Potential Antifertility Agents From Plants a Comprehensive Review

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Journal of Ethnopharmacology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm Review Potential antifertility agents from plants: A comprehensive review Dinesh Kumar ∗ , Ajay Kumar, Om Prakash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136119, Harynana, India a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Ethnopharmacological relevance: Traditional medicines are practiced worldwide for regulation fertility since ancient times. This review provides a comprehensive summary of medicinal flora inhabitating throughout the world regarding their traditional usage by various tribes/ethnic groups for fertility regulation in females. Materials and methods: Bibliographic investigation was carried out by analyzing classical text books and peer reviewed papers, consulting worldwide accepted scientific databases from the last six decades. Plants/their parts/extracts traditionally used for abortion, contraception, emmenagogue and sterilization purposes have been considered as antifertility agents. Research status of selected potential plant species has been discussed. Further, compounds isolated from plants with attributed fertility regulating potentials are also classified into three categories: (a) phytoconstituents with anti-implantation activity, (b) phytoconstituents with abortifacient activity and (c) phytoconstituents with contraceptive activity. Results: 577 plant species belonging to 122 families, traditionally used in fertility regulation in females, have been recorded, of which 298 plants have been mentioned as abortifacients (42%), 188 as contraceptives (31%), 149 as emmenagogues (24%), and 17 as sterilizers. Among 122 plant families, fabaceae constitutes 49.2%, asteraceae 40.98%, euphorbiaceae 19.7%, apiaceae 16.4%, poaceae 12.3%, labiateae 11.5%, and others in lesser proportion. Various plant parts used in fertility regulation include leaves (25%), roots (22%), fruits (15%), seeds (12%), stem/stem bark (37%), and flowers (4%). Some active compounds, isolated from about various plant species, have been reported to possess significant antifertility potential. Conclusion: This review clearly indicates that it is time to increase the number of experimental studies to find out novel potential chemical entities from such a vast array of unexploited plants having traditional role in fertility regulation. Also, the mechanisms of action by which plant extracts and their active compounds exert antifertility effects remain to be studied. Crown Copyright © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. Article history: Received 28 May 2011 Received in revised form 19 December 2011 Accepted 20 December 2011 Available online 5 January 2012 Keywords: Antifertility Abortifacient Emmenagogue Contraceptive Plants Contents 1. 2. 3. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1. Use of medicinal plants as complementary and alternative medicine for fertility regulation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Abrus precatorius Linn. (Family: Fabaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Acalypha indica L. (Family: Euphorbiaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Ailanthus excelsa (Family: Simaroubaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Ananas comosus Linn. (Family: Bromeliaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5. Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. (Family: Aristolochiaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6. Azadirachta indica (Family: Meliaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7. Bambusa vulgaris Linn. (Family: Poaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8. Butea monosperma Lam. (Fabaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Citrus medica Linn. (Rutaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Dalbergia saxatilis Linn. (Family: Fabaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 Embelia ribes Burm. (Family: Myrsinaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12 Ferula hermonis Boiss. (Family: Apiaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 2 18 18 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9466772500; fax: +91 1744 238277/238628. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Kumar). 0378-8741/$ – see front matter. Crown Copyright © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2011.12.039 2 D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 4. 5. 3.13 Gloriosa superba (Family: Liliaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.14 Heliotropium indicum (Family: Boraginaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. (Malvaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16 Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Family: Nymphaeaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17 Plumbago zeylanica L. (Family: Plumbaginaceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.18 Vicoa indica DC. (Family: Asteraceae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Future needs for this area of research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 22 23 23 23 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 1. Introduction The rise in population in developing countries is overwhelming and this intensifies the need for effective birth control measures. Consequently, intensive efforts have been made to control the birth rate by various means. In the area of female fertility regulation, the development of orally active antifertility agents has been the main area of focused research for the last six decades. The status of herbal medicine has been fast gaining ground all over the world during the last few decades. The World Health Organization (WHO) has advocated the legitimization of traditional practices in maternal and child health, including herbal contraceptive use (Cominsky, 1986) and set up a task force on plant research for fertility regulation with an objective to find new orally active nonsteroidal compounds having anti-implantation property (Griffin, 1988). Initially, the major research efforts were focused towards the discovery of oral contraceptives of synthetic origin and very little attention was paid to the plant kingdom, although the chemical nature of the compounds derived from plants are so diverse that they encompass the prototypes of practically every pharmacological category. In the modern system of medicine, about 25% of prescriptions contain active principle(s) derived from plants. Plant kingdom, therefore, holds a great promise for the discovery of new and effective antifertility agents. The synthetic agents available today for fertility control produce severe side effects like hormonal imbalance, hypertension, increased risk of cancer and weight gain (McNamara, 1996). Therefore, there is an urgent need to replace these agents by safe and effective alternative such as plant-based contraceptive agents. 1960; Dash and Basu, 1968; Nadkarni, 1976; Chaudhury and Vohora, 1970; Malhi and Trivedi, 1972; Kholkute et al., 1976; Farnsworth et al., 1975; Kong et al., 1986; Xie et al., 1986; Xu et al., 1987a; Bhargava, 1988; Kamboj, 1988; Elisabetsky and Posey, 1989; Prajapati et al., 2003; Maurya et al., 2004; Chatterjee and Prakashi, 2006). Traditional use of plants for fertility regulation in other countries, i.e., Africa (Kokwaro, 1981), Brazil (De oliveira and Andrade, 1978; Rodrigues, 2007), Camroon, California (Adams and Garcia, 2006; Noumi and Tchakonang, 2001) Haiti (Weniger, 1982), Korea (Woo et al., 1981), Russia (Kharkhov and Mats, 1981), Trininad & Tabago (Lans, 2006) is also evident from the available literature. Till date, no review has analyzed/correlated the plant families and their parts with antifertility effect of the plants. Therefore, the present review has been prepared including comprehensive data of medicinal plants inhabitating throughout the world regarding their traditional usage by various tribes/ethnic groups for fertility regulation in females. 2. Materials and Methods In this review, bibliographic investigation was carried out during April 2009–May 2011, by analyzing classical text books and peer reviewed papers, consulting worldwide accepted scientific databases from the last six decades. Peer reviewed articles were gathered consulting the databases INFLIBNET, NISCAIR, SCOPUS, SCIELO, PUBMED and Google scholar. Only relevant studies published in English were considered. The botanical correct names were mentioned after verification from published literature and database (International Plant Names Index, 2008; USDA-NRCS, 2011; SIGB, 2011). In some cases, the plant family names were updated on their taxonomy and nomenclature. The criteria followed for selection of data in this review consider those plants (i) native to India, and also to other countries in the America, Africa, Asia and Europe, (ii) used in Indian traditional medicine, and (iii) with reported animal studies for antifertility effects. Plants/their parts/extracts traditionally used for abortion, contraception, emmenagogue and sterilization purposes have been considered as antifertility agents. Further, compounds isolated from plants with attributed fertility regulating potentials are also classified into three categories: (a) phytoconstituents with antiimplantation activity, (b) phytoconstituents with abortifacient activity and (c) phytoconstituents with contraceptive activity. Further, detailed information on research status of 18 plant species has been discussed. The following keywords were used to search for the literature inside the databases: plant extract, antifertility, abortifacient, emmenagogue and contraceptive agents. 