THE IMPORTANCE OFPRONUNCIATION Ricardo Schütz – MA TESL Apresentações desta palestra: • Escola Teddy Bear, Florianópolis – 7/2008 • Programa de Formação Docente 2010 (UNISUL Tubarão-SC) – 2/2010 • XII Encontro Goiano dos Estudantes de Letras (UEG São Luís de Montes Belos-GO) – 9/2011 TABLE OF CONTENTS • Introduction • Spelling Interference • Phonetic Signaling • Phonemes • Vowels • Consonants TABLE OF CONTENTS • Phonological Rules • Rhythm • Vowel Reduction • Word stress • Phonetic Symbols Language is humankind’s distinctive feature. Whether we think of rationality or sociability, we are thinking of language. It is language that makes us different from other species. Linguagem é a principal característica que distingue o ser humano das demais espécies. Quer o consideremos um animal racional ou um animal social, estamos definindo-o como um animal que fala, pois tanto a racionalidade quanto a sociabilidade se fundamentam na linguagem. INTRODUCTION LANGUAGE AND HUMANKIND No community has ever been found to lack spoken language, but only a minority of languages have ever been written down. (David Crystal) As comunidades humanas, desde suas mais remotas origens, sempre souberam se comunicar oralmente. A fala é talvez a mais importante das características que distinguem o ser humano no reino animal e que lhe possibilitam se organizar em sociedade. Nem todas as línguas entretanto chegaram a se desenvolver em sistemas escritos. INTRODUCTION LANGUAGE: SPEECH VS. TEXT INTRODUCTION Likewise, the vast majority of human beings learn to speak, but it is only in recent years that some of these people have learned to write. (David Crystal) Não há ser humano normal que não saiba falar sem limitações, porém só recentemente na história da humanidade é que a maioria começou a desenvolver a habilidade de escrever, muitos até hoje com limitações. INTRODUCTION ... speech is therefore the basic form of language. This leads to the conclusion that speech should be emphasized in second language teaching ... (Hector Hammerly) A oralidade é portanto a base da língua. É o que deve merecer ênfase em qualquer programa de ensino. Estudar pronúncia e desenvolver a oralidade, portanto, é voltar a atenção para aquilo que não se enxerga mas que é a essência da língua. SPEECH – THE ESSENCE OF LANGUAGE INTRODUCTION - ACCURACY Messy writing and doctor’s scribbles are a poor representation of written language in the same way that foreign accent is a poor imitation of native speech. Garranchos e letra de médico estão para o texto datilografado, assim como sotaque estrangeiro está para a pronúncia nativa. ACCURACY IN SPEECH Or is it something we can worry about later? Should pronunciation be taught and acquired early? WHEN TO ACQUIRE ? INTRODUCTION - ACCURACY Quando é que se adquire uma boa pronúncia? No início do aprendizado, ou podemos deixar para nos preocupar com pronúncia depois? In the absence of a good model and without guidance, the learner will perceive, produce and internalize sounds of the target language based on the native language sounds. For this reason, if not given emphasis at the very beginning, pronunciation will never be acquired well. INTRODUCTION - ACCURACY Na ausência de bons modelos de pronúncia e sem a devida orientação, o aprendiz perceberá, produzirá e assimilará os sons da língua-alvo baseado nos sons da língua materna. When accuracy is neglected, the result will be fossilized pronunciation errors. A interferência fonológica da língua materna na língua estrangeira, se não minimizada no início, permanecerá para sempre, mesmo com pessoas que já adquiriram pleno domínio sobre o vocabulário e a gramática da língua estudada. Since pronunciation habits are formed early, it seems obvious that it is at that point that the development of a good pronunciation should be emphasized. INTRODUCTION - ACCURACY INTRODUCTION - ACCURACY Best to bend while it’s a twig. De pequenino é que se torce o pepino. Therefore … HOW TO ACQUIRE • Naturally: as a result of exposure and interaction in the environment of the target language and its culture. • By teaching: providing a good pronunciation model (instructors with native-like pronunciation, recordings, etc.), explaining differences, using phonetic symbols to make pronunciation visible, limited peer interaction, effective error correction, exercising accurate pronunciation. INTRODUCTION - ACCURACY SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION SPELLING INTERFERENCE The written language is a significant source of input to EFL learners in Brazil. The higher the spelling inconsistency is, the more negative the influence on pronunciation will be. O contato com a língua inglesa no Brasil é predominantemente com o texto impresso – se vê muito mais do que se ouve. Quanto maior for a falta de correlação entre ortografia e pronúncia, mais negativa será a influência. SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION In the study of English as a foreign language we must replace the saying “seeing is believing” with “hearing is believing”. No estudo do inglês como língua estrangeira temos que nos acostumar a não acreditar no que vemos. O ditado popular ver para crer precisa ser substituído por ouvir para crer. SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION The English spelling does not serve as a guide to pronunciation. On the contrary, it can often be misleading. A ortografia do inglês não serve como indicativo de pronúncia, chegando a ser enganosa e induzindo o aluno frequentemente ao erro. SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION How many possible interpretations are there for the grapheme “oo”? A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four EXAMPLE 1 “oo” four SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION 1. /./ as in boot - /c.// 2. /|/ as in book - /c|r/ 3. /./ as in blood - /cì.c/ 4. /r/ as in brooch - /c:rc/ SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION How many possible interpretations are there for the vowel grapheme “a”? A. Two B. Three C. Four D. Five E. Six EXAMPLE 2 “a” six SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION 1. /;/ as in able, make, table, taste 2. /a/ as in apple, at, cat, past 3. /c/ as in car, father, park 4. /:/ as in air, care, chair 5. /v/ as in awful, ball, law, walk 6. /./ as in about, global, island SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 3 How many possible interpretations are there for the vowel grapheme “i”? A. Two B. Three C. Four D. Five E. Six SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION “i” six 1. /(/ as in elite, machine, pizza, ski 2. /!/ as in bit, his, in, liquor 3. /c,/ as in bite, night, polite 4. /,/ as in noise, toilet, void 5. /./ as in bird, firm, pencil 6. /mute/ as in fruit, suitcase, parliament, sovereignty SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 4 How many possible interpretations are there for the vowel grapheme “o”? A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four E. Five SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION “o” five 1. /r/ as in global, go, so 2. /v/ as in dog, off 3. /c/ as in dot, hot, not 4. /./ as in carton, occur, son 5. /./ as in do, to SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 5 How many different pronunciations are there for the consonant grapheme “ch”? A. One B. Two C. Three “ch” three SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION 1. /c/ as in check, chocolate, beach 2. /·/ as in Chicago, machine, chute 3. /r/ as in chaos, character, ache SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 6 In how many different ways can we pronounce the consonant grapheme “s”? A. Two B. Three C. Four D. Five SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION “s” five 1. /./ as in basic, past, say 2. /z/ as in because, rose 3. /·/ as in sugar, sure 4. /./ as in casual, usually, television 5. /mute/ as in aisle, island SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION The frustration of the EFL learner never ends: 1. bough /ccz/ 2. cough /rv|/ 3. dough /cr/ 4. rough /:.|/ 5. through /-:./ 6. hiccough /i!r.;/ SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION Are students of English as a foreign language the only ones that suffer? SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION THE OTHER SIDE If pronunciation is a problem for EFL students, spelling is a nightmare for children in English-speaking countries. Just think of the spelling bee contests … SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION And read what an American recently wrote in our internet forum: “The orthography of English is absurd if not insane. There isn't any justification for it - it's just the way it is. Of course, those of us who are used to it feel attached to the charming madness of English spelling, and we'd be bereft were it ever changed.” Pat Brown SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION Conclusions: • English has an extremely poor correspondence between graphemes and phonemes. • Because in Brazil contact with English tends to be predominantly with the written language, spelling interference in speech will be very intrusive and disruptive. • Substantial oral practice with emphasis in accurate pronunciation is necessary. • The use of phonetic symbols can be helpful to neutralize negative spelling interference. Phonology analyzes the sound patterns of language. Different languages have different phonological systems. PHONOLOGY A clear understanding of the differences will provide guidance and prevent interference. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES The main phonological differences between Portuguese and English are: • Phonetic signaling • Phonemes (vowels & consonants) • Phonological rules • Rhythm & vowel reduction • Word stress PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING Phonetic signaling in linguistics is the quantity of sound produced per meaning. Different languages have different levels of phonetic signaling. PHONETIC SIGNALING PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING For example: It takes 1 syllable to say “dog” while it takes 3 syllables to convey the same meaning in Portuguese: “cachorro”. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING Try it yourself: 1. Take the syllable as the unit of sound and the word as the unit of meaning. 2. List a few common words from your surroundings in English and Portuguese. 3. Add the total number of syllables for each language. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING Example: table (2) book (1) computer (3) pen (1) chair (1) dog (1) tired (2) work (1) sleep (1) bed (1) ------- 14 mesa (2) livro (2) computador (4) caneta (3) cadeira (3) cachorro (3) cansado (3) trabalho (3) dormir (2) cama (2) ------- 27 PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING First, the number of monosyllabic words in English is significantly higher when compared to Portuguese. Ex: bad - mau ball - bo-la bed - ca-ma beer - cer-ve-ja beet - be-ter-ra-ba black - pre-to blood - san-gue book - li-vro boy - me-ni-no bread - pão brick - ti-jo-lo bus - ô-ni-bus can - la-ta car - car-ro cat - ga-to chair - ca-dei-ra cheap - ba-ra-to chin - quei-xo chip - las-ca clock - re-ló-gio coat - ca-sa-co corn - mi-lho cup - xí-ca-ra cut - cor-te PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING Even analyzing Portuguese monosyllables, we will hardly find more syllables in their English counterparts. Ex: ar - air bem - well bom - good céu - sky chá - tea chão - floor dar - give dor - pain eu - I giz - chalk ir - go lá - there ler - read luz - light mal - bad mão - hand mar - sky mês - tea não - no nós - we pão - bread par - pair pé - foot pó - dust quem - who rei - king sal - salt sim - yes sol - sun som - sound sul - south ter - have trem - train ver - see vir - come voz - voice PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING Even comparing polysyllables of common origin we find English words to be shorter in pronunciation. Ex: a-gri-cul-ture /a ¡:! r.ì c.:/ - a-gri-cul-tu-ra ca-len-dar /ra ì.t c.:/ - ca-len-dá-rio cho-colate /cc rì.// - cho-co-la-te ci-ty /.! /(/ - ci-da-de de-part-ment /c! ;c:/ r.t// - de-par-ta-men-to im-por-tant /!r ;v: /.t// - im-por-tan-te ma-chine /r. ·(t/ - má-qui-na na-ture /t; c.:/ - na-tu-re-za stu-dent /./. c.t// - es-tu-dan-te tem-pera-ture //:r ;.: c|:/ - tem-pe-ra-tu-ra PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING There are of course a few exceptions. I have found only 30 so far. Can you find one? al-guém - some-bo-dy a-vô - grand-fa-ther ca-ro - ex-pen-sive cem - hun-dred cor - co-lor cu-nha-do - bro-ther-in-law fe-roz - fe-ro-cious flor - flow-er já - al-rea-dy jor-nal - news-pa-per len-ço - hand-ker-chief mãe - mo-ther ma-triz - head-quar-ters mel - hon-ey mil - thou-sand nin-guém - no-bo-dy noi-va - fi-an-cée nu - na-ked on-tem - yes-ter-day pai - fa-ther pa-ra-béns - con-gra-tu-la-tions plá-gio - pla-gia-rism pro-nún-cia - pro-nun-cia-tion quan-tos - how-ma-ny ra-mal - ex-ten-sion re-ser-va - re-ser-va-tion réu - de-fen-dant rim - kid-ney sem - with-out tio - un-cle PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING English reveals to be more compact also when we analyze phrases. Ex: Let’s-work (2) I-like-be-er (4) A-brick-house (3) Help-me-please (3) How-old-are-you? (4) Where’s-the-bath-room (4) ------------- Total syllables: 20 (5) Va-mos-tra-ba-lhar (7) Eu-gos-to-de-cer-ve-ja (8) U-ma-ca-sa-de-ti-jo-los (7) A-ju-de-me-por-fa-vor (7) Quan-tos-a-nos-vo-cê-tem? (7) On-de-fi-cao-ba-nhei-ro? -------------- 41 PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING Conclusions (1): • Compared to Portuguese, English provides approximately half the quantity of phonetic information to convey the same meaning. • A smaller quantity of phonetic information per unit of meaning also means a shorter time to convey the message. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING Conclusions (2): • It is logical to assume that going from a native language that offers more phonetic signals (Portuguese) to a target language that offers less (English) is more difficult than the other way around. This is because the receiver of the message not only receives fewer clues about each unit of meaning but also has less time to decode and process the meaning of the whole. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING In other words: It’s as if somebody accostumed to driving his car at 80 km/h on well- marked roads needed to drive a different car under different traffic rules on poorly-marked roads at 120 km/h. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - SIGNALING Conclusions (3): • It all brings us to the overall conclusions that: • Pronunciation is more important than it seems to be. • The Brazilian learner needs intensive contact with good pronunciation models in the beginning of the learning process. • Premature contact with texts can backfire. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - PHONEMES Each language makes a different use of the articulatory system. What is a phoneme? It is the smallest unit of sound in a language that serves to distinguish two words. PHONEMES Example 1: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - PHONEMES Pit /;!// and bit /c!// are different words with different meanings. The only distinction relies on the manner of articulation of the bilabial consonant. Therefore /;/ and /c/ are different phonemes in English. Coincidentally in Portuguese the bilabial consonant can also be realized in different ways to produce two different phonemes (ex: pico and bico). Example 2: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - PHONEMES Beet /c(// and bit /c!// are also different words with different meanings. The only distinction relies on the manner of articulation of these high-front vowels. Therefore /(/ and /!/ are also different phonemes in English. In Portuguese however we will find only one high-front vowel phoneme, as in vida or linda. Any variation in the highness or frontness of this vowel will be perceived simply as variations of the same phoneme. Different languages have different phonemes and have them in different numbers. In other words, they use different phonological matrixes. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - PHONEMES Conclusion 1: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - PHONEMES In the beginning learners will perceive sounds in the target language to be phonologically similar to native language sounds. Without proper coaching, they will internalize their own modified phonological matrix based on a combination of similar sounds in the two languages, causing “foreign accent”. Conclusion 2: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES In less compact languages, with a higher average of syllables per word, the number of phonemes does not need to be large and the difference between each vowel can be bigger. This is the case of Spanish (5 vowel phonemes) and Portuguese (7 vowel phonemes). Vowel phonemes PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES English, however, is a language extremely economic on the phonetic level, very compact, with a large number of 1-syllable words. Naturally, this requires a larger number of phonemes to supply the bigger "demand" of a system with a reduced number of possible combinations. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Inventory of vowel phonemes: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES problem areas glided vowels * /(/ as in beet * /!/ as in bit /;/ as in bait * /:/ as in bet /a/ as in bat /./ as in but /c/ as in father /v/ as in bought /r/ as in boat * /|/ as in book /./ as in boot * / i / as in quilo /ê/ as in ele /é/ as in ela /a/ as in bala /ó/ as in bola /ô/ as in bolo /u/ as in pulo PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES The human speech articulatory system is limited and the spectrum of vowel sounds it can produce is short. The higher the number of vowels, the more subtle the difference among them will be. In such an “enriched inventory” of vowel phonemes like English, the difference between one phoneme and the next may well reach the limit of the human hearing perception. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Achieving the correct vowel is particularly hard for the second language learner when the native language has a smaller number of phonemes than the target language. Therefore … PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 1: beach – bitch bead – bid beat – bit cheap – chip eat – it feel – fill feet – fit heat – hit heel – hill lead – lid leap – lip least – list leave – live meal – mill neat – knit peel – pill The English phonemes /(/ and /!/ are very likely to be perceived and produced as Portuguese /i /, thus neutralizing the contrast between words like: reach – rich seat – sit seek – sick sheep – ship sheet – shit sleep – slip steal – still wheel – will PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Sentence practice for problem 1: Please, sit in this seat. /;ì(z .!/ !t õ!. .(// PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 2: The English phonemes /:/ and /a/ will be perceived and produced as Portuguese /é/, which is in fact a little closer to English /:/ than /a/. This will neutralize the contrast between words like: bed – bad beg – bag dead – dad end – and flesh – flash gem – jam head – had lend – land men – man met – mat pen – pan said – sad send – sand shell – shall then – than PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Sentence practice for problem 2: The gem fell in the jam. /õ. ):r |:ì !t õ. )ar/ PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 3: The English mid-central /./, especially when stressed, has no counterpart in Portuguese. Words like “but” /c.// , “does” /c.z/, “blood” /cì.c/ and “color” /r.ì.:/ will easily be mispronounced. Also, its unstressed and reduced form, named “schwa”, is likely to become a persistent problem if we consider that Portuguese unstressed vowels are not normally reduced. Very likely Brazilian ESL students will be influenced by spelling in this area. Example: The word “photographer” may well be pronounced /fôtógrafêr/ instead of the correct /|./c¡:.|.:/. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 4: Portuguese native speakers will also experience difficulty distinguishing between English /c/ and /v/. Most of the times /c/ will be perceived as Portuguese /ó/. This is reinforced by the fact that the English /c/ is many times spelled with the letter “o”, often corresponding in Portuguese to /ó/ as in pó, which is very similar to English /v/ as in law. This will cause foreign accent, with the possibility of misunderstandings in minimal pairs like: collar /rcì.:/ – caller /rvì.:/ cot /rc// – caught /rv// are /c:/ – or /v:/ PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Sentence practice for problem 4: Her skirt caught on the cot. /i.: .r.:/ rv/ ct õ. rc// PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 5: The Portuguese /u/ falls right between English /|/ and /./. As a result, perception and production of these phonemes will follow the single pattern of Portuguese /u/, neutralizing the contrast between words like: full /||ì/ – fool /|.ì/ look /ì|r/ – Luke /ì.r/ pull /;|ì/ – pool /;.ì/ should /·|c/ – shoed /·.c/ PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Sentence practice for problem 5: Pull me out of the pool. /;|ì r( cz/ .. õ. ;.ì/ PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL PHONEMES Model sentences for the practice of all the English vowels: She is acing ten classes using the books and notes always honestly. /·( !z ;.!} /:t rìa.!z ,.z!} õ. c|r. atc tr/. vìz;z ct../ì(/ Lee bit Ray’s best hat. /ì( c!/ :;z c:./ ia// Stew pushed Joe off the cot. /./. ;|·/ )r v| õ. rc// PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES As we have already seen earlier, compact languages, with low phonetic signaling (lower average of syllables per word) like English, need a large number of phonemes to supply the demand, stretching the articulatory system to the limit. Looking at the consonant phonemes, we will find a similar pattern. Consonant phonemes PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES problem areas /./ sapo /z/ zelo /·/ chave /./ jato /r/ mala /t/ nenê /í/ ninho /x/ or /:/ rato /ì/ lado /ì/ olho /:/ para /;/ pill /c/ bill /r/ till /c/ day /r/ kill /¡/ goal /c/ cheap /)/ Joe /|/ fan /./ van /-/ think /õ/ this /./ sink /z/ zink /·/ ship /./ casual /r/ make /t/ night /}/ long /i/ house /:/ red /ì/ late /z/ wine /,/ yes /;/ para /c/ bala /// tatu /c/ dado /r/ coco /¡/ gato /|/ faca /./ vaca PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 1: The aspiration of the English voiceless stops /;/, /r/ and /r/, when occurring word-initially or at the beginning of stressed syllables, has no equivalent in Portuguese. The transference of the Portuguese unaspirated stops will result primarily in a clear foreign accent (phonetic error), with the possibility of misunderstanding (phonological error), since they could be perceived as /c/, /c/ and /¡/ by English native speakers. For example: the word pig /;!¡/, if pronounced without aspiration, could be perceived as big /c!¡/. If the Portuguese stops are transferred to English, they will neutralize the contrast between words like: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES pay [;;] – bay [c;] pull [;|ì] – bull [c|ì] tie [rc,] – die [cc,] try [r:c,] – dry [c:c,] came [r;r] – game [¡;r] cold [rrìc] – gold [¡rìc] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 2: Learners of EFL and PFL will experience difficulty when the alveolar stops /// and /c/ occur before /(/ or /!/. There are no //i/ or /ci/ syllables in Portuguese*, as /// and /c/ are always palatalized in the presence of a high front vowel. Whenever /// or /c/ occur before /i/, they become respectively /ci/ and /)i/, as in words like leite ['leyci] and pode ['pó)i]. * except in some dialects of the Northeast, Santa Catarina and some border areas of Rio Grande do Sul. This Portuguese phenomenon, if transferred to English, will neutralize the contrast between words like: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES till [/!ì] – chill [c!ì] tip [/!;] – chip [c!;] dim [c!r] – Jim [)!r] dean [c(t] – jean [)(t] deep [c(;] – jeep [)(;] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 3: All the stops, /;/, /c/, ///, /c/, /r/ and /¡/, the affricates /c/and /)/, and the fricatives /|/, /./, /-/, /õ/, /·/ and /./, occur in word-final position in English, while in Portuguese the corresponding phonemes never do. As a result, Brazilian EFL students will tend to add a vowel sound to these word-final consonants so that words like back [car] and knife [tc,|] may be pronounced [cari] and [tc,|i] , adding a syllable to the word and producing an obvious phonetic error. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Secondly, if the word-final consonant is a /// or a /c/, the likely outcome will be, for instance, [rac] instead of [ra/] for cat, or [iac] instead of [ia/] for hat, thus neutralizing the contrast in words like: cat [ra/] – catch [rac] eat [(/] – each [(c] hat [ia/] – hatch [iac] pit [;!/] – pitch [;!c] rent [::t/] – wrench [::tc] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 4: The interdental fricatives /-/ and /õ/ have no close counterparts in Portuguese and learners will need articulatory orientation and exercise in order to achieve an acceptable level of production. math [ra-] – mats [ra/.] breathe [c:(õ] - breeds [c:(cz] tenth [/:t-] – tents [/:t/.] substitutes, which neutralize the contrast between words like: Commonly, students resort to the clusters //./ or /cz/ as PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Other students might use /./ and /z/ as substitutes, which is still less desirable because /./ and /z/ have a heavy functional load and this substitution could result in the neutralization of minimal pairs like: thin [-!t] – sin [.!t] thick [-!r] – sick [.!r] faith [|;-] – face [|;.] breathe [c:(õ] – breeze [c:(z] clothing [rìrõ!}] – closing [rìrz!}] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 5: The English retroflex /:/ does not have a similar sound in Portuguese, except in one dialect in certain areas of the state of São Paulo. Therefore most Brazilian students will need articulatory exercises (see picture). Because of spelling interference, the English retroflex /:/ in word-initial position is easily misinterpreted as the the Portuguese velar fricative /x/ (both are represented by the same grapheme). On the other hand, the English glottal fricative /i/ is close and similar to the Portuguese velar fricative /x/. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Therefore students will easily be confused and neutralize the contrast in minimal pairs like: hat [ia/] – rat [:a/] head [i:c] – red [::c] height [ic,/] – right [:c,/] high [ic,] – rye [:c,] heal [i(ì] – real [:(ì] hoe [ir] – row [:r] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 6: The alveolar fricative /.,z/ before /r/, /t/ or /ì/ in English occurs predominantly in word-initial position, and then it is always voiceless - [.]. In Portuguese, however, it only occurs in middle position and is always voiced - [z]. Students may therefore articulate words like smoke [.rrr], snake [.t;r] and sleep [.ì(;] as [zrrr], [zt;r] and [zì(;], producing an obvious foreign accent. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 7: Another area of potential problems for Brazilian EFL students refers to consonantal clusters. In contrast with Portuguese, with its rich vocality and nasality, and large number of diphthongs and even triphthongs, English has a strong consonantal character. In Portuguese, the only consonants that occur in word-final position are the phonemes /:/, /ì/ and /./; consonantal clusters, except for a few foreign words, do not occur at all. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - CONSONANT PHONEMES Therefore, particularly difficult will be the clusters occurring in word-final position, with an even higher degree of difficulty being experienced by students in the realization of English consonantal clusters which include the interdentals /-/ or /õ/, as in the following examples: asked [a.r/] advanced [.c.at./] twelfth [/z:ì|-] depth [c:;-] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - PHONOLOGICAL RULES PHONOLOGICAL RULES Every language has phonological rules based on predictable occurrences. The most relevant English phonological rules for Brazilian EFL students are: • Stop Aspiration • Regular Plural • Regular Past • Flapping PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - STOP ASPIRATION Stop Aspiration Voiceless stops /;/, /r/ and /r/ are lightly aspirated when occurring word-initially and strongly aspirated at the beginning of stressed syllables. Examples: pet [;:/] police [;.ì(.] take [r;r] tobacco [r.carr] cat [ra/] peculiar [;.r,.ì,.:] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - REGULAR PLURAL Regular Plural Regular plurals in English are pronounced according to three situations: 1. If the noun ends in the following unvoiced consonant sounds: /|/, /r/, /;/, ///, /-/, pronounce the "s" as /./. Examples: proof [;:.|.] coats [rr/.] cups [r.;.] paths [;a-.] 2. If the noun ends in a voiced consonant sound, /c/, /c/, /¡/, /ì/, /r/, /t/, /}/, /:/, /,/ or in a vowel sound, pronounce the "s" as /z/. Examples: jobs [)ccz] beds [c:cz] dogs [cv¡z] dolls [ccìz] gems [):rz] pans [;atz] things [-!}z] cars [rc:z] days [c;z] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - REGULAR PLURAL These three rules also apply to the "s" added to the third-person-singular of verbs in the present tense. 3. If the noun ends with a fricative or affricate consonant - /./, /z/, /·/, /./, /c/, /)/, pronounce the plural suffixes "s" or "-es" as /!z/. Examples: kisses [r!.!z] quizzes [rz!z!z] wishes [z!·!z] garages [¡.:c.ìz] benches [c:tc!z] pages [;;)!z] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - REGULAR PLURAL PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - REGULAR PAST Regular Past The pronunciation of the past suffix "_ed" is a common problem for Brazilian EFL students. First, because in Portuguese the past is heavily marked and, second, because of the apparent inconsistency of English. There are actually three situations: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - REGULAR PAST 1. When the pronunciation of the infinitive ends in a vowel or voiced consonant, the pronunciation of the _ed suffix will be /c/. Ex: play [;ì;] - played [;ì;c] grab [¡:ac] - grabbed [¡:acc] brag [c:a¡] - grabbed [c:a¡c] live [ì!.] - lived [ì!.c] use [,.z] - used [,.zc] engage [!t¡;)] - engaged [!t¡;)c] blame [cì;r] - blamed [cì;rc] listen [ì!..t] - listened [ì!..tc] call [rvì] - called [rvìc] repair [:!;::] - repaired [:!;::c] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - REGULAR PAST 2. When the pronunciation of the infinitive ends with a voiceless consonant, the pronunciation of the _ed suffix will be ///. Ex: stop [./c;] - stopped [./c;/] work [z.:r] - worked [z.:r/] laugh [ìa|] - laughed [ìa|/] miss [r!.] - missed [r!./] cash [ra·] - cashed [ra·/] watch [zcc] - watched [zcc/] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - REGULAR PAST 3. When the pronunciation of the infinitive ends with an alveolar stop consonant – /// or /c/, – the pronunciation of the _ed suffix will be /.c/. Ex: need [t(c] - needed [t(c.c] attend [.r:tc] - attended [.r:tc.c] visit [.!z./] - visited [.!z./.c] create [r:(;/] - created [r:(;/.c] want [zvt/] - wanted [zvt/.c] print [;:!t/] - printed [;:!t/.c] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - REGULAR PAST These rules apply only to the past tense and past participle of verbs. They do not apply to adjectives. Ex: crooked [r:|r.c] - desonesto learned [ì.:t.c] - instruído naked [t;r.c] - nu rugged [:.¡.c] - áspero, acidentado wicked [z!r.c] - perverso PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - FLAPPING RULE Flapping Rule In American English the alveolar stops /// and /c/ become an alveolar flap /v/ when they fall between two vowels, the first of which is stressed. Examples: water [zvv.:] letter [ì:v.:] butter [c.v.:] city [.!v(] automatic [vv.rav!r] shut up [·.v.;] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - FLAPPING RULE This “flapping” and “weakening” of the AmE alveolar stops occurs even in the presence of the sonorant consonants /:/, /ì/, and /t/. Examples: party [;c:v(] quarter [rzv:v.:] order [v:v.:] little [ì!vì] battle [cavì] Internet [!tv.:t:/] Pentagon [;:tv.¡ct] twenty [rz:tv(] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - FLAPPING RULE The “flapping” also occurs across word boundaries. Examples: let it be [ì:v!/c(] a lot of trouble [.ìcv../:.cì] a cat on the roof [.ravct-.:.|] PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - RHYTHM & VOWEL REDUCTION RHYTHM & VOWEL REDUCTION Rhythm (or flow) of speech is one of the distinctive features of a language. It is acquired in childhood and hard for an adult to change. According to rhythm, languages are classified in syllable-timed and stress-timed. Japanese is probably the most perfect example of a syllable- timed language, but French and Brazilian Portuguese are also syllable-timed while Russian and English are markedly stress-timed languages. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - RHYTHM In syllable-timing, rhythm of speech is based on the syllable, taking each syllable a similar amount of time to be pronounced. Therefore, the amount of time to say a given sentence depends on the number of syllables, and contractions rarely occur. This is one of the features of Brazilian Portuguese, where each syllable is distinctively and clearly pronounced, timing the flow of the language. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - RHYTHM In stress-timed languages like English rhythm is based on stressed syllables of certain words that occur at apparently irregular intervals when we look at the written sentence. The rows of in-between unstressed syllables tend to be compressed and some syllables can almost disappear. This means that the amount of time it takes to say a sentence in English depends on the number of syllables that receive the primary sentence stress and not on the total number of syllables. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - RHYTHM In English, the words that carry the stressed syllables responsible for sentence rhythm are usually content words like nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs; while function words like prepositions, articles, demonstratives, pronouns, and auxiliary verbs (in affirmative and interrogative sentences) are normally unstressed and often contracted. Auxiliary verbs in negative sentences will also be stressed. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - RHYTHM See a graphic representation: In stress-timed languages the difference between a stressed and an unstressed syllable is bigger. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - RHYTHM In the example above the 5-syllable segment /approximately/ takes almost the same time to be pronounced as the 1-syllable segment /old/. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - RHYTHM In order to achieve a good rhythm in English, you need to slow down, stretch out, and very clearly pronounce 1-syllable content words and the stressed syllables of longer words. At the same time, you must compress all the unstressed syllables in between and reduce unstressed function words. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL REDUCTION VOWEL REDUCTION As a result of the compression of unstressed syllables in English, very often vowels in these syllables become weak and are reduced to the neutral vocalic sound /./. This neutral vowel phoneme known as schwa is produced by the vibration of the vocal cords alone, with the tongue in a neutral position and requiring a minimal amount of articulatory effort. The schwa largely characterizes the sound of English. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL REDUCTION of [..] circuit [..:r./] production [;:.c.r·.t] photographer [|./c¡:.|.:] neutralization [t./:.ì.z;·.t] Examples: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL REDUCTION Grapheme Spelling Pronunciation a about ,.ccz/, e angel ,;t).ì, i pencil ,;:t..ì, o lemon ,ì:r.t, u circus ,..:r.., ai villain ,.!ì.t, au epaulet ,:;.ì:/, ea sergeant ,.c:).t/, ei sovereignty ,.c.:.t/(, eo pigeon ,;!).t, eu amateur ,ar./.:, ia parliament ,;c:ì.r.t/, ie patient ,;;·.t/, io fashion ,|a·.t, oi tortoise ,rv:v.., oo blood ,cì.c, ou dangerous ,c;t).:.., ue lacquer ,ìar.:, ui circuit ,..:r./, uo liquor ,ì!r.:, y martyr ,rc:v.:, Because of the frequent occurrence of this neutralization, the English vowel /ə/ becomes the phoneme that occurs the most in the language. In fact, any single-letter vowel grapheme and several two-letter vowel graphemes can represent the English phoneme /ə/, as demonstrated in the table below: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL REDUCTION This loss of identity of vowels in English is in sharp contrast with Brazilian Portuguese where all the vowels, stressed or unstressed, have a clear identity. It also aggravates the spelling-pronunciation irregularity of English. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL REDUCTION Vowel Reduction in Connected Speech Some very common English words have unstressed vowels that alternate between being full and reduced, depending on context. For example, the conjunction and /atc/ in the phrase you and me will become /,..tr(/. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL REDUCTION This alternation can be relevant in differentiating meaning. For example, in AmE, the contrast between affirmative and negative forms of the verb can relies almost entirely on rhythm and vowel reduction: PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - VOWEL REDUCTION An old-fashioned repetition and substitution drill using pairs of phrases can easily fix this problem that otherwise would become fossilized. Example: walk - run swim - dive ride a bicycle – fly a plane help you – do it for you hear it – see it PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - WORD STRESS WORD STRESS Just as stressed syllables in poetry reveal the metrical structure of the verse, phonological stress patterns relate to the metrical structure of a language. (Victoria Fromkin) PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - WORD STRESS According to Gillian Brown: The stress pattern of a polysyllabic word is a very important identifying feature of the word. We store words under stress patterns and we find it difficult to interpret an utterance in which a word is pronounced with the wrong stress pattern. And Judy Gilbert adds: If learners have failed to learn the stress pattern for a new word, they may also fail to recognize that word when it occurs in spoken form. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - WORD STRESS Word stress is an important part of pronunciation. Some languages are heavily characterized by the way words are normally stressed. This the case of French, for example, where a very large majority of words are stressed on the last syllable (lalá, lalalá, lalalalá, lalalá, ...). PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - WORD STRESS PORTUGUESE ENGLISH Oxítonas (stress on the last syllable) café, estudar, computador, avião hotel, control, police, improve, exchange * Paroxítonas (stress on one before the last) casa, modelo, bonito, cadeira video, English, important, united, revolution Proparoxítonas (stress on two before the last) fígado, metrópole, hemofílico excellent, hospital, government, photographer Stress on three before the last ---- approximately, significantly, intelligible, objectionable Double stress ---- characteristic, category, necessary, dictionary * only two-syllable words Words in Portuguese are predominantly paroxytone, and when they are one of the other two options, often there is an accent to indicate so. English, on its turn, has five possibilities of word stress, none is predominant, and there is no graphic indication whatsoever. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - WORD STRESS Word stress in English, with its multiple forms and unpredictability, represents one more difficulty for the EFL learner in achieving accurate pronunciation. It is another argument in favor of teaching pronunciation. Conclusion: PHONETIC SYMBOLS PHONETIC SYMBOLS Why are they useful? • Given the very poor spelling-to-sound correlation in English; • Given the significantly higher number of phonemes; It follows that … Learners of EFL need some sort of graphic representation of pronunciation. For each phoneme an identity needs to be established. But the ears of the learner are not reliable enough as they are strongly influenced by the phonological matrix of his native language. PHONETIC SYMBOLS PHONETIC SYMBOLS This is where phonetic symbols come into play. They provide a reliable visual connection to the spoken language. Each phoneme is visually identified by its symbol. Phonetic symbols look intentionally different from regular characters to avoid interference in writing. PHONETIC SYMBOLS Phonetic symbols should be used frequently, especially with beginners. They should be a constant presence in the EFL environment - on wall posters, textbooks and handouts. In the following pages we have tables with a complete collection of vowel and consonant sounds for AmE and how they relate to Portuguese sounds. 1. /(/ - beet, eat, meal diferente do / i / do português 2. /!/ - bit, it, pill, ship entre / i / de Ivo e /ê/ de pê 3. /;/ - bait, day, table muito parecido com /êi/ de peito 4. /:/ - bet, bed, red entre /ê/ de pê e /é/ de pé 5. /a/ - bat, bad, apple entre /é/ de pé e /a/ de casa 6. /./ - but, of, love sem equivalente em português; semelhante ao som de um gemido 7. /c/ - father, hot, car entre /a/ de casa e /ó/ de ótimo PHONETIC SYMBOLS 8. /c,/ - bite, night, write parecido com /ai/ de pai 9. /cz/ - about, out, cloud parecido com /au/ de pau 10. /v/ - bought, dog, law entre /ó/ de ótimo e /ô/ de ôvo 11. /v,/ - boy, toy, noise parecido com /ói/ de bóia 12. /r/ - boat, coat, go muito parecido com /ôu/ de pouco 13. /|/ - book, pull, push entre /ô/ de ôvo e /u/ de uva 14. /./ - boot, you, use diferente do / u/ do português The complete inventory of vowel sounds including diphthongs for AmE: 1. /;/ - pill, pay - mais forte que o / p / do português 2. /c/ - bill, bay - igual ao / b / do português 3. /r/ - till, table; /v/ - water, letter mais forte que o / t / do português; ou totalmente enfraquecido como em water, parecido com o / r / fraco do português como na palavra cara 4. /c/ - deal, day - igual ao / d / do português 5. /r/ - kit, cat - mais forte que o / k / do português 6. /¡/ - get, go - igual ao / g / do português 7. /c/ - check, chocolate - semelhante à pronúncia de tchê e tchau em português 8. /)/ - jeep, jerk - igual ao / b / do português como na palavra adjunto 9. /|/ - fill, for - igual ao / f / do português 10. /./ - very, van - igual ao / v / do português 11. /-/ - think, thank - não existe som semelhante em português 12. /õ/ - this, that, the - não existe som semelhante em português T h e c o m p l e t e i n v e n t o r y o f c o n s o n a n t s o u n d s f o r A m E : 13. /./ - say, yes - igual ao / s / do português 14. /z/ - zero, zoo - igual ao / z/ do português 15. /·/ - she, cash - igual ao / ·/ do português, como na palavra chuchu 16. /./ - casual, vision - igual ao / j / do português, como na palavra jeito 17. /i/ - hat, hot - semelhante à interjeição ha! ha! ha! do português 18. /r/ - map, come - igual ao / m/ do português 19. /t/ - never, pen - semelhante ao / n / do português 20. /}/ - sing, finger - semelhante ao som nasal que ocorre no final de palavras do português como vem ou homem, quando pronunciadas claramente 21. /:/ - red, car - não existe som semelhante em português (com exceção de regiões do interior de SP) 22. /ì/ - like, Alice - semelhante ao / l / do português 23. /z/ - we, away - semelhante à interjeição ué do português, porém mais consonantal 24. /,/ - yes, union - semelhante à pronúncia de ioiô em português, porém mais consonantal O Prof. Ricardo Schütz encontra-se à disposição para palestras sobre os temas abordados neste site. Contatos pelo fone (51) 3715-3366 ou por e-mail:
[email protected] TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS • • • • Introduction Spelling Interference Phonetic Signaling Phonemes • Vowels • Consonants • • • • • Phonological Rules Rhythm Vowel Reduction Word stress Phonetic Symbols INTRODUCTION LANGUAGE AND HUMANKIND Language is humankind’s distinctive feature. Whether we think of rationality or sociability, we are thinking of language. It is language that makes us different from other species. Linguagem é a principal característica que distingue o ser humano das demais espécies. Quer o consideremos um animal racional ou um animal social, estamos definindo-o como um animal que fala, pois tanto a racionalidade quanto a sociabilidade se fundamentam na linguagem. INTRODUCTION LANGUAGE: SPEECH VS. sempre souberam se comunicar oralmente. TEXT No community has ever been found to lack spoken language. A fala é talvez a mais importante das características que distinguem o ser humano no reino animal e que lhe possibilitam se organizar em sociedade. . Nem todas as línguas entretanto chegaram a se desenvolver em sistemas escritos. but only a minority of languages have ever been written down. desde suas mais remotas origens. (David Crystal) As comunidades humanas. porém só recentemente na história da humanidade é que a maioria começou a desenvolver a habilidade de escrever. but it is only in recent years that some of these people have learned to write. (David Crystal) Não há ser humano normal que não saiba falar sem limitações. the vast majority of human beings learn to speak. . muitos até hoje com limitações.INTRODUCTION Likewise. Estudar pronúncia e desenvolver a oralidade.INTRODUCTION SPEECH – THE ESSENCE OF LANGUAGE . This leads to the conclusion that speech should be emphasized in second language teaching . speech is therefore the basic form of language.. (Hector Hammerly) A oralidade é portanto a base da língua. . é voltar a atenção para aquilo que não se enxerga mas que é a essência da língua.. portanto... É o que deve merecer ênfase em qualquer programa de ensino. assim como sotaque estrangeiro está para a pronúncia nativa. .INTRODUCTION . Garranchos e letra de médico estão para o texto datilografado.ACCURACY ACCURACY IN SPEECH Messy writing and doctor’s scribbles are a poor representation of written language in the same way that foreign accent is a poor imitation of native speech. INTRODUCTION . ou podemos deixar para nos preocupar com pronúncia depois? .ACCURACY WHEN TO ACQUIRE ? Should pronunciation be taught and acquired early? Or is it something we can worry about later? Quando é que se adquire uma boa pronúncia? No início do aprendizado. pronunciation will never be acquired well. o aprendiz perceberá. . the learner will perceive.ACCURACY In the absence of a good model and without guidance. produce and internalize sounds of the target language based on the native language sounds. Na ausência de bons modelos de pronúncia e sem a devida orientação.INTRODUCTION . For this reason. if not given emphasis at the very beginning. produzirá e assimilará os sons da língua-alvo baseado nos sons da língua materna. ACCURACY Since pronunciation habits are formed early. When accuracy is neglected. . it seems obvious that it is at that point that the development of a good pronunciation should be emphasized. A interferência fonológica da língua materna na língua estrangeira. se não minimizada no início. permanecerá para sempre.INTRODUCTION . mesmo com pessoas que já adquiriram pleno domínio sobre o vocabulário e a gramática da língua estudada. the result will be fossilized pronunciation errors. De pequenino é que se torce o pepino.INTRODUCTION . .ACCURACY Therefore … Best to bend while it’s a twig. limited peer interaction. effective error correction. etc. • By teaching: providing a good pronunciation model (instructors with native-like pronunciation. using phonetic symbols to make pronunciation visible.ACCURACY HOW TO ACQUIRE • Naturally: as a result of exposure and interaction in the environment of the target language and its culture. exercising accurate pronunciation. recordings. . explaining differences.INTRODUCTION .). the more negative the influence on pronunciation will be. PRONUNCIATION SPELLING INTERFERENCE The written language is a significant source of input to EFL learners in Brazil. mais negativa será a influência. The higher the spelling inconsistency is. O contato com a língua inglesa no Brasil é predominantemente com o texto impresso – se vê muito mais do que se ouve. Quanto maior for a falta de correlação entre ortografia e pronúncia. .SPELLING VS. SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION In the study of English as a foreign language we must replace the saying “seeing is believing” with “hearing is believing”. No estudo do inglês como língua estrangeira temos que nos acostumar a não acreditar no que vemos. O ditado popular ver para crer precisa ser substituído por ouvir para crer. SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION The English spelling does not serve as a guide to pronunciation. On the contrary, it can often be misleading. A ortografia do inglês não serve como indicativo de pronúncia, chegando a ser enganosa e induzindo o aluno frequentemente ao erro. SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 1 How many possible interpretations are there for the grapheme “oo”? A. B. C. D. One Two Three Four // as in blood .// 3. // as in brooch .// 4. // as in boot .// 2.// .SPELLING VS. // as in book . PRONUNCIATION “oo” four 1. E. B. C.SPELLING VS. D. Two Three Four Five Six . PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 2 How many possible interpretations are there for the vowel grapheme “a”? A. PRONUNCIATION “a” 1. park / / as in air. 6. cat. global. 4. make. chair / / as in awful. 2.SPELLING VS. care. ball. island . taste / / as in apple. law. at. past / / as in car. 3. 5. walk / / as in about. father. six // as in able. table. D. E.SPELLING VS. C. PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 3 How many possible interpretations are there for the vowel grapheme “i”? A. B. Two Three Four Five Six . suitcase. 2. void / / as in bird.SPELLING VS. 4. parliament. polite // as in noise. night. sovereignty . pizza. firm. liquor // as in bite. 5. his. pencil /mute/ as in fruit. machine. PRONUNCIATION “i” 1. toilet. 6. 3. six // as in elite. ski // as in bit. in. D. E. One Two Three Four Five . PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 4 How many possible interpretations are there for the vowel grapheme “o”? A. B. C.SPELLING VS. so // as in dog.SPELLING VS. not // as in carton. 4. go. off // as in dot. five // as in global. 3. 5. PRONUNCIATION “o” 1. hot. 2. son // as in do. to . occur. PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 5 How many different pronunciations are there for the consonant grapheme “ch”? A. One B.SPELLING VS. Three . Two C. beach 2.SPELLING VS. // as in chaos. character. // as in check. PRONUNCIATION “ch” three 1. / / as in Chicago. chocolate. machine. chute 3. ache . D.SPELLING VS. C. Two Three Four Five . B. PRONUNCIATION EXAMPLE 6 In how many different ways can we pronounce the consonant grapheme “s”? A. sure / / as in casual. television /mute/ as in aisle. rose / / as in sugar. 5. island . 3. past.SPELLING VS. usually. five / / as in basic. PRONUNCIATION “s” 1. say / / as in because. 4. 2. 5. 3. bough // cough // dough // rough // through // hiccough // . 6. PRONUNCIATION The frustration of the EFL learner never ends: 1. 2.SPELLING VS. 4. PRONUNCIATION Are students of English as a foreign language the only ones that suffer? .SPELLING VS. SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION THE OTHER SIDE If pronunciation is a problem for EFL students, spelling is a nightmare for children in English-speaking countries. Just think of the spelling bee contests … SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION And read what an American recently wrote in our internet forum: “The orthography of English is absurd if not insane. There isn't any justification for it - it's just the way it is. Of course, those of us who are used to it feel attached to the charming madness of English spelling, and we'd be bereft were it ever changed.” Pat Brown SPELLING VS. PRONUNCIATION Conclusions: • English has an extremely poor correspondence between graphemes and phonemes. Because in Brazil contact with English tends to be predominantly with the written language, spelling interference in speech will be very intrusive and disruptive. • • • Substantial oral practice with emphasis in accurate pronunciation is necessary. The use of phonetic symbols can be helpful to neutralize negative spelling interference. .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES PHONOLOGY Phonology analyzes the sound patterns of language. Different languages have different phonological systems. A clear understanding of the differences will provide guidance and prevent interference. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES The main phonological differences between Portuguese and English are: • • • • • Phonetic signaling Phonemes (vowels & consonants) Phonological rules Rhythm & vowel reduction Word stress . . Different languages have different levels of phonetic signaling.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .SIGNALING PHONETIC SIGNALING Phonetic signaling in linguistics is the quantity of sound produced per meaning. .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .SIGNALING For example: It takes 1 syllable to say “dog” while it takes 3 syllables to convey the same meaning in Portuguese: “cachorro”. Add the total number of syllables for each language.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . 2. Take the syllable as the unit of sound and the word as the unit of meaning. List a few common words from your surroundings in English and Portuguese. .SIGNALING Try it yourself: 1. 3. SIGNALING Example: table book computer pen chair dog tired work sleep bed (2) (1) (3) (1) (1) (1) (2) (1) (1) (1) ------- mesa livro computador caneta cadeira cachorro cansado trabalho dormir cama (2) (2) (4) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (2) (2) 27 ------- 14 .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . the number of monosyllabic words in English is significantly higher when compared to Portuguese.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . Ex: bad ball bed beer beet black blood book boy bread brick bus mau bo-la ca-ma cer-ve-ja be-ter-ra-ba pre-to san-gue li-vro me-ni-no pão ti-jo-lo ô-ni-bus can car cat chair cheap chin chip clock coat corn cup cut la-ta car-ro ga-to ca-dei-ra ba-ra-to quei-xo las-ca re-ló-gio ca-sa-co mi-lho xí-ca-ra cor-te .SIGNALING First. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . we will hardly find more syllables in their English counterparts. Ex: ar bem bom céu chá chão dar dor eu giz ir lá air well good sky tea floor give pain I chalk go there ler luz mal mão mar mês não nós pão par pé pó read light bad hand sky tea no we bread pair foot dust quemrei sal sim sol som sul ter trem ver vir voz who king salt yes sun sound south have train see come voice .SIGNALING Even analyzing Portuguese monosyllables. SIGNALING Even comparing polysyllables of common origin we find English words to be shorter in pronunciation.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . Ex: a-gri-cul-ture / / ca-len-dar / / cho-colate / / ci-ty / / de-part-ment / / im-por-tant / / ma-chine / / na-ture / / stu-dent / / tem-pera-ture / / a-gri-cul-tu-ra ca-len-dá-rio cho-co-la-te ci-da-de de-par-ta-men-to im-por-tan-te má-qui-na na-tu-re-za es-tu-dan-te tem-pe-ra-tu-ra . Can you find one? al-guém .hun-dred cor .no-bo-dy noi-va .some-bo-dy a-vô .na-ked on-tem .kid-ney sem .grand-fa-ther ca-ro . I have found only 30 so far.hand-ker-chief mãe .re-ser-va-tion réu .fi-an-cée nu .fa-ther pa-ra-béns .pla-gia-rism pro-nún-cia .al-rea-dy jor-nal .con-gra-tu-la-tions plá-gio .news-pa-per len-ço .thou-sand nin-guém .SIGNALING There are of course a few exceptions.yes-ter-day pai .mo-ther ma-triz .un-cle .co-lor cu-nha-do .hon-ey mil .flow-er já .with-out tio .de-fen-dant rim .ex-pen-sive cem .how-ma-ny ra-mal .head-quar-ters mel .fe-ro-cious flor .ex-ten-sion re-ser-va .pro-nun-cia-tion quan-tos .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .bro-ther-in-law fe-roz . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .SIGNALING English reveals to be more compact also when we analyze phrases. Ex: Let’s-work (2) I-like-be-er (4) A-brick-house (3) Help-me-please (3) How-old-are-you? (4) Where’s-the-bath-room (4) ------------(5) Va-mos-tra-ba-lhar (7) Eu-gos-to-de-cer-ve-ja (8) U-ma-ca-sa-de-ti-jo-los (7) A-ju-de-me-por-fa-vor (7) Quan-tos-a-nos-vo-cê-tem? (7) On-de-fi-cao-ba-nhei-ro? -------------- Total syllables: 20 41 . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . • .SIGNALING Conclusions (1): • Compared to Portuguese. A smaller quantity of phonetic information per unit of meaning also means a shorter time to convey the message. English provides approximately half the quantity of phonetic information to convey the same meaning. This is because the receiver of the message not only receives fewer clues about each unit of meaning but also has less time to decode and process the meaning of the whole.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .SIGNALING Conclusions (2): • It is logical to assume that going from a native language that offers more phonetic signals (Portuguese) to a target language that offers less (English) is more difficult than the other way around. . .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .SIGNALING In other words: It’s as if somebody accostumed to driving his car at 80 km/h on wellmarked roads needed to drive a different car under different traffic rules on poorly-marked roads at 120 km/h. • Premature contact with texts can backfire. . • The Brazilian learner needs intensive contact with good pronunciation models in the beginning of the learning process.SIGNALING Conclusions (3): • It all brings us to the overall conclusions that: • Pronunciation is more important than it seems to be.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .PHONEMES PHONEMES Each language makes a different use of the articulatory system. What is a phoneme? It is the smallest unit of sound in a language that serves to distinguish two words. . PHONEMES Example 1: Pit / / and bit / / are different words with different meanings. The only distinction relies on the manner of articulation of the bilabial consonant.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . Coincidentally in Portuguese the bilabial consonant can also be realized in different ways to produce two different phonemes (ex: pico and bico). . Therefore / / and / / are different phonemes in English. PHONEMES Example 2: Beet / / and bit / / are also different words with different meanings. The only distinction relies on the manner of articulation of these high-front vowels. Therefore // and / / are also different phonemes in English. as in vida or linda. . Any variation in the highness or frontness of this vowel will be perceived simply as variations of the same phoneme. In Portuguese however we will find only one high-front vowel phoneme.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . they use different phonological matrixes. . In other words.PHONEMES Conclusion 1: Different languages have different phonemes and have them in different numbers.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . causing “foreign accent”.PHONEMES Conclusion 2: In the beginning learners will perceive sounds in the target language to be phonologically similar to native language sounds. Without proper coaching. they will internalize their own modified phonological matrix based on a combination of similar sounds in the two languages. . VOWEL PHONEMES Vowel phonemes In less compact languages. .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . with a higher average of syllables per word. the number of phonemes does not need to be large and the difference between each vowel can be bigger. This is the case of Spanish (5 vowel phonemes) and Portuguese (7 vowel phonemes). Naturally. . however.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .VOWEL PHONEMES English. this requires a larger number of phonemes to supply the bigger "demand" of a system with a reduced number of possible combinations. very compact. is a language extremely economic on the phonetic level. with a large number of 1-syllable words. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .VOWEL PHONEMES Inventory of vowel phonemes: . VOWEL PHONEMES // as in beet * / / as in bit // as in bait * / / as in bet / / as in bat / / as in but / / as in father / / as in bought / / as in boat * // as in book // as in boot * problem areas / i / as in quilo / ê / as in ele / é / as in ela / a / as in bala / ó / as in bola / ô / as in bolo / u / as in pulo * glided vowels .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . VOWEL PHONEMES The human speech articulatory system is limited and the spectrum of vowel sounds it can produce is short. The higher the number of vowels. . the difference between one phoneme and the next may well reach the limit of the human hearing perception. In such an “enriched inventory” of vowel phonemes like English. the more subtle the difference among them will be.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .VOWEL PHONEMES Therefore … Achieving the correct vowel is particularly hard for the second language learner when the native language has a smaller number of phonemes than the target language. . thus neutralizing the contrast between words like: beach – bitch bead – bid beat – bit cheap – chip eat – it feel – fill feet – fit heat – hit heel – hill lead – lid leap – lip least – list leave – live meal – mill neat – knit peel – pill reach – rich seat – sit seek – sick sheep – ship sheet – shit sleep – slip steal – still wheel – will .VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 1: The English phonemes // and / / are very likely to be perceived and produced as Portuguese /i/.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . sit in this seat. / / .VOWEL PHONEMES Sentence practice for problem 1: Please. VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 2: The English phonemes / / and / / will be perceived and produced as Portuguese /é/. This will neutralize the contrast between words like: bed – bad beg – bag dead – dad end – and flesh – flash gem – jam head – had lend – land men – man met – mat pen – pan said – sad send – sand shell – shall then – than .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . which is in fact a little closer to English / / than / /. / / .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .VOWEL PHONEMES Sentence practice for problem 2: The gem fell in the jam. is likely to become a persistent problem if we consider that Portuguese unstressed vowels are not normally reduced. its unstressed and reduced form. “blood” / / and “color” / / will easily be mispronounced. named “schwa”.VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 3: The English mid-central / /. . Very likely Brazilian ESL students will be influenced by spelling in this area. has no counterpart in Portuguese. Example: The word “photographer” may well be pronounced /fôtógrafêr/ instead of the correct / /.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . Words like “but” / / . “does” / /. Also. especially when stressed. with the possibility of misunderstandings in minimal pairs like: collar // – caller // cot // – caught // are // – or // . Most of the times / / will be perceived as Portuguese /ó/. This will cause foreign accent. This is reinforced by the fact that the English / / is many times spelled with the letter “o”.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 4: Portuguese native speakers will also experience difficulty distinguishing between English / / and / /. which is very similar to English / / as in law. often corresponding in Portuguese to /ó/ as in pó. VOWEL PHONEMES Sentence practice for problem 4: Her skirt caught on the cot. / / .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . neutralizing the contrast between words like: full / / – fool / / look // – Luke // pull / / – pool / / should / / – shoed / / . perception and production of these phonemes will follow the single pattern of Portuguese /u/.VOWEL PHONEMES Problem 5: The Portuguese /u/ falls right between English // and / /. As a result.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . / / .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .VOWEL PHONEMES Sentence practice for problem 5: Pull me out of the pool. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .VOWEL PHONEMES Model sentences for the practice of all the English vowels: Lee bit Ray’s best hat. / / . / / She is acing ten classes using the books and notes always honestly. / / Stew pushed Joe off the cot. stretching the articulatory system to the limit. .CONSONANT PHONEMES Consonant phonemes As we have already seen earlier. we will find a similar pattern. Looking at the consonant phonemes. need a large number of phonemes to supply the demand. with low phonetic signaling (lower average of syllables per word) like English. compact languages.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .CONSONANT PHONEMES / / pill / / bill / / till / / day / / kill / / goal / / cheap / / Joe / / fan / / van / / think / / this / / para / / bala / / tatu / / dado / / coco / / gato / / sink / / zink / / ship / / casual / / make / / night / / long / / house / / red / / late / / sapo / / zelo / / chave / / jato / / mala / / nenê / / ninho / / or / / rato / / lado / / olho / / para / / faca / / vaca // wine / / yes problem areas . CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 1: The aspiration of the English voiceless stops //. The transference of the Portuguese unaspirated stops will result primarily in a clear foreign accent (phonetic error). could be perceived as big // . // and //. has no equivalent in Portuguese. . when occurring word-initially or at the beginning of stressed syllables. / / and / / by English native speakers. since they could be perceived as / /. with the possibility of misunderstanding (phonological error). For example: the word pig // .