DEVELOPMENT OF ARTS AND CRAFTS FROM 1000 B.C. TO 600 B.C.A STUDY M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly Thesis Submitted to M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in ANCIENT HISTORY AND CULTURE Supervised by: Dr. U.P. Arora Greek Chair Professor Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Submitted by Priya Saxena DEPARTMENT OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND CULTURE, M.J.P. ROHILKHAND UNIVERSITY, BAREILLY 2012 CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled “The Development of Arts and Crafts from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. A Study” is an original work carried out by Priya Saxena, in the Department of Ancient History and Culture under my guidance. She has fulfilled all the requirements, relating to the ordinance, prescribed under the regulations of the university for submitting the thesis, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Department of Ancient History and Culture of M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly. Date : (Dr. U.P. Arora) Greek Chair Professor ACKNOWLEDGEMENT To convert the object into the subject to be seen by our eyes imagination, Subject knowledge, Proper initiation, firm determination, hard work and accumulation of all above concepts play an important role to achieve the desired aim and to reach the required destination. Although it is a certain facts that Proposals are decided in the world of eternity. Our proposals may be granted, if we analyze and observe these means in a Practical wave of truth and facts, related to the particular concept. The real picture of these proposals seems to be finalize in their real shapes on this earth of different views by some special creations of God who may be our Parents, Our Teachers, Our friends and any other near and dear helping us as our guide and well – wisher to proceed further and to reach the approach. These special creations of God make our mind competent and bring us in the magic world of different colours to fulfill these blank but proposed pictures. Regarding my thesis, Thank you sounds so formal and inadequate when I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the most valuable guidance provided by my esteemed guide Dr. U.P Arora. He not only shepherded me so deftly through the maze of research but also taught me to sift wheat from the chaff. How to convert the seemingly meaningless data into meaningful information and how to turn that meaningful information into a powerful vehicle to arrive at my conclusions, nobody else could have taught me better. On my painstakingly long and arduous journey, his kindly, soothing and presence never deserted me. It would possibly not cover the magnitude of his kindness, patience and help to extended to me. I am very thankful to the Ex. Head of the dept. of Ancient History and Culture, M.J.P Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, Dr. R.P Yadev and A.k Sinha sir for providing me the valuable suggestions which were helpful in my thesis. I am greatly indebted to the present Head of the dept. Dr. Abhey kumar Singh and my other teachers Dr. Shayam Bihari Lal, Dr. B.B. Yadev, and Dr. Pankaj Sharma for providing me the valuable suggestions. I express my deepest sense of gratitude to Dr. Anoop Ranjan Mishra for their constructive guidance and encouragement which have made this work well documented. I am extremely grateful to Prof. J.N. Pal, Allhabad University, Allhabad and Prof. R.C. Takran, Delhi University, Delhi for their enlightening discussions that were a part of my thesis. I also thanks to Dr. Aparna Mathur (Assit. Professor in North Eastern Hill University, Shillong) and Dr. Renu Shukla (Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, K.G.M, Dehradun) has been a great source of inspiration for initiation of this work and throughout the period of study. She never turned me down whenever I needed her help on a short notice. I express my most genuine and sincere gratitude to both of them. I am particularly thankful to Arora aunty for her kind co-operation and familiar attitude. My heartfelt thanks to the library of National Museum, A.S.I., I.C.H.R., J.N.U at New Delhi, A.S.I. Dehrdun, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar, Farook Collage, (Kozikode,Kerala) and Rohilkhand University, Bareilly for providing me access to the world of books and relevant material. and other staff faculties. Manoj Kumar Gupta (Typing Zone) Suresh Sharma Nagar. Haridwar). Dr. I am thankful to Dr. I shall be failing in my duty if I do not thank to my husband Mr. I am grateful to the authorities and staff of these Museums and Institutions for allowing me to study the material. Monika typed out the manuscript and Mr. Haridwar and Panchala Museum in Rohilkhand University. New Delhi for granting me research scholarship. Rajeev Pandey and Mr. Mohit. Dr. Gurukul Kangari University Museum. Priya Saxena . I have no words to express my gratitude and indebtedness to my mother. Dehradun.Prena. who always encouraged me to achieve the desired goal. Ms. Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya. New Delhi. Bareilly helped me in typed stage of this work. Inlaws and friends. and my child Aanya. I wish to express my grateful thanks to ICHR. My sincere thanks to Kulpreet Kaur. ASI. Neeraj Verma. Dehradun Dr.I would like to special thanks to Mr. I consulted the National Museum. Neha Datta. In connection with the present study. Dilip (Assistant Professor. My sincere gratitude to both of them. for his valuable assistance. Bareilly. Deepak not only treated me like younger sister but always encouraged me with their kind and positive words. my senior colleagues at Kanya Gurukul Mahavidyalaya Campus. Ant. Tr. SS AV Br.ABBREVIATIONS AA AB AHNE AI AN Ap. GB Govt. GS Asta ASI As. CU DN Ed. BU Ch. Hindi tr. IA I. Eng. DS Ap. IHQ JBORS Aitareya Aranyaka Aitareya Brāhmaņa The Ancient History of the Near-EASt Ancient India Anguttara Nikāya Āpastamba Dharma Sútra Āpastamba Gŗhya Sútra Astādhyāyí Archaeological Survey of India Āśvalāyana Śrauta Sútra Atharva Veda Brāhmaņa Bṛhadāryaṇka Upanis ad Chapter Chāndogya Upaniśhad Digha Nikáya Editior English translation Gopātha Brahmana Government ‘ Hindi Translation Indian Aechaeology (A review) Indian Antiguary Indian Historical Quarterly Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research . Śatapatha Brāhmaņa Sadvinsa Brāhmaņa Taittiríya Aranyaka Taittiríya Brāhmaņa Translation . SB Sad. PGW PGS Proc. Mandukya Upanis ad Ochre Coloured Pottery Potteries in Ancient India Pancavimsa Brāhmaņa Period Painted Grey Ware Pāraskara Gŗhya Sútra Proceedings.JBRS JAOS JIH JNSI JBAI JRAS JUB KA KS KU KSS KU MS Journal of the Bihar Research Society Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal l of Indian History Journal of the Numismatic Society of India Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Jaiminiya Upanis ad Brāhmaņa Kautilya Arthasastra Kathaka Saṃhitā Kauṣitaki Upanis ad Kātyāyana Śrauta Sútra Katha Upanis ad Maitrayaņí Saṃhitā Mundaka Up Mundaka Upanis ad MU OCP PAI PB Pd.Br TA TB Tr. TS TU VI Vinaya Vol. VS Taittiríya Saṃhitā Taittiríya Upanis ad Vedic Index Vinaya Pitaka Volume Vajasaneyi Saṃhitā . 1-22 23-41 42-57 58-76 77-103 104-123 124-134 135-179 180-194 195-201 202-205 206-219 . Present Approach. Preview of Previous Work.CONTENTS Chapter Topic No. II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X State Formation and Urbanization in Ganga Valley Trade and Commerce Arts and Crafts – A Brief Survey Metal Textile Beads Potteries & Terracottas Miscellaneous & Other Craft Conclusion Appendix Bibliography Map Plate Page No. I Introduction: Source Material. Pañchāla ware because this area is its epicenter.P. The region of the Kuru Pañchāla (The fertile land of Western U. miles. which helps to preserve organic and inorganic material including iron artifacts. Haryana and Modern Delhi) provides us legendry accounts of archaeology.INTRODUCTION The history of artistic advancement of the Vedic people may be started with an examination of sources in which many enormous examples were mentioned.0000 sq. The Indo Gangetic divide. if the northern most portion of the Bari doab is included in it. The whole region has thrown valuable light on various aspects of life of Vedic Āryans. is about 35. The archaeological aspects of the Kuru-Pañchāla region is marked by the presence of the Painted Grey Ware2 (PGW) which could be describe as the Kuru. The region figured among the sixteen great political units called Mahājanapadas into which the whole country was divided at the dawn of the historical period1. The compilation of the later Vedic literature was the most glorious epoch in the history of Pañchāla. mode of production and material perspective of Vedic economy. In Geographical terms this area covers the Indo-Gangetic divide and upper Gangetic plains. The advent of iron marks the technological advancement which was affected the agricultural pursuits. From the archaeological point of . Stability in the settlement pattern of Vedic Āryans must be changed the economic life of later Vedic people. The soil of the plains of Punjab and Haryana is generally alkaline.. to 600 B. . but references can be gleaned as to the state of contemporary arts and crafts.C.C. the discovery of iron and growing arts and crafts played a prominent role in growth and development of Vedic Āryans. PGW and NBP deposits can largely be utilized for the study of material and cultural development of the people during this period. The early Indian literature is typically religious in character. The gradual transition from nomadic and cattle breeding life to settle life employed in agriculture and the coming up of a new class order which replace the old aristocratic social constitution. Consequently. Archaeology has proved to be a corresponding source of evidence for this study. emergence of territorial kingdom and various craft behabiour in the period of 1000 B.view. Archeology has thrown helpful light on the various aspects of material life of northern India. the elimination of old and configuration of new collection. On the basis of obtainable data and sources the present study highlights the progression in agrarian economy. Besides agriculture. In the later Vedic manuscript we can see a transformation of religious conception. While literature has revealed and filled up the gaps which archeology had left open. e.C.C. The Ṛgveda is supplemented by three other Vedas. Maitrayaņí. and Kathaka saṃhitās. the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda. containing nominally the knowledge requisite for three different kind of priests officiating at sacrifice respectively the sāman or udgātri . Ṛgveda is the collection of 1028 hymns divided into ten mandalas or books. The Yajurveda consists of two different texts. the Saṃhitās other then Ṛgveda have special significance in so far as they were largely complied in western Uttar Pradesh. The Yajurveda is one of the most important and informative part of literature for studying different accounts of economic life of the later Vedic people. to 600 B. namely the Sāmveda.. the adhavarya and the atharvan or añgira (fire priest4). they contain such a large number of allusions to the surrounding customs.C. namely Taittiríya. belief and even the events and the personages of the age3. i. The hymns of this Veda are recited specially at the samāyāga. The praises of god who are supposed to honour the ceremony with their presence and prayers for the prosperity of the worshiper and are the main subject of these hymns5. The later Vedic literature generally covers the period from 1000 B. it is not much significant for the historians.Literary Sources:The Vedic texts compiled between 1000 and 500 B. the Black (kṛṣṇa) Yajurveda and the White (śukla) Yajurveda. . manner. The Sāmveda has importance of the first text in the history of Indian music. Though. Most of hymns are prayers addressed to the various gods. There are three recessions of the kṛṣṇa Yajurveda. The Atharvaveda is a late addition of the trayi. Arṣeya and Vaṃsa Brāhmaņa . These are eight Brāhmaņa tests are attached to the Sāmveda such as Pañchvimśa Brāhmaņa. the Chāndogya Brāhmaņa. ” The Brāhmaņa texts have considerable importance from the viewpoint of social and religious information of this period. Jaiminíya Brāhmaṇa. The White Yajurveda survives in only the Vājesneyí Saṃhitā. To the Atharvaveda belongs the Gopāth Brāhmaņa which is divided in to two parts namely. Along with it consist prayers. The Ṛgveda belongs to Aitereya Brāhmaņa and the Kauṣitaki Brāhmaņa. To the white Yajurveda belongs the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa and it consists of one hundred adhayāyas.The Atharvaveda is the oldest monuments of Indian medicine. It derives its name from a person named Atharvan who was the first priest who produces or invented fire by attrition7. Sāmavidhāna. It is divided into 20 books which contain 6000 hymns. There are fourty chapters in this text. It castes a supplement to the Taittiríya Sam ̣hitā and is concerned with a few sacrifices. The book contains reference to the life of common people from “the cradle to grave8. the three Vedas namely the Ṛgveda. the Saḍaviṃśa. Devatādhayāyana. . These are written in prose or partly in verse and contain the formula of performing sacrifice. beast and other harmful elements.The first four are important from the historical point of view and rest are the only index of Sāmaveda. To the Black Yajurveda belongs the Taittiríya Brāhmaņa. Sāmveda and Yajurveda. formula and charms for protection against evils sprits.The characteristic features of the black Yajurveda are mantras or verses. Púrva and Uttara. These contain explanation and discussion of the ritual as part of which the mantras were to be uttered6. The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa belongs to the Vajasneyí Samhitā. These Upaniṣads are Aitareya. its first four chapter are useful.Their main concerns are theosophic character. Chāndogya. Praśna. It may be stated that the study of later Vedic economy remain partial without Nighaṇtu literature. The Brāhmaņas are two sets of text which were later held to constitute Vedenta the end of the Veda in the sense of constituting both the final part of the Vedic corpus and the final aim of Veda as knowledge. Iśa. Max Mullar suggest that like other Vedic text the Upaniṣad maintain a place in the literature of the world as some of the most astounding productions of human mind in any age and in any country10.Other next important works in the Vedic literature is the Āraṇyakas or forest books. and deal with the mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice. The Nighaṇtu contains three section divided into five chapter but for the purpose of present study. while Taittiríya Āraṇayaka is attached with the Yajurveda. Kena. Bṛhadāryaṇka. Chandas (matrics). The Bṛhadāryaṇka Upaniṣad is the part of the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa. Taittiríya. The Jaminiya and the Chāndogya have also considered as Āraṇyakas. and Jyotiśa (astronomy). and Māṇḍukya Upaniṣad. Nirukta (etymology). Vyākarana (grammar). Kauṣítaki and Taittiríya. The Vedic literature was followed by six Vedaṇgas viz. Siksha (phonetics). Kaṭha. . There are thirteen Vedic Upaniṣads which are closely related to the Brāhmaņas. The Upaniṣads are very informative source of the Vedic literature for studying the material and cultural life of the people. Kalpa (ritual). They are found at the end of the Brāhmaņas and from a transition to the Upaniṣad9. The first two are attached with the Ṛgveda. Muṇḍaka. Kauṣitaki. Śvetāśvatara. The three important Āraṇayakas are Aitareya. Maitrayaņí. The four important Dharma Sútras are Gautamā. the common feature of most of them is the record of the ancient Āryan ruling dynasties. Varaha. Kurma. The chronological stratification of the Mahābhārata is still uncertain. Vayu. . Agni. Narada. the Śrauta Sútras. Bhagavla. The Gŗhya Sútra connected with domestic rituals and discussed the socio-religious and economic life of Vedic period. Sútra meaning thread whence a rule stated in abbreviated form presumably for easy memorization11. Bhavisya. It is difficult to us the materials drawn from the Mahābhārata for one particular period. They afford us for greater insight into all aspects and phases of hindusim. Matsya. the Grhya. The Púrana ̣ s corresponds the authentic convention tradition in the history of Vedic literature. include. its idol worship. The Brāhmaņa texts are the source books of the Śrauta Sútras which deal with the Śrauta sacrifice. The Dharma Sútras deal with policy and directive of religious and secular law.C. for its narrative portion looks back to as early as the tenth century B. the Dharma Sútras and the Sulva Sútra. They are sectarian works. Brahma. Garuda. its philosophy and its superstition . Brahmavaivarta. Its mythology. its love of god. Markandeya. Padma. This has a paramount significance as a source material. For the study of the later Vedic civilization. the importance of the epics cannot be ignored. There are 18 Pūraṇas viz. Linga.A large part of Vedic literature comprises the Sútra texts. Vishnu. Sútras. The Kalpa Sútra is the most important which is divided into four classes. Brāhmaṇda. Āpastamba and Vaśiṣṭha. its theism and pantheism. Baudhāyana. its festivals and ceremonies and its ethics than any other work12. Vamā na and Skanda. With the emergence of new cities and towns. The Avestan test shows a clear sign of a structure. The oldest part of the Avesta comprises in the Gathas. superiority of the Brāhmaṇas and the Varṇa organization based on birth13. the use of metallic coins facilities for the growth of the agriculture economy and trade and commerce. The foreign literature should be utilized for the knowledge of Vedic economy and cultural contacts. All these changes have been recorded in the Buddhist literature. growth and development in all spheres of life took place as the advent of iron. The languages of these literatures are closely related to the Ṛgveda (Indigenous text).The Anguttara Nikāya mentions the sixteen great political units called Mahājanapadas14. authenticity of the Vedas. The Buddha preached his teaching at the end of later Vedic period and he vehemently criticised the performance of the Vedic sacrifices. The fire worship and the cult of Soma are a common inheritance in both of them16. The Vedic Yamā and Avestic Yima played a common role.The Buddhist Literature:The historical importance early Buddhist literature may be assertained for the study of later Vedic economy. are set of 17 hymns whice were composed by Zarathushtra. In this respect the Iranian and Persian literature are very informative source material. The lraian Mithras (Vedic mitra) remained one of their main gods. The Avesta is the sacred book of the Āryans of Iran who were a branch of Indo-Europeans. The Vedic Āryans had cultural and commercial contact with the other contemporary cultures undoubtly the similarities and resemblence of . Other Buddhist text tells us about the material life just after the termination of the Vedic period. It was in materical form like the Ŗgvedic hymns15. customs and ways of thought of the Vedic and the Avestan people are so similar that there can be no doubt the two cultures are very closely related17. The institutions. use of metals in various fields and other craft materials. well-fired grey pottery on which pattern in lines and dots were painted with black pigment before firing18. Archaeological Sources:A culture is characterized by a number of technological aspects such as agriculture. The main concentration of this ware is in the western part of the Ganga Yamuna doab and in the immediate west of this region. About 850 PGW sites have been discovered in this area.N. measuring about 1400 km from west to east and about 900 km. techniques and other authentic and well defined records from the discovered materials. Undoubtedly. This site has been excavated by K. Dikshit. As the late Harappan cultures were emerged into a new culture known as a Painted Grey Ware culture. handmade and wheel made pottery. these great cultures have continuous development. The PGW culture was first indentified from . Archaeology represents the exact data about the chronology. The objectivity of history are dependent upon the archaeological aspects. Ahichchhatra:Ahichchhatra is the capital of North Panchala. Painted Grey Ware is a fine wheel made. The distribution of PGW cultural assemblage has been recovered from various PGW sites.C.both culture have been noticed. The PGW sites are spread over a vast area. from North to south. The various late Harappan cultures had long rather undistinguished innings that took them even beyond 1500 B. Hasitnapur:After the discovery of PGW at Ahichchhatra. Atranjíkhera has yielded a calibrated radiocarbon date of 1034 B. Atranjíkhera:This is the most important site of the PGW. PGW occur even during the IB period without any deterioration in fabric and shape. from the mid PGW levels20. the site was re inhabited by the PGW people23.C. Significantly PGW was discovered at all of them.Ahichchhatra in Bareilly district in 1940-4119. which are either explicitly named in the Mahābhārata or believed by local tradition to be associated with the epics21. Dikshit and Dr. Five occupational levels have been revealed from Hastināpur with a definite gap between the periods. Gaur. Allhapur24 :Sri K.N. Atranjíkhera have yielded a good number of iron objects associated with PGW culture. situated in Etah district. Among the other significant findings. Period IA is representing the PGW habitation. The PGW was reported from the lower level (IX stratum) of the excavated sites. After a small gap. However the occurrence of PGW . providing reliable circumstantial evidence that PGW considered the hallmark of the later Vedic Āryans22. excavated by R. Hastināpur is situated in Mawana Tehsil of district Meerut excavated in during 1950-52 under the direction of Brij Basi Lal. Romila Thapar was excavated Allahpur site which is situated in Meerut district.C. systematic excavation were carried out at over 30 sites near Delhi. Haryana) and Dadhri (Ludhiyana district).P. J. There are four ancient mounds at Sardargarh. who claims that continuity has been noticed in the cultural remains in pottery as well as in painted designs29. Sardargarh:Sardargarh is small village site situated in Suratgarh in Bikaner district. The site was inhabited by the PGW people for a long time. PGW is interlocked with late Harappan culture and suggesting a smooth transition28. Sravasti:Sravasti is situated on the boundary of Gonda Baharaich district of Uttar Pradesh. Bhagwanpura:From Bhagwanpura (Kurukshtra district. There is a distinct gap between the late Harappan and PGW layers.throughout the phase confirmed a longer duration of the PGW then hitherto imagined25. A beautiful form of PGW reported in a limited number30. From these sites PGW does not occur in an independent horizon but it is mixed with the subsequent NBP ware. Joshi. Both these sites present the PGW before the Iron Age. a tributary of the Yamuna. This suggests that Harappan had abandoned these sites before the PGW people occupied the mounds27. Aalamgirpur26:There are other sites such as Ropar and Aalamgirpur situated in Meerut district (Uttar Pradesh) on the bank of river Hindon. The site of Ujjain lies in the Garh Kalika mound of the ancient Ujjayani in Madhya Pradesh. The Bhagwanpura site was excavated by Mr. . The excavation at this site revealed a single phase culture of PGW along with its associate types in other wares and related material31. Noh34:The excavations conducted at Noh in Baratpura district by the department of Archeology. The mound is locally known as Gwal Khera. the work was unsuccessful to reveal a regular PGW horizon. Mathura32:Mathura was well known for its importance. After the three session excavation during 1969-70 a few sherds of PGW have been found. it is to be believed the site of Indraprastha. PGW sherds are picked up at the vast Katra mound. fairly rich deposit of Painted Grey Ware. Thapli:The discovery in Garhwal was made at Thapli which is situated on the right bank of river Alaknanda in Tehri Garhwal 2 km south west of Srinagar across the river. Here. The Painted Grey Ware was collected from Mathura. Among the new features of PGW at this site are the motifs like criss cross and a leaf filled with parallel hatching. Khalaua35:This site is situated in khalaua village 16km from Agra. Rajasthan have revealed. It yields a separate phase of B and R ware which lies above the OCP and below the PGW deposits. The early Painted Grey Ware deposit as Mathura is represented by lower most three layers33. PGW was recovered from lower level of the mound. .The Trial trenches were dug in 1955 at the Purana Qila mound in Delhi. While. J. The cultural sequence recovered from here as pre PGW.The occupational deposit at the site have been classified in four fold culture as OCP.D. and 1975-76 by M.Kosambi was the capital of Vats Janapada in 6th c. PGW and NBPW. Sharma. PGW and NBPW.R. BRW. . Abhipur:The ancient site of Abhipur is located one km west of the village Abhipur. in Etah district. and 2005-06.C.B. PGW (Associated ware BRW and RW). is located on the left bank of the Kalinadi. Although four habitational deposits of cultural periods are noticed at this site namely as OCW. Kosambi was excavated from 1949 to 1965-66 by G.The ruins of Kosambi was found from the left bank of Yamuna.P.Jakhera36:The site of Jakhera locally known as Kusak. Rohilakhand University in 2001. of Ancient history and culture of M. 2003-04.5 km east site flows the river deoha.The site was excavated in 1974-75. The excavation work was completed in three sessions as 2001-02. about 1. The excavation revealed the interrelationship between the BRW and PGW and detailed information regarding the material life of the PGW people. in the North-West of Kasganj tehsil.N.Sahi. post NBPW cultures. BRW.The region was far from 35 miles South–West from Allhabad.The site is excavated by the dept. NBPW. in district Pilibhit37. Kauśāmbi38:The prominent site of Kauśāmbi was situated in Kosamgaon of Majhenpur tehsil located in the Allhabad district. to 600 B. Besides this.C. firing and finish. Copper technology was learnt with all its complex .C.C. date for PGW culture. date of PGW culture.B. Allchins called it a `hallmark` of this cultural period39. Haryana and Punjab. From 1000 B.C.Although the chronology of PGW culture was still uncertain. they possessed an advanced technical knowledge in the field of metallurgy.C. From various excavated sites different dates were suggested by the excavators. Chakrabarti has been mentioned 800 B.C. From the Kosambi excavation. The Painted Grey Ware culture marks the advent of the Iron Age in India. Gaur has been suggested that PGW culture was started from 1200 B. Lal has suggested 1100 B. was decided on the basis of Ropar excavation. Material Objects:From the excavations of the PGW sites various types of objects have been unearthed. The PGW people used the pottery with its highly evolved techniques of manufacture showing an excellent fabric. These numerous objects shed light on the material culture and economic prospects of the PGW period. religious and economic. It seems.C.C.C. to 600 B.C. Material evidence suggests that the inhabitant of PGW sites were pastoral agriculturists. Generally most of the sites are located on the bank of river. to 700 B. thus all these sites have brought to light various aspects of PGW culture as social. The PGW culture was covered the western part India as Uttar Pradesh. While D. As.K. PGW was dated as 885 B. in Gangtic Plain. Thus it can be ascertained that PGW culture was persisting about 1000 B. all objects help in reconstructing the history of their cultural and commercial contacts with other world through trade. R. from Hastinapura B. techniques during this phase40. The Later Vedic Economy of B.M. stone. the work on Vedic people and their socio-cultural history have been published by prominent historian. Srimali in his book. The prominent historian K. The author states that the changes that have taken place in northern India (Upto to Narmada and the Vindhyas) from stone age to Mauryan have been analyzed by examining the development of various new industries such as stone. sculptural art. In the book. glass and miscellaneous objects have been unearthed. bone and ivories. . The Arts and Crafts in Northern India. rock painting and engraving seal. A large number of implements and tools available from the discovery of sites prove the popularity of metal techniques. the ethnography and arts of the Pañchāla region. Neelima Dahiya has tried to make such studies and thereby understand the developmental procedure and techniques used in arts and crafts stuffs. Terracottas. Preview of Previous Works:Subsequently. On the basis of combined testimony of literary and archeological sources. pottery. Certain objects represent the complete picture of the socioeconomic life of Vedic Āryans. The History of Pañchāla incorporated the sources for evaluating the geography. coins and textiles etc. beads. Concerning the aspects of arts and crafts of later Vedic period numerous work have come to light for the study of the different material perspective of the contemporary societies. metallurgy.P Roy is the complete structural frame work of the origin and development of later Vedic economy. Beads. P. He puts us back on the compact ground of facts and their accounts. She throws light on this problem by the study of cultural material. 15. According to her PGW culture seems to have introduced iron in Northern India. It is multi pronged reconstruction of vexed problems is quite thought provoking. found in the respective period. The extensive distribution of iron ores in the Indian subcontinent is evident. The author represent a definite number of original hypotheses which are consists in many areas. His ideological remarks are notably different from the slew of revisionist rewritings.Rajesh Kochhar presents a unbiased approach in his book. An Iron Age culture in Northern India published in 1976 underlines the characteristics features of the region covered by the distribution of the Painted Grey Ware culture. characteristics and significance of OCP. Chakrabarti imprint in 1992 defines the beginning of iron in early historic India. The Vedic People.K.C. The author marks the adventurous and potentially hazardous theories. Sinha’s Potteries in Ancient India has been a popular textbook.) a valuable source material book for Painted Grey Ware analysis. PGW and NBPW wares have been observed in this book. She examined the question whether the metallic tools were ample to make some impact on socio-economic life of the phase. The analytical examination on the techniques. R. their History and Geography. Gaur has provided the Painted Grey Ware (ed. The Painted Grey Ware. B. Although the author present remarkable synthesis of specialized writing on the potteries. . In one of his articles titled as Iron and Urbanization published in 1985 in Purrātattva No. The author observed that the chronology of PGW and NBPW also coincides. Vibhba Tripathi in her book. The early use of iron in India of D. Although. Perspective in social and economical history of Early India and Ancient India have a better balance between theory and practice than most of books on other subjects. Present Approach:Reconstruction of the past is an important part of the exercise of nation building41. These articles are based on researches in field such as metal and metallurgy. terracotta. Sharma’s other book is Urban decay in India. Along with these books of prominent historian various articles are published in a joūrṇals and periodicals. Sharma in his book Material Culture and Social Formation in Ancient India (1983) presented that in ancient time metallurgy and other techniques took centuries to spread and produce results of any great social consequence. pottery. The present work examines the history of later Vedic period . Agrawal in his book entitled as Copper Bronze age in India offered the significant role of metal in ancient India. What was the impact of iron on the society? How iron changed the socio-economic structure of Indian history? In 1971. Influenced by the archaeometallurgy in India B. D. This is a well-liked book with the information of latest researches on the subject. the iron technology has not been sustain it. beads and other crafts and artistic material which shed light on the socio-religious and economic prospects of ancient Vedic natives.P.Sahu presented a book entitled as Iron and Social change in Early India published in 2006. The issues has to be evaluated on the basis of evidence is whether the use of iron in India led to a qualitively different economy and society.P. R. Dr.He has tried to fall out that the beginning of iron technology did not play a causative role in the early Historic India.S. territories and state formation in the development of urbanism . Arts and crafts played a distinguish role in the state formation and urbanization.C. to 600 B.with all possible evidence and tries to synthesize it into a well developed stage of economy. While the researcher Was urbanization a revolution or a gradual . the reseacher selected the arts and crafts industry of 1000 B.Archaeology furnished different kind of objects and material in finished and semi-finished form and a close study of these mute objects of hoary antiquities enable us to understand the development of arts and crafts and the techniques implicated there in. This work will be throwing invaluable light on the imperative aspects of arts and crafts with an examination of diverse finds. The development in various existing and other technical industries and the emergence of cities and towns creates an excellent environment for urban economy. The story of continuity and development of the arts and crafts has been traced from the period of present study. The excavated sites revealed the facts of a long back history of developed arts and crafts industries. In this study. But in the present study stress has been given that what was the authentic phenomena of industries. The excavation reveals the facts weather the chronology of PGW and NBPW will be coincides or is there any co-relation between the late Harappan and PGW? development? What was the role of Iron and craft materials in socio-economic phenomena? What were the reasons behind the decline of a prominent metal of first urbanization? How they contributed in the advancement and development of PGW culture? The analytical studies of PGW sites will be present through this research work.C. ceramic craft. The śilpa employed by human being were numerous such as ivory. The early Vedic age was the age of war and pastoralism but later Vedic age was an age of agriculturists who were leading passive and advanced lives. Kauśāmbi and Hastināpura.has probed only the data collected from the period of 1000 B. The Trade and Commerce in later Vedic age will be discussing in the third chapter. They formed a part of Vaiśya class therefore they were devoted to production and trade and commerce. weaving. gold smithy. The sites of PGW may help us in tracing out a communication line. The fourth chapter will examine the development of arts and crafts. The excavation proves the existence of at least three towns in Ganga valley like Ahichchhtra.C. The fifth chapter deals with metal craft.C. to 600 B. The means of transport played an important role in the development of trade and commerce. smith and carriage making. The work is divided into ten chapters included Introduction. in Northern India. The commencement of town towards the end of this period is suggested by such words as town (nagara) or town deweller (nagarin). The Ṛgveda refers two classes of traders namely the Paṇis and vaṇij. The II chapter deals with the State Formation in Ganga Valley. The important factor of research is the examination of source material both literary and Archaeology. The general term for arts and crafts was śilpa. The flourishing arts and crafts industries made significant contribution in the later Vedic economy and material progress. The introduction of iron in PGW period is a rebellion. Several terms occurred for iron in later Vedic . During the later Vedic period trade became a specialized profession of the Vaiśyas. human figurines. circular beads are noteworthy. Such beads have been discovered from various PGW sites. bird figurines. In the sixth chapter textiles industry of later Vedic age will be discussed. cylindrical. biconal. bones. lobular and pyramidal. Weaving of cloth was considered to be a very useful job. stones and metals were used to make beads. amulets and. Their varied shapes comprise square. Varieties of material such as wood. Terracotta was the material which was used for making objects such as animal figurines. Archaeology furnished valuable data for the study of different kinds of metal and its technologies. reels. household objects have been profusely fashioned in terracottas. śyāmayas and loha (?). In the post Vedic times this art was much developed. Beads help in studying the economic prospects of people who used them. hexagonal. globular. It is such a distinctive ceramics that the Allchins called it a “Hallmark” of this cultural period. firing and finish occupies a significant place in proto historic period called as Painted Grey Ware. The pottery with its highly evolved technique of manufacture showing an excellent fabric. beads. In the eight we will discuss the contribution of potteries and terracottas. The seventh chapter deals with the beads industry different kinds of ornaments mostly necklace and earrings were made of beads.literature as śyāma. The beads of ghāţa shaped and short blunt edged bicone. The entire segment of Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa is devoted to rites associated with ploughing. several ornamental objects like bangles. clay. rectangular. as is evident from literary texts. for it resulted in material prosperity of the weaver and ensured his sound economy condition. pendants etc as well as discs. . . The chapter X deals with all important facts and findings discovered and analyzed in whole research work.The chapter IX deals with other miscellaneous arts and crafts of Vedic period. It is the resolving component of thesis. cit.3 18. p. Habib. p. 9. Patna (1984) Habib Irfan and V. Excavation at Atranjíkhera. Roy B. p.31.C. I.K Thakur. Gaur.P. The Vedic People.. A.10-11. p. A. p.cit. p.252-60 15... The Later Vedic Economy p-13.C. 6. B. p. IV. p. op. 1 Ibid p.. p.. Irfan.. 