3. Result Overall, 430 articles were reviewed. One hundred and seventy seven articles were reviewed for searching traditional/folk-lore 1.1. Use of medicinal plants as complementary and alternative medicine for fertility regulation: The concept of fertility regulation is not a new one. A large number of plants or their extracts have been used as antifertility agents in traditional medicine in indigenous systems of medicine in different countries throughout the world. Throughout history, women have tried to control their fertility with various levels of societal support. The information was passed from mother to daughter and generation to generation. Many herbal remedies are traditionally used as contraceptives (to prevent ovulation or fertilization), abortifacients (to prevent implantation), emmenagogue (to stimulate uterine flow) or oxytocic (to stimulate uterine contractions, particularly to promote labor) agents (Ritchie, 2001). This article presents certain data indicating that traditional medical systems practiced by various ethnic groups all over the world employed plants/plantbased formulations means of birth control. The use of plants as abortifacients, emmenagogues, and as local contraceptives might have been known to the ancient physicians of India as reported in some of the available books, monographs and reviews (Kirtikar and Basu, 1946; Chopra et al., 1958; Casey, D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Table 1 Plants with traditional/folkloric use in fertility regulation. S. no. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Plant name with family Aa paleacea (H.B.K.) Rchb. f. [Orchidaceae] Abroma angusta Linn. [Sterculaceae] Abrus precatorius Linn. [Fabaceae] Abuta grandiflora (Mart.) Sand. [Menispermaceae] Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. [Fabaceae] Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. [Fabaceae] Acalypha grandis Benth. [Euphorbiaceae] Acalypha indica Linn. [Euphorbiaceae] Acalypha wilkesiana Muell., Arg. [Euphorbiaceae] Achillea clavenae Linn. [Asteraceae] Achillea millefolium Linn. [Asteraceae] Achyranthes aspera Linn. [Amaranthaceae] Achyranthes bidentata Blume. [Amaranthaceae] Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. [Ranunculaceae] Acorus calamus Linn. [Araceae] Acosmium dasycarpum (Vogel) Yakovlev [Fabaceae] Adhatoda vasica Nees Syn. Justicia adhatoda L. [Acanthaceae] Adiantum Capillus-veneris [Adiantaceae] Aerva lantana (L.) Juss. ex. Shult [Amaranthaceae] Aframomum sceptrum (Oliv. and D. Hanb.) K. Schum. [Zingiberaceae] Agave americana Linn. [Agavaceae] Ageratum conyzoides Linn. [Asteraceae] Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. [Simaroubaceae] Alangium salvifolium (L. f.) Wang. [Alangiaceae] Albizia lebbek Linn. Benth [Fabaceae] Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. [Alangiaceae] Allium cepa Linn. [Liliaceae] Allium sativum Linn. [Liliaceae] Aloe barbadensis Mill. Syn. Acalypha indica, A. litoralis, A. vera [Liliaceae] Alphitonia zizyphoides (Soland.) A.Gray [Rhamnaceae] Alternanthera philoxeroides Griseb. [Amaranthaceae] Alstonia pacifica Seem. [Apocynaceae] Alstonia spectabilis R. Br. [Apocynaceae] Alstonia vitiensis Seem. var. neo-ebudica Monachino [Apocynaceae] Alysicarpus vaginalis [Fabaceae] Amaranthus spinosus Linn. [Amaranthaceae] Common name Hierba de la soledad Ulat kambal Ghungchi Abuta Fitnah Renjhua, Safed kikar Nomomp i naviag Khokali Copper leaf – Gandan Latjira Puthanda [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] – Atis Bach Aprytytti (or Quina) Adhusa Part used* LF RT RT, SD RT, ST FR, FL BR, LF, GU LF PL PX PX PL LF RT LF, RT RT RT BR PL Traditional use† C, S E A C C C C E A E A, E A C C A A A A, E Country Peru India India Peru Egypt India Vanuatu India Papua New Guinea Italy Europe, America India Pakistan India India India Brazil India References Rainer and Ashley (2010) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Das (1955), Nadkarni (1976), Elisabetsky and Posey (1989) Rainer and Ashley (2010) Haggag (1989) Jain et al. (2004), Meena and Rao (2010) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1982) WHO (2009) Lokar and Poldini (1988) Farnsworth et al. (1975), Chandler et al. (1982) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1982) Shah et al. (2009) Paulsamy et al. (2007) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Gangwar et al. (2010), Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Rodrigues (2007) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Chopra et al. (1958) 3 Behakar [18] [19] [20] – Chaya Guinea Grains RT PX RT SD A A A A Pakistan Spain India Africa Shah et al. (2009) Benítez et al. (2010) Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Duke (2003) [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] Rambans Wekoko Ghar Karnana Aankol Tey nyama Aankol Pyaj Lahsun Ghikwar RT Sap FL SB RT SB RT BU SD, BU LF A A C A A A A, E E A India Cameroon India India Cameroon India India India India Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Tarafder (1983) Meena and Rao (2010) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Jain et al. (2004) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Chopra et al. (1958), Nadkarni (1976) [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] Vilivil Jaisachi-ara – Tutu Niete tel SB PL Sap BR, LF LF BU A A C A, C C Vanautu India Vanuatu Papua New Guinea Vanuatu Bourdy and Walter (1992) Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Bourdy and Walter (1992) WHO (2009) Bourdy and Walter (1992) [35] [36] Davai Katailichaula RT – C A India India Jain (2004) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Tarafder (1983) 4 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] Plant name with family Ambrosia arborecens Mill. [Asteraceae] Ambrosia cumanenesis Mill. [Asteraceae] Ambrosia elatior Linn. [Asteraceae] Ambrosia maritama Linn. [Asteraceae] Ambrosia tenuifolia Spreng. [Asteraceae] Anacardium occidentale Linn. [Anacardiaceae] Ananas comosus Merr.Syn. A. sativus [Bromeliaceae] Anastatica hierochuntica Linn. [Brassicaceae] Aneilema conspicuum Kunth. [Commelinaceae] Aneilema scapiflorum Wight. [Commelinaceae] Anethum sowa Kurz. [Apiaceae] Anisomeles malabarica (L.) R.Br. ex. Sims. [Labiatae] Annona reticulta Linn. [Annonaceae] Annona squamosa Linn. [Annonaceae] Anthemis cotula Linn. [Asteraceae] Anthemis nobilis Linn. [Asteraceae] Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.syn. A. cadamba [Rubiaceae] Anthriscus nemerosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng. [Apiaceae] Anthurium paraguariense Engl. [Araceae] Anthurium tessmannii [Araceae] Antidesma ghaesaembilla Gaertn. Syn. A. Paniculatum Roxb. [Euphorbiaceae] Apium graveolens Linn. [Apiaceae] Apocynum androsaemifolium Linn. [Apocynaceae] Aquilegia canadensis Linn. [Apiaceae] Arctium lappa Linn. [Asteraceae] Areca catechu Linn. [Arecaceae] Arecastrum romanzoffianum [Arecaceae] Argemone mexicana Linn. [Papaveraceae] Argyreia speciosa Sweet. [Convolvulaceae] Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham [Pteridaceae] Arisaema atrorubens [Araceae] Arisaema leschenaultii [Araceae] Arisaema tortuosum Wall. Schott [Araceae] Arisaema triphyllum Torr. [Araceae] Aristolochia bracteata Retz. [Aristolochiaceae] Aristolochia rugosa Lam. [Aristolochiaceae] D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Common name Marco Altamis Altamisa Dack chau Altamisa Ahkryt (or caju) Anannas Anasa Part used* LF – LF,ST LF PX BR FR LF – RT – FR PL SD SD RT LF, FL Traditional use† C A C A A A, C A A A, C E E C E A A A E Country Peru Trinidad and Tobago Argentina Pakistan Paraguay Brazil India, Malaya India India India India India Mauritius, Malasya India India India America, Australia, Europe,Siberia India India References De-La-Cruz et al. (2007) Lans (2007) Goleniowski et al. (2006) Shah et al. (2009) Hirschmann and Bordas (1990) Rodrigues (2007) Nadkarni (1976), Satyavati et al. (1976), Tarafder (1983) Murty and Venkaiah (2010) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Nadkarni (1976) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] Garvaphul – Siyah musli Soya Malabar catmint Ramphal Sharifa Sitaphalam Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Pullaiah (2006) Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Murty and Venkaiah (2010) Pullaiah (2006) [51] Dog fennel [52] [53] Babuni-ka-phul Kadamba Oil RT, FL E A Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) [54] [55] [56] [57] Cow parsley – – Square leaf China laurel Ajmud Indian Hemp Columbine – Supari – Pindó – Takoria alu Culandrillo – – – PL – LF WD A A, E C E India Argentina Columbia India Pullaiah (2006) Martinez-Crovetto (1981) Brondegaard (1973), Chaudhary (1966) Pullaiah (2006) [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] SD RT PL LF, RT FR IF RT ST TU PL RH TU, SP TU, SP RT A, E India North America Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Williams (1819) Shah et al. (2009) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Satyavati et al. (1976) Jain and Srivastava (2005) Basualdo et al. (1995) Halberstein (2005) Sikdar and Datta (2008) Trillo et al. (2010) Brondegaard (1973) Paulsamy et al. (2007) E A A A A E C C C C C C E A Massachusettes, Europe Pakistan India India Paraguay West Indies India Argentina Canada India India United States India Trinidad and Tobago Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Lans (2007) Kirama Mat root RT RT D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] [89] Plant name with family Aristolochia clematitis Linn. [Aristolochiaceae] Aristolochia tagala Cham. [Aristolochiaceae] Aristolochia trilobata Lam. [Aristolochiaceae] Armoracia rusticana P. Gaertn. [Brassicaceae] Artemisia absinthium Linn. [Asteraceae] Artemisia compestris Linn. [Asteraceae] Artemisia siversiana Willd. [Asteraceae] Artemisia vulgaris Linn. [Asteraceae] Aristolochia indica Linn. [Aristolochiaceae] Asarum canadense Linn. [Aristolochiaceae] Asclepias hallii A. Gray [Asclepiadaceae] Asclepias syriaca Linn. [Asclepiadaceae] Asparagus acutifolia Linn. [Liliaceae] Asparagus officinalis Linn. [Liliaceae] Aspidosperma excelsum Benth. [Apocynaceae] Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco Schltdl. [Apocynaceae] Asplenium adiantum-nigrum Linn. [Polypodiaceae] Asplenium nidus Linn. [Aspleniaceae] Atractylis gummifera Linn. [Asteraceae] Austroeupatorium inulaefolium HBK. Syn. Eupatorium inulaefolium HBK. [Asteraceae] Avicennia marina Forssk. Vierch. [Avicenniaceae] Azadirachta indica A. Juss. [Meliaceae] Baccharis cylindrica (Less.) DC. [Asteraceae] Bahia dissecta (A. Gray) Britton [Asteraceae] Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.Syn. B. bambos (L.)Voss [Poaceae] Barleria crista Linn. [Acanthaceae] Barringtonia edulis