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4BIB 5012x SURVEY OF THE PENTATEUCH FALL, 2008 Tuesdays, 1:20-3:10 Professor Benjamin D. Sommer Goals of the course.This course has two goals. (1.) At the end of this course, you should be familiar with the contents of the Pentateuch -- its plot, its overarching messages, its approaches to ethical, civil, criminal, and ritual issues. You should know what types or genres of material it contains. You should know what material is found in which book -- for example, you should know that Rachel shows up in Genesis and the daughters of Tzelophchad in Numbers, that the architectural plans for the tabernacle are in Exodus, that ritual laws appear especially in Leviticus and Numbers (but also show up here and there in Exodus and Deuteronomy), that civil and criminal laws are found in Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy (and only rarely in Leviticus, and never in Genesis). (2.) You should learn how the Pentateuch does and does not function as a literary unit. You should develop an understanding of how its five component parts (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) add up to a whole. You should also have a sense of how each of these five components works (or does not work) as a literary unit of its own in distinction from the other four. Primary source readings. For each class, you will read a large amount of material -- twice: Once in The Jewish Study Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). I will refer to this book below as “JSB.” It uses the new Jewish Publication Society translation (which I will refer to as “the NJPS translation”), to which it adds introductions for each book of the Tanakh, a brief commentary for each book, and various essays. Once in Everett Fox, The Five Books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; A New Translation with Introductions, Commentary, and Notes (New York: Schocken, 1995). I refer to this book below simply as “Fox.” Each week, you should first of all read either one of the translations without a commentary. Then read the other along with both commentaries. Pay particular attention to how the commentators divide the text into units. Paperback copies of the JSB and Fox are available at the Barnes and Noble book store here at JTS. Hardback editions also exist; these are of course more expensive and heavier to carry. If you prefer the hardback editions, you can get them from any on-line bookseller. Hebrew readings. For some classes, you will prepare a short passage or several verses in Hebrew, using the normal tools of biblical studies: viz., the Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (known as BDB), Koehler-Baumgartner-Stamm-Richardson’s The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (HALOT), the Gesenius-Kautzsch-Cowley Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar (GKC), Joüon-Muraoka’s A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew (JM), concordances # of the Bible (e.g., A. Even-Shoshan’s !"$% !&'($)*+(*+, or concordance programs such as BibleWorks [for PC’s] and Accordance [for Macs]). Secondary readings. For each class, you will have some secondary readings as well. Some are from the JSB and Fox; other are from a variety of sources. The latter are available on the Blackboard site. Questions to ask while reading. For each class, I list several question to think about while reading. These will structure your tour through a large amount of primary reading. You should come to class prepared to discuss these questions in detail, with specific references to the primary texts to back up your answers. Our inclass discussions will center around these questions. Requirements. Three response papers. You must write three response papers. Each paper will respond to one or two of the questions I pose in the “Questions to ask while reading” sections of the syllabus. (Please note that you are not expected to respond to all the questions.) You may choose any three class sessions for this assignment; the papers must be turned in at the class session for which you answer the question. Late papers won’t be accepted; once a class has passed, you cannot write on that day’s reading. The papers should be four to five pages long. You need not do any additional research beyond what’s on this syllabus for these papers. Each paper is worth 131/3% of your final grade. Active participation in class. You need to be ready to discuss each of the questions listed in the “Questions to ask while reading” section for each session. How can you get a good grade for participation? First of all, you must be present; yes -- attendance counts. Second, you must speak up regularly and in a way that shows you have done the primary and secondary readings. Third, say something insightful and intelligent that shows you not only did the reading but though about it carefully. Class participation is worth 30% of the final grade for the course. Final exam. A final exam will cover facts and perspectives discussed in class and in the primary and secondary readings, as well as the Hebrew verses assigned in the “Hebrew readings” section of the syllabus (each of which you should be ready to translate on sight without a dictionary). The final exam is worth 30% of your final grade. 1. 2. Sept 2 Sept 9 Introduction. The Book of Genesis (I). Primary reading: Genesis 1.1-25.18 Hebrew reading: Genesis 1.1-4; 2.1-7. Also, read Genesis 1.1-3 in the King James translation of the Bible (widely available on the internet). Secondary readings: Marc Brettler, “Torah - Introduction,” in JSB, 1-7 Jon Levenson, “Genesis - Introduction,” in JSB 8-11 Brevard Childs, “Introduction to the Pentateuch,” in Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (1979), 109-135 (available on Blackboard) Everett Fox, “On the Book of Genesis and Its Structure” and “The Primeval History,” in Fox, 3-10 Questions to ask while reading: How do you break these chapters into sub-units? How do your choices compare to those of the various translators and commentators? What criteria can you use to make your decisions? Characterize the difference between the two translations you read. What types of material, or genres, appear in today’s reading? Prepare a chart that lists the genres in Genesis 1-25 and specifies which texts belong to which one, and bring your chart to class. 3. Sept 16 The Book of Genesis (II). Primary reading: Genesis 25.19-50.26 Secondary readings: Brevard Childs, “Genesis,” in Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (1979), 136-160 (available on Blackboard) The introductions by the translators of the NJPS version, in JSB, xiii-xvi The “Translator’s Preface” in Fox, ix-xxvi Questions to ask while reading: What themes recur in chapters 12-50? Give specific examples. What vocabulary items are associated with these themes? What, if anything, holds Genesis together as a book? Is it really a book at all? Do chapters 1-11 and 12-50 really belong together as a single book, thematically speaking, or are they really two separate books? How do the goals of the two translations differ? If you were teaching in a college, which would you use? What about if you were teaching in a high school? If you were teaching a course for adults? Did you enjoy one translation or the other more, and why? The Book of Exodus. Primary reading: Exodus 1-40 Hebrew reading: Exodus 39.32-33, 39.43, 40.9-13, and 40.33-38 Secondary readings: Jeffrey Tigay, “Exodus,” in JSB, 102-107 Everett Fox, “On the Book of Exodus and its Structure,” 241-47 Moshe Greenberg, Understanding Exodus (1969), 1-17 (available on Blackboard) Questions to ask while reading: What types of material, or genres, appear in today’s reading? Prepare a chart that lists the genres in Exodus and specifies which texts belong to which one, and bring your chart to class. 4. Sept 23 Think about how a book or a poem or a short story ends. How would you characterize the ending of Exodus? What makes it a strange ending? What makes it an appropriate ending? What, if anything, holds Exodus together as a book? Is it really a book at all? If you had to give a thematic name to this book which sums up all its contents, what would it be? Who, or what, is the main character of the Book of Exodus. (The obvious answer, it goes without saying, is God. But give me another answer, in addition to God.) 5. Sept 30 Oct 7 # # No class (!("! ",)) The Book of Leviticus (I). Primary reading: Leviticus 1-10 Hebrew reading: Genesis 1.1-3; Exodus 1.1; Leviticus 1.1; Numbers 1.1; Deuteronomy 1.1; Joshua 1.1; Judges 1.1; 1 Samuel 1.1; 1 Kings 1.1; Isaiah 1.1; Jeremiah 1.1; Jonah 1.1; Obadiah 1.1; Esther 1.1; Daniel 1.1; Ezra 1.1 Secondary reading: Baruch Schwartz, “Leviticus,” in JSB 203-206 Everett Fox, Introductory material on Leviticus, 497-508 Gary Anderson, “Sacrifice and Sacrificial Offerings (OT),” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary (1992), 5:870-886 (available on Blackboard) Questions to ask while reading: What is odd about how the Book of Leviticus starts? What does this oddity imply? What are the main types of sacrifices? Why are there so many different types? What are the theological implication of the differences? For the final. you will need to know the Hebrew names of the various categories of # # sacrifices (-&./"! %01 ,!/*2 ,$&.3 ,!%(. ,-", ,3,4%, etc.) and the basics of how these categories differ from each other. Some people consider today’s reading to be boring and irrelevant, especially from a religious point of view. Why are those people completely wrong? What genres appear in today’s reading? Is there any overall genre to these chapters? How does it relate to the genre at the end of the Book of Exodus? No class (3*56) # No class (3)'2 &(&.") Leviticus (II). Primary reading: Leviticus 11-27 6. Oct 14 Oct 21 Oct 28 Secondary reading: Recommended: Mary Douglas, “The Abominations of Leviticus,” from Purity and Danger (1966), 41-57 (available on Blackboard) Ed Firmage, “The Biblical Dietary Laws and the Concept of Holiness,” in Studies in the Pentateuch (Vetus Testamentum Supplements, 1990), edited by J. Emerton, 177-208 (available on Blackboard). The appendices are optional. Jonathan Klawans, “Concepts of Purity in the Bible,” in JSB, 2041-2047 Tikva Frymer-Kensky, “Pollution, Purification, and Purgation in Biblical Israel,” in The Word of the Lord Shall Go forth: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman (1983), edited by Carol Meyers and Murphy O’Connor, 399-414 (available on Blackboard) Questions to ask while reading: What is the purpose of the dietary laws? Whom do you find more convincing, Douglas or Firmage? What one verse sums up the dietary laws as Firmage understands them? How do moral and ritual impurity differ? How do they intersect? What does each type of purity affect, and how does it exercise this effect? What do all the causes of ritual impurity have in common? What seems to be the main idea behind ritual impurity? Why is it appropriate, according to Leviticus, that Israelites are sometimes ritually impure? What one verse sums up the purity laws as Klawans understands them? How does it relate to the one verse that sums up dietary laws for Firmage? According to Frymer-Kensky, what are the main differences between major and minor pollution in terms of their causes and their effects? Overall: What most surprises you about the idea of purity and impurity based on the readings for today? Do you consider them more bizarre or less bizarre, now that you have done today’s readings? Do you consider them more religiously distasteful or less? Chapters 17-26 are often considered a distinct sub-unit within the Book of Leviticus. What elements set them apart from chapters 1-16? 7. Nov 4 The Book of Numbers (I). Primary reading: Numbers 1.1-22.1 Hebrew reading: Exodus 28.36-38, 39.20-31; Numbers 15.37-41 Secondary reading: Nili Fox, “Numbers,” in JSB, 281-84 Everett Fox, Introductory material on Numbers, 647-51 Jacob Milgrom, “The Encampment,” in The JPS Torah Commentary: Numbers (1989), 340-41 Question to ask while reading: What is the narrative framework of this material? How does the literary/canonical unit that is Numbers relate to Exodus and Leviticus? How do the passages you read in Hebrew relate to each other? What is the theological implication of their juxtaposition? How do the sections dealing with sacrificial law relate to the parallel sections in Leviticus? Why are some laws apparently repeated? The movement from chapter 10 to chapter 11 is abrupt in several ways. How does chapter 10 differ from chapter (and, more generally, how do chapters 1-10 differ from 11-21)? Throw around some abstract terms to characterize the movement; what do each set of chapters represent or embody? What is the effect of this abrupt change? Where else in the Pentateuch do we see a similar movement? What genres have we seen in Numbers? How are they organized? Why does the book move from one genre to another? In particular, think about chapters 13-16. Two narratives of rebellion are interrupted by an assortment of ritual laws. At first the interruption seems random, but closer examination reveals connections between the narratives and the laws. These connections work both at the level of vocabulary and at the level of theme. What are these connections, and what is their effect on our reading of the book? 8. Nov 11 The Book of Numbers (II). Primary reading: Numbers 22.2-36.13 Secondary reading (optional): Raymond Westbrook, “Biblical and Cuneiform Law Codes,” from Revue Biblique 92 (1985) 247-64 (available on Blackboard) Questions to ask while reading: Numbers 28-29 are reminiscent of Leviticus 23. In what ways are they the same? How might you explain their similarity? In what ways are they different? Do they actually disagree on anything? How might you explain the differences? Why is the comparison of these fairly boring passages theologically interesting? What do the passages regarding daughters of Tzelophchad tell us about ancient Israelite law? About revelation? What genres have we seen in Numbers? How are they organized? Why does the book move from one genre to another? How do the laws in Numbers compare to those in Exodus 21-23 in form? How do they compare in subject matter? There are two censuses in the Book of Numbers, and lots of lists of names throughout. Make a list of all the lists of names. (In terms of theme, Numbers has a much better claim to the title “The Book of Names” than Exodus does). Why the emphasis on names and numbers? What is ironic about the careful listing of all these names? What is ironic about the careful counting of Israelites at the beginning of the book, and why is it necessary to have a second census towards the end? Think about the end of the Book of Numbers. Does it feel like an ending, or is it just a random place to stop the narrative? Was some other place a better place to draw the book to a close with a sense of completion, and if so, where? In that case, might the end be an appendix? What would the point of such an appendix be? Assume that Numbers as it stands really is a meaningful textual unit and that its last chapters are an appropriate ending and not just a random place to stop the narrative or an appendix. What might the point of such an ending be? 9. Nov 18 The Book of Deuteronomy (I). Primary reading: Deuteronomy 1.1-11.32, 26.16-34.12 Secondary reading: Bernard Levinson, “Deuteronomy,” 356-63 Everett Fox, Introductory material on Deuteronomy, 841-46 George Mendenhall, “Covenant Forms in Israelite Traditions,” Biblical Archaeologist 17 (1954), 50-76 (available on Blackboard) Questions to ask while reading: What is the overall structure of Deuteronomy? What genres does it contain, and what is the genre of the whole? Compare Exodus 19-20 and 24 with Deuteronomy 4-5. How does Deuteronomy use its source material? To what ends? Where, according to Deuteronomy, is God located? How does Deuteronomy’s answer to this question compare to the answers we find in the earlier books? Cite specific verses in answering these questions. Especially relevant may be: Genesis 3.8, Genesis 18, Exodus 33-34, Exodus 19.18, Exodus 24, Exodus 29.46, Exodus 40; Numbers 9.15-23, Numbers 35.34. # To what nouns does Deuteronomy apply the adjective "*$+? How does Deuteronomy’s use of this adjective compare to that in previous books? Use a concordance to answer this question. The Book of Deuteronomy (II). Primary reading: Deuteronomy 12.1-26.15 Hebrew reading: There is no Hebrew reading for this week. There is a larger than normal amount for next week, however, so you may want to get started on that reading. Secondary reading: Moshe Weinfeld, “Humanism,” in Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (1972), 282-97 Questions to ask while reading: How do the laws in Deuteronomy compare to those in Exodus 21-23, Leviticus, and Numbers in form and in scope? How do they compare in subject matter? 