170 Bhargava P.cit. I. 7.9 22. p-36 Roy.. Excavation at Hastināpura and other explorations in the upper Ganga and Satluj basin.43-44 and A. op. History of Panchala. An Introduction to the Study of Indian History..cit. 1963-64.213. p. R. op.I.R . op. p. K. B. A Study Vol I. No. I. Ibid. 1971 Habib Irfan and V. 1 20. There History and Geography.8 19. p.A.. New Delhi. p. New Delhi 2003 5. 10-11. p. Kosambi. New Delhi. 259-60. Rajesh. Lal. Srimali. 2.D.I. 14. p-6 Lucknow. F.29 17. Roy. Kochhar Rajesh op.M...I.7 . Max Muller. No.16 13. The Vedic Age and the Coming of Iron c 1500-700 B. SBE .. p. 8. 14 10. op.. Vol.L. Roy. (1954-55).REFERENCES 1. India in the Vedic Age.cit. A. 1983. 16.L.16 Ibid p-17 Bhargava P. P. K Thakur.N.. 3. 1xvii 11.P..8 21.cit.P.. B. p-36. D.B.cit. Kochhar.P. B. op.. p. 38 12. 4. ) Radiocarbon and Indian Archaeology P.cit.C. Santiniketan.P.R. P. op.. 1958-59 27. Kochhar. 1970-71.A. Kochhar.S. Rajesh.cit.xiii . Rajesh.A. I. M. 1956-57..92 34.D.(1990) Excavations at Jakhera 1985-87: An Interim Report’. 1975-76.R. p.cit.40-41 25.123 38. 1954-55.p.. Painted Grey Ware (Seminar Procceding). (ed. J. The Painted Grey Ware – An Iron Age Culture of Northern India..33 30.A. p. p. Ghosh (Ed.) Ghosh and Chakrabarti.VI. Dikshit..15-16 33. R and B. Vibha. p.R.A. P.117 40. Joshi.` The Allahpur evidence and the Painted Grey Chronology` in D.23-29 35....A. I.. I. Sahi. p.217-222. Man and Environment Vol. Allchins. Triphati.86 28. Tripathi. A Study of river terraces of Ganga river complex in Garhwal Himalaya. p. psp. 1965-66 36.20-28 31.K. 1981 32. I. p.R.23.R..P Agrawal and A. p.N. op.cit.. Arora U. The Birth of Indian Civilization. op. K. (1973).9 29. Anoop Mishra. (1975). I. 1962-64.R. p.N.. Gaur R. p.6-12.150 26.A.A. 37. Vibha. Excavation of Abhaipur (A Painted Grey Ware Site). op..25 24. 32. Excavation at Bhagwanpura. Verma. A. Adaptation and Other Essays. Khan A.. Triphati Vibha.P. p. I. and Dubay U. 210 39. Purratattva. Few kingdoms were situated towards the south of Ganga3. Their further expansion in the east had taken place and the kingdom of Kośala.STATE FORMATION AND URBANIZATION IN GANGA VALLEY In the later Vedic texts we find a transformation of religious conception but the relation of the Āryans with the native population. Brāhmaņa texts refer to regular summer raids of the Kuru-Pañchālas in the east2. Expansion in the Gangetic Valley was mainly a matter of clearing forest and founding agricultural settlements4. the gradual transition from nomadic and the pastoral life to settled life employed in agriculture. and the coming up of a new class order which replaced the aristocratic social structure were important factors for the correct evaluation of the Vedic people1. Kasi and Vedeha were established. The early Vedic Āryans settled between krumu (Kurram).The extensive use of iron . the elimination of old and formation of new tribes. Gomatí (Gomal) and Kubhā (Kabul) rivers in the west and the Sindhu group of rivers in the east. In the later Vedic texts it records that scene of activities of the Vedic people was shifted to Ganga valley towards the east.The ancient land of Kuru Pañchāla region corresponding roughly to present western and central Uttar Pradesh. The expansion of many tribes and kingdom towards the north of the Ganga was spread widely. The Ṛgveda furnishes valuable information regarding the territory occupied by the early Vedic Āryans. It was the heartland of the main activities of the Āryan culture age. amba. or gavedhuka nambe sasya7. there is numerous reference to cultivation from which we find that there were four stages of operation. The Saṃhitās and the Brāhmaņas speak of the different seasons for the different grains and also of the two seasons of harvest. Masura (lentil) til (sesame) khalva (Múng) and other identified grains such as anu. gavidhuta.facilitated the clearance of jungle on a large scale and intensification of surplus wealth which was accompanied by the development of trade industry and handicrafts. wheat (traticum compactum) and barley were found9. . wheat (gadhūma) lentils (masura). (2) sowing of seeds. Thus an improved knowledge of cultivation coupled with the use of effective implements enabled with the peasants to produce more surpluses thereby leading to the emergence of towns in this period8. Knowledge of cultivation seems to have made considerable progress5. (3) harvesting ripe corn and (4) threshing and separating the straws from corn. viz rice (vrihi). In the Vedic literature. beans (māsa). (1) ploughing the field. pancium milicum and italinm (anupriyāngauah). Agriculture:The importance of agriculture can be accessed from the story of king Janaka’s ploughing the land. In The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa entire section is devoted to the rites. pulses (khaluah) and vetches or delichos uniflorus (khalakula-kulattha). At Atranjíkhera rice. viz. The Bṛhadāryaṇka Upaniṣad mentions ten kinds of grains6. barley (yava) seasum (tila). (wheat) Śyāmaka (Millet). The excavation at Hastināpura and Noh brought to light the remains of rice (Oriza Sativa) from PGW level. commented with all these stages10. discovered from Atranjíkhera. six. Katia. Kampil and other sites. Chakrabarty is of the opinion that iron did make the already existing structure economically more productive but he is not prepared to ascribe any revolutionary role to it in social change14. twelve and twenty oxen clearly indicates the practice of deep ploughing11.The description of yoking four. However Sharma observes that PGW people practices field agriculture but iron does not seem to have played any significant role in it13. It is noteworthy . must have been very helpful in breaking the hard soil of the Gangetic plain and preparing the field for cultivation18. plain axes and ploughshares etc were used for agricultural productivity but to what extent did iron play significant role in the urbanization and agricultural productivity12. hoe. The plough is described as paviravant or Pavarivam in the later Vedic texts15. The archaeological evidence of greatly enhanced agricultural produce comes from a variety of iron implements including ploughshare16. Iron played a significant role in urbanization of early historic India and it is proved by literary and archaeological records. sickle17. socketed. Hoe from Aalamgirpur and Jakhera. In Atharvaveda there is description of some sickle like implement as sune used for reaping. The finding of iron ploughshare from at Jakhera with other iron tools justified the advancement of iron technology. hoe chopper etc. It is recorded in the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa the use of plough drawn by twenty-four oxen. eight. It has been also emphasized that the agricultural base of the Gangetic valley was laid down by the pre-iron formers and that no important new crop was aided after the introduction of iron. The metal tools like sickle. Several factors were contributed in the Gangetic Valley urbanization as a local agricultural base. The three important institutions and assemblies of Vedic period were Sabhā20.that iron tools were not only useful in breaking hard soil of the Gangetic plains but also for powering water for irrigation by tapping artificial sources of water such as digging of wells. Vidatha22 and Parisad. Sabhā and Samiti are mentioned respectively only 8 and 9 times in the Ṛgveda and 17 and 13 times in the . But priority should be given to the factor of political power and centralization. Kaccha wells are attested at Jakhera and Atranjíkhera associated with the painted Grey ware level19. Samiti and Vidatha (Scope and Functions):It is a correct emphasis to say that the Āryan occupation of Ganga plains could not have taken place without iron. The family was the basis of Vedic state. In the Vedic literature we find that Āryan society was organized on the basis of political institution which governed by the king. Samiti21. Amongst them vidatha. In another verse of the Ṛgveda Sona is said to confer a son who is sadanya vidathya and sabheya23. frequently mentioned in the Vedic texts and mainly confined to Ṛgveda is a word of obscure sense. The tribe was under the rule of its chief or king. an organized trading activity and a central political power structure. formed the Grāma. An aggregate of villages made up Vis (district or clan) and a group of Vis composed the Jana (tribe). Role of Sabha. connected with ties of kinship. A number of families. tanks and canals. In the Atharavaveda the term Sabhā and Samiti are used to explicate two different concepts. sabhā was an ancient institution.Atharvaveda whereas Vidatha is mentioned 122 times in the Ṛgveda and 22 times in the Atharvaveda24. Jaiswal thinks that Samiti was the national assembly of the whole people of Visah.S. Similar the simiti. According to R. agricultural also. How for the Vidatha was served as an instrument of government is difficut to determine26. It shows that in the samiti during deliberations. The Samiti was the most popular assembly of the Vedic Āryans.” K. military. electing and reelecting the Rajan or the king27. religious and social. Sabhā was the possession of an individual and from these we may infer that it did not always mean the gathering of village community or a . Mostly it was interested in the military and political of tribal life. Learned persons went to the Samiti to discuss matters of religious and metaphysical importance25. Sabhā did not always mean the gathering of village community or a community hall in Vedic references.P. himself “brilliant not to be contradicted in the samiti”30. It had concern with animals. In the Atharvaveda there are few verses showing the deliberative functions of the samiti and the sabhā29. Sharma “It was attended by men and women performing all kinds of functions-economic. A Vedic text quated in the Pāraskara Gŗhya Sútra also states that the speaker wanted to prove. Sometimes it designated as the community hall where the meetings were held28. speakers were anxious to make speeches. Zimmer rightly suggests that in Vedic texts sabhā has been used for denoting several things one of which was the meeting place of the village community. community hall31. The sabhā was the king’s court to discharge some economic functions related to revenue. The Vedic text informs that sabhā acted as a judicial court32 and concern with taxation33 also. The Ṛgveda mentions that the king or the emperor used to attend sabhā, vidatha and samiti. Thus on the basis of Vedic references we are able to study the political life and activities of the earlier Vedic period to some extent. The existence of the samiti and sabhā express democratic element in the Vedic political through because both these popular assemblies enjoyed the right of debate and discussion. Regarding the political organizations of the Vedic age, we find from the Vedas that the family (Goha or Kula) was the ultimate basis of Vedic state. A number of families, connected with ties of kinship, formed the Grāma (village). An aggregate of villages made up the (vis district or clan) and a group of Vis composed the jana (tribe). The tribe was under the rule of its chief or king. In the Ṛgveda the term jana occurs 275 times and vis 170 times. It indicates that the social organization of the early Vedic Āryans was based more on the jana and Vis organization them on the basis of village Grāma generally translated into village. The jana was a category wider than the Grāma; in between these two was the unit vis-Rajan who was above the Grāmani was called the protector of jana34. Ganarajya:Ganarajya is an ancient term used in the later Vedic times for an obligarchy or a republic where political power remained not in one person but in a group of people. It is a Sanskrit compound word made of two terms Gana and Rajya. Gana exactly means ‘number’ the Rajya denotes rule or government. Ganarajya consequently gives the sense of the rule of number or the government by a group of people. The word Gana is used in the Vedic Sam ̣hitās often in the sense of host in reference to Maruts and Gods in general35. Panini equates Sangha with gana and also takes it in the sense of a political Gana36. The Buddhist literature discloses the existence of a large number of republics flourishing during that time in northeastern zone. The Greek writers of Alexander’s campaign found both monarchial and non monarchial forms of state prevailing in north western India37. At the time of Budha there were small towns and large cities. Six of them are champa, Rajgrha, Sravasti, Saketa, Kauśāmbi and Varanasi. All except Saketa significantly the head quarters of contemporary Mahājanapada are mentioned as great cities38. Janapada is a technical term used in the sense of a political community, a nation, a country or the territory of a state. It literally means “the seat of people”. Its interpretation as Gana or republic can be seen in the Astādhāyayí, Panini calls the yaudheyas a janapada39. For instance the Jatakas have references of Janapada and Nigamā40. Towns are however, more clearly classified in ancient Indian literary texts. The Manasara discusses 8 eight types of fortified cities rajadhaniya, nagara, kevala, nagara, pura, nagari, kheta, kharvata, kubjaka and pattana41. Similarly the Divyavadana refers to nagara, nigamā, karvata and rajadhani.42 as different types of towns. The words Pura or Nagara and durga are occasionally used as opposed to Janapada43. Janapada44 is one Aṇga of the SaptAṇga or saptaprakrti (seven constituent elements) of the Rajya. It indicates the subjects on the members of the janapada institute according to Śatapatha Brāhmaņa45. Urban life in the Gangetic valley had reached at best its initial stage by the time of the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa. Ayodhaya kauśāmbi, Varanasi, takshila, Mithla, Vaisali, chamba, Rajgriha etc. most of which gained prominence as capital cities and center of industries and trade in early historical period, appear to have been undergoing the process of development of later Vedic India. The foregoing suggests that the emergence of urban settlement in early historical period did not take place as early as sixth century B.C. however we admit that foundation for the emergence of the future towns may have laid in 6th-5th century B.C. but the urban embrays could attain the status of cites/towns only around fourth third century B.C.46 Politically janapadas, with fairly well defined boundaries had been formed and soon a few of them grew into Mahājanapadas. These four e.g. Kośala, Vatsa, Magadha and Avanti became super Mahājanapadas47. The consolidation of political system provided a common technological base and favorable environment for the growth of urban centuries in different reign. The uniform development of agriculture, transport and metal, stone and ceramics technologies became possible perhaps through a strong political set up48. From the later Vedic age, which roughly correspond with the PGW culture, as the socio-economic structure made a transition from pastorialism to territorialism states of a new type emerged; many royal officers come to be appointed mainly to collect the kings share in the revenues, and for the maintenance of law and order. With the growth of empires, political centers other than capitals also emerged as prosperous centers49. The satisfaction of material needs is the basic condition of social order. It shapes the socio-economic pattern so that the state may not be separated from its economic responsibilities. Political power is essential for regulating the economic principals. Animal Husbandry:Besides agriculture, cattle rearing was practiced with equal importance in the Ṛgveda50, two hymns have been addressed entirely to the cows51. Frequent references to cows, prayer to the deities for their protection52, safe shelter53 and food54 as well, suggest that these animals were regarded as wealth. In the later Vedic period Kshatr was associated with agriculture. The Satapalha Brāhmaņa mentions that at the rajasuya the king offered oblations to Indra at the house of ksatr and gave a bull to the priest as his fee55. Indra and bull, both are associated with agriculture. It is evident by the excavation at Hastināpura from where we find bones of humped cattle like cow, bull, buffalo and others like sheep and pig at the PGW level56. Prayers have been offered to the deities for having a large number of animals57 (especially cows) and good pastorage58. In the Atharvaveda there is a benedictory hymn of cow pen. Cattle breeding formed an important occupation of the people59. Cattle are necessary for cultivation therefore cattle meant food and wealth to Fish hooks were found both in copper and iron. A wooden image of Indra was sold for ten cows67. It was believed that imported some of the swiftness. The early Vedic economy was based on cattle wealth. butter and ghr ta (classified butter)65. Evidence of animal husbandry is also attested to the bones of cow. The occurrence of fish hooks from several sites suggests fishing was a part of economy64. The priest was paid dakshina in the form of cows.them. goat. buffalo. Camels were domesticated probably for carrying loads from one place to another63. But it also provided food in the form of meat. In trade cow were used as medium of exchange in barter system60. . strength and vigour of the horse. Cattle served as ‘an’ aid to agriculture. milk. Ivory objects available during this period speak of familiarity with elephants. Classified butter was necessary for Havana. pig and dog at Atranjíkhera61. Thus it appears that the PGW people consumed meat of beef and pork also62. Use of cattle as sacrificial fee was known to the people from the Ṛgvedic age. sheep. The bones found during excavation bear definite cut marks. Some of them are charred. Some references to the price of commodities in terms of cows are found in the Vedic Saṃhitās. curd. King Janaka is described as offering thousand cows to the sage Yaguavalkya66. Literary sources suggest that on special occasions horses were sacrificed and their meat was distributed among their participants. due to which cow was considered as the standard of value and the price of commodities were adjusted with them. in turn. As the urban societies basically depend on the rural countryside for their existence. Trade was an important factor of urbanization. Crafts specialization and industrial achievement caused to the growth of guilds which. Commodities loaded on the back of the animal were carried to distant places. trade has to be extended to these areas72. The Vajasneyí Saṃhitā enumerates numerous professions which were productive71.The Indus valley people probably used cattles grain. cloth and metal for the medium of exchange. helped urban . In the last phase of later Vedic age several towns emerged in Ganga Yamuna doab and this was contributed to the growth of urbanization and it can be suggested that urban economy was sustained by trade. Animals employed for transporting materials are called vāhana. It flourished with development of arts and crafts. The Iliad refers to weapons worth a hundred cows70. The Yajuṣ Saṃhitā prescribes several rites to be performed for gaining profit in trade. In the later Vedic age several factor were conducive to the development of trade and commerce. The values of the sacrificial horse used in the Aśvamedha was fixed for one thousands cows68. When Āryans had started leading a settled life in villages and towns which were the centers of production this aspect of economy developed. The cows and other cattle served as a unit and means of exchange of commodities or were offered as fee to the priests and other persons of skill69. According Vedic literature different articles were used for purchasing commodities. Economy:The development in agriculture and growth of cattle rearing play a crucial role in trade and commerce. dyers. barbers. carvers. chariot-maker. fishermen. attendants of cattle. basket makers. The . charioters. potter. The craftsman produced a variety of articles which formed important items of trade in contemporary world. seasoners of food. There were a number of factors like political social economic and religious which gave impacts to artisans for making objects of arts and crafts. crafts and trade. weavers slaughters.development. rope makers. footmen. bhāga and śulka to the king74. several classes of attendants jewelers. craftsmen and technique of making objects. The guilds not only ensured the supply of raw materials to their respective members but also looked after the consumption of finished goods and their profits to artisans. smiths and so on. goldsmiths. messengers. A large variety of professions are mentioned in the Yajurveda. There are references to commercial taxes in the Atharvaveda. The commercial taxes proved the development of arts. The later Vedic texts refer to several crafts. rise of new industries and growth of trade. fire rangers. The people engaged in arts and crafts had to pay three kinds of taxes. The aim of taxation is to protect and nourish the people75. bali. The growth of occupation had its impact on society and as it was largely responsible for the formation of many castes73. by organizing urban production not helped the growth of specialized crafts but also played a crucial role in the development of more towns. There is mention of hunters. washermen. ploughers. The guild therefore. Artisans and craftsmen in order to protest their common interest began to unite in various guilds which looked after their respective crafts. The development of urban life leads to subdivision of occupations. Settlement Pattern:The PGW was essentially a rural culture with simple moderate sized habitations. The rise in the wealth (accumulated through taxes and tributes or booty also) of the rajanyas and the establishment of fortifications.C have been amply testified by archeological sources77. by them at a few capital towns strategic for inter regional trade in the sixth-fifth century B. Thus people had already made a beginning in specialized production together with the emergence of a class of specialized craftsmen. The subsistence may have been based on agriculture but largely supported by hunting. Excavation at various PGW sites suggests that Āryans no longer lived a life of nomads. Hearths and fire pits have been reported from many excavated sites. In this period śulka was a tax to be realized from the merchants76. At Atranjikhera a pottery kiln was found which appears to be very important as far as craft activity is concerned. Such a social pattern. but spent a well settled life in their homes constructed . It has been justify that the PGW culture demonstrates that the society was moving towards more civilized way of life. The house plans are hardly available but the evidence of post holes (with circular and rectangular alignments) remains of mud and mud brick walls. which may have a thatched roofs. along with increased trade and commerce implying the strengthening of a mercantile community is the usual prerequisite for urbanization78.taxation was a remarkable development of the later Vedic period when territorial kingdoms were established. plastered reed or wood impressions suggest that the people were living in wattle and daub structures. standardization and metal. beautifully fashioned moulded terracottas. The appearance of towns at Taxila. Atranjikhera and other places has been assigned to the late stage of iron age by Vibha Tripathi suggests. Kosambi. This change leads to the emergence of a new socio-economic order. craft.25m wide road. brought about by progressive developments in the existing agricultural and industrial technology of the peasantry or the folk. This kind of evidence appears to be quite important as far as public architecture and settlement system is concerned. semiprecious stone and other archeological artifacts proliferate hence the sites have rich cultural remains indicating an urbanized stage. . In the phase according to her structural activity. a period which is generally identified with Mahajanapadas or second urbanization. Urbanization may be defined as a process of effective change in the collective life of people. Hastinapur. pottery and other objects tend towards. At Jakhear. and architecture.with mud bricks or mud. Thus many of the excavated sites not only provide materials for the study of urbanization. reflected in new planned patterns of habitation and new forms of art. Sahi (1978) identified a 4. a moat and a bund from the large settlement. It seems that population had increased considerably during the NBP as not only the number of sites increased from 700 (PGW) to more than 2000 settlements but also the size increased. but also illustrate the different stages of urban growth. generally monumental and controlled or regulated by some form of an overall authority79. This could be the first evidence of the PGW approaching the threshold of urbanization. old institutions giving way to new ones in all. urbanized life is a well organized and corporate life. political. social. .C.Thus. A careful synthesis of the archaeological data with literary sources would unmistakably suggests the Buddhist era in the 6th B. to be the period of significant transformation. economic as well as socio-political which in some form on the other must get reflected in the settlement pattern as also in antiquities. and economic shapes nourished in an environment of new ideologies. Handicrafts in the Vedic age. 5. K. Saraswat. 7.K. Yad dvādasagavena samvatsareneveyam—TS 5. P.2.27 Singh.64 Chowdhury.M. 1. Sharma.6. Up. An Archaeological Study. TS.2. 7.S. SB 7.REFERENCES 1.2 SB. Dilip K. 5.A. Br.2.S. Urbanisation in Ancient India. Chakrabarti. KapKS..SB. p. 4. SB.. KS 20.S. MS. 1. Ancient Agriculture and Forestry in Northern India. Ghosh Arvind Kumar.5. Sinha Renu.13 Sharma. Buth .6 Bashan. Ibid 14. Purrātattva 15.2. op.63 10. 7. TB. 6. p. AV.. p. JBRS. 8. 11. and G.5.cit. 32. VI 3.2. 1973. ct.2. op. Madan Mohan .2. Vol.2. Material Culture and Social Formation in Ancient India.73 15. 1983.3-5. R. Caturvimasti gavam va samvatsaram evabhisampadam I --. K.2. V.5. Part I-IV.71-72 13. Chi. 2.cit. A.. etc.5... Thakur.. 1977.6 12. 5.2.1. p. Iron and Urbanizationz: An Examination of the Indian Context.1 Sinha Renu.4. 91.149 .. Some Aspects Of Life In The Later Vedic Age .. 9. 3. Material Culture Gangetic plains during Ist Millenium B.4. 6.L.LIX. 1981.C.2. R. JBRS.8. 3.3.2. p. p. p. New Delhi. p. N.86 37. Glimpses of Vedic and Ancient Indian Civilization.cit..D.cit. RV.. Hindu Polity.4.P. 4.. 175-76 and 216-217 19.220 17. Santinketan...3. 3.1. p. A. K. p. p. op. 43.4.4. Chandro yati Sabhām upa. 1.79-80 27. 23.13.13 31. RV. p. M. op. Satra. Sahi. The City in Early Historic India. Roy.2 23.178 .90 30. Ghosh Arvind Kumar. p. Ghosh. Tiwari Shashi. The Later Vedic Economy.16...21. Rājā na satyah samitīriyānah I RV. Vidathyo na samrat I RV.P. 1973.2 33. op. p. Hindu Polity. Pāraskara Gŗhyasūtra 3..9 21.cit. RV.24. Roy. op.20 24. p.) Ghosh and Chakrabarti.194. 6. 1984..14.cit. III. 5 35.15 39. op.19. 1990. p.86 25. AV.3.P.92.4. B. p.cit.95 32. Astādhyāyí. 9. Jaiswal. p. (ed. Tiwari Shashi. Jayaswal. Janasya Gopām. 8. R. 1.149 20.1 36.91. P. Roy. 30. AV.. op.3.P. Ibid 18. Astādhāyayí.S.6 22. Gupta. RV.. 3.94 29. p. TB.1 34. B.cit.3 28. Tiwari Shashi. Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India.118. 3. VS. Sharma. Excavations at Jakhera – 1985-87: An Interim Report. p. Adaptation and Other Essays.199 38. VS. B.93 26. 3. p. gopā.3.A Suggestive Date. Vaidya. 8.58 50.5 58..11 55.11 59.91-92. p. 1973. Purrātattva No .2-3. The Arthasastra has mentioned Janapada and Durga.11.5 53. there are references to paśupā. op.1. TS. Thakur. 10-11. dogdhr.181 43. 6. For instance the Jatakas have references of Janapada and Nigamā .42.200 44. AV. A.A Suggestive Date.3.54-55. 14. Sinha.. 107-120 57.cit. V. RV.cit.200 41. RV. 1959. Artha.cit.cit.8. P. 6. RV. 6. P.152 47. p.14.2. p.77. 10. 2. AV.K. Ancient India.21 42. AV.6. Durga and Jana.11.).28.73.28.15 49. 6. p. 1981. 1. Tiwari Shashi. Vol.54... RV.1 54.101. Cānakya-sataka. 4.20 46. 7.2. Sinha. Ghosh. 10..40. A. 13 45. 6.1.7.8.. 6. The Historical Urbanization. p. Shashi. 1.. SB.79.7. Sat.5.1. VS.meaning herdsman. milkman. A.3.28. op.1 52. V. 6. Divyavadana (ed.2.2. AV. 1.10. op. op..L.169 51. The Historical Urbanization. 7. Purrātattva No . godhuk. p. Rāmāyana. RV.28. AV. 3. 5. RV.8. . p.3 56. Thakur.73. op. Grāmam janapadasyārthe I.28. As regards persons involved in cattle rearing.3.42.. while Rāmāyana has referred to Nagara.14.31. Br.13 48.K.K.Sāstra 2. Tiwari. RV..cit.K..43.1.24. ghr ta and dadhi(I 5.. Roy.cit. op.56 78. Two Urbanizations in India: A Side Study in their Social Structure.24..cit.etc.. JNSI.. op.53 .K.1.8. p.15-16.367 70. 6.2. p. op. B.107 75..2.etc.46. p.P. 1973. AV. p. Purrātattva No. p. JBRS. p..4..1ff 72. 17.33 67.. B.1-8 76. Altekar.1 69. which indicate that cattle rearing was practiced as a major occupation ince the early Vedic age.15.. 1.361 73. RV. p366 68.214 63.36 79. 60.cit.58. Vol. Roy. Roy. XXX..cit. B. 4.S.22 64. SB.P. 13. 8.P. Roy. The Bŗhadāranyaka Upanișad mentions milk. p.cit.29. Bŗhadāranyaka Upanișad. IV 12. B.P. S. p. op.108 77. 3. Ghosh Arvind Kumar. Gupta. B.4. p. 3. p. șașţim sahasrāśvasyayutāsanam ustrānām vimśatim śatā – RV. op.10.cit. Singh Madan Mohan. 1981. Roy.13) 66. Gupta. S.cit.P.1.cit. V. VS. LIX.. RV..5 61. 151 65. 