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . if pronounced without aspiration. they will neutralize the contrast between words like: pay [] – bay [] pull [] – bull [] tie [] – die [] try [] – dry [] came [] – game [] cold [] – gold [] .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .CONSONANT PHONEMES If the Portuguese stops are transferred to English. they become respectively / / and / /. * except in some dialects of the Northeast. Whenever // or // occur before / /. as // and // are always palatalized in the presence of a high front vowel.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 2: Learners of EFL and PFL will experience difficulty when the alveolar stops / / and / / occur before // or / /. There are no / / or / / syllables in Portuguese*. as in words like leite ['leyi] and pode ['pói]. . Santa Catarina and some border areas of Rio Grande do Sul. if transferred to English.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . will neutralize the contrast between words like: till [] – chill [] tip [] – chip [] dim [] – Jim [] dean [] – jean [] deep [] – jeep [] .CONSONANT PHONEMES This Portuguese phenomenon. / /. / / and / /. the affricates / /and / /. / /. adding a syllable to the word and producing an obvious phonetic error. / /. while in Portuguese the corresponding phonemes never do. / /. / /. and the fricatives / /.CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 3: All the stops. / / and / /. Brazilian EFL students will tend to add a vowel sound to these word-final consonants so that words like back [] and knife [] may be pronounced [] and [] . / /. As a result. occur in word-final position in English.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . / /. . [] instead of [] for cat. or [] instead of [] for hat. the likely outcome will be. if the word-final consonant is a // or a //. thus neutralizing the contrast in words like: cat [ ] – catch [] eat [] – each [] hat [ ] – hatch [] pit [ ] – pitch [] rent [ ] – wrench [] . for instance.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .CONSONANT PHONEMES Secondly. students resort to the clusters // or // as substitutes. which math [] – mats [] neutralize the contrast between breathe [ ] .CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 4: The interdental fricatives / / and / / have no close counterparts in Portuguese and learners will need articulatory orientation and exercise in order to achieve an acceptable level of production.breeds [] words like: tenth [ ] – tents [] .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . Commonly. CONSONANT PHONEMES Other students might use / / and / / as substitutes. which is still less desirable because / / and / / have a heavy functional load and this substitution could result in the neutralization of minimal pairs like: thin [ ] – sin [] thick [ ] – sick [ ] faith [] – face [] breathe [] – breeze [ ] clothing [ ] – closing [ ] .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 5: The English retroflex // does not have a similar sound in Portuguese. . On the other hand. the English glottal fricative / / is close and similar to the Portuguese velar fricative / /. except in one dialect in certain areas of the state of São Paulo. Therefore most Brazilian students will need articulatory exercises (see picture). the English retroflex // in word-initial position is easily misinterpreted as the the Portuguese velar fricative / / (both are represented by the same grapheme). Because of spelling interference. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .CONSONANT PHONEMES Therefore students will easily be confused and neutralize the contrast in minimal pairs like: hat [ ] – rat [ ] head [ ] – red [ ] height [] – right [] high [] – rye [] heal [] – real [] hoe [] – row [] . [ ]. Students may therefore articulate words like smoke []. / / or / / in English occurs predominantly in word-initial position. In Portuguese.[ ]. . and then it is always voiceless . it only occurs in middle position and is always voiced . / before / /.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . [] and [].CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 6: The alveolar fricative /. producing an obvious foreign accent. however. snake [] and sleep [] as []. the only consonants that occur in word-final position are the phonemes //. In Portuguese.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . English has a strong consonantal character.CONSONANT PHONEMES Problem 7: Another area of potential problems for Brazilian EFL students refers to consonantal clusters. except for a few foreign words. . In contrast with Portuguese. and large number of diphthongs and even triphthongs. with its rich vocality and nasality. consonantal clusters. do not occur at all. / / and / /. as in the following examples: asked [ ] advanced [ ] twelfth [ ] depth [ ] . with an even higher degree of difficulty being experienced by students in the realization of English consonantal clusters which include the interdentals / / or / /.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .CONSONANT PHONEMES Therefore. particularly difficult will be the clusters occurring in word-final position. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .PHONOLOGICAL RULES PHONOLOGICAL RULES Every language has phonological rules based on predictable occurrences. The most relevant English phonological rules for Brazilian EFL students are: • • • • Stop Aspiration Regular Plural Regular Past Flapping . // and // are lightly aspirated when occurring word-initially and strongly aspirated at the beginning of stressed syllables.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .STOP ASPIRATION Stop Aspiration Voiceless stops //. Examples: pet [ ] police [ ] take [ ] tobacco [ ] cat [ ] peculiar [ ] . //.REGULAR PLURAL Regular Plural Regular plurals in English are pronounced according to three situations: 1. pronounce the "s" as //. //. //. Examples: proof [] coats [] cups [] paths [] . If the noun ends in the following unvoiced consonant sounds: //.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . //. //. //. Examples: jobs [ ] beds [ ] dogs [ ] dolls [ ] gems [ ] pans [ ] things [ ] cars [ ] days [ ] . //.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . //. //. If the noun ends in a voiced consonant sound.REGULAR PLURAL 2. //. pronounce the "s" as //. //. //. // or in a vowel sound. //. //.//. If the noun ends with a fricative or affricate consonant . //. pronounce the plural suffixes "s" or "-es" as //. . Examples: kisses [ ] quizzes [ ] wishes [ ] garages [ ] benches [ ] pages [ ] These three rules also apply to the "s" added to the third-person-singular of verbs in the present tense. //.REGULAR PLURAL 3. //.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . because of the apparent inconsistency of English. second. There are actually three situations: .REGULAR PAST Regular Past The pronunciation of the past suffix "_ed" is a common problem for Brazilian EFL students. because in Portuguese the past is heavily marked and. First.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . repaired [] .used [] engage [] .REGULAR PAST 1.played [] grab [] .blamed [] listen [] .called [] repair [] . Ex: play [] .lived [] use [] . When the pronunciation of the infinitive ends in a vowel or voiced consonant.engaged [] blame [] .grabbed [] brag [] .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .listened [] call [] .grabbed [] live [] . the pronunciation of the _ed suffix will be //. When the pronunciation of the infinitive ends with a voiceless consonant.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .worked [] laugh [ ] .watched [ ] .laughed [] miss [ ] . the pronunciation of the _ed suffix will be //.stopped [] work [ ] .REGULAR PAST 2.cashed [ ] watch [ ] . Ex: stop [] .missed [ ] cash [ ] . When the pronunciation of the infinitive ends with an alveolar stop consonant – // or //.needed [] attend [] .created [] want [] .printed [] .visited [] create [] .wanted [] print [] . – the pronunciation of the _ed suffix will be //. Ex: need [] .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .REGULAR PAST 3.attended [] visit [] . REGULAR PAST These rules apply only to the past tense and past participle of verbs. Ex: crooked [] . They do not apply to adjectives.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .áspero.perverso .instruído naked [] .desonesto learned [] . acidentado wicked [] .nu rugged [] . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . the first of which is stressed. Examples: water [] letter [] butter [] city [ ] automatic [ ] shut up [ ] .FLAPPING RULE Flapping Rule In American English the alveolar stops // and // become an alveolar flap // when they fall between two vowels. //.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . and //.FLAPPING RULE This “flapping” and “weakening” of the Examples: AmE alveolar stops occurs even in the presence of the party [] quarter [] order [] little [ ] battle [ ] sonorant consonants //. Internet [ ] Pentagon [ ] twenty [] . FLAPPING RULE The “flapping” Examples: also occurs across word boundaries.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . let it be [] a lot of trouble [] a cat on the roof [] . It is acquired in childhood and hard for an adult to change. but French and Brazilian Portuguese are also syllable-timed while Russian and English are markedly stress-timed languages. . Japanese is probably the most perfect example of a syllabletimed language. languages are classified in syllable-timed and stress-timed.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .RHYTHM & VOWEL REDUCTION RHYTHM & VOWEL REDUCTION Rhythm (or flow) of speech is one of the distinctive features of a language. According to rhythm. Therefore. rhythm of speech is based on the syllable. timing the flow of the language. . the amount of time to say a given sentence depends on the number of syllables.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . This is one of the features of Brazilian Portuguese. where each syllable is distinctively and clearly pronounced. and contractions rarely occur. taking each syllable a similar amount of time to be pronounced.RHYTHM In syllable-timing. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . The rows of in-between unstressed syllables tend to be compressed and some syllables can almost disappear. This means that the amount of time it takes to say a sentence in English depends on the number of syllables that receive the primary sentence stress and not on the total number of syllables. .RHYTHM In stress-timed languages like English rhythm is based on stressed syllables of certain words that occur at apparently irregular intervals when we look at the written sentence. main verbs. Auxiliary verbs in negative sentences will also be stressed. while function words like prepositions. and auxiliary verbs (in affirmative and interrogative sentences) are normally unstressed and often contracted.RHYTHM In English. demonstratives. pronouns. articles. adjectives and adverbs.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . . the words that carry the stressed syllables responsible for sentence rhythm are usually content words like nouns. RHYTHM See a graphic representation: In stress-timed languages the difference between a stressed and an unstressed syllable is bigger. .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . .RHYTHM In the example above the 5-syllable segment /approximately/ takes almost the same time to be pronounced as the 1-syllable segment /old/.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . and very clearly pronounce 1-syllable content words and the stressed syllables of longer words. .RHYTHM In order to achieve a good rhythm in English. you must compress all the unstressed syllables in between and reduce unstressed function words. stretch out. At the same time. you need to slow down. very often vowels in these syllables become weak and are reduced to the neutral vocalic sound / /.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .VOWEL REDUCTION VOWEL REDUCTION As a result of the compression of unstressed syllables in English. . This neutral vowel phoneme known as schwa is produced by the vibration of the vocal cords alone. with the tongue in a neutral position and requiring a minimal amount of articulatory effort. The schwa largely characterizes the sound of English. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .VOWEL REDUCTION Examples: of [] circuit [] production [] photographer [] neutralization [] . In fact. the English vowel /ə / becomes the phoneme that occurs the most in the language.VOWEL REDUCTION Because of the frequent occurrence of this neutralization. as demonstrated in the table below: Grapheme Spelling about angel pencil lemon circus Pronunciation ai au ea ei eo eu ia ie io oi oo villain epaulet sergeant sovereignty pigeon amateur parliament patient fashion tortoise blood a e i o u ou ue ui uo y dangerous lacquer circuit liquor martyr . any single-letter vowel grapheme and several two-letter vowel graphemes can represent the English phoneme /ə /.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . stressed or unstressed. .