10. Nov 25 Compare the following laws, and note any patterns that emerge from the comparisons: Exodus 20.19-23 Deuteronomy 12.13-14 Exodus 21.2-11 Deuteronomy 15.12-18 Exodus 22.24-26 Deuteronomy 24.10-13 Exodus 22.16 Deuteronomy 22.28 Exodus 23.9 Deuteronomy 10.19-20 Exodus 12.1-14 Deuteronomy 16.1-7 Leviticus 17.9,15-16; Exodus 22.31 Deuteronomy 14.21 Exodus 23.10-17, 34.18-25; Leviticus 23; Numbers 28-29 Deuteronomy 16.1-17 Exodus 25.10-22; Leviticus 16.1-14; 1 Kings 8.9 Deuteronomy 10.1-8, 31.12-26 Leviticus 7.28-36 Deuteronomy 18.1-3 Leviticus 17.1-14 Deuteronomy 12.13-16,20-27 11. Dec 2 The Pentateuch as a Literary and Canonical Unit. Primary reading: Read Joshua 1-24 in JSB, paying close attention to chapters 1 and 24. Reread Deuteronomy 26.1-11. Prepare in Hebrew: Deuteronomy 34.10-12; Joshua 1.7-8; Malachi 3.22-24; Psalm 1.1-3 Rashi’s first comment on the first verse of Genesis Secondary reading: Carol Myers, “Joshua,” in JSB, 462-64 Jean-Louis Ska, Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch (2006), chapter 1, pages 1-15, and chapter 2, pages 16-19 (available on Blackboard). I have also included pages 20-39 in the pdf file on Blackboard, which are recommended but not required; they review of material we covered earlier in the semester, and you will find them helpful as you prepare for the final exam. Abraham Kuenen, An Historical-Critical Inquiry into the Origin and Composition of the Hexateuch (1886), 313-18, 340-42 (available on Blackboard) Look up the word !)*3 in BDB and HALOT. Read both entries very # # carefully. (Note that since BDB lists all nouns under their root or ")", the noun !)*3 is listed there under the root !'')&. Since HALOT lists all nouns the way the are usually spelled, this noun is listed there under !)*3. Questions to ask while reading: What is the Pentateuch? What is its literary genre? What assumption does Rashi seem to make as to its genre? Review Childs on the canonical shape of the Pentateuch (from the reading you did for September 9). How might Childs answer this question? Does it seem likely that in ancient times Jews thought of the Torah as including the Book of Joshua? What are the thematic implications of a Hexateuch rather than a Pentateuch? For what ancient Jewish groups might one anthology seem more appropriate than the other? In what senses is the Pentateuch !)*3? In what senses is or the Hexateuch !)*3? And the Tetrateuch? Does the use of this term help to decide which of these is the right literary or canonical unit? This is the final session of a course on the Pentateuch at the Jewish Theological Seminary. In what ways, if any, has the approach to the Pentateuch in this course been Jewish? In what ways, if any, has it been theological? Chapter l Basic westions about the Pentateuch This first chapter presents the Pentateuch as a whoie, First of all, me must ask what the word Pefztatetrch means. Then, we will see why the first five books of the Hebrew Bible form a whole and why this unity is important &om the point of view of the revelation and largely differs from the rest of the Old Testament. The hiatus separating the end of Deuteronomy from the beginning of the book of Joshua is not onl7- situated in rime. it also marks a transition &om the first stage of the history of the revelation to the next, A. The Origin of the Word Pentateuch and Its Usage In the rabbinic tradition, the Torah ("Teaching," "Law") comprises the first five books of the Bible, which end i7rith &loses' death (Deuteronomy 34). These five books are called ?zd'mis"li[tzrnls'i: izartBr6, "the five-fifihs of the reaching/law," This Hebrew expression is probably the source of the Greek term ha pentateuchos (bibles). The Greek word pentateudzo.c ibiblos), translated in Latin as pentateucilt~sllibei;i, "Pentateuch," is composed of pe~zte(fivej and tetid~irs(a kind of "instrument," "tool," or "utensil"),' The latter term first designates the box or cylinder containing the scrolls, and second, by extension, its contents-that is, the "scroll."' So, Pentateuch means "five books" or, more specif cally, "fir-e scrolls.'' The Pentateuch is the first part of the Old Testament and of the HebrexxBible, It contains the first fire books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These five titles come from the Greek translation, the Septuagint, reproduced in the Latin Vulgate. The Hebre\ri titles of these books, in turn, derive from the first significant words of each book: be're'ftt ("In the Beginning": Genesis), fF~z8t ("The Names": Exodus"); waYyiqrd"("And Me Called": Leviticus); bgnzidbar ("In the Wilderness [of Sinai]'': Numbers): de'harfwz ("The Words": Deuteronomy), I . In specific contexts. the Greek noun te~ichos have four d~kerent can meanings: the plural. in Homer: "weapons." "tackle" (sails, ropes, rudders): after Homer: "vase." " c o n ~ ~ i n e r " ('liug," "pitcher," "barrel." "kneading trough," "box." "hive"): "scroll9" "book." Exegesis and Theology 9: Kam2. C. Houtman, Dei Peritntcuch (Contributions to B~blical pen. 1994) 1; LU. Brettler, "Torah." inJejelcilsll Sttidy Bible (ed. A. Berlin and M. Z. Brettler: 2. Oxford. 2004) 1 . -he ~ ~ ' o r d Pentateuch appears less frequently in tile writings of the Church father^,^ who prefer to talk about "the Law'' or "the Lax17 of Moses," in order to distinguish it from the "Prophets." as do Jews and the New T e ~ t a m e n t . ~ Other ancient writings also mention the "five books" of the La1v.j One of the first references is perhaps found in the Qumran texts, in a fragment n-here the [~fivt~?yf?~ be translated precisely "ail the books of the may expression klol [c]pry~~ Pentateucl~."~ fix~e-partdivision is also found in the Psalter of the Hebrew A Bible: Psalins 1-11, 42-72. 73-89. 90-106. and 107-50. The Psalter was probably designed to be a meditation on the five books of the Torah ("Law"). Psalm I certainly leads the way (see Ps 12). The Gospel of Matthew contains five discolurses that end with formulas n similar to each other (Matt 7:2$, 11:1, 13:53, 19:1, 26:l). I fact: for Matthe-cir, Jesus is a "doctor of the Lam7," and it is not impossible that he wanted his Gospel to be a kind of "Nen- Pentateuch." The first words of this Gospel, biblorgenesear ("book of the geizeaiogy") correspo~zd the translation of Gen 2:1and 5:l in to the Septuagint. Likev-ise, the first \x-ords of John's Gospel, en arcli.ei, are also the first words of the Greek version of Genesis (LXX) as \\-ell as the Greek translation of its Hebreix- title it~e"r.~'!Tt). Philo of Alexandria (ca. 20 B.c.E.-ca. 50 c.E.), ivho wrote before the Gospels were set into writing, said that the first of the five books containing the holy laws was called "Genesis" by Moses hirnseli. "Moses. the legislator of the Hebrews, said in the holy books that the world \\-as created and incorruptible; these books are five in number; to the first of them he gave the title 'Genesis.'"' Elsewhere, Philo quotes the first verse of Leviticus and calls this book by its name, "Leviticus."~Fzal17: he fi-equently quotes the book of Deuteronomy but calls it Profrepticus. "'Exhortation," a title that is also quite appropriate for this book. p. 687 (J.-P Bouhour). We again encounter the term "Pentateuch" in Origen, Covrzm. 3. See J.-P Bouhout and H. Cazeiies, "Pentateuque," DBSup 7.687-858, especially oil j o h n 2; Epipilanius. Pai.1. 33.3: i47eigiits and Meos~,i.es 4.3: Pt-olemny. Flor.. 4.1 (giiostic author); Athanasius, Letter to -%1a~(eil.5. A~lloilg Latin Fathers, me first encounter it the in Tertu!lian. L 4 g ~ i i z cit l f a ~ ~ i 1.10; then iiz Jerome. Letter L.11 to Pauhiza 8;Pigrare to ~il josizt4a. Finally. m Isidoi of Seville; Etyi~zaiogiec6.2.1-2. 4 . See h,lart 5:!1; i:12; 1?:13: 12:40; Luke 16:16; c i 24:27 ("~Voses i d :he Prophets"); a 24:44 ("the La\v of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms"); Acts 13:15; 24:14: 28:23; Rom 321. 5, Coilcertli~~g ?oil:t, see J. Blellkinsopp. Peiziareuch: An Intioductioiz to tlie F t n t Five thls Books of the Bible (EIBRL; Nen- Ybrk. 1992) 42-44. 6. D. Barthiiieni-y and 1. T. Miilk, ~ i ~ l 1 ~ 1Cave1 I (DJD 1: Oxford, 1935) 132-33. ~ 1 7. See Phllo of Alexandria. Aet. 19: cf. Opif 12; Post. 127. Quoted in Blenkllisopp. Pentateiiill. 44. 8. Philo. Plaiir. 26. We find the name "Deuteronomy" in the Septuagint, where it is used to t "a translate the Hebrew words rni.rizgh lzatt6d h a z z ~ (Deut 17'.18), copy of the Law," which the king must acquire for himself and read dally. JNo;v, the usuai translation of this expression wvould be delcteios nornor and not dercferonot?tiotz. But we can understand the choice of the Septuagint, if we understand that the book was already called "Deuteronomy" at that time. Toward the end of the first century a.c.E,, Josephus clearly mencioils '"he five books of Moses" in Against Apion 1.8.37-41:9 (Seeing that with us it is not open to everybody to write the records, and that ?here is no discrepancy in \\-hat is written; seelng that. on the contrary. the prophets alone had this privilege, obtaining their knoxvledge of the n o s t remote and ancient history through the inspiration which they owed to God, and committing to writing a clear account of che events of their own time just as the)- occurred)-it follows, 1 say, that rye do not possess myriads of inconsistent books. confl~cting \-\.ith each other. O u r books, those which are justly accredited, are but two and tn-enty, and contain the record of all time. O f these. five are the books of ~Moses.comprising che laws and the traditional history from the birth of man do\1711 to the death of the lawgiver. This period falls only a little short of three thousand years. From the death of Moses until Artaserxes, who succeeded Xerxes as king of Persla. the prophets scibsequenr to Moses wrote the history of the eyents of their own dmes in chisteen books. The remaining four books contain hymns to God and precepts for the conduct of human life. From Artaxerxes to our own time the complete history has been \t-ritten. but has not been deemed worthy of equal credit with the earlier records. because of the failure of the exact succession of the prophets. These witnesses confirm that, around the time of Christ's birrh, the jesvish tradition had established this: there are five fundamental books of the Law; they are the work of Moses; and finally, the authority of the five books of Moses is greater than the authority of the books attributed to the prophets. B. Tetrateuch, Pentateuch, Hexateuch, or Enneateuck? '" The age-old tradition limiting the number of the books of the Law to fi~ve wa.s questioned in studies concerning the origin of the Pentateuch and the in people of Israel. W.E~vaid, his Gerrhichte Iuaelr, proposed that Israel's first 9. Josephus, .$gainst Apioiz (trans. H . St. J. Thackeray; LCL: Cambridgz: Harvard Univertity Press, 1926) 177-78: ci: Blenkinsopp. Peiztnte~tch,13, 10. Concerning t1:is question, see R. Smend. Entsrehntzg der Alten Tertniizentt (Theologische Wisrenschaft 1: Stuttgart. 1978) 33-35. historical Avork was "the book of the origins" (Da5 Bt.ic/?der Crrprii~~ge). This work included the Pentateuch and the book of Joshua." The same idea had already been proposed bl- Bonfritre (1623), Spinoza (1670), and Geddes it (1792). After En~ald, became conventional to unite the book of Joshua and ("Six Scrolls") came into the Pentateuch. This is \vhy the expression Hexate~iciz The classic work by Wellhausen, for example, is enuse, replacing Peizt~teuch. Biir2ier der Alten Testatitled Die Composition dej Hexateiicils ~tzdder kistorircliei~ inerzfj ("The Composition of the Hexateuch and of the Historical Books of the Old Testament"). 'l The famous exegete G. von Rad also speaks of a Hexateuch in his f ~ ~ n d a rinental study Tile Problem o j the Hexafe~cjz.~For Rad, the core of the travon ditions concerning Israel's origins is to be found in Israel's "small historical creed": for example, in Deut 6:21-23 and especially in Deut 26:5-9; also see Josh 24:2-13. Now. this "creed" ends with the mention of the gift of the land. For this reason, von Rad concludes that one should not speak of a Pentateuch but of a Hexateuch, because the tradition of Israel's history must end with the account of the conquest, which is found in the book of Joshua, the sixth book of che Hebrew Bible. Von Rad's idea was challenged by one of his own students, Martin Noth, in The his fa~nou.swork A History o j Pelztateuci~alEaditl'oi~5.~~ term Tetrateucl~ ("Four Scrolls") originated 71-ith Noth's work, because it excluded the book of Deuteronomj- from the Pentateuch. His thesis is based on three obser~ations:!~ 1. No "Deuteronomic" texts are found in the first four books of the Bible, with the exception of some minor additions. There is, then, no literary bond reaching horn the unit Genesis-Nun~bers, on the one hand, to Deuterononq, on the other. 2. The sources of the Pentateuch do not figure in the book of Joshua. In that begin in Genesis-Numbers are not continued other n-ords, the narrati~-es in the book of Joshua. This makes it diff~cultto talk about a Hexateuch. l" 11. H. Ewald, D i e Geschichte des i 6 i k e s Ismel ( 2 ~~01s.: ed.; Gottingen, 1863) 1.93. For 3rd rhe Ellgliih tro~lsiation, the bibliography at the end of this :-olume. see 12. J. We!lhausen, D i e Coi~zpositioizder Hexnreucizr u n d der lzirrorisihen Bncller des Alterz Terfaiileirir (Berlin, 1866: 3rd ed.. 1899). 13. G. yon Rnd, Tile P~.obleiii oJthe Hexateuch niid Oflzer Essays ( N e ~ rYork, 1966) 1-78. 13. M. Notii, A Histor11 cf Perriafeiichai ?j.adrriorir (Englell-ood Cliffs. Nj. 1972: reps. Chico, CA, 1981). ,13. Ibid.: 6; cf S . Mowinckel. Tetrateucit-Petztatwch-Hexated: Die Berichte uber die Lairdnaizrrie iir der drel a!iisra~litisriienGercizlchtswerken (BZAW 90; Berlin. 1963) 3. al 16. Nath, History o i P e ~ z r a t e ~ c i ~Eaditiorzs. 6: cC idem: Dai Buc-11Josiia (HAT 117: Tubingen, 1938) xiii-xi\-. Baszc Questzorzr about the Pentatezlch 3, Deuteronomy is che preface to the "Deuteronomistic History" (Joshua2 Kings). The "Deuteronornic Code" is preceded by a short summary of israel's history (Deuteronomy 1-3), which repeats what the reader has already learned from the book of Numbers. This repetition can only be understood if Deuteronomy was intended to introduce a work that continues in che historical books, that is, Joshua-2 Kings. Deuteronomy 1-3 would indeed be meaningless if Deuteronomy were the conclusion of a work containing the book of Numbers. The Deuteronomistic History should be read "in [he light of Deuteror~orny." For example, Joshua was able to conquer the land because he was faithful to the "Laaw of Wloses" (Josh 1:7-8, 23:S). The Lord punished the unfaithful people by allowing them to lose the land (2 Kgs 17:7-23; especially 18: 19). The "Deuteronomistic History" is, to a large extent, the story of 13. Israel's faithiillness and unfaithfulness to the Law of Moses contained in Deuteronomy. For Noth, the Pentateuch came into existence when the two units GenesisNumbers, on [he one hand, and Deuteronom)--with its Deuteronomistic History-on the other, mere brought together to form one great work. At that moment, Deuteronomy became the conclusion oE the Pentateuch, and so it became necessary to separate it from the book of Joshua and from the rest of the Deuteronomistic History-. Ho\vever. Noch did not go so far as to assert the existence of a "Tetrateuch" because, in his view, the ancient sources as ivell as the current books of Genesis-Numbers require a continuation, that is, an account exegete Engnell \\-as to take the decisive step by of the Conquest. The S~vedish speaking in favor of the existence of an independent Tetrateuch, " According to Engell, the current Tetrateuch. that is, Genesis-Exodus-Leviticus-Numbers, is the xvork of P (Priestly Writer), who collected and compiled ancient oral traditions. The primitive Deuteronomy (Dt) and the Deuteronomistic History should be distinguished from this Priestly Tetrateuch. l8 Unfortunately, Engnell \.;as content ~14th proposing his thesis and did not develop complete arguments to support ~ t . a. The Thesis Some exegetes thlnk that the sectlon Genes~s-2 Klngs should be seen as a s~ngle literary \I-ork that beg~ns a5-1th the Creat~on the m-orld and ends ~ v ~ t h of 17. I. Engnell, Gainla Testntnentet: En t~~udistronsiziiioi.ijk iiiiedfzing (Stockholm, 1935) 20912: idem, "The Pen~ateuch."A Rigrd Scr.i,ti,zy (Nashville. 