8. AV.7.. op. op.9 71..4.cit.2.. Thakur. A.. Ghosh Arvind Kumar. op. Roy.77.. op.3 74. VI3.P.. p. 151 62.7..7. p.P. IV 3.1-2. Vol. B.P. II 1. VS.. Purrātattva No. widening knowledge of metals. and trading activities. and purchase. pani. These literary evidences clearly indicates that trade was practiced as a means of earning livelihood since early Vedic age. vaṇij. As regards to traders. In Ṛgveda and later Saṃhitās. evolution of medium of exchange and pursuits of trade. vaṇij2 appears to mean merchant. The later Vedic texts refer several terms for traders. which were center of production in this period1. sale. trading commodities and articles which were used as medium of exchange. The Ṛgveda refers traders and commodities at several places. Trade always plays a crucial role in the economic life of society. śresth which occur to mean as merchant. vaṇija.TRADE AND COMMERCE In the Vedic literature there were a number of references to the traders. During the later Vedic age Āryans had started leading a settled life in villages. there are various references eg. The progress in the economy of the Vedic people is well reflected in the agricultural pursuits of the peasantry. The Atharvaveda contains several hymns3 which were recited on different occasions by . Macdonell and Keith mention that they were an aboriginal nonĀryan tribe13. Yaksha7 also an account of its being derived from the root pan (to trade) has explained the term as merchant. Majumdar thinks that they were Babylonians14. They were considered as wolf11 and in behavior selfish.the traders to make their journey safe and bring a good profit. They had been identified with Paramians and Phoenicians15. Zimmer regards them as a niggardly merchant class that neither worshipped the Vedic Gods nor revered the Vedic priests. Possibly. it seems that greedy traffickers are meant by this term6. a Phoenician tribe. . one is Paṇis and other is Vaṇij. Paṇis was called as ‘Aradhash’ in a hymn of Ṛgveda9. They were rich and enterprising and were solely devoted to the cause of gain either through trade or usury8. The main basis of this identification lies in similarity between the two names Pani and Peunik. The Vedic Āryans offered prayers for destroying the Paṇis10. But no evidences founded by the archaeologists for their presence. they were merged with the Āryan society16. Indra has been described as a merchant in the Atharvaveda4. greedy. and cruel12. Several scholars have been propounded them with various tribes. It is difficult to ascertain the exact meaning of the term Paṇi Still from the description of Paṇis5 in some places. It appears that hostility between them did not continue for a long time because later portion of the Ṛgveda and the later Vedic texts do not refer to it. Some Ṛgvedic references indicate that Paṇis were the non-Āryans and they were perhaps a trading class among the Indus valley people. It means who is the follower of yajña. However Ṛgveda refers two categories of traders. Atharvaveda mentions the three viz. The suitable theory for exchange in trade was mentioned in Yajurveda18. Cattle wealth was the medium of barter during the early Vedic age. Patanjali also used this tern vasnikā once after Panini22. dhíḥ (Wisdom) and rucí (interest).” Other texts indicate that vasna was price. Balam (strength). The Iliad also mentions to weapons worth a hundred cows25. The value of the sacrificial horse used in the Aśvmedha was fixed for one thousand cows24. powerful and successful in his profession. King Janaka is several times described as offering thousand cows to the sage Yajuavalkya26. These essential characteristics make a trader physically strong. what demands and what he obtains by vasna20. Some references in Vedic Saṃhitās are mentioned in terms of cows as the price for commodities. A Wooden image of Indra was sold for ten cows23. Vasnikā denoted the worth or price of a commodity21. The Ṛgveda used the word vasna for both the thing to be bartered and also price. . Exchange for commodities in trade indicated as Barter. the priests were paid dakśiṇa in the form of cows. what he tills and reaps. Medium of Exchange:The medium of exchange was the actual phenomena for the development of trade. grain and cattle. “For an article of great value one who obtains less vasna says it has not been sold19. for expending trade and gaining profit17. Price and value of commodities were adjusted with them. Use of cattle as sacrificial fee was known to the people from the Ṛgvedic age.Some characteristics of the traders described in Vedic literature. Different things and articles were used for purchasing essential commodities as metal. In the Tattiriya Saṃhitā it has been mentioned that gold dust was paid as a price for some plant27. The Vendors and small traders carrying commodities in baskets or bundles moved from village to village for disposing them off. But in course off time barter gave place to sale and purchase. Swings were made of udumbara wood or bamboo shaft used to carry heavy load. Śatapatha Brāhmaņa refers the use of lead for purchasing rice28. camel asses. elephants. Different views were given by the historians in this connection. The Vedic texts refer that metal dust and solidified metal was used for purchasing commodities. Till now. The Vedic texts refer the term nis ka. the chariot and cart are mentioned as means of transport. which could used as a convenient means of exchange. The hanging cord was made by múñja grass29. In the Vedic literature. Oxen etc. Animals played a vital role in the transport of the traders. this practice is in vogue in village and towns. ‘O . Means of Transport:The Vedic Āryans were primarily a pastro-agriculturist people. were used as vāhana in this age. People carried the load on their heads and back on inconvenient roads and hill areas.The inconvenience in trade and disadvantages in the barter system became cause of the development of metallic currency. Horses. The Hiraṇyapinda denoted solidified gold dust used as unstamped metallic coin like the nis ka. As movement from place to place developed various means of transport were developed. However it was controversial that whether it was a currency or an ornament. there was another vehicle called the vipatha38. It is to be determined that trade was carried on through land routes and waterways.Singer you have indeed. and oarsman in the . Chariots were. perhaps used only in war and racing competition. the cart was considered as a symbol of social status34 and it carried the loads of wood35. Sambi denoting as sailor or boatman is used for the first time in Atharvaveda41. named anas31 and śakat a32. sometimes by one. It can be considered as property. some plant36 and grain etc. The cities in most cases located on the banks of navigable rivers. It was mentioned in the Vedic Literature that anas had a wooden floor which was attached to the axle33. The existence of boatman. The Ṛgveda refers to kinds of boats those which were used in sea for crossing the rivers (tarah) and other were used on the sea42. pole man. Śakat a mentions frequently in post Vedic times that Śakat a used to carry heavy loads and moved slowly37. which called as sthúrí. has been compared with a broken ship is sinking43. It has been appears the boat44 and ships were common in age. It was driven by two animals. Āryans were used two kinds of carts. According to Vedic Literature. As mentioned in Atharvaveda that the maritime trade was in vogue during later Vedic age40. which were connected with main trade routes because of smooth water transport facilities. Bulls were used for drawing carts. A kingdom facing ruin. on account of its utility. The land of Sindhu has been refered to as an emporium of seaborne trade. a rough vehicle for uneven roads and bed paths39. come from for in the chariot and the cart’30. Apart from anas and the ratha (chariot) and śakat a. Carts appear to have been widely in use. The business commodities may be classified variously such as agricultural products.contemporary society and the available data in earlier and the later literary sources defines that the later Vedic India was acquainted with navigation. thread. Commodities:The developments of urban life further leads to the subdivision of occupations. were business commodities. have not been unearthed from PG Ware. Barley and rice were exchanged for lead46. dairy products. garments. coverlets (pavasta). lead. rise of new industries and growth of trade.g. Different arts and craft were developed during the later Vedic age. These arts and crafts were used as the most important articles for trade and commerce. The progress in the economy of the age is well reflected in the agricultural pursuits. forest products and other products of art and craft45. The archaeological data did not trace any record of water and land transport. The later Vedic text refers to some articles used in trade. wood. Not a single cart. The Vedic text refers to jambila47 (a kind of large lemon) Haridra48 (turmeric) and Pippalí49 (pepper) as the mercantile commodities. animal skin (ajina). The Yajus Saṃhitā and Brāhmaņas have mentioned some name e. chariot and boat. They were not only as ‘an’ aid to agriculture but it also . Agricultural commodities such as grains and vegetables were sold to the landless people who used them for subsistence and for trade. Cattle were served as a major part of the dairy occupation since the early Vedic age. provided food in the form of meat. Animal skin(ajina) were used by the leather workers to make the goods like garments. On account of which the clearance of forests. footwear. butter and ghr ta (classified butter). gopā. sheep’s wool was exchanged51. Besides cattle forming. increased efficiency of craftsmen. Ivory was in great demand of trade in that period. The forest products are such as wood. goat. For obtaining games and other commodities. honey and different kinds of herbs. progress in agriculture. curd. house hold objects. Among these wood was used for various purposes as building construction furniture. Prayers have been offered to the deities for having a large number of animal and good pastorage. doghdr meaning herdsmen. milk. other animals like horses. It was confirmed by the Vedic literature that herbs were collected from the forest for curing diseases. The beginning of iron was effected the civil life. quickening of transport and trade routes have witnessed the beginning of urbanizations in Ganga valley. It . These products were sold by the persons involved in cattle rearing. agricultural implements and sacrificial stakes etc. In the Atharvaveda there is a benedictory hymn of cow-pen52. The wood was sold and purchased by the people for gaining profit in their trade. oxen and elephant etc were tended. Guggla (the exudation amyris aggalochum) was a costly fragment gum which was used for curing diseases and removing the effects of evil spirits. In trade cows were used as medium of exchange. godhuk. sheaths of swords and straps. Forests were also played an important role in trade and commerce. sheep. milkmen etc50. As regards these people there are references to paśupā. containers. Arrowheads were made by the teeth and bone of animals. a significant factor in urban growth. Different kind of metal and minerals objects were sold in the form of finished goods as ornament. Traders have been obtained maximum profit on his sale proceeds. agricultural implement and utensils. That had made considerable advancement in material life. . These commercial commodities have been brought to light a new economic phenomenon in business transactions. Trade Routes:Merchants are mentioned as moving to and fro for trade and commerce. These findings were reported from various PGW sites. Several medicinal commodities were collected from the forests. External trade. recovered from the sea. Pearl and conchshells55 which were used as an amulet or an ornament. Honey was also collected from the forest which was very useful commodities used in several oblations. must have developed as a result of trade links of India with for off places. Others commercial commodities such as salt56. This indicates that it was imported from the countries of the coastal regions54. The cities in most of the cases also acted as important marks and it would be observed that majority of the urban countries were located on the bank of navigable rivers and were also connected with main trade rocks providing water and land transport facilities. flowers (Lily and Lotus). weapons. enabling smooth trade with for off places. aquatic birds and fishes were obtained from water.has been called as Samundriyam53. Vipatha. has been compared with a broken ship is sinking60 this shows that boats61 and ship was in vogue in the age of A. denoting Sailor or boatman. People offered prayers to the god to protect them with the obstacle and difficulties of travelling. It was short and comfortable. There were two land routes one passed from the North and the other from the South of the deserts of Dasht-in-lut and Dasht-i-Kavir. The northern route started from Quetta and reached Helmand via Kandhar and another route starting from Baluchistan to Shahi Tump58. the region Punjab. The Atharvaveda mention the several Asuras of Sumerian and Assiyrian origion in the text on the basis of this. They extended towards the east and established themselves in the Kuru-Pañchāla region. facing ruin. is used for the first time59 in a kingdom. The land of Sindhu has been referred to as an emporium of seaborne trade Sambi. The Āryans were migrated from Sutluj to the Sarasvati Drasvati Valley and discovered some new trade routes. Sruti denoted the thoroughfare which was free from dangers. The Āryans were entered in India through Turkey. The PG ware sites help us in tracing out a communication line between Ropar to Indraprastha. The Ṛgveda inform us that Vedic Āryans were well acquainted with the geography of western India. Haryana. Iran and Afghanistan. meaning to go57. Mathura to kauśāmbi and Vidisha to Vidharbha.The Āryans followed the trade routes of Indus Valley people and developed some new routes also. Several types of roads were mentioned in literature as Patha. Parirathya (Suitable for chariot) and bedavar. .V. Mahāpatha. prapatha. The term used for road was Patha which means to move. It was derived from Pad. Uttar Pradesh and Afghanistan. it may be assumed that Āryans had contacts with Assiyria and Mesopotamia. There was always fear of being attacked by robbers and wild tribes. Merchants had to pass through dense forests and deserts which were beset with various kinds of dangers. The merchants were facing difficulties in maritime trade due to natural disasters like storms. Rau suggests that the sailor at first sailed along the coast and then from island to island62.External trade a significant factor in urban growth must have developed as a result of Skylax’s ‘discovery’ of sea route from the mouth of the Indus during the reign of the Achaemenid king. Besides jungle beasts and deserts problems. In fourth hymn that God! Save us from violence of the way63. It was for the travellers to entrust their garments and other belonging with reliable persons before they dared to go through the deserts. It was mentioned in Atharvaveda’s vaṇij Sukta. Due to excessive rains the mostly route of the jungle was difficult to pass. The Vedic texts have mentioned the miserable condition of merchants due to these difficulties of the path. On account of this difficulties the merchants were missed the sea shores. Travelling Difficulties:Travelling was most arduous and troublesome in those days. Parípanthins64 meaning thieves and robbers were also dangers for trader. During the early . Many prayers were offered to God for save them from the danger of road. The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa informs that the king wishing to perform the aśvamedha had to complete with same animals for making all the roads safe from dangerous beasts. Darius. currents and darkness. On the basis of the information gathered from Tattiriya sam ̣hitā. waves. Organization:Different arts and crafts had developed in later Vedic Period. The term devyanam panthanah occurred for the safe route. The term Śr es t hin occurred in the Vedic literature probably which means a leader or a chief of or organization. The early Pali sources mention the use of such birds66. This led to the growth of different groups of traders and promotes the organization. Several rites and prayers were performed before journey of the merchants. shore finding birds65 were set free when the voyagers were missed on high waters. hunger and thirst.Vedic period. in the sense of cooperation of traders and artisans has been mentioned in the Bṛhadāryaṇka Upanis ad69. The advanced stage of economy and material perspectives has resulted the organization and carvan of traders. All these inconvenience were mentioned in the Vedic literature. As it is evident from the Jatakas that the emergence . But śr es t hin in Vedic literature or in later Vedic literature have different meaning. The Vedic texts did not mention any guild or organization or the group of traders. The individual trade was in vogue at that time. The merchants had to pass the mountainous route. To pass through the sandy desert was no easy task. The related terms were śrais t hyam67 and śres t hata68 indicated the position and superiority of the śr es t hin. In the desert that travelers followed the nails that were struck in the earth indicating direction. The term Gana. They had to face some travelling difficulties like wild beasts. surplus productions and cattle rearing were developed during later Vedic age. The practices of haggling concerning price of commercial commodities may be gleaned from the dialogues between the purchaser and the seller. The leader of the guilds has been called as Kulak.of town.C. Not a single piece of metallic coin was discovered from the PGW level but different denominations were used for purchasing commodities. The hallmark of Vedic economy was the trade and commerce including external and maritime trade. After 1500 B. town life and the introduction of metallic coins realized the necessity of trade guilds. The Vedic texts have been mentioned metal piece like gold and silver as chief means of barter for purchasing valuable commodities. it seems that Harappan trade was discontinued and it have been received new impetus in later Vedic age. or chief. . Thus the associations of traders organized in a manner for promoting a specific economic purpose. The traders of different items were moved in form of Sārth (carvan) or leader elected by them was Sārthvāha. They have carried money from one place to another. ships. In the Buddhisht era. The most important element of trade and commerce was the commercial convention and business transaction. sea and sea voyage were witnessed the marked progress of maritime trade. Numerous reference of boats. which has been charged the economic phenomenon based on trade and commerce. Jatthak. The discovery of some new routes in Gangetic valley and across the Vindhyas gave rise to the internal and external trade on a large scale. This guild has been worked as a bank or treasurer. guilds were in existence in every city of traders. Different arts and crafts. merchants and artisans had to pay śulka. where the people could exchange their products. It appears that the occasional meeting places served as markets and fairs. it was a commercial tax or toll tax and it proves the development of arts. Trade was not controlled by the state. . Such gatherings where called sāmana.The common people. and crafts and trade. and beside barter and sale there were also other attractions. Sam.3. . Nir.S. 2. 3. B. Panir Van ̣ij bhavati I Panih Pan Nir. Roy. p.3. 1. 1. op. 6. RV. 1.9 20. RV. Astadhayi. 3. B.53.14 12. p. 10.2 21. 16. Mait.11. B. Agrawal.REFERENCES 1.cit.3 18.. R.. 5..1 96. p.1. 7. Vedic Age. 4.15.61.3. XII.36. 472 14. AV.15 hymns describe about trade in different terms 4.64. The Later Vedic Economy.241 p.2.348 VI. VI.184.4 13.50 19. 6.64. Panimsca Vaṇijah..P.49. AV. 5.60. Roy. RV.133.P.C. AV. op. 10..23 Vanik sukta is famous in Atharvaveda in 3.1.26 Roy.cit. 8. p.15. 9.cit.6.1 5. p..Sam. V. 1984.10.2 RV. 11.P. 5. Majumdar.1.13.7.2.349 RV.155 RV.17 6. Vaj.IV.6.4.8.350 17. 8.5.51.6 22. 3. III..180. 2. Yajurveda.472 15.15.24. 8. op.2ss ̣anat I Vanik Panyam Nenekti.61. Mahaveer. 2. 4.1-2.13 30.3.148 33. MS.3. 5.1.22 38. Altekar.1.34 37. Poona Orientalist .4.6.RV. 6.6. AV.2.15. No. Vol.2-7..2.2. JNSI.9 26. 1. AV. SS. 21. II.10 29.47. V. SB. A. Ap.16.5 24.8 44. come from for in the chariot and the cart. III.1. 6. TS. VS.25. In the early Vedic age there are several references to the seavoyages and sea going strong vessels. 1. RV. TS. VI. 4-5.2. . SB. p.10.33.S. SB.17 43. XV. RV.1. 1. TS.9.23. BU.15-16.2.3. IX .6.33 27. 5. Nirukta.30. 6. 116.19.2. 12. RV.3. Ibid.1 25. 8.6 40.2.5 32.8.1.18. 12. IV. Sunavam denoted a well built and a good boat.1 34.9. 4.2. p. Vol. O Singer. IV..58. P.9 31. The Ṛgveda refers to kinds of boats those which were used in sea for crossing the rivers (tarah) and other were used on the sea.7.3.11 36.4. 1. 1-2 28.17.” 39.. SB. Gode. AV. you have indeed.3.K. P.5. Nauka and Nava was the ferry boat for crossing the rivers. 41. 35. “Of the Vratya the mind was the Vipatha Matarisvah and Pavamā na (soma) were the dragger. AV.12.6 42.1.13.2. 2 49.1.3.cit.4.3. AV.7.15. 3. p. AV.24..45. Vaberujataka 67.31 63. GB.9 50.19.P. SB. including the sea transport is indicated. Roy. Water transport.15..7).28 58. B.cit. Roy. 1984..3 48.375 55.144.13. 6.op. 4. 22.1. Brah Up.1-2 54. RV. Roy B. AV.10. AV.15. I. op.14 57.380 69.38. AV. 6. 1. 1.4.1 68.2.. 2. 3.P.4 64. op.356 59. DN..7 56.cit.op.. p. Ibid.8 61. Ships with many oars were used for transport 62.1 65.3 51.6. B. op. Rau W..2 66.3... 2. Nirukta.p.19. p. AV.10 47.62. RV. 1984. V.1-10 52. Roy. 12. B.3.374 46.14 53. p. AV.17.cit.10. SB. SB.12 .P. MS.1.7.25.4. Varuna knows the boats in the sea (RV. 3. 3.6 60.cit. IX.12. AV. CHU.45.P. Śilpas were considered as a means of doing away with poverty2. Āryan and non-Āryan elements1. With the growth of agriculture economy there also developed several new arts and crafts. The PGW horizon represents a composite culture just as the culture revealed by the later Vedic texts represents an amalgam of Sanskrit and non-sanskritic. the Brāhmaṇs and the Upaniṣads which are composed in the land of the Kurus and Pañchālas. Craft is concerned with the industrial activity and artistic expressions. Craft is related with the . During the post Vedic times. The Painted Grey Ware shards have been found in the same area as are represented by the later Vedic literature. In order to do so people followed different modes of production and occupation which influenced their life style.ARTS AND CRAFTS The Vedic texts compiled between 1000 and 500 B. The study of craft is an essential key to the understanding of a people’s culture. comprise the collection of the four Vedas. In the cities and towns also there were several lanes inhabited by śilpins practicing specific kinds of Śilpa3. there were several villages which were the centers of production of objects of arts and crafts.C. Tvas t rhas been considered as the master of craftsman of gods. In the Pūraṇas both of them become indistinguishable. as the god of artisans and especially of metal workers (He was generator of Agni with whose help he could smelt metals. glass work.). In the Vājesneyí saṃhitā the only metal smelter mentioned in its whole list of various kinds of human being. It is the bronze or copper smelter called as ayastapa10. toy making. The material aspects of the Ṛgvedic culture can be reconstructed on the basis of economy based on agriculture. trade and commerce. The Ṛgveda mentioned Tvas t r . The term śilpa appearing in Aitareya Brāhmaņa has been desicribed as the imitation of devaśilpa9. copper. In order to give an illustration of śilpa. The Vedic texts refer to two kinds of Śilpas namely Devaśilpa and Śilpa practiced by human beings4. lead and tin have been mentioned in the Vājesneyí Samhita. The list of six metals like gold. It may be suggested that he made the Vajra of Indra and sharpened the axe of Brāhmaņaspati7. copper. it seems numerous miraculous act performed by divine beings were regarded as devaśilpa and the art of human being were to be considered as śilpas. potter craft. chariot making have been mentioned.household art than with the small scale or cottage industries. According to skill he has been related to carpenter or woodcraft8. He held an āyasí (axe) in one of his hand6. The basically utilitarian in which the efforts has been made to introduce aesthetic appeal. All these metals were known to Vedic society. iron. . weaving. bronze. tin and gold11. Probably. This text envisages a Viśvakarman5. The Atharvaveda also mentions iron. arts and crafts. Rbhus were also mentioned as the god of craftsmen. smiths. needles. These objects can be broadly divided into three groups. while lohayasa. borer. Metal:The advent of iron during PGW period marked the most important technological development which was going to effect the mode of production. axe. knife and bangle. Sthāli15 etc. ploughshare25. spearheads23. chisel. tas t r . shaft. lohitayasa21 and lohā as copper (red metal). Kalaśa14. In the Puruṣhamedha.C. clamps. . Krishna ayas or grey metal and it is taken as iron. it has been stated in the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa18. taks an17) and their products. bar (rod).The potter’s craft must have been common and the kulāla (potter) appears in a short list of craftsmen in a hymn to Rudra12. The Excavation have also brought to light different kinds of metal belong to 1000 to 600 B. viz. In the later Vedic literature there are references to śyāma ayas20. utensils and implements. pair of tongs24. (PGW period) Thus it may be useful to study the metal objects occurred from Painted Grey Ware and pre NBP levels in Kuru-Pañchāla region. a considerable multiplication of specialized occupations has been mentioned. arrowheads22. Spinning seems mostly to have been done by women. At later stage it was used in agriculture and other economic activities19. Various earthenware. Kumbha13. In the Vedic literature. “Wool and thread is women’s work”. there are references to the carpenter and chariot 16 wright (Tvas t r . have used to serve on both domestic and ritual purposes. The early use of iron was largely confined to weapons of war. Weaving was known to the Vedic people in a well manner. 1. The identifiable finds from the excavated sites comprised various kinds of metallic objects viz. Bateswar. while the use of iron drastically reduced the use of copper26. borer. nail parer. Among these. clamps. bolt. while tooth picks. dish. Allahpur29. Aalamgirpur30 and Ahichchhatra etc. Most of the tools of PGW phase are included . On the basis of objects their social and economic requirement of society can be attested.Weapons 2. Household objects and ornaments. Khalaua. it may be observed that nearly 730 PGW sites have been discovered so far in this area which revealed the material culture deposits of the PGW period. antimony rod. rings and bracelets. These objects are reported from Atranjíkhera. dish and needles were used for household purposes. and nailparer were the toiletry objects. Jakhera. The copper objects inventory of the PGW period shows that a majority consists of toiletry and miscellaneous household objects. The copper implements unearthed from PGW sites included antimony cum nail parer. Crafts tools and implements 3. antimony rod. tooth picks. bangles. Hastināpur. Iron Objects:Iron objects have been reported in association with PGW for the first time. needles. In the context of metal technology in North India. Copper arrowheads have been found at Hastināpur27 from PGW level while fishhooks are reported from Jakhera28 and Atranjíkhera. War Weapons and Hunting Tools:Copper Objects:Several copper objects have been recovered from various sites in Northern India. spearheads. lumps of iron slags and other pieces of iron objects have been recovered. Except these metals. fish-hook. Ornaments made of gold increases the beauty of people. While Harappan period have been yielded rich evidence of bronze objects. . blades and shafts etc used for hunting. It was considered as precious metal. Besides making ornaments the goldsmith made sacrificial pots33 and spoons34. silver.Arrowheads. rings. daggers. Bronze objects:There are only a few references to Bronze in the Vedic literature. protecting and killing the games for fun or safety Another tools sickle. Gold:Gold occurred in Vedic texts in several references. bangles. excavations have also brought to light other kind of metals like gold. hoe and axe have been reported from PGW level. It has been mentioned in Atharvaveda that vessels had been made by kaṃsa metal which were used at the time of sacrifice32. Archaeological evidences do not prove any existence of bronze objects in PGW period. lead and tin which belong to the period of the present study. The discovery of these iron objects especially ploughshare31 are land mark advancement in the history of agriculture. lances. ploughshare. The utility of iron for household purpose can be attested by evidence of needles. Bronze was mentioned as kaṃsa in the later Vedic literature. linen. Mostly. It has been considered that Vedic Āryans used this white metal on special occasions. ornaments were made by silver. While the occurrence of glass bangles from Hastināpura and other PGW sites were noteworthy. A wide variety of materials have been used for weaving like cotton. silk. in this period. The later Vedic texts refer lead and tin have not been yielded from any PGW levels. Besides ūrṇa.The occurrence of nine gold objects from Jakhera from mature PGW phase evidenced that these people were familiar with gold ornaments and objects. but the most commonly used was wool. where silver was found. Though woolen garments were manufactured widely. Thus a continuity and development in technological tradition introduced highly useful metal. Tārpya38 (linen) and probably. In spite of this its limited use is confirmed by discovery of only few object made of silver unearthed from PGW and NBP ware levels35. The most remarkable advancement in metal technology is the emergence of iron during the PGW phase. Silver:The word rajata occurs at numerous hymns in Vedic literature. The Vedic Āryans had immigrated to Bihar and Vidarbha. Karpāsa39 (cotton) because it was well known to the people of Indus valley civilization. It appears that PGW people used all these metals. Vedic Āryans were well acquainted with the use of kasuma (silk). wool. In post Vedic period there are numerous references for weaving of cloth by ūrṇa(wool)37. The early Vedic . 36 Textiles:The weaving industry was in vogue in the Vedic culture. These material were frequently mentioned in the literary sources. The existence and use of these objects. It was considered to be a very useful job. The clothes were not only increase the physical beauty but also related to the religious sanctity as prayer and sacrifices.Āryans might have adopted some techniques from Indus valley peoples. They were called as Vayitrí40. as referred in the Vedic texts are corroborated by archaeological evidence. stitching. The importance of garments can be attested by its use for various purpose. As needles43 and spindle whorls have been discovered from Hastināpura. Hulas44. This term have been mentioned in the literature confirms the developed stage of textile craft industry. All the sites having evidence of a well developed textile industry. . Vemon (loom). weaving. The splendid garments were the sign of superior socio-economic status. These objects prove that weaving was highly developed art during the post Vedic era. Atranjíkhera and Jakhera45. spindle whorls42 needles (súcí) have been recovered from the excavation of PGW sites. The objects like Tasara41 (Shuttle). especially women were engaged in this occupation. dying. Numerous objects related to weaving industry have been unearthed from PGW sites. Vedic people were familiar with the techniques of spinning. Properly decorated garment with beautiful ornamentation called peśas and supeśas. embroidery and decorating cloths with fascinating designs. Weaving technique were recorded in the Atharvaveda as a metaphor46 It seems that wool industry was functioning during Later Vedic period for manufacturing blankets carpets and coverlets. chalcedomy. long barrel circular. it appears that growth and development in the manufactured articles of cottage industry encouraged trade and commerce and contributed the economic prosperity the later Vedic culture. and pyramidal54. marble and quartz have been discovered from PGW levels53. Sharp instrument were used for manufacturing beads and for cutting. The term maṇi51 occurs in the Vedic literature denotes to bead and maṇikāra52 was a bead maker or jeweller. hexagonal. Beads:In Vedic period various kinds of bead were used as ornament and as amulets50. The stone bead comprises agate. Beads reported from various sites of Northern India.The existence of female weaver eg Vayānti47. globular. flattened. The Vedic period is marked by remarkable development in industrial life. siri48. spherical. Beads have been collected from PGW levels were excellent example of great skill and workmanship. The occurrence of . Different kinds of material have been used for making beads as wood. clay. short convex. bones. lapislazuli. have different shapes like barrel of cylindrical. rectangular. circular. biconal. In this connection it can be assumed that Vedic people have specialized craftsmanship in textile industry. vayitrí and peśaskaris49 indicate that work of weaving was done mainly by the special care of woman. carnelian. The significant occurrence of a large variety of beads from PGW sites is noteworthy. stone and metals. Thus. It was used as a Jewel for magical purposes and against evil effects. chiseling and boring55. 2005-06 p. khalaua. square and spherical. Jakhera59 and Bhagwanapura60. and metal must have been adopted by common man while semi precious stones were used by higher class58. Atranjíkhera. customs. The Painted Grey Ware was easily indentified by its light ashy colour. During the PGW period stone beads were recovered from Hasitnapur. Jakhera. bone. They have varied shapes like short and long barrel. Kampil and Kaseri. Sringavenpur. Beads made by clay. economic condition and set up of the society and contacts with foreign lands. Ahichchhatra57 . The paintings were linear and geometric designs . Khalaua and Sringaverpur. Kauśāmbi. Bateswar. Almost all the sites have yielded a rich variety of beads of different shapes. Pottery and Terracotta:Vedic literature contains numerous references pertaining to terracotta art and potteries. Thus it is clear that bead were not only used for decorative purposes but also help us to understand the belief. sandy-silt texture and non-uniform nature (Arora.beads in different materials. Metal beads have been profusely used in this culture. Different variety of terracotta beads have been reported from several sites from PGW level such as Hastināpur56. Beads have dating value as well as demonstrate the intimate connection between two or many cultures through trade61. and shapes on the sites of different cultures provides valuable clues in understanding their techniques of manufactures and trade relations between two countries. Copper beads were discovered from various sites like Hastināpura. Jakhera. Atranjíkhera.79) The vessels were mostly made of well lavigated clay and potted on fast wheels. It may be interpreted variously as a votive offering or as a devotional object. vases and miniature pots and chalices were also found (Arora et al. terracotta objects have been classified in the different categories as: Human figurines Animal figurines . Therefore this art was termed as people art64. The beginning of iconography may be traced back to Vedic period. The common vessels were dishes. 2001-02:122130). Terracottas used by different class of peoples on their religious festive occasions or for amusement purposes. jars . pots. The special significance of this art is the extemporaneous handiwork of simple folk. moulded. economic and religious life of later Vedic people. Clay is same used for both pottery and terracottas. However the pictures is not as sharp as it become later62. coil built. bowls and basins of different kinds. a souvenir or a toy. It seems that terracotta played a vital role as the source of history not only as a record of religious culture but also as a document of the history of art. wheel throw or framed by a combination of these techniques66. It seems that terracotta is the varnacular medium of figural sculpture in the world’s art. While techniques of throwing a pot or modeling a figurine. two methods were used for manufacturing terracotta figurines. However.executed in black. a magical image or portrait. Besides. The perforated vessels were found with three legs at the bottom. For the study of social. orange and red colours.The Aitareya Brāhmaṇa a clay elephant as a evidence of making clay figurine63. One is by hand modeling and another is moulding. are different. The moulded figures are pressed out of moulds which in turn only be made with the aid of models65. Terracotta objects may be pressed into shapes. Atranjíkhera. Atranjíkhera. While animal figurines included humped bull. Khalaua69 and Bhagwanpura70. pig and ram were important evidence besides this. Bhagwanpura . querns and grinender proves that all these objects were used by PGW people. Ahichchhatra. Mathura. dabbers and hopscotch were reported from Allahapur. Human figurines and animal figurines both were recovered from Painted Grey Ware level. Kampil. Jakhera and Kauśāmbi. Darau and Pariar. Jakhera and Darau. pendants74 and amulets have been unearthed from various PGW sites like Sonkh. Mathura. beads73. horse. . Sringaverpur. Terracotta ornaments included bangles. reels. Hulas. Hulas. Bateswar. Thapli72 and Jakhera were collected from PGW level also. Ornaments Religious and ritual objects Games and toys Tools and implements Household objects Other miscellaneous Such a large variety of objects made by clay have been discovered from PGW sites. terracotta seals and other objects for household purposes like stoppers spindlewhorls. Human figurines both male and female are the most remarkable finding from Jakhera68. During this period various rectangular discs have been reported from several sites like Hasitnapur. Pariar. bird figurines from Noh71. Jakhera. pastles. feeding cup. Terracotta discs appear in the PGW period in upper Gangetic plain67. Darau. The evidence of playing balls. Atranjíkhera75. Other miscellaneous clay objects like net-sinkers. Hastināpura. wheels. lamps. Atranjíkhera. Hastināpura. and pendants have been discovered from PGW level. Bone was used widely for making several kinds of objects. Aalamgirpur. Taxila and Sringverpur. an easily accessible bi-product of hunting economy was profusely utilized for tools and implements by this community76. ornaments and other miscellaneous objects. Ornaments:Ornaments included beads. Allahpur and Sardargarh80. styli. A number of specimens have been reported from Jakhera79. Noh. Allahapur. points. Bone arrowheads are . Bone and ivory pendants found from Jakhera. For the study of all sphere of people’s life. bangles. Hunting Tools:A wide range of hunting tools included arrowheads. It has a hold near the top of the handle. A dagger shaped pendant having one surface decorated with six circles one of which is incised on the handle and the others on the blade77.Bone and Ivory Objects:Bone objects were a common medium in use for multifarious purposes. sockets have been recovered from various PGW sites. A single piece of pendant has been recovered from the upper phase of Atranjkhera78. Bangles made of bone have been recovered from Hastināpura. The remains of such objects have been discovered from various sites of this period. Ropar. Sardargarh. Numerous beads have been reported from Jakhera also. Khalaua. Bone. Kośambi and Sonepur. A varity of bone objects have been unearthed from Atranjíkhera. bone objects may be classified into these grounds such as hunting tools. It seems it could be worn around the neck. Ropar.unearthed at Kosambi. Khalaua. Aalamgirpur and Hulas88. These styluses have different shapes and sizes like. Hairpins were found from Ropar. Sringverpur. both tanged and socketed arrowheads with fine points are reported82 (Plate-I). Atranjíkhera and Taxila. Mathura. it may be wrong to call them styluses. . Points are reported form numerous sites likes Hulas. According to B. Miscellaneous Objects:Other miscellaneous objects made by bone were encountered from the contemporary culture. From Jakhera. Jakhera and Allhapur. Bone knitting needles were recovered from Allahpur and Hastināpura. Aalamgirpur. Bateswar. figurine of mother Goddess and gamesman of bone from Jakhera89 is noteworthy. Styluses of bone are found from PGW sites like Atranjíkhera and Allahapur. Bone Sockets have been found form Jakhera. (c) Flat at one end tapering towards the points While styluses recovered from Allhapur have simple points. Fifty three arrowheads made of bone have been occurred from all PGW phases from Atranjíkhera81. Comb-spikes with engraved circles have been encountered from Atranjíkhera from PGW level90. while in the absence of any written material. (a) Both ends pointed with flattened cross section (b) Both ends pointed with semi circular cross section84. Antimony rods of bone have also been excavated from Hulas while discs and dices of bone are seen at Aalamgirpur. Sockets have been obtained from Noh83. The occurrence of Mirror handle. Atranjíkhera and Hastināpura. A bone bird from Atranjíkhera from earliest level of NBP was beautiful specimen.P Roy. Roy considered them as points85. Bone Awls are reported from Jakhera86 and Hastināpura87. Ujjain. The occurrence of all crafts i. pottery.Ivory artifacts were not so frequently available during this period. Figurines made of ivory have been yielded from Champanagar. beads. Avra and Taxila. These literary records corroborate with archaeological evidence as like ivory pendant and amulets were recovered from Taxila. Ujjain. The advancement in metal technology was attested by the advent of iron. manufactured by advanced techniques proves a continuous development in craftabilities during the successive stages. terracotta. Kośambi and Sonepur. Some tools like arrowheads were recovered from various sites. With the development of commercial sense the ancient craftsmen take up these as an occupation. bone . The evidence occurred from archaeology and literature would indicate a wide distribution of the craft and sub-craft in the Indian subcontinent which comprises a verity of item design for various purposes. The invention of this new metal revolutionized the economic growth and prosperity of second urbanization. A remarkable similarity amongst the small finds like discs. Some ivory tools and ornaments have been discovered from Jhusi. Taxila. A close examination of these crafts of later Vedic provides eloquent testimony to the fact that the various arts and crafts. beads.e. The later Vedic texts mentioned that ivory was used as amulets for curing certain ailments91. metal. tools and implements and other minor antiquities of middle and upper Ganga plains might be a pointer to some kind of contact between two zones. growing agriculture and trade and commerce. shows a gradual development and continuity in material prosperity from PGW to other succeeding cultures. A study of all arts and crafts points out the skill of craftsmen with a high degree of perfection and accuracy. The techniques involved in the manufacturing of crafts indicate the advancement and high order of proficiency.and ivory objects etc. . The evidence of arts and crafts may be interpreted and correlate with ritual beliefs and religious practices of the society in the Gangetic plains. Thus all spheres of life of Vedic people as social. economic and religious receives a great impetus from the developed arts and crafts. 