Seem. [Lecythidaceae] Basella alba Linn. [Basellaceae] Bauhinia racemosa Lam. [Fabaceae] Bauhinia retusa Ham. [Fabaceae] Berberis aristata DC. [Berberidaceae] Beta vulgaris Linn. [Chenopodiaceae] Betula bhojpattra Wall. & B. Utilis. [Betulaceae] Bischofia javanica Bl. [Bischofiaceae] Blechnum orientale Linn. [Blechnaceae] Blumea balsamifera L. DC. [Asteraceae] Common name – Jabroporol Twef Horseradish Wormwood Sheeh Charmara Nagadouna Isharmul – – – – Halyun Carapanaúba Quebracho blanco Black Spleen Wort – – Doctorcito Part used* SD RT LF – LF PL LF LF, RT RT RT, RH PL RT, RH FR FR BR LF PL Traditional use† C E A A E E A C A,E C C C C C A, C C C Country Hungary Bangladesh Trininad – United States Jordan India India India North America United States Canada Europe Europe Brazil Argentina India References Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Biswas et al. (2008) Wong (1976) Duke (2008) Duke (1988) Al-Douri and Al-Essa (2010) Uniyal et al. (2006) Ghosh (2008) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Rodrigues (2007) Trillo et al. (2010) Brondegaard (1973), Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Brondegaard (1973) Hirschmann and Bordas (1990) 5 [90] [91] [92] LF RT PX C C A Vanautu Arabia Paraguay [93] [94] Pyara ban Neem Dadarek LF GU FR LF RT RT, LF A C C A C E India India Pakistan Paraguay United States India Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Satyavati et al. (1976) Shah et al. (2009) Hirschmann and Bordas (1990) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) [95] [96] [97] Yaguareté kaa – Bans [98] [99] [100] [101] [102] [103] [104] [105] [106] [107] [108] Jhinti Butsu vel Lalbachlu, Poya Spinach Apta Semla Dar-hald Chukandar Bhojpattra – Awor Kakaronda RT SB RT LF SB RE EX LF,RT,SD SB SB PX, LF LF A C A A A E E E A A S E India Vanautu India Cameroon India India India India India Vanautu Papua New Guinea India Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Mali et al. (2006) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Chopra et al. (1958), Malhi and Trivedi (1972), Nadkarni (1976) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Bourdy and Walter (1992) WHO (2009) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) 6 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [109] [110] [111] [112] [113] [114] [115] [116] [117] [118] [119] [120] [121] [122] [123] [124] Plant name with family Blumea lacera DC. [Asteraceae] Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. [Nyctaginaceae] Bombax ceiba L. [Bombacaceae] Bombax ellipticum Kunth. [Bombacaceae] Borassus flabellifer Linn. [Arecaceae] Boswellia glabra Roxb. [Burseraceae] Boswellia serrata Roxb. [Burseraceae] Brassica indica [Brassicaceae] Brassica juncea Coss [Brassicaceae] Brassica nigra Linn. & Koch. [Brassicaceae] Bromelia pinguin Linn. [Bromeliaceae] Brownea latifolia Jacq. [Fabaceae] Bryonia dioica Jacq. [Cucurbitaceae] Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng. [Euphorbiaceae] Bromelia balansae Menz. [Bromeliaceae] Buddleja asiatica Lour. [Buddlejaceae] Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) Clarke [Cyperaceae] Bursera simaruba (L.)Sarg. [Burseraceae] Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze [Fabaceae] Caesalpinia bonducella Linn. [Fabaceae] Caesalpinia pulchrrima (Linn.) Swartz. [Fabaceae] Caesalpinia sappan Linn. [Fabaceae] Caladium seguinium (Jacq.) Vent. [Araceae] Calendula officinalis Linn. [Asteraceae] Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl. [Verbenaceae] Callicarpa sp. [Verbenaceae] Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br. [Asclepiadaceae] Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. [Asclepiadaceae] Camptosema paraguariense var. Parviflorum Hassl. [Fabaceae] Canarium indicum (L.) [Burseraceae] Cannabis sativa Linn.Syn. C. indica (Lamk.)Wehmer [Moraceae] Capsella bursa-pastoris Moench. [Brassicaceae] Careya arborea Roxb. [Lecythidaceae] Carica papaya Linn. [Caricaceae] Carthamus tinctorius L. Syn. Cnicus indicus [Asteraceae] Carum carvi Linn. [Apiaceae] Cascabela thevetia (Linn.) Lippold [Apocynaceae] Casearia ilicifolia Vent. [Flacourtiaceae] Cassia alata L. Roxb. [Fabaceae] Cassia fistula Linn. [Fabaceae] D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Common name Kakaranda Kindiiari Buruga Xiloxochitl Tad Lobhan Luban Kadugu Rai Banarsi rai Pinguin Mountain Rose – Lankpana Karaguato rapo Bana Bui Part used* PL RT SD – RT RE RE SD Oil SD FR FL RT BR RH RT RT LF, ST BR FL,LF, SD SD LF WD, LF PL FL – LF RB LA, PL, RT LF, RT FR (Nut) – Traditional use† E A A S C E E C E A A A E C A A A C C A, E E A, E E C A, E C C A A C S A, E Country India Pakistan India Mexico India India India India India India Jamaica Trininad Italy India Paraguay India Pakistan Argentina Panama India India India, Nigeria India South America, Germany,India India India Torres-Straits India India Paraguay Papua New Guinea India References Shah et al. (2009) Murty and Venkaiah (2010) Smith-oka (2008) Jain et al. (2004) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Priya et al. (2002) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Asprey and Thornton (1955) Wong (1976) Lokar and Poldini (1988) Jain et al. (2004) Basualdo et al. (1995) Malhi and Trivedi (1972), Satyavati et al. (1976) Shah et al. (2009) Goleniowski et al. (2006) Gupta et al. (2005) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Satyavati et al. (1976) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Idu and Onyibe (2007), Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Chatterjee and Pakrashi (2006); Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Dvorjetski (1958), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Gangwar et al. (2010), Malhi and Trivedi (1972), Tarafder (1983) Arenas and Azorero (1977) WHO (2009) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim (2008) Priya et al. (2002) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Duke (2008) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Murty and Venkaiah (2010) Weniger (1982) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Murty and Venkaiah (2010) [125] [126] [127] [128] [129] [130] [131] [132] [133] [134] [135] [136] [137] [138] [139] Bulbostylis – Palas Kat-karanj Krishna chura Patang – Calandula Daya – Ak Akada madar Akt’atet echei Uele, Angal Bhang [140] [141] [142] [143] [144] [145] [146] [147] [148] – Pizh Papaya Safflower Shia Jira Pacha Ganneru Chapeau carré Enangi njoi Rela PL FB SD FL FR SD LF LF FR A, E C A, E A S A A, E A A Ethopia India India Indochina India India Haiti Cameroon India D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [149] [150] [151] [152] [153] [154] [155] [156] [157] [158] [159] [160] [161] [162] [163] [164] [165] [166] [167] [168] [169] [170] [171] [172] [173] [174] [175] [176] [177] [178] [179] [180] [181] [182] [183] [184] Plant name with family Cassia lanceolata Linn. & Forsk. [Fabaceae] Cassia occidentalis Linn. [Fabaceae] Castilleja angustifolia [Scrophulariaceae] Casurina equisetifolia J.R. et G.Forst. [Casuarinaceae] Catasetum fimbriatum Lindl. [Orchidaceae] Caulophyllum thalictroides L. [Berberidaceae] Cayratia trifolia Domin. [Vitiaceae] Cedrela odorata L. [Meliaceae] Cedrela toona Roxb. [Meliaceae] Celastrus paniculata Willd. [Celastraceae] Celosia argentea Linn. [Amaranthaceae] Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. [Poaceae] Cerbera manghas Linn. [Apocynaceae] Cerbera odollam Gaertn. [Apocynaceae] Cestrum nocturnum Linn. [Solanaceae] Cetraria islandica L. Ach. [Parmeliaceae] Cheirantus Cheiri L. [Brassicaceae] Chelidonium majus Linn. [Papaveraceae] Chenopodium album Linn. [Chenopodiaceae] Chenopodium ambrosioides L. [Chenopodiaceae] Chenopodium botrys Linn. [Chenopodiaceae] Chenopodium hybridum Linn. [Chenopodiaceae] Chenopodium multifidum Linn. [Chenopodiaceae] Chrysanthemum indicum Linn. [Asteraceae] Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Pers. [Asteraceae] Chusquea ramosissima Lindm. [Poaceae] Cicer arietinum Linn. [Fabaceae] Cichorium intybus Linn. [Asteraceae] Cicuta maculata Linn. [Apiaceae] Cienfuegosia drummondii Lewton [Malvaceae] Cinchona calisaya Wedd. [Rubiaceae] Cinnamomum camphora Nees & Eberm. [Lauraceae] Cinnamomum cassia Blume [Lauraceae] Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Breyn) Nees [Lauraceae] Cissampelos pareira Linn. [Menispermaceae] Citrullus colocynthis Schrad. [Cucurbitaceae] Citrus bergamia Risso [Rutaceae] Citrus medica Linn. [Rutaceae] Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f. [Verbenaceae] Common name Sana Kasondi – Niyar, Yorset Poha marangatu Squaw root Nagamat nding-nding Cedro Tun Malkangni Kurdu Kutta ghash Dabur Dhakur Huele de noche – Manthur-Asfar – Bethu Paico or Pazote Jeruselum oak Aris Paico or Pazote Guldaudi Gul-e-daudy – Chana Kasini – Rituremich Cinchona Kapoor Tej – Akanadi Indrayan Part used* LF RT – SB, LF Bu RT FR BR FL SD RT ST, SD FR SD, LF FL, LF TH FL, SD PL PL PL LF LF PL – LF YS – SD RT RT BR – – BR RT RT Traditional use† C C C C C A, C C A E A, E A A A A A E E C A A, E E E A, E E A C E E C C A E E A E A Country India India United States Vanautu Paraguay United States Vanautu Mexico India India India India India India Mexico Italy Jordan Soviet Union Hungary Central and South America Massachusettes Massachusettes Central and South America India Pakistan Paraguay India India United States Paraguay India India India Spain India India Curtin (1965) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Nadkarni (1976) Shah et al. (2009) Brondegaard (1973) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Arenas and Azorero (1977) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Benítez et al. (2010) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Nadkarni (1976) Passalacqua et al. (2007) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Dash and Basu (1968) References Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Badami et al. (2003) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Arenas and Azorero (1977) Duke (1988) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Alfardo (1984) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Mali et al. (2006) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Alfardo (1984) Lokar and Poldini (1988) Al-Douri