) Mastery experiences b) Physiological and emotional arousal c) Vicarious experiences d) Social persuasion Applying Social Cognitive Theory A. Characteristics of Self-Regulated Learners a) Combination of academic skills and self control that makes learning easier b) Motivated c) Skill and will to learn C. and self-esteem 2. behaviors. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning 9 Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning Teaching Outline I. self-concept. Knowledge of self. Self-efficacy. and rewarding goal setting and use of strategies (Guidelines pg. Self efficacy and motivation 1. Definition: The process we use to activate and sustain our thoughts. task. strategies for learning. Volition-self regulated learners know how to protect themselves from distractions 4. encouragement. Self Efficacy 1. Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Agency (Fig. Setting Goals and Devising plans a) Set clear reasonable goals b) Plan a few strategies for accomplishing those goals 3. behavioral and environmental factors in learning setting B. 9. and self-esteem a) Performance in school and self-efficacy is increased when students (i) Adopt short term goals (ii) Are taught to use specific learning strategies (iii) Receive rewards based on performance 2. 9. self-concept. II. and emotions in order to reach goals 2. Analyzing the learning task 2. and context for learning 2.9. Family influences-parents teach self regulation by modeling. subject. Common Elements of Constructivist Perspectives 1. Teaching Towards Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning 1. Research on inquiry and problem-based learning (Table 9. Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 1. The realities and truths of the external world direct knowledge construction 2. How is Knowledge Constructed? 1. Examples of inquiry (Fig 9.2) a) The teacher presents a discrepant event b) The students: i. Regulating Learning: Reflect on what occurred E. Provide necessary opportunities for students to operate within their zones of proximal development 2. Students continually articulate their knowledge 108 .9. setting goals.4) 1. Conceptual scaffolding is provided and gradually removed as the student becomes more competent 4. Control. Internal processes direct knowledge construction 3. Vygotsky’s social constructivism C. Understanding the knowledge construction process 5. Psychological/individual constructivism B. Reduces dominance of teacher talk in the classroom C. Multiple representations of content 4. Student ownership of learning Appling Constructivist Perspectives A. Complex Tasks – provide opportunities for students to modify the learning conditions in order to cope with challenging problems. Students observe an expert model of the performance 2. Cognitive Apprenticeships 1. b) Need to self-observe c) Change strategies. monitoring progress. Form a generalization c) Teacher leads a discussion of thinking processes 2. Social negotiation to encourage development of higher mental processes through social interaction 3. Students get external support through coaching or tutoring 3. Dialogue and Instructional Conversations (Table 9. V. Ask questions to gather more information and isolate relevant variables ii. Self-Evaluation – help students interpret errors as opportunities for learning to occur Cognitive and Social Constructivism A.allow students to take responsibility for learning by planning. Test causal relationships iii. Knowledge: Situated or General? F. Table 9. Complex learning environments and authentic tasks 2. and evaluating outcomes 3. Constructionism D. Both external and internal processes direct constructivism E. if needed d) Record activity 4.3.3) B. 2. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning IV. 7. Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving? An Integrated Constructivist Program: Fostering Communities of Learners – Three-Part Process A. 6. The language of thinking 4. Critical thinking (Table 9. What is reciprocal determinism and what role does it play in social cognitive theory? What is self-efficacy and how does it affect learning in school? What is teachers’ sense of efficacy? How can teachers support the development of self-efficacy and self regulated learning? What are three constructivist perspectives on learning? How could you incorporate inquiry. problem-based learning. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. X. reciprocal teaching D. Students become experts on different aspects of the larger topic and share their expertise C. Students are required to explore new ways to apply what they have learned. 4. Cognitive Apprenticeships in Thinking 1. Students engage in independent and group research on one aspect of a class inquiry topic B. Stand-alone programs for developing thinking 2. 2. 5. 3. problem solving. Guidelines Included • • Family and Community Partnerships: Supporting Self-Regulation Family and Community Partnerships: Communicating about Innovations Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. and cognitive apprenticeships in your teaching? What dilemmas do constructivist teachers face? 109 .5) E. VII. Diversity is part of the theoretical framework of social cognitive and constructivist theories B. Sharing is motivated by a consequential task Diversity and Convergences in Theories of Learning A. VIII. IX. Convergences – different views of learning can be used together to create productive learning environments for diverse students (Table 9. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning VI.7) Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses 5. for example. Developing thinking in every class—encourage analysis. Students reflect on their progress through comparison with the expert and with their own earlier efforts 6. instructional conversations.9. and reasoning through the regular lessons of the curriculum 3. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 9) Transparencies (T82-T90) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 9) MyLabSchool • “Experiential Learning” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 9) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint • “Raising smart kids by breaking the rules.” Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T82 T83 T84 T85 T86 T87 T88 T89 T90 Key Factors in Observational Learning Reciprocal Determinism A Model to Guide Teacher Thinking about Inquiry-Based Science Instruction Influences on the Outcomes of Learning Elements of Cooperative Learning Different Forms of Cooperative Learning for Different Purposes Reciprocal Questioning Prompt Cards to Guide Dialogue Essential and Teachable Thinking Skills A Multicausal Analysis of Factors Affecting Rice Growth 110 .9. 7 Can Thinking be Taught? 9.4 Constructive Talk Instructional Conversations Cooperative Field Experience Individual Companion Website 9.4 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 111 .3 Cognitive Apprenticeships 9.6 Problem-Based Learning 9.2 Common Elements 9.1 Comparison of Piaget and Vygotsky 9.3 9.5 Cognitive Apprenticeships 9.8 Online Learning Communities Looking Back at Learning Companion Website Companion Website Research Technology 9.9.2 Constructive Talk ACTIVITIES 9.1 Observation Sheet 9.0 What would You do? TYPE Case Analysis HANDOUTS 9. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 9 CHAPTER OUTLINE What Would You Do? Social Processes in Learning Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theories Constructivist and Situated Learning 9.0 Lecture Outline Applications of Constructivist and Situated Perspectives on Learning 9. eConnect and Extend.This links to an article in ERIC digest about instructional conversations.ablongman. “Situated Cognition. What implications do the two approaches have for classrooms? 9. ask the students to identify elements of cognitive apprenticeship in the description of Ms. have students observe in a classroom and determine what elements of constructivist practice they see. Chapter 9. Then have them read the responses from experienced teachers at the end of the chapter and compare their solutions to those presented. involve social negotiation and multiple representation of content. When they return to class. Were they comfortable? Did they enjoy the experience? How comfortable do they feel in leading such conversations? 9. and include student ownership of learning.com/woolfolk10e. They include complex learning environments and authentic tasks.5 Cognitive Apprenticeship Have your students visit CW.2 Common Elements Constructivist perspectives share a number of common elements.9. which are designed to encourage equal participation by students. and Chad Galloway. It is a Web site about cognitive apprenticeship developed by Jennifer Brill. Divide the class into groups. Ask students to read the Teacher’s Casebook at the beginning of chapter 9. “ERIC Digests.1.” http://www. eConnect and Extend.com/woolfolk10e.2. Have students identify the kind of constructivism linked to Piaget and Vygotsky.” http://www.ablongman.1 Comparison of Vygotsky and Piaget Students can apply what they know about Piaget and Vygotsky by comparing and contrasting the two theorists in terms of their view of constructivism.3 Constructive Talk Have your students read the dialogue in Handout Master 9. Reed’s class.3.4 Instructional Conversations Have your students go to CW. Chapter 9. Using Handout Master 9. How helpful are the teachers’ responses? 9.” Ask them to discuss experiences they have had as students with teachers who conduct instructional conversations.0 What Would You Do? Divide the class into groups of four. Reed’s class. Have them discuss whether this dialogue shows evidence of knowledge construction as described in Chapter 9. 9. Ask students to read the description of Ms. Have them generate ideas about how to respond to the problem presented. Students may want to refer to chapter two to assist them on this task. 112 . Beaumie Kim. students should compare notes about the classes they observed. 9. Using Handout Master 9. Ask groups to define “instructional conversations. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning Activities 9. 7 Can Thinking be Taught? Have your students locate information in the library that speaks to this issue.” http://www.9. You might assign the content area/age group or allow students to decide on these. “Problems: A Key Factor in PBL: Barbara Duch. Educational Psychology. 9. Active learning. which is pretty much synonymous with constructivist theory. Center for Teaching Effectiveness.” http://www. 5.com) to view a clip and answer some questions about it. eConnect and Extend. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning 9. How can families be included in the teaching and learning process? MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. a larger task. a feature directs students to the MyLabSchool Web site (http://www. Divide the class into small groups and have each group develop a problem for use in a classroom. Ask them to contribute to that community by participating in a chat room. eConnect and Extend. Below are some suggested answers to those questions MLS Courses. Students can e-mail these answers to you.ablongman. not just learning directly from the teacher. 9. “Problem-based Learning.6 Problem-Based Learning Have students visit CW. Chapter 9. is when kids are actively constructing meaning.com/woolfolk10e. encourage a discussion in which they explain learning experiences that utilized active learning. 3.mylabschool. To further demonstrate the concept to students. Can authentic tasks be fruitfully accomplished if students do not have the requisite skills? How can groups of children best help one another learn? What does it mean to have a cognitive apprenticeship? Compare constructivist and symbol processing strategies for teaching science. Clip 9: Experiential Learning (2:25) 1.ablongman. 113 . They should provide an analysis of the kinds of discussion Discussion Questions 1. Chapter 9. MLS Video Lab Module 5: Approaches to Learning.com/woolfolk10e and then go to CW. Explain the relationship between “active learning” and the constructivist view of learning. They should locate research on the topic and evaluate the quality of the work they find. 4. which emphasizes the student’s contribution to learning through individual and social activity. which links to an article at the University of Delaware that outlines several criteria for a good problem to use in problem-based learning. A focus on authentic tasks seems to propel teachers to attend less to the skills necessary to accomplish 2.8 Online Learning Communities Have your students search the Internet for an online community related to education. They should prepare a one-page summary of their findings and be able to defend it to their peers. as defined in this video clip. Perkin’s work in building mental “frameworks” or concept mapping is summarized. Lexington.9. teacher questioning techniques. incorporating microcomputers into instruction. sequencing instruction. (1986).. C.. Productive Thinking Program (Martin V. B. C. 114 . 60-69. Instrumental Enrichment (Reuben Feuerstein). C. J. S. R. Callahan. Rosenshine. NH: Teachers College Press. A survey of programs. (1986).. Educational Leadership. (1985). Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter PRINT RESOURCES Chance. Look for the definitions in your textbook or from your lectures. Odyssey. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning 2... and Keogh. 20-27. A. comparing inquiry models of teaching. Orlich. strategies. C. and Rothstein. E. (1986). 43 (8).). This book thoroughly describes eight of the most important curriculum programs and instructional strategies intended to develop thinking abilities: CoRT Thinking Lessons (Edward deBono). R. This issue has several other good articles on direct instruction and teaching basic skills. Teaching strategies: A guide to better instruction. This is an excellent overall resource for the classroom teacher. Harder. A framework for teaching thinking. Techniques of Learning. Teaching for thinking: Theory. R. D. Rosenshine summarizes in a very readable article ten years of research on teaching which establishes the effectiveness of systematic. Special attention is given to the teacher’s role. social constructivism. L. H. R. A. P. Synthesis of research on explicit teaching. A. Include examples. Choose a few examples to share with the class and ask them to identify which theory of constructivism the examples represent. Wasserman. 43 (8). and sociological constructivism. Heath and Co. Thinking in the classroom. Marzano. as well as to problems that may be preventing more widespread acceptance of thinking programs. A. J. and activities for the classroom (2nd Ed. Explain the difference between psychological constructivism.) Perkins. and classroom management. Pendergrass. Educational Leadership. D. Problem Solving and Comprehension. the authors offer a broad spectrum of instructional methodologies. step-by-step instruction. J. Covington). conducting microteaching. 43 (7). including such topics as preparing lesson plans. MA: D. Jonas. P. Kauchak. (1985). Raths. 4-10. In this text. Educational Leadership. Philosophy for Children (Matthew Lipman). Kravas.. and Thoughtful Teaching. (1986) Thinking frames. The authors make specific recommendations and practical suggestions on how to implement critical thinking through classroom applications at both the elementary and secondary levels.. D. New York: Teachers College Press.. deciding on objectives. Wolfeboro. utilizing formative and summative evaluation. (1986). J. Teaching thinking: Evaluating evaluations and broadening the data base. Analyzing approaches to teaching thinking. S. & Mangieri. new technologies like interactive videodisks and laser scanners. and science to emphasize critical thinking. J. C. 83(1). Paul. Needham Heights. Feldman. Alexandria. 95. G. Teaching thinking: An agenda for the 21st century. N. D. social studies.. Burns. What are thinking skills? Instructor. The meaning makers: Children learning language and using language to learn. R. T. Critical thinking in elementary school. Synthesis of research on the effectiveness of intellectual skills programs: Snake-oil remedies or miracle cues? Educational Leadership. and the Network for Excellence in Teaching Science program. Needham Heights. J. D. 67-75. Sternberg. Time and learning: Implications for the classroom teacher. Kahle. G. B. & Kastoor. J. 22314-2798. (1994). Hillsdale.. L. Windows into science classrooms. VA. by R. & Vye. E. J. MA: Allyn & Bacon. (1986). Perkins. 68-70. B. (1990).. 34-38. (1989). B. R. This program explores modern mathematics and the emerging crisis in American mathematics education. Enquiring teachers. (1982). AND AUDIOCASSETTES S is for science.. Understand how to revise lesson plans in reading.9. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. R.. K. S. VIDEOTAPES. (1992). (1995). 44. To the nth dimension. 26 min. Perkins. S. The following resources can be ordered from Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Stock #612-87617C2. (1987). From Films for the Humanities. New Hampshire: Heinemann. enquiring learners. Well. (1991). C. ENG: Falmer Press. From Films for the Humanities.. Educational Leadership. Tobin. V. J. Elementary School Journal. Stock #612-87616C2. Hampshire. MA: Allyn & Bacon. (1987). Diversity and developmentally appropriate practices.. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning REFERENCES Bransford.. and New. 44. 125 N. Collins. & Jay. S. B. which shows teachers how to teach science. New York and London: Teachers College. M.. Columbia University. West St. 26 min.. 60-67. N. audio. Mallory. A comprehensive approach to teaching thinking. 115 . Brandt and D. Delclos. R. Fosnot. audio. $9. The thinking classroom: Learning and teaching in a culture of thinking. which may leave Americans unable to compete in the marketplace of ideas. & Fraser. W. Schiever.. & Stuck. Tishman. An outline for choosing a successful program and three examples of thinking skills programs that work. FILMS. by R. Wyne. This program looks at methods being used to reverse the decline in science education: high-tech museums. M. New York and London: Teachers College Press.00. R. org/1992-2/outdoor. audio. They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format.org/1998-3/adult-education. New Jersey. memorization. Discover which thinking skills can be most readily taught and how to incorporate these into your current curriculum.ericdigests. A complete catalog of audio. A complete framework for how to teach thinking in elementary schools with this set of audiotapes. 4655 Sonoma Mountain Road. This video training program introduces teachers to 22 instructional techniques that help students become better thinkers through concentration. by B. Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning Planning a thinking skills program.htm The Project Approach: http://www. CA 95404 or the Center for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique.htm Thinking in Outdoor Inquiry: http://www. Teaching skillful thinking.htm Constructivism in Teacher Education: Considerations for Those Who Would Link Practice to Theory: http://www. and comparing/contrasting.htm Other Web Sites Professional Learning Communities: An article about what they are and why they are important.ericdigests. Schools. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics. Beyer.ericdigests. Stock #612-87619C2.org/1992-4/active. and how several schools are using the program to improve student achievement.ericdigests.htm Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom: http://www. Rohnert Park. CA 94928.html 116 . Stock #612-87630C2. Stock #612-87618C2.org/change/issues/issues61. http://www. audio. Sonoma State University. Four videotapes in this training program summarize research on thinking skills and demonstrate how teachers can facilitate it among their students.org/1992-2/instructional.org/1999-3/theory.ericdigests. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses. The development of children’s thinking and teaching in the River Edge. Fusco and J.ericdigests. The complete package contains a 250-page trainer’s manual and an eight-hour video presentation. Santa Rosa.org/1994/project. Tactics for thinking.html Instructional Conversations: http://www.ericdigests. Barell. Situated Learning in Adult Education: http://www.sedl.htm Teaching Science through Inquiry: http://www. Teaching thinking in elementary schools. by E.org/1993/inquiry.and videotape resources for critical thinking can be obtained by writing The Foundation for Critical Thinking. ERIC Digests are in the public domain.9. USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. The important “why-to” information you need about adapting instruction to children’s cognitive development is in this tape. Most behavior is on a continuum from completely self-determined to otherdetermined Four General Approaches to Motivation A. What Would You Do? What is Motivation? A. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) 3. safety. needs activate motivation 5. Maslow believed that needs function as hierarchy a) Deficiency needs must be satisfied first – survival. External/extrinsic locus: Students are influenced by someone or something outside them 3. Centers on Five Questions 1. Intrinsic 1. Associated with seeking out and conquering challenges in pursuit of personal interests and the exercise of capabilities 2. What is the individual thinking and feeling while engaged in the activity? Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation A. directs. What is the intensity or level of involvement in the chosen activity? 4. self-determination. Enjoyment of a task or the sense of accomplishment that it brings B. and maintains behavior B. and personal growth (example. endlessly renewed –Intellectual achievement. Motivation in Learning and Teaching 10 Motivation in Learning and Teaching Teaching Outline I. Humanistic Approaches to Motivation 1. Reaction against behaviorism and Freudian psychoanalysis 2. people are motivated to fulfill their potential 4. Internal/intrinsic locus: Students freely choose to perform an activity 2. Role of needs is central. Definition: An internal state that arouses. and self-actualization III. Locus of Causality Explains the Students’ Reason for Performing Tasks 1. Incentive is an object or event that encourages or discourages behavior B. 117 . Reward is an attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a particular behavior 2. What choices do people make about their behavior? 2. II. Needs: What a deficiency person requires or thinks he/she requires for overall wellbeing. selfesteem b) Being needs are never completely fulfilled. but instead for possible gains C. Extrinsic 1. choice. Associated with activities that are their own reward 3. aesthetic appreciation. Emphasis on personal freedom. What causes a person to persist or to give up? 5. IV. How long does it take to get started? 3. Behavioral Approaches to Motivation 1.10. Motivation created by external factors like rewards and punishments 2. Not interested in activity for its own sake. belonging. and Relatedness A. Motivation in Learning and Teaching V. and intellectual needs are interrelated b) Students with deficiency needs will not seek knowledge and understanding c) Student needs and teacher’s goals may conflict C. goals. Sociocultural Conceptions of Motivation: People are motivated to maintain their identities and interpersonal relationships within the community Needs: Competence. Increases persistence 4.2) A. emotional. searching for information to solve personally relevant problems 2. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory) c) Values of the goal also have to be interpreted in terms of the costs of pursuing the goal D. the student is pressured to perform in a particular way. 379) 1. Criticisms of the theory Educational implications a) Enables a look at the full person: Physical. Goal Setting Improves Performance Directs attention 1. preference for challenge. conceptual learning. 2. VI. 118 . Autonomy. Self-determination in the classroom a) Classroom environments that support self-determination are associated with greater student interest. intrinsic motivation will be eroded b) In an event is informational and increases the student’s sense of efficacy. and attributions c) A central assumption is that people respond not to external or physical conditions or events. Self-Determination: The Need to Experience Choice and Control (Guidelines pg. The need for relatedness Goal Orientations and Motivation (Table 10. Performance goals a) Seek to perform well 6. 7. but to interpretations d) People are seen as active and curious. Information and control a) If an event is controlling. Characteristics a) Behavior is determined by thinking. schema. not simply by reward or punishment for past behavior b) People are initiated and regulated by plans. expectations. Expectancy-value theories: Motivation is the product of two forces a) Expectation of success b) Value of the goal (example.10. Learning goals a) Seek challenge and mastery b) Task-involved c) Persist 2. Types of goals 1. Promotes the development of new strategies B. Mobilizes effort 3. and creativity b) Controlling information tend to improve performance only on rote tasks 2. intrinsic motivation will be increased 3. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Approaches to Motivation 1. Attributions in the classroom 5. Stability: Stable or unstable dimension. Locus: Internal/external dimension a) Internal locus related to confidence and self-esteem. not just performing well Interests and Emotions A. Tapping interests B. students tend to set performance goals 2. the outcome is feeling of pride or shame b) If attribution is to uncontrollable factors. b) Ego-involved c) Give up easily 3. specific. it is related to emotional reactions a) If attribution is that success or failure is due to controllable factors. outcome will be c) gratitude for good luck 4. Feedback and Goal Acceptance 1. or loss of self-esteem b) Students with internal locus feel responsible for success through skill and effort c) Students with external locus prefer to work in situations governed by luck 2. Motivation in Learning and Teaching VII. related to expectations about the future Internal locus related to confidence and self-esteem. Emphasis should be on learning and improving. Teacher actions and student attributions a) Teachers tend to respond with sympathy when student failure is assumed to be a result of uncontrollable factors b) If failures are attributed to controllable factors. moderately challenging. yet controllable B. Beliefs about Causes and Control: Attribution Theory (Table 10. stable. uncontrollable. Responsibility: Whether a student can control the causes of success. 389) D.10. and attainable in a short time 2. Goals: Lessons for Teachers 1. Beliefs about Ability 1. Interests and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers Beliefs and Self-Schemas A. Goal acceptance: Students accept goals set by teachers or establish own goals D. Arousal: Excitement and Anxiety in Learning 1. VIII. Work-avoidance goals 4. similar expectation of past to future c) If success attributed to unstable factors. Coping with anxiety (Guidelines pg. it is unstable. Curiosity: Novelty and complexity 2. Point/Counterpoint: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning? C. expectation in future will differ from past 3.3) 1. Anxiety in the classroom 3. the teacher’s reaction is more likely to be irritation 119 . Anxiety and achievement 4. Incremental view: Intelligence is a set of skills that can be changed. Students are more likely to work toward goals that are clear. or loss of self-esteem a) b) If success attributed to stable factors. Entity view: Intelligence fixed. Feedback: An accurate sense of where one is and how far one has to go 2. Social goals C. On TARGET for Learning (Table 10.5) A. Task value a) Motivation in a specific situation is determined by expectations of success and the value attached to that success b) Attainment value: Importance of doing well on the task c) Intrinsic or interest value: Enjoyment obtained from a task d) Utility value: Contribution of a task to meeting goals 3. and Time E. Individualistic F. opinions or principles 2. Authentic Tasks a) Has some connection to real-life challenges b) Problem-based learning: Students meet an ill-structured problem before they receive any instruction Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment (Fig. Grouping and goal structures (See Figure 10. Academic tasks – interesting or boring. 10. Recognizing accomplishments D. XI. 406) Summary Table A. 394) 1. Mastery-oriented students a) Set learning goals b) Assume responsibility for success and failure c) Competitive 2. Supporting Choices: Bounded choice 2. involve facts. Defined: When people come to believe that the events and outcomes in their lives are mostly uncontrollable. Motivation in Learning and Teaching IX. c) Students interpret their failures partly as a result of the teacher’s reaction Beliefs about Self-Efficacy and Learned-Helplessness 1.10. Failure-accepting students: Believe their problems are due to a lack of ability E. Failure-avoiding students a) Set performance goals b) Seek to protect image c) Take few risks or may decide they are incompetent 3.6) B. 120 . Competitive 3. Causes three types of deficits a) Cognitive b) Motivational c) Affective D. Grouping. Evaluation. they have developed “learned helplessness” 2. Time Diversity and Convergences in Motivation to Learn (Guidelines pg. X.2) 1. Beliefs about Self-Worth (Guidelines pg. Evaluation: The greater the focus on grading and evaluation.1) C. the more the student will focus on performance goals G. 1. concepts. Beliefs and Self-Schemas: Lessons for Teachers Motivation to Learn in School: On Target (Table 10. Cooperative 2. Tasks for Learning 1. have a subject content. Diversity in Motivation C. not comparison to others d. How is motivation conceptualized in the behavioral. humanistic. Model good problem-solving 2. and sociocultural perspectives? 3. Converges: Strategies to Encourage Motivation and Thoughtful Learning (Table 10. Make sure learning goals are clear. and how do these effects relate to beliefs about ability? 121 . Give students frequent opportunities to respond b) Have students create a finished product c) Avoid heavy emphasis on grades and competition d) Reduce task risk without oversimplifying the task e) Model motivation to learn for your students f) Teach the particular learning tactics needed What Do I Need To Do To Succeed? Staying Focused on the Task? Do I Belong in This Classroom? Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses Guidelines Included • • • • • Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity Coping with Anxiety Encouraging Self-Efficacy and Self-Worth Family and Community Partnerships: Motivation to Learn ================================================================ Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. 3. What are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and motivation to learn? 2.8) 1. 5. Begin at the students’ level and move in small steps b. cognitive. Can I do it? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations a. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. specific. Use ill-structured problems and authentic tasks i) What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on the Task a). Attainment and intrinsic value i) Tie class activities to students’ interests ii) Arouse curiosity iii) Make the learning task fun iv) Make use of novelty and familiarity Instrumental value a. Motivation in Learning and Teaching B. and possible to reach c. Do I Want to Do It: Seeing the Value of Learning a. XIV. XIII. What are the possible motivational effects of success and failure. Provide incentives and rewards for learning c. Communicate to students that academic ability is improvable e. Explain connections to students b. Stress self-comparison.10. 4. XII. What external factors can teachers influence that will encourage students’ motivation to learn? 6. Motivation in Learning and Teaching 4.” Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T91 T92 T93 T94 T95 T96 T97 T98 T99 The Four Theories of Motivation: Incentives to Enhance Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Attributions for Successes and Failures Weiner’s Attribution Theory Some Factors Affecting Individual Motivation Recognizing Students with Learning Versus Performance Goals Riskiness in Decision-Making Different Goal Structures Six Dimensions of Teaching That Can Communicate Expectations 122 . and beliefs about the self in motivation? 5. What is your strategy for teaching your subject to an uninterested student? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 10) Transparencies (T91-T99) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 10) MyLabSchool • “Motivation through problem based learning” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 10) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint • “Alternative classrooms. emotions. What are the roles of goals.10. interests. 1 10.20 Motivating High School Girls to Achieve in Mathematics Technology Field Experience Field Experience Individual 10.8 Observation Guide Strategies to Encourage Motivation and Meaningful Learning 10.9 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 123 .11 Strategies for Motivating Behavior Companion Website Technology 10.17 Motivational Video Games 10.5 Maslow’s Hierarchy 10.0 Lecture Outline 10.15 Teachers’ Communication of Task Value 10.16 Motivational Games Individual Field Experience Field Experience Field Experience Technology 10.18 Motivating Students: Teacher Observation 10.com Interest and Novelty in the Service of Learning 10.2 Types of Motivation 10.9 Keeping Them Curious 10.13 Comparing High and Low Achievers 10. Motivation in Learning and Teaching Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 10 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? What is Motivation? Four General Approaches to Motivation ACTIVITIES 10.14 TARGET in the Classroom 10.6 Explaining the Same Event Differently 10.7 Achievement Motivation: Observation Chart 10.4 Explain this 10.1 Encouraging Motivation 10.0 10.3 What would You do? What is Common? What Motivates You? Motivating Students TYPE Case Analysis Cooperative Cooperative Cooperative Individual Individual Individual Companion Website Technology Cooperative 10.7 My Motivator.19 Motivated Behavior in Museums 10.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy and Motivation 10.6 Concept Map: Necessary Conditions for Motivation On TARGET for Learning 10.10 Book-It Reading Incentive Programs 10.4 Types of Motivation 10.12 Ambiguity and Constructivism 10.5 Questions as Curiosity HANDOUTS 10.8 Goal Orientation and Motivation Interests and Emotions Self-Schema Motivation to Learn in School 10.2 10.10. 3. 10.6 Explaining the Same Event Differently Use Handout Master 10. 10. 10.4 Types of Motivation Use Handout 10. 2..2 What Motivates You? Have your students in small groups develop a list of things/people that motivate them. controllability (controllable or uncontrollable).0 What would You do? Have your students complete the first question following the case presented at the beginning of the chapter.1 for this exercise. What changes? 124 . have students categorize the items that appear on the list and come up with key categories of motivators (e. Satisfied Spencer.2 for this exercise. Once students have completed this part of the case. Determine what is common among the sources of motivation identified in question 1. 10. external). Safe Sumey. Your students should attempt to: 1. and Anxious Amee.4 for this activity.5 Maslow’s Hierarchy Use Handout Master 10. intrinsic).10. Identify what motivates each student. These vignettes describe the motivational difficulties of Hopeless Geraldo. ask them to identify what might go wrong with their plan and what “repairs” they would make to their plan. and stability (unstable or stable). 10. then decide if it represents an internal or external locus of control.g. Provide a definition of motivation that could be applied to all of the children. Then have them analyze their attributions in terms of locus (internal vs. Motivation in Learning and Teaching Activities 10. Have the students match the different statements on the handout with the appropriate view of motivation. 10. Using Maslow’s hierarchy. Ask your students to write explanations for two different audiences.3 to help students examine their motivation to learn. Once a complete list has been developed. The question asks them to decide how they would arouse children’s curiosity and interest in topics to be tested. have students match each statement of a student’s positive experience to a Maslow level. Then ask students to rank the experiences in order of importance according to Maslow’s theory. Ask students to select from the list of General Motivational Approaches (ENCOURAGING MOTIVATION) and indicate which ones would be appropriate in the given situations. Defensive Daleesha.1 What is Common? Have your students read the vignettes at the beginning of Chapter 10.3 Motivating Students Use Handout Master 10. extrinsic vs. com. Motivation in Learning and Teaching 10.). How does the way this site works compare with your textbook’s discussion of the way goals work? 10. “My Motivator. Chapter 10.ablongman. This site includes information about a Reading Incentive Program sponsored by Pizza Hut to encourage students in grades K-6 to read more. “Book-It. be more assertive.7 My Motivator.” http://www. New York: McGraw-Hill. (1994). etc. eConnect and Extend.8 Interest and Novelty in the Service of Learning Ask your students to use one of the Internet Search Engines they used earlier in the course to locate a Web site for instruction (an example could be the History House website at http://www.g. 116. The references listed above provide some key sources related to curiosity.11 Strategies for Motivating Behavior Ask your students to locate websites (or watch television advertisements) intended to help people change behavior (e.. Ask each student to identify such a site and analyze the motivational strategies that are explicitly stated on the site or are implicit.com/woolfolk10e. Ask them to comment on how motivating the kind of recognition displayed on this site would be for students at different grade levels. lose weight. (1960).com/woolfolk10e. E. 75-98. have a discussion of the prevalent forms of motivation being used.” http://www.com/woolfolk10e. It is best for students to get practice in locating these curricular sites themselves. G.historyhouse. Have them record their responses on Handout Master 10.ablongman. As a class.10.10 Book-It Reading Incentive Programs Have your students look at CW. Would the contents of the site encourage curiosity or effort? Are the materials novel? Is learning encouraged and supported or is the site simply a “fun” site? 10. Conflict. The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation. eat better.com/).” http://www. but you can try out the fun and interesting online goal-setting wizard for free.9 Keeping Them Curious Berylyne. 