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . have a clear identity.VOWEL REDUCTION This loss of identity of vowels in English is in sharp contrast with Brazilian Portuguese where all the vowels. It also aggravates the spelling-pronunciation irregularity of English. For example. . depending on context.VOWEL REDUCTION Vowel Reduction in Connected Speech Some very common English words have unstressed vowels that alternate between being full and reduced.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . the conjunction and // in the phrase you and me will become //. in AmE. For example.VOWEL REDUCTION This alternation can be relevant in differentiating meaning. the contrast between affirmative and negative forms of the verb can relies almost entirely on rhythm and vowel reduction: .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . Example: walk .dive ride a bicycle – fly a plane help you – do it for you hear it – see it .VOWEL REDUCTION An old-fashioned repetition and substitution drill using pairs of phrases can easily fix this problem that otherwise would become fossilized.run swim .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . phonological stress patterns relate to the metrical structure of a language.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES .WORD STRESS WORD STRESS Just as stressed syllables in poetry reveal the metrical structure of the verse. (Victoria Fromkin) . We store words under stress patterns and we find it difficult to interpret an utterance in which a word is pronounced with the wrong stress pattern.WORD STRESS According to Gillian Brown: The stress pattern of a polysyllabic word is a very important identifying feature of the word. .PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . And Judy Gilbert adds: If learners have failed to learn the stress pattern for a new word. they may also fail to recognize that word when it occurs in spoken form. where a very large majority of words are stressed on the last syllable (lalá. Some languages are heavily characterized by the way words are normally stressed. lalalalá.. . lalalá. . for example. This the case of French.)..WORD STRESS Word stress is an important part of pronunciation. lalalá.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . and there is no graphic indication whatsoever. important.PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES . none is predominant. dictionary ---- * only two-syllable words . category. photographer Stress on three before the last Double stress approximately. English. hospital. modelo. PORTUGUESE Oxítonas (stress on the last syllable) Paroxítonas (stress on one before the last) Proparoxítonas (stress on two before the last) café. and when they are one of the other two options. avião casa. computador. English. often there is an accent to indicate so.WORD STRESS Words in Portuguese are predominantly paroxytone. united. control. has five possibilities of word stress. significantly. exchange * video. revolution excellent. police. estudar. improve. government. bonito. cadeira fígado. metrópole. intelligible. hemofílico ---- ENGLISH hotel. on its turn. necessary. objectionable characteristic. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES - WORD STRESS Conclusion: Word stress in English, with its multiple forms and unpredictability, represents one more difficulty for the EFL learner in achieving accurate pronunciation. It is another argument in favor of teaching pronunciation. PHONETIC SYMBOLS PHONETIC SYMBOLS Why are they useful? • Given the very poor spelling-to-sound correlation in English; Given the significantly higher number of phonemes; • It follows that … PHONETIC SYMBOLS Learners of EFL need some sort of graphic representation of pronunciation. For each phoneme an identity needs to be established. But the ears of the learner are not reliable enough as they are strongly influenced by the phonological matrix of his native language. .PHONETIC SYMBOLS This is where phonetic symbols come into play. They provide a reliable visual connection to the spoken language. Phonetic symbols look intentionally different from regular characters to avoid interference in writing. Each phoneme is visually identified by its symbol. textbooks and handouts.PHONETIC SYMBOLS Phonetic symbols should be used frequently. especially with beginners. In the following pages we have tables with a complete collection of vowel and consonant sounds for AmE and how they relate to Portuguese sounds. .on wall posters. They should be a constant presence in the EFL environment . out. toy.beet.PHONETIC SYMBOLS The complete inventory of vowel sounds including diphthongs for AmE: 1. / / .bite. car entre /a/ de casa e /ó/ de ótimo 14.boot. semelhante ao som de um gemido 13. / / . night. noise parecido com /ói/ de bóia 5. coat. / / .boy. cloud parecido com /au/ de pau 3. eat. apple entre /é/ de pé e /a/ de casa 12. dog. // . write parecido com /ai/ de pai 2. / / .bat. red entre /ê/ de pê e /é/ de pé 11. pill. / / . / / . it. of. pull. law entre /ó/ de ótimo e /ô/ de ôvo 4. go muito parecido com /ôu/ de pouco 6. table muito parecido com /êi/ de peito 10. / / .book.but. day. bed. use diferente do / u / do português . you.about. // . // .bait.father. // .bought.boat. // . meal diferente do / i / do português 8. bad. // . push entre /ô/ de ôvo e /u/ de uva 7. hot. ship entre / i / de Ivo e /ê/ de pê 9.bit. love sem equivalente em português. // .bet. hot . away .check. cat .she. / / .igual ao / d / do português 18. chocolate .think. / / .say. / / .não existe som semelhante em português 24. / / .red.hat. car . ou totalmente enfraquecido como em water. come . / / .yes. / / . zoo .mais forte que o / k / do português 6. / / . porém mais consonantal 12. / / .this.jeep. / / .igual ao / g / do português 7.semelhante à pronúncia de ioiô em português. day . go . como na palavra jeito 17.casual.kit. that. bay .igual ao / z / do português 15.semelhante à interjeição ha! ha! ha! do português 4.semelhante à pronúncia de tchê e tchau em português 20.1. quando pronunciadas claramente 8.semelhante ao som nasal que ocorre no final de palavras do português como vem ou homem.never. letter mais forte que o / t / do português.sing.map.pill.very. thank . / / . pen . porém mais consonantal . Alice . vision . pay . finger .igual ao / j / do português.não existe som semelhante em português (com exceção de regiões do interior de SP) 9.bill.igual ao / b / do português 3.igual ao / b / do português como na palavra adjunto 21.fill.semelhante ao / l / do português 11.igual ao / v / do português 22.we. for . / / .igual ao / f / do português 10. jerk . / / . / / . / / . / / . cash . / / . parecido com o / r / fraco do português como na palavra cara 14. van . / / . / / . / / .não existe som semelhante em português 23. // . / / . como na palavra chuchu 16. / / .igual ao / m / do português 19. / / . the .like. table.till.get. yes . / / .mais forte que o / p / do português 13.zero. union .deal.igual ao / s / do português The complete inventory of consonant sounds for AmE: 2.semelhante ao / n / do português 5. / / .water.igual ao / / do português.semelhante à interjeição ué do português. br .O Prof. Contatos pelo fone (51) 3715-3366 ou por e-mail: sk@sk. Ricardo Schütz encontra-se à disposição para palestras sobre os temas abordados neste site.com. . 03 /.7.: 9: 7. .. . 7 . . 4. 03 /E 74 . .90..4 . . 9.4 . . 90 .4 . . . /.79 2039. /0 /0 5. . /0 5.39. 203 94 2 547 9.7 9. . 2 547 9. .3 90 2.30. . 3. 2E 6: 3. 9:70. . 3. 89: /039. 9: 70 . . 9:70.3 90 902 507. 08 9: /. . 9: 7. . 902 50 7. :F2 8420 -4 / ..47 . 0 903 843 70 807 . .3 . / 47 3. . 3 7.059438 ..100.39 72 / 30 802 9 4:9 94 :3 .. /4 -74 907 3 . 943 7F: /0 103 /.7 .34:13/430 .0 . 2.: 3. 9438 5E 4 5. 574 3:3 . 7.4:8 147 14 07 E .7041.. 1. 10 74 10 74 . -F38 . 507 03 4 . 70. 7. 0/ 43 902 08 907 /.4 47 .. 70 807 . 782 574 33 . 907 . 5. 907 5./ 6:.43 7.4:780. 1 .3/ 1. 308 5.F0 3: 3. 9: . 97 0.0 .7 9078 20 43 0 2 94: 8.01 20 24 907 2. 74 0 503 8..! # $ $ %070..02 :3 /70/ .3/ 33 :F2 34 -4 / 34 .3/ 07 .0 14:3/43 841.3 948 4 2. 943 6:. 7 09 8 47 : 48 94 /0 .894-02470. .0.4 -.0 .3 948 .9.4 .425.84 030..80 ":.. -.-08 . /0 9 4 48 -7.47 05 20 50.3.07 . 4:80 : /0 20 547 1..8. . 0 -0 07 & 2. 348 . .057.808 '.9 7442 %49. 8. 248 97.! # $ $ 3870. 30 74 070 8 90 -.70 4: 3 /0 1 .H 902 4 4/ . 847907 92094.70/94!479::080 38 574.55742.43.43.31472.0 W .! # $ $ 43.94394.38.399 4154309.8420.090 8.3994154309.0902088./08.31472.2020.943 507:394120.076:.33 82.90.:8438 W 425.1906:.33. 0741902088.3904907.9.4/0 .034943 70.9431742.9.709.3:.0..9411078088 38 82470/11. 83.0.:3941 20.09. 3.3:.0 9.74:3/ %88-0..8 !479::080 94.84..33-:9.:80 9070.33419040 .:8438 W 984.-4:90.0889020.3/574..94.081007.9411078247054309.88:209.! # $ $ 43.0.:9 9.808892094/0.:08. 489:20/94 /7...! # $ $ 3490747/8 9 8.818420-4/.38.7..9 2. 430 2.9 2.11. 7:08435447 2.7:3/07/110703997./8. /1107039.0.70/74.70/74./8300/0/94/7.. . 733574.170 ..0 .9438247025479.! # $ $ 43..088 W !702.94324/083 90-033341900...:8438 W 9.999098..7307300/839038.399.9:70...3-.9944/5743:3.43.9 W !743:3.439.-738:894904.439.30.07..39 8002894-0 W %07.:84389. 94788902 .3:. .3:.08.! # $ ! $ ! $ .:..543020 989082./1107039:8041 90.089:394184:3/3.02.0894/893:894 47/8 .79.98.9807.09.. 250 !9 .! # $ ! $ . . 3/-9 . . . 39 %0701470.43843..330741 .-.79.70/110703947/8 9/110703920.9434190-. .:.943700843902.338 %043 /893. . 3/. . . 3/-.84-070.894574/:.4 .43843.094/11070395430208 05.0/3/1107039 ./039. .4 .70/1107039 54302083 38 43. .-.3.3!479::08090-.39.. ! # $ ! $ .250 009 . . 3/-9 . . . 408 %0701470. .943 419080 17439.70.943700843902.84/1107039 47/89/110703920.79.:.330741.338 %043 /893. . .3/ . . 7.40-0507.70. 3.20543020 .84/110703954302083 38 3!479::08040.40543020 . 473/.83.0/825.943841908. .0.94339030884717439308841 98../.7..8 .07013/43430 17439. 3:.9708 .0/1107039 5430208.09023/1107039 3:2-078 3490747/8 90:80 /110703954344.2.3/..08..! # $ ! $ 43.:843 1107039.. 97-.9.. 2.! # $ ! $ 43..08 .42-3.3:..:843 390-03330.0 84:3/8 94:9574507.0.3:..:83 14703.039 .0 84:3/83909.7943.094-0 54344.9434182.09074324/10/54344.7 84:3/839094..709.3:.80/43.4..82.0.73078507.3 90 39073.. 70..405430208 .38 ...! # $ ' ! $ '405430208 3088.0418.405430208 .3/!479::080 .425.40.8041$5..08 9.0-09003 0.07.3/90/110703..07 .9.3-0-07 %8890 .-0850747/ 90 3:2-07415430208/408349300/94 -0.3:.. ! # $ ' ! $ 38 40.42-3.3/41.7073:2-0741 5430208948:5590-07 /02.4342.0 .0/ 3:2-07415488-0.-047/8 .425. 0.0 0970200...70/:.3:.9 9..07.9438 .07 8.889029.9:7.439054309.70 3:2-0741 8.. 98706:708. 405430208 .! # $ ' ! $ 3.0394741. ! # $ ' ! $ . . . . . . . . . . . . .83-009 . 83-9 . . .9 .83-. 83-09 . . 83-.9 . . .83-:9 . 907 .831. . 83-4:9 . . 83-4. .9 . 83-44 . . 70. .8 .83-449 574-02. . 836:4 . . H . .8300 . F . 830. . . . . . .83-.. O . . .83-4. . .83-44 . : . .835:4 /0/.408 . 05943 .90294190:2.4084:3/89 .408 902470 8:-9090/110703.73 507.30..38500.:.40 54302080 38 90/110703.0/3.0.0 -09003430543020.0 70.3/90850.3574/:.03947 41..! # $ ' ! $ %0:2.243902-0 38:..79.947889028 290/.088479 %007903:2-0741.97:241..3/903092.3 037. 0 .43/ .408 5.00.3909.3:.9.073:2-07 4154302089.82.390.8.730703903.9.0.3:.0 .7.! # $ ' ! $ %0701470 .4770.709 .3:.:.0.7/1479080.79. ! # $ ' ! $ !74-02 %0 385430208. . .3/. . 0/.0/ .70 .0.07094-0507.8!479::080.3/574/:. . . 9 ..5 0./ 0.89-0900347/80 -0. 85 89 85 89 .9 500 / 5 89 . -0./ -0..0 2 39 5 70. 80. 89 8.9 100 1009 0.89 0.390 .0 20. -/ -9 .5 9 1 19 9 00 0. 9:830:97.5 0.4397.9 800 8005 8009 8005 890..0. 30.9 -9. 00 7. 0147574-02 !0.057.9..80 8939880.! # $ ' ! $ $03903.9 . . . ! # $ ' ! $ !74-02 %0 385430208. . 3/. . . 8!479::080 . -0 507.0.0/.3/574/:.0/. F. 9.480794 38..831.990. . . 3. 9. . / .4397.3/ 8./ -.3/ 1./ .3 ./ 03/ 203 209 ./ 8.0 90./ 03/ 108 -.3 8.3/ 2./ 803/ 80 903 5. 9. /.2 . %830:97.9 503 8.89-0900347/80 -0/ -0 /0.8 02 0.3 2. ! # $ ' ! $ $03903.057.2 .0147574-02 %00210390..9. . . 0397.! # $ ' ! $ !74-02 %0 382/ . . . 834 .. 0850.038970880/ . 793!479::080 47/80 -:9 .4:39075. /408 . . . -44/ . . 3/ .447 . . . 0/ . 0.250 %047/ 54947.9!479::080 :38970880/.438/079.70/:.0/ 84 98:38970880/.507 2.703493472.70.0/-8503398.420..3 $89:/0398-031:03.0-057434:3.507889039574-0210. .0/1472 3.0/ '070 7. 80 94-0..8-0 2857434:3.3/70/:.408.20/ 8. 1H7.1 9O7. /4190.9 .4770. 3890. . . 078.! # $ ' ! $ !74-02 !479::0803.0/11.9.84050703.:9 /893:83-09003 38.0850. . .3/. . 48941909208 . . 8!479::080.0.0/. -0507. O. . %88703147.990 38.0/- 901.99. . 47708543/33!479::08094. 82.392088500/990 09907 4 41903. O. 835O .8.794 38.0782. . . :80 14703..780 .83.039 9905488-94128:3/0789.3/383 232..5. . %8.4..7. . 07 .. . . . 49. . . .:9.. .70. . 47 . . . 9.0147574-02 07879.057.:94390...! # $ ' ! $ $03903.49 . . . ! # $ ' ! $ !74-02 %0!479::080. :. 1.879-09003 38. . 3/ . . . 3/574/:.05943.9907341!479::080 . 8.943419080 5430208144908305.708:9 507. :. 30:97.390.4397.89-0900347/80 1:. 44. 5:. 84:/. . . . . 144. . :0. . 544. . 840/ . . . 9..! # $ ' ! $ $03903.057.0147574-02 !:204:94190544 . . . 081479057.90 38.408 00-9#.0 41.9 . 8-089..9.! # $ ' ! $ 4/0803903. . 49 . $905:80/4041190. . . . 3/34908.8808:8390-448...3903. $08..843089 . 82.-0850747/ 0 38 300/.08 9454309.395430208 0 13/.395430208 80.70.94788902949029 443.990.425.99073 .83...703:2-07415430208 948:5590/02.3/ 89709.707 ..75./80030.07.390 .0418.9 .79.3:.! # $ $ %! $ 43843.0..:.3 407.43843. ! # $ $ %! $ . . 5 . . - . . 9 . . /. . . . . . 4. . .5 .0. . 40 . . 1.3 . . ..3 . . 93 . . 