38 AV.3.19 AV.166 .6 Ghosh Arvind Kumar.132 Devaśilpasny etcsam vai śilpaṇam anukrtiha śilpam adhigamyate hasti kamso vaso hiraṇyam asvatarirathah śilpam.10.9 Macdonell. 6. p. 17. p..155.. 151. 8.53. Renu Handicrafts In The Vedic Age.5. 20. 10. 6. p.7.89.17 RV.6. 4. 3. 21. 15.31. XVI. 7. 12. p.3 Sinha. 10.1.2. 5.85.10.3 RV.29. Sharma. XII 7.27 10. 8.81-82 RV.10 Srimali K.III 6.1.10. Material Culture of Gangetic plains during Ist millennium B.REFERENCE 1. 13. 11.3 Śatapatha Brāhmaņa. Vedic Mythology. The Later Vedic age and Painted Grey Ware Culture.8 VS.8. A.C. 9.S. 18. 6. XI 3.1 RV. 1975-76. an Archaeological study.7 RV. 16.4..14 Atharvaveda. 30. 1.170 VI. R. 11.9 RV.IV 32. 11.2. p. 1.32.. XXX.M.63 2. 14. AB. Vājesneyí Saṃhitā. RV.A. Purratattva no. History of Pañchāla. 234-35 AV.27 RV. 22. 19. 220 IAR. op.. B. 48.4.95 28. B. 1990-91 p. 30. 1990. Sahi.N.XX.6.. Sahi.B. p.II.220 AV. 1970-71.4. op.. M.149 Lal.4 RV.30 BU.. p. 11. p. Excavation at Hastināpur and other Exploratiopn in Upper Ganga and Sutluj Basin.P.325 Lal.D.3. 32. 27.11.11.5 BU.40-41 IAR.3.2 BU. 1990. 43. 47.cit. 1958-59. op..1. 39. Ancient India 10-11. p.cit.70 Sahi. 42.3. 36. 25.2 YK. M. 46. 45. Ibid IAR. VS 20.6 B.D. 44.6 RV. 37. 33. p.11. p.N.cit.10. B. op. The Later Vadic Economy.166 IAR. op. op.cit. 29. PL XXXII A Sahi.NI.X.130..1 Ghosh. 1990.16 RV.4.cit.7.Y.6 Āśvalāyana Srauta Sútra. 31.1.N. p.23. 26. 35..220 Ghosh Arvind Kumar. 2. M. 40. 24.p. 34. 38.7..3.cit.6.cit.2. 1963-64. p.D.220 AV.25 Roy.B.2.9 . op. p.10. 41. 1950-52. 1950-52.42 RV. D. 62. p. 53. p.) R. B. 61.126 Srivastava Satya Prakash.cit. p. 67. op. op.7 Sant Urmila. Gangetic Valley Terracotta Art. 69. p. Painted Grey Ware. p. p. Bhargava. 56.L . 52. p.8 Sant Urmila.49.150 IAR. p... The Painted Grey Ware Industry InRajasthan (ed.220 Joshi. 59.cit.. 70.119 SB. 55.4 Aitareya Brāhmaņa.. (ed.L.3 Sant Urmila.cit. 30. P.P.2 VS. Ch.D. p.1971. Gaur. 51.cit. 1963-64. 12.B op. J.N op.) R.95 IAR. M. M. 1975-76. 54.Gaur. 66. p. 64. op. Nautiyal K.. p. op.43-44 Ghosh Arvind kumar. op..cit. 1975-76. 60. 1972.135 Sahi.2 Ghosh Arvind Kumar.253 VI. 1990. p. and Khanduri B.41-42 Joshi. B.P. 1986.188 Ibid Roy.68 72. op.86 . p. 1997. 1997.M.cit..7 Dhaiya Neelima. Excavation at Baghwanpura.cit.4. p.102 Sahi..3. 1965-66.cit.. P. Stone Beads in Ancient India. 58. J. 63.N op. op.India in the Vedic Age..P. 1950-52.P. 71. 68. 1997. p.118 Niharika. 57.C. p. Painted Grey Ware. p.cit. p.335 Lal. IV . 50. p..2 Gupta.C. The Terracotta Art of Rajasthan. 65. Northern –most Extension of Painted Grey Culture: Recent Archaeological Investigation.cit. II. 96 Ghosh Arvind Kumar. 87. Taxila III. op.D. p.B. B. p. M.P. 1950-52.cit.. 89. 1980-81. 78.cit. Excavation at Atranjíkhera. 86. R.cit. 83..N op. 75.cit. Ancient India 10-11.120 Marshal. p122 Gaur.D. op. 90. op. 1990.1984. 81..D.cit.214 Sahi. op.654..C. M. p. 80.. p. p.cit. B.1 .102 Ibid.1984.220 Roy.C. p.218 Atharvaveda.N op..cit. 1990.22. op. p..217 Roy. p.C.C. 84.. op.B.cit. B. p. 1950-52.. 1983. 91.215 Sahi. R.95 Tripathi Vibha. 1983.73. 88.221 Lal.76 Ghosh Arvind Kumar. 76. R.334 Gaur.cit. 77.1983. p.p. p. p. 82. 3.105 IAR.P. op. op. 221 Roy. 1990.N op. p.334 Gaur.cit. II P1-199.. p.p.. op..334 Sahi.cit.cit. p. 85. op. 79.. Lal. 1983. B.. M. B.P.13 Gaur R. op. Ancient India 10-11.cit. 74.cit. Vedeha. The advent of metallic objects in India goes back to the chalcolithic period. The discovery of metal can be considered as the most remarkable and revolutionary achievement in the history of archaeology. Magadha and Aṇga were rising in power and their military preparation must have given stimulus to the manufacture of weapons and other materials of war involving. Then the Harappa period was truly called the metal age because of their developed metal technology and growth of specialties. Ornaments made of gold. The metallic object used for agriculture such as sickle. bronze and iron were effected the battlefield and hunting. Several states in eastern India such as Kośala. The study of these metallic objects has revealed numerous interesting features such as the source of metal.METAL In the Vedic literature we find different kind of metals used for making weapons of war. Archaeological evidences gradually widen the knowledge of metal. tools ornaments and other utensils. silver and copper were used to increase beauty. technology of metal (purification. fabrication and chemical change due to burial). ploughshare and spades. household objects agricultural implements. The war weapons and tools made of copper. During . vasudhāní and hiraṇyavaksā > meaning that it contains wealth and Gold respectively. The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa indicates that ore of gold was extracted from the stone. for me the reddish . The History of copper is much the same as that of iron². was iron. A very valuable new metal had begun to emerge slowly in the Painted Grey Ware culture. Some of the Vedic texts refer to Rajathiraṇyam@ which simply means silver and gold respectively. for making available more land to produce the necessary surplus for the contemporary society. and trapu. ‘for me gold. loha.Yamuna Valley. Silver. The various metals are mentioned in the following passage. ayasa. Iron. Copper has been mentioned in the White Yajurveda as loha³ (from lohita or red) in the list of six metals. and Tin¹.the Vedic period. Lead. Besides Vedic people collected gold dust from the river of Punjab?. The PGW period belong to copper-iron period and the NBP ware culture was the Iron Age. These metals were suggests as in later Vedic literature respectively as Gold. The Vajasneyí Sam ̣hitā refers a list of several metals such as hiraṇya. Silver was an alloy of gold . for me śyāmam (dark metal). The Tattiriya saṃhitā prohibits the offering of this metal as gift to the priestsA. rajata. Āryans were contributed in metal craft. The work of goldsmith was to make the ornaments of gold and silver. sísa. The iron implements would have been very much instrumental in clearing off the dense forests of the Ganga . for me ayas (iron).In the Vedic literature the term `Rajata denotes to Silver. The Vedic texts mention the earth as vasundharā. Copper. The White Yajurveda distinctly refers to iron smelting and the blacksmith. Metal were purified being alloyed with some other metals or were converted into other once¹³. Lead and tin are already noted by the Atharvaveda `Where odana.metal (loham) and for me the tin (trapu) may be available by sacrificeB. Gold. On the basis of value it can be considered that Gold has the highest value while silver of intermediate and the copper has lower one. Gangtic doab to be the most prominent area.. which belong to later Vedic period. It is noted with regard to the yield of metal objects. silver and copper have been compared with the Brāhmaņa. The three cultural horizon are Painted Grey . cooked grain` is described as having ` the ashes of the trapu. The references for smelting of ore have been confirmed by the Vedic literature and by archaeological remains of fūrṇace datable before 600B.>.C. The collection of ore metallurgy was the first work in metal technology then purifying it by smelting with the help of some chemical. The softening of gold by means of salt was widely used method. ks atriya and Vaiśya respectively in the later Vedic literature¹¹. tin was softened by means of silver. yielding good amount of metal tools. Lotus`C. Excavations have also brought to light different kinds of metal. lead by means of tin and loha by means of lead. the colours of gold and the fragnance of ………………. having a dense concentration of sites in the reign. The list occurs at other text also. Gold was used for softening silver.:. The Ṛgveda describes the process of smelting ores which required the use of certain medicinal plants as fuel and fans made of the feather geese as bellows¹². In the White Yajurveda or in Vajasneyí samihita hiranaya (gold) described first in the list of six metals. All the finding of metal implements from these phases used for hunting. hense nobility is combined with its like.Ware.C. The Atharvaveda while describing a formula for an amulet of three metals mentions Harita (Gold).. Gold:Gold was considered to be most precious metal amongst all the metals.Similarly.A The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa mentions “Gold in shinning and aśvamedha is the royal office so the samitr bestows light upon the royal office. Horse is the symbol of nobility and gold is the form of the same.C.@. . It has been stated that as many as 16 synonyms of gold occur in the Ṛgveda alone some of which denote its different varities. to 600B. needles made of gold were used for the slaughtered body of the sacrificial horse. Rajata (silver) and ayas (?).?. fishing.C. The Vedic people used gold for their ornaments. Black and Red ware and overlap of Painted Grey and pre NBP ware.B. war.. similarly gold occurred the most exalted status among the metals from the Harappan times. which denoted ornaments made of gold. Some of the important terms in relation to gold are Rukma. agriculture and domestic purposes. all of which full within the time bracket of 1000B. on account of its yellow colour it was known as Chandra. The Ṛgveda mentions the word `Hiraṇya` meaning gold and other terms for Gold. It has been stated also as a horse signifies notability among the animals. Taittiríya Sam ̣hitā states that purity of gold comes from water²¹. Another object was a coil of very thin wires most probably it was used for embroidery work. A gold object which is folded by very thin wire. Other Findings are a thick folded wire. A sps object for covering any solid copper object or any other metallic object. . From Jakhera nine gold objects²² (Plate-II) were reported from mature PGW phase which represents the prosperous PGW culture. a leaf shaped gold objects was recovered. Slightly damaged and corrugated.Gold was also a metal containing medicinal properties which cured certain diseases<:. III (pre NBP<>). It was manufactured from a thin sheet. used for drawing fine wire desired thicknesses. round in cross section probably it was drawn through an instrument called janti a scale like instrument of metal plate having holes of various thicknesses. it appears to be an electrum of silver due to light yellowish colour. We can`t find any gold occurance from any site from PGW level except Jakhera and Sardargarh. Probably. It is still used by local goldsmiths²³. hammer marks are quite clear and is squarish in cross section. It may be observed that PGW people obtain metallic gold dust in neighbouring regions. The other site reporting gold pellets is Pandu Rajar Dhibhi from pd. an ear ornament or a nose ring of gold which was spiral of flat sheet with rounded terminals intact was reported from PGW level. It was made of very thin sheet of Gold. It may be identified as a pendent or a necklace or part of it. Silver object were discovered from some excavated sites from PGW and NBPW level. the reference to Arjuna or rajata are not so prolific. Harita(gold). The word hiraṇya and rajata denoted for precious metal. Silver:The Ṛgveda mentions the word hiraṇya meaning gold and Arjuna meaning Rajata<?.Local gold smiths smelted the metal and manufactured ornaments of various types wires and foils. The metal which was shinning in white colour comparatively a late comer in the galaxy of metals but sometime it was considered more valuable than other metal. It was perhaps because of its pronounced whiteness silver had become a metal of attraction<@. rajata (silver) and ayas<A(?). Since copper does not rust like iron even today. which shows that the metal was not so popular. However. Pots for the storage of drinking water. The Taittiríya Saṃhitā prohibits the offering of this metal as gift to the priests<B it has been suggested that it means white gold<C. The use of copper for small objects of personal use is not without significance. . It was confirmed by the Vedic literature that gold was used for ritualistic rites and for medical purposes. The term Rajata occurs many times in Vedic and post Vedic literature which mean silver. Copper:Copper was widely used before the advent of iron. the later saṃhitās and the other Vedic texts refer to it in different context. Compared with hiraṇya. In Atharvaveda while describing a formula for these metals. 32 as it occurs in ancient Indian medical treatises of Chakra. the copper was called lohayas in order to distinguish it from other metals35.N. In the later Vedic age when other varieties of baser metal such as iron. It was a weapon of copper36. tin and lead come to be known.It seems that advantage of copper as safe metal for the objects to be used directly on the body was realized during this period³0. are made of copper .toothpicks. The Ṛgvedic Ayas also seems to red in colour may be identified with copper now the question arises that if ayas stood for copper in Ṛgvedic times why it was called lohayas during the later Vedic age34? D. It is to be noted in a hymn of Atharvaveda suadhiti the axe has been described as lohita. The Harappans were user of copper and several copper objects have been recovered from Harappan sites. But it has been used in later saṃhitā33. The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa especially.C. Thus one can easily conclude that suadhiti described as lohita in Atharvaveda. Copper is not reddish and black. In the later Vedic literature. In Atharvaveda. Tripathi argued that the word hiraṇya and rajata denoted to precious metal and ayas denoted to baser metal. lohayas or lohitayasa suggesting a red coloured metal stands for copper and is distinguished from iron. Panchanam Neyogi suggests that the word tāmra for copper appears to have become current in the 3rd C. It states. like iron so its value is neither of gold nor of iron³1. distinguishes the copper from gold on the basis of their respective colour. Copper was used for . lohayas and lohitayas stand for copper.B. nail parers etc. Basham suggests that the people of North India learnt the use of copper from the Harappans.In the Vedic literature loha. a knife made of red metal has been mentioned37. Antimony rod of a thin cylindrical having pointed clubbed ends have been reported from Atranjíkhera from the mid PGW level39. Atranjíkhera. ornaments. Atranjíkhera and Allahpur from PGW level. thicked from one side bended from the centre rounded in section have been yielded from Bhagwanapura . household objects. borer and antimony rod and all hunting objects and Nail parer. Noh. pins.making weapons. pendents. Copper nail parer and antimony rod. Hooks. Bangles and rings etc. Arrowheads. Allahpur. Nail parer are reported from Jakhera. Ahichchhtra. Ropar and Jakhera. Antimony rod cum nail parer a thin cylindrical rod with one end clubbed and the other flattened for nail paring is recovered from Atranjíkhera from Mid PGW level. chisels. needles. On the basis of their functions these objects may be classified in following groups: Toiletry objects Household object Craft tools Ornaments Toiletry Objects:Toiletry objects which were recovered from Atranjíkhera and Jakhera are still a good evidence of copper-smiths craft. all toiletries were revealed from various PGW sites such as Aalamgirpur. Hastināpura. The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa prescribes the razor made of copper for shaving the head of the sacrificer for uncopassing him with Brāhmaņa and the Vedas38. sacrificial pots and implements and several other objects were made of copper. From Kalaua and Jakhera copper bangles were also found. From Jakhera (Plate-III) and Hulas antimony rod were also found. the top square part is decorated pattern was reported from late level of Pd III44 (PGW). Toothpicks are reported from Jakhera>1. rings and bracelets were unearthed from Atranjíkhera and Jakhera. Ornaments:Five copper bangles. cross-section broken has been found from Atranjíkhera45 from Jakhera. Copper Metallurgy:Did the technology of copper metallurgy originate in India? Extant archaeological records do not indicate any evidence of experimental and developing stages of copper metallurgy in the region inhabited by the . Copper objects are also attested at the sites like bateswar. dish and other kitchen utensils were belong to household. thin rhombus. an arrowhead has been reported from the late level of PGW culture.from the late level of PGW40. Craft Tools:From Hastināpura. evidence of fish hooks were also reported46. While. Fragment of a thin shallow dish having slightly incurved featureless rim convex sides and flattish base was recovered from Atranjíkhera>3. and Ahichhchatra etc47. Fish hook like prominently bent hook. The objects like needles. Borer of round section. Aalamgirpur. one from lower level and four from upper level of PGW culture have been found from Atranjíkhera. Needles were reported from Jakhera from PGW level>2. The chalcolithic people used the technique of smelting and purifying metal. However. posses harder. no new technique was evolved by the copper smelters of PGW culture. keener and more enduring edges. Bronze:Literary and archaeological evidences brought to light different kinds of metal which were throw light on various aspects of peoples life. Bronze is much stronger. Not only these were utilized for weapons. cold and hot work. Cutting tools which are made of bronze. household objects agriculture and ornaments objects but the people had realized their medicinal utility. Some scholars think that the Indian chalcolithic metal objects might have also been imported from Iran but archaeological evidence prove that the chalcolithic metal objects excavated in our country were indigenously made48. In the later Vedic literature bronze was considered as kaṃsa. which were used by their ancestors. was done for shaping the objects. The tools and objects have mare Characteristics features which were unearthed from many sites.Vedic Āryans. Technique of annealing and casting of moulding were used by the copper smiths. There are few references of bronze have been found in Vedic literature vessels of bronze were used for hold butter and madhuparka in certain sacrifices49. Probably. harder and sharper than other metals. they employed the same old methods. bronze objects were also recovered from the earth which were retain their qualities and are durable. The copper smiths knew the advantages of alloying copper with tin. . and copper objects. Besides iron. discovered from Mohenjo-Daro. In which kamsyatala is mention as one of the many musical instruments prevelent in Ancient India copper and tin were melted together to from kam ̣sya52. The smelting of iron was first developed in Asia Minor between 1800 to 1200 B. brass. The antiquity of iron in India was not before 1000 B. It was widely used by chalcolithic people and not so familiar by the Vedic people. It remained a monopoly of Hitties.The artistic ability of Indus craft proved from the image of dancing girl. called vartulauha produced from kaṃsya. It has been translated by Macdonell and Keith mentioned (Vedic index) as bronze influenced by the theory that bronze preceded iron in the Vedic age Iron:The problem of iron origin in India evolved variously. Alchemical works make mention of an alloy of five metals. The breakdown of Hittie empire in 1200 B. The most important being riti or pittala (brass) and kaṃsya (bronze) that kaṃsya means bell metal also used in making gongs and other articles is evident from a passages in Amarkosha’s lexican (6th c. Śrauta gives direction for drinking water in bronze vessels50. iron and lead53.C. Despite their late occurrence in the texts it cannot be assumed that these were not known to the people in the earlier period51. copper.). Various alloys of copper used in Ancient India.It is however certain that it was an article of common use in the 3rd century B.C.C.D. .A. Zimmer considered ayas as a bronze.C it is mentioned the medical treatise of Charka gives as well as in kautilya Arthasastra. Bronze first appear in the scene of metallic history in Vedic literature as kaṃsa (bronze). The word lohitayas occurs in the Taittiríya Sam ̣hitā59 as distinguished from sayamā or black metal. The White Yajurveda mentioned the list of list of six metals64. The word. In Ṛgveda occurs the passage ayashi puh56 or iron city which though not to be taken literally means a safe place and shows that the ancient Āryans were perfectly familiar with the strength and hardness of iron57. Ayas is divided into two species the Shayamayas. Gordon Childe thought it refer to iron. It is also occurs in the Jamini Upanis ̣ad62 to contest to Kr s n ayas and in the Taittiríya Brāhmaņa63 in opposition to Kr s n ayas meaning black metal or iron. The Ṛgveda occurs the passage ‘ayasho na dharma55’ which is explained by Sayana. Probably. as shower of iron swords or Javlins. In Atharvaveda. .provided the necessary stimulus for the diffusion of iron technology towards the east as well as the west. It also occurs in the Maitrayaņí Sam ̣hitā60 and in the Kathaka Sam ̣hitā61. Some scholars are of opinion that the introduction of iron is indigenously in India and Āryans were the first who introduced iron technology in India but Banerjee and other observed that it was the Painted Grey ware using people who introduced iron in India. Monier Williams translated Ayas as iron metal54. shayamayas has been identified with iron and lohitayas with copper58. and lohitayas with copper. In Northern India evidence of iron has come earlier from PGW level. Pirak is the only site associated with the early beginning of iron in Baluchistan. according to Zimmar it was bronze. The Vedic literature refers to ayas in various contexts though it is definitely a metal. Ayas in Ṛgveda in largest number of passages means iron. bangles. Lal associated this culture with Mahābharat people and some other scholars tried to associate it with R ̣gvedic Āryans. hooks. a pair of tongs. blades. draggers. But the geographical Harizons and the material aspects of this culture correspond to the later Vedic age@5. Many iron objects have been reported from several excavated sites from PGW level such as Hastināpura. As a number of passages allude to Vajra@6 the favorite weapon of Indra as being made of Ayas. Though. clamps. tangs. pins. Meanwhile the references to ayasdhārā69 evidenced that the metallic implements were possessed with a sharpened edges. Various references have been found in literature for these objects. Atranjihera. axes. needles. lumps and some indeterminate.) represents an important period of early Iron Age in Northern India. slags. Iron objects reported from PGW sites included spear-head.Āryans were the user of iron from the time of their earliest habitation in the Punjab. Noh. Jakhera. points. iron have been reported from Black and Red ware context at Chirand. The Gangetic Valley was the cradle of PGW culture. socketed. B. rods. paraśu.B. Bhagwanapura and Aalamgirpur etc. pavi and Ks ura were mentioned in Ṛgveda and other Vedic texts. sickles. The Pained Gray Ware culture (1100-700 B. svadhiti. The sharp edged weapons like asiA0. porers. In the Ṛgveda asi has been refer to as a sharp weapon denoted as sacred and used for cutting the bull into bits. nails.C. It was also employed for fashioning tools such as vasi@7 and paraśu68. hoe. It was like hammer having over and wound shape. Suadhiti the axe was used for cutting trees. arrowheads. ploughshare. chisels. knieves. These implements could kill . Agni has been called as svadhitir-vernanam-svadhitiA1 along with asi has been referred in the context of horse sacrificeA2. Most of hunting tools were recovered from the PGW level. were used for hunting and war. One nine inch long arrowhead of iron was discovered from Hastināpura. spearheads. From the earliest levels of Painted Grey Ware culture yielded a pear shaped fire pit from the upper phase of PGW culture. Pavi. was the artifact has been returned in the Ṛgvedic literature as a component of rathas wheel and was a metal ring fixed tightly on the wheel in order to give extra strength. which were recovered from various sites. In the Atharvaveda. may be used for hunting or killingA5. it is obvious that strong and sharp weapons could be manufactured from ayas⁷3. a weapon of Maruts. during this period. Pavi. references have been mentioned in this connection. an important site of PGW culture in upper Ganga Basin having a rich collection of iron. Hunting Tools and War Weapons:Atranjíkhera. It was used for hair cutting (Mun d ana). Allahapur. fish hooks. All the spearheads are heavy and made with a fore shaftA7. Arrowhead. Ks uraA4. Eight spearheads from Atranjíkhera have been found. Jakhera. From Atranjíkhera twenty one specimens of arrowheads including four socketed and tongs were recovered. and Aalamgirpur. blades. Jakhera also yielded arrowheads from the PGW level76. the term used for dagger as well as razor. shafts etc. daggers. The iron objects. All of them seem to thrushing spearheads rather than throw javelins. Thus. Hastināpura. has been compared with vajra. agriculture and craft tools and household purposes and for regarding the social and economic requirement of society.animal with one stroke. . Arrowheads are reported from Atranjíkhera. lances. III and the other from period IV. pins etc. No ploughshare was discovered from the pre NBPW deposit. plough-share. we got the evidence of ploughshareB2. Only two axes were found. They are without sockets. Several scholars like SharmaB3 do not accept the fact that this agricultural tool was discovered from the PGW level. A few implements found at Atranjíkhera appear to be sickle or reaping hook but they have not been identifiedB1. nails. He places it not early than 500 B. Craft Tools and Implements:Several craft tools such as tongs. hoe and axe have been recovered from the excavated sites. Fish hooks. Sickles are reported from JakheraB0. From Jakhera hoe is also reportedB4. needles. borers. Sharma has relative approach because according to him no site yielded ploughshare. Two spearhead and knife blades are recovered from the mid level of PGW from HastināpuraA8. From Allahpur blades and a bone point which is inserted with an iron rod have been found79. lances and daggers are reported from Jakhera (Plate-IV). from Atranjíkhera one from Pd.Ten shaft pieces were also collected from Pd. It was probably used for cutting treesB5. But from the excavation at Jakhera. have been discovered from various sites. clamps. Discovery of iron plough-share is a landmark advancement in agricultural history. bar/rods. III most of them appear to have been fixed with arrowheads.C. Agriculture Tools:Some agricultural implements like sickle. A single . chisels. there is not much difference among the three types. Bangles are reported from Atranjíkhera and Jakhera while rings from Hastināpur and JakheraC1. tapering arms to semi-pointed ends suggest that it served the purpose of a tool of the blacksmith rather than a kitchen utensil. thickness and particularly. Twenty one nail pieces were found from Atranjíkhera. It may have been used in kitchen. The tool is made of long flat bar folded in two equal arms with a pronounced head without a jointB6.8 cm. The needle from Atranjíkhera has a length of 9. Jakhera yielded iron clamps also88. Household Objects:Needless. bangles and rings are the household objects.pair of tongs has been recovered from Atranjíkhera from the upper phase of PGW culture (Plate-V). knives. Typologically. chisels. Bangles and rings may be included in ornaments. knives are reported from both of these sites. Its size suggests that it might have been used for leather stitching. Needless are reported from Atranjíkhera and Jakhera. Its short width. These clamps might have been used either to joint different wooden planks on parts of a wooden structure. Twenty one clamps were reported from AtranjíkheraB7 from PGW level which was divisible into three groups. Seven hooks (Plate-VI) were recovered from Atranjíkhera representing two main types. The hooks were evidently intended to be fixed in the walls at convenient places for use as hangers. . Nail. bors/rods and needless were reported from the sites of Jakhera89 and AtranjíkheraC0. The PGW blacksmiths were used simple technique like hammering. roasting. The minimum temperature necessary for smelting iron is 11500 to 12000 celsius98. tempering and quenching. the casting of metal in moulds in likened in the Ṛgvedic fashion to casting of human seed in the foetusC5.Techniques:Iron technology developed in India on the basis of a long tradition of successful copper technology which provided the necessary infrastructure for mining. After smelting the liquified metal was put into moulds for casting to produce desire object. The techniques for iron smelting are more difficult and complex than copper and bronze technology. It is noteworthy that in the Sanskrit literature of the later period. crushing of the ore and beneficiation and smelting in small fūrṇacesC2. Jakhera has yield excellent evidence of iron smelting in the form of semi circular chanks of slags and cindusC3. Iron smelting was not invented by copper smelters but by more primitive copper smeltersC7. When iron is smelted in small simple furnaces it is difficult to maintain the reducing atmosphere a high temperature. So far as a clear evidence of metal casting in the Vedic literature is concerned. Evidence of metal casting technology is contained in the Ṛgveda and onwords in the form of the root ‘sic’ which means pouring as well as casting the metalC4. . they might have tried to reduce the iron oxide part of the iron ore and might have separated it from gangue by direct process of heating. First of all. As described in Encyclopedia Americana99 the charcoal fire used by early iron-smiths was not enough to smelt the reduced iron. it occurs in the Atharvaveda which described the casting of thunderbolt by BrahaspatiC6. beating. represented high quality of iron and steel in India on early date102. But it was firstly in the bordering North-western India the use of iron had become widespread. With making of steel in crucibles new heights were achieved.C105. Andhra Pradesh and identified over a dozen wootz production sties and a few dozen iron smelting ones and says that wootz steel was exported to Europe even as early as 400 B.Wootz Steel:The term wootz was derived from the Kannada or Telegu (canarese) word wooku (ukku) which means steel and came to be known in Europe as wootz. Technically wootz may be term which is applied only to a high carbon alloy produced by the crucible melting process101. The metallurgy evolved in due course of time with carburization. . It was considered as the crucible steel almost revolutionized the earlier concept of iron and steel production. Iron implements were widely used in Gandhara area about 900 B. Wootz or Ootz is probably the name of steel in the Gujrati language in use at Bombay from which place the first specimens of Indian steel were sent the England under that name104. Karnataka and Tamil Nadu were the world famous centres for the ancient wootz (steel) production100. It was accepted by the Banerjee that the knowledge of steel making was known to the Rgvedic people in 1500 B. The earliest evidence of a iron in India occurs at Atranjikhera about 1000 B.C.C. The Indian iron masters had realized the effect of addition of carbon to iron the excellent cuffing edges formed on carbon steels. Lour (1990) in carried out study of iron smelting and crucibles steel production (between 1987-1990). Pre-industerial Andhra Pradesh. quenching and tampering. A few specimen were examined.C103. P.107 The Persians.There is then a reference in nitro carburization of iron for manufacturing steel in the Arthasastra of Kautilya.C.e. However. Thus. It is evident from the recent archaeological discoveries from the graves of Warrigaon (M. Damascus steel was indisputably of Indian origin and Damask pattern was a sign of quality in history of wootz steel. An iron axe from Mahurjhari. Iron appeared in various parts of Ganga Valley. The process was perfected over the centuries through trial and error culminating into good quality steel that became famous all over the world106. the convention of wrought iron into steel by the so called crucible method. i. though its role in the urbanization of the Ganga doab is noticeable.) where the cast steel weapons and fragment were unearthed. iron became common close to the beginning of Ist .B. These were actually highly carburized particles or cast iron and it is form these that the steel was made. was known to innovative Indian metallurgist about 7th – 6th C. The high quality of high iron and steel can be examined from few specimens of Taxila at an early day108. at the earliest stage the metal was crude and hardly superior to copper-bronze that was in use. certain easily fusible beads of iron were produced and melted off as shot. As the archaeological evidence suggests. During the process of manufacturing wrought iron. Chinese and the Greeks might have derived their knowledge of manufacturing steel from India. bear testimony to the fact that famous wootz process. The wootz steel was also known as Damascus steel because it was carried in trade through Damascus where this was used for the manufacturing of words. The development of iron technology was marked a new phase of craft . In the White Yajurveda and the Vajesnayi Sam ̣hitā mention it in the list of six metals as sísa (lead). Weights were prepared by lead have sometimes been described in the Vedic texts. We need a lot of research to have understanding about various stages of wootz making. but we did not find any occurrence for this metal. In the Bronze objects of Harappan 8% to 10% proportion of tin was mixed in it. In the Rajsuya a piece of it was placed on a hide of a tiger to be kicked off by the khastriya going through conceration ceremony. In course of time the subsistence became largely based on agriculture as the increased number of agricultural tools and more evidence of carburization would also indicate. Lead:The term Sísa occurs for the first time in the later Vedic texts. Tin:The later Vedic texts mention the word ‘Trapu’. This was a very light weighted metal and not durable. Balls of glass were used for hitting the thieves and enemies from a long distance. The amulets made of glass was used for curing certain ailments. The most remarkable development in metal technology during the PGW phase concerns with the emergence of iron.C. Chakrabarty rightly point out that it is difficult to find the beginning of iron technology in ancient literature but we need to study the Sangam literature also for metallurgical techniques of wootz or iron.millennium B. in the subsequent period. minimized the use of copper and bronze. The introduction of iron. For tin. Prolific use of iron and occurrence of raw material in the form of ore. In Ṛgveda occurs the passage ‘ayasho na dharam’ which is explained by Sayana as Shower of iron swords and javelins. But undoubtly it was iron which has been translated by the great commentator Sayana. Now the question arises that if ayas is consider as iron then why we should not be find any evidence of iron in early Vedic period? Did iron played any causative role in clearance of forests to produce of agricultural surplus? Iron technology effected the clearance of dark and dense tropical forests of Ganga Yamuna Valley and extensive agricultural operations and urban transformation. This new technological advancement succeeded in bringing about social. copper and bronze.activities. economic and political transformation. In Ṛgveda occurs the passage ‘ayashi puha’ iron city which though not to be taken literally means safe place. spearhead. During the PGW period. . It was a baser metal used for making sharper and harder weapons and implements. It has been interpreted variously as meaning iron. spades. however copper continued to remain as the metal of common use and nothing significant was done to introduce new techniques suited to the treatment of this highly useful metal. knife blades. The term ayas occurs in Ṛgveda in various passages is a very controversial one. smelted lumps and variety of objects and their quality is itself an indication of advanced technology111. Indus valley people used bronze as a functioning metal and the copper was prevalent metallurgy and the Painted Grey Ware people presented high marked development in metal crafts known as iron. nails. It was iron that have been found associated with the PG Ware include arrowhead. knives. The PGW using people seem to be closer to the copper hoard people it proves some contact relation between the two phases of history. This discovery was also been confirmed from the discovery of iron ploughshare from Ganawaria in pre 700 B.daggers. Thus metallurgy of PGW culture brought remarkable development in metal and craft activities which were destined to change this new socialeconomic phenomenon.C. which could provide the new social phenomenon of Urbanization. Does the copper metallurgy show any continuity between OCP and PGW phase? Copper was the most common and widely used metal. chisels and scissors besides slag and shapeless bits. how it was possible to clear the dark forests of Ganga Yamuna Valley. edges. but Sahi has reported the ploughshare from the mature phase of PGW dated 800 B. The objects obtained from PGW levels show the similarity between copper hoards and PGW culture copper objects. hoes.C. Axe was also reported from Jakhera and Atranjíkhera from PGW level112. The copper objects of OCP culture were usually associated with the copper-hoards not so advance as the Harappans. . fish-hooks. But one may assume that in the absence of any find of iron axe and any plough-share. The evidence of ploughshare from Jakhera does not accepted by Sharma and others that this agricultural tool was discovered from the PGW level. XI. XVIII.1. Copper in Ancient India. 