10. Have your students in groups generate a list of questions that might provoke curiosity. exercise more. When they have found a site. Psychological Bulletin. curiosity. “Scholastic Reading Counts! Program.ablongman. Lowenstein. This is a commercial site that rents and sells inspirational tapes.5.com Have your students visit CW. Berlyne proposed that curiosity had two dimensions: exploration and perceptual curiosity. Lowenstein suggested that curiosity reflected an information gap and questions could provoke such curiosity. 125 . Chapter 10. Also ask the students to look at CW. eConnect and Extend. eConnect and Extend. arousal. Chapter 10. D. ask them to evaluate the site in terms of its interest value. Your students should review this site and decide what the advantages and disadvantages of such an incentive system might be. 10. 126 . cannot cope with ambiguity. conduct a group summary of the frequency with which such statements have been found. Discuss the implications of the findings. and are poor risk-takers. Observation Guide.13 Comparing High and Low Achievers Ask students to select a classroom for observation and ask the teacher to point out three students who are considered high achievers and three who are low achievers (they do not show the teacher what they will be observing). When they are finished. Have your students discuss the appropriateness of presenting such tasks to students who have a high fear of failure. have them compare the two groups. Have them observe the classroom during a discussion or recitation session and during a period of assigned seatwork.8. How can a constructivist classroom serve the needs of these children? 10. As they observe.15 Teachers’ Communication of Task Value Ask your students to observe in a classroom and count the number of times during a 30-minute period in which the teacher communicates to the students about the value of the task in which they are engaged. Motivation in Learning and Teaching 10.12 Ambiguity and Constructivism Classrooms that are organized and conducted from a constructivist perspective will most likely include some ambiguous tasks. In class.10. 10. to guide their observation of how these elements are being used in a classroom. have them make a frequency tally in the chart. Raise hand to contribute orally Low achievers Ask for help Receive praise/correction High achievers 10. Ask them to use the following chart to accompany the observation (See Handout Master 10.7).14 TARGET in the Classroom TARGET for motivation involves a number of elements: • Tasks • Support for autonomy • Recognition • Grouping • Evaluation • Time Have your students use Handout Master 10. Have them observe children at a museum and record evidence of motivated behavior or motivational strategies being employed by the adults accompanying the children. grammar. Be careful to check on the museum’s policies for conducting observations. • Fantasy: The game includes some fantasy component. Given what you have experienced in school and college.17 Motivational Video Games Using the same general task as in 10. how do the programs enhance student motivation to play the games? What similarities and differences are there between games? 10.20 Motivating High School Girls to Achieve in Mathematics Have your students determine if girls are motivated to achieve in mathematics. Explain why a student would be motivated not to study for a test from both viewpoints. How would they find out? What would they do about it? Discussion Questions 1. They have identified many factors that enhance the intrinsic motivation of students to play instructional games.7 for use in observing behavior in a museum. Explain why a student would be motivated to study for a test according to a behavioral viewpoint and a cognitive viewpoint. How might this procedure of reducing the learning into discrete units affect students’ motivation? 3. 127 . 10. teachers must break down a course or lesson into small discrete units of study. The design of these games has been strongly influenced by the work of Mark Lepper and Thomas Malone.7 to record their observations of strategies used by the teacher for motivating the students. Compare two instructional games for a specific content area (e. • Control: The player has some ability to make choices.19 Motivated Behavior in Museums Have your students develop an observation guide like that in Handout Master 10.. Motivation in Learning and Teaching 10. Among these factors are: • Challenge: The game should be of moderate difficulty.10.16 Motivational Games Computerized instructional games have become standard curriculum materials in many classrooms.16. • Curiosity: The game may appeal to sensory or cognitive curiosity. In mastery learning. science). Using the framework suggested by Lepper and Malone. They should use Handout Master 10.g.18 Motivating Students: Teacher Observation Have your students observe a classroom teacher for a half day. 10. ask students to compare and contrast a video game designed for a boy and one designed for a girl. 10. Discuss the differences in motivation observed in museums and classrooms. Each unit may have one or more objectives and a criterion for mastery of each. They should use Lepper and Malone’s criteria. what adverse effects on student motivation might be expected if grades were totally eliminated? 2. provides a “hook” to get their interest. It gives them a feeling of accomplishment for having helped solve a real problem. (1987). (1977). can you explain the decline? Be careful to consider the development that occurs during this time period. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. 69(4). and the means for sustaining it. cognitive or sociocultural approach to motivation? The answer is all three: behavioral. R. He suggests that the inner (intuitive) person is the next great frontier of education. Educational Psychology. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. humanistic if the project increases the student’s self esteem or sense of competence. 7. A. humanistic. 2. MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. 34. Is PBL a behavioral. how can a teacher prevent the student from becoming apathetic and discouraged? 6. What criticisms would you offer for this hierarchy? 5. and then allows them to decide where they want to go with the project and how to get there. How does problem-based learning motivate students to learn? It presents them with a real problem. C. Beyond the watershed: And where now? Educational Leadership. Can children not learn in school if they are hungry or have felt unsafe in their neighborhood? Take Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into account when answering this question. if the project results in a real benefit to the student or someone else. Rogers presents a definition of person-centered education and explores the current state of humanistic education and its ramifications. Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter PRINT RESOURCES Hahn. Hahn outlines the causes and consequences of dropping out of school and looks at what we have learned about programs that identify and assist dropouts.mylabschool. Rogers. the research that supports it. 128 . 256-263. and cognitive if the student is intrinsically motivated because of a personal connection to the project. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. Motivation in Learning and Teaching 4. 623629. If a student’s attribution of failure to internal-stable causes is fairly accurate (“I’m not very smart and there’s nothing I can do about that”). MLS Video Lab Module 6: Motivating Students Clip 12: Motivation through problem based learning 1. Compare and contrast the different kinds of goals a student might have. Reaching out to America’s dropouts: What to do? Phi Delta Kappan.com/). a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www.10. Do you think it is generally true that first-graders have more curiosity and are more motivated to learn than sixth-graders or high school students? If so. Journal of Educational Psychology. O. Nisbett. Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior. MA: Allyn & Bacon. Seligman. P. A. B. Kanouse. Motivation to learn. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Hot Topics Series from Phi Delta Kappa. MA: Allyn & Bacon. Self-talk for teachers and students. American educators must decide which elements of the Japanese educational system they should draw upon to improve their own. E. FILMS. Manning.. B. Head of the class. P. It reveals the high pressure of the Japanese educational system.. From Films for the Humanities. and death. VIDEOTAPES. 14 minutes. Freeman & Co. Kelley. (800) 257-5126. Academic intrinsic motivation in elementary and junior high school students.10. IN 47402-0789. H. Stipek.. M. Hillsdale. E. Needham Heights. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.. (1986). 129 . Motivating others: Nurturing our inner resources. D. (1996). where the goal is to gain admission to the university. Needham Heights. 631-645.O. New York: W. Englewood Cliffs. Box 789. Box 2053. attributes of test anxious students are described. (12 minutes. H. variables that affect anxiety are reviewed and treatments are suggested. Teachers may be so intent on what they are teaching that they are unable to distinguish between students who already know what they are being taught and those who are only pretending to understand. (1996). color) To purchase: #CC-1915. MA: Allyn & Bacon.. test anxiety is defined and examined from a psychological and physiological level. (1993). Jones. A. (1987). Needham Heights. J. E. E. Gottfried. NJ: Prentice Hall. Inc. (1992). NJ. AND AUDIOCASSETTES What I learned from not learning. 08543. Valins. Order from Phi Delta Kappa. REFERENCES Bandura. S.. Bloomington. depression. In six chapters of this booklet. 77. M. D. Princeton. & Payne. D. E. H. R. An insightful examination of what really goes on in a classroom: teachers present accurate information in unintelligible ways to uninterested students or irrelevant answers to appropriate questions. & Weiner. Motivation in Learning and Teaching Test anxiety. Order from Films for the Humanities & Sciences. J. E. B. This story aroused tremendous interest when it was broadcast on 60 Minutes. (1985). Helplessness: On development. Reeve. ericdigests.org/1999-2/theory.historyhouse.org/ 130 . History The History House: http://www.particleadventure.html Student Motivation to Learn: http://www.ericdigests. Motivation in Learning and Teaching USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses.org/1999-1/needs.What Does Learning Theory Have To Say? (talks about selfefficacy): http://www.ericdigests.htm Creating Learning Centered Classrooms .htm Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Career Development: http://www.com/ Science The Particle Adventure: http://www.ericdigests.org/ The Why Files: http://whyfiles.htm Other Web Sites The following Web sites have interesting content that can be used for a variety of purposes related to motivation and instruction. ERIC Digests are in the public domain. Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: http://www.org/1999-4/self.org/1995-1/learn. They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics.html Motivating Low Performing Adolescent Readers: http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-1/low.10. Peers 1. Group work – several students working together B. Engaged Learning Cooperation and Community 11 Engaged Learning: Cooperation and Community Teaching Outline I. Students may value process or procedures over learning 3. Collaboration. Group interactions can hinder learning and reduce social relations in the class 2. 131 . Five elements needed a) Face-to-face interaction b) Positive interdependence c) Collaborative skills d) Individual accountability e) Group processing 2. Adolescents with authoritative parents are more likely to respond to peer pressure to do well in school 2. Peers can determine how much effort a student invests in school 2.2) 4. Giving and receiving explanations (see Table 11. Status differences may be increased D. Students select friends who share their orientation towards school B. Students may shift dependency from the teacher to an expert student in the group 6. and Skill-Building Tasks (Student Teams Achievement Divisions) a) Students are assigned to heterogeneous teams b) Students’ previous work used as base score or Individual Learning Expectation score (ILE) to rate improvement 2. Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning (Guidelines pg. Highly Structured.11. Beyond groups to cooperation C. II. Group Work and Cooperative Learning 1. Review. What Would You Do? Social Processes in Learning A. Perceived support from teachers is related to positive motivation for learning and adjustment in school Collaboration and Cooperation A.1) 1. What can go wrong? Misuses of group learning 1. Assigning roles (see Table 11. Socializing can take precedence over learning 5. Setting up cooperative groups 3. Students can support and reinforce misunderstandings 4. Collaboration – philosophy about how to relate to others-how to learn and work 2. Ill structured. Parents and Teachers 1. Cooperation – way of working with other to attain a shared goal 3.3) III. Conceptual. 425) 1. and Problem-Solving Tasks 3. Social Skills and Communication Tasks E. Tasks for Cooperative Learning (Table 11. Respect and Protect (Table 11. 434) B. 132 . not comparison 3.5) 2. Students have choices 2. Three C’s for safe and productive schools 1.6) 1. Getting Started on Community F.8) A. Peer harassment (Table 11. Everyone must respect and protect the rights of others 2. VI. Civic Values 1. Engaged Learning Cooperation and Community IV. Prevention is the best strategy (Guidelines pg. Included both adult-centered and student-centered interventions Community Outside the Classroom: Service Learning (Guidelines pg. Jigsaw a) Each member has responsibility for part of the material to be learned and becomes an expert on that part b) Students teach each other the material on which they have developed expertise The Classroom Community A. Students are respected and supported by teachers Violence Prevention is the best strategy (Table 11. Convergence F.9) 1. V. Constructive conflict resolution (Table 11. Cultural Audit (Table 11. Reciprocal questioning (Table 11. Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Character and Compassion? E. Violence-enabling behaviors are targeted 4. Reaching Every Student. 437) Diversity and Convergences in Social Engagement A. Distinction between two kinds of violence-bully/victim violence and violence arising from normal conflicts 5. Benefits ELL students 2. Violence is not acceptable 3. Assignment to cooperative learning groups 2. Diversity 1. Peer Mediation and Negotiation a) Five-step negotiating strategy i) Jointly define the conflict ii) Exchange positions and interests iii) Reverse perspectives iv) Invent at least three agreements that allow mutual gain v) Reach an integrative agreement C. Cooperative community 2. Emphasis is on personal improvement. Teaching Civic Values Through the Curriculum D. Constructive conflict resolution 3.10) B. Scripted cooperation G.7: The dos and don’ts about teasing) 2. Using Cooperative Learning Wisely 1. VII. Belonging 1. Civic values B.11. Character Education 2. Designs for Cooperation 1. and how can I avoid them? 4.11) Guidelines Included • • • Using Cooperative Learning Handling Potentially Explosive Situations Using Service Learning ================================================================ Learning Objectives After studying this chapter.11. What can be done to prevent and respond to school violence? 6. 2. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses Successful programs focus on: social and emotional competence. What are the possibilities and potential problems with service learning? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 11) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 11) MyLabSchool • “Cooperative Learning” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 11) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint • “Zero tolerance” 133 . X. connections to others and contributions to community The Wingspread Declaration on School Connections (Table 11. How do social relationships affect learning in school? 2. What are some of the problems that might occur with cooperative learning. Engaged Learning Cooperation and Community 1. VIII. How can I create a learning community in my classroom? 5. How can cooperative learning strategies promote academic and social development? 3. IX. 5 Effective Group Interaction 11.1b A Teacher’s Reply 134 .1a A Letter from Tommy’s Mommy 11.3 Models of Cooperative Learning 11.0 Lecture Outline The Classroom Community Violence in Schools 11.11.2 Academic Controversy Companion Website Cooperative Cooperative Companion Website/ Research Technology Companion Website/ Technology Research Field Experience 1.1 Evaluating a Web Site 11.2 Cooperative Learning Techniques ACTIVITIES TYPE HANDOUTS 11. Engaged Learning Cooperation and Community Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 11 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? Social Processes in Learning Collaboration and Cooperation 11.6 Tolerance.7 Online Learning Communities 11.1 Conflict with a Parent 11.0 Peer Mediation Programs 11.4 Scripted Cooperation 11.org Community Outside the Classroom: Service Learning Diversity and Convergence in Social Engagement 11. 1 Conflict with a Parent Conflict can be avoided by communication. 11.com/woolfolk10e.” http://www.1b for this activity. they should discuss the issue. Have your students write a response to this parent. Students then reverse perspectives and finally come up with a synthesis of the arguments and counterarguments.com/woolfolk10e.ablongman.ablongman. Have two students in a group prepare arguments in support of the question. Once they have completed the task. 431). assign students to work in four member groups. 11. which is the teacher’s actual response to the parent.1a and 11. Using Handout Master 11. Upon completion of this task. You can anticipate that students will have some difficulty locating such articles. eConnect and Extend. Handout 11. Use Handouts 11. The Academic Controversy technique developed by the Johnsons helps students to do so by structuring their activities to include differing positions. David Johnson and Roger Johnson developed this technique to help students offer differing opinions about a topic. 11. distribute Handout 11. “Should schools teach character and compassion?” Have the remaining two students prepare counterarguments. They will need to be directed to find articles that provide evidence rather than rhetoric or testimonials. “Academic Controversy. Using the Point/Counterpoint topic in chapter 11 (p.1a is a parent’s letter to a teacher objecting to a homework assignment. Next. have students reverse their roles. Once students are prepared. The arguments should be well researched and not simply be personal opinions. Have your students compare their response to the actual teacher’s and comment on the most appropriate way to solve this issue. “Models that Promote Cooperative Learning.11. Students in groups are sometimes afraid to express differing opinions. For what kinds of tasks would the students use each of these techniques? 135 .2 Academic Controversy Have your students CW. Chapter 11. and have those who once argued against the topic now argue for it and vice versa with those who had argued for it.” http://www.3 Models of Cooperative Learning Have your students visit CW.0 Peer Mediation Programs Ask each of your students to locate 3 articles that describe evaluations of Peer Mediation Programs. You may want to lead a discussion on why it is difficult to locate sources of high quality. Chapter 11. Students are required to prepare a set of arguments in support or against a particular position.2. Engaged Learning Cooperation and Community Activities 11. have students develop a combined list of arguments in support or against the issue and have them come to consensus about their opinion. have them list the advantages and disadvantages of each of the four cooperative learning techniques listed. eConnect and Extend. Organize your students into groups of four. Students express the arguments/counterarguments for a position.1b. Each group should use record their discussions of the following topics: 1. Ask your students to identify five ways in which the content of this Web site might be helpful to their teaching. Ask them to contribute to that community by participating in a chat room. 11.5 Effective Group Interaction This activity will need to be done in stages.ablongman. First. Both students do these activities without their notes. The next task of the group will be to transcribe their tape. they should analyze the transcript for evidence that their group was productive. What is a negative number? Group members should be directed to come to consensus on an answer. 11. eConnect and Extend. They should provide an analysis of the kinds of discussion that take place in the chat room.11.6.org. How would you go about creating a learning community with an ethnically diverse school population? 136 . ask students to pair off. At the end of the summarization. One student will summarize the content of the class to that point to his or her partner. Chapter 11. Are the discussions focused on social or cognitive processes? What kind of learning takes place in the community? Discussion Questions 1. Both partners should then discuss how the material covered up to that point in the class connects to other things they know.” http://www. arrange your class into groups of three or four.1 Tolerance.4 Scripted Cooperation About 20 minutes into one of your classes. while the partner listens and tries to detect errors. What can teachers do to make the classroom participation structures fit the structures that students bring from the culture of the home? 2. They should also note what kinds of interaction seemed to take time from the assigned tasks and other evidence of non-productivity.com/woolfolk10e. Have your students evaluate this Web site using the checklist in Handout Master 1. the interaction was supportive of effective cognitive processing.7 Online Learning Communities Have your students search the Internet for an online community related to education.1. Once they have an agreed-upon transcript. Why are the days shorter in the winter than in the summer? 2. Engaged Learning Cooperation and Community 11. Tell the students that you are going to have them review the material from the class in a particular way.org Have your students visit CW. 11. the listening partner provides feedback on what was missing from the summary. What can go wrong in using groups for instruction and how can these problems be prevented from happening? 3. “Tolerance. 1-36. What academic tasks do you think might be most appropriate for cooperative learning groups? Lease appropriate? Answers will vary. (1984). A. Engaged Learning Cooperation and Community MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. CA: University of California Press. Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter REFERENCES Cohen. R. 64. MLS Video Lab Module 5: Approaches to Learning Clip 10: Cooperative Learning (1:48) 1. D. & Holubec. D. Edina. D. Johnson. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. & Johnson. Designing groupwork: Strategies for the heterogeneous classroom. W. competitive. In N. N. a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www. E.. Revised. G. E. Understanding students’ interactive behavior: Looking at six mirrors of the classroom. Johnson. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. R. Caring . (1994). and individualistic learning (4th ed. & King. MN: Interaction Book Co. W. J. R. (1992)..11. Johnson..). Educational Psychology. T. R. Miller and R. (1988).com/). Learning together and alone: Cooperative. Johnson. Berkeley. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses.).. Cognitive perspectives on peer learning. & Holubec. Circles of learning: Cooperation in the classroom (3rd ed. Edina. Mahwah. 137 .. & Johnson. Hertz-Lazarowitz. Positive interdependence: Key to effective cooperation..). Cohen. O’Donnell. W. T. Hertz-Lazarowitz and N. (1994b) Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. Interaction in cooperative groups: The theoretical anatomy of group learning (pp. E. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms.). Johnson. Noddings. Review of Educational Research. Cooperation in the classroom. (1992). (1994a).a feminine approach to ethics and moral education.). E. W. New York: Cambridge University Press. 71-102). Interaction in cooperative groups: The theoretical anatomy of group learning (pp. M. R. T.. (1999). A. Johnson. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. (1990). New York: Cambridge University Press. Miller (Eds. D. G. (2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press. 174-199). T. 2. In R. Hertz-Lazarowitz (Eds. MN: Interaction Book Co. What benefits did you see in this example of cooperative learning? What problems could you anticipate? Answers will vary.mylabschool. Developmental and motivational perspectives on cooperative learning: A reconciliation. MD: The Johns Hopkins University.11. ERIC Digests are in the public domain.htm Cooperative Problem-Solving in the Classroom: http://www. 58. J. R.htm OTHER WEB SITES Professional Learning Communities: An article about what they are and why they are important.ericdigests. special education. Slavin. (1994). (1980).htm Cross-Age and Peer Tutoring: http://www. They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format.htm Peer-Tutoring: Toward a New Model: http://www.ericdigests. In: S. http://www. Using student team learning (3rd ed. Sharan. R.org/1995-1/elements. P. M. A group investigation method of cooperative learning in the classroom. Hertz-Lazarowitz (Eds. Baltimore. Provo.insight-media. Educational Psychology Review. 6.sedl. Webb.org/1992-1/peer. Utah: BYU Press.). Sharan. C. R.films. Hare. Child Development. 321-349.org/change/issues/issues61. Engaged Learning Cooperation and Community O’Donnell. (1986). and psychology: http://www. (1987). 14-46). and R. Learning from peers: Beyond the rhetoric of positive results.htm Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences: http://www. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics.org/pre-9213/cooperative. Slavin. A. USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. & Hertz-Lazarowitz. E.html Insight Media: The website has video and CD-ROM resources for teacher education. The Essential Elements of Cooperative Learning in the Classroom: http://www.com/IMHome.) Cooperation in education (pp. 1161-1167.com/ 138 .org/1994/peer. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses.ericdigests.ericdigests.. S. & O’Kelly. More time for learning (Fig. not merely controlling misbehavior 2. b) Student movement: Entering and leaving room III. Access to learning a) Explicit participation structures: Rules defining participation in various activities b) Teachers need to show awareness and communication of rules 3. Management for self-management: Help students manage themselves Creating a Positive Learning Environment A. Gaining cooperation: Product of many managerial skills. Immediacy: Very fast pace 4. Characteristics of Classrooms 1.” time spent attending actively to specific learning tasks) d) Academic learning time means students are working with high rate of success 2. Some Research Results B. Procedures: Describe how to accomplish activities in the classroom a) Administrative routines: Taking attendance. Unpredictability: Even with best plans. What Would You Do? The Need for Organization A. Simultaneity: Many things happening at once 3. Creating Learning Environments 12 Creating Learning Environments Teaching Outline I. Goals of Classroom Management 1. 12.12.1) a) Available time lost to interruptions and rough transitions b) Significant relationship between content covered and student learning c) Learning highly correlated with amount of engaged time (“time on task. II. less time on direct teaching of rules c) Late elementary-early high school grades: Motivating students concerned with peers. Age-related needs: Four levels of classroom management a) Early elementary grades: Direct teaching of rules and procedures important b) Middle elementary grades: Time spent monitoring and maintaining management system. Multidimensional: Individuals with differing goals. performing various tasks within particular time pressures 2. disruptions are likely 5. etc. Histories: Current events frequently depend on past B. helping students become more self-managing in learning C. Rules and Procedures Required 1. Public: Students evaluating interactions between teacher and surroundings 6. 139 . The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 1. channeling challenges to authority productively d) Late high school grades: Fitting curriculum to student interest and abilities. Effective teachers for elementary students a) Organized from the first day b) Gave children interesting tasks c) Monitored behavior as a whole group d) Taught rules e) Provided consequences for misbehavior immediately 2. or hurt others (v) Obey all school rules b) Rules for secondary school (i) Bring all needed materials to class (ii) Be in your seat and ready to work when the bell rings (iii) Respect and be polite to everyone (iv) Respect other people’s property (v) Listen and stay seated while someone else is talking (vi) Obey all school rules 3. Personal Territories a) Action zones: Where participation is the greatest (not necessarily the front) b) Different types of physical arrangements for different activities. 457) Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class 1. Planning for Computer Use (Table 12.2). Consequences (see Table 12. Characteristics a) Should invite participation in and support the activities in your classroom b) Should encourage respect 2. Ineffective teachers for elementary students a) Gave vague or complicated rules b) Provided inconsistent consequences for both positive and negative behaviors c) Procedures were not taught or practiced d) Teachers frequently left the room 3. Creating Learning Environments C. Interest-area arrangements 3. shove. D. Planning Spaces for Learning (Guidelines pg. 455) 1. Rules: Have a few general rules specifying expected and forbidden actions in the class (Guidelines pg.3 and Guidelines pg. E. Effective managers for secondary students 140 .1) a) Determine beforehand the consequences for following or breaking rules b) Logical consequences: Have the student go back and do it right c) Consequences should be clear and enforceable d) Who sets the rules and consequence? (see Table 12.12. c) Housekeeping: Taking care of classroom and personal items d) Routines for accomplishing lessons: Collecting and distributing papers e) Interactions between teacher and student f) Talk among students 2. 449) a) Rules for elementary school (i) Be polite and helpful (ii) Respect other people’s property (iii) Listen quietly while others are speaking (iv) Do not hit. Involvement without supervision B. Are “withit” (aware of what is happening in the classroom) a) Stop minor disruptions before they become major b) Avoid blaming the wrong student for misbehavior (target errors) c) Avoid timing errors: Waiting too long before intervening in misbehavior d) When multiple problems occur. Lesson format affects involvement 2. Prevention is the Best Medicine: Characteristics of effective managers 1. Offer a choice D. allow cool down time b) Follow through with consequences c) Talk privately about outburst 4. Students who continually break the same rules a) Seat difficult students away from others who can be influenced b) Be consistent about consequences c) Encourage self-management techniques d) Remain friendly 3. Dealing with Discipline Problems 1. Ask students if they are aware of the negative effects of their behavior 4. Reaching Every Student: School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports a) Agree on common approach 141 . Encouraging Engagement (Guidelines pg. Point/Counterpoint: Is zero tolerance a good idea? Special Problems with Secondary Students E. Calmly asking student to state correct procedure 6. Assertively. 1. hostile student a) Get out of situation. Try verbal hints 3. and using variety when changes are necessary b) Avoid slowdown: Taking too much time to start new activities c) Caring Relationships: Connections with school: build positive trusting relationships d) Student Social Skills as a Prevention C. maintaining an appropriate pace. telling student to stop misbehavior 7. The defiant. 459) 1. move closer. Making sure students get back to work: Make eye contact. Overlapping and group focus a) Overlapping: Keeping track of and supervising several activities at the same time b) Group focus: Keeping as many students as possible involved in appropriate class activities 3.12. Creating Learning Environments IV. a) Focused on establishing rules b) Clearly communicated standards for academic work and class behavior c) Dealt with infractions of rules quickly d) Students in low achieving classes were given a variety of tasks Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning A. deal with the most serious one first 2. and use non-verbal signals 2. Movement management a) Making smooth transitions. Reminding students of procedures 5. 463) 2. Enforcing established consequences for incomplete work (Guidelines pg. Four components of empathetic listening a) Blocking out external stimuli b) Attending to verbal and nonverbal messages c) Differentiating between intellectual and emotional content d) Making inferences about speaker’s feelings D. Empathetic listening: Hearing student’s intent and emotions. Creating Learning Environments V. Assertive discipline a) Clear. and word choice convey messages b) Students may hear unintended message and react to it c) People respond to what they think was said 2. non-hostile response style b) Teachers make expectations clear and follow through with established consequence c) Students have clear choice: Follow rules or accept consequences d) Mistakes of the passive or non-assertive response style e) Mistakes of the hostile response style Assertive response style: Teacher’s care is communicated in a calm. “I” messages: Description of student’s behavior. expectations clearly stated 3. how it affects you as a teacher. Confrontations and negotiations a) If I-message or assertive response fails to change behavior. and how you feel about it 2. May be different a) Body language. reflecting them back through paraphrasing 2. Develop a few positively stated behavioral expectations and procedures Identify a continuum of ways to acknowledge behaviors and correct errors d) Integrate positive behavioral support procedures The Need for Communication A.12. tone of voice. firm. Research on Different Management Approaches b) c) 142 . Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management B. Paraphrase rule a) Participants must summarize in their own words what the previous speaker said before responding b) Speaker explains again if misunderstood c) Cycle continues until the speaker agrees that the listener has heard the correct message B. firm. f) and confident manner. Message Sent – Message Received 1. Counseling: The Student’s Problem 1. VI. Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It? C. Confrontation and Assertive Discipline 1. a conflict situation arises b) Three methods of resolving conflict: (i) Teacher imposes solution (ii) Teacher gives in to student demands (iii) “No-lose method” Diversity and Convergences in Learning Environments A. 12. How will you establish a list of rules and procedures for a class? 3. VII. How will you manage computers in your classroom to fit your learning goals and teaching methods? 5. How would you respond to a student who seldom completes work? 7. How will you arrange the physical environment for your classroom to fit your learning goals and teaching methods? 4. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. 472) Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses Guidelines Included • • • • • • Establishing Class Procedures Designing Learning Spaces Using Computers: Management Issues Keeping Students Engaged Imposing Penalties Family and Community Partnerships: Classroom Management ================================================================ Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. What are two different approaches for dealing with a conflict between a teacher and a student? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 12) Transparencies (T100-T107 ) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 12) MyLabSchool • “Teaching Rules and Procedures” video clip • “Experiential Learning” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 12) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint • “Zero tolerance” 143 . What are Kounin’s suggestions for preventing management problems? 