and Al-Essa (2010) Brondegaard (1973) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Curtin (1965) Williams (1819) 7 [185] [186] [187] Bergamotto Bara-Nimbu Arni – FR RT C E S Italy India India 8 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [188] [189] [190] [191] Plant name with family Clobba marantia [Zingiberaceae] Cnicus benedictus [Asteraceae] Cocos nucifera Linn. [Arecaceae] Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl. [Euphorbiaceae] D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Common name – – Nariyal Inloptahow Croton Part used* – PL SD PL LF BE SD PX RE SD FR LF RT RT RH LF ST twig SB FL LF PL FR RT, SD FR FR – ST RH Traditional use† C C C A C A A, E C E A A A C A A A A C A, E A, E S A A A, E A A C E Country Melanesia, Gunantuna North America Java Vanautu Papua New Guinea Italy Korea Paraguay India Brazil India India Africa India India Uganda Pakistan India India India Ivory Coast Nigeria Africa India Tunisia Italy Brazil India References Brondegaard (1973) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Brondegaard (1973) Bourdy and Walter (1992) WHO (2009) Savo et al. (2011) Woo et al. (1981) Arenas and Azorero (1977) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Rodrigues (2007) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Meena and Rao (2010) Farnsworth et al. (1975), De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Chauhan and Chavan (2009) Murty and Venkaiah (2010) Tabuti et al. (2003) Chaudhary and Khan (2008) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Malhi and Trivedi (1972), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) [192] [193] [194] [195] [196] [197] [198] [199] [200] [201] [202] [203] [204] [205] [206] [207] [208] [209] [210] Coffea Arabica L. [Rubiaceae] Coix lacryma-jobi L. [Poaceae] Commelina erecta Linn. [Commelinaceae] Commiphora mukul (Hook. Ex Stocks) [Burseraceae] Copaifera guyanensis Desf. [Fabaceae] Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. [Boraginaceae] Cordia gharaf Roxb. [Boraginaceae] Cordia quarensis Gürke [Boraginaceae] Cordia rothii Roem. & Schult [Boraginaceae] Costus speciosus Koeing [Zingiberaceae] Crassocephalum montuossum [Asteraceae] Crateva magna (Lour.) DC. [Capparidaceae] Crataeva nurvala Buch.Ham. [Capparidaceae] Crocus sativus Linn. [Iridaceae] Crotalaria juncea Linn. [Fabaceae] Croton lobatus HBK. Hutch. [Euphorbiaceae] Croton penduliflorus Hutch. [Euphorbiaceae] Croton tiglium Linn. [Euphorbiaceae] Cuminum cyminum Linn. [Apiaceae] Cupressus sempervirens Linn. [Cupressaceae] Curarea tecunarum Barneby & Krukoff [Menispermaceae] Curcuma longa Linn. [Zingiberaceae] Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. [Zingiberaceae] Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. [Convolvulaceae] Cuscuta sp. (Tourn.) Linn. [Convolvulaceae] Cydista potosina (K Schum & Loes) Loes [Bignoniaceae] Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Staph Syn. Andropogon citratus DC. [Poaceae] Cynodon dactylon Pers. [Poaceae] Cyperus esculentus [Cyperaceae] Cyperus redolens Maury [Cyperaceae] Cyperus rotundus Linn. [Cyperaceae] Cytisus scoparius Linn. [Fabaceae] Caffè Ooína Ja Pininguí Guggul Copaíba Lasora Gundi Kano – Chengalva Kostu Sekoteka Maimana Barun Kesar Sandi Ina’uirkina dup Aworoso Croton oil plant Jira – Bouquet and Debray (1974) Aladesanmi et al. (2007) Burkill, 1985a Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Leporatti and Ghedira (2009) Duke (2008) Lewalle and Rodegem (1968) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Nadkarni (1976) [211] [212] [213] Italian Cypress Bekú Haldi [214] [215] Kachura Amar bel Akash Bail RH – SD PL – RT E E C C A E India India Pakistan United States Mexico Latin america Shah et al. (2009) Brondegaard (1973) Smith-oka (2008) Duke (2003) [216] [217] [218] – – Lemongrass [219] [220] [221] [222] [223] Durva Esum Mooti poec coc Motha Chameli PL PE RT TU LF A A C E A India Cameroon Paraguay India Pakistan Mali et al. (2006) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Arenas and Azorero (1977) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Shah et al. (2009) D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [224] [225] [226] [227] [228] [229] [230] [231] Plant name with family Daphne genkwa Sieh, et Zucc. [Thymelaeaceae] Datura metel Linn. [Solanaceae] Daucus carota Linn. [Apiaceae] Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsahusen [Loranthaceae] Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) [Poaceae] Derris brevipes Baker. [Fabaceae] Desmodium retroflexum DC. [Fabaceae] Dieffenbachia sequine (Jack) Schott [Araceae] Common name – Sadahdhatura Gajar Baramanda Sadana – – – Part used* FL, RT LF, FR, RT SD ST LF RT RT LF, ST Traditional use† A C A A A C E C Country China India India India India India India Cuba, Dominican Puerto Rico, Republic Santa Lucia Indio’s American India Australia India Cameroon India India Brazil Europe, India Mexico Vanautu India India Nigeria Haiti, Peru India Brazil Australia Europe Vanautu United States Brazil Cuba, Venezuela India India India Mauritius Papua New Guinea Central America India References Kong et al. (1986), Prance (1972) Malhi and Trivedi (1972), Priya et al. (2002) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Murty and Venkaiah (2010) Badami et al. (2003) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Brondegaard (1973), Duke (1988), Dvorjetski (1958) 9 [232] [233] [234] [235] [236] [237] [238] [239] [240] [241] [242] [243] [244] [245] [246] [247] [248] [249] [250] [251] [252] [253] [254] [255] [256] [257] [258] [259] [260] Dioscorea composita (Hemsl.) [Dioscoreaceae] Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn. [Dioscoreaceae] Dioscorea sativa Thunb. [Dioscoreaceae] Diospyros cordifolia Roxb. [Ebenaceae] Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. [Ebenaceae] Dolichandrone falcata Seem. [Bignoniaceae] Drosera burmannii Vahl. [Droseraceae] Duckesia verrucosa (Ducke) Cuatrec. [Humiriaceae] Dryopteris felix-mas (Linn.) Schott [Polypodiaceae] Dryopteris normalis C. Chr. [Polypodiaceae] Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum (Juss.) Miq. [Meliaceae] Echinochloa frumentacea Linn. [Poaceae] Echinops echinatus Roxb. [Asteraceae] Ehretia cymosa Thonn. [Boraginaceae] Eleutherine bulbosa Urb. [Iridaceae] Embelia ribes Burm. f. [Myrsinaceae] Endopleura uchi (Huber) Cuatrec. [Humiriaceae] Entada scandens Benth. [Fabaceae] Epimedium alpinum Linn. [Berberidaceae] Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engl. [Araceae] Eriogonum jamesii Benth. [Polygonaceae] Eriosema crinitum (Kunth) G. Don [Fabaceae] Eryngium foetidum L. [Apiaceae] Erythrina indica Lam. [Fabaceae] Erythrina variegata Linn. Var. [Fabaceae] Erythroxylum coca Lam. [Erythroxylaceae] Eugenia uniflora L. [Myrtaceae] Euodia elleryana F. Muell. [Rutaceae] Eupatoriun odoratum Linn. [Asteraceae] Barbasco Lalvala vahrikand Ratalu Karatendu Epindepinde Hawar Kavara mogga Uchi-corôa Male fern Fern(Helecho macho) Eamopul Sanwa Utanti Jaoke Echalotte marron Baberang Uchi-liso – – Nekamuro – Mecaprotu False Coriander Dadap Dadap Koko Roussaile Kurih, Sehit Assam lota – TU TU TU FR, RT RT – PL SD RT, SD – LF SD PL LF, BR BU RT BR SD LF, RT LF RT RT RT LF, RT – LF LF BR RT PL C C C A A A A C C C A S A C A, E C A C C A C A, C A, E E E E E C C E Duke (1988) Jain et al. (2005) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Jain et al. (2005) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Murty and Venkaiah (2010) Rodrigues (2007) Farnsworth et al. (1975), Nadkarni (1976) Latorre and Latorre (1977) Bourdy and Walter (1992) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Mali and Bhadane (2011) Leni (2009) Weniger (1982) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Malhi and Trivedi (1972), Nadkarni (1976), Satyavati et al. (1976) Rodrigues (2007) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Rodrigues (2007) Duke (2003) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Sussman (1980) WHO (2009) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Kirtikar and Basu (1946) 10 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [261] [262] [263] [264] [265] [266] [267] Plant name with family Eupatoriun squalidum DC. [Asteraceae] Euphorbia atoto Forst. f. [Euphorbiaceae] Euphorbia caducifolia Hains. [Euphorbiaceae] Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. [Euphorbiaceae] Euphorbia resinifera Berg. [Euphorbiaceae] Euphorbia tirucalli Linn. [Euphorbiaceae] Excoecaria agallocha Linn. [Euphorbiaceae] D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Common name – Atoto Danda thor Shehund – Konpal Gangawa – Part used* IF – RT RT – PL PL RT RE SD FR RT LF SD Traditional use† C A, E A A A E A A E A C C C C Country Paraguay Philippines, Vietnam Pakistan India India India India Papua New Guinea India Brazil Pakistan Papua New Guinea Vanautu Papua New Guinea References Arenas and Azorero (1977) Cambie and Brewis (1997) Chaudhary and Khan (2008) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Kamboj (1988) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Holdsworth (1977) Nadkarni (1976) Garcia et al. (2010) Shah et al. (2009) WHO (2009) Bourdy and Walter (1992) WHO (2009) [268] [269] [270] [271] [272] [273] Ferula assa-foetida Linn. [Apiaceae] Fevillea passiflora Vell. [Cucurbitaceae] Ficus religosa Linn. [Moraceae] Ficus wassa Roxb. [Moraceae] Flagellaria indica Linn. [Flagellariaceae] Flemingia strobilifera (L.) J. St.-Hil Syn. Moghania strobilifera (L.) J. St.