1969) = Critical Ecsays OYI tlre Old Tectnrnent (Nashville, 1969) 50-67. 18. Cf Mon-inckel, Teti.atezicit. 3-1. the Exiie in Bab-lonia.lY The central theme of this story is the land. At the promises it to the patriarchs; in Exodus and Nunibers, Israel beginning, YHWH r through the n-ilderness; Joshua conquers it; the judges defend travels t o ~ ~ a it d it; under David and Solomon, it becomes a kingdom that is at first united and t'hen is dix~idedinto North and South: finally, at tkne moment of the Exile in Babylonia, Israel loses this la-nd. According to D. N. Freednian, this long account is Israel's "Primary Historj-."'"his "Primary History" needs to be digerentiated froin the "History of the Chronicler." \vhich is composed of 1-2 Cl~roiliclesand Ezra-Nehemiah. The second historicai account, by the Chronicler; sums up in a -c7erysweeping may the story of the origins fiom the Creation to David and then centers its attention on David's reign and on the reigns of his son Solomon and their successors. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah describe the reconstitution of Israel's community after the Exile. The "Prirnaq- History" ends with the destruction of the temple and the Exile; tl-ie "History of the Chronicler'' culminates with the reconstruction of the temple and the Postexilic community. '5. The Arguments Some exegetes think that "Israel's history" does iiot end with the con: ' quest of ihe land. For example, Judg 2 : 8 , 10 is connected to Exod 1:6. 8' Exodus 1: h T h e n Joseph died, and all h brothers, and that \?-hole generarion. i s 1. . . j "No\\- a nelv king arose over Egypt, who did not knon- Joseph. Judges 2: bJoshua son of Nun. the servant of YHWH. died at the age of one h-undred ren years. [. . .I 1"h40reover. that xvhole generation was gathered to their ancestors. and another generation grew up after them, 17-ho did not know YHWHor the work cihat he had done for Israel." These literary "brackets" create ties between the different narrative blocks and also mark tlie transinon &om one period of Israel's history to another. Exod 1:6, 3 marks the transitioi-iErom the age of the patriarchs to the age of the Exodus. and Judg 2:8, 1G the shift from Joshua's time to the time of the Judges (see josh 24:29, 31). 19. "E:li~eateuch" meails "nine scrolls": Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus. Numbers, Deuteronomy. Joshua. Judges, 1-2 Samuel. 1-2 Icings. In the Hebrew Bible, the book of Ruth is one of the "Wrinilgs"; the two books of Samuel are coilsidered to be a single work; this is also the case with the c-\vo books of IGngs. 20. 0. Freedman, "Pentareuch," IDB 3.712-13. N. 21. Bienk~nsoppi~eiztateucii. 36-37) fol1ox.i-s R. Rendtorfi; Das uberii~~rungsgesci~tliclze Problein des l-'enmterich (BZAW 147: Berlin. 1977) 166-69. 22. See josh 24.29. 31. The chronology of the books provides another indication of this global vision of Israel's history, For example, according to Exod 12:40-41, Israel Lived in E u p t for 430 years (Gen 15:13: 400 years). Solomon began to build the temple 480 years after the Exodus (1 Kgs 6:1i, that is, 430 + 50. Now, if we count h e years from this date on, that is, from the fourth year of Solomon's reign until the end of the Kingdom of judah, we again come up with 430 years.'"By adding the 50 years of exile, the sum is once again 480 years, In order to reach this number, it is necessar:; to calculate the inforrnation given in :-2 Kings without any corrections. There are other analogous facts. For example, according to the chronology of the Priestly Writer, the Exodus took place 2,666 years after the Creation of the xi~orld. This number of .,-earsis equivalent to 213 of 4,000 years, a, number that is probably symbolic. The year 1,000 could correspond to the purification and the new dedication of the temple by the Maccabees (164 B . C , E . ) . ~ W O \ ~ ever, 1 must add that this information is far from uniuocal. Moreover, is chronology alone sufficient to establish that the Pentateuch is a unified history? Blenkinsopp gives three reasons for asserting that the Pentateuch cannot end with Moses' death (Deuteronomy 34):" 1. Without the book of Joshua, the promise of the land made to che patriFurthermore, Josh 21343-45 considers the Conquest archs remains unf~lfilled,'~ to be the fulfillment of a promise made much earlier to Israel's "ancestors": Thus YHWH @\-e to Israel all the land that he swore to their ancestors that he would give them; and having taken possession of it, they settled here. And U H x gave them rest on every side just as he had sworn to their ancesrors; not ~ one of all their enemies had ~vithstoodchem: for YIIWHhad given all their enemles into iheir hands. Not one of all the good promises that YHW'H had made co the house of Israel had failed; all came to pass. 2 There are correspondences between the work of Creatlon (Genesls I ) , the construction of the sanctuary in the w~lderness(Exodus 33-40). and the lnstallatlon of the sanctuarj in the Promlsed Land (Joshua 18-19) Finally, Solomon's temple \\as built 480 years after the Exodus (1 Kgs 6 1) 3 A major theme 111 Israel's history is that of faithfulness to the Covenant the and the Lam According to the Deuteronomistlc H~storv, people are exlled because of their unfalthf~~lness Now, this theme already appears in Genesis 23 n i t h a universal sense The Garden of Eden corresponds to the land, the 23. Blenkinsopp, Pentateuch, 18. 21.Ibid. For orher data, see pp. 17-50. 25. Ibid., 34-35. 26. Otherwise, it would be necessary to speak of a "partial realization oI' the promise" or of a "deferral of the promise." CC D, J. A. Clines, T h e T h e m e oJthe Pentateuch (JSOTSup 10; SheEield. 1978). comn~andn~ent to eat of the Guit of the tree of the knowledge of good and not evil corresponds to the Law of Moses, and the expulsion of Adam and Eve froin the Garden after the fall corresponds to rhe Exile.'Howerer, these arguments are not totally convincing. The vocabulary in Josh 21:43-43 is typically Deuteronomistic and is only found in certain late iii texts, for exaii~ple Gen 1 3 : 7 , 18; 2 6 : 3 : l5:7: [YH~-ii t o Abraham:] "I a m YHXH ~ l - h o said brought you from Ur of the Chaldeans; t o give you this laind to possess." ?5:18: n that day Y H ~ made a cox-enant with Abram. saying, "To your deO H scendants I give this iand." 26:3: [YH\Y.TH to Isaac:] "to you and to your desce~ldants will give all these said I lands. and I \%-illfu5i: the oath that I sn-ore to your father Abraham.'' Hon~ever, there is discussion today about whether the "fathers" are the patri'~ archs or the Israelites in E g ~ p t . h4oreover, the promises evoked by josh 2 1 : 4 4 do not figure in Genesis but in Deut 12:10b, 23:19, where the expression "give rest fio111 all enelllies on every hand" appears: just as it does in Josh 21:44. In these last two texts, the proniise is made to the exiled peopie, not to the patriarchs. If there is a connection. it is vague and, in any case, late. The congruence of Genesis 1 and Exodus 24-25, 39-40 is xvell k n o ~ v i i . ~ For example, the structure of the week in Gen 1:1-2. 3a reappears in Exod 2 3 : 1 6 . Hon:ever. chis cheme does not appear in josl-i 16:l: 19:31. The analogies between Geiiesis 2-3 arid the tlzeme of the land in Joshua are barely perceptible. The vocabulary is different and the Deuteronomistic History does not refer explicitly to the history of Genesis. Furthermore, Genesis 2-3 contains no clear references to the theologj- of Covenant. In Gen 2:16-17, the punishment pending for chose \vho do not observe the coininandn~entis not expulsion from the Garden but death (2:17b). Finally; Genesis 2-3 itself is quite likely a relatively late text.i'" 27. See L. Alonso Schokel. "Motiros sapienciales y de aiianza en Gen 2-3." B i b 43 (1962) 295-316; N. Lohfink, "Die Erzahlung v o i ~ Siindeiifali." D a s Siegerlied a111Scizi@ileer: Chrirtl liiile A~seiiznizdellretzt~fzg der.r? illreit Gst,nmeilr (Frankfurt, 1965) 81-101. iqiit 28. T. Romer, l i i ~ , e l sV a f e r : liz:e~~.ciicituizyei1u r T/'dterti~eiizatikirz Deureroizonzruv~ uiid iul der z deuteroizoiitlrris~iien 3iidiliun (OBO 99; Fribourg and Gottingen, 1990); on Josh 21:13-45. see pp. 338-63; N. Lohfink, D i e Vatei. Israeli ii?i De~itcroizoiizzl~i!i: Killel. Stelliui~gizalzrizevoii T h o 21it i.rras Rbmei. (OBO 1!l; Friboarg and Gottingen, 1991); on Josh 2?:43-45, see pp. 81-83. 29. See. for example, P. J. Kearney, "Creat~on Liturgy: The P Redaction of Exod 25and 40." 2-411' 89 (1977) 375-87. 30. See. for example, E.Otto. "Die ParadieserzBhlung Genesis 2-3: Eine nachpriesterschriftliche Lehrerzlhlung in ihrern re!igionshiscorischen Kontext," ill 'yedes D i n g hat seiize Zetr . . Studzeiz z!ir iriaelrti~c/zeiiccr~dalcorienralricheiz M/?r'sheit-Dieiizelr!~ .Ifrcizel t u r i i 65.G e blirtrtng (ed. A. A. Diesel et al.; BZATX721-1:Berlin, 1996) 167-92. .'I: To conclude, it is necessary to c1arif.r. the situation and to define more closely the object of the discussion. Although, from a canonical viewpoint, xve may talk about the "Enneateuch" or 'Trimary History" it is not possible from a literary viewpoint. A critical study of these different books reveals, for example, connections bet\\-een Deuteronom;; and Joshua, or between Deuteronomy and 1-2 Kings, However, no literary activity has assembled in an organic unit the books containing the "Primary History" of Israel, that is, Genesis-2 Kings, These connections remain on the thematic level and have no real ~nBuence the literary structuring of the different books. on C. Moses, the Pentateuch, and the Canon of the Hebrew Bible 31 There are good reasons to continue talking about the "Pentateuch.'. Of course. as we shall see further on, this wal- of organizing the books of the Old Testament does not exclude otner possibilities, But it does have special merit because it takes into account the definitive and normative canonical form of the Bible for the faith con~muniq-first of all, the people of Israel and, then, the Christian churches,32 I . ;The Pelztatearch: Deut 34:10-12 With regard to the Pentateuchl there is a fundamental text that marks the "dividing line" and permits us to distinguish the first five books of the Bible from those that foi101~ (Joshua-2 Kings). This text is Deut 34:10-i2:33 Never since has there arisen a prophet in Israel like Moses. \\-horn YHKH knexxrice to face. H e \\-as unequaled for all the signs and \venders that YH~Z-FI him sent 31. In this section, we are follo~~-ing, some minor changes, E. Zenger (ed.). E ~ n l e r with t u f r i~n das A l t e Tertattieizt (Studienbiicher Theologie 111; 4th ed.: Stuttgart. 2004) 24-26. 32. Concerning the question of the canon, see J. A. Sanders, Torah ilitd Canoil (Philadelphia, 1972); idem. "Adaptable tbr Life: The Nature and Function of Canon." in .i4agtiaha D e i : E s m y r 011 the Bible nnil Arcilecloyy i n Ll~fet~.lei7zory G. Erizest H'vtglzt (Garden City, NY, 1976) 531-60; B.S, Childs. Iizfrodr*ction to tile O l d Teitatrzetzt ax Scripttcre (Philadelphia. 1979). For his method, see P, R . Noble. T h e Catiotlicsll Approach: A Cvrtical Recotz~t~tcctioiz t h e Herii!etle~itic.c d cf Brevard S,C h l l d s (Biblical Interpretation Series 16: Leiden. 1995). 33. O n this text, see F. Garcia Lbpez, "De la antigua a la nueva critlca literar~adel Pentateuco." EsrBib 52 (1994) 7-35. esp. 25-35; idem. "Deut 34, Dtr History and the Penta. teuch," in Strtdier rn De~iteronorviy: Irz Hoilottr qf C. 1 Labtischayne, o n the Occariort o J H i s Girl1 Birthday (VTSup 53; Leiden. 1994) 47-61; C , Dohmen and M. O e ~ n i n g Biblliciler f i ~ n i i : , ~ K I ~ Iiiizd t L o ~ t i , ;(Quaestiones disputatae 137; Frelburg-im-Breisgau. 1992): T. 6 , ~Mu Romer and M. 2,Brettler, "Deuteronomy 34 and the Case for a Persian Hexateuch." J B L 119 (2000) 401-19: J. H, Tigay, "The Significance of the End of Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 31:li'i-12);" in Texts, Tenzples, aizd Eaditionr: A Eibitte to AIIennizeinHoratl (ed .M. V. Fox st al.: winona Lake. IN. 1996) 13--43. oJ 10 Chapter 1 to perform in the land of Egypt, against Pharaoh and ail his servants and !iis entire land, and for all the might\. deeds and all the terri4-ing displays of pon-er that I\lloses performed in the sight of all Israel. Three important things are asserted here: 1. Moses is greater than the other prophets. This is why the "Mosaic Law" is superior to all other forn~s revelation. His Torah is incomparable and its of the value is permanent. i n other \~-ords; revelation through Moses is superior to all other revelation attributed to the prophets. Because of this. Moses comes before the "Former Prophets" (Joshua-2 Kings) and the "Latter Prophets" (Isaiah-Malachi) in the canon. For the same reason, he also precedes the "Writings," or Books of Wisdom. The autlzorih- of the Pentateuch in the final analysis depends on the greater authority of M o s e ~ . ~ " 2. Moses' superiorii~- conies from tlze preeminence of his relationship also YHWHand to YHWH(see Exod 33:11, Nun1 12:6-8; cf. John 1:18, 3:11j.35 Moses \?-ere in "direct contact," without an intermediary or a "screen" (as in dreams or visions; cf. Num 126-8). 3. The Exodus is the foundational event of Israel's history. No other event it. can be compared 1%-ith The institution of Israel therefore goes back to Moses, not to David or Soloinon. Israel is in fact older than the Monarchy or even than the Conquest of the Promised Land. 2 . The Secorzd Part ofthe PPebt~ewBibrle: The Fsnnet. and Lattev Prophets a. Joshua ?:I-% Josh 1:l-8 dearly ties the figure and work of joshua to the figure and work of Moses: lAfcer the death of Moses the servant of Y ~ v H YHWH spoke to Josinua son of . Nun. R/loses' assistaiit. saying. ?"My servant Moses is dead. No\v proceed to cross the Jordan. you and a11 this people, into the land that I an; g i ~ i i l g them, to tlie to Israelites. 3 E v e n place that the sole of)-our foot \\-ill tread upori i have given to you, as I promised to Moses. +Froli; t!le viiiderness aizd the Lebanon as far as the great river, the river Euphrates, ai the iand ofthe Hittites. to tile Great Sea in the ! \vest shall be your territoly. jNo one shall be able to stand against you all the days ofyour iife. As I was 7%-itki Moses. jo 1 will be with you; I will nor fail you or forsake you. %e strong and coiu-ageous; rbr you shall put this people in possession of the land that I swore to their ancestors to give them. -Only be strong and v e r y 34. B. S. Childs, Inrroducrloiz to rite O l d Testainenr as Scilpftire (Philadelphia, 1979) 134-35, 35. For the figure of hloses in the NT, see. aniollg others, D. (3. Allison, T h e .Ye~u.Llores: -4 .\lottheair li,pology (M;nneapolis, 1993j: M.-E. Boismard. .\!hire u u Jix~ijur: Ersais de C h r i ~ t o Io~ieJoIlatrniqtie (BETL 84: Leuven. 1988). Basic Qttestion.5 about the Pentateuch 11 courageous. being careful to act in accordance mith ail the law that my servant Moses commanded you: do not turn from it to the right hand or to the lefi, so that you may be successful wherever you go. SThis book of tile ian- shall not depart out of your mouth; you shall meditate o n it day and night, so that you ma>be careful to act in accordance with all that is written in it. For then you shall make your way prosperous, and then you shall be successful. in :his text we encounter at least four bas~c asseltlons about the book of joshua and :he books of the Former and Latter Prophets joshua is Moses' successor. He has the task of conquering the land promised to the fathers. 