1984 Ibid.13. 13.320 TS. Śatapatha Brāhmaņa.10. 13 Atharvaveda.8. 2.10. 14.10 Vedic Index.44. 15.7 Singh Ramjit.1ff Śatapatha Brāhmaņa.. 20.3. 21. 6. 28. 1.S.7 . Vajasneyí Saṃhitā. p.1.. 4. Delhi.. 9. 1917 White Yajurveda.7. 13.4.4. 12.2.4. XVII 2.. 17. K. 13.4. Gold Objects from Panted Grey Were level at Jakhera. 22.. 14.REFERENCES 1.1. Ibid.3. Neogi Panchanan. 16. XVIII.224 (279). 3.2.17 Roy B.5 RU. CHU. 19.4 7. 10. p. p.2.3. Atharvaveda.1.3. 22.5 Taittariya Sam ̣hitā. 6. 31. Purrātattva.17.3 SB. 10. 2.P.13 AV. 3. ii p. 3. Ibid T. 13.1 SB.1.. 5.1.5.6 . 11.7. 12.172 23. 6.1.2. 18.112.1. 1.S. The Later Vedic Economy. SB. V.5.1. Vajasneyí Saṃhitā. Nirukta. 9. p. 8.319. 24. 25. 26. Das Gupta, PC. (1964): Excavation at Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Calcutta Nirukta, 2.10 This has been referred quite a number of Times. See Ṛgveda , 1.122.5; III.39.2; VI.9.1; VII.55.2; VIII.25.22; IX.69.4; X.21.3 27. 28. 29. 30. Atharvaveda, V.28.1 TS,1.5.1 Roy B.P. op.cit., p.321 Upadhayāya, J.P., Metal Implements of Northern India(1000 B.C. To 500 B.C.), p.28 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. SB, 5.4.1.2 Neogi p., Copper in Ancient India, p.7 AV, 10.2.11; VS.16.39 Tripathi D.N, Ayas in Ṛgveda, p.347 Ibid Tripathi D.N, op.cit., p.347 Atharvaveda; VI, 141.2 SB, 2.6.4.5 Gaur, R.C., Excavation at Atranjíkhera, p.232 Joshi J.P, Excavation at Bhagwanapura, p.136 Sahi MD.N, 1990, p.221 Ibid Gaur, op.cit.p.233 Lal, B.B. Ancient India Vol. 10-11, P.95 Gaur R.C., op.cit.,p.233 Sahi, op.cit., p.148 Ghosh Arvind Kumar, Material Culture of Gangetic plains during Ist millenium B.C, An Archaeological study. P.166-167 48. 49. Roy, op.cit., p.37 AV, 10.10.5; AB, 8.10; BU, 4.3.1; Nirukta, 4.23; SA, 12.8; BSS, 6.19; AP.G.S, 13.10 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. Neogi P.op.cit., p.33 Chaturvedi, Prem Sagar, The Dawn of Civilization, P. 636 Neogi P., op.cit.. P.32, Amārkosa Swarbarga. p.179 Ibid, p.33 Tripati D.N., Ayas in Ṛgveda, p.346 In Rg VI .47.10. Rg, VII.95.1 P. Neogi, Iron In Vedic Age,(2000-1000 B.C),p.22 Tripati D.N, Ayas in Ṛgveda, p.347 Taittriya Saṃhitā, IV.7.5.1 MS,I.II.5;IV.44 KS,XVIII,10 JU,III,17.3 TB,III,62.6.5 WY,XVIII.13 Tripati,D.N. op.cit., p.348 Ṛgveda 1.52.8; 80.12; 81.4; 121.9; VIII.96.3; X 48.3; 96:3; 4; 113.5; etc. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. Ibid, VIII,29.3 Ibid, X, 53.9 Ibid, VI, 3.5; 47.10 RV, X,79.6 RV, IX, 96.6 RV, I.162.20. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. RV; 1.66.10. Dahiya Neelima, The Art & Crafts in Northern India P. 124 Ghosh Arvind Kumar, op.cit.,p.167 Sahi M.D.N., op.cit.,p.220 Gaur, R.C,op.cit., p.223-224 Tripathi,Vibha,op.cit,1976, p.101 IAR, 1970-71, p. 40-41 Sahi M.D.N, op.cit.,1990, p.220 IAR,1965-66 Plate LXX Sahi M.D.N., op.cit.,1990,p.220 Sharma R.S., op.cit., 1983,p.71-72 Sahi M.D.N., op.cit.,1990,p.220 Gaur R.C., op.cit.,p.230 Ibid p.224 Ibid Sahi M.D.N., op.cit.,1990,p.220 Ibid Gaur R.C., op.cit.,p.230 Ghosh.Arvind, op.cit.,p.167 Hedqe. K.T.M, Ancient Indian Iron Metallurgy, Man and Environment, XI (I) 1991, p.2 93. Tripathi Vibha, Iron Working in Ancient India (Ed.) Vibha Tripathi, Archaeometallurgy in India, New Delhi, 1998. 94. 95. Chaturvedi Prem Sagar, The Dawn of Civilization, p.656 A description in the As vanedhika Parva in the Mahabharts express It thus;“ Yatha Lohasya nihsyand nisikta bimbavigraham / Upaiti. Lad vijãnĩhi garbhe jĩva. parveshanan/-9 Lohapindan. Yatha vanhih ppraujsya hyatitapayet/. Tatha tvamā pi yanihi qarbhe jivopapadanan/10.”Chaturvadi Prem Sagar, op.cit., p.656 96. 97. AV,XI.10.12.13 Tripathi Vibha, Iron Working in Ancient India, ed. Archaeometallurgy in India, Vibha Tripathi, p. 209 98. 99. 100. Hedge, K.T.M., op.cit., p.2 Dahiya Neelima, op.cit., p. 124 Agarwal D.P., J.S. Kharakwal, Bronze and Iron age in South Asia, p. 258 101. Tripathi Vibha, Iron Technology and its legacy in India, ed. in Vibha Tripathi, Archaeometallurgy in India, p. 98 102. Arora U.P., Greeks on India, p. 70 103. Banerjee M.N., Iron and Steel in the Rgvedic age, IHQ, Vol. 5, 1929, p. 440-441 104. Mushet David, Papers of Indian Iron and Steel, p. 606. 105. Agarwal D.P., J.S. Kharakwal, op.cit., p. 259 106. Tripathi Vibha, Iron Technology and its legacy in India, ed. in Vibha Tripathi, Archaeometallurgy in India, p. 102 107. Arora U.P., Greeks on India, p. 71 108. Marshall, Taxila, vol. 2, p. 234-35 109. Agarwal D.P., J.S. Kharakwal, op.cit., p. 264 110. Ibid, p. 266 111. Ghose Arvind Kumar, op.cit., p.169 112. Roy, B.P., op.cit., p.324 grasses and skin of animal for covering the body. leaves of trees. the fore edges to the snakes. The primitive people used barks. Textiles come to be associated with the social and ritualistic events from the very early times. the thrum to the departed souls. Among other arts and crafts of the Vedic period textiles was a specialized industry. The importance of cloth has been attested from rituals and sacrifices.TEXTILES The existence of textiles industry in India can be traced from the Harappan culture. But cloth is the primary needs of a man for covering the body in civilized society. With the emergence cities and development of town and town life have given the widen scope to the weavers and better opportunity for selling goods. the thread to Viśhvedevas and the meshes to the asterism². It was a fast growing industry during the later Vedic age. It is mentioned that the woof of a cloth belongs to Agni. the wraps to Vayu. . As Śatapatha Brāhmaņa preferred the use of cloth for covering the body and incrasing the beauty¹. textiles industry is equally essential for the growth of civilization. It was attached to religious sanctity. Like agriculture. informs us that raw cotton and cotton cloth were exported to Sumer by the Harrappans 4. During the Sútras.” The textiles industry further advanced during the Buddhist period.B. Undoubtedly. D. peśas. however. It seems that it was a very important commercial product of India.In the Vedic period. Cotton occupied an important place in this period.:. . the art of spinning and weaving was in vogue. It was proved that there is no large scale textile industry in India but she was rich in raw material for principal manufacturing.D.H. K. and atka. the most universal and the most characterized industries of India up to. Codrington has rightly points out. Vasana denoted to cloths in general which were of ordinary grade@. In the Atharvaveda. Nivi is mentioned for the under garment and the Adhivāsas⁷ for the upper garment like a general covering. the textile industry was developed both on an intensive as well as extensive basis and it gave birth to quite variety of product made of cotton. drāpi. Garden. bright and beautiful while peśas was a gold embroidered clothB. there are a number of terms for the cloth as Vasana. wool or silk which is considered as the mark of civilized society. adhivāsa. today had obtained a firm footing among them³. The Atka was a long and fully covering close fitting look. nivi. hiraṇyadrāpi. “since very early times India has been very important center for the allied and linked craft of spinning and weaving?.The Vedic Āryans had already developed to considerable perfection in the art of dress and the industries of spinning and weaving. the word drāpi or hiraṇya drāpi is mentioned as waist coatC. vāsas and Vasana are the common terms used for cloth. Cotton. With the help of different kinds of raw material Indians had manufactured various types of fine as well as crude verities of textile in ancient India. For the first this term has been occurred in Āśvalāyana Śrauta Sútra. The literary evidence informs that in the Vedic period textile industry was confined mostly in the manufacturing of woolen cloths . This is mentioned in Black Yajurveda by the term Tārpya meaning silk or linen¹¹.Kinds of Textile:Vastra. Different terms occurred for cotton in different language. silk.Muir in the Ṛgvedic period it is difficult to conceive that cotton though not mentioned in the hymns should have been unknown when they were composed or not employed for weaving the . In Sanskrit the term karmas comes for cotton fabric. In Greek karpasors and carbusus in Latin. In the Indus valley civilization cotton fabric was cultivated on large scale. Cotton:Cotton occupied a important place in the varity of textile . was composed not later than the 8th century B. According the Prof .C¹².While a more common material for weaving cloths for ritual purpose was linen on silk.It is interesting to note that literature does not prove any evidence of the use of cotton in Vedic age.The word karpāsa has not been mentioned in Vedic or later Vedic literature. Microscopic examination of the remains of the woven material found wrapped up with copper objects proves that the Harappan people knew how to make cotton of plain weaving¹³. wool and animals skin were used as dress material even grass and fethers were also woven. @.ksauma):According to Max Mullar ksauma means a linen cloth. Linen is made from flax or bost fiber and is spun into a high quality yarn. Cotton was produced from a plant Gossypium arborcum or one of its varieties. and its literal meaning is the object to be stretched out. who stretched the warp and who crossed the woof may doth you for old age. It was used for sacrificial occasions. The process of weaving is hinted at in a passage of Atharvaveda.B. it occurs in Maitrayaņí sam ̣hitā<: and in Black Yajurveda²¹ also.>. a spinning and weaving craft does not appear to be much developed in Vedic age but the recent excavation proved the use of cotton or silk cloth in this period. The cultivation of cotton fabric. But it is doubtful that both fabrics were same in manner.light cloth which is necessary in so warm climate. Umā. Tasara meaning weaver’s shuttle is also mentioned. Aumkā. and Atāsi terms have been mentioned for linen cloth in the litrature.?. Linen is very durable it is more expensive than cotton. .” The Yajuṣ Saṃhitā mentions spinning as a means of earning wealth. The excavation at Atranjíkhera brings out a new light on the weaving of cloth by the discovery of two sherds bearing cloth impression unearthed from the Pd III (PGW). In the Black Yajurveda the word tārpya is mentioned for linen or silk²².C. Linen (ksumā. During the Vedic period the word Tantu¹⁷ occurs for warp or loom. It seems that pastoral Āryan did not cultivate that plant for obtaining cotton. Linen febric was known to ancient Egypt and Elam. “The Goddess who spun and wove. A monk was allowed to wear three robes two linen (ksaumika) under garment and one woolen upper garment<>. The term kauskeya occurred for silk cloth<?. it was used in China. This fabric was frequently mentioned in Astādhyāyí²³ or Jain literature.B. The Rāmāyana informs us about the silk industry. The use kauseya was exclusive to the aristocracy which regarded that garment made of kauseya were considered as more valuable than other articles. Kauseya material was obtained from wild sources known as tasara²⁸. Silk was the prime product of China the manufacturing of silk attend a high antiquity in China. It appears that ksumā might have occupied a similar popularity like other varieties of textiles. . Silk is divided in two kinds wild and pure. Wild silk is obtained from silk worms feeding on the leaves of forest trees. Rāma gave away kauseya cloth to an achary on the eve of his departure for the Dandaka forests<A. Silk industry was brought in India from China through the Brahmputra valley and Bangladesh.C. Pure silk is the product of mulbery silk<C. Its antiquity is uncertain. It seems. According Kātyāyana.In this connection the word ksumā denoted to a bleached or purified fabric. it is so called because it is produced from Cocoon. Although a similar product is yielded by silk warm but the word kauseya is said to apply to cocoon products<@. a long ago as the twenty seventh C. Silk:Silk not only has a very ancient tradition it deserve a significant status because of its use at rituals. It was necklaces of copper beads made by the string of silk as early as 10 to 15th C. The terms wool applied to the soft wavy hairs which covers the bodies of sheep and certain other animals such as alpaca. kathaka Sam ̣hitā and Maitrayaņí Sam ̣hitā³⁵. vicuna and various goats. Although.B.We don’t find any fact regarding flourishing the silk industry during the Ṛgvedic period. The references of (ūrṇa) kambala³⁶ and samulya are mentioned in the Atharvaveda. Wool:In the Vedic period textile industry was confined mostly in the manufacturing of the woolen clothes. Undoubtly. Woolen goods were called as Rāńkava or lomāja³¹.B. The existence of woolen industry was not clear from the excavations at Harappan and Mohanjodaro.C. On this basis it may suggested that silk industry was frequently functioning in India upto 8th C. the antiquity of woolen textile in India goes back to the second Stone Age or before that. Woolen threads are mentioned in White Yajurveda. Puṣān is describes as weaving woolen garments while the Maruts are mentioned as wearing woolen clothes=>. remarkable discovery in Nevesa district change the whole scenario about the antiquity of silk in India which goes to back to second millennium B.C=:. It may be said that knowledge of woolen textile come to India through the Āryan invaders. Woolen garments were worn on ceremonial places or forming religious functions. Wool was known as ūrṇa in Vedic period³². . The Vedic literature mentioned various references for woolen clothes³³.C. . “The Goddess who spun one wove. dyeing and stitching are also developed. weaving. Wool obtained from sheep was soft and have good quality in comparison to wool of goat. ūrṇaSútra for woolen thread and ūrṇastukā for the ball of wool=C. Spinning and Weaving:The art of spinning and weaving was well known during the Vedic period. The making of cloth was considered as useful job which resulte the material prosperity of weaver and improved the economic condition of them. Techniques:With the development of civilization.” . There are some references to the wool bearing tree named as Pamphylian wool. who stretched the wrap and who crossed the woof may cloth you for old age><. Thus. Weaving of cloth presupposes that the preliminary processes of ginning. cleaning. In Atharvaveda the process of weaving has been mentioned. it clear that wool as a raw material obtained important place in textile industry. pressing. It seems that whole region of the Punjab was known for its wool and woolly sheep for even the Parusị is said to be urna³⁸.With most castes the bridegroom attends the wedding services with a woolen tied around the waist=A. the art of spinning. Ūrṇavāsas has been mentioned for woolen cloth. Herodotus and Strabo also refer to a wool bearing tree>:. carding and spinning were known to them>. There are various references has been mentioned in the literature of this period. As bone spindle whorls were discovered from various sites such as Chirand in Bihar which proves the practice of spinning in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic period>>. Spinning and weaving was the profession of the women in the Vedic period. It is believed that fine weaving passed on from India to Assyria. Another reference has given information about the competition of weaving between two female weaver>B.Perhaps India was the first country in the whole wide world to have perfected the art craft of weaving. Egypt and through the Phonecians into Southern Europe. As far as weaving is concerned. Wrap were sized to reduced friction and devoid damage of thread. From Hulas a spindle whorl with perforation in the middle and painted in PGW style has been recovered>@. tools are used by works such as spindle whorls. The passage have summarized the complete process of weaving: “dawn and night. Weaving of cloth has been attested in post Vedic India from the archaeological evidences. Loom was called as tasara and weaver was vayā”. . Hulas and Ahichchhatra. sapful. They were known as vayitrí >A. ginning and spinning were the most important preliminary process prior to weaving. PGW and NBPW period>?. lofty. The passage mentions that mothers weave garments for their offspring. the long extended thread in concert>=. Carding. fair showing as they weave with varied colours. spool and bobbing in order to facilitate the process of weaving. richly yielding.Terracotta spindle whorls have been recovered during the Harappan period. Spindle whorls are reported from the sites like. weights.” It is proved that the weaving was a highly developed art in this period. loom. Thus it seems that vegetable and stone dyes . Lakṣa and haridrā were also common dye stuffs. The juices of lodharā flower and madder or mindigo were used for dyeing of garments. it was mentioned that a Brāhmaņa should wear reddish yellow (Kāsāya) ..Gr. light red and yellows. In the beginning these colours were borrowed from nature. The most universed and the most characteristic industries of India up to today. The popular colours for decorating the cloth were reddish yellow. Decorating of cloth with dyeing was most essential for increasing its beauty.Sú. In Āśv. The Vedic text mentions the dyeing of cloth with various colours. it has been justified that Vedic Indians had already developed considerable perfection in the art of dressing and the industries of spinning and weaving. Lohitvāsa and Lohitaka denoted for the red cloth Lohitvāsa ?: was to put by widows in this period. The art of dyeing was an important occupation and practiced by both male and female dyer. Dyeing:The discovery of colours opened up a vast new world for man. Saffron colours also referred in the Sútras. Mahārājan?¹ denoted the seffron colour dyed cloth Piśańga?² means thread brown colour and Pāṇḍu?³ refer to white colour cloth. green. black. a kshatriya’s garment should be manjistha (dyed with madder) and a Vaiśya should be put on yellow garment (Chārindra) at the time of Upaṇayana?>. red and yellow.In this connection. had obtained a firm footing among them>C. These colours have been occurred in the Ṛgveda. blue. Dyeing of cloth was in vogue in this period. Several colours mentioned in the later Vedic texts such as white. leaves. There are numerous references which mention that the art of sewing or stiching was in existence in the Vedic period. trunks and bark of trees. flowers and fruits as mentioned in Buddhist literature. (ghttha ). rubbing (Mat t a) and perfuming (Samā padāmiya) of clothes were known?A. Laundries (Rajayaśālā) were also mentioned in literature. brushing. A particular group of washer man was engaged in this occupation. The clothes are moisted in it and heated on fire and then washed with clean
[email protected] been used widely. lac turmeric and flower. for those of inferior quality 1/9th of a Paṇa. Syú was also a term for needle which was the synonym of sew?C. Dyes were prepared from the roots. The chief vegetable dyes used were indigo. The Ṛgveda refer the term súcí?B for needle and the process of stitching. Ṛgveda mentioned that the god Puṣan weaves woolen clothes and washed them also??. clayroot. Stiching:A large variety of dresses of fascinating designs were wear by the Vedic Āryans. As far as washing technique was concerned thrashing against stone. Washing has been done at home and pond side. The art of preparing . Soda (Sajjiyākhāra) is mentioned as washing material. Kautiya says – “For washing the best quality of garments the wages shall be one Paṇa. Washing:As Vedic hymns tells us that washing of cloth occupied a prominent place in textile. In the Rāmāyana and Mahābhārata the dye maker were called as Raṇgakāra. Women occupied an important place in the art of sewing and decorating the clothes. There are references of making two pieces of clothe joined together in Aitareya Brāhmaņa. Embroidery is another folk technique of textile designing in India@@. and figurines wearing embroidered drapery@A. The needle from Atranjíkhera has a length 9. In Jain sources the word Tuṇṇāga has been use for tailor. Copper needles have been recovered from Jakhera@<. Knitting needles of bone have been unearthed from PGW period. Although several types of needles have been reported from various sites. The Atharvaveda mention stitching of a piece of clothe for making coat@:.dress and making them beautiful were in vogue during the later Vedic period.8 probably it has been use for leather stitching. The history of embroidery can be traced back right from the bronze embroidered needles revealed from the excavation dated back 23001500 B. On the basis of literary evidence it proves that the use of needle and the art of stitching played an important role in textile. The art of tailoring various kinds of garments was well known to the people of Vedic period. Siviga@? (tailor) was also introduced as craft men in Jamouddinapaṇṇotṭị. The objectivity of literary evidences has been justified with the archaeological records from the excavation at Hastināpura and Atranjíkhera@.. .C. Embroidery:Indian embroidery takes its inspiration from nature and the product of various regions. Iron needles are reported from Atranjíkhera@= and Jakhera@> from Painted Grey Ware level. . Sumaṇgalvasa. Vasana denoted for ordinary garment and suvasanas means a splendid garment which was beautifully embroidered and decorated. embroidery. were in fairly advanced stage during Vedic period it introduce grace and elegance of that period. Types of Garments:In the Vedic literature there are numerous terms which refer to different grades and types of clothes. the word peśaskārisA: occurred in the list of victims.The terms atka and peśas were frequently mentioned in the Ṛgveda. bright and beautiful the stuff being bleached or embroidered with gold thread@B while peśas was a gold embroidered cloth. The nobles liked to wear embroidered clothes which were made by the threads of gold and silver. They conclude Usnisa. Peśas. It was a done by female embroidered who were engaged in it. Another garment tārpya. Tārpya. The atka denoted for a long fully covering fitting clock. Suvasana. Sukravasa. stitching. Viśhvarupamvasa. Adni-vasa and Atka etc. In the Yajurveda. Vasa Paridhāna. Drāpi. Vadhuya. Above these references proved the popularity of needle work in the field of ornamentation and splendor. dyeing. Rusatvasa. brocading etc. embroidered with figures of sacrificial implements is mentioned in Kātyāyni Śrauta SútraA³. Thus it is interesting to note that designing the garments by decorative techniques. Supeśas was also denoted for embroidered clothA<. Peśas were worn by the female dancer@C. Nivi. Samula. Vesas. at the Puruṣhamedha. In the Vedic literature the terms hiraṇyadrāpi and hiraṇyapeśas have been mentioned was it denoted for costly garment in compound with golden threadsA.. kaśipu (a sort of embroidered mattress an cushion. India was rich in raw material for the principal manufacturing industries through the early times. Peśas – it was referred to embroidered Garment. The development and the growth of town and villages had given wider scope to the weavers for selling their products. Vata–Paṇa (as wind guard cloth). Usnisa A>– This garment was like turban and used by men and women both.According to some commentators and translator these terms were meant like.it was unembroidered garment. during later Vedic period. Trade Organization:Textile as a cottage industry had become an important occupation. . As a matter of fact. the development of commerce and the greater demand for manufactured articles were contributed in the growth of organization. Some other words like kambala (a woolen coveletA?).it was worn by the bride at the marriage ceremony. jetthaka or setthis in post Vedic timesAA. Tārpya:. Drāpi – it was a mantle or cloak. This period is marked by a remarkable development of industrial life and sub-division of occupation. There was well marked tendency towards division of labour and the growth of various sub crafts. pra-varaA@ (variant of kambala). Guilds were organized under a leader called pramukha. Vadhuya – Vasana. A guild appears to have exercised considerable authority over its members. It is evident that dying of clothes was in practice during Vedic period. who coloured the cloths. Besides these. It is interesting to note. sewing. The art of sewing was confirmed by the discovery of needles from PGW level making of garments designing or decorating them with help of needles was done by the tailor. In the list of professions in Yajurveda. The terms related to embroidery work as peśas. suvasana. embroidery tailoring etc. The art of weaving and spinning was at its developed stage. washing of clothes was also an important occupation in that period. Atka. vadhúya proved that it was a regular occupation of women known as peśaskāri while peśaskāras occurred for the person who engaged in embroidery. The manufacturers of sewn clothes were called as Sauchik References have been mentioned for stiching of various types of dress in AtharvavedaB:. Mention of colours in Ṛgveda shows the proficiency of knowledge of Vedic Āryans in the process of dyeingAC. was occurred in the list of professionals in YajurvedaAB female dyer was known as rajayitrí in Vedic age. Ṛgveda and Yajurveda tell us about this profession. during the later Vedic age. Weaving was a occupation for men and women both but it was widely practiced by women who were called as Vayitra and siri in literatureB. Dyer. peśaskāri (embroidery) was a prominent occupation in later Vedic period. It was done by washer man. As like. Thus it is clear that specialized craftsmanship in embroidery was improved during this period.In the later Vedic text as regards with textile industry there were several references for industries and occupation as dying. in other subsidiary craft.. washer men also occurred a prominent place. . phala (profit). This industry played a prominent role in development of socio-economic life of the Vedic people. garments. Vikraya (sale). A well developed art of making garment might have seen in Vedic period. The later Vedic texts enlighten us on different aspects and techniques of making garments. in textile industry we may draw our attention to AV which mentions different processes of commerce like Kraya (purchase). It is interesting to note that Vedic Āryans were acquainted with the use of various varieties of textiles. dyeing and stitching. turbans. With the development of civilization the people had developed considerable perfection in art of weaving. The Vedic Āryans achieved a high standard of skill in textile. Most probably wool was brought to India by Āryan invaders who were shepherdsB>. Textile raw materials and manufactured goods facilitated the trade and commerce in ancient India. were the commodities of trade and commerceB=. parpaṇa (bargain). as it was largely responsible for the formation of many castesB<. spinning. All the information regarding textile industry was based on literary and archaeological sources. Charita (Transaction) and utthita (principal and profit) that in this connection it can be stated textile industry encouraged trade and commerce during the later Vedic period. While woollens were quite in vogue in that period. wool of the sheep and the like. Textile industry was mostly confined in the manufacturing of woolen garments during the Vedic period. As regards to trade. Cloth.The growth of occupation had its impact on the contemporary society. being an important industrial product. . Embroidered cloth. goat-skin. skin. Textile had become an important craft occupation between different professional groups. . An advanced stage of specialization in textile craft was attained in this period. As far as trade is concerned barter system must had been in practice for the balanced market.The existence of numerous terms related to textile and its techniques of garments evidenced the popularity of garments. regulation and welfare of the textile workers. Textile manufacturing were the specialty of women as they were occupying a prestigious status in the society. By this time. the art and techniques of textile most have reached a high stage of perfection. A.1. VIII. 13.31 Kauskeya is derived from the route of Kośa Singh K.9 RV.. p. 26. VI. 14.cit.III. 16. P.2 IAR. 6.31.11. p. 21.1. 18. M. XXX-A). The PRE.cit. XIII. p.cit.3.221 AV.13 ASS. op.18 Buch.4.6 Astādhyāyí. 17..6.10. 1. 7. 2.. 3. p.13 .92.4.1 Singh...6.51.4 Ṛgveda.22 Black Yajurveda.2. IV. 11.1. 9. p. 4. M.7.1. 3.11. 1965-66. Kiran K.REFERENCES 1.cit. op.3 B.1.11 AV. X..45 Macdonell A.Y.H.A. 15..6. Textiles in Ancient India. 12.14. Vedic Mythology.671. Economic Life in Ancient India. Further Excavation at Mohanjodaro. Kiran K. p.441-42 and 591 Chakrabarty H.2.4 Singh K.16 Mackey E.3.132 RV. 10. op. 23.11.7 Black Yajurveda. op. 10. X. 25. 1986. 1979.. 24.4 RV. 20.X5. Śatapatha Brāhmaņa SB.S. 19. 11.3. 3. D. p.53 RV. (PL..74 Singh.130.111 Gordan. VI.36.34. VII.4.7. Allahabad. 8.Historic Background of Indian Culture. 5.p. 22. Silk manufacture is said to have started in China as early as 2000 B.806 31.p. 33. AV. 35.37. II. Singh K. weaver’s shuttle..D.52. It occurs frequently in the RV. Ayodhayakanda..68 and 88 sarpa The origin of the word tasara not definitely known. 11. 1980. 30. wool clothes. Vol 3. op. 32. RV. New York. 36.25. See for details: Laura Torbet. X.130.14 Brāhdarṇayak Upaniṣad. 34. it is certainly true that the secret of Silk cultivation was carefully guarded by the Chinese till 6th c. II. black wool thread is commonly usedto keep off the evil spirits. XIV.X. 28.6 Ṛgveda.66 . In fact. Amulets and charms are tied by woolen strings. (editor) The Encyclopedia of craft. p. The word Uttuda is mentioned for mulbry or silk.37 . 32. p.A. Atharvaveda.27. the Brāhmaṇ and the Kośa grass.67 37. Handicrafts of India.III.9 Wool have seems to have some religious significance as tradition believes it to have been created directly by Brahma like the Kusa grass used in worship. V. the legend goes that it was smuggled into the Europe and then Asia by two monks who concealed the silk worms in a hollow cane. Whether the date is not accurate. It is said that Brahma created fire.C.6 Ibid.cit. Chattouppadhayay Kamladevi.3.26.1It is difficult to determine when and how the mulberry silk introduced in India and whether it was an indigenous plant or imported from outside the world.2 It denotes to 29. 6 56. VS. 2.. 44.. Ṛgveda.9. X.. 57. X.Aspects of Indian Archaeology. p.3. M.cit.3 SB.4 . Naya.197 IAR.26. 58.74 JBRS.cit. 1973.cit. p.125 RV. Vol.15 Dahiya Neelima. ASS.43 39. 62. 40.42 Buch. 2.. 47.Su. 60. 45. p. p.9 55. 1.N.5.17.5. p. p.10.116 Dahiya Neelima. 54. 1977.. Vol 59. 49. op.246 AV.230 AV. 50.21 Ass Asv. p.10 AV. 3.19. 48. 2. p. Arvind K. 53. 52.Gr.3.41 JBRS.5.6.38.61.. p. 42. 41.19.3. 1.6 AV.. op.. 59. M. 43.. 2. Singh K.7. 61. op.59.14.1 BU.cit. 51. 10. Dange.A. Sadashiv Ambadas.5.. Cultural Sources From The Veda. The Arts and Crafts in Northern India.70 RV. 46.111 AV. op. p.14 Singh K. p. op.cit.84 Ghosh..26.. 20.32.122 Sahi.D.220 Ava Cu. 1990-91. p. p..3.45 RV. XI. Some Aspects of Economic life in Later Vedic Age.C.10 72.12 80. VI. op. 65.95. 68. p..7.53 RV. JBRS Vol59.22 Jamouddivapannotti .cit. 13-14. p.M.. 1. 1. AV.cit. 83. Ṛgveda.145 AV. 82.cit.. 76.Up.11 Tait.M Singh.10. 64. 77.3. 1983.92.31 Katyayni Srauta Sutra XV.63.1. op.. 1973. 73. op. Bra.1. op.p. Singh M.3 AV.62 Chatopadhayay Kamladevi. VI. 67.III.VII.4 Tatt.66-67 Brih..cit. 28..48.3 Sat.29. 84. 74.p. p. p. 71. 70. p.3. Sat. 66.3 79.7. M. III.op.14. Bra.10 Singh K. VS..cit.5 AV.228 Sahi M. p.42 . 69.2.1990.7 Ibid..103 Singh K.Br.1.D.cit. 78.N.. 75.Br.cit. Gaur R. op.2.V.. p..1 81.5. op.. 3-11 Singh K.90 JBRS.4. Probably for this purpose beads of wood of particular trees were used. clay. the bead of the Parna-tree6 (Batea-frondosa) used to win over the rich people. In the White Yajurveda Maṇikāra (Jeweller) was also figures5. For example. The Ṛgveda refers to the bead of gold: ‘Adorning themselves with the gold bead. The material used by the Harappan bead maker were silicate. . glass and metals for making various types of beads. spoken of the followers of Vrtra.. Different kinds of material were used for making beads such as wood.THE BEADS Beads of various sorts were used as ornaments and amulets by the Indians since Harappan times. The maṇikāra (beadmaker).’ Hiraṇyayena maṇina sumbha manah. with the belief that they would drive away evil. bones. ivory. The term maṇigríva indicates that beads or jewels were worn round the neck3. who has been dedicated to the beauty at the Puruṣamedha4. Ṛgveda refers the term Maṇi which means a jewel could be strung on a thread2 (Sútra) as used as an amulet against all kinds of evil effect. which reflects the actual use. stone. The beads are prominent for their artistic attitude and skill and show the different shapes and varieties. and gold also. lapislazuli. Beads were used for making ornaments necklaces and amulets. Beads. Noh. Sardargarh. have various shapes like comprises square. shell. silver. jasper.variety of quartz. Bhagwanapura. and metals like copper. biconal. Allahapur. have counterparts in the term kaccha in the Vedic texts9. and pyramidical. gold etc. agate. glass and other semi precious stones like agate. bronze. chart. faience terracotta. Aalamgirpur and Stone Beads:- . marble etc. Atranjíkhera. chalcedony. bone. carnelian. The maṇikāra for beauty to be symbolically brought to scarified8. The glass beads. carnelian. cylindrical. From the excavation of several sites beads of different varieties were found from PGW level like terracotta. jasper. ivory. but the bead industry bloomed fully only during the proto historic period. recovered from PGW level. Ahichchatra. such as Chirand. chiseling and boring them in which some of the beads were polished for making them bright and beautiful10. which were found from the PGW level. Such beads have been recovered from Hastināpura. Necklaces were a most popular ornament made of one or many strings of beads. hexagonal. The Nirukta refers to the man ̣i of glass or a polished man ̣i (of metal) to be used for kindling the fire from the concentration of the sun7. tubular. globoular. Though the earliest traces of beads in India are associated with the finds from Neolithic sites. amethyst. Sharp instruments were used for cutting. quarts. limestone like steatite. reetangular. Beads of precious stones and semi precious stones were used both for sacred and secular purposes. It is clear that stone were not only used for decoration but also for ritual purposes. Different shape and various types of stone beads were reported from various sites. Agate:Agate was a commonly used material for bead in PGW culture-Agate is a variety of quartz and except for colour is practically same as cornelian and chalcedony11. During the PGW period banded agate beads were discovered from Hastināpura, Atranjíkhera and Jakhera. Three long barrel circular agate cylindrical beads were reported from Hastināpura12 from the different levels of Painted Gray Ware. Agate beads were recovered from Painted Gray Ware level in various shapes like long barrel, circular, truncated, biconical and rectangular flattened. From Atranjíkhera long barrel, one rectangular, flattened bead, spherical, short convex and truncated bicone bead have been unearthed13. The Ahichchhatra specimens were reported from all of its strata. A few of these beads were remarkable published. Fourteen agate beads were represented from Bhagwanapura from the period IB (PGW) and the main shapes are long barrel, truncated bicone, long cylindrical standard, convex and bicone, Etched beads of agate were collected from Atranjíkhera14. Long barrel circular beads of banded agate were also reported from Atranjíkhera15. Agate beads of various shapes have been discovered from Abhipur 16(Dist. Pilibhit). Quartz:Quartz beads are reported from Jakhera and Atranjíkhera. Standard barrel triangular shapes was represented from Atranjíkhera. Lumps and flakes of quartz were also found from Jakhera, which were used as raw material in manufacturing the beads17. From Bhagwanapura long convex hexagonal beads were reported18. Jasper:This material has practically the same hardness as quartz and is a form of that material probably coloured with iron. Jasper beads have been discovered from Sringaverpur, Jakhera, Hastināpur and Allahapur. Only toggle-shaped red jasper bead was yielded from the mid level of PGW culture from Hastināpura19. Jasper bead was also unearthed from Bhagwanapura from Pd. IB. It is long cylindrical circular in shape20. Carnelian:Carnelian beads have been unearthed from the various PGW sites. The important shapes spherical, short bicone, triangular, truncated, biconical, square, long truncated and barrel square. Short bicone triangular faceted carnelian bead was reported from mid level of PGW from Hastināpura21. The truneated bioconical square, long truncated and barrel square shape beads were recovered from Atranjíkhera22. Some carnelian etched beads were yielded from Jakhera Pd. III23 (Mature PGW phase). Bead of this material have been unearthed from Bhagwanapura24 (Plate-VII) which were in long barrel truncated, circular, short barrel circular, standard gobular circular in shape. Carnelian beads are reported from Abhipur (a PGW site)25. Marble:Bead of marble were recovered from Atranjíkhera, was short circular in shape. It was used by lapidaries at Atranjíkhera26. Chalcedomy, Amethyst and Lapislazuli:Besides this material, bead of chalcedony, amethyst, and lapis lazuli have been concerted from the excavated sites. Chalcedony beads have been reported from Ahichchhatra and Sardargarh only in PGW culture. Ahichchatra has produced three beads of bicone truncated shape with pentagonal section27. Discovery of a cylindrical lapis lazuli bead was a greater significance from Jakhera28. A long square rectangular lapis lazuli bead was recovered from Sardararh29. Some shape bead was reported from Bhagwanapura30. A gold bead was also discovered from Sardargarh31. Probably this material (lapis lazuli) is not native it India it was imported from Badakshan32. Glass Beads:Glass is one of the most interesting material used in the manufacture of Beads. It is noteworthy that Beads made of glass were discovered from the PGW levels from Hastināpura, Aalamgirpur, Atranjíkhera and Allahpura. Glass beads were recovered from Hastināpura from all the period except I. The colour ranges of these from black to deep blue and green. One glass bead of black opaque, irregular spherical was also unearthed from the upper phase of PGW culture33. Two glass beads are found from Bhagwanapura from the period IB. One of these is long convex eye bead and other segmented eye bead. A number of faience beads have been reported from Bhagwanapura34. Bone Bead:From this level, bone bead were also discovered. From Hastināpur standard barrel gadrooned bone bead was unearthed from the late level of Pd II35. Bone & bead were also reported from Jakhera36 and Sardargarh37. Two beads of bone were recovered from the period IB. First, is a creasent shaped pendant and others are long barrel circular beads38. Bone bead was reported from Abhipur39. Metal Bead:Metal beads were in fashion in Painted Gray Ware culture. Basically copper beads were recovered from several. From Hastināpura40 two copper beads of long short barrel, square, spherical shapes were revealed. Copper beads have been reported from Jakhera41 from PGW levels. One copper bead was discovered from Bhagwanapura also from Pd. IB42. Terracotta Bead:Terracotta beads have been reported from various PGW sites in different shapes. Their colour varies from red to dark grey. Common shape of terracotta beads are ghāţa shaped and short blunt edged bicone circular. A large number of ghāţa shaped beads were recovered from the different level of PGW. Twenty six terracotta beads have been recovered from the different phases of Painted Grey Ware from Hastināpura43 (Plate-VIII) Sixteen of them are broken or damaged, generally the bead are well baked and eighteen of them are slipped. The commonest shape Probably. these may be divided into eleven types. these were placed on channels ovens to subject roughly made bead to showheat. Terracotta ghāţa shaped and other varieties of shapes were reported from Bhagwanapura44 from PGW level. it seems that stone pieces were firsh chipper to small pieces and Flakes were removed to give them desired shape. wood by carpenters or stone beads by stone cutters. Atranjíkhera which indicates towards a local industry at this site47. The shapes varies from long barrel.is the ghāţa variety. Another ghāţa shaped bead are discovered from recently excavated site. standard bicone. clay by potters. These beads were bored with drill and were polished48. Abhipur46 (Plate-IX). Techniques:The Vedic texts did not give us any informative sources for considering the technique of manufacture of beads. . square faceted and gobular have been recovered. The occurrence of unfinished bead in different stages of manufacture provides us an idea for understanding their method of manufacturing some unfinished and often broken beads with waste covers and new material for beads is also seen at PGW site. and short barrel. After this. bodies and bases. Their perforation was excavated from both ends and grinding was done with the help of some abrasive material. similar to the vase shaped terracotta beads of Hastināpura.Ahichchatra also yielded ghāţa shaped beads from PGW levels45. thus uniting them. With minor difference in their colours. But it is evident that particular classes of craftsmen were engaged in this profession as metallic beads were made by gold smiths or metal craftsmen. Thus it is obvious that technique of manufacturing the bead has remained the same from beginning to modern civilization except some developmental changes. carnelian. Semi precious stones like topaz and crystal may have been obtained by trade and commence with neighbouring areas. lapis lazuli. The Barrel. types and styles of ornament as this was an important industry. chalcedony. marble and quartz. . which were used in PGW culture had their occurrence in Indus and later on in NBP culture as well like agate. beads of agate are a continuation from the preceding Indus culture. the economic condition. Beads help us to understand the belief. Probably this material was imported from Badakshah. the customs. spherical. But there were a few new shapes short convex. Etched-beads were noteworthy spectrum of PGW culture recovered from Atranjíkhera. The Painted Grey Ware culture has importance to bridge up the gap between Indus Valley and Mauryan period. Jasper. Bhagwanapura and Sardargarh from the PGW level. The flourished industry of beads shows continuity between these cultures. The study of beads is important for study of the development of successive stages of designs. indicated the trade relation between India and Central Asia. Lapislazuli bead were recovered from NBP level. All the stones. Beads were recovered from various excavated sites of Painted Grey Ware culture. It is important to note the occurrence of lapis lazuli bead from Jakhera. the set up of the society and contact with other nation. Bead of this material from Sardargarh was an excellent example of trade & commerce at this time also. and treated bicone49as well in PGW culture. cylindrical and rectangular shaped. Occurrence of glass beads ware excellent example for their specialized technique and prosperity.Unfinished bead and raw material from Atranjíkhera indicates local bead manufacturing industry. . Comparatively very few metal beads were recovered from this period. than other contemporary sites. These beads were used for ritualistic purposes also. Thus bead industry was a craft of great skill and was confined to a special class of worker as it today. A large number of terracotta beads show a remarkable development in the field of artistic activity. As they used to wear the ornaments made of precious stones and metal. were significant specimen prevalent in NBP culture also. Few beads have dating value as well indicates trade contacts with other countries. All these factors indicated the importance of Atranjíkhera in bead manufacturing. Terracotta beads particularly ghāţa shapes bead. Thus the bead industry in PGW culture represented a developed economic stage of the people.Decorative beads of agate and precious stone like marble and quartz have been yielded from Atranjíkhera. 2. 18. Madan Mohan. p.cit. Niharika. LIX. or a bronze plate is held in the sun beams. p. Nirukta. the latter catches Fire.” 9. The Beads From Taxila. Delhi 1984.171 Ghosh. B.122..B.P. JBRS.of ASI. B. p-7 Lal. 16. Singh. p. 1. A study of stone beads in Ancient India. Delhi 1993.. 1973 p. JBRS.C. C.8...7 Singh. The Later Vedic Economy. . Arvind Kumar. B. 6. J. Ancient India 10-11. 8.94 .cit. 1999.1 AV.Delhi.p.. p. Hoarce. 1973 p.118 Lal. 5. Vol. 10-11 Gaur. op. Excavation at Bhagwanapura.14 Roy. Ṛgveda. 12. XXX.212 Ibid Ray. p. p. 13. VS.III. (ed. 15. 11. 17.7. R. 14.3 Roy. 4.) Sir John Marshell. Vajasneyí Saṃhitā . If a polished man ̣i. Excavation at Atranjikhara.REFERENCE 1. M .94.335 Beek. Madan Mohan...C.P. VII . Material Culture in Gangetic plains during I millennium B. op. 7. B. 33. 19.. Vol.6.23 “When the sun has transversed to the Northern quarter Focusing them on dried cow-dung .335. LIX. Ancient India. Excavation at Hastināpura and other explorations in the upper Ganga and Satluj basin.30. 3.B. 10... 5. 134 Joshi. Ṛgveda. p. 1. Some Aspects of Economic Life in the Later Vedic Age. Some Aspects of Economic Life in the Later Vedic Age.P. cit.117 Lal. op. 31.cit.. p.P. 37.cit. 10-11. Ghosh. M.cit.. p.94 Sahi.cit.C.. J. p. op. p.... B.101 Niharika .P. op. p. 28. B. B.P. 45.cit. Joshi. 1994.. p.212 Niharika. p. op..174 Gaur.N.. op. op.336 Joshi.cit.336 Joshi. 42..122 Ghosh. op. 33.120 Lal. Arvind k. 29.118 Ancient India. p. p.cit.. op.. op. 22.. 25.cit. P. 26.B.150 Joshi.... p. 34..94 Sahi.. Jaipur.cit. 23. R.. 46.. 38.cit. J.. B. p.cit.cit.cit. 39. J.216 Joshi.cit. 1994.cit. p.. op.. p.. 41.336 Niharika. op.cit.94 Gaur. 27.. 44. p. 21. op.174 Roy.cit. op. op.135 Niharika. 24. op. p. p. op..B.. Arvind k. p. p.. op.cit.212 Sahi.. 36. op. Aspects of Indian Archaeology. p. p.B.C.120 Gaur.. op.cit..P. op. op.117 Lal.P.P.cit.. 30.cit.D.20. p.cit. op.. 174. J. 32. 35. 40.175 .135 Roy. p.. B. 43.118 Ghosh. op. R. op. p.150 Roy. op.150 Joshi.95 Joshi.cit. p.P. p.cit. B.. p. The terms ceramic proves its origin to the Greek world kermos. Garden’s view is of special interest that pottery might have originated in accidental burning of basket plastered with clay to make it water tight². It was an important craft in the field of archeology for the reconstruction of ancient life ways and occupy a unique position among another artifacts This is due the fact . which were shaped.POTTERY AND TERRACOTTAS Pottery has been described as the alphabet of archeology¹. Being an item of popular use. it gives us yet another insight into people’s art@. The earliest pottery on was handmade and later to produce pottery on a mass scale potter’s wheel was introduced. It is observed that northern pottery is superior in fabric than south. The craft of ceramics is based on mixing and moulding the clay as well as its baking. Pottery relics not only throw light on the food habit of the people. The Vedic term kulāla³ denoted for a potter. dried and finally made hard by firing. The term pottery occurred for all the made of clay. meaning something made of clay as also the clay of which pots were made>. their religious and social customs the technological advancement attained by them and even their economic condition?. :. the tools of potters and have remained unaffected by time and tradition. Pottery therefore is rightly called as “The alphabet of archaeology “. it does not change its form and decoration after firing and even a rim fragment can gives us an idea of the form of the vessel. We read Indra smashing the enemies like earthern vesselC like also read of girls bearing water in their jars evidently made of pottery. Ghaḍa and Kapāla. The authors of ‘Vedic Index’ suggest that this word used to connote in limited sense as ‘Drinking VesselB ’. The . the earthernwares in the Vedic literature generally mentioned in connection with sacrifices and commonly used in household. it may be observed that both the technique of manufacturing pots (i. The general term for a pot used in Ṛgvedic literature is ‘PātraA’ the term derived from the root ‘Pa’ which means to drink. Among the earthern wares of the Vedic period the terms frequently occurs in literature like Ukha. Kumbha. The Vedic literature which contains distinct references to the potter’s art. by using wheels and connecting two different shades as well) were known to the people of earlier age. Sthāli. Kośa. Although. While according to demands of the users. From this. Various Kind of Vessels:A large number of vessels made of various types of material and various types of potteries used for different purposes are referred to in the Vedic literature. These pots were used for different purposes.that pottery is found at ancient sites in large quantities.e. the forms and design have been frequently change in the past. Kalaśa. It may be used for drawing water from the well. Kalaśa:.This vessel occurs in Śatapatha Brāhmaņa may be used as a cooking vessel. Whether it was a regular domestic pot an used as a sacrificial purposes. However it has to be mentioned that Kalaśa was the jar in which some water and other liquid were kept or stored while Kumbha was generally used for bringing water from the well. It had partly religious and partly secular function.later Vedic literature make a distinction between two vessels on the basis of their function.>. . Sthāli :. Kumbha was similar to Kalaśa in shape but their distinction uses were mentioned in the Vedic literature .?. The term Sthāli sounds like the medium term thali which is appear like a dish for serving meals.A. probably used at the time of performing sacrifices. It has been called as Mriṇmayí or made of clay. It has been referred to even in connection with cremation¹³.was a big vessel and was used as a storage jar.In the Vedic literature it is referred as cooking vessel. This difference in function is also indicated by the fact that Kumbha was easily broken.The vessel was used for storing things.C. Kośa:. Pachana:. In varied shapes and sizes it appears to be a flat base with side sides raised up in layers. Ukha¹¹ has been mentioned as a pot for cooking or boiling things¹².B. The process of its manufacturing has been mentioned in the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa.@. It might be a small vessel like sikara the modern cup like pot. The exact form and shape is not decided.Sthāli pakhamā nnam (grains cooked in Sthāli and Sthāliṛāka rice or barley boiled in milk) are referred to in the Brāhmaņas and the Upaniṣads. Amā tra:. Maṇika²²:. It was used as lid but was associated with performance of religious rituals and employed in sacrifices too.It was a vessel in which some was served. Aścchana:.it was used as yúṣan for containing meat or ghee<A clarified butter. During the occasion of a sacrifice it was prescribed in a manner called Kapālappadhana²¹. It this vessel was used for cooking. Kunda²³:.The term panhana in derived from the root ‘pach’ means to cook.It was occurred in the later Vedic literature as a water bottle.The terms denotes a small bowl as cup of clay<: as also a piece of a broken jar an potsherd. Kapāla was similar in shape of skull. Panhana:. In the later Vedic texts the word Udanchana<@ occurred for the bucket used for drawing water from a well. . Kapāla:.was the other type of vessel for storing water. Kundapayin<> the word used for drinking from a vessel and Kundapayya<? is also occurred from Vedic literature. earthern wares have been classified into various categories . thickness and decoration these pottery can be classified whether used for utilitarian or for religious purposes.Āhāva²⁸ was also connected with water and well. and painting with fine surface are indicative of the fine taste of the people who used them. perhaps to keep water cool. It is so called because it was buried up to its neck in the ground. The general characteristics of the pot sherds are almost same as of those unearthed from northern India. According to their shape. Different types of vessels including vases. On the basis of colour painted on their surfaces . Vedic ceramics are often found to be characterized by a number of distinctive features. bowls. basins. It is the action of drawing cattle to this water reservoir (ahuāna from root hye. Pān – nejana³⁰ as it indicated by the name that this vessel might be used for washing the feet (pad+anejana). Ceramics vessels mentioned in Vedic literature have been yielded from various excavated sites. Black and Red . It is not clear about the shape and form of pānnejana while it might be a flat based vessel like a tub. to call) that has given the name Āhāva to the receptacle<C. dishes. size.as Red wares. storage jars. Ni – nahya³¹ – It denotes a water jar. sieves and other were produced on a large scale which represented one of major craft industry of proto historic period. The well executed pots with a vareity of shapes. bearing sophisticated incised designs. It was large open mouthed receptacle in shape and used for the storage of water near the well for cattle. lids. Anichchhatra=A. In this connection it is noteworthy to study the associated ware of the PGW phase. Rajpurparsu=@. . The area of OCP is extended from Bahadarabad to Noh. Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polished ware. Ochre Coloured Pottery:The OCP is most important distinctive pottery industries of India. stand. Saipai>. Atranjíkhera=C. Lal qulia>:. dish on stands lids. bowl. ring. Noh=B. There pots have a different types and a number of changes. Mitathal>< and Jodhapur>=. The important sites of OCP culture are Bahadarabad=>. The entire pottery assemblage of this period. A basic contribution of OCP using people to the evaluation of pot and its technology is the handle for the pot. basins. Besides. BRW and BSW. Badaun and Rajpur Parsu Dist. Bisauli. Ochre Coloured pottery. troughts. It was first recognized by B.ware. The OCP wares are of various shapes included vases. a distance of roughly 300 Kms from north to south and from katpalon to Ahichchhatra a stretch of about 450 kms from west to east. are Grey ware. The Ochre Coloured Pottery has been described as an ill-fired rolled and worn ware with a thick fabric and friable surface³³. Each of them represents a particular culture in a certain region. red have been classified by Sinha called ‘Black wares=<’. Bijnor. Baragaon=?. The material culture of the OCP ware people was in an elementary state and they have been associated with the copper hoards discovered in the Gangetic valley>>. Amberkhera.B-lal in 1951 on his trial excavations at the copper hoard sites of Bisauli dist. and stum.. . semi circle and gird . OCP pottery is seemingly prepared by well lavigated clay and wash or slip that is thick so that pots may look smooth and beautiful@?. floral designs .The incised decoration and painted designs on the OCP wares gave expression to the artistic urge of the potters. The generally accepted approach that resulted PGW is distinct from OCP that it could hardly have derived anything from OCP. The chronology of this ware is not certain. Cemetery-H and typical OCP culture. A variety of incised potters is evident from an examination of the Ochre coloured pottery such as finger nail incision>?. oblique strokes?<. checkered or compartmented patterns?=. cross hatched triangles@<. vertical lines. cord designs?@ and grooved designs?A. criss cross or chequred pattern@. rows of dots?>. grid of verticals??. On the contrary a careful examination of OCP suggests that a gradual and continuous development in the traditions of art and craft is discernible in OCP culture which appears to be a admixture of Harappan. designs and decoration. bands?C . The artist of OCP pottery used popular form of creative expression through painted designs. row of dashes. Atranjíkhera?B and Lal quila has yielded enough evidence for decoration designs included . thumb nail impressions>@. leafy and v shaped design>C deeply cut chevrons?:. slanting parallel Lines. wavy lines@:. circles and squares with diagonals.. These decorations create a love for beauty and aesthetic sense. Scholars have different views about the impact of OCP culture on the PG Ware culture. loops. wavy lines?. The OCP wares have varied shapes. Zigzag patterns. triangular. humped bull@= and madders@>. hatched design. rib designs>A. Gupta and other scholars has come to the conclusion that OCP people have some affinity with the . Bana. notches>B. The noteworthy occurrences of these shapes are recovered from Hastināpura.C Group A:This group consist a variety of very fine Fabric red ware has a close resemblance with PGW in shapes and fabric. While. bowls and miniature vessels. Groups A. Group B:A number of specimens of medium to course fabric red ware have been unearthed. It is essential to make study to classify the Red ware under those groups.Harappans and suggests a date bracket of 2000-1600-1500B. further excavations detected some other conclusion and new results regarding the chronology. Dishes were used for serving the food like modern Indian thali and bowls were used as for containing liquids material. Vibha Tripathi examines the common shapes dishes occurred from Aalamgirpur. Atranjíkhera and Allhapur. Allahpur. It is worth mentioning that the total number of Red ware specimens in any collection is greater than PGW.B. Bowls of different variety and shapes were discovered commonly akin to PGW forms with straight sides and featureless rims. Sand has been used . In this group common shapes are storage jars. Red Ware:Red ware is the most important ceramic industry has been in association with the PGW.C@@. Sravasti. Dishes and bowls of similar shape are common in use in both cultures. Noh and Atranjíkhera@A. vases.The clay of this group of red ware hampured with husk and mica. Sardargarh and Atranjíkhera. Atranjíkhera and Sardargarh. Atranjíkhera. Allahapur. This ware has been widely spread from Gujrat in the west to Bengal in the east and from Punjab in north to Kerla in the south. The vessels of this ware are usually black inside and one the rim on the exterior. . Group C:This group consist a variety of miniature vessels. Sravasti. Bowls are found of this fabric from Aalamgirpur.C. The antiquity of this ware goes back to the third millennium B. some times it turns in black like Hastināpur . Black and Red Ware:The Black and Red ware has significant Feature among the other wares Found in association with P. Several sites such as Hastināpur. The occurances of Black and Red wares from several sites in association with PGW have been noted such as Allahpur. vases and other variety of miniature shapes. There is a variety in vases. These vases do not sum to have any utilitarian purpose. usually have a high neck and an out turned rim.librally as a ‘degraissant’. Firing of this fabric ware is not uniform in all places. The popular shapes of these wares during the PGW period are Bowls. Ropar and Khalaua yielded a large number of miniature vessels. dishes. ware. Allahpur. storage jars were commonly manufactured in this fabric. as it has been found at Harappan sites in Saurastra. These are differ from one to another in shape and size. thickened externally and with carinated necks having a diameter of roughly in at the opening@B. basins. the other remaining portion of the outside is red.G. Noh. The earthernwares are designed with wavy lines or straight lines. This manufacturing technique was resulted a red pot with a black rim and generally having a black interior patternsA<. strokes. Generally.. In other wards this was merely the inverted firing technique. dashes. the fabric of the Black and Red ware is fine and matches well with the PGW fabric. This hypothesis proves that the borrowing of iron by the PG ware using propel from the black and red ware using peopleA=. black and red ware deposit) at Noh. shows a high degree of skill in making the pot. For instance dish on stand and bowl on stand seem to have been made by this technique. placed upside down on a layer of saw dust in which the rim was buried.e. The technique of manufacturing the Black and Red ware pottery was a single operation by keeping the pot upside down with its rim being buried in saw dust to the depth on an inch. shallow dish on stand and a gobular jar with a high neck and narrow neck@C. baked in a small electric fūrṇace and when red hot. The techniques of making the pots imparts on the wheel and then joining the same was also adopted by B and R potter in certain casesA.The characteristics features of this shapes are incurved or strightsided bowls. clusters of dots and geometrical forms. The Black and Red ware are painted with only linear patterns. The incised decoration like small circles in a row is one of the motifs. cross hatched lozenges etc. Many pots were shaped by the combination of wheel and hand techniquesA:. The pots were coated with a thin wash of red ochre. It is interesting to note that iron has been reported from the pre PGW deposit (i. . Surface treatment of the pots by black and red ware pottery. These it will not be farfetched if we call it as the most important ceramic industry of ancient India. In the Ganga valley numerous PGW sites about 400. Later it has been reported from several sites.P. finish and manufacturing technique. In Rajasthan the PGW is found on sand dunes and there are sites in dried up bed of the Ghagger the ancient Saraswati. Although Allchins call it as ‘hallmark’ of this culture periodAB.P. Sayana explains it with remarkable scientific precision.C. . Haryana north Rajasthan and western U. the Chambal in the southeast and Himalayan in the north. formed of well levigated clay free from all impuritiesAA. He observes that nílalohita was an earthern ware burnt in a kiln where the fire was níla on account of the emission of smoke and lohita due to burningA?. It generally covers the Āryavarta and BrahmrisidesaA@. It represents a good example of fine craftsmanship and a high degree of artistic ability. The geographical distribution of PGW zone is the Sutluj on the west and Aravalli range in the south. (later Vedic period).) in the lowest levels. Painted Grey Ware:The Painted Grey Ware is the most distinctive ceramic industries with its excellent fabric. have been discovered so far in north India in Punjab. The Atharvaveda refers to nílalohita and amā (unbaked) potsA>. It was first found from Ahichchhatra (Bareilly U.Most probably the chronology of the black and red ware dated back to about 1000 B. The fabric of the ware is marked by a superior quality of paste. It has been found in different parts of the country at different times. The distribution of this ware is equally widespread. This indicates that the PGW culture is post Vedic. some other types of vases with local variation used for the storing liquid and grain or for drinking water. al. Bowls have convex or straight or incurved and even concave sides with usually of a featureless rimB>.We find very thin walled pots in PG ware. Other shades which are met with are brownish and reddish grey but in every case core is grey (Plate-XI). As. The colour varies from ash grey to battleship grey. The painted pigment (Plate-X) included criss-cross lines a chain of short spirals. Pottery can therefore be taken as the table ware. a ring pedestal of a bowl or vase found at AllahpurB.The comman veessels were dishes. a row of the Greek latter sigma. Different types of dishes and bowls of are the predominant form of PG ware. . 22-130).The PGW is a wheel turned pottery. bowls. patterns involving circles and squares and swastikaAC. These dishes were used for serving meals. Buff grey is also found. The name Painted Grey Ware suggests a wheel madewell fired grey pottery of on which pattern in lines and dots were painted with black pigment before firing.(dist.Basins and a lota shaped vessels have been collected from the district of FarukhabadB< and sherdes bearing cloth impression collected from AtranjíkheraB=. The perforated vessals were found with three legs at the bottom (Arora ed. Meerut). Although it suggests that the PG ware potter was familiar with the technique of preparing superior quality of clay. Some dishes are vertical or in turned featureless rim being rounded or having tapering sides. and basins and different kinds of jars and pots vases and miniature pots chalics were recovered from Abhipur. The majority of the pottery was a vessel ware used for routine chares like fetching and storing water and storing cereals and cookingB:. Besides these. 2001-02. since where the paint has faded a black line is seen running along the whole patternBB. A design obtained from Ropar. After the laborious preparation of the clay. The pots were baked nicely under reducing conditions so that black ferrous oxcide may be produced by reducing gases in the klin. A special feature of painting was noted on the PG ware. Marks of cutting string and sometimes thumb or finger impression are found on the vessel. commonly known as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) which is assigned the time bracket 600-100 BC. So far as the pattern of painting and decoration is concerned. it was thrown on a fast rotating wheel to obtain the desired shapesB?. They might have used some organic material in order to produce good grey colourBC. In some cases white and red colours have been used for painting. There is a remarkable . which is of a rough type. Lal has observed some patterns that the outline of some of the designs was first drawn in a thin deep black line.The clay used for making the pot is well lavigated. PGW is confined mostly to some geometrical patterns with only incidental emergence of of floral designs. seem to have been deeply incised and then filled up with a white pigmentBA. The pigment are used generally has a met impression. “It is to be noted that greater thinness is difficult to achieve by the method of throwing on wheel because if the clay is not sufficiently well levigated and of desired consistency any attempt to make the walls very thin or the rotating wheel by pressure of hand may result in complete tearing of the lump of clayB@. Painted Grey Ware was succeeded by a new and striking pottery. The paint was applied in black or deep chocolate colours before pot was baked. Ballabh Saran has remarked on the technique of manufacturing PGW. red ware OCP ware and NBP ware. has a thin black slip and varieties of grey.C. Atranjíkhera was first site to yield the iron tools and implements from PGW phase.c.B. The NBP is the most distinctive ware which display a high degree of technological excellenceC=. The NBP wares have been discovered from various sites from Udegrama to Charasada in the west to Chandraketagarh in the east and from Tilaurakot in the Nepalese tarai to Tamilnadu in the southC>. to 1st c. red ochre. in the Ganga doabC:. The NBP ware accumulation is generally preceded by the deposit of the PGW or the Black slipped and Black and Red waresC<.B.C.c. It has a wide span of time from 7th c. Possibly PGW received any impetus from the preceeding cultures or contributed some of its own traits to the succeeding cultures as like black and red ware. which are significant pottery cultures in this respect. which no critica scholar would place before the start of the Ist millanium B.C. It was first encountered in the excavation at SarnathC? and BhitaC@ where it occured in pre Mauryan levels. PGW is a hallmark of the period. This has pushed the antiquity of iron industry at least to 1000 B. It is the finest economic wares.chronological proximity between the dates of the beginning of PG ware and the later Vedic aqe. and even silver and gold.. Though the PGW ware is technologically and culturally distinctive because of its controlled firing to achieve the characteristic grey hue as also because of its geometric painting traditionC. . Northern Black Polished Ware:The Northern Black Polished Ware industry has been placed in the time bracket of 600 BC to 200 B. These ware were used on special occasions. Potteries of PGW and NBP wares both are comparable in chronology.:. B. distribution in space. but was not sure whether it was locally made or imported.B. Marshall took it to be a variety of the Greek black ware which is a deluxe ceramic of the 4th. Which is responsible for the black shade. Sanaullah is of opinion on the technique of NBP. it is clear that there is no unanimity of views among the scholar about luster of the NBP. It is manufactured with a well lavigated and fine clay free from all impurities. possibly consisting of a finally lavigated mixture of clay and red ochre ground in water and applied to the surface of the vessel before it was fired..Lal suggests that black gloss of the NBP ware may have resulted by some sort of post firing treatment in which kiln hot pottery was coated by some sort of organic liquid of vegetable and animal originCB.C. The black colour was doubtlessly developed by the action of reducing gases formed in the kiln.However the two distinct epicenters or zones of concentration of the two wares make the possibility of PGW giving rise to NBP unlikelyCA. The original slip was evidently a highly ferruginous body. that the black coating contains about 13% ferrous oxide. fabric and form. Though. . while in routine or daily use the rough fabric is popular. Wheeler calls NBP wares "terra sigillata" of the Europeon sites.::. Hedge is of opinion that shining black slip consist of a thin layer of black magnetic oxide Fe304 which is responsible for the colour of NBP wareCC. Scholar has various presumptions above that black gloss of the NBP pottery. 