-Hil. [Fabaceae] Fleura aestuans Linn. [Urticaceae] Flemingia strobilifera R. Br. [Fabaceae] Flueggea virosa (Willd.) Voigt [Phyllanthaceae] Foeniculum vulgare Mill. [Apiaceae] Franseria artemisioides Willd. [Asteraceae] Fragaria vesca Linn. [Rosaceae] Galium mexicanum var. mexicanum de Wit [Rubiaceae] Garcinia morella Desr. [Clusiaceae] Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. [Rubiaceae] Geum urbanum L. [Rosaceae] Glochidon sp. [Euphorbiaceae] Glandularia platensis (Spreng.) Schnack & Covas [Verbenaceae] Gloriosa superba Linn. [Liliaceae] Glossocardia bosvallia DC. [Asteraceae] Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. [Fabaceae] Gossypium barbadense Linn. [Malvaceae] Gossypium herbaceum Linn. [Malvaceae] Gossypium indicum Lam. [Malvaceae] Grewia colunnaris Sm. [Tiliaceae] Hagenia abyssinica. Syn. Brayera anthalmintica [Rosaceae] Haematoxylon campechianum L. [Fabaceae] Hamelia erecta Jacq. [Rubiaceae] Hamelia patens Jacq. [Rubiaceae] Hedeoma pulegoides Linn. [Labiateae] Hedera helix Linn. [Araliaceae] Heeng Pucunã Peeple Avavaia, Gabajekni Narakpui Arana [274] [275] [276] [277] [278] [279] [280] [281] [282] [283] [284] [285] [286] [287] [288] [289] [290] [291] [292] [293] [294] [295] [296] [297] [298] Taatoua – Lukandwa Saunf – – Pegarropa Tamel – – Namlahow Verbena blanca Kaliari Seri Mulethi Cotton Kapas Kapas Gangchi Cusso – Cacahuaxochitl – Mock Pennyroyal Banda RT PL RT SD PL LF, RH LF RE LF RT LF LF TU PL RT RT RT SD RT – PL LF LF PX FR A A A E C E A E A E C C A E E A, C, E C A, E S A A A A A C Cameroon Islanders of Indian ocean Uganda India Colombia Italy Mexico India China Italy Vanautu Argentina India India India Mexico, Central America India, South America India India India West Indies Mexico West Indies Greek Mediterranean Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Jain and Srivastava (2005) Tabuti et al. (2003) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Brondegaard (1973) Lokar and Poldini (1988) Cetto (2009) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Hu et al. (1985), Xu et al. (1987a,b) Lokar and Poldini (1988) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Goleniowski et al. (2006) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Duke (1988) Brondegaard (1973), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Nadkarni (1976) Jain et al. (2004) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Halberstein (2005) Smith-oka (2008) Halberstein (2005) Duke (1988) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [299] [300] [301] [302] Plant name with family Helleborus foetidus Linn. [Ranunculaceae] Hibiscus abelmoschus Linn. [Malvaceae] Hibiscus manihot Linn. [Malvaceae] Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. [Malvaceae] Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. [Malvaceae] Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch [Ulmaceae] Homalanthus novoguineensis (Warb.) K. Schum. [Euphorbiaceae] Huperzia saururus (Lam.) Trevis. [Lycopodiaceae] Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn. [Apiaceae] Hymenaea stigonocarpa Mart. ex Hayne [Fabaceae] Hypericum chinensis Linn. [Clusiaceae] Hypochoeris brasiliensis (Less.) Benth. Hyptis cana Pohl ex Benth. [Labiateae] Hyptis suaveolens Poit. [Labiatae] Indigofera linnaei Ali [Fabaceae] Jacaranda copaia (Aublet.) D. Don. [Bignoniaceae] Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andrews [Oleaceae] Jodinia rhombifolia (Hook. & Arn.) Reissek [Santalaceae] Juglans regia Linn. [Juglandaceae] Juniperus communis Linn. [Cupressaceae] Juniperus oxycedrus Linn. [Cupressaceae] Juniperus sabina Linn. [Coniferae] Justicia simplex D. Don Justicia japonica Thunb. [Acanthaceae] Kopsia sp. [Apocynaceae] Lagenaria siceraria Standl. Syn. L. vulgaris [Cucurbitaceae] Laurus nobilis Linn. [Lauraceae] Common name Ararechie – – Gudhal Hibiscus [303] [304] [305] – Nemali chettu Ngohou Part used* RT FL BR PT SB FL RB LF Traditional use† E C E A A C A C Country Italy Viti Islands India India Cameroon Melanesia, Gunantuna India Papua New Guinea Argentina India Brazil Mauritius Paraguay Brazil India, Nepal India Brazil India Argentina References Scherrer et al. (2005) Brondegaard (1973) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Satyavati et al. (1987), Tarafder (1983) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Brondegaard (1973) Kirtikar and Basu (1946) WHO (1999) 11 [306] [307] [308] [309] [310] [311] [312] [313] [314] [315] [316] Cola de quirquincho Brahmi Pojkôré Millepertuis Chicoria Hortelã-davárzea Bilati Tulsi Tejomala Murupá Kundphu PejeQuebracho Flojo – Aaraar Cade Juniper Savine – Somu Kashiphal Hab-el Ghar – Hina Pick Nut – PL PL BR LF LF, RT LF LF RT TU – LF C E C E C A E C C E A Trillo et al. (2010) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Rodrigues (2007) Sussman (1980) Hirschmann and Bordas (1990) Rodrigues (2007) Satyavati et al. (1987), Manandhar (2002) Jain (2004) Rodrigues (2007) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Trillo et al. (2010) [317] [318] [319] [320] [321] [322] [323] [324] LF PX, ST, FR Berry LF RT LF FR, SD LF Raw berry LF LF SD C C, E A A C C E E A A A A, E Slovakia India North America Massachusettes India Vanautu India India Lebananes Mountaineers India Jamaica India Brondegaard (1973) Kirtikar and Basu (2003), Nadkarni (1976) Duke (2008) Williams (1819) Badami et al. (2003), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Nadkarni (1976) Duke (2003) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Satyavati et al. (1987) Asprey and Thornton (1955) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Nadkarni (1976), Satyavati et al. (1987) Brondegaard (1973) Jochle (1974) Williams (1819) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Brondegaard (1973) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975), Xu et al. (1987a,b) Satyavati et al. (1987) Brondegaard (1973) [325] [326] [327] Lawsonia inermis Linn. Syn. L. alba [Lythraceae] Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. [Labiatae] Lepidium sativum Linn. [Brassicaceae] Licuala sp. [Arecaceae] Ligusticum porter Coult. and Rose [Apiaceae] Ligusticum scoticum L. [Apiaceae] Lithospermum arvense Linn. [Boraginaceae] Lithospermum officinale Linn. [Boraginaceae] Lithospermum ruderale [Boraginaceae] Lobelia nicotianifolia Heyne [Campanulaceae] Lonicera ciliosa [Caprifoliaceae] [328] [329] [330] [331] [332] [333] [334] [335] Solomon Osha Smellage – Lubis firmun – Nala – RB RT SD PL RT RT PL LF C E E – C C C C Islands (Buka) America, Europe Massachusetts Europe United States United States Indian United States 12 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [336] [337] [338] [339] [340] [341] [342] [343] [344] [345] [346] [347] [348] [349] [350] [351] [352] [353] [354] Plant name with family Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. [Cucurbitaceae] Luffa echinata Roxb. [Cucurbitaceae] Lycopodium annotinum Linn. [Lycopodiaceae] Lycopodium clavatum Linn. [Lycopodiaceae] Lycopodium complanatum Linn. [Lycopodiaceae] Lygodium dichotomum Sw. [Schizaeaceae] Mallotus philippinensis Muell. Arg. [Euphorbiaceae] Mallotus sp. [Euphorbiaceae] Malva parviflora L. [Malvaceae] Mardenia molissima E. Fourn. [Apocynaceae] Mareya micrantha (Benth.) Müll.Arg. [Euphorbiaceae] Mariscus cylindristachyus Steud. [Cyperaceae] Marsdenia tenacissima (Wright & Arn.) [Asclepiadaceae] Maytenus ilicifolia Mart. [Celastraceae] Melastoma malabathricum Linn. [Melastomataceae] Melia azadirachta Linn. [Malvaceae] Melochia hermannioides Saint. Hill. [Sterculaceae] Memecylon amplexicaule Roxb. [Melastomataceae] Mentha arvensis Linn. [Labiatae] Mentha longifolia Linn. [Labiateae] Mentha pulegium Linn. [Labiateae] Mesua ferrea Linn. [Clusiaceae] Meyna spinosa Roxb.ex. Link [Rubiaceae] Michelia champaca Linn. [Magnoliaceae] Microglossa pyrifolia Lam. Kuntze [Asteraceae] Micromeria brownei (Sw.) Benth. [Labiatae] Mimosa pudica Linn. [Fabaceae] Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. [Rubiaceae] Mollugo cerviana Ser. [Ficoidaceae] Mollugo pentaphylla Linn. [Ficoidaceae] Momordica charantia Linn. [Cucurbitaceae] D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Common name Karvitori Ghagarabela – Bendarli Ground pine – Kamila – Nasochal Maria da costa – – – Yvyra rapo ju – Bakain – Perungacha Pudina Pudin Part used* RB – PL PL – RT FR RT PL RT BR, LF PE RT LF, RT PL FL, LF, RE RT – LF PL LF LF LF FR, SD LF LF, RT LF RT BR FL PL RT SD LF LF, FR RT SB SB Traditional use† A A C E E C C C A A A A E C A C C A E C C A C A S A A C C E E E A A A,E A A A, E Country India India Soviet Union India Massachusettes Buka Islands India Oceania (Buka) India Brazil Nigeria Cameroon India Paraguay Islanders of Indian Ocean India Paraguay India India Pakistan Pakistan America India India India Nigeria Jamaica India India India References Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Nadkarni (1976) Brondegaard (1973) Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Williams (1819) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Malhi and Trivedi (1972), Satyavati et al. (1987) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Uniyal et al. (2006) Agra et al. (2007) Bablola (2009) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Arenas and Azorero (1977) Jain and Srivastava (2005) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Arenas and Azorero (1977) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Shah et al. (2009) Shah et al. (2009) Bullough (2001) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Leni (2009) Asprey and Thornton (1955) Tiwari et al. (1982) Jain (1991) Satyavati et al. (1987) [355] [356] [357] [358] [359] [360] [361] [362] [363] [364] [365] [366] Wild Pudina Pennyroyal Nagkesar Meyna Champa Asibogo Pennyroyal (Pennyrial) Lajwanti Kadam – Jalpapra Karela Ndombo, Karaila – Ach Kadavanchi Ranshevga Sehjan India Cameroon, Pakistan Cameroon India India India India Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) [367] [368] [369] [370] [371] [372] [373] Momordica foetida Schum. [Cucurbitaceae] Morinda citrifolia Linn. [Rubiaceae] Momordica tuberosa Cogn. Syn. M. cymbalaria [Cucurbitaceae] Moringa concanesis Nimmo ex Dalz. And Gibs. [Moringaceae] Moringa oleifera Lam.Syn. M.pterygosperma Gaertn. [Moringaceae] Mouriri pusa Gardner [Melastomataceae] Murraya panniculata (Linn.) Jack. [Rutaceae] Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Satyavati et al. (1987) Patil and Patil (2005) Nadkarni (1976), Satyavati et al. (1987), Tarafder (1983) Rodrigues (2007) Train et al. (1941) Krohtot Kamini BR, LF RT C A Brazil China D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [374] Plant name with family Musa sapientum L.Syn. M. paradisiacal auct. [Musaceae] Myristica fragrans Houtt [Myristicaceae] Nepeta cataria Linn. [Labiateae] Nardostachys gradiflora DC. [Valerianaceae] Narcissus tazetta Linn. [Amaryllidaceae] Nardostachys jatamansi DC. [Valerianaceae] Nasturtium officinalis R.Br. [Brassicaceae] Nerium indicum Mill. [Apocynaceae] Common