1Moses is YHWH'S servant (("ebed yhwiz); Joshua has a different designation: he is "'Moses' minister" (vv~t.Grt?tmas'eh). While Moses defines himself on the ba,is of his relationship with YH\\'H, Joshua is defined in relation to Moses. \Tie are at another stage of the "revelation" and of relations with YEIWH. other In words7 joshua is the successor of ~Woses,but lie does not replace him as "YHWH'S servant." * There is contiiiuiti; between Joshua and Mosej: VHWH will be with Joshua as he was with Moses (v. 9 ) . YHWHmill fulfill the promise made to Moses by giving Israel possession of the land (v, 3). But this means that Moses, not Joshua, is the beginning and the foundation of Israel. Joshua's success depends on his faithf~dness the "Mosaic La\;-" (XT. 7-88), to This law is "written" (hakkatdb; v. 8 in a "book" (sc?pel,;r;,, 7).Henceforth. this j book will be the cornerstone of the whole enterprise of Israel's history. It n7iil also be the criterion for judging this history. Israel's history will be the history of the people's faithfulness or unfaithfulness to the Laxx~ITeaching lMoses.36 of b Malach~ 3.22-2-1 The conclusion of the prophet~c books (Ma1 3.22-24) contains a series of slrnlla~assert1ons Remember the teaching of my servant Moses, the statutes and ordinances rhat I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel. Lo, I will send 'ou the prophet Elijah before the great and terrible day of YHWHcomes, H e \\-ill turn the hearts of parents to their children and the hearts of children to :heir parents, so that I ~vill not come and strike the land ~ v i t h curse, a Th~s text closes the prophetic books (tle"bi'irn) like an inclus~o.There are four essential elements to the relationship between the propheuc books and the Law of Moses (the Pentateuch). 36. See 1 Kgs 17:7-23. especially !7:13-16, which explains the end of the Northern Kingdom on the basis of this principle: unfairhfuiness to the Law caused the do\vnfall of the Kingdom of Samar~a. The prophets should be read with "refereiice" to the Lam- of Moses. According to this "canonical" interpretation of the Bible, prophecy fulfills the Lass- and keeps it alive in Israel's memory. The Lam- of Moses is a divine la\\,. Its authority is not of h u n a n origin. In more modern terms: the Mosaic Law is the product of revelation, not of human reason. apThis Law is found, above all, in Deuterononly In this book. YHM~H pears on Mount Horeb, not on Mount Sinai. We see this, for example, in Deut 5:2 and in Exod 19:l. The expression "statutes and ordinances" is typicall>Deuteronomic (see Deut 5:?, 11:32, 12:l. 26:16). O f all the prophets, Elijah alone is mentioiied, because he most resembles to Moses. Like Moses, Elijah 1%-ent Horeb (1 Kings 19) and heard God in the cave (cf, Exod 33:22: "the cleft of the rock"). See also "forty days and forty nights'' in Exod 24:18, 33:28: Deut 9:9: and 1 Kgs 19:8.j7 3. The Third P ~ s o the Neb~~ezet tf Bible: "The W~pitings"(ke'tiibz"nz) a. Psalm 1 The first psalm. v-hlch ~iitroduces entire third part of the H e b r e ~ the Blble. also mentions the Lax\ /Teaching, Happy are those w h o do not hilon- the ad\-ice of the \%-lcked.or take the path that sinners tread. or sit in the seat of scoffers; - ~ u cheir deiight is 1: the laxv of ' l ' a w ~ ; t 1 and o n his lax\- they meditate day and n~gh:. . .] in ail that they do, they prosper. 7 3 ' q. S o n ~ e the assertions of this psalm aim zt situatirig the Psalter and the Writings of in relationship to the Lax-: * The criterio~i that distinguishes the righteous inan fiom the impious one is meditation on the Law. The Lam- also constitutes the criterion for judgmeiit (Ps 1:j-6). This psalim applies to the individual what the "Former Prophets" said about the people. The Law is called "Law of YHWH"( t h a t yliu~iz). Psalrn 1 is an invitation to read all the Psalms and all the "Writings" as a illeditation on YHK-K'S 37. This is nh!: Moses and Elqah appear together l n rhe scene of Jesus' Tsailsfiguration (Matr 17:3and parallels). 38. There are inany sinliiarities be:\\-een Psalm 1 and Josh 1:l-8, such as the expressions "rneditatr on the law day a i d nigh:'' ar,d "prosper in ail you do." Both texts have an undeniable Deuteronorniitic flavor. Basic Qzlertiotzs about the Pentatelrclz 13 b, 2 Chronicles 36:22-23 The conclusion of the Hebrew Bible, which coincides with the conclusion of the "Writings," is situated in many manuscripts in 2 Chr 3622-23. This text provides an additional key for understanding the sense of the Bible according to the Hebrew canon: 27 --In the first year of King Cprus of Persia, in fulfillment of the n-ord of YHKH spoken by Jeremiah, YHWHstirred up the spirit ofKing Cyrus of Persia so that he 5ent a herald throughout all his kingdom and also declared in a mritten edict: '-"'Thus says King C-nus of Persia: YHWH,the God of heaven, has gi7:en me all the kingdoms of the earth. and he has charged me to build him a house at Jeruiaiem, which is in Judah, Whoever is among you of all his people. may YHWHhis God be ivirh him! Let hirn go up." a . We can make three lmporiant observations about this text: 1, Here, Moses and the Law/Teaching are no longer mentioned but, rather, Jeremiah and Jerusalem. The Hebrew Bible closes li~ithan invitation to "go up" (tu5yl'd'al). This verb may contain an allusion to the Exodus, given that the expression used to describe the departure from Egypt contains this same verb, "go up" (qh. Hiphil; cL Exod 3:8). 2. The temple of Jerusalem as such is not mentioned in the Pentateuch. However, texts such as Exodus 25-31, 35-40, the ritual prescriptions of Leviticus, and the Law concerning the centralization of the cult in Deuteronomy 12 are to be read in association with the temple. 3. in any case, among the last books of the Hebrew Bible we find the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, which in an earlier period probably were located after the books of the Chronicles, The order 1-2 Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah best reflects the chronology of the events. Now, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah reach a climax with the solemn proclanlation of the 'Mosaic Lm-" before the This Law becomes the cornerstone of the whole people (Nehemiah 8: cf. 8:l). Postexilic community. It is diff~cult imagine the temple IT-ithoutreference to to the Law and the ritual prescriptions contained in the Pentateuch. In the most sacred part of the temple, the Holy of Holies. we find the ark. and the ark contains only one object: the two tablets that YHWH gave to Moses on Horeb (2 Chr 5:10). The "Lam-" is at the heart of the temple, and xvorship is performed there according to the prescriptions of the Mosaic Law (2 Chr 8:13). We also find many references to the Law of Moses in the books of Ezra and 7:6; 11; Nehemiah (Ezra 3:2; 6:8; Neh I:?', 8: 8:1, 9:11; 10:30; 13:l). The Hebrem canon concludes ~ l t a call to all the Hebrews of the diaspora. h lnvlt~ng them to return to Jerusalem to help rebulld the temple Thls Invitation requires a response that each reader of the Blble must \x7rltewith hls or her own life. In the Hebreil- canon, the Bible has a structure that opens out onto the fiiture. The last x-erb is jussive, chat is, a form of imperative, not an indicative. From these observations xx-e can draw some key conclusions about reading the Peiitateuch within the canon of the Hebrew Bible: a The texts that have been presented and that frame the three main sections of the Iiebrew Bible are important because of their contents and especially because of their position at strategic points of the Bible. The division brings out the unique position of the "La\\-," which according to biblical tradition bears ihe mark of Moses' exceptional personality The Pentateuch is unique because Moses occupies a unique place in the llistory of revelation. The fir-e books of the Pentateuch therefore have a "normative" character that the other biblical texts do not have.39 Moreover, the Pentateuch largely appears to be the "life of Moses," froin his birth in Exodus 2 to his death in Deuteronomy 34. Hoxx-ever, this is essentially a "life of iMoses in rile service of YHWHand of the people." Genesis, n-hich precedes this "life of Moses," describes the origin of the world (Genesis 1-21) and the origin of Israel as a people (12-50).4'! From a canonical point of view, this particular grouping of the books is more iinportant than others. Likewise, the connections between Deuteronoiny and hloses are inore important than the ties linking Deuteronomy to the Deuterono~iiistic History. This fact raises serious problems with regard to the Proniised Land, n-hich essentially renlains outside the Pentateuch. The Promised Land, and not the possession of it; constitutes a fundamental elenlent of Israel's faith. In other words, according to the Pe'ntateuch, it is possible to belong to the peopie of Israel without living in the Promised Land. This sort of assertion is nlore l~nderstandableafter the experience of the Exile and at the time of the diaspora.jl Another elenlent should be emphasized. According to the canon of the Hebrew Scriptures, the Monarchy is subordinate to the Lam-. While rhe Mosaic institutions are cencral to Israel's existence, the people can do without t1:e Morlarchj: This truth gro\vs out of the hard, tragic experience of the Exile. At that moment, Israel discovered itself older than David or even than Joshua's Coilquest. Israel began to exist as a people much earlier, when rhe Lord brought them out of Eg)-p:, the house of slai-ery. In order to rediscover the oldest traces of its ancestors, Israel must go even hrther back, to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. To them the Lord 39. Blenkinsopp, Prrztatetich, 51-52. 50.See Bienkinsopp. Pefzrateucii, 52: Zeilger (ed.), Eifzleitung, 36, and many otiiers. 11.Oil this point. see Sanders, Toralz atzd Caizoiz; summar!- 111Childs, Iiitroductiati, 131-32. Elasli Qtrestionr about the Pentateuch 15 promised the land that Moses contemplated before he died, unable to enter <here (Deut 34:l-4). The Pentateuch contains two elements that are absolutely indispensable for defining the identity of Israel: the patriarchs and Moses. Israel is the people that descends from the pacriarchs and that has lived through the experience of the Exodus under Moses' guidance, From a theological point of view, the two key elements are the promises (cf. made to rhe ancestors and the related terms ExodusILa~v Exod 20:2-3), Israel's Lord defines himself as the "God of Abraham, of Isaac and of Jacob" (Exod 3:6) and as the "Lord who brought [Israel] out of Egypt, the house of ~la.~ery'' (Exod 20:2), These two assertions consxitute the two main pillars that support the entire Pentateuch, setting aside the hisrory of origins (Genesis 1?I), The first chapter of Genesis adds another element: the God of the patriarchs and the God of the Exodus is also the Creator of the universe. The structure of the Pentateuch and the organization of the Hebrew canon are essential for understanding the New Testament. Jesus' public life, in the four Gospels, begins on the banks of the river Jordan, where John the Baptist ivas baptizing, What is the reason for this scene? Anyone ix~ho read the Penhas tateuch will immediately find the answer to this question, Moses arrived at the Jordan with the people and he died rvithout haying been able to cross this last boundary. So, his work was left unfinished, The conclusion of the Pentateuch is an opening in the direction of the land that Moses contemplated. Joshua achieves the work that had been begun. When Jesus appears in the Gospels, his nlission is similar: he proclaims he coming of the kingdom," that is, the moment when Israel may finally take possession of its land. The beginning of the New Testament presents itself as the achievement of Moses' unfinished work. Jesus is another Joshua. In fact, the two names are identical: Joshua is the Hebrew form and Jesus the Aramaic form. John 5, which tells of the healing of the paralytic at the pool of Bethesda, alludes to this theme when Jesus says: "Moses spoke about me" (5:46). Moses announced that YHWH\vould choose Joshua to accomplish the promise made to the patriarchs to give the land to the p e ~ p l e , According to John 5, Jesus is ~' the announced Joshua. This is why the Gospels begin on the banks of the Jordan, where the people are still assembled in D e u t e r o n o q 34 when the curtain falls on the Pentateuch and on -12. See J.-L. Ska, "Dal Nuovo al1'Antico Tesramento," Civilrii cattolicn 11712 (1996) 1123, especially pp. 20-23; idem, "I1 canone ebraico e il canone cristiano dell'llntico Testa111enr0," Civilrd catrolica 14813 (1997) 213-25. 13. The prophetic books end with the proclamation of the re:urn of Elijah, who is identified by the New Tesrarnent with john :he Baptist (Ma1 3 2 - 2 1 ; cf. Luke 1:17: Mat: 11:11, 17:12-13). Moreover, Jesus' arrival gi\-es an o p p o r t u n i ~ respond to Cyrus's invitation in to 2 Chr 36:23. See John 2:10: Jesus 1s the new temple (cE 1:21-21). and he will garher together a11 of God's disper~ed children (John 10:16, 11:51-52). Chapter 2 The Five Books of the Pentateuch: Content and Structure How and why n7asthe Pentateuch divided into five books? Was this division purely physical, or did it have significance? This is the first question I treat in the present chapter. I then consider how these "five-fifths of the La-w/Teaching" (hd~?lz"fB $ /~attdrd) structured. kLZti7i' are A. The Division into Five Books 1. The Physical Reasons1 The five books of the Pentateuch vary in length. The shortest book is Leviticus (23 chapters, 859 verses, 11,950 words, 31 pages in BHS) and the longest is Genesis (50 chapters, 1,534 verses, 85 pages in BHS). The books of Exodus and Numbers are approximatelj- the same length. Exodus has 40 chapters, 1,209 verses and 16,713 words, 71 pages in BHS, while Numbers has 36 chapters, 1,288 verses (but many of the verses are very short, such as N u m 1:2, 7, 26, 29, 331, 16,413 words, and 74 pages in BHS. Deuteronomy is slightly longer than Leviticus (34 chapters, 955 verses, 71 pages in BHS, but the critical apparatus is more voluininous than in the other books). In all, the Pentateuch has 5.845 verses (353 pages in BHS). In the edition without notes, the count is as follows: 88 pages for Genesis, 73 pages for Exodus, 52 pages for Leviticus, 73 pages for Numbers (as for Exodus), 64 pages for Deuteronomy. There are authors who maintain that it would have been physically difficult to write the entire Pentateuch on one scroll. The scroll would have had to be approxiniately 33 meters long. This was of course not completely impossible, because it is said that the complete works of Homer (Iliad and Odyssey) were written on a single scroll measuring 50 meters. However, a long scroll would not have been practical for reading at home or in the synagogue. At Qumran, , the longest scrolls are the Temple Scroll, which measures 8.75 n ~and 1QIsa (the which is 7.35 m long. The average length of the scrolls of Great Isaiah Sc~oll), the Pentateuch was probably between 6 and 7 meters. 1. I am follo\l-ing Blenkinsopp, Peiztatettch, 45-17. Tjae Five Books o_f the Pentateuch: Content and Structure 17 The division between the different books seems totally arbitrary and artificial, For example, Jacob's family settled in Egypt in Genesis 46, but the book of Exodus begins further on. The Sinai pericope begins in Exodus 19 and ends book (Leviticus) and parts of ' t ~ v o others in Num 10:lO. So, it covers a ~vhole (Exodus and Numbers) but does not correspond to any particular division. The Israelites arrive on the plains of Moab in N u m 21:20, where they stay until Moses' death. But the division between Numbers and Deuteronomy does not correspond to that moment. 