98 . . 7. 5. . . . -. . . 9.9: . . /4 . /. . .4.4 . . 94 . . . . . . . . . 83 . 3 . 85 . . .8:.. 2.0 . 39 . 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . 303H ..94 2.. 8.0 ..54 04 . . 334 . . 4:80 . . 70/ . . .90 . . 30 . . 08 . . . . . 47. . 94 . 7. /4 . . 44 . .7. 5. . . .. 1. . 574-02. .8 ..70... 008889458.857.4.! # $ $ %! $ !74-02 %0.9434190 38. . . . .3/ . . 0/.:77347/ 39.73.8.04190!479::080:3..-08 .090.3/3 54344..039 54309.47.0.3810703.83406:.714703.0393!479::080 %0 97..857.990-033341 8970880/8.90/89458 708:9572.07747 9905488-94128:3/0789...4:/-0507. 034.0.. 07747 83. . . . .3/. . 0850.2509047/5 .9.078 470. - 383. . 943 .0/94:9.857. 157434:3.4:/-0 . 8- .0/. 507.0. . 20 ( .3810770/94 38 9030:97..4397. ( 5: ( -: ( 90 ( /0 ( 97 ( /7 ( . ( -.4/ ( 4/ ( .7097.! # $ $ %! $ 190!479::08089458.89-0900347/80 5.090.20 ( . ! # $ $ %! $ !74-02 0..3/! 050703.04.0/11.:9 0390.789458.7307841 . . .3/. . .:7-01470. 4. . 47. . 7034. %070. . 47. . 8. 8.-083 !479::080 . . 3/. . . .07.9.0/3 90570803..70.40 030.041.85..17439. . 47 . . :7-01470. 4.. . 9.0.42070850. 90-0. . .3/. 5O ( . 05938420/.3/8420-47/07.841#47.984190 4790.9.89 $.39. .70.8347/80090 0 ( .3/54/0 0.3/0/4$: .0.. .73. 5 ( ( 2 ( ( 0.! # $ $ %! $ %8!479::080503420343 197.3810770/94 38 30:97.3 ( ( 005 ( .4397.3 /005 ( ( .89-09003 47/80 9 95 /2 /0. ( .090. ! # $ $ %! $ !74-02 9089458 . . . . . . . . . . .3/. . 90 .117..908. . .3/. . 08.. .9.3/9017. . . . . . . . . . 3/. . . 4084:3/949080 47/ 13.8..34-.947/80-.3 89:/0398903/94.0/ ( .07747 .3/310 (2.. ( .398849.3/ 574/:.47708543/3 543020830.4:854309. 4...3.708:9 7.-057434:3.//3.5489433 38 03!479::08090.//.3/ ( ..-0949047/.43843.:7347/ 13.07/4 8. ! # $ $ %! $ $0..43843..43/ 19047/ 13.398. . . 47. . 9 ( .390.9./ 9004:9.3. ( 59 ( 59.. ( 0.0 41 ( 147.9 ( ./41 ( 147.9.9 47 ( 3890.4397. ( 7039 ( 703. ( . ( .9 ( 0...89347/80 . ( 3890.9 9:8 30:97..420-0 147389. 17.9.! # $ $ %! $ !74-02 %03907/039.08.. . .3/. . .-00.3.:89078.80347/0794.059.0..943 .4:39075.3/ 0.041 574/:.94747039.0.0 34..79. .7983!479::080.73078300/..:.480.943 42243 89:/03987084799490.3/007. . 47. . 8 2.98 ( 30:97.4397.090 . 8:-899:908 . .89-09003 -70.90 ( -700/8 47/80 ( 9039 ( 90398 ( .9 ( 2. ! # $ $ %! $ 90789:/039829:80. . 3/. . . .889088/087.88:-899:908 .-0-0.:80. . . .3/. . 0 .9 -70. ( ( 1.94341232.0 ( ( -7000 ( .90 .780 93 9. ..483 ( ( ...4.493 ( 83 ( ( 8.5..0./.943.4:/ 708:939030:97.3/988:-899:943. 1.1:3. ! # $ $ %! $ !74-02 %0 387097410. . 93. /408349..059 3430/.0 ..808 8005.:80418503390710703..79.0 90 387097410.:4 %07014702489 7.947007.0.784:3/3!479::080 0.84190 89.9:70 0.9041$4!.3.389:/0398300/.82.70.079.:. . 54894380.89090!479::080.9.8 28390757090/.. 347/ 39.717.0.0 . . 5020 3904907.207.17.707057080390/-908.9.0. -49..3/ 90 38499. . 0. 8 .480.79490!479::080.3/82.0..717.9. . . / 09 0. 40 ( ( ( ( ( ( 7.! # $ $ %! $ %070147089:/03980.780 .5.3/ 30:97.431:80/.4397.9 0.090.9 70/ 79 70 70.8-0.893232. 74 ( ( ( ( ( ( . ! # $ $ %! $ !74-02 %0..04.0.717.9.. . -01470. . . . 47. . .3/90398.:78570/423.4:814703..039 .8.4..3/8.79. 3 384. 548943 .0 .:.3.39347/ 39.9047/808240 ( . ( 90701470.8 ( ( 83.3/ ( 574/:.0/ ( $9:/03982.4.3/8005 ( ..:7832//0 548943..07 9434..34-.0088 ( 3 !479::080 40.8. 43843.8.:89078 3.3 89:/039870107894.41549039..43843.39..703:2-0741/59438...4.574-0281477..89 9!479::080 9987.8.9 4..9 .03 9759438 38.! # $ $ %! $ !74-02 34907.3989.:7347/ 13.4397.3/3.9.548943.7.89743. .907 3!479::080 9043.43843..70905430208.3/0.3/.39.70. . . . .3/. . :89078 0..39.059147.:7.43843.10 1470347/8 /43494.9. ... .8.:773347/ 13. 3.7/11.:..0307 /070041/11.43843.:/0903907/039.79.:9-03050703.94341 38.:9-090.548943 9.0/-89:/03983 9070.39.! # $ $ %! $ %0701470 5.:89078 4..:89078.30. . 47. . /.0/ 9019 /059 ( ( ( ( . .2508 .80/ ..3.83901443 0. 08 %02489700.89 .07.-04.39 3854344...7!..:7703.553 ..7!:7.7:08147 7.80/43 570/.854344.0. #0:..70 W W W W $945857.9.7:08-.943 #0:.3:.! # $ ! #& $ ! #& $ .3 89:/0398. 943 '4.008889458.! # $ $% !$!#% $945857. . . . .3/. . 990-0333418970880/8.3/89743. .-08 .90/ 034.709.:.4 .2508 509 54..90/ .9 50....:77347/ 39.0 94-.857.857..7 ( ( ( ( ( ( .0 9. 9438 19034:303/83901443:3.0/ .! # $ # &#!&# #0:.43843.0/ .47/394970089:.7057434:3.3984:3/8.4..7!:7..75:7.83 38. #0:. . . . . . . . . . 8. 57434:3.0908. . 2508 57441 .4.98 .98 ( ( ( ( .:58 5. . .! # $ # &#!&# 19034:303/83.0/.39 84:3/ .43843.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8.4084:3/ 57434:3.0908. 473 . . 8 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( .38 938 .2508 4-8 -0/8 /48 /48 028 5. ..78 /. .! # $ # &#!&# 19034:303/89.17..047.90 .9.43843.39 .117. . . . . . . . . . . . 8:1108847 08.0905:7.8 . 57434:3. . 2508 8808 ( 6:08 ( 808 ( .741.08 ( -03.07-8390570803990380 .84.5594908 .//0/9490 97/ 507843 83:.7. .08 ( 5.08 ( %08097007:08. 3/ 80.898:11*0/8 ..70393..8980.7!..70.2.43/ -0.:804190.41 38 %070.970089:..9:.9438 .:803!479::08090 5.55.42243574-021477.4388903..89 %05743:3.! # $ # &#!$% #0:.94341905.3 89:/0398 789 -0..70/.. 003/8 3...! # $ # &#!$% 03905743:3.43843.4047.9434190*0/ 8:11-0.39 90 5743:3.94341903139..0/.4. . ( 7.0 ( 03.0/ ( 7.0/ ( -.20/ ( 8903 ( 89030/ ( . 5.--0/ ( .- ( 7. ( 5.70/ ( .7 ( 705.0/ ( :80 ( :80/ ( 03..20 ( -.0 ( .--0/ ( -7.. ( .0/ ( 705. .39 90 5743:3.4...43843.0088.003/8 9.! # $ # &#!$% 03905743:3.94341903139.9434190*0/ 8:11-0. . :0/ ( 2880/ ( .8 .: 288 .9. 8945 47 . ( 894550/ ( 470/ ( .80/ ( .0/ ( ( ( ( ( ( ..9.. 39 .! # $ # &#!$% 03905743:3.3.78945...43843.003/8 9.94341903139.04. . 47. . . 905743:3.9434190*0/ 8:11-0 . . 890/ ( .90 ( .70.89 ( .39 ( .70.90/ ( .9903/0/ ( .9903/ . 300/ ( 300/0/ ( ( .390/ ( 5739 ( 57390/ ( . 5594.554394905./039.3/5./0.08 .79.0784 .07-8 %0/4349 .0/ ( 3: 7:0/ ( E85074 .7440/ ( /08430894 0.0/ ( 507.730/ ( 3897:J/4 3.895.! # $ # &#!$% %0807:08.8990380 ..9.5041./4 . 553#:0 3207.! # $ !! #& .789458.3 3890...04. . 3/. . . .71.5.04.420. -0.3. . 408 90178941. -0900394.88970880/ . ( 8:9:5 ( .9.907 ( 09907 ( -:9907 ( .9 ( .2508 . 03901.:942. ! # $ !! #& %8 1.03390 570803.04.398 .789458 4.39..:780.033 4190 2 .04190 84347.553 .43843.3/ 0.. . . . 3/. . . .43 ( 9039 ( .79 6:.990 ( ( ( ( ( 3907309 ( !039.2508 5.7907 47/07 990 -. :78 ....844.! # $ !! #& %0 1.4941974:-0 ( .553 .708 ..748847/ -4:3/.2508 099-0 ( .943907441 ( . -90248950710.3:.7/147.70/897088 920/./:994..0 10.3:.6:70/3.8..3:.9.! # $ #% ' # &% #% ' # &% #92 4714 418500.-0 920/.3 !479::080./44/ .3/ 38.0 -:9 703.30808 574-..30 .70.-0 920/0#:88.5.-0 920/ .90..8810/3 8..84304190/893.3/7.3/897088 920/ ..702.3/.9:70841..3:.08 .3.25041.848.3 .47/394792 .0 98.08.70. 03803903. .:7 %88430419010.3 !479::080 0700.757434:3.82.-08 /893.0/0503/843903:2-0741 8.-08 ...8.-0 923 792418500.-0 .704..24:3941920948.9.8.7.8 -..3/.24:394192094-057434:3.0/ %0701470 90.0/ 923 90144190.30.94387.-0 9.3/.4397.0.80/43908..3:.0 .0.9:708417..! # $ #% 38. 0 %0 748413 -09003:38970880/8.803903.08948..80/438970880/8.3:.3 ..347/8 9.2489/8.3/84208.9 70.0.0897088.42570880/.079.389.550.94.990.-089..7039770:.24:39 4192099.-08 .! # $ #% 3897088 920/ .55.-08903/ 94-0..7803903.7 %820.73907.3/349 4390949.99079903803903.-08.:7.8 03044.03 38 /0503/843903:2-07418.-0841.9.090572.3:2-07418.080 38792 8-. 7 .0 803903.90/ :.4397.9./.08 .08 /0243897.! # $ #% 3 38 9047/89.08.9.79../0.3/.-087085438-0147803903.08 57434:38 .77908970880/ 8..0.70:8:..3 .07-8330.:38970880/.3/.9.703472.9.9.94347/8 05705489438 .3/390774.07-80 1:3.7.9.0 803903.08.:.84-08970880/ .07-8 .0792 .3/ 41903.07-8 3.1172.43903947/8 034:38 2. 943 3897088 920/.705708039.5. 8970880/.! # $ #% $00.-08-07 .0890/110703.3:38970880/8.0-09003.3/.3:.7. -4.250.-0802039 .! # $ #% 3900.090 8. 90..55742. 9.08.2092094 -057434:3.2489908.890 8.0/.-0802039. 4/. . ! # $ #% 347/0794.3/90 8970880/8.0. 90:38970880/8.94347/8 .4257088.3/70/:.0.-0841430747/8 9 908.3/.43903947/8.-0.0 8.20920 4:2:89..0.44/7923 38 4:300/9484/43 89709.4:9 .0:38970880/1:3.07.-083-09003 .757434:3. 7070/:.! # $ ' # &% ' # &% 8..42570884341:38970880/ 8..0741903.84:3/..4200.0/9490 30:97..-083 38 .-08-0.3/.4.40839080 8.708:94190. . 70..0/-90 . %830:97..4..30:97.947011479 %08. 8574/:. 232.. .:.88.79.548943.9434190.24:3941..-7.7.430 990 943:03.47/8...907089084:3/41 38 .3/706:73..40 543020343. 943 ( ( ( ( .2508 41 ( .7.:9 574/:.943 54947.! # $ ' # &% ..507 30:97. .0419830:97.:7703.! # $ ' # &% 0..:8041901706:039 4.943 90 38.40.. . 07.94 09907 .3705708039 90 38543020.:7890 2489390.407.40 7..94..5020. -0.9 .3:.3830 09907.4208 905430209.3/80..0 31.50208. . 90/3909.-4:9 .843 9479480 -44/ /.90:7 5.7.:09 8070.39 84.. 0 04 0: . .9039 1.2039 5. 0243 ..7.:9 6:47 2..943 . 0 4 4 44 4: :0 : :4 .3074:8 .6:07 .5020 $503 .: 0.:8 !743:3. .8 /0243897.2. 0 4 : .30 503.07039 5043 .3 05.-0-04 7.797 .7. .408 8970880/47:38970880/ .0..90890 8503 5743:3.7/0399 9.3!479::080070.899 7.7..7941 38 .0 .4397.943770:.90 ...84.4083 38838.! # $ ' # &% %848841/039941.75.. 0 :38970880/.! # $ ' # &% '40#0/:..90-09003 -031:.43:3.42243 3847/8.9.07.943 .43909 470.3/70/:.9073.90/$500.0/ /0503/343 .4089. $420.250 90.94334330. 3/20 .804:. 39057.3/ . -0.420. . . 07-.89-09003.0147284190.3 7008 ..9.943 ..1172.40 70/:.3/30.250 3 2 90.9320.3-0700.! # $ ' # &% %8.3/.9.24890397043792.4397.9073.0 .393 /1107039..33 470.943. 0 1.42014880/ .5.0 7/0.3/ 8:-899:943/7:835.! # $ ' # &% 34/ 1.8198574-029.30 054: /491474: 0.8430/70509943.784157.-.79 8009 . 7:3 82 /.9490780 4:/-0..30.808 ..250 . .990738 70.! # $ #$%# $$ #$%# $$ :89.8970885.0.. .9094902097.897:.9:704190 .0780 54344.9:7041.-08354097 70.902097.0 '.947.3:.897:. 7423 .88970880/8.. :99439075709..//8 10.! # $ #$%# $$ ..548.3743 %08970885.99073 147.0/9907438970885.9:70419047/ 0 8947047/8:3/078970885.9470.39/0391310.-.07 25479.990738.73908970885.03.01.47/394..430 9.947/0394..9907341.47/8.99073 3/:/-079.:783854031472 .73078.3047/ 902.47/ 857434:3.3/013/9 /11.841..3:9907.3.0/940.. 07..8041 703...E .70 2.70 0..E .703472. 1470.250 070.8970880/ %890.7.! # $ #$%# $$ 47/8970888.E .-0 ..325479..47/8 .08.4794147/8.3:.7941 5743:3..E .708970880/4390.395.943 $420...89 8.9070/-90... 9084 38 43989:73 .039943/.07 ! #%&& $ J943./4 2097O540 0.90789.! # $ #$%# $$ 47/83!479::080.. 0241J.39 390-0 4-0.-0 .3/ 0390.9047 30.898.507 ..05488-908 4147/897088 34308570/423../47 .088.8 8970884394-0147090.943.55742...5.7 /..89 !745.-047/8 .4 .7 4394 8.9840.89 4:-0897088 . 24/04 -4394 . .0 0.395.4:943 1J.3/90708347.8 8970884390.74J943.704304190490794459438 4190390708..0732039 54947..74J943.70570/423...7 ..39 :390/ 70.-0 !..749430 ..39 .8. $ 490 ./07.4 4.81.43974 54.0 2574.943.1F 089:/.425:9.90 831.3 .89 $97088439700-0147090.0039 4859.8 89708843430-0147090. 3/./04 38 25479.30 .943.7. 943 98...35743:3.7307 3.! # $ #$%# $$ 43.0.:843 47/8970883 38 9982:950 14728.905743:3.:914790 0.943 .4741 90...:7..3/:3570/..7:203931.-9 7057080398 4302470/11..34907.3.9. ! %$ $ ! %$ $ .0754478503 94 84:3/ .39073:2-0741 5430208 914489.9 .7090:801: W W .9433 38 .0390831.4770..0390. 7841900.5.9741 83.7307841 300/8420847941 7.-80/ :9900.3:.7089743 31:03.3/0399300/894-0 089.0/-9054344..890.-0034:.0.2.943415743:3.943 470..70 34970.7307.543020..705708039.0 .9.! %$ $ 0. /1107039174270:.943949085403.4/ 390710703.420 3945...5430208.! %$ $ %8807054309. %0574..907894.8:./0.8:.70.-0.82-48.4330.0 . .03793 .3:./03910/- 9882-4 !4309.7.82-48443903943..7. 03 90 03.! %$ $ !4309.5489078 909-448.09.425090.3984:3/81472 .40.3/4:98 39014435.-08 9.9-033078 %084:/-0..39570803.94341.3/.3/490 70.7432039 43.40.3/ .43843...4389.82-4884:/-0:80/ 1706:039 0850.080..9094!479::08084:3/8 . 4250903.0394741.:/3/594381472 .! %$ $ %0.4084:3/83. . -009 0. /1070390/4.9 20. . /45479::H8 . . -90 39 790 5.70./4.42. .. ./05. . -9 9 5 85 03970. . /0.4 0. H. /05H . . /4.4:/ 5.-4:9 4:9 .70. .42. .:. /05.: . . 9.-0 2:945. -.42.9 /./4.70. H. /05094 . . -4:9 /4 . 03970. O. /0O9240 . . /0.4 . . -09 -0/ 70/ 03970. H. /05H 0. F. /05F . . -4 94 3480 5.70.42./4. O. ./0-O. . 550 03970. -.9 -./ . F. /05F 0. .8. /0.. . 9 4 2:945./4. -4.70.9 .42.4. :. /054:.4 . . 390.0 80206:. -:9 41 4..0390025479::H8 8020.4842/0:202/4 . . -44 5: 5:8 03970. . 40. /0. :. . /0:. . . 1.907 49 ..7 03970. 8.0. /0.. O. /0O924 . . -449 4: :80 /1070390/4. : . /45479::H8 . . . 8147906:04. 5 5. 2. 5 . /4 5479::H8 . . . 8. 08 :.4. 8 . /45479::H8 . . .4. 074 44 :. . /45479::H8 . . 4...8 :. 80 . . 3984:3/81472 .. /45479::H8 .7.5..: %0.4250903.43843.:.4243..0394741 . . 4.. :. - -. . /45479::H8 . . 9 9.-0. . 8147906:04.907 09907 2. . 9 . /4./4.203900317.70.6:0.42402.907 5.424. /45479::H84: 949. 7 . ...7. .. 17.7.4/45479::H8 .5..4243. . 4.8:.843 :. . ... . /4 5479::H8 .4243.5.094 ...7. . 4.. /0. :. /. / . /4 5479::H8 . . . ./45479::H8 . .9 49 8020.390390704. . .5 .4. 2.420 :. 2 . /45479::H8 . . 07 503 8020. 30.4.390. 3 . /4 5479::H8 . . .8147906:04. 9 .9 2. . /4 5479::H8 . . 4.. 09 4 :. . /45479::H8 . . .H0 9.4. . ..0.90 8020./09.4.:025479::H8 .390 57433. . 8..02 4:4202 6:.47703413.7./.390. 83 1307 8020.424./05.8 ..8/45479::H8 .7. 6:04.3/45743:3..20390 ..48423. . 005 07 :..4. . ..5./:394 .4243.7. /4 5479::H8.. . .420.390 025479::H8 .04/07008/4 390747/0$! . 70/ .7 3408908428020. . 4. 1 147 :.. 1 . /45479::H8 . . 3 :.07 . ..4.. . . /4 5479::H8 . . 390. 0 .0 8020.4. . /4 5479::H8 . . 93 9.3 340890842 8020.390025479::H8 . . 39.8. 8020. 0 ..390390704:F /45479::H8 547F22. .43843. . 9 90 340890842 8020. 98 9.390025479::H8 . . .43843.39./0 4025479::H8 547F22. .8.39057433. 08 :343 8020. 42 -7 .. 88 .0897.-47/.884-7048902.Q903.!741 #.8.7/4$.4397./4830890890 439. 80/85484 5.5.7.9485041430 4:5470 2.