6. IX. 2. Summary Table Integrating Ideas Communicating with families about Classroom Management (Guidelines pg. What are the special managerial demands of classrooms and the needs of students at different ages? 2. Creating Learning Environments 1. VIII. 3 Who Owns the Problem? Learning Environments for All Students 12.2 How Do You Handle Conflict Effectively? Individual Individual 12.0 12.9 The Effective Classroom Manager Companion website Field Experience 12.com Creating a Positive Learning Environment 12.3 Classroom Management Classroom Management II 12.2 Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning Solving Student Problems 12.6 “I” Messages 12.1 Classroom Management Observation Sheet The Need for Communication 12.4 Cooperative Field Experience Companion Website Cooperative 12.7 Who Owns the Problem? 12. Creating Learning Environments Acetate Transparencies for Use with This Chapter T100 T101 T102 T103 T104 T105 T106 T107 Who Knows Where the Time Goes? Time Available for Academic Learning A Student Contract Appropriate for Primary Grades An Elementary Classroom Arrangement A High School Math Classroom Developmental Characteristics of Students that Influence Teachers’ Management Styles The Dangers of Punishment Peer Conflict Management The QAIT Model Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 11 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? The Need for Organization ACTIVITIES TYPE HANDOUTS 12.8 The Vent 12.6 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 144 .0 Lecture Outline 12.1 Time on Task Teaching Rules and Procedures Field Experience MyLab School.5 Confrontation and Conflict 12.12.1 Classroom Management Observation Sheet 12. “Waittime.3 Classroom Management Using Handout Master 12. and teacher’s use of classroom rules.1. The previous two students jot down a critique and amplification of this description.mylabschool.0 Time on Task Discuss “on-task time” and have students give examples. bringing with them a watch with a second hand.com/). time spent reprimanding individuals or the group. After students have performed this observation. Have the first two students in each group write a paragraph describing a middle-school-age child with a behavioral or learning problem. MLS Video Lab. Students can use their rating sheets as a basis for discussion about management challenges in the classes they have observed. discuss with students what effective management might consist of in four categories: students’ assignments.2 Solving Student Problems Divide the class into teams containing eight students each. Do not include time spent waiting for students to become quiet. “Teaching Rules and Procedures” (3:47). How do the rules for this class fit with the suggestions for rules made in your textbook? 12. At the end of the 50-minute interval. student helpers. 12. Read the problem aloud.12. and transitions between activities. Video Clip 2. add the seconds and divide by 60 to record the actual instructional time in minutes. Module 1: Classroom Procedures. The next two students describe how the teacher would respond to the student’s commitment. Classroom Management.1 for this activity. Creating Learning Environments Activities 12.and not giving up. Is the “on-task time” associated with good teaching? That is. They read this solution aloud. Have the second two students write a description of the teacher who is involved with this student. ask them to share the results they have obtained. and get a commitment to the plan. a teacher’s sense of “withitness. The next students describe briefly how the teacher would get the student to evaluate his/her own behavior. The group then goes back to the first two students. Use Handout 12. and the final two students sum up what they have gained from the exercise. or time spent in transition from one activity to the next.” teacher’s organization of lessons. Set a 50-minute observation time. Instruct the observers to keep a running tally of the seconds spent in actual instruction. are the teachers whom the students perceive as competent those with a high percentage of on-task time? 12. the next two discuss the consequences. Classroom Management Observation Sheet. giving an example of not accepting excuses but not interfering with natural consequences of the student’s failure-. while the next two discuss the plan. students can rate the teachers they observe on a scale of 0-10 and make suggestions for improvement. preferably after lunch. while the first two students jot down a critique and amplification of this solution. Then assign your students to observe a class. The previous two students write a brief critique and amplification of this description. Watch one elementary-school teacher and her students go over the classroom rules. and who reacts to the problem.1 Teaching Rules and Procedures Have your students visit MLS Courses (http://www. and make a plan. including seatwork. materials. is considered instructional time. 145 . who discuss the teacher’s involvement. Using the handout.” or time spent waiting for a student to answer an academic question. 12. eConnect and Extend. stop the activity. This Web site provides a very rich set of resources on classroom management.” Again the role-player should respond however he feels like responding. Responders (2). The first person begins telling his partner everything he would like to say (if he had the nerve) to the person in the real situation. Using Handout Master 12. and Commentator. One member of the pair is to “go first. 12. “Classroom Management. (You may notice that the “youmessage” situations were much louder and more agitated than the “I-message” situations). Follow the same procedure with the partners reversing positions.” http://www. ask the first person to now approach the other with an “I-message” instead of a “you-message. stop the activity.4 Classroom Management II Have your students go to CW. Using the same situation. You could use Handout Master 1. Ask them to discuss their reactions to the activity. Individual Instructions Read the following situations and ask students to rewrite the teacher’s comments as an “I-message.5 Confrontation and Conflict This activity allows your students to practice different responses to confrontation and conflict.” “You are unbelievably stupid. 12. Reader will read the following situations that include a teacher’s typical response.2 (How Do You Handle Conflict?).” “You have got a lot of nerve. The other member of the pair describes his situations. After two or three minutes. with the following roles: Reader.6 “I” Messages This activity can also be conducted as a cooperative activity. and his partner plays the role of the person whose behavior is unacceptable.” After two or three minutes. if necessary. Chapter 12. Encourage the use of lots of “you-message. assign students to groups of four. Allow a minute for each person to think of a situation in which another person’s behavior was unacceptable to him or her. The role-player can respond in whatever ways he feels like responding. and the group will work together to modify the response. Have your students select a link from this page and evaluate the Web site they locate.” Have the students note the different effects that the two messages (the teacher’s original message and the rewritten message) might have on students. Students can evaluate their approaches to conflict resolution and discuss how it might influence their teaching. students can assess themselves on their conflict resolution styles. “You are an inconsiderate slob. To use it as a group activity.” for example.com/woolfolk10e. The second and third persons (Responders) will change the teacher’s response to an I-message. Then the fourth person (Commentator) will reflect on the effectiveness of the I-message. and so on. Creating Learning Environments 12.” and so on.” bring the class back together as a group. and the first person should continue giving “I-messages. These exercises can be done after the class has had practice in constructing “I-messages.ablongman.” This person should briefly describe the situation to his partner. Have each Reader share the group’s responses in class so the group as a whole can comment on these).” Divide the class into pairs and have the members of each pair sit facing one another.1 for this activity. 146 . After both members of the pairs have experienced giving and receiving “you-messages” and “I-messages. Handout Master 12. I’ve put up with your wisecracks for as long as I can. anyone who speaks without raising his hand will stand in the corner. “Is your father a thief. She attempts to undercut all authority figures. The teacher is having trouble getting the students to quit giggling and study their spelling words.com/woolfolk10e. One day he was playing around with some acid and spilled some on a girl’s purse. she was hit with a spit wad on the head.ablongman. Describe the communication patterns. An “I-message” states what the other person is doing. The class can work as a whole on this activity.7 Who Owns the Problem? This activity allows your students to analyze typical classroom situations. Today he ambles up to the teacher’s desk. Once there. and how you feel about it. Today she is making sarcastic remarks to her best friend while the teacher lectures.” 4. describe the teacher whose classroom is best managed. One day when the teacher was writing on the board. This is a sixth-grade spelling class. but occasionally he went too far with his practical jokes. transitions between activities. “It doesn’t take any brains to figure out where you’re going to be when you grow up. The teacher says.9 The Effective Classroom Manager Looking back on the observations made to date in various classrooms. 12.8 The Vent “The Vent” is a discussion group for new teachers. I’ve never had a class as bad as this one. Creating Learning Environments 1. “If you’re going to act like babies. In the situations depicted in Handout Master 12. “In the 20 years I’ve been teaching.3. Direct your students to CW. opens the top drawer and takes out a pencil. Chapter 12.” 147 .” 3. The teacher says. She turned around and said. I’m going to treat you like babies. Anyone with a talent like yours for cutting up will be lucky to make trustee in an insane asylum.12. Even a teacher runs out of patience sooner or later. its effect on you.” http://www.” 12. Ralph? Is that where you learned to take things without asking? Now bring back that pencil you just stole out of my desk. You deliberately start trouble whenever I turn my back. Now shut up.” Active listening paraphrases the other person’s message and includes the feeling communicated.3 can be used as an independent or class activity. and I’m getting sick and tired of it. Cathy. eConnect and Extend. and then respond appropriately with active listening or an “I-message.” 2. and it is the day before Christmas holidays. first have students decide who owns the problem. “All right. especially her history teacher. and provisions for student behavior management that make the classroom “work. “The Vent. Cathy is the class rebel of the ninth grade.” 5. so she says. Ray was the class clown in the 11th grade chemistry class. have them select a discussion about a behavior problem and encourage them to contribute to this discussion. Ralph is always coming to his third-grade class without paper or pencil in spite of the teacher’s repeated reminders and punishments. The fourth-grade class tended to be rather lively with occasional horseplay and note writing. 12. From now on. Most of his antics were funny. His teacher said. Glasser. 3rd. White Plains. J. (1989). How does a field trip promote learning? Use terminology from your text to answer this question. and Jones models. Readers are given a structure for building a personal system of discipline. Do college classes fit into these characteristics? How would elementary and secondary classrooms be different? How would they be the same? 2. M. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. Kounin model. and how the students were immersed in the subject. How did the teacher handle the situation? Was the teacher effective? If confronted with a similar situation. MLS Video Lab Module 5: Approaches to Learning. 148 .com/). Look for a discussion of how the field trip leader aroused the students’ curiosity and interests. (1983). Educational Psychology. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. Elementary School Journal. Canter. Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter PRINT RESOURCES Brophy. Charles. Describe another instance in which experiential learning could be used to motivate students to learn about a particular topic. Organization and management. Creating Learning Environments Discussion Questions 1. Answers will vary. 83. and the Dreikurs. neo-Skinnerian discipline. C. 2. Various classroom management systems are presented and critiqued. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. Ginott’s communication-based model. What are some nonverbal behaviors that can communicate a message that is different from the verbal message? MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text.mylabschool. How would you teach each rule to students? Is it necessary to teach the rules to these students? How does a teacher develop creditability for these rules? 3. ed. Building classroom discipline. a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www.12. would you deal with it in the same way? 4. What can teachers do to make the classroom participation structures fit the structures that students bring from the culture of the home? 5. how goals and procedures were explained. 265-85. NY: Longman. Give some examples of disruptive school situations that you remember or have observed recently. Choose a particular age group and develop a set of classroom rules. Clip 9: Experiential Learning (2:25) 1. Identify aspects of your college class that exemplify the six characteristics of classrooms. This book contrasts eight models of classroom discipline: The Redl and Wattenberg model. J.12. Time on task. McKay. on charges ranging from willful defiance of authority to sexual acts against other students. It is based upon theories of behavior articulated by Alfred Adler and Rudolf Dreikurs. Control theory in the classroom. According to Glasser. not policemen. T. G. It reviews the research. no more than half of the secondary school students in America’s schools are willing to learn. collaborative skills. Disciplining special education students. 94-142. and self-discipline is encouraged. VA: ASDC Publications. This is the guide for the training program with the same name also available from AGS. G. & Dinkmeyer.. May. MN: American Guidance Service. seven mentally retarded students were expelled from Clewiston High School in Hendry County. Flygare. 670-671. Creating Learning Environments Curwin. CA 90494-3312. The thesis of this book is that controlling student behavior simply is not enough. This practical booklet about using instructional time more effectively is prepared by the American Association of School Administrators (1801 N. Phi Delta Kappan. Santa Monica. & Mendler. (1981). This article follows the case through the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals and summarizes briefly the general principles that have emerged from these proceedings regarding appropriate disciplinary procedures for special education students. L. A catalog of printed materials may be obtained from Lee Canter and Associates. Control theory teaches that students who attend school to satisfy internal needs will find that school work is satisfying and rewarding for the effort expended. The students filed suit in U.L. Florida. Systematic training for effective teaching: Teacher’s handbook. discusses role of students. R. Jr.. district court seeking an injunction requiring state and local school officials to provide them with the educational services that were their rights under P. they must be helped to become decision makers and critical thinkers regarding the consequences of their behavior. W. Moore St. The authors respect students’ individuality and make an eloquent distinction between consequences and punishment.S.. D. Circle Pines. VA 22209). management procedures of teachers. Glasser. 149 . and provides a step-by-step approach to assess the use of time in the classroom. Alexandria. In the 1977-78 school year. wasting an enormous human and financial resource. They present strategies intended to enhance student self-esteem and self-regulation to cast teachers as educators. Dinkmeyer. Glasser’s description of school learning teams draws heavily upon cooperative learning research to construct a learning approach that features positive interdependence.. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. (1980). Discipline with dignity (1988). Lee Canter’s program of “Assertive Discipline” offers suggestions for classroom discipline from the behavioral school of thought. A. Arlington. and individual accountability. D. 1307 Colorado Avenue. The program promotes a democratic classroom where choices are clear. (1986). effective teaching. N. discipline is logical. 1994.. Discipline and the law. Alexandria. direct students’ attention. & Worsham. Emmer. 2162 Broadway. S. New York.. This one-hour video shows how teachers can minimize student behavior problems-and maximize learning-with a three-stage management plan. Available from Insight Media. A. Clements. 29 minutes. 98 minutes. Weinstein. Reaching out: Interpersonal effectiveness and self actualization. T. Learn how to identify which skills areas are most characteristic of effective classroom managers. MA: Allyn & Bacon. M. Alexandria. D. Conducting effective conferences with parents. & Mignano. VA 22314-2798.). B. 125 N.E. New York. (1997). Available from Insight Media. by E...T. Implementing: how to provide time for practicing classroom rules and procedures. Presents strategies for resolving conflict and provides a model for student mediation. Classroom management: Setting the tone. and present rules.. NY 10024. (1993). 22 minutes. E. 1988. M. Hyman. 40 minutes. Conflict resolution strategies in schools. Wyden. Planning: how to arrange a classroom. NY 10024. Classroom management for elementary school teachers. Classroom management for secondary school teachers. New York: McGraw-Hill. M. Elementary classroom management: lessons from research and practice (2nd ed. video. This program suggests strategies for preparing and conducting conferences with parents.: Teacher effectiveness training. B. Boston. Gordon. VIDEOTAPES. and AUDIOCASSETTES Classroom management. C. Broadway. Evertson. Stock #612-20324C2. Addresses legal questions about teachers’ rights to discipline children. C.. New York. (1997). including homework assignments. C. (1997). I. J. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). S. Needham Heights. C. Creating Learning Environments REFERENCES Emmer. Secondary classroom management: lessons from research and practice.. New York. Available from Insight Media. 2162. Available from Insight Media. audio. Weinstein. E..12. MA: Allyn and Bacon. New York: Peter H. Johnson.. (1997). NY 10024. Teachers model specific techniques for creating a positive learning environment. A. M. (1996). Emmer. Maintaining: how teachers can evaluate their own management systems. 2162 Broadway. School discipline and school violence: The teacher variance approach. S. & Worsham. Evertson. 1988. E. (1974). VA 22314-2798. #614-160ER. New York: McGraw-Hill. FILMS. West St. Needham Heights.W. Assoc. 2162 Broadway. Classroom management: A proactive approach to creating an effective learning environment. MA: Allyn and Bacon. NY 10024. Clements. for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). MA: Allyn and Bacon. Needham Heights. T. T. West St. S. 150 . E. 125 N. T. theteachersguide. New York.. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses. 125 N. attempted suicide. It is behavioristic in orientation. 1987. for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). and psychology http://www. This site contains useful tips for everyone involved in managing behavior. VA 22314-2798.html 151 .com/ClassManagement.. Association. http://www. ERIC Digests are in the public domain. Discover proven ways to manage student behavior. 30 minutes. 2162 Broadway. 25 min.ia. This program discusses normal adolescence and today’s too-frequent scenarios: an eight-grader whose drug use altered his personality. Creating Learning Environments Kids out of control. audio.htm Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences: http://www.us/educate/ecese/fn/trans/special/behavmod. This program considers different forms of classroom organization. Organizing classrooms. Alexandria.htm Behavior Management: The Iowa State Department of Education has a comprehensive guide to behavior management for bus drivers. and became addicted to drugs.state.ericdigests. by Richard Curwin.films.insight-media. a girl who became severely depressed. special education. http://www. Taking charge in the classroom: Humanistic discipline methods that work. USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format: http://www.com/ Classroom Management: This site has useful information on classroom management. From Films for the Humanities and Sciences.org/ Insight Media: The website has video and CD-ROM resources for teacher education. Available from Insight Media. Inc. NY 10024.12. West St. Stock #612-20495C2.com/IMHome. a teenage rape victim who ran away from home. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics. 2) 3. Warmth and enthusiasm B. Mager: Start with the specific – A good objective has three parts a) Describes student behavior b) Lists conditions under which the behavior will occur c) Gives criteria for acceptable performance 4. Clarity and organization 3. II. etc. Teachers’ knowledge of subject matter 2. Kinds of objectives 1. 489) A. Objectives for Learning B.1) a) State first in general terms (understand.13. recognize. create. 152 . Affective Domain a) Receiving–being aware of something in the environment b) Responding–showing some new behaviors as a result of experience c) Valuing–showing involvement or commitment d) Organization–integrating a new value into one’s general values e) Characterization by value–acting consistently with new value 4. Cognitive objectives (understand. apply. Characteristics of Effective Teachers 1. Integrated and Thematic Plans Teacher-Directed Instruction (Guidelines pg. Teaching for Learning 13 Teaching for Learning Teaching Outline I. An Example of Constructivist Planning 2. Flexible and Creative Planning: Using taxonomies 1. add. Explanation and Direct Instruction 1. What Would You Do? The First Step: Planning A. etc. solve. Behavioral Objectives (list. Planning from a Constructivist Perspective (Guidelines pg. define. Direct instruction: Applies best to the teaching of basic skills 2.) 2. appreciate. calculate. 483) 1. Cognitive Domain a) Knowledge–remembering or recognizing something b) Comprehension–understanding the material being communicated c) Application–using a general concept to solve a problem d) Analysis–breaking something down into its parts e) Synthesis–creating something new by combining ideas f) Evaluation–judging the value of materials or methods 2.) 3. Psychomotor Domain D. Gronlund: Start with the general (Table 13. etc.) b) Clarify by listing a few sample behaviors that would provide evidence that the student has attained the objective c) Research tends to support Gronlund’s approach C. Bloom 2001 (Table 13. Rosenshine’s six teaching functions III. Questioning and Recitation 1. convergent (only one right answer) or divergent questions (many possible answers) 3. Why does direct instruction work? 4. assume responsibility c) Useful when discussing concepts that go against common sense 2. examine interests. Fitting the questions to the students: Younger and lower-ability students benefit from simple questions allowing for a high percentage of correct answers.5) 4. Origins of the Construct 1. Making seatwork and homework valuable a) Make sure students understand the assignment b) Seatwork requires careful monitoring D. “OK” or “uh-huh” b) Tailor response to answer given F. students may not have enough knowledge to direct the discussion b) Some students may become anxious by having to speak c) Requires a great deal of preparation to ensure sufficient background information d) Large groups are often unwieldy e) Some students will dominate the discussion in many cases Teacher Expectations A.13. 493) 3. Kinds of questions—those found in Bloom’s taxonomy. highability students benefit from harder questions at both higher and lower levels and from more critical feedback a) Responding to students’ answers : Fifty percent of the time. a) Review previous material b) Present new material c) Provide guided practice d) Provide feedback and correctives e) Provide independent practice f) Review weekly and monthly 3. “Pygmalion in the classroom” effect in elementary classrooms 2. Evaluating direct instruction? C. Homework (Guidelines pg. a teacher’s response is simple acceptance. Teaching for Learning IV. Functions of questions 2. Self-fulfilling prophecy: Incorrect expectation confirmed because it has been expected 153 . Disadvantages a) Unpredictable. Advantages a) Students are directly involved. Point/Counterpoint: Is Homework a Valuable Use of Time? E. Group Discussions (Guidelines pg. 497) 1. have opportunity to participate b) Gives students chance to clarify questions. Seatwork and Homework 1. Controversy over Rosenthal and Jacobson’s research findings remains B. Two Kinds of Expectation Effects 1. Seatwork – should follow-up a lesson 2. Classroom questions for objectives in the cognitive domain (see Table 13. Comprehension monitoring and reading: Reciprocal teaching a) Four strategies (i) Summarize the content of a passage (ii) Ask a question about the central point (iii) Clarify the difficult parts (iv) Predicts what comes next b) Applying reciprocal teaching (i) Shift responsibility gradually (ii) Match demands to abilities (iii) Diagnose thinking D.7) a) Whole language (i) Learning to read as a natural process (ii) Reading as a kind of guessing game (iii) Teaching and learning seen as reciprocal and collaborative (iv) Authentic writing Integrated curriculum b) Do students need skills and phonics? (i) Skill in recognizing sounds and words supports reading (ii) Knowing words helps make sense of context (iii) Fluency in word identification is a prerequisite to successful reading comprehension.13. Naturally occurring expectations 3. Learning and Teaching Mathematics 1. and Science A. Learning and Teaching Science 2. and provide more clues. Instructional Strategies (Guidelines pg. prompts. Teaching for Learning V. give more chances. word identification becomes automatic in skilled readers (iv) The poorest. give less time for answering. rather than covering many topics c) Assessment is ongoing and mutually shared by teacher and students 2. not the best. 154 . Teacher-Student Interactions a) Teachers ask high achieving students harder questions. Balance in reading and writing (Table 13. readers use context to help them understand meaning 2. Criticisms of the Rosenthal and Jacobson study 2. Sustaining expectation effect: Teacher is initially accurate. Five components of mathematics instruction (Table 12.11) E. and longer time to respond. Mathematics. Do Teachers’ Expectation Really Affect Student Achievement? 1. 501) 4. Features of mathematics instruction a) Thinking processes of the students are the focus of attention b) One topic considered in-depth. and encouragement b) Teachers ask lower achieving students easier questions. Important Role of Teachers’ Subject Matter Knowledge B. and are less likely to give prompts and praise Student-Centered Teaching: Examples in Reading. Sources of Expectations D. but unchanging expectation sustains student’s achievement at the expected level C. Important Role of Teachers’ Knowledge of Students’ Understanding C. Learning and Teaching Reading and Writing 1. abilities and disabilities to the task of learning 2. Ask questions at the right level of difficulty 3. doubt. Effective Teachers of Mainstreamed Students Promote Academic Learning 1. Mix students with disabilities in groups with students without special needs 2. attempts to adjust measurements or observations to fit personal theories. Effective Teachers of Mainstreamed Students Promote Integration of Students 1. Technology and Exceptional Students Diversity and Convergence in Teaching A. Conceptual change teaching (see guidelines for specific suggestions) Six stages: Initial discomfort. attempts to explain away inconsistencies. Convergences: Beyond the Debates to Outstanding Teaching Summary Table 1. positive feedback to students B. conceptual change 3. finally. Teach about differences among people as part of the curriculum 5. Integrate special help into classroom setting 3.13. Teaching for Learning VI. Working with Individual Students D. students bring different learning strengths. VIII. rather than for covering the curriculum b) Students are encouraged to make sense of science using their current ideas c) Dialogue is key Reaching Every Student: Effective Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms A. IX. Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to PRAXIS II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses Guidelines Included • • • • • • Using Instructional Objectives Teaching Effectively Family and Community Partnerships: Homework Productive Group Discussions Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations Teaching for Conceptual Change ================================================================ 155 . Diversity 1. Differentiated Instruction B. VII. Students need to directly examine their own theories and confront their shortcomings 2. vacillation. Use time efficiently 2. X. Try to keep similar schedules and activities for all students C. and. Have students work together in cooperative groups 6. Features of conceptual change teaching a) Teachers are committed to teaching for understanding. Model language and behavior toward students with disabilities 4. Give supportive. Teaching for Learning Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. and science? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 13) Transparencies (T108-T121) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 13) MyLabSchool • “Strategies for Diverse Learners” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 13) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint • “Homework. and group discussion? 4. mathematics. How does the teacher’s role vary in direct and constructivist teaching approaches? 6. What are the characteristics of effective teachers? 3. How can teachers’ expectations affect student learning? 5. In what situations would each of the following formats be the most appropriate: lecture. When and how should teachers use instructional objectives and themes for planning? 2. seatwork and homework. questioning.13. What are the merits of approaches to teaching reading.” Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T108 T109 T110 T111 T112 T113 T114 T115 T116 T117 T118 T119 T120 T121 Gronlund’s Combined Method for Creating Objectives A Revised Taxonomy in the Cognitive Domain Planning with a Topic Map Some Themes for Integrated Planning A Checklist to Guide Assessment in Teaching Theoretical Achievement Distributions during Traditional Instruction and Mastery Learning A Sample Tutorial Program Referring a Child for Special Services: An Example of a Procedure Cooperative and Co-Teaching Approaches Terminology: Inclusive Education Achievement of Students in General Education and Special Education Classes Adaptive Technology for Students with Disabilities Including Secondary Students with Disabilities in the General Education Classroom One Teacher’s Learning Goals for Conceptual Change Teaching 156 . students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. 14 Teaching Functions 13.0 13.2 13.Centered Teaching 13.8 Examples in Mathematics.13 Teaching Methods and Classroom Management 13.3 13.3 BICEPS: Models of Instruction Student . Reading.5 Teacher Expectations 13.7 13.4 Active and Inactive Learning in Lectures Technology Research Technology Individual Field Experience Individual 13.6 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 13.6 What would You do? Critique and Support of Objectives When Plans Fail Direct vs.15 Effective Teaching with Different Students Field Experience Companion Web site Research 13.13.4 13.9 Whole Language or Code-Oriented Approaches? 13.1 Concept Map: Direct Instruction 13.11 Reciprocal Teaching 13.0 Lecture Outline Teacher-Directed Instruction 13.10 Why Files 13.12 Lesson Plans on the Internet 13.1 13. Teaching for Learning Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 13 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? The First Step: Planning ACTIVITIES 13.5 What Changes? 157 . Indirect Instruction Group Presentations on Teaching Approaches Comparison of Teaching Models What Happens When Our Expectations are Correct? How Active are Your Lectures? Discussion Techniques TYPE Case Analysis Companion Website Individual Individual Cooperative Individual Cooperative HANDOUTS 13. and Science Effective Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms 13.2 Group Presentations on Teaching Approaches 13. 13. Have you students work in small groups to respond to the questions posed: “How can the teacher establish the value of learning these facts and skills? “ How will the teacher get the students engaged in real learning about the topics? Once students have come up with their solutions. eConnect and Extend.com/woolfolk10e.” http://www. Teaching for Learning Activities 13. Ask them to discuss why the plan didn’t work out. The school seems to have no plan for teaching other than drill and practice on facts and skills that might be on the test. ask them to compare their responses to those of experienced teachers presented at the end of the chapter.’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain. Have students refer to Handout Master 13. Allow an additional 10 minutes for this redirected preparation. Discuss which topics would be better suited for direct instruction and which would be more suitably taught through a discovery approach or through student discussion.1. 13. “Bloom et al. Allow groups 15 minutes to prepare their arguments. How volcanoes are formed Why fossils are found on land Where earthquakes happen How earthquakes are measured What happens to people when earthquakes occur? The inner make-up of the earth Comparing metamorphic.3 Direct vs. Direct students to CW.2 When Plans Fail Have your students discuss a situation in which they had a plan that didn’t work out. sedimentary. 13. and igneous rocks Minimizing earthquake damage 158 . inform the students that they will be asked to defend the opposite point of view than the one they spent the fifteen minutes preparing. When they have finished.1 Critique and Support of Objectives Assign students to groups and give every other group the task of developing an argument in favor or against the use of objectives. Ask them to give specific examples of what might go wrong and what they might do about it. Chapter 13. Was it because of insufficient preparation or inappropriate assumptions? What did they do in response to the failed plan? Now ask them to consider what they would do if a plan they had for teaching did not work out.13. Indirect Instruction Present the following list of topics in earth science that are a part of the scope and sequence for a fifthgrade class. Conduct a class-wide debate on the topic.ablongman.0 What Would You Do? The case presented in the beginning of Chapter 13 describes a dilemma for a teacher whose school is subject to monitoring by the state because of poor scores from the previous year. Have the students give reasons for their selection. They can use the subsequent activity to observe actual instruction using the same models. Each group will evaluate itself and receive feedback from other groups. Teaching for Learning 13. 13. 13. have your students compare two different models of teaching using the categories of information presented in the handout.” Your group should provide a good example of the type of lesson assigned and be ready to describe what you included in your lesson and why.4 Group Presentations on Teaching Approaches Use Handout Master 13. 2.” Specify the age of your students and the topic of your lesson.5 Comparison of Teaching Models Using Handout Master 13. Your group will be evaluated on the following: • Clarity of objectives • Accuracy in presenting an example of the assigned approach • Reflection of the guidelines or suggestions from text pages indicated above • Success in capturing and maintaining the interest of the class • Involvement of all group members • Ability to justify the elements of the lesson as good examples of the approach presented • Reflection of principles of motivation in the teaching Each group is given approximately 60 minutes to prepare the lesson and 10 minutes to simulate the teaching. and one is generally encouraged not to have low expectations. They will be using one of the teaching models below to experience instruction in the classroom.13. • Guided Discovery • Expository • Direct Instruction (low ability) • Recitation (high ability class) • Class Discussion • Teaching Study/Learning Strategies • Whole Language • Inquiry • Constructivist 3. Your lesson should reflect appropriate applications of learning principles as well.2 to structure a teaching experience for students. See the appropriate pages in the text for reference.6 What Happens When Our Expectations Are Correct? Have your students discuss the question of “What happens when our expectations are correct?” in small groups. One or two people assume the role of the teacher and the remaining people play the “students. The purpose of the presentations is to demonstrate an actual “slice of classroom life. Directions to the students: 1. You must develop your presentation in your assigned groups of four to five members each. Each group will be responsible for preparing a lesson (maximum 10 minutes) using one of the following approaches. what happens if low achievement is accurately considered? What does it really mean when people encourage teachers to have “high expectations?” 