3rd C.B. The coating is not a siliceous glaze. The fabric is very fine thin and smooth of NBP ware as like the PG ware. K. The polishing might have been done before and after firing. However. and horizontal band etc. Black and Red ware. Grey ware and Red ware. Some painted specimen has also been noted from Sravasti and Kośambi. and tapering sides.:?. looking like sun. Though. designs. parallel horizontal lines and solid dots.:>. The above analysis shows that the NBP ware had become a well known industry in the pre Mauryan period almost simultaneously in all the sixteen Mahājanapadas1 irrespective of their long distances. loops. Besides this. Other wares occurring in association with the NBP ware at most of the sites are Black-Slipped wares. strokes. The ornamentation is yellowish or light vermillion and the motifs include dots and dashes. the potter of NBP ware reflects a high degree of skill in decorating. The NBP ware was a full-fledged iron culture which enabled its people to undertake the clearance of jungle.It is therefore NBP attained an advance stage of technological development in pot making. group of sigma. dishes. The principal shapes are bowls.:=. The NBP ware are decorated with some curvilinear pattern.:A. The collection of various forms of NBP ware from north Indian sites is distinctive. polishing and outstanding manufacturing technique of making pots. Even the plain NBP can be classified into different varieties. Few lids are characterized by flat terminals. make full use of the facility of the . strokes etc. small circle. The bowls with straight sides and dished with incurved rims are most predominant. vessels and spouts are also recovered. Bowls have concave. spiral designs formed by circles. The NBP potter was also familiar with the making of ridge grooves (from Tripusi) and lugs. The painting of the PGW gave way to the lustre of the NBP ware.:<.:@. handi and jars. arch. knobbed lid. A change in pottery types almost always proves cultural change that involves both those who made pottery and those who used it. Thus pottery is called as the alphabet of archaeology. . India entered in the historical age.:B. With this pottery.Ganga plain and found cities and empires. It represents bits of evidence and helps us to know about the material and cultural life of people. 11. History of Pañchāla.1.6. Ancient India No. 1984. 6.11. III. 56 Vedic Index.2 .K.1. 9. VII. RV. 15.4 Srimali.1 RV. VI. 7. VIII.17. 11. K.40 RV. III. Su. 13.REFERENCE 1. 3. IX. Bra. 11.. 17. Gr. 14.ik=so 1. 1. 3.130. 1. III..22. 16. 11.5. p. SB. 20. 1. Gohh. p.12. Roy B. Maitrayaņí Saṃhitā. 19.. XVI 27. D. 1. 4.21.8. XI.3 VS.2.1.3 AV.2. Man makes himself.3 4. V. p. 53. 18. p. Craft and Craftsmanship in Traditional India. TA. 3. 2. 22. TB.2.34 Asva.M.161 Ṛgveda.2 AV. X. TS.7. SAA.37 Gordon.296 Pal.1.9. 1.17. Gr.51.6 Ṛgveda VII 104. M. TS. 11.3. KSS.8. 119. 9. XII.. 6.89 Ibid.22 12. 12.P. 27. 1.2 RV.4.5. 12.59 Sat.7 AV. p. 5.10. VI. 75. 5.S. 5.2. 8.13 21. 10. The Later Vedic Economy. VII. 13.5 AB.1..Su.2.7 The Mrtpaca occurs in the same sense in Vajasneyí Sam ̣hitā. 15. P. p.90 Y. ‘Pre-Hostoric Investigation”. Bra. IAR.) by B. Ibid.21 Sat.39. p.P. p. (Ed. 31. 1.5 RV.”. pp. 9. Lalitkala.131-35. VIII..13 AV. op.23. p. XXV. Ancient India.N. 28. 40.B. “Post Patterns-Excavations at Rupar”.5.Sinha. p.34. IAR. Sinha. for the large earthenware in which grains or water are stored this is four to five feet in length or two or three feet in breadth across the center.4. Shivaji.11.C.5. 32.56-57. IX. 35. 1963-1964. pp. X-XI. “Excavation at Hastināpur ”.1 Sat.) B.80 33.7. 29. Potteries in Ancient India p. pp31-32 37. 3. Lal.2 Singh.9. B. 1964. Poona. Vedic literature on Pottery.8 Tripathi Vibha. 1951pp. B.3. 36.2. 8.98 IAR.VII. VI. VI. 1953 pp. 39. Gaur. 24. 39.1964.17.P. 26. Br.27.2. XII. 38.8. Kunda or kuna is the popular name in U. VIII. Ancient India.D Sharma. 1975.20-39. 1964. India Pre-history. III. 34. TAB.1. 27. SB. 111.33. III.127-129. Sat. 1964-1965. Lal.B. R. Indian Pre-History. Br.91-93. 25.2.. Deshpande.4 RV.. Further Copper-Hoards etc. p. IX. . M.1. and Indian Prehistory. The Ochre Coloured Pottery.cit. Ancient India. (ed. 1969-70. The Painted Grey Were -An Iron Age Culture of Northern India.305 30.121-29. Suraj Bhan. p.39 IAR.56 Gaur..C. 1960-1970.cit. B.cit.56 Gaur. p. 1972. Roy. p. R. 54. op. 48.cit. p. Ibid. 1963-64. 63.C. 1963-64. Vijaya Kumar. p. 61. op. 46.cit. 50. p.56 IAR. p. 51. p. Paper read in Seminar of Indian Archaeological Society held at Jaipur in Dec.. 49. 43. R. p.C. 57. 62. p. 45. p. 60.56 IAR. Hissar. 42.B. 59.73 IAR.73 IAR. 1968-69. p.cit.282-287 and IAR..98 IAR. “Excavation at Joohpura”. p.. op.39 IAR.. The Copper Hoard Culture of Ganga Valley”.98 IAR..39 IAR. 1970-71. p. p..98 IAR. 1963-64. 1960-64. 53. 52. Antiquity XLVI.C. 58.41. B. p. p. 55. 44. op. 1969-70. 1969-70.. 1968. 1969-70. R.98 Ibid.39. 1976.39 Gaur. 1970-71. JHS. R.308 IAR.56 Ibid IAR. 1963-64.P. p. Excavation at Mitathal”. p. 1969-70. 1970-71..50 Gaur.37 . 47. op. Lal. 56. 1963-64. p. IAR. 64. .107 IAR.B. op.. 84. 1968.cit. Sinha... p. 1975 p.cit. 82.VI 20-21 Lal.cit. op. p.210 Kochhar Rajesh.p. op. 79.8 Tripathi Vibha. 72. RPR3 O`. 69.(1971-72) p.K. 1970-71. M. 1965-66.. 1999..80 IAR. 1986. 66. p. It is seen that pottery is mostly ochre colored or red and the shades from orchrous to brownish i. 4. 74. 1986.132 Dhaiya Neelima. p. p. 71.71 Roy. op.. orange.cit.66 Dhavalikar. p.309 Allchins.cit. op. B. 81..cit. p. 88. 75. 1989. B.17. op.. 1999. 1.L...32 . 73.84 Dhavalikar M.K.K. P.305 Dhavalikar. B. 85. 80. p.. p.cit. “Technology of PG Ware” Potteries in Ancient India ed..cit.124 Tripathi Vibha.69 Ibid.127 87.131 Roy. 78..65. M. The Vedic People. op. p.cit. 67.. 68.P. op.cit. p.P.by B. op.P...P. op.84 Ghosh.307 AV. 1999..cit. 76. 77. 70... red.307 Dhaiya Neelima. op. pale red and creamy red.cit. 1965-66 IAR.B.42 Saran Ballabh. The Birth of Indian Civilization.71 Roy. R and B.P.e.4 Roy. p. B. 83. p. p. p.. Gupta P. op. 86. Ansari J.cit. XIV. Dahiya. p. Pottery of Kauśāmbi. p. 1962. Deva. (Ed.946.) B.Sinha. p. The NBP Ware Assemblage and its Relation with the PGW. 1978-79.. M. 2:251 .185 91.G. The P. XVI.89. R.. J. op.cit. op. op. Decorated Pottery of Northern India.C. 94.7 Gaur R..C. 96. p. op. p. op. Nigam..cit. op. Marg. p. For example a knobbed lid from Vaishali which bears a high polish that it looks almost like stone..P.D. p. P. 90..47 IAR. 98.3 105. Agarwal D. p. p. p.133 Roy B.T.C. p.. Gaur R..cit.P. op.159-61 100.D. Neelima.133 108.cit.73 101. 1904-05. 97.P.40 Tripathi Vibha. op.. op.cit. 95.115 92.312 ARASI. Gaur Painted Grey Ware. Ware: A Revaluation.P.134 93. B. op. 1989.Dahiya Neelima. 99..56 Hedge. Dahiya Neelima.. p. Wheelar and K.. Dhavalikar. Technical Studies in NBP Ware. 1.). The Painted Grey Ware (Seminar Proceeding).59 102.No.59 ARASI.3 103..M.. B. Gaur.K.312 107. p. JMS.cit. Ghosh..C. p.cit. The NBP Ware Assemblage and its Relation with the PGW.. 1909-10. The PGW at Atranjíkhera an Assessment (Ed. Published in Seminar Proceeding of R. p. 74 104. XI.cit. Marg. NO. Roy. 1955-56.P. V. Mishra... K. p. Evolution of Pottery forms and Fabrics in India. The Painted Grey Ware (Seminar Proceeding).S. University of Baroda.Sinha.cit.203 106. rich and poor were used terracottas on some or the other occassions. This led the ancient craftsmen to take up this as an occupation and with the development of commercial sense more and more craftsmen devoted themselves to the art of making terracotta toys and figures². A variety of objects were produced by the baked clay which were distributed as for domestic use. worship and cult practice household decoration. However a large variety of toys were also produced by Harapppans. Coomaraswamy observed that the early Indian terracottas are of great importance not only as document of the religious culture but as document of history of art¹. for magical practices and religious and ritual purposes. Subsequently. the history of clay figurines in the Gangetic valley can hardly be traced only on the basis of archaeological. Archaeological evidence shows that the figurines of mother goddess and bull have acontinues tradition in earliest times. the nature and content of this art however differ in urban and non urban cultures. it can be . People. The history of terracotta art in India since the pre Harappan times shows its high antiquity. terracotta appeared on a large scale. Terracottas were used extensively. With the development of urbanization. However. Desai remarked that the terracotta art can be regarded as the spontaneous handiwork of simple folk. rural and urban. for children’s toy. Terracotta figurines may be considered as poor man’s sculpture.THE TERRACOTTAS The clay served as an important medium of artistic expression reflecting the socio cultural economic and traditional art of different cultures of Indian society. . Types of Terracotta Figurines:The increased demand off terracotta in the urban centers evolved new techniques and forms for various terracotta designs in early historical India. In the Aitareya Brāhmaņa there are references of the making of clay elephant@. the figurines of both human and animal toys. The ancient literature contains numerous references related to terracotta art or clay figurines. flora. The Yajurveda and Atharvaveda refer to Krtyas> which were in all probability. Figurines of each period of India’s long history share the characteristic features of the art of style prevailing in the particular period but regional variations both in the style and type can also be noticed. seals. ornament have been discovered from various sites of Northern India. the figurines found in the Indus valley?. A variety of terracotta objects were produced by the urbanized community which were well fired and treated with wash or slip. fauna and craft industry of their timeA. These objects reflect religious beliefs. Terracotta figurines were grouped under the two types of icons or non icons (to some extent the same as religious and secular) Thus the evidence of numerous terracotta objects include.produced on large scale only when certain complex social conditions are fulfilled³. There is no marked difference between the figurines to be worshiped and the figurines to be used as toys. economic conditions and social structure of the society. These are produced and supplied on the specific demand of the customer on the ritual occasions. The techniques of making figurines in moulds were for the first time introduced during the late Mauryan period. Moulded figurines were . Rituals are to be performed for the fulfillment of specific desires. Partly. The objects of this category were used for decoration or semi-ritualistic purposes. which used for making toys. There are two ways of producing the terracotta figures. according to their votive or hieratic function. Terracotta objects used for rituals and religious purposes as elephant. There is no separate socio-economic class responsible for the production of ritual terracotta figures.Terracotta figures are widely distributed by significant the regional variations in composition and form. horse. These forms are used as for making human and animal figurines both. ordinary potters were engaged in the production of pots and tiles prepare votive figures as per requirementsC. The multi coloured moulded terracottas of are basically the object of amusement and toys for children. festivals and occasionsB. birds and other God or goddess figurines etc.:. The ritualistic terracotta figurines are not marketed ordinarily. Besides serving as a medium of art and material culture these ritual figures also throws light on the religious belief of the people. However. Moulded Terracottas:These terracottas were prepared by moulds. the ritual terracottas were produced on the occasion of religions practices while the other was moulded. The back is prepared by hand or with scrappers. Sporadic occurrence of terracotta . usually the front. These objects were utilized as icons or images probably for worshipping votive offering and also as ornaments and toys¹³. Who supplied them to all the professional of toy making? This new technique had two advantages mass production of cost in a shorter duration and replicating the master pieces without exercising the artistic vision or skill by an ordinary craftsman¹¹. scientific. The female figurines especially. both human animal and other utilitarian objects. Human Figurines:The group of human terracotta figurines is noteworthy. With regard to technique it is observed that the style of this technique most refreshing. A wide margin is left around the edge as background so that the figures appear to be in relief¹². Types of Objects:The ruins of cities and centers of early or pre and Harappan cultures have yielded different varieties of terracotta figurines. wet clay is pressed into the mould and this produces on the clay the impression of one side of the figure.prepared by a specialized group of potter. Once the mould is prepared from the model. advanced and appealing in action. The occurrence of unbaked and baked clay figurines can be traced back from the Neolithic period. The artistic evolution of the terracotta objects had brought to light the socio-economic and religious condition of the contemporary society. the cult of mother goddess were differ from one another in the contemporary period. elephant and horse have been revealed from different levels. .@. forms. human sporadically in the earliest times. A comprehensive study of animal terracotta finds on the evidence of stratigraphy is expected to determine a sequence of the vast mass of Indian terracotta from various sites.?. It is to be believed that the early mother goddess figurines were conceived by the folk possible in the Ganga basin.C. techniques and theme which continue to enhance our understanding of the production. function and history of terracotta art. The cumulative evidence from archeological digs shows that the occurrence of archaic mother goddess figurines in levels dated variously between 600 and 450 B. However.human figurines has been obtained from many sites in the Ganga valley and Northern India. Apart from the aesthetic significance these figures supplied invaluable data for the study of artistic and realistic attitude of the people. Animal Figurines:Primitive man’s artistic instinct led him to make images of visual objects. A large number of animal figurines of various types have been encountered from various sites of Ganga valley. it is significant to note that majority of terracotta animal figurines are the bull. Most of the beautiful terracotta figurines from ancient sites seem to have conceived by people well versed in the tradition of art. literature and religion of the period not only Indian but also of the neighboring countries through intimate contacts. These figures were categorized by the historians as in terms of temporal distribution. They are exclusively connected with fertility.>. eagle. Ornaments were made of various materials like. Besides animal. technique and decorations. However. where they exhibit transverse hole on the lower part of legs and mouth. the bird’s figurines like dove. peacock and hen were the examples of naturalistic modeling and these figurines have been unearthed from various sites of Ganga valley. duck. These figurines can be taken as a reflection on the competence and artistic merit of the modelers.It was noticed that certain important changes in style and technique of modeling the animal figurines were introduced near about the beginning of each of the periods. copper . heron. in the production of ritualistic animal terracottas various parts are make on the wheel separately and then joined together with the clay paste. ivory and bone. the possibility that some terracotta animal figures of the past were toys for children’s amusement cannot be altogether ruled out particularly in these cases. sparrow. parrot. metal like gold.A. Ornaments:The ornaments and dress form a constituent element of human culture. terracotta. Ornaments are of diverse types and of various kinds have been recovered from all over the Ganga valley. Animal figurines have been studied in respect of the types of animal represented and their frequency.B. Jewellry is regarded as a traditional form of wealth but it is also used for personal decoration both by men and women. These figurines were naturally determined by their artistic and ritualistic nature. precious stones. While. necklace. the toy animal and bird figurines toys were hollow inside and often pierced with a transverse hole across the body for wheels and provided with a second hole in the neck or head for the attachment of thread by which they could be pulled along. Games and Toys Objects:Playing is the primary impulse of God and man. cult practices. . Various toy objects of children were made by terracotta. bracelets using etc is noteworthy.C.and iron. balls and pallets. votives tanks. However. These objects were related with magical rites. wheels. whistle. Cult and Ritual Objects:A large number of terracotta objects comprising human and animal figurines. These objects throw some light on the prevalent games and sports and represent the matrix of the contemporary civilization. bird and animal. Indian philosophy considers cosmos as the play ground of the divinity and the earth as the play ground of man. pendent. ear stud. While terracotta ornaments included as bangles. Those activities which aim at the immediate satisfaction of vital needs such as hunting in archaic society take on play forms. rituals and ceremonial like sacrifices and alter etc. figurines have been encountered. beads. The most popular terracotta toys like cart frame. The figurines can be classified on the basis of their mode of decoration and ornaments worn by them. earthen lamps. The decorative ornaments are important as it defining the economic and social life of a particular time. ball. the clay figurines were modeled by hand in a simple manner. Techniques:The production of terracotta involves important techniques for making images and objects.Miscellaneous Objects:A few examples of terracotta household objects have been unearthed from the various sites of Ganga valley. Clay required certain treatment before it was taken up for domestic or plastic work. Incision (for showing fingers and hair)<: Hand-Modeling:Before 4th C. Either the figures are wholly modeled by hand or in some portions a tool like scrapper is used²¹. The technique used include:1. The modeler first take up a single . Terracotta grinders pestles. breasts and navel portion circles were stamped) 3. spindle whorls are most interesting. ears and head) 2. Archaeologically examining clay figurines. Pinching (for making nose. Cuts (mouths was made by deep horizontal cut) 4.B. it was observed that clay figurines were made by two prominent methods either by hand or in moulds and by a combination of both techniques.C. Terracotta was intended chiefly for domestic use and in household purposes. Stamping (for showing eyes. These objects occurred fairly large number from the sites of Ganga valley. It is interesting to note that these objects show an improvement in the art of the clay modeling. While some kind of figurines shows continuity from the preceding tradition.C. The craftsman required great skill. This is most popular method of making the terracotta figurines throughout the period.):From 1000 B.C. to 600 B. these decorations are important as they portray the custums. This PGW received full recognition as a significant proto historic ceramic industry of culture²³. ornament and dress. coiffure and ornaments etc of the social life of a particular time²². The modeled object are kept in shade and then strengthened by a fine clay paste.C. a new age heralded in Ganga valley. Terracotta art from 1000 B.lump of clay for making figurines and tried to make the shap by his fingers. These terracotta finds are classified under the sub heads: Animal and bird figurines Human figurines . In some cases they are finished by a colour painting while a few bear painted decoration. workmanship and specialization in art of making figurines. onwards. While using a scrapper he might away scrape the surplus clay from the model and emphasis on giving expression to his feeling like eyes. The producing objects or figurines were not quite good or crude naturally. This is evident that a large number of terracotta figurines have been unearthed from the excavated sites at PGW level. Terracotta finds of this period display clearly a rural bias which was followed by the urban cultures. (PGW Pd. The terracotta art appeared to have felt the new era of development. Iron gave impetus to every walk of life and ultimately led to the development of rise of cities in the Gangetic plains. Atranjíkhera. treated mostly with a slip for obtaining a smooth surface. The figurines reported from PGW level are the excellent examples of well levegated clay. Jakhera and Bhagwanpura in this period. The figurines were all broken but the hump in one case suggested that animal was bull. pig and ram have been reported. The occurrence of three animal figurines from Hastināpur from the PGW level (Plate-XII) is noteworthy. Ornaments Games and toys Religious object Miscellaneous objects Animal and Bird Figurines:The figures of bull which were the only specimens available from OCP level continued to be popular in the PGW level as well. Sometime red colour occurs in dull shade. while the deposition on the neck and face pointed to its having been a horse. Pointed drooping face with a transverse . The colour varies from red to greyish black. From Atranjíkhera only one humped bull figurine (Plate-XIII) and a pig figurine is reported from the upper level. Another animal is probably a horse. While a transverse hole might indicate the nose<?. The figurine is hand modeled and treated with dull red wash. Animals comprises humped bull. Terracotta animal figurines are reported from various sites like Ahichchhatra. Because no figurines of such an antiquity as these other than those belonging to the protohistoric chalcolithic culture are available to us<>. Hastināpur. horse. The bird is delicately executed. bird figurines were also collected from PGW level from Thapli and Jakhera. shape. a site of Garhwal. From Jakhera more than ten unique human figurines (Plate-XVI) both male and female³³ single have been unearthed from this level. The specimen of bird figurine from Bagwanapura is carefully modeled.hole near the nose for fastening a string<@ is evident that it was used as a toy. Amongst other finds from PGW level at Noh. mention may be made of a fragmentary lid of vessel with painted bird in grey ware (Plate-XV). It was decorated with oblique criss-cross incised designs and features on its body³¹. Which indicated that it was probably a rattle? From Allahpur and Sardargarh-3 bird figurine has also been reported³². having cross incision on its tail. Human Figurines:Terracotta human figurines have been reported from various excavated sites from Painted Grey Ware level. A large number of figurines of rams and dogs were collected from Bhagwanapura (pd 1b) These figurines were decorated with incised groups of oblique lines. At Aalamgirpur a ram and a humped bull figurines were also found<A. Besides animal figurines. Its eyes have been made prominently with pin holes<C. After examining the characteristics of this terracotta bird. An unidentified bird figure is also reported from Sardargarh-3. Thapli. From PGW level grey coloured figurines appeared to be precursors of archaic violin shaped figurines reported . and a line on the neck portion indicated that this bird is possibly a parrot bird.These are wheeled figurines. terracotta bird perfectly baked of pale red colour and having decorated notches on its body have been reported (Plate-XIV)<B. Other notable finding is head of bird from Jakhera from PGW level=:. the features. It was an anthomorphic figurine with one arm intact and other broken decorated with finger impressions=@. Aguncha.iii at Noh. and Jakhera. Terracotta bangles are found at the sites like Sonkh.from NBPW from Jakhera. From Atranjíkhera seven terracotta reels have been unearthed from middle and upper face.ii and Pd. A few examples of human figurines were collected from the disturbed level of Pd. The examples of pendent and necklace were occurred from Atranjíkhera and Hastināpura=A. The occurrence of terracotta handmade human figurine from Baghwanapura is noteworthy. this kind of similarity is quite significant Moreover. Some of these might have been used as ear-studs. two figurines from Atranjikhera and three from Jakhera suggest that terracotta figurines were also popular. Pariar. amulets and pendants have been recovered from Gangetic plains. Nagada and other sites. The discovery of a human head from Khalua34. Atranjíkhera. The specimens of figurines show that it was prepared by well lavigated clay of black colour and with a flat back. Hulas. in both the regions people were using the Grey Ware. Two handmade figurines are also reported from this level at Atranjíkhera=?. Ornaments:Various types of ornaments included bangles. Sardargarh and Bhagwanapura. beads. reels. While amulets were recovered from Mathura and Hulas. . Another violin shaped mother goddess (Plate-XVII) made out of grey sherd is noteworthy. The terracottas of Jakhera appears identical to those found in sweet Valley (Gandhara Grave Culture) Since both are iron age cultures. These reels are treated with black and dull red wash. Nagar (Pd 1) and Allahpur=B. Some of them might have been used as spindle whorls. and Kauśāmbi have revealed numerous beads from this level>. Bateswer. Terracotta toy objects included wheels. Short edged bicone circular is recovered from Hastināpura from the late level of PGW=C. Games and Toy Objects:The excavation at many sites throw some tight on the games and sports prevalent during the PGW period. Sardargarh and Ahichchhatra. A wheeled toy has been reported from Allhapur. Terracotta wheeled ram figurines. The standard Ghāţa shaped variety bead is collected from Atranjíkhera. Terracotta wheels are reported from Darau and Atranjíkhera.e. disc.. Sringverpur. mostly discoid in shapes have been recovered from middle and upper phase from Atranjíkhera><. wheeled toy. Eighteen terracotta wheels. animals and sling balls were reported from the PGW sites. Jakhera. From Allahapur vase shaped bead have been reported. Atranjíkhera. A wheel ram and bull figurines are also reported from Aalamgirpur also other interesting examples of children toys>=. Some other sites like Kesari. Khalua. Hastināpura. horse figurines and other were used as playthings by the children. Pariar. 1: Ghāţa shaped 2 Short blunt edges bicone circular. Apart from these shapes. Hastināpura. i. the third type is a dome shaped bead with vertical lines towords the flat side this has been observed at Allahpur>:.The excavations have revealed two types of terracotta beads for various PGW sites as Noh. dice. Ropar. Another shape of bead. . Kampil. Nine gamesmen varied in shapes like conical. From Bhagwanpura it is interesting to note that there are two dabbers in big size having marks akin to plus and minus marks on the handle .Besides these objects another popular game prevelent in this period was Chess or ChaturAṇga. slipped and treated with a wash occurred from Atranjíkhera. Various terracotta disc and hopscotch has been found in a large number from PGW sites.lB)>?. Jakhera and Darau. On the basis of their size and shape it is difficult to ascertain that weather these were used as for playing by children and as weights or for killing the bird. A few examples of decorated and plain discs and hopscotches have been found from Bhagwanpura50. These discs are decorated with incised designs and varies from 10gms to 50gms in weight48 Two hundred forty discs encountered from pd IIIrd from Atranjikhara (Plate-XVIII)>9.Terracotta disc of perforated and unperforated types mae of potsherds discovered from Abhipur. Gamesmen have been reported from Atranjíkhera. The presence of terracotta gamesmen from Noh is interesting>>. discoid. Terracotta dabbers and balls were also recovered from Jakhera. Seven terracotta balls of different sizes and weights were unearthed from Bhagwanapura (Pd.It might not be conform that what are the use of them whether these were related to games or any other ritual purposes. Abhipur46 and Bhagwanapura. cylindrical and cubical have been encountered from Atranjíkhera from upper and middle phase. While few decorated playing balls with incised lines. The other game having popularity among the children was disc game. A good number of . Disc with decorated edges47 and some other made of a sherd of grey ware with black slip on the outside were recovered from Hastināpura. Besides two over burnt structure of religious quits similar to Nagar pd Ist have been found. Two specimen of disc. Interestingly burnt bones and ashes are seen in association with these discs52. It is absorbed that discs were used to keep a recorded of a number of times a ritual was performed.IIIA (Plate-XIX) and proved a continuation of these types of figurines from this level. A terracotta conical disc in grey colour with stroke decoration all round was noticed at Noh.these toy objects have been recovered from Jodhpur. The symbol of Swastik. The last named site has reported another variety of disc bearing scalloped design is recovered. But the exact number could not be ascertained. sun and other on terracotta disc have some religious significance in this context. Ritual and Religious Objects:Archaeological evidence through some light on the religious evidence of Vedic Āryan while the exact nature of their beliefs and ritual practices is difficult to determined. As Ghosh is of opinion that from Jakhera more than hundred terracotta and pottery discs are found in one place in a trench. Allahapur and Noh. one is rectangular and grey in color and other is conical red in color were encountered from Allahapu51. sun and other are indicative of Brāhmaṇical religious practice. It is interesting to note that from Jakhera the evidence of swastika. .A mother goddess have been reported from Jakhera from pd. From Bhagwanpura a violin shaped terracotta mother goddess from pd IB have some religious significance. Terracotta birdshots. Raw clay specimen which have been found from sites may be associated with religious significance.The interesting feature of these skeletons belonged to an adult and a child. the head facing north. stoppers and cylindrical are obtained from Abhipur excavation is noteworthy55. p. Kurukshetra) needs to be mentioned here. These skeleton remains indicates the comman burial custom and mortuary practisesduring the Painted Grey Ware culture. Both skeletons were inhumed in the habitation area in a N-S direction. Miscellaneous Objects:Among these several kinds of terracotta objects have been used for various purposes.) and a child (around 2 yrs old. head scratches. stands grinders and seals. . slingballs. Besides seals most of these objects were used as household purpose. feeding cups.) (Joshi 1993. 149-183). The discovery of two human skeletons from Abhipur (dist. xxxiii.) and a female child (8-10 yrs old height 104 cm. Seven stoppers could be collected from Bhagwanapura from pd. spindle whorls pestles. IB54. Pilibhit) and Bhagwanapura (dist. The terracotta objects encountered from PGW level are stoppers. Human skeletons from abhipur belonged to an male adult (height 170cm. sex can not be determined)(Misra Anup. lamps. The discovered skeletons from Bhagwanapura belonged to a male adult (35 yrs old. Two terracotta stoppers were recovered from Atranjikhara53.80100). Man and Environment.The significance of ritual performance can be observed from the discovery of funerary customs of these people at Bhagwanpura. 2008.height 144cm. Querns skin rubbers. Specimen of seals has been recovered from Noh. Similar objects have been recovered from Jakhera. Thus. blue. Seal:Terracotta seals have been unearthed among all the sites of PGW culture.Terracotta spindle whorls have reported from almost all the sites. it is clear that terracotta objects of PGW culture were produced an unimaginably large scale and for a variety of purposed. Jakhera has been yielded skin rubbers and head scratcher?9. Atranjikhara Ropar and Noh. Skin rubber were recovered from Bhagwanpura pd. maroon stones make the surface rough and more suitable for grinding. From Hastināpura a seal with few punched dots in the lower part have been encountered61. Examples of spindle whorls have been collected from Hulas56. Ahichchhatra. Trade Economy:The large scale production of terracotta is seen generally in urban societies where there supply is well organized through a specialized . Aalamgirpur and Jakhera justified the existence of a developed textile industry. Feeding cup was an interesting example of household objects was recovered from Hastināpura?8 from Atranjikhara different sizes have been in this objects. While grinders have been reported from Dalutpur. green. Terracotta pestles are recovered from Hastināpur.The red. IB60. The working surface of these objects are flat and inset with piece of colourful stone57 . Sardargarh and Atranjikhara. The terracotta art has often been used to shape the artist and religious ideas of society. C) of Indian sub continent there is evidence of small settlements of people in course of transition between hunting and agriculture. While the ritualistic terracotta figurines are not marketed ordinarily. The account of the production and sale of clay objects indicates the economy of potters do not form uniform pattern throughout the year. While a variety of toys has been produced in the contemporary period. These objects reflect the religious belief. A majority of terracotta objects have been unearthed from the remains of early farming community in the middle Ganga plain. Discs of terracotta might have been used for the purpose of weighing in the trade. economic condition and social structure of the society. In this phase (from1000 to 600B. While representation of terracotta toy cart and chariot referred in Vedic literature. An urbanized community produced a verity of terracotta objects suggest that day craft was also in vague . The early terracottas were mostly associated with the religious ideas of the pioneering farmers the mother goddess and bull cult64. The occurrence of toy cart in PGW points out the existence of means of transport for facilitating the trade and commerce. This led the ancient craftsman to take up this art as an occupation and with the development of commercial sense more and more craftsman devoted themselves to the art of making terracotta toys and figurines in all conceivable forms63.Thus it appears that the art of terracotta or closely related to the phenomena of conclusion.group of potter craftsmen. making use of a variety of stone and copper implements62. . It is very difficult to say anything about the religious belief and practices of the people of the PGW culture.As Marshal states:. On the basis of these object the antiquity and development of terracotta art can be ascertained. Thus figurines represented that there is no break in succeeding Period in the continuity of this art. Kadra. On the basis of these observations it is clear that that production of terracotta objects were not only religious but secular also. symbols like swastika and sun on discs and other terracotta objects or unidentified objects throws valuable light on the customs and Brāhmaṇical religion of PGW people. Surma. While the presence of mother Goddess figurines . human figurines. . Sursa. The popularity of bull figurines occurred from OCP level Continued with some resemblance in the succeeding PGW levels is thus noteworthy65. and Prithiví@6. Vinata. Terracotta bull figurines have been unearthed from various PGW sites. sometime as a malevolent storm demon. Literary evidence described the various names of mother goddess such as Adití. The specimens of raw clay justified the fact that these figurines were made by the Vedic Āryans. The occurrence of violin shaped Mother Goddess from Bhagwanpura from pd IB have been proved its existence in this period.In prehistoric times the warship of bull was widely disseminated throughout the middle and near east where he appeared sometimes as a beneficent guardian of the homestead. 