2 . The Theological C~fiteria' What then were the criteria for the partitioning of the five books? a, Genesis The book of Genesis begins with the Creation of the world and the wellbnrz' 'ddhftn (("inthe beyintzifzg God created . . . " ) , j and knon-n expression bk~'f"1 it ends with the deaths of Jacob and Joseph. This is the conclusion of the patriarchal period, that is, the family history of Israel's ancestors. From here on, Israel is no longer a family but a people. Furthermore, before dying, Joseph announces the return of his descendants to the land promised to Abraham, Isaac. and Jacob (Gen 30:21). So the conclusion of Genesis prepares for the future and ties Genesis to Exodus-Deuteronom\-. In the language of narrative analysis, Gen 50:24 contains a "proleptic summary" of the later account. b. Exodus The book of Exodus starts with a review of the Joseph story, which provides a link between "the history of the patriarchs" and "the history of the people of Israel" (Exod 1:l-7). Exod 1:8, "Now a new king arose over Egypt, who did not know Joseph," marks the transition from one period of Israel's history to another. The conclusion of the book of Exodus (40:31-38) describes the moment when, after much wandering, the "glory of YHWH" enters and fills the "tent of meeting." This moment is important because from now on YHWHresides in the midst of his people (40334-35), so that he can acconlpany and guide them (40:36-38). c. Leviticus The beginning of the book of Leviticus alludes to this filling and residence: "YHWH summoned Moses and spoke to him from the tent of meeting, 2. See, among others, Childs, Introdtiction, 128-30; Zenger (ed.),Einleiriing, 31-36. 3. The translation o f Gen 1:l has been d~scussed, example, by G. J. Wenham, Genesis for 2-15 (WBC 1 ; Waco, T X . 1987) 11-13. saying. . . ." From this moment on, YHWHspeaks to Moses from the tent of meeting and no longer from the summit of h4ount Sinai (cf. Exod 19:3). The original conclusion of the book of Leviticus was Lev 26:46: "These are the statutes and ordinances and lams that YHWHestablished between himself and the people of Israel on Mount Sinai through Moses." This is without doubt a "concluding summary," which follows a chapter of blessings and maledictions (Lev 26:3, 14). Leviticus 27 is a later addition, and the last verse of this chapter repeats the conclusion of 26:46: "These are the commandments that YHWHgave to Moses for the people of Israel on Mount Sinai." Both conclusions indicate Mount Sinai as the site of the revelation. For Israel's tradition, the Laws promulgated by YHWHon Mount Sinai and transmitted by Moses have unique normative value. These assertions are therefore very important, because they make a distinction betxveen the Laxvs that are incorporated in the "Mosaic canon" and the others. d. Numbers The book of Nunibers also has its own introduction and its own conclusion. The introduction is sirnilar to the introduction of Leviticus (Num 1:l; cf Lev 1:l): "YHW~H spoke to Moses in the m-ilderness of Sinai, in the tent of meeting, on the first day of the second nionth, in the second year after they had come out of the land of Egypt." We are still in the wilderness of Sinai, and YHWH continues to speak from the tent of ilieeting (cf. Exod 10:34-35; Lev 1:l). The and 27:34: "These are conclusion of the book of Nuinbers recalls Lev 2 6 ~ 4 6 and the con~mandinents the ordinances that YHWHgave through Moses to the Israelites in the plains of Moab by the river Jordan at Jericho" (Num 36:13). Between the introduction and the conclusion, the people are led from Mount Sinai into the plains of Moab, where they prepare themselves to enter the promulgated in the plains of Moab also have a special Promised Land. The 1a~s.s canonical value. Deut 28:69 even mentions another covenant that YHWHconcludes here with Israel (subsequent to the Covenant made on Mount Horeb). These assertions create a parity between the Laws of Moab and those of Horebl Sinai. e. Deuteronomy Deuteroilolny has its own setting Like the book of Numbers, it begins wlth a formula indicating the place from which Moses spoke (Deut 1 1-3): "These I . Concerning the covenant on the plains of Moab, see N. Lohfink, "Der Bundesschlufi iin Lande Moab: Redaktionsgeschichtliches zu Dt 28,69-32,47," BZ n.s. 6 (1962) 32-56 (= Studieiz ztim Deuteronorni~i*?~ Z U d e u t e r o t ~ o ~ t i s t i ~Literatw [Stuttgarter biblische Aufund ~ ~i~et~ satzbande 8;Sruttgart, 19901 53-82); idem, "'Bund als Vertrag in1 Deuteronomium," ZAW 107 ('1995) 215-39. The Five Books $the Pentateuch: Content and Structtrre 19 are the words that Moses spoke to all Israel beyond the Jordan-in the wilderness , . . in the fortieth year, on the first day of the eleventh month." All Moses' discourses are pronounced on the same day, and on that day Moses dies (Deut 32:38; 34:5). Then, after Moses' death, Deuteronomy ends and so does the Pentateuch (34:l-12). 3, Conclusion The five books of the Pentateuch are clearly divided by linguistic and structural markers. Nonetheless, there is a major hiatus between the first book (Genesis) and the four books that follow (Exodus-Deuteronomy). The first book narrates the origins of Israel, and the others, the organization of the people under Moses' leadership. They constitute a kind of "life of Moses" in the service of YHWHand of all 1srael.j From a structural viewpoint, the end of Deuteronomy corresponds to the end of Genesis. Joseph's death marks the end of the patriarchal period (Gen 50:26), and Moses' death, the conclusion of another period, that is, the time of Israel's wanderings in the wilderness and the formation of the people of Israel people. Jacob's blessings in Genesis 49 correspond to the blessings into YHWH'S of Moses in Deuteronomy 33. The introductions and conclusions of the books of Levltlcus and Numbers as well as of Deuteronomv thus emphasize the leglslative character of these books, the figure of Moses (the lntermedlary between YHWHand the people), and the Importance of SlnalIHoreb and the plalns of Moab as '.theological sltes" of the Lam B. The Structure of the Book of Genesis6 1. The T81gd8t ("(Generations") Formula A large majority of exegetes consider the t61;dBt formula to be the structuring element of the book of Genesis. The formula appears ten times in the book (or even eleven, if we include 36:9, which repeats 36:l): 2:4; 5:l; 6:9; 10:l; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:l (9); 37:2,: 5. See R. P. Knlerim, "The Composition of the Pentateuch." The Task oJOJd Testament Theology: Subsmnce, AVIethodand Carer (Grand Rapids, 1995) 351-79. 6. See especially Blenkinsopp, Pentateuch, 57-59 and 98-100. See also Childs. Introdctcfion, 115; R. B. Robinson, "The Literary Function of the Genealogies of Genesis." CBQ 48 N. to (1986) 595-608. R. Whybray (Inrvod~rction the Peniatectch [Grand Rapids, 19953 31-32) is opposed to this view, but his arguments are quite weak. 7.Much has been written about this formula. See, among others, N. Lohfink, "Die Priesterschrifi und die Geschichte," in Congress Wlirnie: Gottingen, 1977 (ed. W Zimmerli: VTSup 29; Leiden, 1978) 189-255, especially p. 205 (= Lohfink, Studierz rtcn~Pentateuch [Stuttgarter b~blische Aufsatzbande: Altes Testament 3; Stuttgart, 19881 213-54, mainly 20 Chapter 2 a. A Problem of Interpretation Whybray does not recognize this forn~ula the structuring element of the as .~ book of G e n e s l ~He advances two objectlons: 1. The word tBle'd6t does not have the same meaning in all contexts. In some cases, it means "list of descendants," "descendants of . . . ," "what was gendered by . . ." (5:1; 10:1; 11: l o , etc.). Then again, elsesi~here, means "hisit tory of . . ." and refers to specific events (2:3). 2. In Gen 2:3 the forn~ula serves to conclude a narrative (1:l-2, 3a), while in other cases it serves as an introduction, for example, in 3712. We can reply to these objections by noting that: 1. The term rBled6t has the same meaning in all contexts. It means "what and again this formula is followed by a simple was engendered by. . . ." N o ~ v list of names, that is, a genealogy (3:1; 10:1; 11:10; 25:12; 36:1, 9). In other cases, it is follo\ved by narrati~es(2:4, 6:9, 11:27, 25:19, 37:2). Whatever the referring to the descendants of the percase may be, these narratives are alxi~ays sonality mentioned in the forinula. For example, in 6:9 the formula introduces the history of Noah and his family; in 11:27, the history of the descendants of Terah, that is, chiefly Abraham: 23:19 the history of Esau and Jacob, the son of Isaac; 37:2, the history of Joseph and his brothers, the sons of Jacob. A distinction must be made between the ineaning of a word and its use in different contexts. The term t61td6t has lexical meanings that we find enumerated in dictionaries and significations that ive need to differentiate on the basis of its usage in context. Let us recall the well-known distinction made by the SIT-iss linguist F. de Saussure between "language" and "speech" on an abstract level (regarding the possibilities of language) and on a concrete level (in discourse .n and texts, that is, in ~ s a g e )O ~ a concrete level, the ~zeanirzgof the tdle'ddt formula remains the same, that is, "engenderment of. . . ." But there are two uses of this same term: in certain cases, it introduces genealogies, and in others, narratives. While its use differs, its meaning remains the same. p. 230); S. 'rengstron~,Die Toledotfir~zel tnrzd die lirerartsche Struktnr der priesterliclzen Eruieiterntzgsschtciit it?? Pentateuch (Lund, 1982): M . D. Johnson, Tlze Purpose o f t h e Biblical Genealogies (2nd ed.; Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 8; Cambridge. 1988); B. Renaud. "Les gCnCaiogies et la structure de l'h~stoire sacerdotale dans le iivre de la Genkse." R E 97 (1990) 5-30. 8. Whybra;:, Iittroductioiz, 23-24. 9. F. de Saussure. C O U Iin ~ ? General Litzgutjtics (trans. R. Harris, ed. C. Bally and A. Sechehaye; 3rd ed.; LaSalle, IL, 1983) 77. For the d~stinction between iqteanitzg and .ciglz$cance, see E. D. Hirsch, Val~diry Inteyrrtarion (New Haven, CT, 1967); idem, T h e A i m s dInteiyreit1 tation (Chicago, 1976). The Five Books $the Pe~ttateuch.Content and Structtire 21 2. All the formulas are introductory, including Gen 2:4a: the term t81e'ddt is by consistently follo~ved the name of the genitor and never by the person engendered.ln Consequently, the formula in Gen 2:4 does not mean: "the story of the origin of heaven and earth" ("how heaven and earth were engendered or created") but "the story of what was engendered by heaven and earth." Now, what was engendered by heaven and earth is described in Gen 2:4-25: from the earth-that is, the soil-YHWH formed the first human being (2:7), produced trees (2:9), and then made animals (2:19).11It is (to return to Whybray's point) not likely that the formula in Gen 2:4 is a conclusion to Genesis 1, the first narrative of Creation, with the meaning "what was engendered by heaven mentioned in no. 1 above, it should be and earth." In addition to the diff~culty mentioned that Genesis 1 does not describe the "engenderment" of the universe but its creation.12 b. Subdivisions The most impo~tantevents. As we have already said, certain formulas introduce genealogies (3:l; 10:l; 11:10; 25:12; 36:1, 9) while others introduce narratives (2:4, 6:9, 11:27, 23:19, 37:2). The latter correspond to the most important moments of Genesis: the creation of man and woman (2:4), the Flood (6:9); the stories of Abraham (11:27), of Jacob (25:19), and of Joseph and his brothers (37:2). B~f0or.e and nJtev the Flood. The formula covers the entirety of the book of Genesis and, at first glance, it does not appear to mark the boundary between che history of origins (Genesis 1-1 1) and the history of the ancestors (the patriarchs: Genesis 12-50), the division traditionally presented by commentaries and introductions. However, the book of Genesis seems to emphasize another division: before and after the Flood (see the formula "nhar han~mabbzilin 10:l and 11:10, "after the Flood"). This criterion indicates that the two parts of Genesis are Genesis 1-9 and 10-j0.13 10. J. Skinner, Genesis (ICC; Edinburgh, 1910) 41; cf. B. Jacob. Das erste Bccch der Tora: Genesis (Berlin, 1934) 71; Childs. ltztroductiort, 145. 11. For more details. see T. Stordalen; "Genesis 2,4: Restudying a locci~clusrinis," ZAT'I' 104 (1992) 163-71 (with bibliography): E. Blum, D i e Komnpositiorz der V~tevgesclzichte (WMANT 57; Neukirchen-Vluyn. 1984) 451-52; idem, Stzldien z u r Kovtpt~sitionlies Pentater*sh (BZAW 189: Berlin. 1990) 280; D. M. Carr. Reading the Fructzlres uJ Genesis: Historical and Literary .Approaches (Louisviile, 1996) 74-75 (vrith bibliography); F. M. Cross, Caizaanite a1fl1th and Hebretu Epic (Cambridge. MA, 1973) 302. 12. It is quite likely that the formula is redactional in origin and that it serves to integrate Gen 2:4a with the "genealogies" of Genesis. 13. See R. Rendtorff, "Gen 8,21 und die Urgeschichte des Jahwisten," KD 7 (1961) 6978. 22 Chapter 2 Between the Flood and Abraham, the book of Genesis contains few narratives. The various elements of 10:l-11:10 have a single aim: they show how the transition from Noah to Abraham occurred. Even accounts such as Noah's drunkenness (9:18-29) and the Tower of Babel (11:1-9) prepare for Abraham's coming. Gen 9:18-29 explains why Canaan, the son of Ham, was cursed and lost all his privileges, while Shem, Abraham's ancestor, \\-as blessed and therefore occupies a preeminent position in the history of salvation (Gen 9:26; cf. 10:21-31; 11:lO-26). Gen 11:l-9 (the Tower of Babel) prepares for the migrations of Terah and of Abraham. From Gen 9:20-29 on, the text no longer shows an interest in the history of the universe as such but introduces a principle of selection that reaches its highpoint in Abraham's calling (Gen 12:l-3). For example, the "Table of Nations" (Genesis 10) begins with the genealogy of Japheth, then Ham. and finally Shem, although Shem is the oldest son. After that, Gen 11:lO-26 presents the genealogy of Shem alone, because he is the ancestor of Terah and Abraham. These are deliberate choices made to highlight the figure of Shem and to prepare for Abraham's arrival. Consequently, there are good reasons for introducing a break between Gen 1:1-9:19 and 9:20-50:26. The ancient texts are less inclined to divide and structure than to uni6: they cultivate "the art of transition." In the specific case of Genesis, they progressively pass from the history of the universe (Genesis 19) to the history of Abraham and his descendants (12-50), with the "transition" in Gen 9:20-11:26.14 2. Other Structural Elentents in the Patriarchal History (Genesis 12-50) Under the general heading of the t61e'dBt, we need to introduce some more important subheadings. The first one, as we have seen, is the distinction between the antediluvian universe and the postdiluvian one. In the second section, the patriarchal history, or history of Israel's ancestors (Genesis 12-50), occupies a special place. Here, the structural elements are different. Some divine discourses are placed on the horizon of the history of Israel or the history of one of the patriarchs. In the technical language of narrative analysis, these are "narrative pro grain^."^^ The most important of these are Gen 12:1-3, 26:2-3, 28:13-13, and 16:l-5a; also see 50:21. In Gen 12:l-3, "the call of Abraham" introduces the first major break in the great genealogies (t6le'dBt) of Genesis: 11.In any case; it is necessar!. to insist on the fact that the tble'd6t formulas make the book of Genesis a literary unit. See the reflections of Childs, Iiztroduction, 146. 15. See in>''Siiicroilia: A~lalisinarrativa."in .Metodologigla dellXrztico Tertameizto (ed. H . SimianYofre; Studi biblici 23; Bologna, 1994; 2nd ed., 1997) 157 and 230. The F ~ v e Books of the Pe'entateuclz: Cotztent and Stvuc-true 23 'Now YHWHsaid to Abram, "Go from your country and your kindred and your father's house to the iand that I will show you. *I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. 