159 . However. Some of the work on teacher expectations would suggest that low expectations “cause” low achievement.3. 4. They should locate four different lesson plans on the Internet and print them.9 Whole Language or Code-Oriented Approaches? Have your students locate three or four research articles on the topic of how to teach reading.4 to note the kinds of strategies used by college faculty to produce active learning. Ask students to consider each of the reasons for asking questions that were presented in the Web-linked article.htm 13. They should use articles from some of the journals listed in Handout Master 1. they should organize the materials collected in terms of which method is the most appropriate method for teaching reading. They should identify the type of instruction they are planning to use. “The Why Files. They should list the evidence for and against the use of whole language and code-oriented approaches.com/woolfolk10e. Chapter 13. In groups. eConnect and Extend. 5) helping teachers to pace their lessons and moderate student behavior. Are there differences across disciplines? This question might be addressed by pooling the responses of all students in the class.5. 13. eConnect and Extend. 4) enabling students to hear different explanations of the material from their peers.7 How Active Are Your Lectures? Have your students use Handout Master 13. and 6) helping teachers to evaluate student learning and revise lessons as necessary. “Classroom Questions by Amy C. The article includes recommendations about ways to ask good questions that foster achievement. 13.11 Reciprocal Teaching Have your students read the information on reciprocal teaching at http://www. The four lesson plans should be as follows: Lesson Plan # 1 Science topic for early elementary grades Lesson Plan # 2 Science topic for late elementary grades Lesson Plan # 3 Language arts topic for early elementary grades 160 . Students should monitor “active learning” strategies in two lectures from different disciplines. They should select a topic from the list available and develop a lesson plan for how they would teach the content.13.12 Lesson Plans on the Internet Have your students do the following activity. Teaching for Learning 13.” http://www.com/woolfolk10e. 3) providing an opportunity for students to express their thoughts and opinions. “active learning” is defined as any strategy for learning that suggests active engagement on the part of the learner.8 Discussion Techniques Have your students locate CW. Ask students to come up with examples of questions for each of these purposes. They should then determine which evidence can be relied upon and why.10. 13. 13. Chapter 13.ncrel.10 Why Files Have your students visit CW.ablongman. Brualdi. It is available on Handout Master 13. These include: 1) understanding students’ cognitive processes.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk38. 2) keeping students actively involved in lessons.ablongman. This is an article that describes some of the reasons why teachers would want to ask questions.” http://www. In this context. ” “Put that away. a student who wiggles. 1. “Can you find the parts of an insect’s body? It has three big parts: a head (Can you find the head?). direct instruction.g. Explain why you like it and why you think it is an example of good instruction. if you find a lesson on the butterfly for first graders.13 Teaching Methods and Classroom Management This demonstration can be very effective in illustrating the interaction between teaching strategies and classroom behavior. You play the role of the teacher and ask six students to play the following roles: a good and attentive student.) 161 . What model of instruction underlies the lesson plans (e. 13. antennae. Give the instructional objective of the lesson: The student will be able to identify all the parts of an insect on a diagram. Required You should compare and contrast the lesson plans you found using the following questions to guide your written analysis. Can you find the head?” (Write HEAD on the board and continue with the other parts of the body. ignore the good student. For example. Useful sites for this activity are provided at the end of this section.” “Pay attention. Arrange the seating in a typical classroom style.)? Explain how you know. First demonstration: Give a lecture on the information. label its parts (head. etc. abdomen. Second demonstration: Begin by asking questions: Do any of you know what an insect is? What kinds of insects have you seen? Do they crawl? Can they fly? Do they have feelers sticking out of their heads? Give each student a picture of an insect and say. discovery. You should follow the same procedure for the language arts topic. Interrupt your lecture frequently to reprimand individual students (“Be quiet. 4. pay attention to the misbehaviors. What changes in lesson plans as a function of the age of the child? You can use the comparison of early/late elementary grades for language arts and science to answer this. 3. stop and say that you are going to give the same lesson in a different way. two students who talk to one another. Teaching for Learning Lesson Plan # 4 Language arts topic for late elementary grades The topic for the early and late elementary grades should be the same. Select the lesson plan you like best of the four you include here.”). and a student who is interested in some kind of gadget he has. constructivist. Hand out the diagram and tell them to copy the names of the parts from the board. taps his pencil and is generally restless.” “Move to another place. you should find a lesson the same topic for fifth-graders. In general. a thorax (The wings are joined onto the thorax). Let’s see if you can label the parts. Ask everyone to look at the board while you draw the body of an insect. thorax. wings.” Continue asking questions: “How many feelers or antennae are on the head?” “How many legs?” “Wings?” “Now I’m going to give you a diagram of an insect. legs). and an abdomen or stomach (It’s the end part of the body).13.. What changes in lesson plans as a function of the content area being taught? You can use the comparison of language arts and science to answer this.g. While lecturing. the body of an insect. Be sure that you have room to stand by each child.. a daydreamer. Choose a topic to teach. After a minute. 2. and discuss their number and location. e. Do teachers give reasons for why things are being done in the class? Is previous material reviewed? 13. how can they keep from forming low expectations? Does the formation of low expectations imply that teachers act on these expectations? 162 . Using the lesson objective in question 2 above. When a teacher is lecturing. students were able to volunteer what they knew about the subject as the lesson began. In the second example. 6. The following points should be discussed: • Lecture does not require active student involvement.15 Effective Teaching with Different Students Have the students reflect on their experiences when in elementary school.13. student behavior that is off-task (not listening) is much more noticeable. Justify the use of time in this fashion. Do you think teachers should read their students’ cumulative folders at the beginning of the school year? If so. What does it mean to have a learning goal? Explain. misbehavior is less likely to occur. this calls attention to such behavior and exacerbates it. Describe four different instructional delivery strategies that could be incorporated into a direct 3. Ask the class to comment on the differences of the two demonstrations. What skills did they develop because of these experiences? Discussion Questions 1. or service projects. While teaching the direct instruction lesson in question 3. describe how a teacher could monitor student response and adjust instructional delivery accordingly. 2. Was there a particular competence that they discovered due to the attention paid to them by a teacher? Have the students recall their extracurricular activities in elementary and middle school. Teaching for Learning After a minute of labeling the diagram.14 Teaching Functions Have your students observe a classroom and note the degree to which Rosenshine’s six teaching functions are being deployed. Both lessons were keyed to the same objective. If students are involved through questions and concrete materials. describe four instructional strategies in which students are actively involved. 5. musicals. stop the activity. but the effects of the lessons were different. and it is tempting to interrupt the lecture to attend to negative behavior. In effect. such as plays. Planning takes a great deal of time. choral events. • • • 13. 4. Example: Using a large classroom map as a visual aid. this related the subject to prior student knowledge and engaged student attention. teaching lesson whose objective is that students will be able to describe the landforms of Australia. B. 76-79. Teaching for Learning MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. (1982). New York: Macmillan. (1982).mylabschool. Stodolsky. 1996. step-by-step instruction. 2.com/). 83(1). This issue has several other good articles on direct instruction and teaching basic skills. (1982). 43 (7). 80-83. J. REFERENCES Brophy.). Berliner and R. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. How does a teacher determine how to modify a classroom for a special needs student? Answers will vary Additional Resources for Teaching This Chapter PRINT RESOURCES Rosenshine. Elementary School Journal. Elementary School Journal. Educational Leadership. for extensive resources on subject matter teaching. a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. Handbook of educational psychology.13. What are some ways a teacher can structure the classroom environment to ensure that all students’ needs are met? The teachers are doing things like having students draw pictures instead of writing to report what they have learned. 60-69. Educational Psychology. The classroom environment is the key to providing opportunities for learning. Time and learning: Implications for the classroom teacher. Book review of student characteristics and teaching. 83(1). Rosenshine summarizes in a very readable article 10 years of research on teaching which establishes the effectiveness of systematic. Reply to Stodolsky’s review. S. 163 . 67-75. M. ** See D. G. Elementary School Journal. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Course. 83(1).. Wyne. MLS Video Lab Module 2: Individual Differences Clip 4: Strategies for Teaching Diverse Learners (2:34) 1. Synthesis of research on explicit teaching. & Stuck. (1986). Calfee (Eds. 2nd-grade math (Ways to make 10) 18 min. Barak Rosenshine. To preview: Stock #614-123C2. The following effective teaching strategies are demonstrated in two hours of videotape: (1) Increasing academic learning time. 3rd-grade math (Symmetry) 16 min. Development: to introduce students to the new problems. Interviews with expert educators examine the following topics: Why student groupings improve learning. structure presentation.or in-service teachers. guided practice. VA 22314-2798. Use the second 1-hour tape to show teachers how to structure lesson plans that get the students’ attention. Order from ASCD. Each of the following videos is an actual scene from a classroom which was selected. $50. Videotaped sequences give the following tips for effective lesson planning: When-and when not-to tell the objectives of a lesson. Michigan State University. What are the five ingredients of effective schools? To purchase: Stock #614-116V2. The program’s three hours of videotape and 80page Leader’s Guide help teachers plan lessons and make sound decisions in the classroom. hold it. and edited for use with pre. feedback. Spark discussion and sharing about the fundamentals of effective teaching with this 21-minute video. Purchase: Stock #614-117C2. give them controlled practice. To purchase: Stock #614-120C2. To preview: Stock #614-152V2. Order from ASCD. AND AUDIOCASSETTES ASCD library of teaching episodes. University of Illinois. video. and five other techniques for increasing student participation. Teacher and school effectiveness. Beginning activities: to get students to review and check homework or to conduct mental computation exercises. Order from ASCD. and deliver the new knowledge in ways that build retention. 164 . West St. London Schools. Teaching mathematics effectively. taped. Peter Mortimer. Eight actual classroom episodes in this 30-minute videotape demonstrate the most effective way to structure a math lesson. Stock #614-149V2. choral responses. Tape #3 in this program demonstrates how teachers use active participation in the classroom to boost test scores and increase student retention of knowledge. (2) Managing student behavior. and (3) Six functions of effective teaching. Featured educators: Ronald Edmonds. ASCD. Teaching for Learning FILMS. Tape #3 – Student Participation. Instructional decisions for long-term learning. Each counts as one video library selection. To rent: Stock #614-116V2. To rent: Stock #614-120C2. periodic review. “Does everyone understand?” What kind of homework assignments produce the most learning. To preview: Stock #614-116V2. Why not to ask. To purchase: Tape #2 – Guidelines for Decisions. video. $100. and then assess their comprehension with appropriate questions. Effective teaching for higher achievement. 125 N. VIDEOTAPES. Alexandria.. video. 5th-grade science (The solar system) 15 min. 1 voucher (HRDP members). How the demonstration-practice-feedback model is effective teaching. Why to emphasize mastery of learning. video. Seatwork: to increase and sustain involvement and make students accountable for their work through well-timed alerts.13. The 30-minute video introduces teaching pairs. Homework: to help students retain the new skills. daily review. Stock #614-148V2. com English http://cela.org/index.ericdigests.org/ Social Studies http://www.org/1995-1/think.whyfiles.html 165 .htm Other Content Web Sites Science http://wise.13. Using “Think-Time” and “Wait-Time” Skillfully in the Classroom: http://www.edu/ http://www.ciera.htm Classroom Questions: http://www.berkeley. They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format.htm Open-Ended Questions in Reading: http://www. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics.edu/ http://www. Teaching for Learning Video Library of Teaching Episodes.ericdigests. Episode #1: Kindergarten math (readiness skills) Episode #2: 3rd grade math (symmetry) Episode #3: 2nd grade math (ways to make 10) Episode #4: 3rd grade classroom art (rules and procedures) Episode #5: 4th-6th grade general studies (rules and procedures) Episode #6: 7th grade social studies (crimes of commission and omission) Episode #7: 8th grade social studies (4th and 6th Amendments) Episode #8: 9th grade English (rules and procedures through letter writing) Episode #9: 10th grade biology (RNA/DNA transfer) Episode #10: 12th grade history (student debate of Malthus essay) USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. ERIC Digests are in the public domain. a set of 10 videos.ericdigests.albany.historyhouse.org/1999-2/questions. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses.org/1993/open.org/ Mathematics http://mathforum. median (middle score). Limitations a) Absolute standards difficult to set in some areas b) Standards tend to be arbitrary c) Not appropriate comparison when others are valuable What do Test Scores Mean? A. Standardized tests a) Standard methods of administration. The normal distribution: The bell-shaped curve (Figure 14. Uses of norm-referenced tests: measuring overall achievement and choosing a few top candidates 5. Three types of norm groups (comparison groups): Class. Norm-Referenced Test Interpretations 1. Uses: Measuring the mastery of very specific objectives when goal is to achieve set standard 3. Criterion-Referenced Test Interpretations: Comparison with Fixed Standard 1.14. Limitations a) Do not indicate if prerequisite knowledge for more advanced material has been mastered b) Less appropriate for measuring affective and psychomotor objectives c) Tend to encourage competition and comparison scores B. and Assessment (Table 14. Performance of others as basis for interpreting a person’s raw score (actual number of correct test items) 2. Basic Concepts 1. Standardized Testing 14 Standardized Testing Teaching Outline I.2) III. Measurements of central tendency and standard deviation a) Measures of central tendency: Mean (arithmetical average groups of scores). and mode (score that occurs the most often) b) Bimodal distribution: Two modes Standard deviation: Measure of how much the scores carry from the c) mean (degree of variability among scores) d) Knowing the mean and standard deviation gives meaning to the individual score 4. Example: Driver’s license 2. What Would You Do? Measurement. scoring. 166 .1) A. Score: Reflects general knowledge of subject rather than mastery of specific skills and information 4. II. school district. final version has been administered to a norming sample (a comparison group) 2. Frequency distributions: Listings of the number of people who obtain particular scores 3. and reporting b) Test items and instructions have been tried out. and national 3. Standardized Testing IV. Interpreting Test Scores (Guidelines pg. 533) 1. Intention: Measure how much the student has learned in specific content areas B. and construct evidence c) Factors which interfere with validity (i) Lack of relation to curriculum Mismatch with students’ test-taking skills (ii) d) To be valid. rather than capacity for doing advanced work d) Often misleading. a test must be reliable 6. No test provides a perfect picture of a person’s abilities 2. Achievement Tests: What has the Student Learned? 1.” the raw score plus or minus the standard error. Error in Scores a) Hypothetical mean of all scores if test were repeated many times b) Standard error of measurement: Standard deviation of scores from hypothetical true score. criterion. each unit contains a specific range of percentile scores C. Grade-equivalent scores a) Averages obtained from different norming samples for each grade b) Interpretation problem: Different forms of test often used for different grades c) High score indicates superior mastery of material at that grade level. Percentile rank scores a) Shows the percentage of students in the norming sample who scored at or below a particular raw score b) Interpretation problem: Greater difference in raw score points to make difference in percentile rank at the extreme ends of the scale 2. Confidence interval or “standard error band. Types of Scores 1. the smaller the standard error the more reliable the test 4.14. Validity a) A test is valid if it measures what it is supposed to specifically measure b) Ways to determine validity: Content. should not be used 3. Reliability of Test Scores a) Test-retest reliability: Consistency of scores on two separate administrations of the same test b) Alternate-form reliability: Consistency of scores on two equivalent versions of a test c) Split-half reliability: Degree to which all the test items measure the same abilities 3. Standard scores a) Differences in raw scores are the same at every point on the scale b) Based on the standard deviation: Z-score has mean of 50 and SD of 10 (eliminates negative numbers) c) Stanine scores combine some of the properties of percentile ranks and standard scores. Absence of bias a) Two forms of assessment bias are unfair penalization and offensiveness b) Procedural fairness Types of Standardized Tests A. 167 . nine possible units (1 through 9) have a mean of five and a SD of two. Provides a range within which true scores might be found 5. The Dangers and Possibilities of High Stakes Testing 2. Aptitude Tests: How Well will the Student do in the Future? a) Intention: Measure abilities developed over years.): Achievement or aptitude? (i) SATs used as predictors of future achievement (less subject to teacher bias and grade inflation than grades) (ii) Controversy continues over fairness and validity c) IQ and scholastic aptitude tests: Small differences in scores not important 4. How Widespread is Standardized Testing? B. Accountability and High Stakes Testing 1. 168 . not against them 2. Standardized Testing V. usually to elementary students 2. Diagnostic Tests: What are the Student’s Strengths and Weaknesses? 1. Point/Counterpoint: Should Tests be Used to Hold Teachers Accountable? 3. Using information from a norm-referenced achievement test or constructing an individual profile (Figure 14.5) a) Raw score/number correct b) Difference c) Moderate mastery level d) OPI index graph e) Scale score f) Grade equivalent score g) National stanine h) National percentile score i) National percentile range 4. Discussing test results with families (Guidelines pg. Frequently used achievement tests a) Group tests for identifying students who need more testing or for grouping students b) Individual tests for determination of academic level or diagnosis of learning problems 3. Desired characteristics of a testing program a) Match the content standards of district b) Be part of a larger assessment plan Test complex thinking c) d) Provide alternative assessment strategies for students with disabilities e) Provide opportunities for retesting f) Include all students g) Provide appropriate remediation h) Make sure all students have had adequate opportunity to learn the material to be tested i) Take into account the student’s language j) Use test results for children. 539) Issues in Standardized Testing A. Intention: Identify students’ specific problems and weaknesses 3. etc. predicts how well a student will do in learning new material in the future b) Scholastic aptitude (SAT. Given individually by a trained professional. Interpreting achievement test scores: Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced interpretations B.14. ACT. aptitude. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Convergences Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook Connections to Praxis II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses Guidelines Included ƒ ƒ ƒ Increasing Reliability and Validity Becoming an Expert Test-Taker Family and Community Partnerships: Explaining and Using Test Results ============================================================= Learning Objectives After studying this chapter. Instruction in general cognitive skills D. Standardized Testing VI. 4. VIII. a) Documented Problems with High Stakes Testing b) Using High Stakes Testing Well 4. Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests (Table 14. Diversity 1. VII. demand more thoughtful scoring B. z-scores. 2. and diagnostic tests tell teachers? How would you prepare students (and yourself) for taking a standardized test? What are the strengths and weaknesses of alternative forms of assessment. How do you calculate the mean.14. such as portfolios? 169 . T-scores. 6. Changes in the SAT Diversity and Convergences in Standardized Testing A. IX. and standard deviation? What are percentile ranks. Authentic Assessment 1. real-life outcomes 2. Familiarity with procedures of standardized tests 2. Achievement Gap 2. 535) 1. mode. median. “Constructed-response formats” have students create. Problem of how to assess complex. important. and stanine scores? How can you improve reliability and validity in testing? What do results of achievement. 5. Testing Teachers a) Praxis b) National board certification C. X. rather than select. standard deviations. responses. Uses of Testing in American Society: Preparing for tests (Guidelines pg. Students with disabilities B.4) New Directions in Standardized Testing A. Some states developing authentic assessment procedures 3. 3. Standardized Testing Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 14) Transparencies (T123-T133) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 14) MyLabSchool • “Standardized Tests” video clip Companion Website (Chapter 14) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T123 T124 T125 T126 T127 T128 T129 T130 T131 T132 T133 A Jabberwocky Quiz: Using Test-Wiseness (Rather Than Knowledge) to Perform Well on Tests Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Tests Describing Measurement Data: A Histogram Frequency of Scores Forming a Normal Curve Example of Grading on a Curve Two Tests with the Same Mean and Different Standard Deviations Percentile Ranking on a Normal Distribution Stanines and Percentiles Relationship between Various Types of Scores Taking on “The Test”: Problem-Based Learning Table of Specifications for a Chemistry Unit 170 .14. 4 Concept Map: Types of Test Scores Issues in Testing Cooperative Cooperative Field Experience Companion Web site Technology 14.11 How should Teachers Be Graded? 14. Norm Referenced Tests Types of Standardized Tests 14.1 Criterion vs.4 Test Score Interpretation 14.1 Criterion vs.0 What is the Problem? 14.6 Considerations in Making a Teaching Portfolio 14.14 Video Portfolio Individual Individual Individual Research Research 14. and Assessment What do Test Scores Mean? ACTIVITIES 14.7 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 171 .2 Central Tendency 14.5 If You didn’t have a Test Score 14.10 Legal Issues in Testing 14.6 What else do You Need to Know? 14.8 School Reports 14.9 Minimum Competency Testing 14.0 Lecture Outline 14.3 Types of Tests and Interpretation of Test Scores TYPE Case Analysis Companion Web site Individual Individual HANDOUTS 14.13 Practical Assessment.5 Key Legal Decisions New Directions in Standardized Testing 14.14.3 Relationship of Test Scores to the Normal Curve 14. Norm Referenced Tests 14.7 Readiness Tests 14. Research. and Evaluation 14. Standardized Testing Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 14 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? Evaluation.12 Preparing for a Standardized Test 14. Measurement.2 Types of Tests and The Interpretation of Test Scores 14. Using Handout Master 14.vs. Chapter 14. 3. 4.0 What Is the Problem? In the case presented at the beginning of this chapter. 7.14. a b c d a a and b e B 1. 5.com/woolfolk10e. have your students respond as directed: Answers: A 1. What evidence do the parents have for their complaints? What should the principal do? Compare the responses from practicing teachers to this situation (at the end of Chapter 14).1 Criterion.2 Central Tendency Give this scenario to students: A superintendent administered a standardized math test to all seventh-grade pupils in the system. b 2. a 3. Norm-Referenced Testing. Standardized Testing Activities 14. A chart compares the two types of tests. 4. 6. d 4. mean = 11. 2. 2.3. On which of the students should she concentrate her efforts and why? 14. Have your students list the reasons for the complaints. median = 6.” http://www.3 Types of Tests and the Interpretation of Test Scores Using Handout Master 14.1. a child’s parents complain about the way a teacher is treating their child in mathematics class.vs. Norm-Referenced Testing Have your students visit CW. they have less variability About 30 172 . 3. mode = 3 Better in reading (over 1 standard deviation) Class A. He found that the median score of the pupils in one of the classes was seriously below the norm and criticized the teacher for this fact. She feels (correctly) that the best chance of doing so rests upon her concentrating her efforts on just a few students. Which teacher had the best response? Why? Were the responses adequate? Why? 14.2 and 14. The teacher wants to raise the median on the next test. have your students identify why they might use different kinds of tests/activities in the classroom. c C 1.ablongman. “Criterion. 14. eConnect and Extend. Compare a set of elementary or secondary schools using the information presented in these reports.6 What else do You Need to Know? You learn that a student in your class is at the 95th percentile rank on a group-administered intelligence test. Standardized Testing 14.14.4 Test Score Interpretation Post this situation to students: In October of the school year. These reports (e. 14. How would you select students? How would you ensure you were being fair? What could be unfair about the way you decided to make your selections? Would you like standardized test scores to assist you? Why? Discuss these issues with the class.5 If You Didn’t Have a Test Score Ask your students to consider the following: Suppose you needed to select 50 applicants for college scholarships and 1.7. a third-grade boy has an IQ score (from a group intelligence test) of 83 and a grade-equivalent score in reading of 4. You do not have any scores from standardized tests on any of the applicants.000 students have applied.4 may be helpful. Your students should locate and synthesize research material on the utility and accuracy of readiness tests in predicting school performance.7 Readiness Tests Divide your class into cooperative learning groups. Then have your groups come up with a pro and con defense for the use of readiness tests for promoting children to first grade based on research in the library. average test scores) are often printed in local papers or may be available through the Internet. 14. Critique the interpretations made. What other information would you need to know about this child in order to maximize her learning potential? 14.8 School Reports Have your students locate information on local schools’ reports.. 14. 173 . Students might want to refer back to Chapter 2 to remind themselves of developmental changes for young children.3 and 14.g. • • • • Is the student an “overachiever” or an “underachiever?” Do you think his IQ score is valid? Does it make any difference whether the score is valid? What may be the effect of his IQ score being recorded in his cumulative folder? Handout Masters 14. What should the evaluator want to know? What is the best way to know this? Justify your responses. Chapter 14. Have each student locate an article of interest to them by using the “articles” link. Research and Evaluation Have your students go to the CW. Discussion Questions 1.9 Minimum Competency Testing Many local school districts are writing and administering minimum competency tests for high school graduation. Why don’t they just report percent correct scores and leave it at that?” What would you reply? 3.14 Video Portfolio Have your students consider what would be important to consider in developing a video portfolio of their teaching performance. 14. Have them discuss how one can be certain about “best placement. “Practical Assessment. Is it “business as usual” in the classroom? If not. Discuss with your students how classroom practices are changes as a consequence of the standardized test.13 Practical Assessment. Have students debate the current movement toward a national competency exam. Define and distinguish between validity and reliability. Are there differences across the grades? 14.10 Legal Issues in Testing Have them locate information about recent problems in relation to the use of classifying children (e.5 for this activity.. A teacher says to you.g. published by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation. disadvantages. Use Handout Master 14. Try to convince another group of your decisions.” 14. What academic purposes do standardized tests serve? Can each purpose be met by “portfolio” evaluations? 2. Research.” http://www. 174 .11 How Should Teachers Be Graded? Give students this assignment: In your groups.12 Preparing for a Standardized Test Have your students interview a teacher about changes to normal classroom practices before a standardized test. such as a portfolio.com/woolfolk10e. New York City schools in 1997 were ordered to reduce the number of students assigned to special education classes). 14. why not? Your students will most likely interview teachers at different grade levels. reflect on whether you would rather be assessed in your teaching effectiveness through a standardized test or an authentic test. and Evaluation. can help keep you up-to-date on the latest news in evaluation.6 to assist with this task. What are some of the advantages.ablongman. eConnect and Extend. Standardized Testing 14. “These statistics like percentile ranks and stanines get me all confused. This online journal. and potential effects on the high school dropout rate? 14. Is it necessary for a test to be valid to be reliable? Is it necessary for a test to reliable to be valid? Explain. They should write a critique of the article’s value to teachers.14. Use Handout Master 14. evaluation of teachers. (1991. 220-225. 63. Standardized tests are being used for promotion/retention decisions. Belmont. Educational Psychology. Washington. graduation requirements..14. J. the tests sometimes drive the curriculum. instead of the other way around. and Singer. 175 . L. etc. J. Below are some suggested answers to those questions: MLS Courses. (1984).mylabschool. You may choose to assign to students to view one of the clips and answer some questions about it Students can e-mail these answers to you. Issues in testing bias. 20-24.” Explain this statement and its consequences. and Yen. Students are given the opportunity to view video cases from real classrooms. Explain why you as a teacher should be more concerned about the reliability of a test of attitude and/or creativity than the reliability of an academic aptitude test. R. Phi Delta Kappan. M. M. Making standardized tests work for you. W. M. 64 (3). November). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Darling-Hammond.: Author. Dreher. tests have become high-stake. CRT is sometimes difficult in education. Introduction to measurement theory. What interpretations of academic skill and grade placement would you offer for a ninth grader who scored 12.6 on a ninth-grade achievement? MyLabSchool Questions At the end of each chapter of the text. H. (1979). because we don’t always have well-specified behavioral domains to judge by. Additional Resources for Teaching this Chapter REFERENCES Allen. Criterion-referenced testing is best used when you are measuring the mastery of very specific objectives. what are the problems with using criterion-referenced tests? When would criterion-referenced testing be an appropriate means of assessment? Give examples and explain. (1985). College and University. 2. Inc. D. which encourages teachers to teach to the test.. 5.com/). Consequently. CA: Wadsworth. Because of this. “Tests now are being used in ways that the originators of tests never foresaw. such as which arithmetic operations a student can perform or the level of reading difficulty he or she can comprehend. 68-279. 73 (3). According to the speaker on this video. American Educational Research Association. MLS Video Lab Module 8: Assessment Clip 15: Standardized Tests (6:07) 1. The implications of testing policy for quality and equality. a feature directs students to MyLabSchool (http://www. Standardized Testing 4. C. Principal. (1989). Cameron. 71. 12. Urban League Review. Helping Children Master the Tricks and Avoid the Traps of Standardized Tests: http://www.org/1999-4/tests. R. November).14. Phi Delta Kappan. 8-15. Phi Delta Kappan. Jaeger. VIDEOTAPES. M.org/ 176 . Maddaus. (1987). They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format. Inc. A. November). Arriving in Lake Woebegone: Are standardized tests exaggerating achievement and distorting instruction? American Educator. Phi Delta Kappan. AND AUDIOCASSETTES Failures before kindergarten. and Medina. Panelists on the program include the director of the National Association for the Education of Young Children and a teacher who kept back the entire first grade. 70 (9). A guide for interpreting standardized test scores. McLaughlin. 232-238. Test fairness and bias: Measuring academic achievement among black youth. (1991. Neil. (1991. D.ericdigests. Legislative perspectives on statewide testing: Goals hopes. ERIC Digests are in the public domain. 73 (3).ets. 2630. Will national tests improve student learning? Phi Delta Kappan.. NASSP Bulletin. 239-243. L. (1988). (1989).ericdigests. There is intense debate going on over the screening of preschool children to determine whether they are ready for admission to kindergarten. 248-250. 688-697. T.) USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. 23-24. F. 76-92. Standardized Testing Green. 73 (3). Koretz. (1991. November). W. video. The effects of important tests on students: Implications for a National Examination System. S. (1988). This specially adapted Phil Donahue program discusses the pros and cons of assessing the educational readiness of such young children.htm Other Web Sites Educational Testing Service: http://www. 73. and desires. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses. 226-231. D. 11. FILMS. D. (496). (1991. November). 73 (3). 28 minutes. Phi Delta Kappan. Shepard. G.org/1992-5/testing. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics. 32-35. Test-based accountability as a reform strategy. M. (From Films for the Humanities & Sciences. Johnson. N.htm On Standardized Testing: http://www. Standardized testing: Harmful to educational health. net National Center for Research on Evaluation.cse. http://cresst96.org/sdrs/areas/as0cont. Standards. Standardized Testing Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation.ucla.edu/index2. The site provides extensive information about a wide array of standardized tests: http://ericae.14.sri.com/ Pathways to School Improvement—Assessment: http://www.htm Performance Assessment Links in Science: http://pals.htm 177 .ncrel. and Student Testing: The center conducts research on educational testing. and short-answer items 2.15. Helps form instruction a) Pretests identify what students already know b) Diagnostic tests identify strengths and weaknesses in content areas B. Judging textbook tests: Teacher must consider objectives. II. Objective Testing 1. Evaluating essays: Dangers a) Graders’ individual standards and unreliable scoring procedures produce wide variability of scores b) Research: Jargon-filled verbose essays that are neatly written with few grammatical errors seem to be given better grades III. Essay Testing 1. Formative Assessment: Before and During Instruction (Table 15. Summative Assessment: Summary of Accomplishments at End of Instruction–Its purpose is to let teachers and students know the level of accomplishment Getting the Most from Traditional Assessment Approaches A. the way the material was taught (Table 15.1) 1. Constructing essay tests a) Essay tests sample a small number of learning outcomes. use should be limited to complex learning objectives b) Present a clear and precise task c) Ample time for answering should be provided d) Should include only a few questions 2. Definition: Multiple-choice. What Would You Do? Formative and Summative Assessment A. require more time to answer. 178 . Writing multiple-choice questions (Guidelines pg. 558) a) Items should be designed to measure knowledge. “distractors” are plausible wrong answers C. Classroom Assessment and Grading 15 Classroom Assessment and Grading Teaching Outline I.2) B. Has two basic purposes: Guiding teacher in planning and helping students identify problem areas 2. Using multiple-choice tests a) Can be used to assess more than recall and recognition if the student is required to deal with material by applying or analyzing the concept or principle being tested b) Most difficult part is making up the tests 3. Planning for Testing 1. rather than test-taking skills or guessing b) Items consist of stem (part that asks the question) and alternative answers. matching. true/false. When to test a) Frequently b) Soon after students learn the material c) Cumulative 2. 179 . Retention in Grade B. progress. Effects of Feedback 1. Grades and Motivation 1. Portfolios and Exhibitions 1. oral feedback and brief written comments appropriate C. The Point System and Percentage Grading 1. Evaluating essays: Methods a) Construct model and assign points b) Assign grades and sort c) Skim pile for consistency within grades d) Grade all answers to one question before going to the next e) Consider having another teacher grade tests as a cross-check Alternatives to Traditional Assessment A. Reliability. Authentic Classroom Assessment (See Table 15. These are culminating experiences of a whole program of study D. VI. Points assigned according to assignment’s importance and student’s performance 3. Grades should reflect meaningful learning. 566) 2. validity.5 and Guidelines pg. The Value of Failing 2. Scoring rubrics (Guidelines pg. Criterion-referenced systems reflect achievement according to preset criteria for each grade: Relate judgments about a student to the achievement of clearly defined instructional goals (see Table 15. 1. Effects of Failure 1. V. Norm-referenced system reflects student’s standing in comparison with others who took the same course a) “Grading on a curve:” Grading relative to “average grade” assigned to group’s average level of performance b) Flexible use of curve is usually more appropriate: Depends on actual distributions of scores and characteristics of particular group B. Classroom Assessment and Grading IV. Diversity and Equity in Performance Assessment F. Point/Counterpoint: Which is Better—Traditional or Authentic Assessments? B.15. For younger students. 569) 2. For older students.4) C. and achievement in one or more areas (see Table 15. Helpful if reason for mistake is explained so that the same mistake is not repeated 2.4) 2. Exhibition: Performance tests that are public and require hours of preparation. encouraging personalized written comments are appropriate to improved performance 3. Involving Students in Assessments Effects of Grades and Grading on Students A. Evaluating Portfolios and Performances 1. Portfolio: Purposeful collection of student work that exhibits effort. and generalizability E.6) G. Informal Assessments (Table 15. Points system for combining grades from many assignments 2. Grades can motivate real learning. appropriate objectives are key 2. so working for a grade and working to learn can be the same Grading and Reporting: Nuts And Bolts Criterion-Reference Versus Norm-Referenced Grading A. quantity. especially listening and problem-solving skills (Guidelines pg. Percentage grading involves assigning grades based on how much knowledge each student has acquired 5. Grades are influenced by level of difficulty of the test and concerns of individual teacher 4. X. Dual marking system is a way to include effort in grade E. Cautions: Being Fair—The halo effect: Tendency for a general impression of a person to influence perception of any aspect of that person Beyond Grading: Communication A. Grades are influenced by the level of difficulty of the test and concerns of individual teacher C. students “contract” to work for a grade 2. and quality of work required for each grade. Can overemphasize quantity of work at expense of quality 3. Classroom Assessment and Grading VII. IX. VIII. Question underlying many grading systems: Should grades be based on how much a student improves or on the final level of learning? 2. The Contract System and Grading Rubrics 1. The revise option: Revise and improve work D. Report cards 3. 580) 2.15. Grading on Effort and Improvement 1. System assumes we can accurately measure what percentage of a body of knowledge each student should attain 7. Using improvement as a standard penalizes the best students. XI. Individual learning expectations (ILE) system allows everyone to earn improvement points based on personal average score 4. Specifies types. Homework hotlines Diversity and Convergences in Classroom Assessment Summary Table Teachers’ Casebook: Connections to Praxis II What Would They Do? Practicing Teachers’ Responses 3. who naturally improve the least 3. Grading symbols A to F commonly used to represent some percentage categories 6. Strategies for Communicating with Families 1. Guidelines Included • • • • • • • Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items Creating Portfolios Developing a Rubric Minimizing the Detrimental Effects of Grades Using Any Grading System Family and Community Partnerships: Conferences Standards fro Educational and Psychological Testing =============================================================== 180 . Conference with students and parents: Teachers need skill in interpersonal communication. students should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Performance Criteria. How will you test students on a unit of work? How can you evaluate tests that accompany textbooks and teachers’ manuals? How should you create multiple-choice and essay test items for your subject area? Will you use authentic assessment approaches. performances. How will you explain your grading system to parents who do not understand their child’s grades? Instructor Supplements for this Chapter Print Test Bank (Chapter 15) Transparencies (T134-T143) Media PowerPoint presentation (Chapter 15) Companion Website (Chapter 15) ABC News/Allyn & Bacon Video: Point/Counterpoint (clip 1) Acetate Transparencies for Use with this Chapter T134 T135 T136 T137 T138 T139 T140 T141 T142 T143 What do Teachers’ Assess? Analyze Essay Questions Characteristics of Authentic Tests Sample Scoring Rubric: Targeted Performance. and a Description of Performance at Different Score Points A Sample Checklist Form for Assessing Performance in a Laboratory Experiment Example of a Performance Assessment Activity Self. and scoring rubrics? 5. exhibitions. What are the potential positive and negative effects of grades on students? 6. 2.15. 4. What are examples of criterion-referenced and norm-referenced grading systems? 7. 3. including portfolios. Classroom Assessment and Grading Learning Objectives After studying this chapter.and Peer Evaluation of Group Learning Example of a Daily Report Card Helping Students Cope with Test Anxiety Assign and Justify Grades 181 . 15.5 Grading Systems Effects of Grades and Grading on Students Grading and Reporting: Nuts and Bolts Beyond Grading: Communication Field Experience A Student Who Refuses to Work 15.17Dealing with a Student who Refuses to Work Cooperative Companion Website Cooperative Cooperative 15.13Grading Students 15.10Assessment Rubrics 15.1 Integrating Assessment and Instruction 15.6 Grading Multiple Pieces of Work Innovations in Assessment 15.15Determining Grades 15.3 Writing MultipleChoice Items 15.7 Concept Map: Links to Other Chapters 15.3a Eddie’s Writing 15.4 Concept Map: Alternative Assessments Cooperative Companion Website Research Companion Website Field Experience Individual 15.8 Performance Assessment 15.6 182 .11Contracting 15.7 Portfolio Content 15.3b Eddie’s Writing 15.0 Planning a Grading System 15.0 Lecture Outline 15.2 Analyzing MultipleChoice Items 15.9 Computerized Testing 15.5 Difficulties in SelfEvaluation 15. Classroom Assessment and Grading Learning Activities and Related Research: Chapter 15 CHAPTER OUTLINE What would You do? Formative and Summative Assessment Getting the Most from Traditional Assessment Approaches ACTIVITIES 15.4 Intelligent Essay Assessor 15.14Norm-Referenced Grading 15.12Students’ Views of Grades 15.2 Evaluating Test Items TYPE Case Analysis Companion Web site Cooperative HANDOUTS 15.16Comparing Report Cards 15.1 Different Kinds of Test Items 15. Students must first decide on a subject matter area. I forgot to put capital letters.” http://www. eConnect and Extend. He wrote the following about the writing he said was good: “My good sheet. 15.” He described his weaker piece as follows: “My bad sheet. Have your students go to CW. Ask students to decide what their major assignments would be for a term. have students identify the faults in the multiple-choice items. Chapter 15. Once they click on “Demonstrations. 15.” http://www. Researchers at the University of Colorado developed the Intelligent Essay Assessor that provides a promising solution to this problem.” 183 . have them share the results with the whole class.1 and 15. Then in small groups or cooperative groups. Interviews. They should rewrite each item so that it is satisfactory. On my bad sheet I forgot to put marks on it. 15. as well as performance.2. Have your students read the materials on this Web site and identify five key ideas that might be helpful to them as classroom teachers. “NCREL.15. case studies and more help make the case for coordinating teaching and assessment in ways that support learning. “Intelligent Essay Assessor. They should decide on a grading system and agree upon whether they wish to assign grades based on effort. The groups should come to consensus and be able to defend their decisions to other members of the class.” they should follow the directions and try this system to see the kinds of results they get back from doing a practice essay. On my good sheet I made a lot of marks and I made it more scary.5 Difficulties in Self-Evaluation Eddie was asked to comment on a writing sample he considered to be good and a writing sample that he felt was not as good.3 Writing Multiple-Choice Items Divide your class into cooperative learning groups. 15.ablongman. 15. After students finish their analysis.2 Evaluating Test Items Construct a 10-point quiz of objective items.com/woolfolk10e.4 Intelligent Essay Assessor The unreliability among scorers of essays has been a concern for many.ablongman. 558 of their textbook to analyze the items. Classroom Assessment and Grading Activities 15. Using Handout Master 15.1 Integrating Assessment and Instruction Have your students visit CW. Chapter 15.com/woolfolk10e.0 Planning a Grading System The task described in the case for this chapter is very complex (beginning of Chapter 15). ask students to use the guidelines on p. eConnect and Extend. Assign students to groups based on interest. The Web site presents a “critical issue” feature prepared by the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. com/woolfolk10e.7 Portfolio Content In cooperative groups. After they have completed their rubrics. They should compare and contrast the content and difficulty of the kinds of performances required.” Should students decide what goes into his or her portfolio or should the teacher? What are some problems with either practice? 15. if at all? Have your students find an answer to this question by finding out what is known about this issue. Have each group design a scoring rubric. Have them select a performance assessment at each of two different grade levels and compare these. superficial reports. “Assessment & Rubric Information.3a and 15.3b for this task. 15.4a.” Some students. however.6 Grading Multiple Pieces of Work Use Handout Masters 15.” http://www. for instance.11 Contracting Have students consider the following situation: You are using a contract system in one of your classes.ablongman. Classroom Assessment and Grading Have your students in groups discuss what Eddie thought good writing was about. Chapter 15. 15. have students identify at least five documents that should be in a pupil’s portfolio. Three samples of a child’s writing are presented. 15.” http://www. One of the requirements for an A is “to write a book report. They will need to first decide on a task that will be scored using their rubric. what time of year to obtain them. What was difficult or easy about the process of deciding on a rubric? What concerns do they have about using a scoring rubric of this sort with their class? Would they be able to explain this rubric to parents? 15. Ask you students to evaluate Eddie’s writing as described in Handout Master 15.com/woolfolk10e. and so on. 15. eConnect and Extend. Have them design a plan to assist him with evaluating his own writing. How can you structure the contract system to improve the quality of students’ work? 184 . eConnect and Extend.15. are reporting on books that you think they read last year.9 Computerized Testing How does taking a test on a computer influence one’s test scores. and some are handing in short. what format to require.8 Performance Assessment Have your students go to CW. Have students consider the statement “An artist’s portfolio contains the work he feels exemplifies his best performance. They might want to try out some of these tasks with younger siblings. Divide students into groups. Students should discuss the content of the documents and how they will go about obtaining them.10 Assessment Rubrics Have your students visit CW. “Performance Assessment Links in Science. Chapter 15.ablongman. The students should also identify potential difficulties in administering these tasks. have volunteers share their rubric with the class. what grades should Jan and Judy receive? Student Jay Judy Test 1 30 39 Test 2 79 70 Grade ? ? How can you justify your assignments of grades? 15. display the following test scores and have the students respond to the questions below.6. Compare and contrast the different types of report cards in terms of what changes as children become older. How do you know that students have learned? 2. what kind of information is conveyed. but so far this year. What factors might influence you to give the lower grade? What factors would influence you to give the higher grade? If you gave the lower grade. and the degree to which the report card is communicative.15. 15. how could you offset its discouraging effect? 15.15 Determining Grades Pose the following problem to students: You have a pupil who made poor grades last year. have students consider if the grading systems can provide answers to the following questions.16 Comparing Report Cards Have students visit classrooms and collect examples of the kinds of report cards that teachers use (these can be blank). You are grading one of his written reports and are trying to decide whether he deserves a C+ or a B-.13 Grading Students Using Handout Master 15. 1. Have a class discussion on this topic. Classroom Assessment and Grading 15. he seems to be trying to do better. What is the most informative aspect of the grades? 3. 185 .12 Students’ Views of Grades Have students interview two students of different ages about what they believe grades represent or communicate.14 Norm-Referenced Grading On an overhead projector or PowerPoint slide. Test 1: 56 50 48 48 45 40 39 37 35 33 31 30 30 28 27 25 23 22 20 17 15 Test 2: 95 91 88 86 84 79 77 75 74 71 70 67 66 65 63 62 59 56 50 49 45 Assuming that the course grade is based on these two tests. What is the most difficult aspect of the grading system? 15. Gable. L. R. Tierney. because these are educationally unimportant. Maeroff. J. NY: Longman. 272-281. 8 (2). Assessing students with special needs. Make sure teachers understand student assessment. 3. Phi Delta Kappan.. A. 186 . Kubiszyn. Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know. (1991). J. DC: American Educational Research Association. G.) Washington. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practices. (1994). In what ways may portfolio evaluations minimize/maximize teachers’ attention to individualized assessments? How will portfolio evaluation satisfy society’s need to maintain “standards?” Additional Resources for Teaching This Chapter REFERENCES American Educational Research Association. (1995). M. Student-centered assessment. R.. (1999). Popham. G. MA: Allyn and Bacon. Using Handout Master 15. what should the teacher keep in mind regarding the needs of the class? Discussion Questions 1. R. 73 (4). 2. Stiggins. New York: John Wiley. (1991). J. have students create and act out the roles of a teacher and student discussing the reasons the student is not working up to potential. & Desai.15. I. L (1989). D. Classroom standard setting and grading practices. R. (1988). the whole class could address the two following questions: • • How would you explain to a pupil the factors that entered into a grade you gave him for “effort”? In giving special attention to a student. Discuss the consideration involved in selecting between objective and essay test items. After they act out their roles. Watson. Can cooperative learning be evaluated? School Administrator. J. Needham Heights. and Borich. Executive Educator. Classroom Assessment and Grading 15. 10(8). J. Assessing alternative assessment. (1990)..7 as a basis for information. Suggest key guidelines involving the construction of each. 810. W. 46(6). E. Norwood. Differentiate between formative and summative measurement and give examples of how each might be used in your own expected teaching situation. Portfolio assessment in the reading-writing classroom. Carter. T. White Plains. (6th ed.17 Dealing with a Student who Refuses to Work Teachers often have trouble coping with a student who does not put much effort into his work. 7th ed. M. and Rangel. & Hendrickson. Educational measurement. Standards for educational and psychological testing. What are some alternatives to grades in educational evaluation? 4. 1-19.. New York: Macmillan. A. Stiggins. (2003). 24-26. unnecessary and harmful. Some educators think we should get rid of grades. MA: Christopher Gordin Publishers. (1989). Terwilliger. org/1997-1/grading.org/1996-3/portfolios. Classroom Assessment and Grading FILMS. 1984) Test interpretation.15. and independent or small group work. several class meetings. The package contains a guide for each of the four major sections. cassette. and scoring teacher-made tests.org/1997-1/test.ericdigests. filmstrips. It is well organized and can be used as a basis for a course.ericdigests. concise reports on topics of interest to educators that serve as overviews of these topics.org/1998-1/norm.ericdigests. assembling.ericdigests.ericdigests.htm A Developmental Approach to Assessment of Young Children: http://www.htm Assessment and Testing: Measuring Up to Expectations: http://www.org/1997-1/basic.ericdigests.ericdigests.ericdigests. They may be freely reproduced and disseminated in any format.htm 187 . 15 minutes. constructing. 1965) USEFUL WEB SITES ERIC Digests ERIC Digests provide brief. transparency masters.org/1997-4/young.ericdigests.org/1998-1/development.htm Making the A: How to Study for Tests: http://www.ericdigests. filmstrip.html Portfolios for Assessment and Instruction: http://www. (ETS. and accompanying audiocassettes. VIDEOTAPES. This audio-visual instructional package (approximately $300) covers planning. B&W. (ETS. Guidelines for the Development and Management of Performance Assessments: http://www. ERIC Digests are in the public domain. Designed for the person who has had little training in tests and measurements and who needs some knowledge.htm Creating Meaningful Performance Assessments: http://www.html Basic Item Analysis for Multiple-Choice Tests: http://www. AND AUDIOCASSETTES Four keys to classroom testing.org/1997-1/more.html More Multiple-Choice Item Writing Do’s and Don’ts: http://www. Introduction to the language of testing.org/1996-1/study.ericdigests. These reports are produced by the 16 subject-specific ERIC Clearinghouses. Shows what can be done with data obtained from standardized tests in guiding students.org/1996-1/creating.htm Grading Students: http://www. (CAR) Using test results.htm Norm.org/1996-3/testing.html Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items: http://www.and Criterion-Referenced Testing: http://www. org National Center for Research on Evaluation.com/ Pathways to School Improvement—Assessment: http://www. Classroom Assessment and Grading Authentic Mathematics Assessment: http://www.edu/index2.htm The Case for Authentic Assessment: http://www.ucla.ericdigests. and Student Testing: The center conducts research on educational testing. http://cresst96.ets.ncrel.org/pre-9218/case.15.cse.ericdigests.org/1993/mathematics.org/sdrs/areas/as0cont.htm 188 .htm Assessment Educational Testing Service: http://www.htm Performance Assessment Links in Science: http://pals.sri. Standards. Handout Masters © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 189 . Handout Master 1. Teaching. and Educational Psychology • What Is Good Teaching? • Expert Knowledge • Beginning Teachers • The Role of Educational Psychology • How This Book Can Help You Learn © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 190 .0 Lecture Outline-----Teachers. is their quality acceptable (A) or unacceptable (U/A). you will find a list of characteristics that can be present in a good site. if they are applicable. concise information used in directions • Easy navigation • Required “plug-ins” identified • Skills required are appropriate for the audience • Site map is available • Links function properly • Audio functions properly © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 191 . N/A A U/A Purpose of Site • Clearly stated purpose • Content reflects purpose • Too much advertising Content • Comprehensive • Appropriate for audience • Information is organized logically • Free of social biases • Information is current and accurate • Copyright information available • Has links to outside resources • Appropriate and relevant graphics Authorship/Sponsorship • Sponsors or authors are clearly identified • You can email the Web master of the site Functionality • Clear.1 Evaluating a Web Site (adapted from publicly available information at ERIC Digest) Title of Site: __________________________________________ URL: __________________________________________ In the left-hand side of the table that follows.Handout Master 1. Check whether these characteristics are not applicable (N/A. 2 Contract for Group [ ] All group members will need to discuss and determine ground rules for interaction when in the group.. only those rules about which there is consensus should be listed): © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 192 .g. rolling your eyes when someone talks). For example. you might decide to have one member be the “coordinator” with the responsibility of ensuring that everyone participates. You might place a prohibition on certain kinds of interaction (e. The purpose of doing this is to promote an atmosphere in which all the group members can and do express their opinions. It is not appropriate for the purposes of this class to simply watch quietly while others do the activities.Handout Master 1. Ground Rules for Interaction (list your ground rules here. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 193 . MA: Allyn & Bacon. L.3 Planning a Visit to Schools Part 1: Just before I enter the school What are my thoughts and feelings? What are my predictions of what I will find when I look around? Part 2: In the school What are my thoughts and feelings? How is this school similar to the schools I went to? How is this school different from the schools I went to? Part 3: Now that I have spent some time looking around What do I expect of a good teacher at this school? Is this expectation different from what I would normally expect of a good teacher? If so.Handout Master 1. (1997). how and why? What are my other thoughts and feelings? From: McNeeley. Needham Heights. how and why? How do the classroom setups differ from what I expect? What do I expect of a well-disciplined student at this school? Is this expectation different from what I would normally expect of a well-disciplined student? If so. how and why? What do I expect of a teacher who is having problems? Is this expectation different from what I would normally expect? If so. S. Observing students and teachers through objective strategies. how and why? What do I expect a teacher to do if a student does not behave appropriately in this school? Is this expectation different from what I would normally expect? If so. Handout Master 1.4 Expert Teacher continues professional development understands the content to be taught and why students make mistakes Expert Teachers work from an understanding of sets of principles underlying classroom behavio r understand what constitutes typical behavior in a classroom * recognizes patterns * has responses to fit conditions * analyzes problems * mentally evaluates possible solutions * many routines are automatic more time and energy available for teaching © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 194 . etc.Handout Master 1. In which of your weaker areas do you most wish to improve? What is one step you could take toward that goal? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 195 .) Importance (Circle one) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Strength (Circle one) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 8. improving. What is the main reason for your choice of the most important teacher role? 9. experimenting.5 Survey of Teaching Roles Please rate each of the roles of teachers listed in the left-hand column according to (a) its importance and (b) your perception of your own strength in that area. 6. A “5” indicates the strongest rating and a “1” indicates the weakest rating. What one experience was most important in helping you to identify your areas of greatest strength? 10. 3. Teacher Roles 1. please briefly answer the questions that follow. 7. thinking. Motivator Manager Instructional Expert Counselor Model Leader Reflective Professional (planning. 4. 2. 5. After you rate the items. middle or high school. The teacher you nominate can be a teacher you had in either elementary. Nominee: Why should this teacher win the award of “Best Teacher of the Year?” What were the teacher’s greatest strengths? What were the teacher’s greatest areas of weakness? What was the single most important attribute of this teacher? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 196 . In the space provided below. or a college teacher.Handout Master 1.6 Name: Date: BEST TEACHER COMPETITION You are asked to nominate one of your former teachers for the “Best Teacher of the Year” award. list your nomination and then answer the questions that follow. In the space provided below. Nominee: Why should this teacher win the award of “Most Effective Teacher of the Year?” What were the teacher’s greatest strengths? What were the teacher’s greatest areas of weakness? What was the single most important attribute of this teacher that made him or her effective? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 197 .” The teacher you nominate can be a teacher you had in either elementary. middle or high school.7 Name: Date: MOST EFFECTIVE TEACHER COMPETITION You are asked to nominate one of your former teachers for the award of “Most Effective Teacher of the Year. list your nomination and then answer the questions that follow. or a college teacher.Handout Master 1. 8a BEST TEACHER SUMMARY SHEET Group [ REASONS ] WEAKNESSES STRENGTHS © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 198 .Handout Master 1. 8 b MOST EFFECTIVE TEACHER SUMMARY SHEET Group [ REASONS ] WEAKNESSES STRENGTHS © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 199 .Handout Master 1. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 200 .9 CATEGORIES OF ATTRIBUTES: Group [ ] Can the attributes listed for “best” and “most effective” teachers be grouped into a smaller number of categories? List the categories and the attributes that belong to each one.Handout Master 1. 10 Journals in the Educational Psychology Field Professional education journals discuss current topics in education and often include information about research in educational psychology as well.Handout Master 1. Here are some examples: Adolescence American Educational Research Journal American Psychologist Child Development Cognition and Instruction Cognitive Psychology Computers in Education Contemporary Educational Psychology Curriculum Review Educational and Psychological Measurement Educational Psychology Review Elementary School Journal Exceptional Children Human Development Instructional Science International Review of Educational Research Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology Journal of Educational Computing Research Journal of Educational Research Journal of Experimental Child Psychology Journal of Experimental Education Journal of Learning Disabilities Journal of Research and Development Journal of School Psychology Learning and Instruction Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development Psychological Bulletin Psychological Review Psychology in the Schools Review of Educational Research School Psychology Review Teaching and Teacher Education © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 201 . Here are some examples: American Journal of Education Childhood Education Contemporary Education Review Educational Leadership Educational Researcher Harvard Educational Review Journal of Education Journal of Teacher Education Phi Delta Kappan The Review of Education Theory into Practice Young Children Other journals specialize in reports of research studies or reviews of several studies on one topic. 0 Lecture Outline-----Cognitive Development and Language • • • • • • Defining Development Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Information Processing and Neo-Piagetian views Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers The Development of Language © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 202 .Handout Master 2. Handout Master 2. How would a teacher and a parent respond to this situation? Would they respond differently? What information in Chapter 2 would help you to respond effectively? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 203 .1 What is This a Case of? QUESTIONS What is the problem? How do you know? What evidence do you have? RESPONSES Is there an alternative interpretation possible about what is happening? Explain your answer. John. are you still writing? Yes.” Lunch: Lunch at last. yes. if you don’t have your work done you must stay in at recess time. get my film order in for next week. goodbye Joe. . They do so much better on them in the morning. I’d better check my plan book. where are you going? Oh. you gave me a note this morning. Aaron. please take this note home to your mom. Jane. . Pizza day! Today’s not my day for duty. would you please read. Can you add to this? Tell me more. Some great ideas. Does anyone else have money for the PTA? All right. I hope I didn’t plan for word problems. you tell your mother that it usually takes about two weeks.” If I can just keep them busy while I get the experiment set up. Walk the class to the art room. I just don’t remember what I planned. look at the clock. go on in. Why don’t her parents ever come? I better take the reading papers home tonight. thank goodness! Afternoon lessons: After lunch. It’s funny how a certain mixture of kids can sometimes really click! Prep period: Clean up. Five or six different preparations every day is just too much.and if I don’t make it to the teacher’s room for coffee. let’s switch for math. Aaron. Come on. I still haven’t called Mrs. Today we’re going to.” After school: I hope the teachers’ meeting doesn’t last long. No.” Creative writing-brainstorm. I’ve got to get the kids to the bus.2 A Day in the Life of an Elementary School Teacher Thoughts before students arrive: Why do I always begin the day feeling as though I’m behind? I guess it’s just part of teaching. Don’t the flowers smell nice…and look! Who left a note? Dear Mrs. I promise I’m going to try harder. Let’s see. Mr. When my prep is at the end of the day.” “Please take out your social studies homework. I’m sorry. . just try. I’m glad to hear that you’re going to try hard. No. 5th grade teacher in New Jersey: © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 204 . Oh. Hi. you may not get a drink right now. it’s about our class trip. . thanks for reminding me. what are you doing? You’re finished already? Let me see. she needs so much love. “Thanks for the note. Miller. It’s time to get cleaned up. Today. I hope his parents will allow him to see the child study team. you may not choose your own groups. Jack. No. Susie. we need to switch to homogeneous groups for reading and math. watch those run-ons. I’ll let you finish while we do science. math is at the end of the day. please pass out the paper for everyone. I’m sorry to hear that. I promised Jenny I’d watch the field hockey game. Thirty minutes isn’t even enough time to get a full set of papers graded. . I just mailed the order in last Friday. what really has to be done before the kids get here? I’ve got to run off those dittoes. I’ll be there Jenny. Jerry. I’ve got to remember to be nice to Jenny. “Jack. I didn’t have my homework again. Well.Handout Master 2. we’re in the middle of a discussion. it’s not bad. Kelly. stop that right now. the nurse needs to see you this morning. I may not speak to another adult all day! I love the quiet in the halls before the buses unload. Please ask him if we can use it now. I’ve got to ask Andy about the note I sent home. but as I’ve said before. Joe.” Another short lunch break! “Who can remember where we left off yesterday? Good. . and I’ll have to run into town to get the salt and flour for the salt dough maps tomorrow. . I’ll see you then. Mary. Heather. Morning duties: “No. this is really good. I’m too exhausted to be productive. What’s wrong with Andy again? “How about if I help you get started? Carl. . Goodnight Susie. “Okay class. . . Each group should. . Aaron Oh gosh. “Page 65. the books aren’t here yet. come here. How many people are buying lunch today?” Morning lessons: Language first. these are the groups you’ll be in for the experiment. Jerry Jones. Is there anyone else who wants to share? Kelly. class. that’s right. If I do my homework can I still stay in with you at recess? Love. . Where’s Tommy? He’s still absent?” How will he ever get caught up? I love working with this group. Kuchta has the equipment I need. please sit down. Please take your seats.” “Class.” I wonder what Aaron’s excuse will be today? “Well. Chrissy. Shay about Bryan’s work.I’d like to get my hands on some of those people who call this a nine-to-five job! Adapted from the experiences of Marion Miller. Jennifer. Pack up. We have great lessons . ‘Wait until the bell rings!” Period 5: Lunch Duty: “How demeaning to have to sit and watch kids eat!” Period 6: U.S. They’re rowdy but I love them. just don’t want to face three new lessons tonight.Handout Master 2. All the kids want to be here. Madeline told me before class that she wants to major in economics in college. Do I have all the attendance cards in order? Almost forgot to collect insurance forms. It’s easier to work with them in class now that I am learning more about them after school . Is it just that the lesson’s not going as well as it could or that they’re tired? Maybe the material isn’t as good as I thought. . I think they’re going to work. I’ll have to send a student to the office for extra forms. . I figured those two would forget theirs again. . Or maybe these kids are just more awake.” Period 7: Library duty: “It’s remarkable how many students don’t know the first thing about using a library. I don’t want to put another class to sleep.” Period 8: Economics: “This lesson went so well this morning. but I think my students are half-asleep. hate grading essay papers.” Period 1: U. history lesson before sixth period.” End of the Day: “I’m glad I got to speak to Jane after school. . . What’s different? I guess last period is a terrible time to have to talk about supply and demand.3 A Day in the Life of a Secondary School Teacher Random thoughts on the Way to Work: “My life happens in segments just like my eight-period day.’ they say. but the interruptions make it impossible. but I’m exhausted . ‘Lost. History (Standard): “Much better lesson than in first period. . . .S. My turn to use the phone in the lounge. my only link with the outside world. Hope I can keep Ralph quiet during fourth period. . History (Basics): “Basics. Intramurals are a great way to get to know the kids. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 205 . They’ve got character even though they don’t give a damn about history. but really enjoyed working out today’s lessons. Sometimes I wish I could leave my work at the office. Maybe you really can learn from your mistakes. Great lesson today! The students are really getting excited. History (Standard): “I really feel sharp today.” Adapted from the experiences of Howard Schober. This kind of class makes it all worthwhile.” Period 3: Economics: “I love this course. . high school social studies teacher in New Jersey. a frustrating 40 minutes. lots of homework last night. In the beginning. .” Period 2: Preparation Period: “I have a million things to do! I’d better beef up that U. partly because it’s elective. .S. We all want to go home. We can really tackle some difficult subjects. . . .S. . . I thought I would get some reading done during this period. ‘Get away from the window!’.” Period 4: U. .” Homeroom: “At least the flag salute quiets them down. Coffee! A few minutes to talk with friends and check the mail. Handout Master 2.4 Piaget's Influences on Equilibration Biological Maturation Activity Social Experience Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Innate Basic Tendencies 4 stages of development Limitations of Piaget's sensorimotor (0-2 years) organization adaptation preoperational (2-7 years) * underestimates children's abilities * use of fixed stages * does not take the role of culture into account equilibration concrete operations (7-11 years) assimilation accommodation formal operations (11-15 years) © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 206 . Which Piagetian stage would Jesse be in if she chose "B?" If she chose "C?" If she chose "D?" f f f f A B C D © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 207 . The water line is marked with the letter." which contained water. "A.5 Water Levels Jesse was shown the jar labelled. From the jars marked "B." "C.Handout Master 2." and "D." choose the one that shows where the water line will be when the jar is tipped.” The jar was then tipped so that it leaned to one side. “f. Describe alternative ways in which you could have responded.” Describe that event. How would working with peers assist a student to experience disequilibrium and reequilibration? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 208 .Handout Master 2. How did you respond to this event? Characterize your response in terms of Piaget’s ideas about accommodation and assimilation.6 Cognitive Disequilibrium Select an incident in which you (or someone you know) experienced a “disequilibrating event. Characterize these alternatives in terms of Piaget’s theory. Get two equal balls of clay. because they all have a sharp point. Preoperational: Response will indicate that one person has more than the other when changes are made. things you can write with. Ask the children. pin. and tack. Concrete operations: Responds that you both still have the same amount and explains his answer by using identity.7 Four Tasks That Assess Children’s Thinking Interpretation of stories: Read one of Aesop’s fables. They are apt to mention something that happened in their own life. straight pin. because you use the tack to put the picture on the wall. Early preoperational: Grouping is based on a functional relationship. Formal operational response: Response goes beyond the literal content of the story and indicates same understanding of the moral. They may not be interested in explaining or justifying the answer. magic marker. Combinatorial logic: Give the children five different one-digit numbers on separate small pieces of paper. Make adjustments until they answer “yes. Ask the children if you both have the same amount. drawing paper. Then ask who has more. “What do you think this story means?” Preoperational response: Response is often on an emotional. Classification: Give the children the following group or objects and ask them to make a group of things that go together. paper and chalk. because they are the same shape (have four corners). paper sack.” Make a “snake” or a “pancake” out of one ball and ask who has the most clay now. piece of chalk. Late operational: Grouping is based on perceptual feature. Ask the children if you both have the same amount. or compensation as a rationale.” then spread out one set and ask who has more beads. Conservation: Line up two sets of wooden beads side by side. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 209 . Ask them to make as many different three-digit numbers as they can. Concrete operational response: Response is based on the literal content of the story. thumb tack. level. paper and picture. Concrete operational: Goes about the task in a random. personal. If they answer “yes. masking or scotch tape. because you write on the paper with a pencil. things you can put things on a bulletin board. Formal operational: Will approach the task in an orderly and systematic way. Example: pencil. notebook paper. Example: pencil and paper.Handout Master 2. pencil. Objects: picture from a magazine or newspaper. because they are both white. Example: things made of paper. thumb tack and picture. and is based on the children’s affective reaction to the story. Return them to their original position and bunch up one set. haphazard manner. Concrete operational: Grouping based on a common element that makes each object an example of the classification basis. reversibility. com CONCEPT Conservation Adaptation Assimilation Equilibrium Accommodation Formal Operational Thinking Preoperational Thinking Sensorimotor Behavior Concrete Operational Thinking EXAMPLE © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 210 .8 Piaget Review As you proceed through the tutorial on MyLabSchool.Handout Master 2. Handout Master 2.9 Observation Checklist Classroom as a Whole Use Y for “yes” and N for “no. (What is he/she doing?) What evidence do you see of the child’s status with respect to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 211 .” _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ Are children working independently? Are they working in groups or clusters? Does the teacher scan the classroom? Are there manipulatives available to the children? Do the children appear to be happy? Would you conclude that the classroom is developmentally appropriate? Your comments: Select One Child for Observation Describe the child’s behavior. 10 Teacher Roles in the Classroom List the roles you expect to play in your classroom (you might refer back to Chapter 1 to help you identify roles).Handout Master 2. How would Piaget and Vygotsky have wanted you to play those roles? TEACHER ROLE PIAGET VYGOTSKY © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 212 . Handout Master 2. and Teaching Language Development in Deaf Children Metacognition Chapter 7 Culture and Community Chapter 5 Student-Centered Teaching Chapter13 © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 213 . Concept Development Chapter 9 SelfRegulation Misconceptions in Science Instruction Reciprocal Teaching: Chapter 9 Piaget's Theory Issues of Bilingualism Cognitive Apprenticeships Chapter 9 Vygotsky’s Alternative to Piaget Chapter 2: Cognitive Development and Language Development of Language Chapter 5: Chapter 4 Creating Learning Environment Chapter 12 Language. Literacy.11: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 8: Problem Solving. and Emotional Development • • • • • Physical Development Erikson: Stages of Individual Development The Social Context of Development Self Concept: Understanding Ourselves Emotional and Moral Development © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •214 .0 Lecture Outline-----Personal.Handout Master 3. Social. 1 Encouraging Positive Resolutions of Erikson’s Developmental Crises 1.Handout Master 3. 4. Generativity vs. inferiority: Desire to complete productive work and master developmental tasks of childhood based on success experiences and recognition of progress. isolation: Ability to relate intimately with another person based on selfdisclosure and satisfying experiences with intimate others. role diffusion: Attempt to answer “Who am I?” and achieve a satisfying sense of identity based on personal success and satisfaction combined with peer acceptance. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •215 . Initiative vs. Identity vs. stagnation: Act of caring extended beyond a single person to future generations based on a satisfying personal life and freedom from self-preoccupying pressures. Intimacy vs. rather than overprotection from or punishment for exploration. 6. Integrity vs. 2. mistrust: Development of a sense of trust in the world based on basic needs being met. 5. despair: Adjustment to aging and death with a sense of satisfaction about the past. Autonomy vs. 8. Industry vs. Trust vs. 7. doubt: Development of self-control and self-confidence based on encouragement and limit setting without rejection and blame for failure to meet demands. guilt: Testing of personal power through exploration and manipulation of the environment based on encouragement and tolerance. 3. ____ c. but her mother. the teacher criticizes him for taking so much time. Correct Answers: (D -. his mother feeds him. Mr. ____ i. Students in Mrs. Therefore. the teacher lets him because she tries to let students carry out their own ideas. her parents gave the launching of her boat the same fanfare and attention that they gave to the launching of the model boat her father built. ____ e. When a student wants to pour water in a clay bowl. Crisis A. insists on feeding the child herself. Claire built a boat of cardboard and wood. D +. Little Susan wants to feed herself. Shumard allows his seniors in government class the opportunity to discuss not only the current events of the day. is all business. Clark. A +. D +. B +. ____ h. ____ d. her class time is spent telling the students the appropriate interpretations of the plays and poems. inferiority E. Identity vs. which he has made. C +. Trust vs. so that her children can take their own shoes off and put them on themselves. role confusion ____ a. Then indicate whether the experience would support a positive or a negative resolution of the crisis. Ross purchases tennis shoes with Velcro closings. Match the following types of experiences with the crisis in which they would have the most impact. but also the views and opinions regarding those current events. ____ g. Mrs. Jones praises the children for this project. When the baby is hungry and cries. annoyed by the mess her daughter creates. rather than shoe laces. Jones’s class decide to sell candy to make money for the local muscular dystrophy association. Mrs. ____ b. the 11th-grade English teacher. ____ f. Autonomy vs. mistrust B. even though it means considerable work for her. The babysitter loudly bangs pots together and the baby cries with fear. Mrs. E +. When Claire decided to sail her boat.2 Resolving Developmental Crises The positive resolution of a developmental crisis is based on consistent experiences that encourage and support such a resolution. Industry vs. She believes that classroom time should be spent on lessons and not discussion of students’ feelings about the meaning of the poem to their lives. She continues to do this so that the baby will not be afraid of loud noises. the Big Dipper. Initiative vs. B -. + Resolution Positive Resolution Negative Resolution When a student finally completes a complex and involved science project. shame and doubt C. in the lake. E -) © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •216 .Handout Master 3. guilt D. A -. ____ j. 5.3 Reducing the Incidence of Cheating and Plagiarism Why do people cheat or plagiarize in college? List five reasons in order of importance. What could teachers do to minimize the incidence of these kinds of behaviors? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •217 .Handout Master 3. 2. 1. 4. 3. 4 Interpreting and Responding to Problems Some of your students believe that stealing is only wrong if they are caught.Handout Master 3. How would you interpret and respond to this situation using Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s theories of moral development? Question Does this situation pose a moral dilemma? Kohlberg Gilligan What stage of moral development are the children at? What should you do as their teacher? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •218 . out on the playground. In class. His teachers find him cooperative. Maybe by keeping his sixth-grade class in an uproar. a few boys sometimes get caught up in his disruptive games. and not doing well in school.Handout Master 3. She talks loudly over the voices of the other fourth-grade girls. she hits hard to get what she wants. he plays “Star Wars” alone. though. but peers have no use for him. he is always alone. now that he is 11.5 Helping Unpopular Children Read the descriptions of the following children from the point of view of their classroom teacher and describe how you would help them become more accepted in your class. is a little older than many of his classmates. Out on the playground. Suggestions for helping Jeannie? Michael? David? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •219 . Jeannie is nine. Although David makes no trouble in his fifth-grade class. about how bossy she is and how much they hate her. either. Although her classmates may give way. he is trying to ensure that others won’t do well. 12. he isn’t any better liked than Michael or Jeannie. No one chooses him as a partner for class projects. Sometimes. mostly. later they complain about Jeannie. other kids shun Michael. and his classmates groan if he’s assigned to their side for team games. Michael. He has always seemed hesitant and maladroit. Handout Master 3.6: Sociogram Harold Elena Bao Chris Sarah Lee Kelly Raoul Martin Sam © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •220 . Who do you like best in the class? 2. Examples of kinds of questions you might ask are listed below. Who do you think does the best job at mathematics. If the child cannot remember everyone in the class. 1. reading.Handout Master 3. Who is your best friend here? 3.7 Peer Nomination Explain to the child that you are trying to make up groups in the class and you want to make sure that the people in the group get along. you might use a class photo to help the child pick out other children and you can supply the name. etc.? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •221 . org http://www.org http://www.mhnet.org http://www.org/ http://www.org/ © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •222 .Handout Master 3. you practiced using the World Wide Web search engines.aa. Use this knowledge to add to the list of Web sites that can provide helpful information about some of the challenges that face children today.afsp. Agency Alcoholics Anonymous Al-Anon/Alateen Mental Help Net American Psychological Association American Foundation for Suicide Prevention Website http://www.apa.8 Locating Sources on the World Wide Web As part of the activities in Chapter 1.al-anon. Social.9: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 2: Cognitive Development Chapter 5: Identity in Community and Culture Chapter 10: The Role Autonomy Chapter 10: Motivation Erickson Chapter 2: Cognitive Development Chapter 5: Impact of Culture and Community Socialization at Home and Schoo Chapter 3: Personal. 15: Challenges in Testing Chapter 12 and 13 Creating Supportive Environments Chapter 10: Motivational Challenge © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •223 . and Emotional Development Moral Development Chapter 5: Role Gende Chapter 11: Classroom Behavior Challenges Children Chapter 4: Learnin Challenge Chapters 14.Handout Master 3. Handout Master 4.0 Lecture Outline-----Learner Differences and Learner Needs • • • • • • Intelligence Ability Differences and Teaching Learning Styles and Preferences Individual Differences and the Law The Most Common Challenges Less Prevalent Problems and More Severe Disabilities Students Who are Gifted and Talented • © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 224 . 1: Adapting Instruction for Learner Differences * determine readiness. state objectives * individualized learning * present materials in small logical steps * practice and repetition are important * students need to experience success. chart growth © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 225 . chart growth * programs include acceleration and enrichment * methods should encourage abstract thinking and creativity * teachers of the gifted must be imaginative and flexible * flexible programs need to be evaluated Students with Intellectual Disabilities Gifted Learners Adapting Instruction for Learner Differences Physically Challenged Learners Learners with Communication and Learning Disabilities * plan physical environments to accommodate * be informed about disabilities * use appropriate materials * ask questions at appropriate level of difficulty * give supportive and positive feedback * mix students with disabilities with nondisabled students * integrate special help into class * model appropriate language and behaviors * present materials in small logical steps * practice and repetition are important * students need to experience success.Handout Master 4. Educational Planning Behavior: Bob continually tests limits. He overreacts to teasing and derogatory remarks from his classmates. and is anxious about the time to go home. Previous testing shows him to be in the dull normal range (WISC IQ = 75). Action. He is deficient in all areas of visual perception (Frostig) and his visual-motor skills are at the kindergarten level (Bender). is effective with Bob. shining the window. etc. However. He also uses words to get out of doing his work by distracting the teacher to another subject. 2. cleaning his desk.3 years Grade: 2 Address: 1900 Forest Park School: Bell Elementary Presenting Problem The resource teacher describes Bob as being obstinate and not willing to mind anybody.2 An Educational Plan This educational plan was written for an eight-year-old. Did the person who wrote this plan follow the steps in the diagnostic-prescriptive cycle? Does the plan seem feasible to you? What aspects of the plan are the most helpful? What additional information would you like to be included? Name: BOB Age: 8. He had a hearing loss that was corrected by surgery last spring. Bob has the idea that he is different from other children. When it was suggested that he raise his hand like the other children when he was through with his work instead of yelling out. likes to be the boss. He was also cooperative when told to talk more softly. He was in a class for learning disabled children last year. This behavior intensifies when he is in a new situation and if he doesn’t know what the reaction to his behavior will be. wants a lot of attention. the teacher should not allow herself to be drawn into verbal arguments with Bob. and generally using conversation to divert attention from the work he is supposed to be doing. His classroom teacher considers him to be mildly disruptive. All actions intended to be nonrewarding should be carried out with as little verbalization as possible. He has difficulty being in a group. he did. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 226 . He uses such tactics as promising to do something later. not conversation. He may agree to something. talks in class often. except her. He enters and leaves the classroom noisily. General Suggestions 1. asking her to substitute some other task. Bob is very skillful in manipulating people with words and getting them involved in long verbal discussions. He refuses to do his work most of the time. Since Bob uses words to procrastinate and manipulate. because it is expedient for him to do so. Many times Bob is surprisingly cooperative with requests stated in a friendly manner.Handout Master 4. Bob has been diagnosed by physicians as “brain damaged” and near-sighted. This carried over into later class periods. His mother says she has no problems with him. and he doesn’t like it. we found he cannot be expected to follow through on the agreement. as well as lack of motivation and attention during testing. because he was disturbing the other children who were working. asking the teacher to wait until he does something else first. second-grade boy. He enjoyed doing helpful jobs in the room – erasing the board. and then will work only for short periods if the teacher stays with him. The validity of this is regarded as questionable by the psychometrician because of his visual-motor problems. he’ll just start marking anything for an answer. this is too hard. it is time for you to do your work at your desk. he wants to be through whenever others are. For example. 2. when Bob misbehaves: 1. An effective routine was to explain to Bob that if he doesn’t behave like a student. A proper reward might be to let him help in the room. 3. He can hear and identify initial and final consonants. For example. If his behavior persists.2 An Educational Plan (Continued) Suggestions for the Resource Room Since Bob especially tests limits when he doesn’t know what the consequences will be. Then. then the teacher needs to try to find more rewarding activities. If he continues his behavior. Bob has very poor handwriting. This is a warning. Academic Area Achievement Skills: In reading. If he acts up. all teachers can corner him. there should be no conversation. Bob knows most of the letter sounds. If he starts running away. and it is hard work for him to try to write. In math. He is in a hurry to be done with his work. During this time. but show no concern or involvement with him. time starts over again. Bob sometimes does not identify even simple pictures correctly. He is removed quickly and quietly. A wall clock in the room should eliminate Bob’s badgering the teacher about the time to go home. Suggestions for the Classroom 1. In this format. he can count easily to twelve with understanding.) and should be ignored. if one teacher is absent. This probably won’t have to be done more than once or twice. he is welcomed back by his regular teacher and work continues as usual. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 227 .” etc. just enough to let Bob know what will happen if he behaves disruptively.Handout Master 4. At the end of five minutes. Bob has worked for as long as an hour and forty minutes. If he still chooses to misbehave. If Bob continues to be disruptive in lines and in entering the classroom. The teacher states what is expected of him and gives him a warning. He has very few combinations memorized.” 2. Behavior in Learning Situation: Bob’s negative verbalization is profuse (“I’m not going to do this. In group situations. teacher calls another person to remove him from the room. there should be a set routine with which all the resource teachers are familiar. “Bob. he will be taken out of the room. he would be given a warning. 4. Physical arrangements should be such that he cannot attack the teacher. Because of his visual-motor deficiencies. He understands the concept of addition and can find any sum up to twelve if he has concrete materials to work with. Bob either quits or. program of rewards for proper behavior can be initiated. he sits in a chair for five minutes. Bob will still know what to expect. It is difficult for him to blend three sounds into a word. but has trouble with vowels. If the work is difficult. “Time-out” – While outside the classroom. if he is doing a worksheet. . • He lets the teacher know in some prearranged manner that he is finished. so that he has less opportunity to involve the teacher in nonproductive conversation. then the teacher gives attention. he will need simple concrete aids. Because Bob’s involving the teacher in conversation interferes with his doing a specific lesson. teacher leaves. and leaves him.g. 4. Materials that can be used to improve his visual-motor skills are listed in the appendix. 6. Then he can check them off as he finishes with each one.Handout Master 4. The following approaches were ineffective with Bob: I told him I would wait at his desk until he was ready to work. teacher comes over. If Bob is to do his math independently with a minimum of teacher involvement. but he didn’t come and I could no longer ignore his bad behavior. Since he does not work quickly with accuracy. 7. I asked if he’d like for one of the other boys to help him. The SRA Math Discovery Board is an excellent material. Also contained in the appendix is a list of ways to teach spelling and reading which do not involve writing. Since Bob has a tendency to mark just any answer on a worksheet. he also stops with the group. In order to reduce Bob’s concern with finishing his work. I tried to offer a reward by showing him some of the things he could do after he had finished his work. he produces sloppy work in this kind of situation. it is helpful to have a card that lists all the work he is to do that day as well as a folder that contains all the materials he will need. We found that this format worked well. it is helpful to separate the problems and have only one or two on a page. Bob doesn’t do work. 2. The following format is effective: • Teacher shows him what to do. It is more effective than a routine of constant teacher involvement to get him to work (e. it is better to keep him out of a group and in a non-competitive situation. because these either ignored his misbehavior or rewarded it with teacher attention. rather than combining it with language. Bob’s lesson should be structured in such a way that he works independently. • He does the work independently (mistakes can be corrected later). 5. Handwriting is very difficult for Bob and should be attacked separately.2 An Educational Plan (Continued) General Suggestions for Academic Work 1. he doesn’t work). checks to see if he understands. This format can be followed in a regular classroom. Since Bob hurries to be “finished” with his work when others are about to finish. I joked with him about funny places where he could do his work. Although doing something with a group will get Bob started. 8. 3. These approaches were unsuccessful. since he seemed so anxious to make friends with them. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 228 . This is especially necessary if the work is difficult for him. he works. Manipulation of these aids will also help his fine muscle coordination. toileting). Evaluation will occur using pre-/post-tests and classroom reported observations. Tom will classify objects according to environment. /. Persons responsible: _____ Special Ed _____ Guidance _____ Student _____ Other _____ SLP _____ Parent B. such as same/different. she. He names 11 basic colors. He is independent in self-help skills (dressing. they” when semantically appropriate 70% of the time across three consecutive therapy sessions. Evaluation procedures will include pre-/post-tests and classroom reported observations. Tom cuts across the page and attempts to cut on a line. and bottom/top with 80% accuracy during three consecutive therapy sessions. and how” questions with 45% accuracy. function. dry/wet. same/different. eating. Persons responsible: _____ Special Ed _____ Guidance _____ Student _____ Other _____ SLP _____ Parent Handout Master 4. He walks to circle time in the morning and participates 95% of the time. 4). He makes transitions to small group activities but starts before directions are complete 75% of the time. five shapes. we. what. Annual Goal: Tom will increase expressive language skills. He needs verbal prompts to wait his turn (more than four times daily) and keeps his hands to his own body (more than seven times daily). and “how” questions 50% of the time during three consecutive therapy sessions. 2.Handout Master 4. He also has difficulty understanding basic concepts. Tom copies 1-0 but needs assistance to copy +. He is unable to count objects. Tom will answer “where” questions 90% of the time. Evaluation procedures will include pre/post-tests and classroom reported observations.3 Individualized Education Program Student: Tom Example School: Any Elementary School Primary Language of Parent: English SS #: 99-142-0000 IEP Period From: 1-2-97 to 1-2-98 Grade: K Birthdate: 4/23/92 Classification: Developmental Delay Tom speaks in four to six-word sentences. His current mean length of utterance is 4. A. or size 80% of the time during a 10-minute activity across three therapy session. Tom answers “where. Evaluation procedures will include pre-/post-tests and classroom reported observations. “what” questions 60% of the time. He interacts with peers and teachers. He traces his name. Tom will use “he. location. C. Tom will demonstrate knowledge of concepts hard/soft. Annual Goal: Tom will increase receptive language skills. Speech intelligibility is good with five developmental errors. placement.2. -. groups objects with 60% accuracy. top/bottom (combined less than 1/10 trials). A. He is able to construct sentences but he is having a hard time developing morphological rules (more than five errors).3 (continued) © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 229 . three numbers (1. Guidance Speech/Lang Other Participants Date IEP LEA Parent Parent Student Reg.Individualized Education Program B.0 during a 10-minute language sample across three therapy sessions. Ed. Evaluation procedures will include pre-/post-tests and classroom reported observations. Special Ed. Placement Review: To be reviewed by the IEP team within one year after IEP date. Ed. IEP LEA Parent Parent Student Reg. Sign and date below. • ___ ___ • ___ ___ • ___ ___ Maintain current placement of: Regular class/resource Home instruction ___ ___ Special class ___ Special school Other _______________________ Change current placement to: (this requires prior notice form): Regular class/resource Home instruction Discontinue special education: Remediated/declassified ___ Parent request Other _______________________ ___ ___ Special class ___ Special school Other _______________________ My signature signifies that I have participated in the development of the goals outlined in this IEP and I have received a copy of Parent Rights. Special Ed. Tom will increase mean length of utterances to 5. Guidance Speech/Lang Other Participants Date ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 230 . It is a search engine from Yahoo that is linked to special education resources. http://www.Handout Master 4.wrightslaw.yahoo.com/ http://www.com/Education/Special_Education http://www.com/ Search for special education resources Information about special education laws Special Education Resources on the Internet © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 231 . The first item in the table below will provide an excellent startpoint.4 Technology for Special Needs: Resources Complete the following table for a list of Internet Resources on Special Education.seriweb. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 232 . If you are using a computerized search. Your main sources of information are: 1.Handout Master 4. Reference librarians 2. you will be able to seek combinations of terms easily. Computer searches 3. you will need to understand your topic. Fill in the concept map below as a way of beginning to identify search terms or subtopics you might use.5 Guide to Literature Search You have a number of possible strategies for searching for information. Manual browsing among the library stacks. In order to use any of these resources appropriately. tutors special needs mixed ability Use the search terms identified to seek help. Specials Subtotals Total Missing Assignments English/LA Social Studies Math Science Specials Test/Quiz Grades or Upcoming Tests English/LA Social Studies Math Science Specials (Used with permission.) Date: ________________ 0 Poor Teacher Initials 1 = Needs Improvement Work Completion 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Class Behavior 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 _________ _________ _________ © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 233 . Zakreski. Richard S.D.E. Ph.Handout Master 4.6 Checklist for Monitoring Behavior Name: ___________________ 3 = Excellent 2 = Good Subject English /LA Social Studies Math Science Health/P. Severely retarded people are helpless. some can live in the community and even enter competitive employment. With appropriate educational programming. The majority of mentally retarded children are mildly retarded. it is usually because he or she does not have adequate job skills. we can identify the cause of retardation. 1994). Children classified as moderately retarded (once called “trainable”) require a radically different curriculum from that appropriate for children classified as mildly retarded (once called “educable”).g. For many of the children in the mild classification. poor attendance and lack of initiative) and social competence (e. Daniel Hallahan and James Kaufmann (Needham Heights. it is more often because of poor job responsibility (e. Although the degree of emphasis should be greater for older students. and because intellectual demands on the child greatly increase upon entrance to school. most authorities agree that transition programming for students with mental retardation should begin in elementary school. and vocational skills are stressed more with moderately and severely and profoundly retarded students. In most cases. most children eventually diagnosed as retarded are not so identified until they go to school. we cannot identify the cause. In fact. there is actually a great deal of overlap in curricular goals for all retarded students. it is usually extremely difficult to document. From Exceptional Children. Retarded individuals go through different learning stages compared to nondisabled individuals. it is thought that the poor environment may be a causal factor. do not differ from those of nondisabled people. p. retarded people go though the same stages.Handout Master 4. Most mental retardation can be diagnosed in infancy. The level of mental functioning does not necessarily remain stable. Because the majority of retarded children are mildly retarded. classification for the rest of his or her life. Although academic subjects are generally stressed more with mildly retarded students.. not interacting appropriately with co-workers) than because of any competence in task production.117. Most mentally retarded children look different from nondisabled children.. Sixth Edition. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 234 . Many studies indicate that the learning characteristics of retarded individuals. However. but at a slower rate. Transition programming for students with mental retardation begins in secondary school. When a worker with mental retardation fails on the job.7 Myths and Facts about Mental Retardation: Misconceptions about Persons with Mental Retardation MYTH FACT Once diagnosed as mentally retarded. particularly those classified as mildly retarded. a person remains within this particularly for those in the mild classification. and most mildly retarded children look like nondisabled children. with appropriate professional support. That is. because infant intelligence tests are not as reliable and valid as those used in later childhood.g. many severely retarded people can lead relatively independent lives. MA: Allyn & Bacon. In most cases (especially within the mild classification). There is substantial research indicating that when mentally retarded workers fail on the job. A child seems to daydream frequently.8 Indicators of Learning Problems Match the category of exceptionality with the behavior that could indicate its presence: A C E G gifted and talented visual impairment communication disorder specific learning disability B D F H physical/health problems hearing impairment behavior disorder mental retardation 1. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 235 . and at times he “blanks out” or “spaces out” of what is happening in the classroom. _____ 3. he begins clowning around or says how dumb the story is or exhibits some other behavior that allows him to avoid reading. A student starts reading his assignment. A student often turns one ear toward the speaker and seems intent on looking at the speaker’s face. and uncommunicative. and when he does. A student seems quite bright when answering questions orally. This student is a very low achiever in all areas and frequently acts like a much younger child in social situations. but writing is a very tedious task for him and he writes slowly and poorly. but after a few minutes. _____ 2. hostile. A student seldom speaks in class. and disruptive or he is subdued. _____ 7. withdrawn. _____ 5. A student is at the top of the class academically and is a leader in the class because of his advanced social development. he speaks jerkily in very short phrases or sentences. _____ 8. _____ 6.Handout Master 4. _____ 4. _____ A student behaves in one of two extremes: he is either loud. 9: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 6: Behavioral Learning Theory Chapter 5: Culture and Community Chapter 10: Motivation Chapter 10: Motivation Learning Challenges Chapter 10: Entity/ Incremental Views of Ability Language and Labeling Chapter 4: Learning Abilities and Problems Intelligence Chapter 5: Impact of Culture and Community Expectation Effects (see Chapter 13) Ability Differences and Teaching Chapter 14: Standardized Tests Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes Grouping Practices (see Chapter 13 Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 236 .Handout Master 4. 0 Lecture Outline-----Culture and Diversity • • • • • • • Today’s Diverse Classrooms Economic and Social Class Differences Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement Girls and Boys: Differences in the Classroom Language Differences in the Classroom Creating Culturally Inclusive Classrooms Teaching Every Student © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 237 .Handout Master 5. and ancestors (certain Asian cultures) Methodical. Some Potential Areas of Cultural Conflict Areas in which the culture “teaches lessons” Interpersonal Relationship School’s Expectation (Majority Culture Belief) Students will compete and value individual achievement Student’s Expectation (Minority Culture Belief) Students will help each other. Comprehensive Multicultural Education. C.1 Cultural Differences: Sources of Conflict Here are a few examples of possible clashes between the culture of the school and that of the home. not the individual.L. MA: Allyn & Bacon. 