8. 7. CoomarSwamy.K. Terracotta Art Expression in Indian sub – continent. 1986 4. Jaiswal. 7 Sant Urmila. p.REFERENCES 1. p. A. This becomes evident from the fact that many terracotta figures of deities are used in a number of auspicious occasions. Bra. So far as technique is concerned it is observed that during late Mauryan period terracotta art touched the culminating point .64 10. op.. p. Banerjee Arundhati. 1984. The Terracotta Art of Rajasthan.3 In the Yajurveda we get a reference to the krtyas in following hymns. 5. sometimes faces pressed from mould. water. while the remaining part of the body is handmade and joined later before firing.13 The Brāhmaņas are an explanation of ritual procedures.42 2. History of Indian and Indonesian art. Desai D. The Social Milieu of Ancient Indian Terracottas 600 BC. terracotta art in India is considered mystical because it incorporates within them the five vital elements. 1965. Ch. cit. Vol .VI. An Ethno Archaeological View of Indian Terracotta. earth. based on commenteries of the Vedas. 9. Kalyan Krishna (1986). 1973. 6. those are air. Studies of Indus Valley Terracotta. 1997. Chandra R.47 3. In fact. to 600 AD. and ether..G. Banerjee Arundhati. P. p. fire. The figures are modeled with smoothness and sensitive effects..LVI. Vidula. Ait.54 11. p.. p. P. J.85 25. 30. 1970-71. p. 1993.. p. 15.60 IAR. 23.cit. p.D. M.cit.cit. 1950-52. Gangetic Valley Terracotta Art. Neelima Dahiya..which could not be surpassed in any subsequent period of the history of terracottas.L. cit.cit. 28.1983.12 Ibid. Ibid . p. Kalyan Krishna. p.. but it is also used for personal decoration both by men and women. Excavation at Hastināpur and other Exploration in the Upper Ganga and Sutlej Basins.8 Banerjee Arundhati. p. P. LVI. R. S. Excavation at Atranjíkhera. The Roots of Indian Art. op.. 22. op.86 Gaur.cit. 1985..P.90 Dahiya Neelima. 16. P. op. 1982-83.17 Gupta. p. 18. P. 1985. Gupta.47 Sant Urmila.171 12.127 . Terracotta Animal Figurines in Ganga-Yamuna Valley.32 Sahi. p. Cf. 29. p. p. Jaiswal.151 Joshi. Excavation at Bagwanapura. op. p. p. Vol. Aspects of Indian Archaeology.L.C. 14.. p. B. P. op.23 17. 26.. op.130 Jewellery is regarded as a traditional form of wealth..cit.173 Prakash.83 19.201 Prakash. 13.166 Gupta. Cf..103 IAR.. op. p. 1980. p.. P. 21. 24.cit. 20. p.p.N. 27. 31.10-11 Sant Urmila. The Arts and Crafts of Northern India. Ibid. Anciant India 10-11. Vidula..B. p. op. p. Sant Urmila.116 Lal. 1972. p.cit.. swastika. Ibid Lal. op.. R.. V.32. All the sites have yielded discs from PGW Period... sun symbol.124 Gaur. J. 1975. 32 .p..P. 32 .118 Ghosh. op..P.117 Sahi. 47. p.cit.126 Tripathi. Puratattva. p. 1965-66. 45. J. R.42 Joshi. 34. op. 35. 46. p.203 Sant Urmila. 43. 49. p.cit. It was evident by Jakhera Excavation that swastika symbol was occurred all discs prior to the late phase of NBPW.95 Sant Urmila.cit.C. Gaur. 50. op. op. p.N. 37.cit. Material Culture of Gangetic Plains During Ist Millenium B.96 38. J. 1965-66.P.B. 1993. p.132 .C. p.. 39. 40.. cross and plus etc. op.cit.102 42.47 Joshi. p.C. p.124 The discs are generally decorated with incised designs. They Included finger nail pattern executed around the circumference. p. op.p. 48. 36. p. M.41-42 IAR. p. As Roy observed that swastika symbol first appears in the later phase of NBPW. op.p..D.cit. Sant Urmila.. p.cit. 44..119 IAR.cit.150 IAR. The Painted Grey Were -An Iron Age Culture of Northern India.. Arvind K.cit. An Archaeological Study .205 Joshi. 1971-72. op. 41. B. 33..129 Puratattva. Ancient India 10-11. op. cit.. 58.86 66...C.120 Lal. 57.B op. op. B.5 A noteworthy occurrence of horse figurine from Hastināpur from PGW level is interesting. p. P. p. S. 1980.30 Sahi op.cit. p.P op.p.170 Sant Urmila. op.. Puratattva. p.151 Joshi. op. Allahapur and Noh. Lal. 119 Ghosh Arvind K.53 Ibid Sant Urmila. 65. 56.cit. Ancient India 10-11.178 ... 32 . p. op. 53.cit... 59.cit.87 Banerjee Arundhati..124 IAR 1990-91. 63. p. Ancient India 10-11. 62. 55..103 Gaur. 54. 61. B.cit... Sant Urmila. 1993. p. R. p. 52.203 Few unbaked pestles were recovered from Aalamgirpur. J. Gupta. 64. p.51. p.B op.cit.131 Ancient India no 10-11.cit.cit. op.cit.cit. op. p. p. op. p. 60. The numerous arts and crafts industries have been occupied by later Vedic people such as ivory. weaving. glass objects. The systematic enumeration indicates the development of arts and crafts on a large scale in Northern India. games and toys etc have been encounter form excavated sites. they were equipped technicians. Archaeological excavations conducted at various sites have opened up a rich store of information about arts and crafts of contemporary period.OTHER MISCELLENEOUS ARTS AND CRAFTS In the later Vedic age. with the growth and development of economy further leads to the subdivision of occupation which resulted the rise of new industries of arts and crafts. The . pottery and metal smiths. gold smithy. It is stated that though Vedic Āryans had not urban civilization. carriage making. The Vajasneyí saṃhitā contains a list of artisans who were present at the time of Vedic period1. wood. war-weapons. This period is marked by the rise of a number of professions as it was responsible for the formation of many castes. leather craft. Various kinds of objects used for domestic purposes. ornaments. These other were not developed on a large scale. Even in the post Vedic times. Arachosia and Ethopia5. While other cultures of the world have practiced the art of ivory making. Sind had an abundance of ivory. IVORY:In India. occurred high economic status in the society. craftsman technique of making objects and finished goods. It is evident from the fact the palace of Darius l (522-486 BC) was decorated with ivory brought from the Sind. Ivory has grandeur and nobility of its own .It is unique and unrivalled. The Vedic texts include ivory work as the noblest craft among all arts and crafts2. Although. these objects have not been reported from all the sites of Painted Grey Ware. ivory has been used for various craft purposes from sacred images to dice. ivory and seals etc.subject under study marked the origin and development of some other craft industries like wood making. The antiquity of ivory craft in India goes back to Harrapan period4. Though ivory is tough it seems to yields the craftsman masterly handing and become almost pliable and shines with a soft lustre like a cool moonbeam3. The introduction of these craft was of special interest in this period and the later Vedic furnish the valuable details about them. who used the ivory objects. glass making. The people. The existence of miscellaneous craft was opened new vistas for economic development in various fields. and highly expensive. leather making. All these affected the trade and commerce on a wide scale. Ivory was carved delicately and used for making . The later Vedic texts and archaeological finds have been confirmed the information about several crafts. ). The Taxila specimen excavated at Bhir Mound by Marshall described as semi-human figure is unique14. The . But it is very different to prove that the regular practice of ivory work by archaeological evidence. It has been mentioned in the later Vedic texts that the killing of elephant was rewarded in order to obtain their tusk7. hairpins.luxury goods. utilitarian objects and religious and ritual objects. while Saṃhitā has not been refer any kind of work related to ivory. One perforated pear shaped object of ivory decorated with grooves has been unearthed from Hastināpur11. From Ujjain15 and Avra16 similar human figurines have been occurred. Although Vedic literature mentioned about the elephant. Ujjain and Taxila etc. Aitereya Brāhmaņa enumerates ivory work in the list of śilpas10. However Vedic Āryans were not specialized in Ivory carving. It has a hole at the top probably used as a pendant. II12 (C. Cutting of tusk with saw has been mentioned8. Being of precious and rare material it was once patronized by the reality and the nobility.C. From Sonepur rectangular ivory piece having incised decorations have been recorded from pd. Champanagar. 830-650 B. Sonepur. The objects made by ivory included combs. Such pieces have been discovered from Jhunsi13. However a few ivory objects have been unearthed from Painted Grey Ware level. The Atharvaveda prescribed an amulet made of ivory to be tied on arms for curing certain ailments9. Hastināpura. Ivory was used for making ornaments. ornaments and other useful objects. Ivory work has been mentioned as danta vayijja in the post Vedic literature6. Jhunsi. small sticks. The sites where from ivory objects have been reported as Kośambi. These figurines were connected with the mother goddess. 9 cm. Some pieces of finished and unfinished bone tools like arrowheads and projectiles points were occurred from Abhipur from PGW period (PlateXX). These are in long pointed. The figure measures 18. Thus the ivory craft of this period is characterized by further refinement in the skill of application of techniques. The vital contribution of ivory . In this regard it has to be mentioned that the availability of ivory in large quantity might have given impetus to ivory workers. Besides this. long arms and figures. These arrowheads may be used in grim battles or for killing of birds and small games. The styluses with two ends – one short and other long. It has oval face.most interesting a broken ivory figurine has been encountered from Champa in the Ganga valley from Pre NBP level17. while right hand and leg is missing. have been reported and categorized as a tools19. well marked eyes. some arrowheads of bone of different sizes and ivory were recovered from Taxila and Kośambi. (C.BC). prominent aquiline nose and broad forehead. It has developed breasts. cross section. and other. shoulder. The Aitereya Brāhmaņa refers that in the Champa region the best species of Elephant were available and they were offered to priests as a gift20. slender waist.6thto 5thC. elbow. wrist and knee. The importance of figure lies in this fact that all parts of body have been carved separately and this jointed together with neck. Ivory pendants and amulets have been recovered widely. The characteristics of this pendant is it decorated with design of incised parallel lines and two circles that is faintly perceived as a female face and the other side is plain. bud shaped. circular. From PGW period from Taxila at Bhir mound a dagger shaped ivory pendant18 with thin blade and a handle having a hole in it for suspension. Paraśu and svadhiti25) and scissors26 (bhúrij) as instruments for this work. namely chariot makers. The chariot maker has a high status in society as well as in the affairs of the kingdom. In the later Vedic period.worker resulted the growth of arts and crafts industries in this contemporary period. 22 tast r . . agriculture. Their impurity was decided on the basis of the offence committed by destroy the trees. A variety of objects have been made by wood workers. armourers and carpenters.The Śatapatha Brāhmaņa states that Taks ans are aśuddha means impure. In the context of general manner the carpenter who made objects for household purposes. Wood and Bamboo Objects:Wood is the most important source of producing objects and tool implements. the rathakāra retained his high status and even in post Vedic times. wood craft had reached a high stage of specialization and mark the development of three distinct classes of artisans. In Greek taktan pronounced for these craftsmen. In the Vedic literature. wagons and sometimes carved with finer work also. He used the axe (Kuliśa. taks an23) and their products. there are 21 references denoted to the carpenter and chariot-wright (Tvas t r . Sometimes they were appointed as ratnins29. The Ṛgveda carpenter has to be mentioned to make Ratha and Anas27. On the other hand. In Sanskrit language the term taks an occurred for carpenter. Moreover from the Vedic texts we find that taks an24 manufactured chariots. he was allowed to perform sacrifices and to put on sacred thread28. implements and other denoted as taks an in literature. As mandapas for sacrificial performance were made from bamboos and some other kinds of wood. . The Atharvaveda mentions that house were apparently built of wood probably four pillars were erected. This tool is made of iron for smooth cutting of hard wood because other metals like copper and bronze could not done this work efficiently. The carpenter of the Vedic period might have used saw to work efficiently. Bamboos were frequently mentioned in the sense of cane and reed in the later Vedic literature. Though. Numerous references occurred in the texts related to bamboo works. cots. propped up by beams or leaning against them at an angle30. Ribs of bamboo cane (Vaṃśa) a ridge and a net or thatched covering over the bamboo rib probably made up the roof. Mahidhara explains as Vaṃśavidāriṇi and Vaṃsapātrakāriṇi which mean female bamboo splitter and a female cane worker respectively.The tool and implements of Vedic Āryans were superior to the Harappans. chairs and winnowing of baskets of different size and shape for containing various things. while the Vedic Āryans had holes for the shafts on account of which they became more effective.The Vajasneyí saṃhitā refers to bidalakāri as a victim in the Puruṣamedha33. The grass in bundle was used to fill in the walls which were finished with reed work32. All sort of work has been done by bamboo as house making. Thus. the work of carpenter must have been highly developed. The axes heads of Harappans had to be lashed to their shafts. Ṛgveda mentions that bamboos (veṇu) were consider as a form of property31. Ratha. The Maruts wear deer skin and a muni is clad in skin or soiled garment42. joining and cutting because it is very difficult to make the fine wooden artifacts without having knowledge of these techniques. Nav. cow. The exact nature of techniques for making the objects was not sure. While undoubtedly. The literature mentioned various references related to various types of skin to be used for different purposes. These objects of wood and bamboo craft were the product of high standard craftsmanship. antelope and snake have been used for making objects. besides all these occupation.Various types of objects have been made by wood and bamboo workers as upa-mantham. plough. It is mentioned that god have been used to wear the hides of animal as garment for example the peculiar garment of Siva was hide of an elephant41. vipatha35 (cart or wagon) Paryanka36 (kind of sitting objects like diwan) Arrow and bow. tiger. kata38. smoothening. Tejani40 were made by the bamboo. containers. The objects included garment. deer. cords. Nava or Palva (denoted to boat). shoes. leather work have important place in craft industries. Súna. kashipu39 (a mat or cushion). . Leather Work:In the later Vedic age. pealing. The skin of animal and beasts such as goat. bullocks. Pari-nah34 (box-like object). bedcover and roofing material were prepared by animal’s skin. buffaloes. carpenter must be familiar with the techniques of sowing. Thus it is evident that the wooden objects reflect the fine nature of carving work. The objects like Nadwala37. The word Ajina-Vasin43 which means clothed in skin. It occurred in several texts shows, the existence of leather garment craft industry during the Vedic era. It has been suggested in one text that the upper garment of Brāhmaņa student should be of the skin of an antelope that of Ks atriya should be of the skin of the spotted deer that of Vaiśya should be of goat skin or cow skin44. The Ṛgveda mention the carmamnā (carmamnā abhito janāh) ̣ 45“The leather tanners are in front”, or those who are wearing leather armours”. The tanned leather is mentioned at various places in the Ṛgveda onwords46. The stretching of hides with the help of pegs made of wood inserted into the round proves that after dressing it, the tanner made it fit for making leather goods47. The bull being fastened to the yoke with the leather thongs, varatras48 and the hand guard of the soldier was made by leather49. Generally it was cow hide or the bull hide that was used for preparing leather but at symbolic rituals the boar hide is mentioned in the context of the Rajsuya50. The skin of the red bull was used at the time of domestic rituals and that of black antelope at the time of Sranta sacrifice51. The term hides denotes commercially the row, dressed of tanned skins of wild animals52, while fur is used for ornamental skin with the hairs or wool attached53. The frequent occurrence of carmamnā (tanner) testifies that the technique of tanning leather was also applied at that time. Thus, it can be inferred that the technique of cutting, shaping and sewing were practiced by the artisans engaged in leather work. The object made by leather occurred in the literature has been mentioned as : Upa-nah Pyuksna 54 : (shoes or sandal) : it is mentioned in the sense of bow cover in the Śatapatha Brāhmaņa. 55 Nrti 56 : The word has been referred as the bag made of skin. 57 Godha : It has been mentioned in Atharvaveda in the sense of bow string made of hide. 58 Dhavitra : It can be considered the air blower of leather. The reference to bellows used by the smelter of ayas is met within several texts. Drti 59 : This is objects is used for the purpose of holding fluids like ksira and sura. Jya 60 : It is also denotes for bow string of thong or hide. 61 Astarana upastarana : The skin is mentioned to be used as coverlet of seats in later Vedic literature. Besides this other various types of objects has been mentioned in Vedic texts. These objects throw valuable light on the socio- economic condition and rituals expression of the contemporary society. Glass Objects:The term sísa occur in the later Vedic literature for glass. The Vedic Āryans had advanced technical knowledge of glass industry. Glass objects of several types have been unearthed from the PGW period. The Vedic texts proves the existence of glass industry. As in Atharvaveda it has been referred that the amulets made of glass were used for curing certain ailments62. The objects like beads, bangles, seals and balls were made by glass. The credit of introducing the complicated glass manufacture technique goes to PGW using people63. The glass specimens probably used as weight are noteworthy, in this contemporary period. It had some religious values as in the Rajsuya; a piece of it was placed on the hide of a tiger to be kicked off by the ks atriya going through the royal consecration ceremony64. However the antiquity of glass objects does not go beyond Painted Grey Ware period in India, particularly in the Ganga valley. The two sites like Hastināpur 65 and Ropar have so for yielded glass bangles in PGW period. Two specimens of glass bangles from PGW level from Hastināpura (Plate-XXI). Among these two bangles one is of light brown colour with triangular cross section and the other one is rectangular in cross section. Colour is not mention of this bangle. From Atranjíkhera single glass bangles of green colour, semicircular in shape have been reported66. The occurrence of glass bangles from Bhagwanpura67 is remarkable from Pd: lB (Plate-XXII). The colours of glass bangles included blue, black, and white. A silver and gold colour coating applied on the glass bangles is also found. The bangles are triangular, circular, rectangular and square in the section. The similarities in the shapes of bangles were continued in both PGW sites, Hastināpura and Bhagwanapura. These were designed as kangan, bracelets and bangles The excavation from various sites have been recovered a large number of glass beads from PGW level. Glass bead of black colour, opaque have been found from Atranjíkhera68. It is irregular spherical in shape. Twenty two beads made of glass have been obtained from Sravasti half of them belongs to PGW period. Bangles were discovered from this site in different colour and shapes also. Colour mainly comprises are sea-blue and light green. A thick section of glass is indicating that probably these might be used as bracelets69. Two glass beads are found from pd. Ib from Bhagwanapura. One of these is a long convex eye bead, and other one is segmented eye bead70. The history of glass making in India had attained a high degree of perfection in the PGW period. The occurrence of glass bangles from Abhaipur from PGW level and NBPW level is noteworthy coincides (Plate-XXIII). All these objects of glass signify the smooth surface, even shape and sizes indicate further development of manufacturing technology. On the basis of this occurrence of objects of commercial value of glass can be ascertained. The specimen of glass related to the social custom or belief, status or hierarchy and caste or folk groups during the contemporary period. A close examination of the variety of objects provides eloquent testimony to the fact that a continuous development in the techniques, artistic attitude and craft ability of artisans, prevailing in the Painted Grey Ware period. However the beginning of ivory artifacts shows a high degree of skill in craftsmanship. ivory. The marked progress in all arts and crafts industries witness the development in trade and commerce in the subsequent period also.e. The objects speak about the artistic merit. . aesthetic sense and sophistication of tastes of their creature. maturity. leather. All the small item of material culture i. bamboo and glass suggest the growth of material prosperity in the contemporary period and change the socio-economy life of the occupants during successive level. wood. Taxila II. 16.12. p.44 Vajasneyí Saṃhitā. op.36 Trivedi.1.V.296 . op. p.14. 6. 11. 5.REFERENCE 1. 1984.13-14 17.. 3. 36. Some rare Antiquities from recent Excavation in Bihar. 4.Cha. 6. II. 6.3.27 Lal. P1. 1972-73. 9.332 Ibid. 1957-58. 19. Sinha. A Jataka no.4. 14. p.85.12 IAR. Indian Ivories.P. Excavation at Abhipur. H.. 13. PI. Excavation at Avra. p. AV. op. Roy. B.334 RV.38. p.P. 3.cit. p.333 Dahiya Neelima. Marshall. The Later Vedic Economy.54 Marshall. p.cit. 21.199. p. p.9. 1986. Puratatava No. 8.1954-55.P.P. No.. Ithihas Parishad. p.654. B. 1984.cit.255 Ava.2 AB. B.4 Dvivedi.1. p.71 18. No. Joūrṇal of M.Arora. 12. Purratattva No. IV-A.. 10. No.234. 2. XXX Chattapadhayay Kamladevi.B. The glory of Indian Handicrafts. 7.93 Ibid Roy. V.80 20.22. p. p. The Arts and Crafts in Northern India. B. AV. Mishra Anup. 1961-62.105 IAR. and U.P. III. p.5.P. 15.. 16. 38.20. I.4 RV. Handicrafts of Vedic age.Su. 39.Sam.Su. k. RV. 30. 24. 29. B. V.X .3.65 VI.8.1 Asva S.61. R.9.51 R V. Tait. 32.55.7 Roy. 33. 37.6.1. Up.91. 41. p. Br. Sat.1.16.11 VS. XXX.533 AV.48.27 Sinha.9 Kausi. p.6.16 Tatt.127.V. 28.3 Handicrafts in Vedic Age. 1.73.4.11.136. 26.10.6.162. XXII.22.2. 1. 1.6. Later Vedic Economy. p. Br.1.12. XIII. 8.13 44. 40. 34. Ait.Sam.1.3 AV. VS. RV.5.293 MS. III. Sam.65 RV. 36.2 43. 31.P.4.9.14.VIII. 35.19 Pa.101 25. 27.4. 23.5 Vaj. ..38.112. Gr.5.3. 42. 2.20.18.13.1984.2. RV.2.3 “ma Brāhmaṇi bardhanasavibhyam santu santamā Ya taks ana ratha ivocsocamā brhannamā h II ” RV.162. p. 38.18 RV.5 Kath. XIX . 1.1.5. AV. Br. AV. 1.cit.1984. p.33 AV.P. 68. p. 10-11.18.Br. 1993.19 Pa. Gr..21. 54.18. S. p. J. XV.1. 66. 1993.331 SB. 46. 49.55. RV.Gr.cit.4.218 Roy.. 47. VII. 69. op.7. p. 48. Sam. op. 1983.3. 64.4.V.C. 60.1. 57.8.45.P.5 AV. 62..C.P. p. Taitt .Ar. B.VIII.11 AV.13 Gaur R.Sam. 59. VII.1.Br.1. 50. Roy.117 . 10.3.4.3 AV. 51. p.. 6. 61.331 Joshi.8.38 RV.4. 63. XI.3. V.19 AV.6. 53.22 AV.101.3. 1983. XIV.9 Singh Kiran. 1. VI.10 Sat.21 Joshi J. B..4. R.cit. 55.cit.. Br. X .1.33.14 Sat..9.5. Taitt.K.9 Lal.cit. Kausi Up.Su. AV. Su.4. p..16 Sat.B. op.1.. 56.15 RV.8 VI. Textiles in Ancient India.2.15.1.. B. V..8.P.7.124 Gaur. VI.1. op. P. 75. 1954-55.. op. V.5.10.1.1.cit..3 Sat.26 Tai.5.10 52. 67. op. Later Vedic Economy.2. Ancient India. V. 65.1.3. 70.Br. 58. Epic and Puranic) tradition provides us legendary accounts. The early phase of Northern Black Polished Ware. Atharva. The later phase of northern black polished ware cotton.CONCLUSION Our interpretation of past depends upon our perception of present. The work represents a well developed stage of economy and creates an excellent environment for the advancement of contemporary society. Yajur. The rise of territorial states in the post Vedic centuries was made possible by the growth of agriculture. Sama. The socio-economic life in the Kuru Pañchāla region and their activities can be reconstructed at three steps in the Gangetic basin viz. 3. The literary accounts of beginning of Pañchāla in the Vedic (Rgveda. . 2. The present study is based on all the relevant sources of information through the literary and archaeological findings the researcher revealed the developed state of arts and crafts in a particular period. (covering virtually the entire Gangetic plains. Painted Grey ware phase (in Upper Gangetic Plain). Economy of this age was predominantly rural. While the discovery of iron from PGW sites is landmark advancement in the history of agriculture and opened new vistas for development in various fields. 1. Black and Red ware phase (in middle Ganga Plain). The only way to reconstruct the past is to first collect information on all possible aspects and then produce a synthesis. Emergence of art and craft organization.to 600 B. The period from 1000 B. However the origin of iron was still in debate of historians while it can be realized that Aryans were the first user of iron. increasing demand of market. The commencement of iron technology in India exhibits a remarkable antiquity. The geological. Iron tools from PGW level comprises spearhead. Iron implements played a distinguish role in agriculture. Nagar. The use of iron in the PGW period was confined mainly to war weapons and agricultural implements also. surplus production. Katpalon and other sites found the interlocking of PGW with late Harappans. Dadheri. trade and commerce. At Bhagwanapura. sickle and exceptional ploughshare from Jakhera and Ganawaria. Though iron is absent from these phases yet such evidences may be valuable in finding out the gradual continuity and transformation from Bronze age to Iron age. noted as an era of development in social economic phenomenon. It had made a transition from pastoralism to territorialism and states a gradual and continues emergence of urban centres. arrowhead.C.C. The discovery of iron from the PGW level ascertained the chronology and antiquity of iron. blades and agricultural implements like hoe. developed agricultural pursuits. Though. metal technology and state urbanization. axe. existence of centerd political and social stratification can be regarded as an important traits accompanying urbanization. production. it is the matter of scientific interest in understanding the properties and manufacturing process of pre-industrial Indian steel . archaeological and ethnographic studies opaquely depicts that iron ores was abundant in various regions of India and it is understood that easy availability of iron ore may have enhanced technological innovations. C. A variety of arts and crafts were studied in the present work in many ways viz pottery. The Smiths knew how to control temperature of furnace and produce steel based on their close observation and long experience. In Eastern India the first or early stage of iron technology is characterized by wrought iron (900 B. we do not know if carburization was consistent and done for most of the objects. The techniques used for making these crafts were simple and in some cases as same as in the preceding periods.C. The iron pillar a belonging to 4th century A. a few artifacts have been subjected to metallographic and chemical examination. The state of arts and crafts in a particular age reflects the number of industries. technical activities techniques made of production. Some of them yielded evidence of low carbon steel in early first millennium B.D.P. It has been called the restless wonder by some scholars. bead. Subsequently the smiths mastered iron technology and developed purification technique of iron and produced wootz.C. terracotta. metal. ivory.).which came to be known in Europe as wootz. which became world famous as Damascus steel. types of goods and materials. second stage (as the beginning of iron age) is characterized by the introduction of carburization. Since very few samples were analyzed. textile and others. Steel production is very important and certainly useful for ancient iron working style. From eastern India also. Agrawal 1983). The PGW levels at Atranjikhera (900 B. The PGW period marks a revolutionary usurge in the field of arts and crafts .) also revealed evidence of wrought iron and mild steel (D. The famous Damascened sword blades was reputed to have come from India. was a wrought iron pillar manufactured by forge welding and the entire pillar was rounded off with forge hammering and cold working (Chakrabarti 1988: 119). Discovery of knitting needles from Hastinapura excavations. Various types of beads were recovered from several PGW sites may be considered as example of great skill craftsmanship and ornamentation. The later Vedic text indicates an advanced stage of economy and crafts an excellent environment of for the advancement or arts and crafts. .industry and change the whole phenomenon of society. embroidery (pesakari) spinning also as a medium of development in PGW culture. The Vedic Aryans used woolen garments abundantly as it was regarded as ceremonially pure. As far as textile industry is concerned weaving was an important profession for both men and women. spindle whorls from various sites of PGW period and a sherd bearing cotton cloth impression from PGW level at Atranjikhera represent that PGW people used cotton clothes also. Beads are gradually continuous flourishing industry from Indus to NBPW culture. Beads have dating value as well as help to understand the beliefs customs social and economic condition and trade links with other countries. Not only weaving industry was into existence but also various textile industries like dying (rajayitri). Painting is a significant characteristic of PG ware and it gives way to the lusture of the NBP ware. From Sravasti a long barrel lapis lazuli bead was reported in 6th c. PGW is a copper-iron culture attributed to the Aryans. size. Both wares comprise as deluxe ware and have a close resemblance in their shape. short convex and truncated boicone in beads was remarkable upsurge in the field of arts and crafts in PGW culture.B. The interesting terracotta violin shaped human figurines were recovered from Jakera and Baghwanapura.Discovery of some new shapes like spherical. It may be adopted . First discovered from Ahichchhatra then from Hastinapura and other important sites of northern India. Same indentical bead was recovered from Taxila. it was the center of commercial activities. The pottery shows a remarkable consistency in made of decoration in the field of ceramic industry. Painted Grey Ware was the earliest decorated pottery in the sequence of pottery types from the sites of the Kuru-Pañchāla region. The raw material and unfinished beads from Atranjikhera indicates a important local beads manufacturing center. It may be considered that this bead was imported from Taxila or.C. A high degree of terracotta art was prevailing at this period. Terracotta Mother Goddess from both sites recovered from contemporary period are prominent evidence of ritual and religious practices. fabric and their section. As evident from its name is grey colored pottery made by well litigated clay painted in deep chocolate or black colours with white and red pigments had attained high standard in making ceramic art. These figurines show the excellent artistic attitude and represent similar culture of making terracottas. A variety of objects were unearhed from PGW sites. The advancement in economy led a way for developed trade and commerce in PGW period. This evidence proves the commercial contacts between these Janapadas. iron. Therefore. Terracotta discs reported from Jakhera having various religious symbols like plus-minus. Not a single planned horizontal excavation has been done to investigate the planning of PGW cities. Where as Harappan sites were excavated horizontally to furnish various information of their urbanization. through the efforts of research study from the literary. There is a need for further excavation in order to know the particulars of second urbanization in Northern India. a wide road (4. To recapitulate. It served as an important medium to know the material and economic life of people. potteries and other artistic items which were predominant in 1000 B. wootz steel.C. sun. a moat and a bund from Jakhera appears to be quite important as far as settlement system of PGW culture is concerned. A mutual or reciprocal action between PGW culture and Indus culture would come into limelight whenever new discoveries would be conducted. Besides this. the discovery of common burial tradition or mortuary custom from Abhipur and Baghwanapura provide a detailed background of PGW culture and traditions. to 600 B.C. in Northern India. However.g.C. . PG ware represents a village cultural trait and specialized craftsmanship of potter art.25 m).from prior proto historic culture. Infact in all PGW sites the excavations are vertical. became a pride for this innovative era.C. the researcher was able to accumulate meagre information about PGW refinement persisting in 1000 B. to 600 B. certain craft industries e. archaeological and notable historian’s debate. and swastika can be attached to brahmanical religious significance. Goswami K.P. 4. Bareilly Ka Puratattva (From Early to 1200 A..D. Badaun Ka Puratattvik Adhyayan (From Early to 1200 A. Sharma Manoj. Bareilly. 229.J. Exploration report of Bareilly District by the Department of Ancient History and Culture M. 5. A Review. p.D. ed.D) 2003.). 3.C.. 2004.P. IAR 1991-92. Sahajahanpur Ka Purratattva (From Early to 1200 A. 2001. Pandey Rajeev Kr. NAME OF THE SITES Aalampur2 Aayan 2 Aaliapur5 Amgaon4 Badsahpur Khera4 Bajirgani4 Barnighat4 Bautha5 Bandsar3 Bhawanipur4 NAME OF THE DISTRICT Sahajhanpur Sahajhanpur Pilibhit Badaun Badaun Badaun Badaun Pilibhit Bareilly Badaun . Tiwari D.APPENDIX LIST OF EXPLORED PGW SITES IN PANCHALA REGION: Sources: 1.) 2002. Excavation of Saunphari and explorations in Ganga plain. 2. Rohilkhand University. p. 104. Bilai5 Bilaspur5 Billuri Khera1 Binavar4 Dalippur3 Dehna2 Dehralalpur3 Dorapur Khera3 Fatehganj3 Fatehpur4 Fazilpur2 Galdia2 Gandharpur2 Ghullia2 Gruia4 Gulola Khera2 Guryani4 Gwarkhera2 Hatra4 Hajratpur3 Ismailpur3 Jalalabad2 Jora Bohur2 Kadarganj3 Kallia Kazimpur4 Kandela4 Kannia4 Katmala5 Philibhit Pilibhit Bareilly Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Bareilly Bareilly Bareilly Badaun Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Badaun Sahajahanpur Badaun Sahajahanpur Badaun Bareilly Bareilly Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Bareilly Badaun Badaun Badaun Pilibhit . Khakai Kathra4 Kharasani1 Khera2 Khera Bajhena2 Kisura 4 Kutubapur2 Lakhanpur2 Lillor3 Loda Bahur4 Manva4 Mohmadganj Khera4 Mati2 Musajhag4 Natia Khera3 Nigohi2 Nizamudinpur Shad4 Nurpur2 Pachowmi1 Pagar5 Palai4 Palia Gurjur4 Palia Mehandikhear4 Parasakhera1 Posil2 Rahtuliya3 Ramjanpur Kachha Khera 4 Rampura Rayasthan3 Rota4 Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Sahajahanpur Badaun Sahajahanpur Badaun Bareilly Badaun Badaun Badaun Sahajahanpur Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Badaun Sahajahanpur Bareilly Pilibhit Badaun Badaun Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Bareilly Badaun Bareilly Badaun . Sahbaznagar2 Sainthal1 Sanua 3 Sarki Kazimpur4 Sehra Bichalia4 Shergarh2 Simarya5 Sirsa4 Sisora4 Talgaon4 Telhar Khera1 Thikuri4 Tialapur4 Tiharkheara3 Unkalon2 Unchagaon1 Sahajahanpur Bareilly Bareilly Badaun Badaun Sahajahanpur Pilibhit Badaun Badaun Badaun Bareilly Badaun Badaun Bareilly Sahajahanpur Bareilly . Ed. Aundh. Eng. 1909. Eng. 6 Vols. Oxford. tr. Baudhāyana Gŗhya Sútra. Huttzsch. Eng. Keith.D. 1904. 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