'I will bless those who bless you, and the one who curses you I will curse; and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed." Up to this point, God took care of the universe and all humanity. From now on the narrative is centered only on the people and the land. In what foiloxvs, when other peoples or other countries are mentioned, it is only in relationship to the people and to the land. This radical change in the narrative development certainly indicates that something new begins in Gen 12:l-3. The problem is no longer humanity's destiny on earth but the destiny of Israel's ancestors. Gen 12:l-3 contains the divine "program" for Abraham's descendants without any limits; it therefore reaches far beyond the book of Genesis. This program is everlasting. A second divine discourse is addressed to Abraham, a little further on, and the account indicates the boundaries of the land (Gen 13:14-17). After the separation of Abraham and Lot, God allows the ancestor to "see" the land he ;vill give him, Isaac's program is presented in Gen 26:2-9, Essentially, God repeats to him the promises made to Abraham: the promise of the land and the promise of countless descendants. Furthermore, the discourse establishes continuity between the God of Abraham and the God of Isaac. As the narrative moves on to Jacob, a key passage is the "vision of Bethel" (Gen 28:lO-22). In this vision, God reveals himself as the God of Abraham and of Isaac, again emphasizing the continuity between the patriarchs. In addition to the promises of land and large lineage, Gen 28:13-15 introduces a new element: the promise to "bring Jacob back" to the land of his fathers (28:15). The , return begins in Gen 3 1 ~ 3when Jacob receives the explicit order, "Return to the land of your ancestors and to your kindred." Gen 31: 13 and 33:10 refer to the same set of themes. Gen 46:l-5a is situated at the beginning of Jacob's journey to Egypt, where he will once again find Joseph. With him, the entire family immigrates to Egypt, Here begins Israel's long stay in Egypt, the stay that will end with the Exodus (Exodus 12-15). At this moment, the d i irlne or' acle promises the patriarch that God will accompany him on the second important journey of his life and then "bring him up" from Egypt. So, Israel does not settle in Egypt forever. Finally; before dying, Joseph returns to this idea and states that one day God will lead the people into the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (50:24). The interest in the "land" constitutes an important thread in this framework. YHWHshows the land to Abraham, promises it once again to Isaac, brings Jacob back to it after his "exile" in the household of his Uncle Laban, 2nd promises to lead his descendants back to it after the descent to Egypt. Joseph reiterates this idea in the conclusion of the book of Genesis. In this way the patriarchal story is largely, but not exclusively, an account centered on the itinerary of the patriarchs, and this is one of the elements that most strongly unites the narratives in the book of Genesis. Although it is more apparent in Jacob's case than for Abraham and Isaac, the message of these narratives is clear: the land promised to Israel is the land of Canaan. With this goal, these narratives interpret Abraham's life as a departure for and an exploration of the Promised Land. Jacob's life constitutes a circular itinerary because he leaves the country and finally returns with his entire family. The story of Joseph, in this context, explains why Israel settled only temporarily in Eg)-pt. The narratives in 16:l-5a and 50:24 stress the transitory character of this stay in a foreign country. l 6 3 . The Function of the T6li;diit Formula in the Patriarchal History The patriarchal narrative merges the concerns for the lineage and the land. The problem is to discern who is the heir of the promise. This problem is also connected with the tdle'ddt formula and its function. The questions of genealogy and territory are intertwined, and in this context we could even talk about geopolitical theology. One of the aims of a genealogy is, of course, to define who belongs to a family, race, or people." In the case of Genesis, the tdle'ddt formula is intended to mark the boundaries of the people of Israel and to situate Israel in the world, that is, in creation. The various formulas are related to the most important Actually, in antiquity, moments of this "history of the definition of I~rael."'~ "genealogies" often served to "legitimate" the prerogatives of individuals, of groups, and of peoples. Certain formulas introduce these genealogies and accounts, which are the two means used in the book of Genesis to determine w-ho belongs and \vho does not belong to the chosen people. Genesis 1-9 describes the origin of the universe and of humanity. Sin and violence are the causes of the Flood (Genesis 6-9). So, Israel belongs to the postdiluvian nations. After the Flood, the genealogies focus on the figure of Sheni, the remote ancestor of the people of Israel. The Abraham story (Genesis 12-25) is organized around a central question: who iirill inherit the promise? There is a succession of candidates: Lot (Genesis 13),Eliezer (Genesis 13); and Ishmael (Genesis 16 and 21). They are all elimi- 16. On this, see, among others. Blum. Koriiporition der L'atelgesclziclzte. 297-300 17. Concerning the various functions of the genealogies. see, among others, R . R . Wilson, "The Old Testament Genealogies in Recent Research,"JBL 91 (1975) 169-89: idem, Genealogl~a i d History i~ the Biblical Hforld (I\ie\v Haven, CT, 1977);Johnson, T h e Purpose of Bibltcal Geizealogier; Childs. Introductioiz, 152-33. 18. See Blum, Kornporttiorz der Vatelgeschichte. 179-91 and 305-6. The Five Books of the Pentatetlclz: Content and Structiue 25 nated in favor of Isaac (Gen 21:l-7; cf. Gen 13:l-6; 17; 18:l-15).19 Ishmael will have his own genealogy (the tBle'd6t in Gen 25:12-18), but this is a collateral lineage, not the main one. Abraham's genealogy and his story help us to understand and to define more closely the position of neighboring peoples, such as the Moabites and the Ammonites (descendants of Lot), the Ishmaelites, and the Israelites (descendants of Ishmael and of Isaac). In addition, Genesis 12-25 shows that the Promised Land is the land of Canaan. Therefore, Isaac inherits the land of Canaan, while Lot's descendants settle in Moab and Ammon (Genesis 19) and Ishmael's descendants in the \vilderness, to the south of Beer-sheba, not far from Egypt (Gen 25:18; cf. 16:14; 21:14, 21). The Jacob story (Genesis 23-35) defines Israel in relationship to Esau and the Edomites, Esau's descendants, and to Laban, the Aramean. Once again, the text is concerned with the "related" populations who occupy the neighboring territories. Esau is Jacob's twin and Laban is his uncle, but Jacob alone will inheric the promise, although he obtains the blessing in a rather dishonest way (Genesis 25 and 27). The story fixes the precise delimitation of the boundaries between the territories occupied by each one. The oath of Laban and Jacob (31:51-34) that concludes the events recounted in Genesis 28-31 has precisely the task of marking the boundaries between the respective territories. Gen 36:6-8 states quite clearly that Esau did not settle in che land of Canaan but in the hill country of Seir. The land of Canaan belongs to Jacob (28:13-14; 31:3, 13; 32:lO). The Joseph story answers the final question: why are there twelve tribes? In Genesis 37 a new conflict arises between "brothers." Will Joseph, like Isaac and Jacob, be the sole heir? The account explains why all the brothers (or most of them) are blessed in Genesis 49 and are thus all ancestors of the people of Israel. After the reconciliation between the brothers, the entire family goes down to Egypt. However, the last verses of this story contain the promise of a return to Thus, the Joseph story serves as the transition bethe land of Canaan (50:24).>O tween the book of Genesis and the book of Exodus." 4, The Impovtance of the Patriavchal History The patriarchal history (Genesis 12-30) constitutes, by far, the most important part of the book of Genesis. According to the chronology of Genesis, Abraham was born in the anno rnundi (since creation) 1946. H e left his country 19. See L.R. Hzlyer, "The Separat~on Abraham and Lot: Its Significance in the Patriof archal Narratives." JSOT 26 (1983) 77-58. 20. From Gen 12:l-3 on, the "land" becomes the central theme of the patriarchal narrative. 21. For other presentations. see Blenkinsopp, Pentnteuclz, 37-39 and 98-100; Whybray. Inti.oduction, 29-40 and 19-62. 26 Chapter 2 to immigrate to the land of Canaan in anno fnundi 2021 (cf. Gen 12:4b). Jacob and his family went down to Egypt in a m o nzundi 2236 (Gen 47:9).22Consequently, chaps. 1-11 of Genesis col-er 2,021 years; and the chapters dedicated to the patriarchs cover 215. without counting the years between the arrival in Egypt and the deaths of Jacob and of Joseph. Now, if we add this number to more or less 70 years in order to arrive at Joseph's death, we get the sum of 2851290 years.'3 Proportionally, the "narration time" is much longer in Genesis 12-50 than in Genesis 1-1 1. O r to put it more simply, the narrative of Genesis 12-50 is far richer and more detailed than the account of Genesis 1-1 1. In the first case, the proportion is approximately 200 years per chapter but, in the second, 7; years per chapter. C . The Structure of the Book of Exodus 1 . The Subdivisions2" The structure of Exodus differs greatlj- from the structure of Genesis. We do not encounter any linguistic markers co~nparableto the "tdlgddt formula" to of help us grasp the con~position the book.'There are, however, some recurring fornlulas of Priestly origin (P) that mark the various phases of Israel's wandering in the wilderness (Exod 12:37a, 30-42; 13:20; 14:2; l5:22a; 16:1; 17:1; 19:2). The formula of wandering reappears in the book of Numbers (10:1112; 12:16; 20:1, 22; 21:4, 10-13; 22:1).26Numbers 33 contains a complete list of the stages of wandering. However, the formula is not found in all sections of Exodus (it does not appear in Exodus 19-40) and does not correspond to the principal divisions of Exodus. .Moreover, the xvandering continues in Numbers, structuring a unit that goes far beyond the single book of Exodus. 22. See Blenkinsopp, Pentuteitciz, 18. 23. Joseph -was 17 years old at the beginning of the story (Gen 37:2) and 30 in Gen 11:16. To this it 1s necessary to add at least 7 years of abundance (41:53) and 2 years of famine (45:6). When Jacob and his family arrived in Egypt, Joseph was at least 39 years old. H e died at 110 (50:26). The dlirerence is lilore or less 70 years. 21. See Childs, Introdtiction, 170-71. Other exegetes leave aside study of the "canonical form'' of Exodus, preferring to study Exodus-Numbers. Ci. Blenkinsopp, "From Egypt to Canaan," in Pentureuch, 134-82. Blenkinsopp divides the books of Exodus-Numbers into three sections: (1) "Israel in Egypt" (Exod 1:l-15:21); (2) "Israel in the wilderness" (Exod 15:22-18:27 + Nun1 10:ll-36:?3); (3) "Israel at Sinai'' (Exod 19:l-Num 10:lO); Whybray (I~ztroilucrioiz,63-64) adopts a similar division. 23. Childs, Introdt~itiotz, 170; Blenkinsopp. Pentateuch, 135. Z 26. See Lohfink. "Pnesterschrifi." 206 (= Studien Z M ~Pentuteuc\~,231);Blenkinsopp, Pentateuch, 135-36. 'The Five Books ofthe Pentatettch: Cotzte~ztand Strzlctu~e 27 Generally, exegetes distinguish at least three parts to Exodus: (1) the departure from Egypt (Exod 1:l-15:21); (2) the journey from Egypt to Sinai (13:22-18:27); (3) Israel in Sinai: the Covenant and the Laws (19-40). In this last section, a distinction is nonnally inade between the Covenant (Exodus 1924), the breach of the Covenant, and its renewal (32-34); and, finally. the instructions for the building of the sanctuary and their execution (25-31; 35But there is no clear linguistic signal to support this may of structuring the text. We therefore need to look elsewhere. 2 . Attempt at a Solutiotz The book of Exodus ends n l t h the corlsecratlon of the tent of meetlng (Exod 40:34-38) Thls text may prov~dethe key for lnterpretlng the book in ~ t canon~cal s form. a. The Literary and Historical Context What happens in Exod 40:34-381 YHWH rakes possession of the tent of meeting, and this implies that he comes to live in the midst of his people (40:35; cf. 29:43-46). The eminent symbols of the Presence are the "glory" and the "cloud." This moment anticipates 1 Kgs $:lo-13, where YHWHtakes up residence in the temple of Solomon (cf. 2 Chr 5:ll-6:2). Ezek 43:l-7 is another text that needs to be connected with Exodus 40. There, we see the "glory of YHWH" entering the temple it had abandoned in Ezek 10:18-22, The temple destroyed by the Babylonians will be rebuilt after the Exile (Ezra 3-6). This second temple will be purified by Judas Maccabeus in 1 Macc 4:36-61. For the Postexilic community, the consecration of the tent was the key moment of Israel's history. It should probably be seen in relationship to the reconstruction of the temple of Jerusalem and the restoration of the cult during the Persian period.28 b. Significance of the Construction of the T e m ~ l e ' ~ In the anclent Near East, the consecration of a temple 1s the moment when a dlvinlq affirms his or her sovereignty. The creanon accounts often conclude with the construction of a temple for the creator-god. Marduk, for example, has a sanctuary built for hlmself at the end of the poem Enurrza Elislz At Ugant, there 1s a long poem telllng about the construcnon of the temple of 27 Childs, Ivitrudci~tton, 170-71 28 Blenkinaopp, Petrtateiiclz, 218 29 See abole all M Welnfeld, ' Sabbath. Temple, and the Enthronement of the Lord The Problem of the Sztr rm Leberz of Gen 1 1-2 3." In .bfelanges btbl~qlreset orietztatix en I'horztiectv de J f Hetm Cazelles (ed A Caquot and M Delcor, KOAT 212, Neukirchen-Vlu~nand Kelelaer, 1951) 501-12 Baal. Likewise. YHXH, who comes to iire in the midst of Israel, affirms his soi~ereigntyover the people of Israel (and the m7orld). Israe! is the people of YHWHand of no other divinity or power. The consecration of the tent corresponds to the categorical illustration of the first commandment: "I an1 YHTVH your G o d , tij11o lirotglzt you out qftlze land o j E g y p t , orrt q f t h e 1zot.rse $slavery; you rhall have ino otllergods bejbre m e J J(Exod 30:2-3).j0 Exodus 30 conlpletes the story of the Creation (Genesis 1). Genesis 1 ends with the consecration of a sacred time (the seventh day, the Sabbath). YH\T-H will not have a residence in the created modd until Exodus 30, when Israel \\ill have become his people (Exod 6:7) and YHWHtheir God (29:45-46j." c. The Structure of the Book of Exodus The question of YHWH'S sovereignv over Israe! runs throughout the encire book of Exodus. * In Exodus 1-15, the fundamental problem is to discern who the true sovereign of Israel is and whom Israel should "serve": Pharaoh or YHX'H? The question appears even more clearly in rhe plague narrative (Exodus 7-1 1) and in the narrative of the crossing of the sea (Exodus 14). In these chapters, YHWH reveals his sovereignty. The plagues of Egypt and the crossing of the sea prove who "YHWH is" because Pharaoh said, "I do not kno\v YHW~H" (Exod 3:2). This is why the "recognition formula" is frequently repeated in this part of Exodus (see 715, 17; 8:6, 18; 9:14, 29; 1 0 2 ; 11:7; 14:4, 18): "by this you shall / they shall knoll- that I am YHWH." Compare 14:18: "and the Egyptians shall know that I am YHIVI~."~' Exod 15:18, the last rerse of the "Song of Moses," proclaims after the final 1-ictory in Exodus 13: "YHWH ~vill reign forever and ever." YHTH reigns and make he ~ i ~ i l l his residence in the midst of his people. These two themes of the sox-ereignty and the residence (sanctuary) are already connected in the coilcluding verses of the "Song of h40ses."~" 30. The translation of the expression 'al-p?nqa (translated '"before me" above) is disputed. See the commentaries. 31. O n the correspondences beclveen Genesis 1 and Exodus 25-40, see. among ochers. Blenkinsopp, Petztaieuch, 217-18; l? Weimar. "Struktur und I<ornpositlo;: der prlesterschrift-. lichen Geschichtsdarstellung," B S 2 4 (1984) 151 11. 179; idem. "Sinai und Schopfung: Koniposltlon und Theo!ogie der priesterschriftlichen Sinaigeschichte," R E 95 (1988) 138-62. 32. See M. Greenberg, C'izdercranding Exodtu (IVelv York, 1969) 164-67, 169-70. and 181: D. j. McCarth\; "Moses' Dealings with Pharaon: Exod 7:8-?2:27," C B Q 27 (1965) 336-17; J.