3rd ed. trust the central group to provide for the future (certain Native American groups) or value the past. These are only examples. These do not hold for all individuals within a group. Needham Heights.Handout 5. the group. tradition. respect and live with nature Group loyalty. use technology to “improve” nature Individual freedom From Bennett. tradition Orientation Toward Time Plan for the future: work and save now for a better future for yourself Valued Personal Qualities Busy Relationship of People to Nature Most Cherished Values Control nature. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 238 . relaxed. (1995). meditative (some Asian and Hispanic cultures) Be at one with nature. is the source of accomplishment (many Native American and Mexican-American groups) Focus on the present. race.2 Lesson Planning Design a lesson plan on a topic of your choosing. You will need to specify the age group for whom it is intended. In designing your lesson plan. language. Lesson Topic: Target Age Group: Purposes of the Lesson: Materials and Equipment Needed: Procedures: Evaluation of the Lesson: What accommodations to individual differences did you make? © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 239 . ethnicity. and socioeconomic status in the lessons. you need to consider how you will accommodate individual differences in gender.Handout Master 5. and values * help students to detect and respond constructively to racist. sexist messages * use cooperative learning * teach classroom procedures * teach participation structures * use a variety of methods of assessment * provide a range of ways to learn © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 240 .Handout Master 5.3: Culturally Compatible Classrooms social class language differences gender race/ ethnicity Sources of Cultural Differences in the Classroom wrong interpretations of behavior low expectations alienation: lack of motivation Problems That May Arise in Culturally-Insensitive Classrooms exclusion of certain children teacher focus on subgroups inappropriate judgments of ability Designing Culturally Compatible Classrooms * get to know different customs. traditions. 4 Who is in? Draw a diagram of the classroom. Also indicate on the diagram when he or she was called upon in favorable or unfavorable ways. Do all children participate equally? Is the nature of children’s participation the same? What might explain differences in students’ participation? Were boys called upon more than girls? What other questions can you answer based on this observation? © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 241 . KEY: * ** @ # + ® & $ Boy Girl White Non-White Teacher asks a question Teacher praises Teacher reminds to pay attention Teacher reprimands Teacher does not wait for child to answer question At the end of the observation period. calculate the amount of teacher attention given to each student and answer the following questions.Handout Master 5. place a mark beside the location of a child on your diagram to indicate the gender and racial/ethnic status of the child. indicating the placement of each child. Using the key below. 5 Status in the Classroom In the table below. List the behaviors that are associated with these students. General Domain Natural Science Class High-Status Students High-Status Behaviors Social Science Humanities © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 242 .Handout Master 5. describe the kind of student who appears to have high status in the class. Be mindful that perceiving some pattern of events does not necessarily mean that the perception is accurate. Handout 5. 9: Learning and Instruction Chapter 10: Motivation Chapter 13: Cooperative Learning Chapter 10: Motivation. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 243 . 8.6: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 10: Motivation Chapter 14: Standardized Tests Chapter 4: Learning Differences Ethnic and Racial Differences Chapter 4: Learning Problems Chapter 3: Personal. Social And Emotional Development Chapter 10: Motivation Social Class Differences Chapter 5: Culture and Community Gender Differences Self-regulated Learning Chapter 12: Creating Learning Environments Creating Culturally Compatible classrooms Chapters 7. 0 Lecture Outline-----Behavioral Views of Learning • • • • • • • Understanding Learning Contiguity Learning and Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Applied Behavior Analysis Behavioral Approaches to Teaching and Management Observational Learning and Cognitive Behavior Modification Problems and Issues © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •244 .Handout Master 6. Reinforcement Punishment © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •245 .Handout Master 6.1 Differentiating Punishment and Reinforcement List examples of reinforcements and punishments you might use in your class. The school can no longer afford to allow Jim to carve desks. Stevens. Design a strategy to remedy this situation. a fourth grader. The teacher’s attempts to involve him directly have been met with stubborn resistance by Jim. Scenario 3: Polly is very adept at mimicking her teacher’s idiosyncrasies. hand gestures and facial expression. and the teacher praised her reading. Scenario 1: Jim. Additionally. Horatio Stevens is a second-grade teacher at Green Elementary School. Explain what you think will happen. For example. she faltered and pretended that she could not read the words. His carvings are not random but involve a definite design—a complete circle with tiny circles around it. was transferred from Berry School to Tampa County School. He seems interested in. and written them on the board. Scenario 2: Mr. Explain what you anticipate happening with this strategy. Garcia’s tirades and the applause of classmates. certain that Toni knew the words. Toni asked what pages the assignment was on. The teacher. so for the next day’s assignment. became irritated and reassigned them as homework. The other students did not do nearly as well. indicate what you anticipate happening when you use the strategy. He has a class of 25 overeager children who consistently blurt and yell out their answers instead of waiting and raising their hands. flustered response by pretending not to be able to do an assignment in which she has been previously successful. Explain what you anticipate happening with this strategy. but afraid of. For each. His carving tools consist of pens. Scenario 4: Jim. Garcia has lectured Polly about her behavior. determine appropriate behavioral procedures to use to help solve the problem. Year after year. athletic activities. Explain what you anticipate happening with the strategy. rulers. He finds the blurting out disruptive. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •246 . Design a strategy to eliminate the carving behavior. the greater the frequency and exaggeration of the mimicking behavior. He has been teaching for only a few weeks and is having problems. a 13-year-old boy. and a compass. Design a strategy to help this situation. The next day. The more Ms. His passivity and lack of assertiveness have pervaded all aspects of his classroom adjustment and are especially noticeable in gym class. Jim produces a new masterpiece. Explain what you think will happen. and this behavior is being reinforced by Ms. after the teacher had given the pages of an assignment out loud. He is pleased with their eagerness but needs a calmer setting. Scenario 5: Toni flusters and irritates her teacher by playing the role of the “dumb. she read them very well. would much rather carve desks than do his assignments. for example. Toni was called upon to read some words. slow student. and it is difficult to respond to each student. when Toni was called on to read the same words. She also manipulated her teacher to give her a negative. as evidenced by his hovering on the fringe of the action.Handout Master 6.” Toni constantly asks questions to which the answers are evident. the class was to study the words and be able to read them correctly. Design a strategy to help Jim.2 Behavior Problem Scenarios Listed below are five scenarios. Design a strategy to help Mr. pencils. This behavior was exemplified by her reading assignment. Handout Master 6.3: Applying Behavioral Principles Applying Behavioral Principles Methods for Encouraging Behavior Methods for Coping with Undesirable Behavior negative and positive reinforcement reinforcement increases behavior direct student to appropriate behavior-reinforce suppress undesirable behaviorpunish select reinforcers (Premack Principles) shaping positive practice Maintaining Behavior ABAB Steps * baseline measure of behavior * intervention is applied * intervention is stopped * results are recorded * intervention is reintroduced use schedules of reinforcement to influence speed of performance. persistence of behavior * * * * * satiation reprimands response cost social isolation cautions © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •247 . Handout Master 6.minute interval. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •248 . Intervention Record instances of the target behavior during a 10-minute interval in which the intervention is in place (to be completed some time after the intervention has been introduced). After Intervention Has Been Withdrawn Record instances of the target behavior in a 10.4 Behavior Checklist What is the behavior that is undesirable? Why is it undesirable? What learning outcome is it influencing? What is the nature of the intervention you will introduce? Before Intervention Record instances of the target behavior in a 10-minute interval. 5 Reinforcement Preferences Which of the following would you prefer as a reward for getting an A on the midterm? Rank these options in order of preference with a “1” indicating your preferred reward. and so on.Handout Master 6. a “2” indicating your next preference. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ Cancellation of the final examination Opportunity to retake the final if the grade is not an A Waiver of paper requirement in the course Gift token for $30 Tickets to a movie Cancel a class Guest speaker in class Provide a review session Provide a practice test for the final © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •249 . What emotion accompanies the child’s experience of reinforcement? What elements of the game appear to be reinforcing? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •250 .6 Video Game Analysis How long did the child play the game? What evidence did you note of the child’s interest? Did you observe any change in the child’s behavior that would indicate that she or he had been reinforced by any elements of the game? Explain.Handout 6. leading to punctual assignment completion. I understand the following grading criteria will be used to determine my class grade. 17 Oct. When I complete each individual task card. Outline the project 4. 14 Oct.Handout Master 6. Write two papers. Write rough draft of paper 10. 30 Nov.7 Contingency Contracts Social Studies Class Contract I. 20 Oct. understand that my assignments for my fourth-quarter social studies class include the following: 1. Select a project 2. 28 Oct. 19 Nov. agree to complete each step of my science projects by the following due dates: Task 1. Prepare project in class 9. __________ . 3 I will turn in each task card when the task is completed and pick up the next card. The teacher assists the student by contracting for task completion. 24 Dec. Grade % of Assignments Complete % of Accuracy A = 100% 90% to 100% B = 100% 80% to 89% C = 100% 70% to 79% D = 100% 60% to 69% F = 100% less than 60% ____________________ _____________________ _______________ Student Teacher Date Contract specifying the assignments and contingencies for a fourth-quarter social studies class. 10 Oct. 10-14 (day to be assigned) Nov. Collect the needed equipment 5. 3. Rewrite paper 11. Science Project Contract I. 27 Oct. 2. Develop the project 6. Try it out 7. Make the necessary modifications 8. ____________________ _____________________ _______________ Student Teacher Date Contract designed to help a student who procrastinates when working on assignments. Find the necessary resource 3. _______________. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •251 . Final paper Due Date Oct. one on the executive branch of government and one on the legislative branch. Read Chapters 25 through 30 in the text. I may engage in the reinforcing activity listed on the card. Complete the exercises at the end of each of the six chapters. The contract is used with task cards. The task cards will list the reinforcing activity that I will earn if the task is completed on time. Handout Master 6.8: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 7: Metacognition Chapter 6: Behavioral Views of Learning Constructivist Approaches: Is reward possible? Chapter 15: Portfolio Assessment Chapter 9: SelfRegulation Operant Learning Chapter 13: Cooperation and Group work Chapter 10: Motivated behavior as a search for reward and an avoidance of punishment Approaches to Instruction Chapter 15: Grades as rewards Chapter 9: Social Learning Theory Mastery Learning Cueing and prompting good behavior Chapter 13: Learning from others in cooperative groups Chapter 12: Objectives Chapter 12: Classroom management Contingency programs Token reinforcement © Allyn & Bacon 2007 •252 . 0 Lecture Outline-----Cognitive Views of Learning • • • • • Elements of the Cognitive Perspective Information Processing Model of Memory Metacognition Becoming Knowledgeable Development of Procedural and Conditional Knowledge © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 253 .Handout Master 7. Handout Master 7.1 Episodic Memory CHARACTERISTICS MEMORY 1: K-6 GRADE MEMORY 2: 7-12 GRADE Location People Present • • • who what they wore what they did Feelings about the Event Sensory Memories of Event • smells • sounds • sights • tastes • touch © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 254 . you are indicating that you are not at all confident. 1 Not at all confident 2 Unsure 3 Somewhat confident 4 Fairly confident 5 Absolutely confident WORD night moon pillow dark yawn clock curtain blanket sheet lamp stretch read quiet light snore dream sleep toothbrush alarm tired pajamas stars book bed READ ALOUD? INDICATE “Y” OR “N” CONFIDENCE 1-5 RATING © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 255 .Handout Master 7.2 Memory Directions: For each word listed below. you are indicating that you are absolutely confident in your decision. If you choose a 5. Rate your confidence in your decision using a scale of 1 to 5. decide if the word was read aloud by your instructor. If you choose 1. Handout Master 7. keep track of the actions you took and your comments on what you thought in response to the task and how you felt.3 Metacognition and Internet Search Your task is to use the Internet to locate a vacation rental with the following characteristics: • • • • Need the rental for one week Should be in a quiet. Complete the table below. How effective are you as a searcher? As you conduct your search. Step/Search action Tried “vacation rental” in Altavista search engine Comments/What I Thought/Felt Produced a set of links that really aren’t very specific. beachfront area Average temperature in the location should be 80 degrees Fahrenheit Can accommodate children What search strategies will help you find the information you need? List them here. Look in the help menu of your browser for where to find a “history” of your search. 3. 1. (Hint: Most browsers keep track of where you have been. 2. I know I need to work harder © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 256 .) An example is included. as you travel with other team members on an airplane to Mauritius. In other words. your task is to develop a plan for approaching this problem. the outcome of your discussion should be organized in the following two categories: 1.4 Endangered Species Case Study of an Endangered Species: Calvaria major The Problem Calvaria major is a large tree. Your Mission You are a member of a team of scientists that has been invited to the island to investigate the situation. Your initial hypotheses regarding this problem: 2. native to the island of Mauritius in the western Indian Ocean. Historical forestry records indicate that Calvaria was formerly common on the island and was frequently exploited for lumber. Additional information you would want to know that might help you narrow these hypotheses and pursue possible solutions: © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 257 . but for our purposes today.Handout Master 7. however. Experienced Mauritian foresters have estimated that these trees are all more than 300 years old. You may adopt any strategy you wish for developing such a plan. Today. Today. Your team’s mission is to explain why the species Calvaria major is failing to produce new trees and to recommend how the species might regenerate. no young Calvaria major trees are currently growing to replace the older ones. The species is in danger of becoming extinct. only 13 old and dying trees are known to survive in what is left of the original forests of Mauritius. 5: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 10: Motivation to Use Developed Skills Chapter 9: Social Learning Chapter 6: Operant Learning Chapter 2: Development of Information Processing Chapter 12: Creating Learning Environments Information Processing Chapter 9: Selfregulation The Cognitive Perspective Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning Metacognition Chapter 9: Cognitive Apprenticeships Chapter 10: Motivated Learning Constructivism Chapter 9: Constructivist Teaching Chapter 12 Teaching for Academic Learning : Chapter 10: Supporting autonomy Chapter 8: Transfer Chapter 15: Authentic Assessment © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 258 .Handout Master 7. Handout Master 8.0 Lecture Outline-----Complex Cognitive Processes • Learning and Teaching about Concepts • Learning Disabilities and Concept Teaching • Problem-Solving • Creativity and Creative Problem Solving • Becoming an Expert Student: Learning Strategies and Study Skills • Teaching for Transfer © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 259 . 1 : Problem Solving Factors That Hinder Problem-Solving General or Domain Specific Skill? * functional fixedness * response set Problem-Solving Defining and Representing the Problem * find relevant details * understand the elements * understand the whole problem * translation and schema training * results of problem representation algorithm Exploring Possible Solution Strategies heuristics execute plan Acting on the Strategies evaluate results © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 260 .Handout Master 8. Handout Master 8.2: Example of an Expository Lesson Miss Lake began her language arts class with, Today, class, we’re going to talk about a different kind of word pair. Who remembers what other word pairs we’ve been studying? John? “Yesterday we were talking about synonyms,” answered John. “Good, and who knows what a synonym is? Mary?” “Synonyms are word pairs that mean the same thing, like big and large.” “Very good, Mary. How about another example? Toni?” “Fast and speedy.” “Yes, very good example, Toni. Well, today we’re going to study a different kind of word pair called antonyms. When we are all done with the lesson today, you will be able to give me some examples of antonyms. Also, when I give you a word, you will be able to give me an antonym for it.” She then wrote the following on the board. Word Pairs: Synonyms (Same Meaning) Antonyms (Opposite Meaning) “Antonyms are word pairs that have opposite meaning. What do we mean by word pairs?” Miss Lake asked. Susan hesitated and then said, “I think ‘pair’ means two.” “Good, Susan,” Miss Lake said with a smile. “So ‘word pair’ means two words. Now, what does opposite mean?” “It sort of means different or not the same, I think,” Joe volunteered. “That’s very close, Joe,” Miss Lake said. She continued, “Let me give you an example. Big and small have opposite meanings and they’re two words, so they’re antonyms. Opposite means having a different or almost a reversed meaning like big and small.” With that, she wrote big and small under the term antonym. “Another example of antonyms is up and down. They are antonyms because they’re pairs of words whose meanings are opposite. So let’s put them up here under the antonym column. Let me try another one. Are happy and glad antonyms? Andy? “No,” replied Andy. “Why not?” asked Miss Lake. “Because the words don’t have opposite meanings. They mean the same thing.” “So what are they, Andy?” “Synonyms.” “Fine, Andy. Let’s put them under the synonyms column. Now let’s try another one. Are cold and hot antonyms? Ted? “Yes, because they’re a word pair, and the words have opposite meanings.” “So, let’s put them over here on the board. And what about alive and dead? Pat?” “Those are antonyms, too, because they mean the opposite.” “Fine. Now I want to see if you can give me some examples of antonyms. Think real hard. Anyone? Lynne?” “How about high and low?” “Why are these antonyms?” “Because they are word pairs that have opposite meanings.” “Real fine. Now remember we had the word pair happy and glad and said that they weren’t antonyms? Can anyone make antonyms from these words? Jim?” “How about happy and sad?” “Those are excellent antonyms. I think you’ve all done a good job today in learning about this new kind of word pair. Now someone tell me what we learned today. Susan?” “…Well, we learned about antonyms.” “Good. Go on,” Miss Lake smiled. “Antonyms mean the opposite.” “Yes, excellent! And one more thing. Brad?” “They’re word pairs.” “Exactly. Very good, Brad.” She then closed the lesson by saying, “Remember word pairs that mean the same are . . . class?” “Synonyms!” they all shouted in unison. “Fine, and word pairs that are opposite are…?” “Antonyms!” they again shouted. “Excellent. Now I have some exercises that I would like you to do individually.” She then distributed a worksheet among the students and the lesson was completed. From Eggen, P.D., & Kauchak, D.P. (1996). Strategies for teachers: Teaching content and thinking skills, (3rd ed.) Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 261 Handout 8.3 Teacher Problem Solving Using the lesson segment in Handout Master 8.2, identify three instructional problems faced by the teacher in that lesson. Problems 1. ___________________________________________________________ 2. ___________________________________________________________ 3. ___________________________________________________________ Why are they problems? In what sense are the three problems identified above considered “problems?” How were these problems solved? © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 262 Handout 8.4 Weetags © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 263 Handout Master 8.5: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 1: Teacher's Expertise Chapter 4: Learner Differences Chapter 3: Personal, Social And Emotional Development Chapter 7: Cognitive Approaches to Learning Problem Solving Chapter 9: Social and Constructivist Views of Learning Concepts Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes Thinking and Understanding Chapter 15: Authentic Assessment Chapter 4: Cognitive Style Teaching Thinking Chapter 11: Creating Learning Environments Transfer Chapter 14: Standardized Tests Schems: Chapter 7 Chapter 9: Constructivist approaches to teaching potential obstacle to encouraging thinking © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 264 Handout Master 9.0 Lecture Outline Social Cognitive and Constructivist Views of Learning • • • • Social Cognitive Theory Applying Social Cognitive Theory—selfefficacy and self-regulated learning Cognitive and Social Constructivism Applying Constructivist perspectivesinquiry and problem based learning © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 265 Handout Master 9.1 Observation Guide GRADE AND # STUDENTS Is the learning environment complex? Explain. Is the teacher using authentic tasks? Explain. What evidence (if any) of social negotiation do you observe? What strategies are being used to provide multiple representations of content? What evidence do you see of social negotiation? What evidence do you see of student ownership of learning? © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 266 There would probably be more of them. Because they’re long. maybe stronger. Well most of these things are bigger. um… They’re the same. they might be bigger. Well. do you think the giant earthworm has more or less of these structures or does it have some different kind of pumping mechanism? It’s got five heart-like structures. they’re the same. Valves. Yeah. Blood vessels. …would probably be more of them. because earthworms are longer. For example. You see when it says are they the same or different. decide if it would be the same or different in the two different earthworms.2 (continued) © Allyn & Bacon 2007• Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: 267 . For each of these. but the heart-like structures are still the same. Capillaries. They would probably be bigger to pump like more. so they have to pump it all the way back and all the way back. not wide. if you said the common earthworm had five heart-like structures. Why would you think the…well. could you say they’re the same and then here say why? Oh yeah. yeah. Um. Okay. so… I already have that here.2 Constructive Talk Robert: Would the structures and functions of the circulatory system of the common earthworm. Handout Master 9. Okay. Explain your answer. Yeah. Yeah valves. Plasma’s the same. Yeah. Or longer. Huh. Blood vessels. What about…(inaudible)? Capillaries. And then have this part over here. and the Australian giant earthworm be the same? Look back at the structures you identified on the previous worksheets. They still do the same thing. They would probably be different. Okay. because the giant earthworm is longer. Bigger and stronger to pump… Wait a minute. There might be some more. Yeah.Handout Master 9. since we already have that there. um capillaries would be the same. …blood farther. Well. just say they’re the same or different. one you might find in your garden. And blood vessels. to pump the blood farther. different. but they’d be different size. But the. but for the most part. Well. and valves. but are they the same or different? What’d you say? The same. Yeah. plasma. Except for that one. um… …the earthworms still need blood. Because. since this says due to the earthworm. because. They would still grab the oxygen. Plasma is the same. Because…Okay. And also it would need more of the same things… …because it’s so giant. I mean. because for…yes. Would the giant earthworm’s size matter to how its circulatory system works? Yeah. Why…(inaudible)? Um. It still makes up part of the blood. to keep circulation going for the blood. because. Because. Because it still makes up the blood. do you think they’ll just assume this meant the larger earthworm? Would the giant earthworm…it’s the giant earthworm. Capillaries are the same because. I think. …the giant earthworm. we think this because… …the giant earthworm or the regular earthworm. um. Yeah. (inaudible) They would still grab the oxygen. wait. um. Now. Okay wait. yeah. Well that’s pretty much the same as that one because. we can figure out that weird thing on the back. why do you think they’re the same? The earthworm’s size matters to help the circulatory system. Also because… Ah. because they would still grab the oxygen. …to keep circulation going. © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 268 . Okay. Okay. Oh. because the earthworm still needs them to serve the same purpose.Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: Robert: Jennifer: All right. yes. the blood vessels… Because the earthworm still has blood vessels. because you would need to pump more blood… For the giant earthworm to be. oxygen. because it would still. REED’S CLASS? Modeling Coaching/Scaffolding Reflection/Articulation Exploration © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 269 .Handout Master 9. Reed’s Class PROCESS EXAMPLE IN MS.3 Cognitive Apprenticeship in Ms. Centered Teaching Chapter 13: Direct Instruction Chapter 6: Behavioral Views of Learning Models of Teaching Chapter 15: Authentic Assessment Chapter 2: Piaget's schemes Social Learning Theory Chapter 9: Social Cognitve and Constructivist Views of Learning Constructivist Approaches to Instruction Chapter 12: StudentCentered Teaching Chapter 10: Behavioral Approaches to Motivation Chapter 11: Supporting Autonomy Chapter 4: Ability Grouping Group Work Chapter 12: StudentCentered Teaching Chapter 13: Grouping and Goal Structures © Allyn & Bacon 2007• 270 .Handout Master 9.4: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes: Chapter 12: Teacher. 0 Lecture Outline-----Motivation in Learning and Teaching • • • • • • • • What is Motivation? Four Approaches to Motivation Goal Orientations Interests and Emotions Self-Schema Motivation to Learn in School On TARGET for Learning Strategies to Encourage Motivation and Thoughtful Learning © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 271 .Handout Master 10. How can you encourage Mike to be motivated to participate during social studies class? General motivational approach(es):_______________________________________ Specific action(s): _____________________________________________________ 3. 6. 11. Then describe the exact behaviors or actions that could be applied. hardly moving without your speaking directly to her. 3. Jody has been living up to their reputation. Mike listens to whoever is speaking. he seems so embarrassed and confused that you feel sorry for putting him on the spot. 5. so you know he’s paying attention. because she is more advanced than the rest of the class. and so on at appropriate times. As far as you can tell. and you’re already thinking about your first interactions with him. Mary is truly a pitiful sight. she learned very little during her two years in the first grade and unless some changes occur.Handout Master 10. But Mike never voluntarily contributes anything. thumb in mouth. Jody is going to be a student in your class this fall. 1. How would you help Carol to become more motivated in math? General motivational approach(es):_______________________________________ Specific action(s): _____________________________________________________ 2. but after three weeks. 10. poorly dressed. He seems to thoroughly enjoy their attention and admiration. At first. indicate which ones would be appropriate in the given situations. and the amount of work she does is decreasing. 9. laughs. plus the other kids like to follow his lead. but disruptive. 1 Encouraging Motivation From the list of General Motivational Approaches below. His two older brothers have a reputation for being smart. Structure a cooperative learning task Set up an individualistic goal structure Use individualized instruction Involve student in setting reasonable goals Fulfill need for affiliation and belonging Provide realistic success experiences Carol is a very bright. How can you influence Jody so that he will be motivated to use his intelligence and leadership qualities in a more positive way? General motivational approach(es):_______________________________________ Specific action(s):_____________________________________________________ 4. nods. 1. How would you encourage Mary’s motivation to engage in learning experiences? General motivational approach(es):_______________________________________ Specific action(s): _____________________________________________________ © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 272 . Arrange extrinsic rewards Use student interests in lessons Give more challenging work Praise success Provide a safer learning situation Communicate your expectations 7. and when you call on him. friendly girl who has been working individually on math. looks puzzled. shy. she sits at her desk in your second-grade class. Hair uncombed. which is generally conducted with the entire class in an oral discussion and report format. she’s not going to learn much this year. 12. she was enthusiastic about working on her own. she is beginning to drag and complain about doing math. 4. Mike seems to be interested in social studies. 2. 8. listless. It’s interesting. _____ 7.) “I know I’m dumb in math. E 7. D. _____ 6. F. _____ 3. _____ 2. C 4.) “If at first I don’t succeed. _____ 4. B © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 273 . _____ Behavioral view (extrinsic motivation) Cognitive view (intrinsic motivation) Humanistic view (deprivation and being needs) Need for achievement Need to avoid failure Attributing success/failure to internal-stable causes Attributing success/failure to external-unstable causes “I’m going to stay home tonight and work on my science project. 1. E.” “I tried hard and earned my A in physics. and I don’t even try anymore. I’ll try again.” (This student likes challenges and doesn’t need excessive praise or encouragement. and I’ve got an idea I want to try out.Handout 10. _____ 5. nobody is going to want to sit with me. because I get to do what I want in Friday’s class if I’ve completed my work. because I know at lunch. I quit. G. F Answers: 1.” “If at first I don’t succeed. C. F 5. A 3. D 6.” “I want to finish the week’s assignment by Thursday.” (This student likes safe situations where he will probably succeed and needs recognition of successes.” “I just can’t concentrate on the lesson.2 Types of Motivation Match the statements below with the appropriate view of motivation: A. B.” 2. ” “Teacher wanting to know every student.” “Having a bright teacher who is interested in the subject. 8.” “Teacher paying attention to me.” “My own satisfaction from doing well.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy and Motivation Decide whether the source of each response to positive experiences is internal or external. 3. 2. 9. A guidebook for teaching study skills and motivation. so I enjoy the subject.” “Getting a good job in the future.Handout Master 10. 15. 2nd Ed. described on pages 374 and 375 of your text. Then write I or E in front of each item. 6. 14. 10 11. 4.” “Having a teacher who cares. B. & Stumpf. Student’s Positive Experiences “Getting good grades. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 274 .” “Parents caring about me.” “Teacher explaining well. write the name of the level of need that is the source of motivation for each response.” “Knowing how to do the work— understanding. Using Maslow’s hierarchy. J.” “Getting on the honor roll. (1987). 12.” “My wanting to learn and to understand. M. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 5. 13.” “Not wanting to disappoint the teacher. 7. Maslow’s Level _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ Internal or External ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ 1.” “Having success now that I understand. S.” From Bragstad.” “Teacher never giving up on me. your good friend from class looks over your shoulder and wants a look at your report card. As you are looking at your grades. . In the spaces provided below.4 Explain This You have sneaked a look at your report card and are horrified to find that you have gotten two F grades in English and in mathematics.Handout Master 10. write an explanation for these grades to your parents and to your friend. What kind of attribution did you make to your parents? What kind of attribution did you make to your friend? Was there a difference in the attribution made? What changed? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 275 . Your friend hates school and thinks grades are a waste of energy. . . You know you will be asked to explain these grades to your parents. . Explaining bad grades to parents: My grades in English and mathematics are bad because . Explaining bad grades to your friend: My grades in English and mathematics are bad because . Classify the question using Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives and indicate how this type of question would support exploration.Handout Master 10. Question Classification Support Exploration? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 276 .5 Questions as Curiosity List a variety of question types that might be asked of children to provoke curiosity. 6 Necessary Conditions for Motivation Learning Environments for Encouraging Motivation Necessary Conditions classroom must be organized teacher must be patient and uncritical work must be challenging but reasonable learning tasks must be worthwhile Academic Tasks Classroom Structures Teacher Attitudes vary in operations involved vary in risk and ambiguity involved vary in value (attainment vs. sustaining expectation effect) © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 277 . performance) expectation effects (self-fulfilling prophecy.Handout Master 10. utility value) cooperative (emphasize each individual's contribution) competitive (focus attention on evaluation. Handout Master 10.7 Achievement Motivation: Observation Chart Record the frequency with which the teacher you are observing engages in behaviors that might increase or decrease motivation. Behavior Promises reward Threatens punishment Provides goals for a task Provides rewards Provides praise Stimulates interest Uses challenging tasks Verbally challenges children Gives students choices Lets students set goals Lets students evaluate their own work Stimulates curiosity Stimulates questions Allows free time Observed? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 278 . Handout Master 10.8 Observation Guide Observe a classroom and complete the grid below. making comments in the right-hand column as you observe events that are pertinent to the categories in the left-hand column. TARGET TASKS • Risky? • Ambiguous? AUTONOMY SUPPORT • How supported? IN THE CLASSROOM RECOGNITION • Extrinsic rewards? • Praise? • Focus on learning? GROUPING • Are groups used? • How? EVALUATION • Competitive grading? • Emphasis on performance or learning goals? TIME • Are students given time to finish tasks? • Are they encouraged to persist? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 279 . Handout Master 10. Creativity Chapter 12: Objectives Goals Motivation to Learn in School Chapter 10: Motivation Chapter 15: Effects of Grades on Students Chapter 15: Assessment Goals Self-Schema Attributions Chapter 7: Schema Self Worth Chapter 6: Reinforcement Patterns Chapter 5: Culture and Community Chapter 12: Expectation Effects © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 280 .9: Links to Other Ch Chapter 2: Developmentally Appropriate Education Chapter 3: Personal. Social And Emotional Development Chapter 4: Children with Special Needs Chapter 12: Creating Learning Environments Chapter 9 SelfRegulation Needs Chapter 13: SelfRegulation. 0 Lecture Outline-----Engaged Learning: Cooperation and Community • • • • • Social Processes in Learning Collaboration and Cooperation The Classroom Community Violence Community Outside the Classroom: Service Learning © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 281 .Handout Master 11. In some places. we then see an altogether different leaf shape and formation. Xxx. for a child (make that a five year old child) to follow. Children are given paper rulers and asked to use the ruler to measure how many “steps” the hiker in the picture takes. is our “hiker” progresses. I presented this problem to a fired of mine who happens to be a math major at AnyPlace State College. As the steps progress. I would like to contest the math homework Tommy brought home from school yesterday. Forgive the absence of Tommy’s math homework today if you please and perhaps we can all redeem ourselves on the next assignment. In the particular assignment in question. the example given for the “hidden step” is a leaf formation in the amount of three leaves. He is doing well in kindergarten.” Alright then. Tommy’s Mommy. [Note: No changes were made to the grammar or form of the letter from the parent. we have the different cluster of three and lo and behold.Handout Master 11. children are given a picture with what looks like footprints between different objects. Is this then a hidden step as well. also we see again the cluster of four. one which bears no resemblance to the EXAMPLE of the hidden step.I am confused. to write the amount of steps “the hiker: takes between each place (which is hardly definitive at that). What then is the solution? As for checking this with a ruler…who is out of their mind!! Please don’t think me simple. i. I am submitting to you. my response to this homework: I am not going to try and explain the obviously unexplainable. His teacher has been working on number problems and measurement.. I assure you I am not. Parent’s Letter Dear Mr. Okay. the next lapse is a four leaf cluster. (or what I am assuming to be the end of the problem). according to their teacher.] © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 282 . Problem Solving: Using a Drawing. as Tommy’s Mommy. Children have practiced these kinds of problems at school and. the “footprints” are replaced with a cluster of leaves. Sincerely. they are comfortable with the activity. The child can use a paper ruler that accompanies the task or the child can count the “footprints” and guess the distance under the leaves. Not as per example! So. and her summation was the same as mine. At the end.e. “some of the steps are hidden. a leaf formation which matches the EXAMPLE exactly. the instructions then say. The instructions are very misleading. Therefore. The child is asked to figure out how far it is between two objects. in that.1a A Letter from Tommy’s Mommy Tommy is a five-year-old child in kindergarten. We’ll have to have a friendly disagreement on this one. Each step is approximately.1b A Teacher's Reply to Tommy’s Mommy Dear xxx. Teacher A © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 283 . If you see a trail with four steps and two clusters of leaves. Sincerely. thus yielding six steps in all. A trail of approximately six inches would have 6 steps. one unit (inch) long. The purpose of the ruler is simply to check the answers.Handout Master 11. The number of leaves in each cluster is irrelevant to the problem. you can reason that two steps are hidden beneath the leaves. I think the homework sheet was appropriate for kindergarten. Handout Master 11.2 COOPERATIVE LEARNING TECHNIQUES Technique advantages disadvantages Jigsaw Group Investigation Numbered Heads Together Think-Pair-Share © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 284 . Handout Master 11. 9. and Learning Chapter 13: Teaching for Learning Chapter 15: Classroom Assessment Chapter 9: Social Cognitive and Constructivist Learning Chapter 5: Culture and Community Creating Positive Environments Chapter 9: Learning and Teaching Goals Chapter 6: Behavioral Learning Classroom Management Chapter 11: Creating Learning Environments Communication Chapter 10: Intrinsic Motivation Organization Chapters 2 and 3: Developmental Level of Students Chapters 4. Teaching.3: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 10: Motivation. 11: Grouping Chapter 15: Assessment Practices Chapter 10: Goals Chapter 12: Planning © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 285 . 0 Lecture Outline-----Creating Learning Environments • • • Need for Organization Creating a Positive Learning Environment Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning Need for Communication • © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 286 .Handout Master 12. quickly takes care of routine activities Rating: _____ Observation: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ Withitness: Teacher monitors class.1 Classroom Management Observation Sheet Use the following scale to rate the degree to which the aspect of the classroom you observe matches the descriptions provided below. reacts calmly in problem situations. flexible and may change as class develops Rating: _____ Observation: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ What overall changes would you suggest that the teacher make? ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 287 . moves around the classroom Rating: _____ Observation: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ Assignments: Clearly presented. procedure for getting help.Handout Master 12. smooth transitions between activities. reasons for rules explained by teacher. work is checked. lessons well-organized and paced well. student knows what to do when finished Rating: _____ Observation: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ Rules: Few and general. interesting. materials are readily available. spots potentially disruptive situations. on student’s ability level Rating: _____ Observation: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ Organization: Use of student helpers. 1 2 3 4 5 totally different a little like the description somewhat similar mostly like what is described exactly as described Seatwork: Varied. I’m willing to give a little if the other person in a dispute is also willing to give on some things. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 288 . It’s important that I win. ___ 9.Handout Master 12. Directions: The following statements describe possible responses to various conflict situations. I act as though there is no real problem and try to “get along. 23. 21. I believe working out a middle-of-the-road agreement is best. I prefer to get out of the situation. When conflict occurs. and write the number that most closely describes your behavior in the space provided. Response Scale: 1 2 never rarely Response ___ 1. I tell the person with whom I am in conflict. When I work to resolve a conflict. When a conflict occurs. ___ 11. and work to find a solution that both of us can live with. 20. I believe resolving conflict requires that each person give up something. the goal is to find a solution both people can live with. ___ 2. Dealing with conflict effectively is an important factor in human dynamics. I prefer to let conflicts “work themselves out. that makes me hold my position more strongly.2 How Do You Handle Conflict? Purpose: It can be stated with confidence that people will face conflict throughout their lives. 28. ___ 19. ___ 17. as well as my own. ___ 6. Read each statement carefully. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 3 sometimes 4 often 5 always When strong conflict occurs. ___ 10. I believe it is important to get the opinion of a friend when I am in conflict with someone. therefore. rather than work to resolve the conflict.” 27. 24. I like to look at lots of possibilities and options before trying to find a solution to a conflict. I try to find a compromise when a conflict occurs. ___ 14. ___ 3. I consider the other person’s preference. When someone tries to get me to back down or give in during a conflict. I hate to lose or not get my own way. ___ 12. I tend to concentrate on the problem and the issues in a conflict. I believe a conflict is really a problem. I prefer to walk away from conflict if there is strong personal disagreement. I work to win. too. When I especially need to have my plan accepted or when an issue is very important to me. the goal is to win. There are different ways of dealing with conflict. 29. ___ 4. I prefer to leave the situation. 26. I like to take disagreements to someone who has authority and have that person make a ruling. I search for a solution to a conflict that both the other person and I can find acceptable. ___ 8. I would quit a job if many conflicts occurred daily. ___ 18. ___ 5. 22. This exercise will help you identify methods to use. I believe settling a conflict with another person is not different from competing in sports. I feel very comfortable about taking a conflict between a friend and me to a third person. rather than the other person. ___ 16. 25. not a contest. even if the problem or issue in a disagreement is not really important to me. ___ 15. I find conflict exciting and challenging. ___ 7. not to “beat” the other person. even if both people are still somewhat unhappy about not getting their way completely. 30. I prefer to have a counselor decide for two people in conflict. not just ask the two people to listen to each other. ___ 13. and then work for a point in the middle. I like to find what each person wants most strongly.” I prefer to have a third person help solve a conflict between a friend and me. It’s okay to give up some things if the other person gives up something. It’s easier to have an outsider settle a dispute than to argue it out alone with another person. along with how each person needs to behave differently to resolve or reduce the conflict. 24. breaking the relationship. however. This is a high-risk method. or if it is not a good time to discuss the disagreement. E: win-win or problem-solving Total Scores List the letters and total scores from the highest down to the lowest. 16. 1. Letter _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ Total Score _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ Highest If your total score is 26-30 21-25 16-20 11-15 6-10 You tend to use this method a great deal often sometimes occasionally infrequently Lowest Interpretation: The total scores indicate which ways of handling conflict you use most. because you tend to win completely or lose completely. Having a third person listen to both sides of a conflict and then help settle it. 20. D. but usually not until after many solutions are discussed. pretending there is no conflict. This method may end in a compromise. 19. B: going to a third person 3. 25. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 289 . 22. pp. 13. 14. Kammerman et al. Win-Win or Problem-Solving. Withdrawing usually means the other person wins.. Looking at conflict as a problem and searching for a solution or plan that both people feel good about. 15. then these are discussed openly. you have little choice but to use win-lose. Withdrawing may be helpful if the problem is not important to you. The success of this method depends on an unbiased third person and whether the two people in conflict will follow what the third person recommends. 18. D: win-lose 5. Menlo Park. 10. third persons are not fair. 7. Compromise. This includes giving in quickly to avoid unpleasantness. not on the personalities of the people in conflict. moving out of the situation by quitting. Finding a solution that allows each person to win something. 1983. unless you can get the other person to change methods. 11. The spotlight is on the problem. or physically moving. Most conflicts have more than two solutions. 51-54. you tend to use those methods about the same amount of time. If personalities are the problem.Handout Master 12. If two or more scores are close together (for example. 9. compromise 30 and withdrawing-avoiding 28). 8. Both persons may be somewhat disappointed and yet. Holding out for your point of view or working to get the other person to give in. Win-Lose. 6. E. CA: Benjamin Cummings. Write down the number you selected on the scale for each statement. 23. Withdrawing-Avoiding. Handling conflict by getting away from it or ignoring it. 12. Going to Third Person.2 (continued) How Do You Handle Conflict? Scoring Scoring: The numbers listed below refer to the statements that you have just responded to. B. RSVP. Many times. 21. 17. C. A: withdrawing avoiding 2. C: compromise 4. each has the satisfaction of getting part of what he or she wanted. and many possibilities should be discussed before a compromise is made. A third person can be useful if he or she helps the two people in conflict see each other’s point of view. A. Wellness. If the other person insists on trying to win totally. 3 Who Owns the Problem? In each of the following situations. decide whose problem it is and then respond appropriately with active listening or an “I-message. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 290 . A. F. Who owns the problem? ___________________________ Response: _______________________________________ ________________________________________________ Student: “I can’t get my homework done at night. E. C.Handout Master 12. Who owns the problem? ___________________________ Response: _______________________________________ ________________________________________________ A teacher continually complains about a certain student when he’s in the teachers’ lounge. and your efforts to motivate him seem to have no effect. Who owns the problem? ___________________________ Response: _______________________________________ ________________________________________________ A student persists in daydreaming and being uninterested in class. G.” Who owns the problem? ___________________________ Response: _______________________________________ ________________________________________________ Student: “My dog got run over by a car last night and is in the hospital. An “Imessage” states what is happening. I know that you don’t like me and I don’t like you either.” Who owns the problem? ___________________________ Response: _______________________________________ ________________________________________________ An A student suddenly starts making bad grades on his tests and assignments. D.” Who owns the problem? ___________________________ Response: _______________________________________ ________________________________________________ B.” Active listening paraphrases the other person’s message and implied feelings. and how you feel about it. because I have to baby-sit my brothers and sisters when my parents work. Who owns the problem? ___________________________ Response: _______________________________________ ________________________________________________ Several pages are torn from the books at the Reading Center. Student: “You always blame me every time something goes wrong in the classroom. its effect on you. and Learning Chapter 13: Teaching for Acadmic Learning Chapter 15: Classroom Assessment Chapter 9: Social Cognitive and Constructivist Learning Chapter 5: Culture and Community Creating Positive Environments Chapter 9: Learning and Teaching Goals Chapter 6: Behavioral Learning Classroom Management Chapter 12: Creating Learning Environments Communication Chapter 10: Intrinsic Motivation Organization Chapters 2 and 3: Developmental Level of Students Chapters 4.Handout Master 12.4: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 10: Motivation. Teaching. 9. 11: Grouping Chapter 15: Assessment Practices Chapter 10: Goals Chapter 12: Planning © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 291 . 0 Lecture Outline-----Teaching for Learning • • • • • Planning Teacher-Directed Instruction Teacher Expectations Student-Centered Teaching Effective Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 292 .Handout Master 13. 1: Direct Instruction Direct Instruction Basic Characteristics Example: Rosenshine's 6 Teaching Functions Criticisms of Direct Instruction teacher directed goals are clear to students content coverage is extensive student performance is monitored by teachers feedback is immediate and academically oriented interaction is structured review and check previous day's work limited to lower level objectives present new material provide guided practice give feedback and correctives provide independent practice review weekly and monthly to consolidate learning discourages students' independent thinking uses a "transmission" model of learning © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 293 .Handout Master 13. Your group will be evaluated on the following: • Clarity of objectives • Accuracy in presenting an example of the assigned approach • Reflection of the guidelines or suggestions from text pages indicated above • Success in capturing and maintaining the interest of the class • Involvement of all group members • Ability to justify the elements of the lesson as good examples of the approach presented • Reflection of principles of motivation in the teaching © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 294 .Handout Master 13. You must develop your presentation in your assigned groups of four or five members each. and be ready to describe what you included in your lesson and why. • Guided Discovery • Expository • Direct Instruction (low ability) • Recitation (high-ability class) • Class Discussion • Teaching Study/Learning Strategies • Whole Language • Inquiry • Constructivist 3. Each group will be responsible for preparing a lesson (maximum 10 minutes) using one of the following approaches.” Your group should provide a good example of the type of lesson assigned. See the appropriate pages in the text for reference. The purpose of the presentations is to demonstrate an actual “slice of classroom life. One or two people assume the role of the teacher and the remaining people play the “students. Your lesson should reflect appropriate applications of learning principles as well. 4. 2.2 Group Presentations on Teaching Approaches 1.” Specify the age of your students and the topic of your lesson. Handout Master 13.3 BICEPS: Models of Instruction Complete the following table: Direct Instruction B Basis Constructivist I Inventors C Characteristics E Effectiveness P Props needed in teaching S Steps in teaching © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 295 . note what strategies are used by the teachers to promote active learning on the part of the students. Also note what strategies are used to limit active learning. LECTURE CLASS 1 STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR LIMITING ACTIVE LEARNING CLASS 2 © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 296 .Handout Master 13.4 Active and Inactive Learning in Lectures For each of two lectures in different disciplines. direct instruction.5 What Changes? Your task is to locate four different lesson plans on the Internet and print these so that you can refer to them.. Try These Links for Starters This site provides a library of Blue Ribbon learning Web sites. What changes in lesson plans as a function of the age of the child? You can use the comparison of early/late elementary grades for language arts and science to answer this.html © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 297 .com/lesson. Required You should compare and contrast the lesson plans you found using the following questions to guide your written analysis.kn. http://www. 2. The four lesson plans should be as follows: Lesson Plan # 1 Lesson Plan # 2 Lesson Plan # 3 Lesson Plan # 4 Science topic for early elementary grades Science topic for late elementary grades Language arts topic for early elementary grades Language arts topic for late elementary grades The topic for the early and late elementary grades should be the same. discovery. 1. http://www. etc. For example.pacbell. Explain why you like it and why you think it is an example of good instruction. Select the lesson plan you like best of the four you include here. you should find a lesson on the same topic for fifth graders. 4.Handout Master 13. constructivist.thegateway. 3. What changes in lesson plans as a function of the content area being taught? You can use the comparison of language arts and science to answer this.g.)? Explain how you know. What model of instruction underlies the lesson plans (e.com/wired/bluewebn/ Lesson plan ideas. You should follow the same procedure for the language arts topic. if you find a lesson on the butterfly for first graders.teachnet.org http://www. 8: Expert Teachers Chapter 10: Motivation ¤ Allyn & Bacon 2007 x 298 .6: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 13: Teaching For Learning Chapter 6: Mastery Learning Chapter 9: Social Processs in Learning Chapter 8: Discovery Learning Formats for Teaching Chapter 8: Expository Teaching Chapter 9: ProblemBased Learning Characteristics of Effective Teachers Planning Subject Matter Chapters 1.Handout Master 13. 0 Lecture Outline-----Standardized Testing • • • • • Measurement and Assessment What do Test Scores Mean? Types of Standardized Tests Issues in Standardized Testing New Directions in Standardized Testing © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 299 .Handout Master 14. 1 TESTING ACTIVITY Pre-test on a Unit WHY WOULD YOU USE IT? Weekly Spelling Test Compare Your Students’ Performance to that of Other Classes on State Exams Standardized IQ Test State Mandated Test Use Mastery Learning Techniques Other (write your example here) © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 300 .Handout Master 14. The following questions pertain to the interpretation of test scores. A student is being evaluated to determine if he should be placed in a class for mentally retarded. 4. Diagnostic test d. Which is more representative of central tendency. 30.) Two English classes took the same test. Class A had a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 4. A math test has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 8. IQ test aptitude test Achievement test answers Diagnostic test d. 2. Johnny made a raw score of 37 on the reading test and 56 on the math test. Aptitude test The teacher wants to know how her biology class performs in comparison with the classes in other high schools. median. Class B had a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 8. 3. Aptitude test Interest test WISC-R Iowa Test of Basic Skills Detroit Test of Learning Aptitude SAT Stanford-Binet Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery Kuder Preference Record B. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 1. 4. the mean.Handout Master 14. e. 21. Did he perform better in math or reading? (Hint: Draw a normal distribution curve for the reading test and for the math test and locate Johnny’s scores on the curves. or mode? 2. b. 3.2 Types of Tests and The Interpretation of Test Scores A. Which class is probably grouped according to ability? A high school with 1. 2. 1. 4. A reading test has a mean of 30 and a standard deviation of 5.200 students is placing students with an IQ score of 130 and above and above in an accelerated class. 5. a. Respond as indicated. and mode for the following group of scores: 3. approximately how many students will be assigned to the accelerated class? 3. A third-grade student is having difficulty in reading and the teacher wants to know the specific skills in which he needs remedial help. median. 6. ___ ___ ___ ___ 1. b. c. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 301 . 4. A teacher needs to predict which eighth-grade students would be likely to succeed in a freshman algebra class and which should take ninth-grade math. Match the specific test with its type: a. Assuming a normal population. 6. Match the type of test that would be most appropriate in the following situations. 3. 7. Find the mean. C. Individual IQ test Achievement test c. 3 Relationship of Test Scores to the Normal Curve © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 302 .Handout Master 14. each score represents a wide range of raw scores © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 303 .Handout Master 14.4: Types of Test Scores Types of Test Scores Percentile Ranks Standard Scores percentage of those in the norming sample who scored at or below individual's score * based on the standard deviation * a difference of 10 points means the same thing everywhere on the scale Types of Standard Scores * problems with percentile ranks * a difference in percentile ranks means different things at different points of the distribution Z scores T scores Stanines tells how many SDs above or below the average an individual's score lies similar to Z scores but don't use negative numbers whole numbers that range from 1 to 9. List the decisions below and their implications for classroom testing. LEGAL DECISION IMPLICATION FOR TESTING © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 304 .Handout Master 14.5 Key Legal Decisions Find out what are the key legal decisions that influence the use of tests and test scores. How can I demonstrate I am a good teacher? 6. Do I show students’ work? 7. If I videotape a class. Should I show a number of lessons that demonstrated improvement. What teaching behaviors can I demonstrate? 5. What other questions should I ask myself? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 305 . or should I show my best one? 4. What am I trying to demonstrate? 2. What do I think effective teaching is? 3. should I teach the lesson beforehand as a warm-up? 9.6 Considerations in Making a Teaching Portfolio 1.Handout Master 14. Do I include comments from parents? 8. Handout Master 14.7: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 10: Anxiety Chapter 15: Effects of Grades Test Scores Chapter 5: Culture and Community Chapter 15: Classroom Assessment Authentic Assessment Chapter 14: Standardized Testing Issues in Standardized Testing Chapter 4: Learning Potential Chapter 10: Motivating Students Types of Tests Chapter 4: Special Education Classification Chapter 4: IQ tests Achievement Tests Chapter 12: Creating Learning Environments © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 306 . Handout Master 15.0 Lecture Outline-----Classroom Assessment and Grading • • • • • • Formative and Summative Assessment Traditional Assessment Alternatives to Traditional Assessment Effects of Grades and Grading Grading and Reporting Communication about Assessment © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 307 . Handout Master 15.1: Different Kinds of Test Items Types of Test Questions Essay Questions Short Answer Questions Select Question Type Supply Type Questions TrueFalse Matching MultipleChoice © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 308 . is made of grass b. “gordo. The spider is a(n) a. reliable b. physical appearance 5. 1. made of clay c.2 Analyzing Multiple Choice Items Identify the faults in the following multiple choice items. The development of the self-concept is not principally influenced by a. skinny d. usually nonverbal in order to offset cultural differences in language Fault: ________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Rewrite: _______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 309 . “Culture-fair” tests are always a. made of Rubico Fault: ________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Rewrite: _______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 4. always valid c. The word.” in Spanish means a. Rewrite the item so that it is satisfactory. parents b.Handout Master 15. arachnid c. growth rate Fault: ________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Rewrite: _______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ d. thin b. chordate Fault: ________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Rewrite: _______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 3. underweight c. Tennis courts that will require the least maintenance than any other tennis court is the tennis court that a. power tests d. marsupial b. made of lakold d. vertebrate d. fat Fault: ________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Rewrite: _______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 2. peers c. You might want to first develop a list of characteristics of the child’s writing you might wish to comment upon. 3. The information in Chapter 15 should be helpful here. You have three pieces of writing and Eddie’s comments on his writing to evaluate in some fashion. Read the writing samples from “Eddie. You will need to take into account the time element. Does he improve? Should you grade improvement? You should use concepts you have learned in this course to describe these strengths and weaknesses. How will you explain your grading system to Eddie? What are the advantages and disadvantages of your grading system? This is vague. Describe the child’s strengths and weaknesses in language arts as represented in his writing. Why are they important? What effect would these have on your grading? What is your overall assessment of Eddie as a student? Good. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 310 . average student? Would you expect him to do well in other subjects? Why? 2. such as “Some boys and girls were at a party one night. Based on your reading of the child’s work and the child’s efforts to comment on his own work. what concept of “writing” do you think the child held? What concept of “writing” would you like the child to have? How would you get the child to share your concept of “writing?” What are the factors that make it difficult to grade Eddie’s work? Are there other things you would like to know? List those things that you would like to know. poor. children were asked to pick their best work and their worst work.” They were asked to finish the story.” Decide on how you will grade his work. 4. Students were given “starter” lines for a story. 1. At the end of a period of time. 5.Handout Master 15.3a Eddie’s Writing Eddie is a fourth-grade student who has collected samples of his writing for one month (October/November 1992). we went to Lens Crafters and they that I need glasses. He ran as fast as he can then he ran into the woods.Handout Master 15. He is there because he had a fight with his wife because he killed her wife’s mother. # 3 2/18/97 When I got glasses I was about five years old. Then he went back home and said to his wife he will never kill anyone again. When I got glasses it was sort of weird because it felt like I was walking it felt like I was sideways and when I went to school I said to my teacher: “Miss Rugg can I go back where I sat” and then I began getting good grades. When the boys and girls went to the graveyard they saw a person just like a dead person and they ran back in the house. At the end he tried to get out but he was surrounded by all dead people. ** Note: The spelling and grammatical errors are those made by the child. There was a graveyard down the street and they were talking about how scary it was. and the mother said what happen and they said they saw a dead person walking. © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 311 . she ripped her face off and her face had blood and worms crawling out of her face. At the dirt road he saw a girl just like the one he killed. # 2 10/28/96 Some boys and girls were at a party one night.3 b Eddie’s Writing # 1 10/26/96 My uncle was walking down a lonely dirt road one day. They ran out of the house and they both found a rope to kill themselves so they cannot see anymore monsters. Before I wasn’t able to see the chalkboard and the teacher had to move me of the front of the room. When her mom reached to her face. On Saturday. 4: Alternative Assessments Major Goal is to Improve Learning Alternatives for Assessment authentic classroom tests portfolios exhibitions checklists. rating scales student applies skills in context of real-life problems * shows student's work in progress * contains student's reflection on work * public performance * culminates program of study * requires extensive preparation * useful in evaluating portfolios Example: Uses fractions to enlarge a recipe © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 312 .Handout Master 15. D = 25%. which system would you prefer? Why? C. 70-79 (C). What information does the grade provided by each convey to him regarding his performance? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 313 .Handout Master 15. 60-69 (D). C = 30%. 80-89 (B). Assign different sets of grades to each using these percentage grading standards and normreferenced grading standard. below 60 (F) Norm-referenced: A = 10% of students. Assuming the test was void and sufficiently challenging. The Honors Program at Ms. Student Frank Marcos Jamie Will Robin Lorna Corsica Larry Willis Maureen Elsa Burt Boris Trevor Sandra Laurie Anna Francis Alice Ranjita Test Score 80 93 85 98 82 75 85 97 87 99 100 100 98 81 84 86 90 92 94 95 A. Percentage: 90-100 (A). B = 25%. F = 10% Then answer the questions that appear below the test scores. D. Wohl’s algebra class. Which grading system might provide the best basis for nominations for that program? Explain.5 Grading Systems Listed below are the test scores received (percent correct) by students in Ms. Which distribution yielded the higher grades? B. Compare Frank’s grades under both systems. Wohl’s school has limited places for the best students. As I explained the assignment.” He turned and walked back to his seat before I could say anything. Carl and his whole family. and that he got over his resentful attitude. “I’ll work harder. and I was. then I won’t. and he is still not trying as hard as he should. “Is that right. and gave it as usual.” After class I went to see the principal. Homework was considered by Carl as a means of harassment. Each day. I make a comment such as. but such was not the case. Carl?” He would usually smile. I noticed that Carl’s paper had only one printed statement on it: “I don’t try. Our conversation went something like this: “All right. I had a quiz scheduled for that day. why did you act as you did yesterday?” “Because you said I wasn’t trying. I can do at least B work.6 A Student Who Refuses to Work I first noticed Carl at the time I was making an assignment in my history class. what should the teacher keep in mind regarding the needs of the class? © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 314 . he expects attention all the time and becomes extremely upset if he does not get it. and Carl smiles.” When I asked Carl about his statement.” “What grade did you get?” I asked. I suppose. it seems. His facial expressions alternately portrayed agony. I asked Carl to remain after class. were rebellious against authority and the suggestions of others. “By trying harder. “I got a C. but wrote on his report card that his effort was only fair. “Is that the best you can do?” “No. he was always prepared. I would like to be able to report that he became a good student. “If you say I don’t try. I gave Carl a C. I ignored these antics. since I started treating him as someone special. I tried to give him recognition when I was explaining material. The next day. and despair. He told me that Carl was one of the problems that the school had learned to live with. he shouted: “Why should I do any work when I don’t get credit for it?” I directed him to leave the room. So I have the feeling that Carl is at least learning to live with the world. At the end of the first marking period.Handout Master 15. and that soon his attitude and work will improve. as the assignment was made. Points for Discussion • • How would you explain to a pupil the factors that entered into a grade that you gave him for “effort?” In giving special attention to a student. “Go to the principal. I gave him special little jobs around the classroom. He still makes faces when assignments are given out. I tried to help Carl get over his belligerent attitude by giving him special attention in class.” he replied uncomfortably. and tell him that you do not want to do any work. because no matter how much he complained or made faces. he came up to my desk and bluntly told me. he would act as if it were a personal punishment for him. Worst of all. I went over his papers with him carefully. Carl. are you Carl?” The class laughs. When I collected the papers. When his attention wanders. by asking him. his face went through some of the most amazing contortions ever witnessed by man. and nod his head in approval.” “And how will you do that?” I persisted.” he replied disdainfully. The day after the cards were distributed. disgust. After his own admission that he was not trying hard enough.” “Why don’t you then?” “I will. so I won’t try.” “How?” I asked. “You’re not here. Handout Master 15.7: Links to Other Chapters Chapter 12: Goals and Objectives Effects of Grades Chapter 6: Behavioral Learning Theory Assessment Chapter 9: Modeling Performance Chapter 15: Classroom Assessment and Grading Chapter 10: Motivation Communication Chapter 13: Teaching for Academic Learning Chapter 12: Creating Learning Environments © Allyn & Bacon 2007 • 315 .