-L. Ska, Le paxsnge de In nzer: Et~idede la cdt~srructiorl,du stjlle er de /a jllmboliqii~ d'Exod ?$,I-31 (AnBib 109; Rome, 1986) 57-60 and 75. 33. O n Exodus 1-15, also see G. Fischer. "Exodus 1-15: Eine Erzahlung," in Srudtex tn the Book qf Exodzls: Redaction-Receptloiz-Itztelpl.etntic~iz (ed. ! . a Vervenne; BETL 126; Leuven. 1996) 119-78. The Flve Books oSthe Pentateuch: Content and St~uctuf~e 29 Exod 15:22-18:27 forms a transition that leads Israel from Egypt to Mount Sinai. From this moment on, YHWHis the "sovereign" of Israel and must resolve the problems of his people: thirst (Exod 15:22-27, 17:l-7); hunger (chap. 16);belligerent enemies (17:6-16). In addition, these chapters allude to the Law (13:25b; 16:4-5, 28) and to the organization of the people (chap, l a ) , The only stylistic element uniting these chapters is the "wandering formula" (15:22, 27; 16:l; 17:l; cf. 19:l-2): which contains the verbs nr""to move around," "to journey," "to travel"), bw' ("to arrive"), and ilnlz ("to camp"); and various place-names, especially the points of departure and arrival. Exod 19:l-24:ll is one of the most intense moments in the book of Exodus. j4 The style, The corresponding phrases in 19:7-8 and 24:3, 7 frame the entire secrion: 35 19:7-8: -So Moses came, summoned the elders of the people, and set before them all these words that YHWHhad commanded him. 8The people all ans.,s.ered a5 one: "Everything that YHWH has spoken me will do." Moses reported the v.rords of the people IO'YHWH. 24:3: Moses came and told the people all the xords of YHWHand all the ordinances; and all the people answered with one voice. and raid, "Ali the words that YHK-H spoken 7%-e has will do." 24:7: [Moses] took the Book of the Covenant, and read it in the hearing of the people; and they said. "All that YHWH has spoken we 117ill do, and we will be obedient." With regard to YHWH,the central assertion appears in Exod 20:2-3, "I am YHWHyour God, 5vho brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; you shall have no other gods before me." The Exodus is the foundational event in Israel's history, the event on which YHWHbases all his prerogatives. The first consequence of this fact-that is, the "first commandment"-is that Israel must have no other gods: YHWHalone has freed Israel; YHWH alone has rights over Israel, Isvael's stat~ls. The first part (Exod 19:3-8) contains the "program" for the rewhole section, In this oracle, which introduces the Sinai section, YHXVH minds Israel of the Exodus (19:4) and invites them to become his exclusive possession ( s ~ g u l l d )among the peoples of the earth, a "priestly kingdom" 34. On these difficult chapters, see Hum. St~rdieil,88-99 (with bibliography). Also see T. B. Dozeman, God on the .Moltntain: A Stctdy of Redactior!, Theology and Canon it2 Exodux 1924 (SBLMS 37; Atlanta. 1989): B. Renaud, L a t/~40plzarzie Sinnl-Exod du 19-24: E.x@se e f 'hidogie (CahRB 30: Paris, "191). 33. See L.Perlitt, Bttndestiteologie i m illten Tejtai7zei~l( W M A N T 36; Ne~ikirchen-Vluyn, 1969) 192. 30 Chapter 2 (matdeket kohn~~cl?) a "holy nation" jgdy q~dB!).~"fter and the proclamation of the Decalogue and the "Covenant Code'' (20:22-23:1?), the various rituals, especially the ritual of the Covenant in Exod 24:3-8, seal the new relations between YHU-Hand his people. From no\\- on. Israel is the exclusive possession of YHWH,a "lioly nation" and a "priestly kingdom." The rituals in Exod 24:3-8. especially the sprinkling with blood, "consecrate" Israel. The same rite of aspersion consecrates the priests in Exodus 29 and Leviticus 8. The vision and the ilieal in Exod 249-11 are intended to confirm the authority of the priests and of the eiders, the Legitimate representatives of YHWH in the midst of the "holy Howel-er: the "sanctuary" with its indispensable elements, the altar and the priesthood, is still missing (cf. 29:43-46). Tl~is be the topic of lvill discussion in the next section. Exod 24: 12-31: 18, especially 24:15-31:17, are the chapters in which YHWHreveals to Moses his plan for construction of the sanctuary: "Have them make me a sanctuary, so that I may dwell among them'' (25:8-9). YHWHwill be even more the "sovereigi~"of Israel when he has a sanctuary permirting him to live in the midst of his people. This section is set off by an inclusio marked by two references to the "stone tablets" containing the Lam (24:12, 31:18). These tablets play an important role in the chapters that follow because they represent the basic conditions of the relationship between YHWH and his people. YHWH\.;-ill be able to live in the midst of his people only if Israel respects this Lam-.38 * Exodus 32-34. However: Israel does not respect the basic Law inscribed a on the stone tablets. The episode of the golden calf prov~kes serious crisis that endangers Israel's existence as the people of YHWH.The golden calf is considered to be a rival diviniry (cf Exod 20:3; 32:l. 8). One question dominates chaps. 32-33: after the incident of the golden calf, will YHWHcontinue to reside 36. This texr has beell the object of much stud!- and debzte. For the discussion and the blbliography: see ibid.. 167-81; B. S, Childs. Esodus: A Cointizerztary (OTL; London, 1974) 310 and 360-61: j. Durlian~, Exodus (WBC 3: Waco. TX, 1987) 256 and 261-63: D. j. McCarth!; G a t y aiid Covei?arir: A S t u d y iri Fort11 in the Aitcient Orietita? Doiurtierzts and irz tlie O l d %stai?ieut (A11Bib 21A; Rome, 1978) 270-73: J.-L. Ska, "Exod 19,3b-6 er l'identite de 1'1srael postexllique." in Studies iri tile Book elf Exodits: Redaction-Reception-iizferpre~atioil, (ed. M .Vervennr: BETL 126; Leuoen, 1996) 289-317. 37. Exod 24:l-2. 9-1 1 and 24:3-8 are also largely discussed. See Perlitr. Buizderfheologie, 181-90 and 190-203: McCarth); Z e a t l ~arzd Coverzarzt; 264-69: Blurn. Studterz, 51-52 (with bibliography); J.-L. Ska. "Exod. 19,3-8 et les parCn6ses deuttronomiques." in Bibiisclze Tlieologie iil~dge~ellsilidJtltci~e~ e l : Fiir Soybeit Lohfiizk SJ (ed. G. Brauiik. \Xl Gross, and S. McLhd El-enue: Freiburg-im-Breisgau; 1993) 307-14, notably pp. 311-12; idem, "Le repas de Exod 24.11," Bib 74 (1993) 305-27. 38. O n these chapters, see H. Utzschneider, D s r Heiligtuui itiid das Cesetz: Studiet~ztir Bedeiittuzg der. sirzaitisc?ieri tIeiiiyi~r~zrterre 25-40, LEV8-9) (OBO77; Fnbourg. 1988); Wei(Ex mar, "Sinai und Schopfung," 138-62. The Flue Books qfdie Pek~tateb~ch. Coritetlt and Strliitiire in the midst of his people and guide them in the x~iiderness? (see 33:3, 3, 14). concedes (33:11, 17). From this moment Moses intercedes and finally YHXCH on. the God who acco~npanies Israel ~ t ~ ibe a God of forgiveness and mercy ll (Esod 34:6-7). The renewal of the Covenant (Exodus 34) is symbolized by the granting of two new tablets of the Lam-. iMoses destroyed the first tablets in Evod 32:15-16, 19, The "words" are written on che new tablets in 34:1, 27-28.39 Exodus 35-40, i t is now possible to build the sanctuary in which YHWH will take up residence in 4(3:31-35. After having eliminated the human power of Pharaoh and the other divinities. symbolized by the goiden calf, YHWHhas no\-,- shown that he is the only real sovereign of Israel. F;rom a stylistic point of viex-,the last section of these chapters (40:34-38) is linked to the firs1 section (35: 1-3) by the 15-ord "work" (n~e"ld'kd), which appears in 3 3 2 and 40:33. There are alllusions to Gen 1:l-2, 4a in both cases, and notably to Gen 2:l-3. Exod 3531-3 mentions the week and the rest of the seventh day (cf, Gen 2:1-3). and Exod 40:33 says that Moses finished his work exactly as God had finished 5 s mork in Gen 2:2: G e n 2:': And o n the serenth day G o d finished the w o r k thar he had done Exod 10:33: Mores finished the v ~ o r k . So Iri the last chapter of Exodus, there are tu--o key elements: Y ~ T H dweils in the midst of his people (40334-35). and it is necessary to organize the people in relation to the divine presence. This wi?i be the task of Leviticus. From the tent, Ywa-;I guides his people (Exod 40:36-38). The book of Numbers describes Israel's journe)- under the guidance of YHarH. present in the cloud. One last remark concerning these chapters needs to be added, The beginning o-f the book of Exodus describes Israel's slavery in Egypt (Exodus 1). At the end of the book, Israel "serves" Ywwn. Hoxtrever, "serving YHWH"is not another form of slavery The "liturgy" (in Hebrew this word means "service," "mork," or "worship") is spontaneous and voluntary "serliice," riot "forced la("of a generous bor." See Exod 35:4-29, xvhsre the Israelites act "~~illingly" heart," 35:5, 22; "everyone whose heart \\-as stirred, and everyone \\-hose spirit was willing," 35:21),'" h/loreover, the rest on the Sabbach (Exod 35:l-3) 39. Concerning the problems of this very complex section, see B l u ~ n , Sttidten. 73-75; R. W L. hloberly. At the .\lo~iitain of God: Story nitd Tizeology in Exodus 32-34 (JSOTSup 22: Sheffieid. 1983); B.Renaud, "La formation de Esod 19-10. Quelques points de rep&," in Le Pentatetrq~ie:Dhbats er ~erilercher.XIV' Cor!gi.?sde li.ICFEB, Arigers, I99 [ (ed. P Haudebert: LD 151: Paris, 1992) 101-3. 10. O n this point, see, among others, N. Lohtink, "Freizeit: Arbeltsx-oche u.nd Sabbat irn Alten Testament, insbesondere in de; priester!ichen Geschichtsdarsceilung," Crriere grosxen t,Vc~;ciiter: Dar S l t c Tectattzettt a i Thenten dterer]aitre (Freiburg-ini-Breisgau, 1977) 190-208: 1.-L. Ska. "I1 lavcro nelia Bibbia," Firrnni~a8 11995)47-62. 32 Chapter 2 introduces a difference between "voluntary xvork" and slaver). The book of Levltlcus also describes it as the Israelrtes' "free service'. for YHWH.their God. D. The Structure of the Book of Leviticus 41 1 . The Problem UHWH'S presence in midst of h people requires a special organization of i s their entire life around the basic requirement of "purity" and holiness." This is the primary aim of the book of Leviticus. Interpreters agree on the division of Leviticus into four important sections and an appendix. Leviticus 1-7 deals with sacrifices; 8-10 with the inauguration of the cult; 11-16 with the laws of purity and impurity; 17-26 with the "Holiness Code"; and chap. 27 is an appendix concerning various offerings in the sanctuary. Let us look at the evidence for the structuring. Leviticus 1-7 ends with a characteristic "concluding sumniary" (7:3738): "This is the ritual ofthe burnt offering, the grain offering, the sin 06-ering, the guiit offering, the offering of ordination, and the sacrifice of well-being, which YHWHcommanded Moses on Mount Sinai, when he commanded the people of Israel to bring their offerings to YHWH,in the wilderness of Sinai." The other sections of Leviticus do not have an introduction or conclusion of this sort. The formulas in Lev 26:46 and 27:34 close the entire book. The division is therefore based on other criteria. Leviticus 8-10 describes the consecration of the priests, Aaron and his sons, and the inauguration of the cult. Moses, Aaron, and his sons are the central figures here (8:2, 9:1; 10:l). Leviticus 11-16 are chapters in which the vocabulary of purity and inipurity is dominant-tdi112' ("impure"); pihor ("pure"j; feqe; ("abomination"); and the corresponding verbs. Chapter 11 has its own conclusion (11:46-47). Other conclusions of this lcind also appear iii 12:7 (law of parturition); 13:39 (law concerning leper spots); 14:54-57 (law concerning leprosy); 15:32-33 (la\- concerning sexual impurity). Leviticus 16 does not precisely belong to the law of impurity. Actually. it deals with the ritual to be observed for the "Day- of Expiation" (yBm 11akkbpur?nf),one of the theological pivots of Leviticus. This chapter has a double conclusion (16:29a and 16:34). 41 See. aoove all, Chllds. It~tioductton,182 The Five Books of the Pentateuch: Content and St~cicture Leviticus 17-26 contains what convention calls the "Holiness Code." Unfortunately, the linguistic markers that i ~ o u l d have permitted singling out this section are not clear. For example, the expression "Holiness Code" derives from the well-known phrase: "You shall be holy, for I YHWH your God am holy" (Lev 19:2), But this phrase is not found at the beginning of the Holiness Code, in Lev 17:1, and furthermore it already appears in Lev 11:44. Many exegetes think that Leviticus 17 is a part of the "Holiness Code" because this chapter refers to the blood: the sacred element (17:ll) present in man)- rituals of consecration. Some chapters have their own conclusions, that is, an exhortation to obserx the Law, See 18:30, 19:37, 20:22-26, 22:31-33, 26:2, Elsewhere, the conclusion only state? that Moses conlmunicated to Israel (or to Aaron) the prescrip23:44). See also 2 4 2 3 (conclusion of tions promulgated by YHWH(Lev 21~24, a historical interlude). As we have already said, Lev 26:46 and 27:34 conclude the entire book. More simply$ one could even say that the book of Leviticus has tivo maln sections, In the first section (1-lo), the cult is organized (1-8) and inaugurated (9-10). in the second, Leviticus indicates x h a t YHWHexpects from the "cultic community of Israel": purity (11-15) and holiness (17-26, 27). The iiturgy of the Day of Atonement in Leviticus 16 is the means given to Israel to be reconciled 114th the Lord on a regular basis, 3. T h e Meaning o the f in order to understand the book of Leviticus, it is necessary to consider its context. Israel has just left Egypt and is now at the foot of Mount Sinai. The people are living in the wilderness and have not yet entered the Promised Land, What legal foundations do the people of Israel have? Israel cannot take possession of any territory and, consequently, it is not possible to apply property law, The only basis for the existence of Israel at this moment is the experience of the Exodus: YHVH brought Israel out of Egypt, and he liberated them from slavery. The Israelites are therefore a free people, although the)- do not yet possess land, In the book of Leviticus, the experience of the Exodus is interpreted in a new way: when YHWHled Israel out of Egypt, he "separated" them from the other nations: especially from Egypt, and "sanctified" them. This "theological Zimrnerii. "'Heiligkelt' nach dem sogenann:en Heiligkeitsgesetz." 12.See especially I.'T 30 (1980)493-5121 F. Criisemann, "Der Exodus als Hziligung: Zur rechtsgeschichrlichen Bedeurung des Heiligkeitsgesetaes," in Die hebraiscite Bibel und titre ztueifacize Saciz~esciiichte:Festrcizr$j~i R o ~ R e n d t o t j ~ z u i65. Geburt~tug n (ed. E . Blum, 6. ~Macholz, and E. V \ Stegenlann; Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1990) 117-29. 34 Chapter 2 basls" of the Israelltes' existence has consequences for then legal status. The most Important of these consequences are the follow~ng, The Exodus is not a human feat, the action of a great hero or a wellorganized group; it is not even due to the intervention of some divinity: it is the achieveinent of YHTH alone. Because Israel owes its existence as a people it to YHWH, "belongs" to YHX-H.See, for example. Lev 25155:"For to me the people of Israel are serx-ants;they are my servants u-hom I brought out from the land of Egypt: I am YHWHyour God." This fact defines the relations between the various members. The freedom of all the lnembers of the people is "sacred" because they belong to YHV'H alone. See Lev 23:42 (lam- regarding the redemption of slaves): "For they are my servants, whom I brought out of the land of Egypt; they shall not be sold as slaves are sold." Because Israel is a "holy-" people. all the aspects of its existence are characterized by '%oliness" (Lev 1 9 2 ; 2231-33). Consequently. Leviticus insists on the cult and the observance of "religious" rules-for example, the distinction betxveen "pure" and "impure." See Lev 11:44.-47 (la-vxon permitted and prohibited food): +For I ain YHKH your God: sanctify yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I ain holy. You shall not defile yourselves with an>-s\r,arming creature that moves o n the earth. 'jFor 1 am YHTH who brought you up from the land of Egypt. to be !-our God; you shali be hoiy. for i am holy. '6This is the laxi, pertaining to land animal and bird aild every living creature that moves through the waters and every creature that swarms upon the earth. -IFtomake a distinction between the unclean and the clean, arid between the living creature that rnay be eaten and the 1' iling creature that may not be eaten. 7: Israel ~x-as sanctified by YHWHwhen he brought the people out of Egypt. This is \ijhy, according to the same text in Leviticus 11; Israel inust "make a distincremain "holy" and tion between the pure and the inlpure:" in other 1%-ords. "pure" (cf. 18~1-1,20:23-25). a The land that will be given to the people belongs exclusively to YHWH, \1711o \.;ill be its sole 0x1-ner.'"his means that there will be no "propertj- rights" in Israel. The Israelites lvill have the usufruct of the land, but they will not be able to own it: Lev 20:23; 25:23, 38. Lev 2 3 2 3 is particularly significant (law regarding the redemption of the land): "The land shall not be sold in perpetuity, for the land is mine; with me you are but aliens and tenants." The Exodus, as "separation" and "sanctification," also defines Israel's relations with other nations." The people that have been "sanctified" cannot live 13.Ibici., :24-25. 44.Ibid., 118-19. The Flue Bookr 4 t h e Pentateuch. Content i l ~ d t ~ ~ i ~ c t ~ i ~ e S 33 as do the other nations from which they have been "separated." See Lev 11:47, 18:3-3, 20:22-26, 2232-33; especially Lev 22:32-33 (conclusion of a law concerning the sacrificesj: "You shall not profane my holy name, that I may be sanctified among the people of Israel: I am YHWII; I sanctify you, 1 who This text brought you out ofthe land of Egypt to be your God: T am YFIWH." establishes a precise correspondence between two divine actions: the sanctification of Israel and the departure from Egypt, The participle ;1re'qaddis"e'ket17 ('.who sanctifies you") is followed by the participle iiainm6;l"~("mho you led out"), The tn70 participles have the same value and, consequently, the departure from Egypt is the sanctification of Israel. Also see Lev 18:3-1, which introduces the laws regarding sexuality: "You shali not do as they do in the land of Egypt, where you lived, and you shall not do as they do in the land of Canaan, to which I am bringing you, You shall not follow their statutes. My ordinances you shall observe and my statutes you silall keep, follo~\,ingthem: I am YHWH)-our God." If the Israelites are "separated" and "sanctified," they cannot foilo\\- the laws and customs of peoples Cram whom they have been "separated" in order to be "sanctified." This introduction is not the place to attempt a full evaluation of the theology of Leviticus, which definitely has limits. The emphasis on the cult. "separation," and Israel's distinctive character is not \vichout danger. The Old Testament-for example, the books of R u t h and Jonah-manifests a critical judge it severely. artitude toward this mentality. The New Testament x~ill Nonetheless, we need to elucidate its merits. Wif'hout this theology, Israel ~vould have been able to survive and transmit its faith when, after having not on-n territory. This is all lost its political autonomy, ~t no longer possessed ~ t s the inore true for the Jews of the diaspora, E. The Structure sf the Book of Numbersi5 As many authors have noted, ~t is especially difficult to determine the strucpreva~ls, with but ture of the book of Numbers Generally, a three-part d l v ~ s ~ o n 13.1 am primarily following R, P. Knierim, "The Book of Nurnbers," in Die ilebriiircize Bihe1 rind ihre rwe@che S~chge~chicizie: FertschijfiJir. R o ! f R e n d t o ~ ~ z i ~ n ? Gebnrts:ng (ed. E. Blum, 63, C. klacholz, and E. \T Stegemann; Neukirchen-Vluyn. 1990) 155-63, esp. 155-56 on the S problem. See also R. RendtorE, Tiie Old Tectutnent: z4n It!tiodtcition (trans. J. Bowden; Lon(ICC: Edindon. 1985) 147; also see the comrnentanes and studies of G. B. Gray, *Yiiili?~befi burgh, 1903): N. fi. Snaith, Levitiinc anti Sniizbers (Century Bible: London, ! 9 6 i ) : M. Noth. a large variety of opinions. These three parts are: Israel at Sinai; the jouriiey fiom Sinai to rhe plains of Moab; Israel in the plains of Moab. For many scholars, the first section ends in 10:lO. But according to Noth and Coats, it ends in 10:36; and Budd argues for 9:14. The conclusion of the second part is located, according to these authors, in 20:13 (most), 21:9 (Noth), 22:l (Coats). and 25: 18 (Budd). Similarly, no agreement has been reached on the conclusion of the book. Almost all the authors think that the conclusion of the third secthe tion coincides li~ich end of the book, 36:13. For Budd, however, chap. 36 is an addition. Thus, most scholars divide the book into three parts. However, some prefer two sections (D. T. Olson),i6 chaps. 1-25 and 26-36. The first section mainly discusses the generation that experienced the Exodus and the Sinai, while the C second sectlon deals wlth the nem generation that replaced the first 4 )years 1 later. The two censuses, 11 chap. 1 and chap. 26, mark the beginning of each of the ni70 rectlony 2. 'Fhe Bipartite Structure The book of Nunlbers contains several indicators that may help us deters mine i ~ structure: for example, the chronological data in Num 1:1, 7: 1, 10: 11, and 33:38; the topographical infornlation distinguishing the various stages of Israel's wanderings in the wilderness: Sinai (1:1-10: lo), Paran (10:11-12: 16): Edom (20323-21:4), Negeb (21:l); Moab (21:11, 13, 20; 22:1), the land of the Amorites (21:13, 21, 31); and, finally-, the plains of Moab (chaps. 22-36). However, these chronological and topographical indicators are not conclusive with regard to the structure of the book because they do not converge. In order to obtain more satis@ing results, we must study both the form and the content. This is why Knierim suggests beginning with a three-part division. Henever, he goes on to note that there is no reason to distinguish the second part Xuiqdxr. (trans. J. D. Martin; Philadelphia, 1968); G. T'I/ Codts, Rebellion it? the Mi'lderttesi: Tltr 12~I~~.il~~!ri1~gthe M/'i!dei.nexs Eaditioiis cjtize Old Testametit (Nashville, 1968); J. de Vaulx, Alf~tjjiii Les Xornbres ISB: Paris, 1972);B. A. Levine. ,\-tiinbers 1-20 (AB 4A; Ne\vYofk. 1993);idem, .\-ntr~beis 21-36 (AB 4B;Garden C i y NY, 2000); J. Milgrom, .Yriinbers (JPS Torah Commentary; New York, 1989); P. J. Budd, ,\-utvbers (WJBC 5; Waco. TX, 1954); A. Schart. .Z.lase uizd Ismel iii Kot7jlikr: E k e redaktio~zxgeschichilicheStudie zrl den I17~istenelsaiziungeii (OBO 98; Fribourg and Gottingen, 1990); T. R Ashley Tlze Book oJA\-ninbeic(NICOT; Grand Rapids, 1993): R. K. Harrison, AYui~~bers: Exegetic01 Comrizenraiy (Grand Rapids, :992); J. ScharAil best, .Yii*nlc;Y(NEchtB 27; Wiirzburg, 1992): K. D. Sakeilfeld.]ourne)~i~qg witif God: A COIMmenmq, 091 the Book 4 Afi~nbers (International Theologica! Con~mentasy:Grand Rapids. 191-99. 1995): cf. Childs, I~ttrodilctiotr: 46. D. T. Olson. The Death qf file Old a t ~ dtize Birfh of the Seus: The Frattiework o the Book f of?;~nizberjaitd the Petirate~~clz 71; Chico, CA. 1985). (BJS The Fwc Bockr o the Peatatezicli: Corzfent f a~ld Stnlcttcre 37 from the third part on the basis of form and content, From ?0:11 on, Israel is journeying in the wilderness. Moab is only a "stage for Israel in the \vildenless," one ainollg others. even if the stay there is the longest one. Consequently, it seems most reasonable not to distinguish more than two sections in the book: Nurn !:I-10:10 and 10:ll-36:13. What is the factor that unites and distinguishes these t i ~ o parts on the highesr struc~ural level?" In 1:10-10:10, Israel prepares itseif for the march in the wilderness. This preparation is both religious and militar); and it differs from the preparations in the follotving chapters because it takes into consideration r!le entire march in the wilderness, not just one particular stage. The second Dart of the book (!0:11-36:13) describes the execution of the plan contained structure of the book of Numbers is in the first chapters. The f~~ndarnental therefore: plan / execution of the plan. The book as a whole belongs to the licerary genre of rnilitary campaign, 4s There are, however, good reasons to introduce another subdivision, without rriodifying the structure proposed by Knierim. The second part of the book of Nun~bers(10:ll-36:13) describes the march through the wilderness on the model of a military campaign. But there are two ciistinct stages in this campaign. In the first stage, Israel journeys from Sinai toniard the Promised Land. Then, it1 a second section, the conquest of the territory begins. The "campaign" is no longer exactly the same. because, for the first time, the text says that Israel has "taken a territory" and has "settled" there. These verbs appear in Num 21:21-26, in the account of the campaign against Sihon, the king of the Xmori~es; 21:25: "Israel took all these towns, and Israel settled in all see the towns of the Amorites. in Heshbon, and in all its villages." See also 21:3?: "Thus Israel settled in the land of the Amorites." In addition, in 21:24, a key verb related to the conquest occurs, y d ("KO conquer, take possession"): "Israel put him to the s\t-ord, and took possession (wayyi~(aS')of his land from the Arnon to the Jabbok." From this moment on, the account cenrers around the concluest. For exanlple, Numbers 32 contains instructions for the distribution of the territory of Trans~ordanand Numbers 34 for Cisjordan. N u m 21:10-20 serves as a transitio~l bet."\-een the two stages of the =arch in the xvilderness. The oracles of 1 -, Knierim. "Numbers," 156-50. Here, see esp, p, 1 5 9 . From the methodological v i e w pcinc, Knierim's obserx-ation is very important. The structure helps us to understand the entire book and the articulat~onof the two parts. 48.G. W; Coats, "The Wilderness It~nerary."CBQ 34 (1972) 135-52: G. I. Davies. "The Wr~lder-riess Itineraries: Comparari:.e Study," 2jv1Bul25 (1971) 16-81; idem, Tile Uby c$"tize M-iidernerj: A Geo~izlpizii-nl ' t ~ ~ d yj rite Tti'1deu;lerz Itiizeiories iil the Old Testnrneiit (SOTSMS 5; s o Cambridge, 1979);j Iran Seiers, Tile L ~ f e . ~$~i'f~:ioses: Ihilli~irt Historint~it1 E.~odtis--Y~ct~~be The (Contribut~ons Biblical Exegesis and Theology 10; Louisville, 1991)1 5 3 - 6 4 . For the Mesto o?otanlian parallels, see Davits, "Wilderness Itineraries." 52-78. 7 , . 38 Chapter 2 Balaain (Numbers 22-23) occup- a key position in this structure. at the beginning of the conquest. They do indeed show that no one can stand in the way of the divine plan. ~ propose the follo\i~iiig structure for the book of Numbers: To C O I Z L / ~ ~ 1E , 1. Preparatioii rbr the campaign-1: 1-10: 10 2. Execution of the campaign-10: 11-36: 13 a . The march in the n~ilderness-l0:ll-21:20 b. The beginning of the conquest-21 :21-36: 13 3. The Meanitzg oJ the Book orfNunzbersi9 The problem presented in the book of Numbers is to know hon- to "'march with KWH," who resides in the tent, in the midst of Israel. The first part of the book (1:1-10: 10) is primarily dedicated to the organization of the tribes around the rent (Numbers 2) and to the charge to the Levites in the service of the tent (Nunibers 3-41, Numbers 7-8 contains other religious prescriptions that are also connected to the sanctuary. Nuinbers 10 deals with the immediate preparation for the departure. The second part of the book (10:ll-36:13) sholz-s what it actually ineans to "march with YHWH."KHWH is ready to help his people, but he is above all a God who punishes all rebellion (1 1; 12; 13-14; 16-17; 20:l-13; 21:4-9; 23). In the most cases, all the people rebel against Y H W H well as against Moses and Aaron. However, in certain cases, Y H W H as punishes individuals: Aaron and Miriam in Nuinbers 12; Dathan, Abiram, and the sons of Korah in Numbers 16; Moses and Aaron in Nurn 20:1-13. The most important episode is found in Numbers 13-14, where the whole generation of the Exodus is condemned to die in the wilderness because they refused to conquer the Promised Land. The message is tlear: the failure was not had in any may due to the preparstion of the campaign: YHTVH foreseen everywhen the Israelites rhing. The ivanderings result fioni Israel's sins. Hoxx~ever, folio\\- the instructions that Y H W H gives to Moses, they succeed in all of their undertakings. This is also the case, for example, in the first wars of conquest (21:21-32; 2 1 3 - 3 5 ; 31). If the Pentateuch \\.as coinposed for Israel after the Exile, rile book of Numbers explains under what conditions they may regain the Promised Land. E The Structure of the Book s f Deuteronomy The structure of Deuteronomy I S based on four "titles." tile and colitents of which are analogous: construction 49. Knierim, "Numbers," 160-63 The Fzve Bookr ojthe Pentate~icl~. Content artd Structu~~e 39 1:l: 'These are t'he words that Moses spoke to all Israel beyond the Jordan, 4:44: This is the !a\\- that Moses set before the Israelites, 28:69: These are the words of the covenant that YH~KH commanded Moses ro make with the Israelites . . . 33:l: This is the blessing with which Moses, the man of God. blessed the Israelites berbre his death.'" This book requires special treatment.jl Briefly, the book of Deuteronomy is to be distinguished from Exodus-Numbers for one main reason: it contains "1~0rdjof Moses" (Deut 1:I), whereas Leviticus and Numbers explicitly of Nun1 I::, present their content as "~vords VHWH"(Lev ?:I-2, 26:46, 27:34; 36:13; see aiso Exod 20:I, 22; 21:l: 21:3). Therefore, ave have in the book of Deuteronomy the first "comrnentary'~on he LawiTeaching by the most dej pendable and most competent commentator, Moses hlmself ' ~ n u s the books of the Pentateuch are not all structured 111 the smle v7a1-> , and they do not ail present a clear structure Nonetheless. ~t is pos>lble to elucldatr the structure of the canonical text of each book. We no\\ need to study this canonical text more closely to see ~f ~t1s unified or ~f Ir bears marks that reveal ~t to be a colnposlte work based on older elements.j3 -3 50. See P, Kleinert. Das Detr:eroncrnin~n14nd die Deniemnoruiker: Tiiterjeichzin,oe,z a i r altiestai?rentiicheii Rechts- ccnd Liteizltuygerciiichte (Bielefeld and Leipz~g. 1872) 167; Lohfink, "Der Bundessch:uss im Lande Moab, 32-36; especially pp. 32-33 (= Studiert zciin De~iteronovizium, 1.53-82, especially pp. 53-51): idem, "Bund als Vertrag im Deureronomium," 219; G. Brauiik. Deuterorzomitim 1- 16,17 (NEchtB: Wurzburg, 1986) 5-6. 51. See mv 1tztrod:izione a! Deccterononlio: Sti.:itttcva, $toria, teo!oyia (Rome, 1995). 52. Idem. 'La structure du Pentai-euque dans sa Forme canon~que."ZAiV 113 (2001) 331-52 53. Complementary b~bliography the callonicai reading of the OT: J. Barton, Oracles on q - G o d : Perctptions 0fAncient Prophecy in Israel a$er the Exile (Oxford. 1986); R. T. Beckwith, T h e Old Testainent Canotz oj^ the -Yew Tejiamenf Chzvch and I?s Backgroitnd i!z Early Jzidaizm (Grand Rap~ds,1985); J. Bienkinsopp. Prophecy and Cannit: A Covltribtition to the Study qfjetvish Or&irzj (Notre Dame, IN, 1977); W Brueggernann, T h e Creative itbrd: Canon as a .\.lode1 .hi. Biblical Education (Philadelphia, 1982); R. E. Clements. Prophecy and Zaditioiz (Atlanta, 1975j; L. M , McDonald. T h e F~3mzation$the Christian Bib!iciil Canon (2nd ed.; Peabod& M A , 1995): D. F. Morgan. Between Text and Conztinlty: T h e "lfiitings" iiz Caolonical lizreipretaiioiz !1\JIinneapolis. 1990); P R . Noble, The Canoviical Approach: A Critical Reconstviictiori of the Hev~ieneuticsoJBrevard S , Child (Biblical Interpretac~onSeries 16; Leiden, 1995); J. H. Sailhanler, Iiirroduction to Old Testament Theology: A Caizonical Apprcach (Grand Rapids. 1995): G. 7. Sheppard, "Canonical Criticism," A B D 1.961-66. H'orkx e f B , S . Chiidj: Exodus; Introduction to the O l d 'htanrettt ~s Scr(ptc~re:Biblical Tlleology i?f the Old and S e t v Tejtaments: Theological Rejiectioiz o i l the Chvirtian Bible (London, 1992). Larks efJ A . Sanders: Torah and Canon; Canon aizd Cornmui~iiy: Guide to Cano!zicul CritA icisffl (Philadelphia, 1981); From Sacred Story to Sac~ed 2 x f : Canon aj Paradi,om (Phlladelphla, 1987); "Canon," i i B D 1.837-52; "The Integrity of B~blica!Pluralism," in " X o ? in Heaven": Coheia!zce and Coulplesity in Bibiical a\-avrative (ed. J. l? Rososenblact and 1.C, Sitterson; Indianap oh^, IN, 1991) 154-69.