name Banana Muzi [375] [376] [377] [378] [379] [380] [381] Jaiphal Badbudar Masi Daffodil Jatamanasi Tara Mira Kaner Part used* ST, FL RT SD PL ST – RT PL PL RT LF PL RT LF PL SD LF LF LF LF FR LF – FL PL LF – RT, IF – SB FR ST PL SB RT PL SD – LF SD RT Traditional use† A A A C C A E A E A A A A A A A, E A C A E A A A E A A C A A C A A A, E A A A, C C, S A A, C E S Country India Ethopia India Pakistan India – India Pakistan India Pakistan Italy India Pakistan Cameroon Argentina India Vanautu Gunantuna Italy India Vanautu Germany India Italy Brazil Cameroon Soviet Union India India Vanautu Pakistan India India Vanautu Tanzania Amazon, Cuba, Haiti Peru Jamaica Argentina, Spain India Paraguay References Maheshwari et al. (1986), Sharma (1981) Abbink (2002) Hallstrom and Thuvander (1997) Shah et al. (2009) Gangwar et al. (2010) Duke (2008) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Shah et al. (2009) Tarafder (1983) Shah et al. (2009) Lokar and Poldini (1988) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Chaudhary and Khan (2008) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Trillo et al. (2010) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Brondegaard (1973) Savo et al. (2011) Kong et al. (1985) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Sharma et al. (2004) Lokar and Poldini (1988) Rodrigues (2007) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Brondegaard (1973) Jain (1991) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Shah et al. (2009) Jain and Srivastava (2005) Mohammed et al. (2004) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Chhabra et al. (1990) Duke (2009) Rainer and Ashley (2010) Mitchell and Ahmad (2006) Toledo et al. (2007), González et al. (2010) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Arenas and Azorero (1977) 13 – [382] Nerium odorum Soland. Syn. N. oleander [Apocynaceae] Nicotiana tabaccum Linn. [Solanaceae] Nierembergia linariefolia Graham [Solanaceae] Nigella sativa Linn.Syn. N. indica [Ranunculaceae] Nothocnide repanda (Bl.) Bl. [Urticaceae] Ocimum basilicum Linn. [Labiatae] Olea europea Linn. [Oleaceae] Ocimum sanctum Linn. [Labiatae] Omalanthus nutans (Forst. f.) Guillemin [Euphorbiaceae] Origanum majorana Linn. [Labiatae] Origanum vulgare Linn. [Labiatae] Oxalis physocalyx Zucc. ex Progel [Oxalidaceae] Oxytenanthera abyssinica Munero [Poaceae] Paeonia officinalis Linn. [Ranunculaceae] Pandanus odoratissimus L.f. [Pandanaceae] Pandanus tectorius Soland. Ex Parkinson [Pandanaceae] Papaver somniferum Linn. [Papaveraceae] Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poit. [Euphorbiaceae] Peganum harmala Linn. [Zygophyllaceae] Pemphis acidula J.R. et G. Forst. [Lythraceae] Pericopsis angolensis (Bak.) van Meeuwen [Fabaceae] Persea americana Mill. [Lauraceae] Petrea volubilis [Verbenaceae] Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) [Apiaceae] Peucedanum graveolens Benth. [Apiaceae] Phaseolus bracteatus Nees et Mart. [Fabaceae] Lal-kaner Gandhera [383] [384] [385] [386] [387] [388] [389] [390] [391] [392] Taako Chuscho Kalaunji Rawe mandisi Babuitulsi Aulivo Tulsi Sala Murwa Sathra, Baslughas – Azedinha Indian bambou – Kevera Keora Pandanus [398] [399] [400] [401] [402] [403] Post – Gandhya/Harmal Nasasake Mvanga Avocado Palta [404] [405] [406] [407] Purple wreath Perejil Soya Aikanego [393] [394] [395] [396] [397] 14 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [408] [409] [410] Plant name with family Philodendron dyscarpium R.E. Schult. [Araceae] Phlox stansburyi (Torr.) A. Heller [Polemoniaceae] Phoradendron macrophyllum (Engelm.) Kokerell [Loranthaceae] Phyllantus ciccoides M.A. [Euphorbiaceae] Physalis angulata Linn. [Solanaceae] Physalis alkekengi Linn. [Solanaceae] Physalis minima Linn. [Solanaceae] Physalis angulata Linn. [Solanaceae] Picrorhiza kurrooa Benth. [Scrophulariaceae] Piliostigma thonningii (Schum.) Milne-Redh. [Fabaceae] Pipturus argenteus (Forst. F.) Wedd. [Urticaceae] Piper longum Linn. [Piperaceae] Pisum sativum Linn. [Fabaceae] Plantago lanceolata Linn. [Plantaginaceae] Plectranthus scutellarioides (L.) R.Br. [Labiatae] Pleioceras barteri Baill. [Apocynaceae] Plumbago indica Linn. Syn. P. rosea [Plumbaginaceae] Plumbago ovata Forsk. [Plantaginaceae] Plumbago zeylanica Linn. [Plumbaginaceae] Plumeria acuminata Ait. Syn. P. acutifolia Poir. [Apocynaceae] Pneumatopteris glandulifera (Brackeneridge) Holtt. [Thelypteridaceae] Polygala monyicola var. brizoides Steyerm [Polygalaceae] Polygala longicaulis H.B.K. [Polygalaceae] Pongamia pinnata L. Pierre [Fabaceae] Populus alba Linn. [Salicaceae] Pouzolzia hypoleuca Wedd. [Urticaceae] Prangos ferulacea Lindl. [Apiaceae] Prangos pabularia Lindl. [Apiaceae] Prosopis algarobilla Griseb. [Fabaceae] Prosopis cinearia (Linn.) Druce [Fabaceae] Prosopis ruscifolia Gris. [Fabaceae] Prunus emarginata [Rosaceae] Prunus mahaleb Linn. [Rosaceae] Psittacanthus robustus Mart. [Lorantaceae] Pterocarpus angolensis DC. [Fabaceae] Pterocarpus erinaceous Poir. [Fabaceae] Pterocarpus indicus Willd. [Fabaceae] D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Common name – – Big leaf Mistletoe Fonfati Goose berry Ground Cherry Tulatipati Goose berry Kutki – Dame Pippal Mattar Baltanga Bwinga tebungu Pariomo da Lal-chitrak Ispaghol Chitrak Gobarchampa Wutubo Part used* LF LF – Traditional use† C C C Country Columbia United States California References Brondegaard (1973), Chaudhary (1966) Brondegaard (1973) Adams and Garcia (2006) [411] [412] [413] [414] [415] [416] [417] [418] [419] [420] [421] [422] [423] [424] [425] [426] [427] [428] SB SD FR PX SD RH RT SB FR SD PL LF LF, RT RT SD, Husk RT RT LF C A A C A A, E C C A, E C Vanautu Cameroon Iran India Cameroon India East Africa Vanautu India India Europe Bourdy and Walter (1992) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Montaserti et al. (2007) Satyavati et al. (1987) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Brondegaard (1973) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Nadkarni (1976), Satyavati et al. (1987) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Satyavati et al. (1987) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Aladesanmi et al. (2007) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Satyavati et al. (1987), Tarafder (1983) Shah et al. (2009) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Tarafder (1983) Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Bourdy and Walter (1992) A A, E A A A A C Vanautu Nigeria India Pakistan India India Vanautu [429] – PL C China Elisabetsky and Posey (1989) [430] [431] [432] [433] [434] [435] [436] [437] – Kamtsi – Soap brush Jashir Komal – Sangri, Khejda Khejri FL, SD SB SB RT LF RT RT BR, FL RT, FR LF WD SD LF SB LF, ST SB C A C C A E C S, A S, A A C E A A A C China Vanautu Mediterranean Zimbabwe Iran India South America India India Paraguay United States India Brazil Tanzania Nigeria Vanautu Elisabetsky and Posey (1989) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Sewani-Rusike (2010) Kazerooni et al. (2006) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Brondegaard (1973) Jain et al. (2004) Meena and Rao, 2010 Arenas and Azorero (1977) Brondegaard (1973) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Rodrigues (2007) Chhabra et al. (1990) Idu and Onyibe (2007) Bourdy and Walter (1992) [438] [439] [440] [441] [442] [443] [444] Olkjá – Priyunger Hôtucti Mhagata – Yatrong rong D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [445] Plant name with family Pterocarpus officinalis Jacq. [Fabaceae] Punica granatum Linn. [Punicaceae] Pyrethrum indicum DC. [Asteraceae] Pyrethrum umbelliferum Boiss. [Asteraceae] Pyrrosia confluens (R.Br.) Ching [Polypodiaceae] Randia dumetorum Lamk. [Rubiaceae] Randia spinosa (Poir.) [Rubiaceae] Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. [Ranunculaceae] Rhamnus catharticus Linn. [Rhamnaceae] Raphanus sativus Linn. [Brassicaceae] Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. [Apocynaceae] Rauwolfia vomitoria afz. [Apocynaceae] Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. [Labiatae] Rhoeo spathacea (SW.) Stearn. [Commelinaceae] Rhus trilobata Nutt. [Anacardiaceae] Rhynchospora cephalotes (L.) Vahl [Cyperaceae] Rhynchosia minima DC. [Fabaceae] Rhytidophyllum auriculatum Hook [Gesneriaceae] Ricinus communis Linn. [Euphorbiaceae] Rivea hypocrateriformis Choisy. [Convolvulaceae] Rourea induta Planch. [Connaraceae] Rubia cordifolia Linn. [Rubiaceae] Rubus moluccanus Linn. [Rosaceae] Rudbeckia laciniata L. Syn. R.hirta L. [Asteraceae] Ruellia tuberosa L. [Acanthaceae] Ruta angustifolia Linn. [Rutaceae] Ruta chalepensis Linn. [Rutaceae] Ruta graveolens Linn. [Rutaceae] Ruta montana Linn. [Rutaceae] Saccharum bengalense Retz. [Poaceae] Saccharum officinarum L. [Poaceae] Salsola sp. [Chenopodiaceae] Salvia plebeia R. Br. [Labiatae] Samida rosea Sims. [Flacourtiaceae] Santalum album Linn. [Santalaceae] Sapindus trifoliatus Auct. [Sapindaceae] Scaevola sericea Vahl. [Goodeniaceae] Schinus areira L. [Anacardiaceae] Scilla indica (Baker) [Liliaceae] Common name Sandragon des Antilles Bois palé Anar Guldaudi Mithaakarkara Natali nin nanui Mainphal – Jaldhania Buchthorn Muli Chotachand Itogogo – Feuille St. Joseph Boule de mars – Caparé Nelaalumu Feuille hareng Arand – Hohocré Majitha Katsol Dormilón – Sadab Ruda Salab – Munj Nkog – Sej Rose marron Chandan Ritha Negeelao Aguaribay Jangli Pyaz Part used* BR, WD Traditional use† A, E Country Haiti, West Indies India India India Vanautu India India India Massachusettes India India Cameroon Central America Haiti, West Indies United States Brazil India Haiti, West Indies Pakistan India Brazil India India Mexico America India Mexico India, United States Spain India Cameroon Algiers India Haiti India India Vanautu Argentina India Bourdy and Walter (1992) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Tarafder (1983) Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Williams (1819) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Weniger (1982), Halberstein (2005) Brondegaard (1973) Rodrigues (2007) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Weniger (1982), Halberstein (2005) Shah et al. (2009) Shivalingappa et al. (2001) Rodrigues (2007) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Moore (1979) Bonnelly de Calventi et al. (1985) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Cetto (2009) Duke (1988), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) González et al. (2010) Jain et al. (2004) Noumi and Tchakonang (2001) Brondegaard (1973) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Weniger (1982) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Trillo et al. (2010) Rao and Rangaswami (1967) References Weniger (1982), Halberstein (2005) 15 [446] [447] [448] [449] [450] [451] [452] [453] [454] [455] [456] [457] [458] [459] [460] [461] [462] [463] [464] [465] [466] [467] [468] [469] [470] [471] [472] [473] [474] [475] [476] [477] [478] [479] [480] [481] [482] [483] PC RT RT ST SD FR PL – SD RT RT PL LF LF RT LF LF SD PX LF, RT RT LF PL – LF PL LF PX LF ST LF SD LF PL SD LF LF BU A, C, E A A C A A E E E A A C A, E C C A A, E C C A A, E A, E E A A A A, E A A A C A A, E A A C A E De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954), Nadkarni (1976), Bianchini and Corbetta (1979) Nadkarni (1976) 16 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [484] [485] [486] [487] [488] [489] [490] [491] [492] [493] [494] [495] [496] [497] [498] [499] [500] Plant name with family Sclerolobium aureum (Tul.) Baill. [Fabaceae] Semecarpus anacardium Linn. [Anacardiaceae] Siegesbeckia orientalis L. [Asteraceae] Sida acuta Burm.f. [Malvaceae] Senecio aureus Linn. [Asteraceae] Sesamum indicum DC. [Pedaliaceae] Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers. [Fabaceae] Sterculia banksiana Guillaumin [Sterculaceae] Stephavia japonica (Thumb.) Miers. [Menispermaceae] Semecarpus stellata Linn. [Anacardiaceae] Sium latifolium Linn. [Apiaceae] Smithia conferta J.E. Sm. [Fabaceae] Smilax fluminensis Steudel [Liliaceae] Smilacina stellata [Liliaceae] Simaba suffruticosa Engl. [Simaroubaceae] Solanum agrarium Sendtn. [Solanaceae] Solanum incanum L. Syn. Solanum sanctum L. [Solanaceae] Solenostemon scutellarioides L. [Labiatae] Sporobolus indicus (L.) Brong. [Poaceae] Solanum virginianum Linn. [Solanaceae] Soymida febrifuga A. Juss [Meliaceae] Sphaeralcea munroana (Douglas) Spanch. [Malvaceae] Stemodia durantifolia (L.) S. [Scrophulariaceae] Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Vahl Enum. Syn. Verbena jamaicensis [Verbenaceae] Stephavia japonica (Thumb.) Miers. [Menispermaceae] Stemodia ericifolia K. Schum. [Scrophulariaceae] Stevia rebaudiana [Asteraceae] Stenomesson incarnatum (Kunth) Baker [Amaryllidaceae] Stenomesson variegatum [Amaryllidaceae] Stipa tenacissima Linn. [Poaceae] Strychnos pseudoquina A. [Loganiaceae] Stylosanthes scabra Vog. [Fabaceae] Styrax benzoin Dryand. [Styracaceae] Syagrus petraea (Mart.) Becc. [Arecaceae] Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall. [Apocynaceae] Tagetes erectus [Asteraceae] Tanacetum parthenium L. Sch. [Asteraceae] Tanacetum vulgare Linn. [Asteraceae] Taxus baccata Linn. [Taxaceae] D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Common name Tatarema Bhilawa Herbe á Flacq Sobo Groundsel Til Jayant Maploa panoi Annad-nemuka – Water parsnip Bhaji Juapecã – Tuhôhoré Gogóia Bitter apple Part used* BR RT LF LF PX SD LF, SD LF RT RT – LF RH RT, LF RT RT FR Traditional use† C A, E E A A, C A, E E A A C E A A C A A C Country Brazil India Mauritius Cameroon United States India India Vanautu India India Massachusettes India Paraguay United States Brazil Brazil India, Nigeria References Rodrigues (2007) Chopra et al. (1958), Farnsworth et al. (1975), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Sussman (1980) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Duke (2008) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Tarafder (1983) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Malhi and Trivedi (1972), Nadkarni (1976) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Brondegaard (1973) Williams (1819) Mali et al. (2006) Basualdo et al. (1995) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975) Rodrigues (2007) Agra et al. (2007) Duke (2008) [501] [502] [503] [504] [505] [506] [507] – Esporobolo Rigni Rohan – Trois hommes forts Kata punuttu PL LF RT SB RT PL – E C A A C A, E A Vanautu Argentina India India United States Haiti, West Indies India Heyne (1950) Goleniowski et al. (2006) Katewa et al. (2008) Kachare (2011) Brondegaard (1973) Weniger (1982), Halberstein (2005) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Arenas and Azorero (1977) Brondegaard (1973) Hirschhorn (1981) [508] [509] [510] [511] Annad-nemuka Muiãhã – Maihua RT PL LF, ST BU A C C A India Paraguay Paraguay Peru [512] [513] [514] [515] [516] [517] [518] [519] [520] [521] [522] – – Quina Poha poí or Sai poí. – Acaí-bravo ¸ Kundalam paalai – Santamaría – Kash – SD LF, SB PX BR, IF FR LA FL PX FL, LF FR C A A S A C A E A A, C E South America Spain Brazil Paraguay Islanders of Indian Ocean Brazil India Nigeria Mexico United States India Brondegaard (1973) Benítez et al. (2010) Rodrigues (2007) Arenas and Azorero (1977) Jain and Srivastava (2005) Rodrigues (2007) Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2005) Idu and Onyibe (2007) Cetto (2009) Duke (2008) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [523] [524] [525] [526] [527] [528] Plant name with family Taxus wallichiana Zucc. [Taxaceae] Tecomella undulata (Roxb.) Seem. [Bignoniaceae] Tephrosia purpurea Linn. Pers. [Fabaceae] Tephrosia densiflora Hook.f. [Fabaceae] Thelypteris cf. scalaris (Christ.) Alton [Thelypteridaceae] Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. Syn. Thevetia neriifolia [Apocynaceae] Thysanolaena (Roxb.) O. Kuntze [Poaceae] Tillandsia decomposita Baker [Bromeliaceae] Tournefortia bicolor S. [Boraginaceae] Trachylobium hornemannianum Heyne. [Fabaceae] Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) Sprague Syn. Carum roxburghianum [Apiaceae] Trianthema pentandra Linn. [Aizoaceae] Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. [Aizoaceae] Trichosanthes bracteata (Lam.) Voigt Syn. Trichosanthes palmata [Cucurbitaceae] Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn. [Cucurbitaceae] Trifolium subterraneum Linn. [Fabaceae] Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. [Cucurbitaceae] Trigonella foenumgraeceum Linn. [Fabaceae] Triumfetta bartramia Linn. [Tiliaceae] Turnera ulmifolia Linn. [Turneraceae] Tussilago farfara Linn. [Asteraceae] Uraria lagopoides DC. [Fabaceae] Uraria lagopodioides Desv. [Fabaceae] Urena lobata Linn. [Malvaceae] Urginea indica Kunth. [Liliaceae] Uritica dioica Linn. [Urticaceae] Urospatha antisylleptica [Araceae] Valeriana montana Linn. [Valerianaceae] Ventilago neo-caledonica schlecht. [Rhamnaceae] Veratrum californicum [Liliaceae] Vernonia amygdalina Delile [Asteraceae] Verbena officinalis Linn. [Verbenaceae] Vetiveria zizanioides L. Nash Ex Small [Poaceae] Viburnum foetidum Wall. [Caprifoliaceae] Viburnum prunifolium Linn. [Caprifoliaceae] Vicoa indica (L.) DC.Syn. V. auriculata Cass, Pentanema indicum (L.) Ling [Asteraceae] Common name Barmi Rohira Unhali – Helecho Macho Kalke Part used* LF BR LF RT PL SD Traditional use† A A A A C A Country Pakistan Pakistan India Nigeria Peru India References Shah et al. (2009) Chaudhary and Khan (2008) Mali et al. (2006) Aladesanmi et al. (2007) Rainer and Ashley (2010) Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) 17 [529] [530] [531] [532] [533] Kutcho – Feuille chique-chique Sandarus Ajmud FL FS LF RE – C C A, E E E India South America Haiti, West Indies India India Maity et al. (2004) Brondegaard (1973) Weniger (1982), Halberstein (2005) Nadkarni (1976) De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) [534] [535] [536] Itsit Lalsabuni Kaki-kado PL RT SD A A A India India India Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Jain et al. (2004) [537] [538] [539] [540] [541] [542] [543] [544] [545] [546] [547] [548] [549] [550] [551] [552] [553] [554] [555] [556] [557] [558] Jangli chichonda – Kaundal Methi Chikti Sage Rose Fanjuim Pithavana Chintamoni Bachata Jangli-pyaz Bichu – Planinski odoljen Labalaba – Nodo’s bitter leaf Pamukh Khus Narvel – Banjhauri – – SD SD RT LF LF, RT PL PL LF BU – SP RT LF RT LF PL RT LF – RT E A C E E A A A A C E E C S C C A A A E C S India India India India India Jamaica India India India India, New Ireland India India Columbia Montenegro Vanautu United States Cameroon India Mauritius India Italy India De Laszlo and Henshaw (1954) Kamble et al. (2010) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Asprey and Thornton (1953, 1955) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Mitra and Mukharjee (2009) Brondegaard (1973), Farnsworth et al. (1975), Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976), Tarafder (1983) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Brondegaard (1973), Chaudhary (1966) Mankovié et al. (2011) Bourdy and Walter (1992) Brondegaard (1973) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Duke (2008) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Brondegaard, 1973, Farnsworth et al. (1975) Batta and Santhakumari (1970) 18 Table 1 (Continued) S. no. [559] [560] Plant name with family Vigna phaseoloides Baker [Fabaceae] Vinca rosea Linn.Syn. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don., Lochnera rosea (L.) Reichb. [Apocynaceae] Viscum articulatum Burm.f. [Viscaceae] Vitex agnus-castus Linn. Sp. Pl. [Verbenaceae] Vitex lagundi [Verbenaceae] Vitex negundo Linn. [Verbenaceae] Vitex trifolia Linn. [Verbenaceae] Waltheria americana Linn. [Sterculaceae] Wedelia gracilis [Asteraceae] Wedelia trilobata (L.) Hitchc. [Asteraceae] Withania coagulans (Stocks.) Dunal. [Solanaceae] Withania somnifera Dunal [Solanaceae] Xanthium spinosum Linn. [Asteraceae] Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich [Annonaceae] Zaluzania triloba (Ort.) Pers. [Asteraceae] Zingiber officinale Rosc. [Zingiberaceae] Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) [Rhamnaceae] Ziziphora tenuior Linn. [Labiatae] Zizyphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. [Rhamnaceae] D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Common name – – Part used* RT – Traditional use† C A Country East Africa Philippines References Brondegaard (1973) Anonymous (1903), Zaguirre (1944) [561] [562] [563] [564] [565] [566] [567] [568] [569] [570] Chettubadanika – – Nirgundi Pani-kisambhalu Raichie Consumption weed Running marigold Paneer dodi Asvgandh Nlod ST PL RT RT, SD FR – PL – FR PL RT LF FR PX RT RB A A C A, E A A A A E A A C A A A A E C India Europe Kurtachi, North Bougainvile India, Solomon Islands (Buka) India Africa Jamaica Africa Pakistan India Cameroon Spain Africa Mexico Pakistan Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Farnsworth et al. (1975) Brondegaard (1973) Farnsworth et al. (1975), Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Malhi and Trivedi (1972) Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Dalziel (1937), Howard (1952) Mitchell and Ahmad (2006) Mitchell and Ahmad (2006) Chaudhary and Khan (2008) Chopra et al. (1958), Kirtikar and Basu (1946) Emmanuel and Claidette (2007) Duke (2008) Duke (2003) Cetto (2009) Shah et al. (2009) [571] [572] [573] [574] [575] [576] [577] Spiny cocklebur Ethiopian pepper Hierba amarga Adark Berry Mishkataramasha SD Ghatoor FR India India Kirtikar and Basu (1946), Nadkarni (1976) Jain et al. (2004) * Abbreviations used for plant part used: AP (all parts), BR (bark), BU (bulb), EX (exudates), FJ (fruit juice), FL (flower), FB (flower buds), FR (fruit), FS (flower stem), GU (gum), HU (husk), IF (inflorescence), LA (latex), LF (leaf), PC (pericarp), PE (peduncle), PL (whole plant), PT (petals), PX (plant without root), RB (root bark), RE (resin), RH (rhizome), RT (root), SB (stem bark), SD (seed), SP (sapadix), ST (stem), TH (thallus), TU (tuber), WD (wood), YS (young stem). † Abbreviation used for traditional/folkloric use: abortifacient (A), contraceptive (C), emmenagogue (E), sterilizer (S). use of plants in fertility regulation (see Table 1). Forty-five of the total articles were referred for citing the proved antifertility effects of plants/or isolated constituents in laboratory animals (Table 2). Multiple references were consulted for detailed information on research status of 18 plant species which has also been discussed below. 3.1. Abrus precatorius Linn. (Family: Fabaceae) (Okoko et al., 2010), antimicrobial (Adelowotan et al., 2008), antitumor (Ghosh and Maiti, 2007), immunopotentiating (Ramnath et al., 2002) and sperm antimotility. Zia-ul-Haque et al. (1983b) reported the post-coital (days 2–5) antifertility (100% sterility) effect of abridine, isolated constituent from AP, when administered p.o. at a dose of 1 mg/ml in female rats. In conclusion, Abrus precatorius possesses 100% antifertility activity in female rats. 3.2. Acalypha indica L. (Family: Euphorbiaceae) Abrus precatorius (AP) popularly known as Indian licorice is a wild plant native to India and now introduced to tropical regions of the world (Naik, 1998; Dwivedi, 2004). Leaves are 5–10 cm long and pinnate with 10–20 pairs of leaflets. On the contrary, flowers are pink clustered. Compounds isolated from AP include Abrin-a & b (Lin et al., 1979), abruquinone A (Wang et al., 1995), abrusoside E (Kennelly et al., 1996), 7,5-dihydroxy-6,4 -dimethoxy isoflavone 7-O- -d-galactopyranoside (Saxena and Sharma, 1999) and triterpenoid saponins (Anam, 2001). The leaves and roots are sweetish and traditionally used to cure fever, stomatitis, asthma and bronchititis (Kirtikar and Basu, 1987a,b). Various African tribes use AP powdered seeds as oral contraceptives (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). AP possesses different pharmacological activities including antifertility (Ross, 2005), anti-implantation Acalypha indica (AI) is an annual erect herb found throughout various parts of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Philippines and tropical Africa. The plant has wide uses in the traditional medicines of various countries and reportedly possesses diuretic, purgative and anthelmintic properties, besides being also used for bronchitis, asthma, pneumonia, rheumatism scabies and other cutaneous diseases (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999; Nadkarni, 1982). Chemical constituents reported in AI include acalyphamide acetate, aurantiamide and its acetate, succinimide calypho-lactate, 2-methyl anthraquinone, tri-o-methylellagic acid, -sitosterol and its -d-glucoside (leaves); a cyanogenetic glucoside, acalyphine, two alkaloids, viz., acalyphine and triacetonamine, an essential oil n-octacosanol, kaempferol, quebrachitol, -sitosterol acetate D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Table 2 Isolated chemical constituents from plants with antifertility potential. S. No. Name of plant A 1 2 3 4 Anti-implantation activity Abrus pricatorius Linn. Achyranthes bidentata Adiantum capillus Ananas comosus Merr. Part used Active principle Dose mg/kg, po Days postcoitum 1 mg/animal 218 – 40 30 30 100 50 20 – 2–5 1–10 – 6–7 1 6–7 1, 6 or 7 6 1–5 – Animal Activity% References 19 SD RT PL LF Abridine Saponins Isoadiantone 5 -stigmastane-3 ,5,6 -triol 3-mon Sitosterol Ergosterol peroxide Aristolochic acid p-Coumaric acid Rat Mice Rat Mice Mice Mice Mice Mice Rat Mice 100 – – 100 93 100 100 100 90 Consisent Zia-ul-Haque et al. (1983a,b) Zhu (1982), Zhu and Che (1987) Murthy et al. (1984) Pakrashi and Chakrabarty (1979) Pakrashi and Basak (1976) Pakrashi and Chakrabarty (1978) Pakrashi and Pakrashi (1978) Porwal et al. (1988) Dutta and Basu (1968) 5 Aristolochia indica Linn. RT 6 7 Butea monosperma (Lamb) Kuntz Centella asiatica SD LF Butin Isothankuniside and BK Compound [methyl-5hydroxy-3,6-diketo-23(or 24)-norurs-12-en-28-oat] Daturalactone (DQ1) Fraxinellone Embelin Anethole n-hexacosanol, sitosterol, stigmasterol, chalinasterol, campesterol Marsdekoside A and B Yuehchukene Piperine Plumbagin 8 9 10 11 12 Datura quercifolia Dictamnus albus Embelia ribes Burm.f. Foeniculum vulgare Heliotropium indicum – RB BR SD – 100 – 100 500 500 1–7 1–10 1–5 1–5 – – Rat Rat Rat Rat 73.3 – 100 60 40 Chandhoke (1978), Chandhoke and Gupta (1978a) Woo et al. (1987) Kholkute et al. (1978); Bhargava and Dixit (1985) Seshadari and Pillai (1981) Andhiwal et al. (1985) 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Marsdenia koi Murraya paniculata Piper longum Linn. Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Randia dumetorum Lamk. Ruta graveolens Linn. Striga lutea Vicoa indica (L.) DC PL RT RT PL – 3 150 20 100 36 5–25 50 200 100 – 1–2 1–7 1–5 1–5 1–8 1–4 8–14 8–14 4–6 Rat Rat Rat SD Oleanolic acid-3 -glucoside RT, SB, LF Chalepensin PL Acacetin, Luteolin PL Vicolide B Vicolide D Yuan et al. (1991) Kong et al. (1985a) Gupta et al. (1977), Kholkute et al. (1979) Rat 83 Chowdhury et al. (1982), Premakumari et al. (1977) Rat 100 Pillai et al. (1982) Rat 80 Kong et al. (1989) Rat, Mice Significant Hiremath et al. (1990); Hiremath and Rao (1990) Rat 100 Susan et al. (1985), Alam et al. (1992a,b) Rat 71 Alam et al. (1992a,b) Mice 100 Bhargava (1984) – Potent 60 21 Vitex negundo Linn. SD 5,7,3 -trihydroxy-6,8,4 trimethoxy flavones Methyl aristolate Yuanhuatine Yuanhuacine and Momorcharins Momorcochin Piperine Plumbagin B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Abortifacient activity Aristolochia indica Linn. Daphe Sp. Daphne genkwa Momordica charantia Linn. Momordica cochinchinensis Piper sp. Plumbago zeylanica Linn. RT FL RT SD RT – PL 60 50 g 70–80 g – – – 10 50 6, 7 – – – – 8–12 5–11 6–9 – – – 1–5 Rat Monkey Woman Mice Mice – Rat Rat – 100 Xu and Gao (1986) Significant Hu et al. (1984) Significant Ren-Sheng and Yi-Sheng (1986) Significant Yeung et al. (1986) – Yeung et al. (1988) Significant Kholkute et al. (1979), Piyachaturawat et al. (1982) 75 Bhargava and Dixit (1985), Premakumari et al. (1977) Significant – Mats et al. (1982) Mats et al. (1984), Mats and Savchenko (1986) Ghosh et al. (1955) Singh et al. (1985), Prakash et al. (1991) C 1 2 3 4 Contraceptive activity Aehonychon purpurea-caemleum Androsace septentrionalis Citrus aurantium Ferula jaesochkeana – – Peel PX Lithospermic acid Triterpene glycoside Cirantine Ferujol – 100 0.75 0.6 Mice, rat – Rabbit Rat – 100 and tannin (whole plant); stigmasterol (root) (Raj and Singh, 2000). Recently, four kaempferol glycosides, mauritianin, clitorin, nicotiflorin and biorobin have also been isolated from the flowers and leaves of this plant (Nahrstedt et al., 2006). AI is traditionally used for emmenagogue and contraceptive purposes (Nadkarni, 1982; Bourdy and Walter, 1992). The plant is reported to have a post-coital antifertility (Shivayogi et al., 1999), anti-venom (Shirwaikar et al., 2004), wound healing (Reddy et al., 2002), anti-inflammatory (Vamsi et al., 2008) and antibacterial activities (Govindarajan et al., 2008). The petroleum ether and ethanol extract of whole plant of AI at dose of 600 mg/kg body weight p.o. (5–6 days postcotium) showed significant anti-implantation activity. The loss of implantation caused by these extracts may be due to anti-zygotic, blastocytotoxic or anti-implantation activity 20 D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 (Hafez, 1970). The petroleum ether and the ethanol extracts also exhibited estrogenic activity as shown by the significant increase in uterine weight, diameter of the uterus, thickness of endometrium, height of the endometrial epithelium and vaginal epithelial cornification in immature rats. In conclusion, Acalypha indica L. possess significant post-coital anti-implantation activity in female albino rats which might be due to the presence of estrogenic nature of sterols and flavanoids in the extract. 3.3. Ailanthus excelsa (Family: Simaroubaceae) Ailanthus excelsa (AE) is a fast-growing and large tree, up to 25 m tall, commonly known as Indian Tree of Heaven. AE is traditionally used by tribal ladies in India as antifertility agent. Studies of its extracts have shown reduced labor pain, febrifuge (Jain and Verma, 1964); antispasmodic (Bhakuni et al., 1969); anticancer, antimicrobial, antiamoebic and antiprotozoal (Ogura et al., 1978b; Shimali et al., 2001); antiplasmodial (Dell’Agli et al., 2008); bronchodilatory (Kumar et al., 2010); gastroprotective and antiscretory (Melanchauski et al., 2010) and hypoglycemic (Cabrera et al., 2008) activities. Several workers have reported various constituents such as quassinoids, glaucarubinone, ailanthin, sitosterol and malanthin (Kapoor et al., 1971; Bhatia et al., 1985), 1-p-deoxy-13-formyl ailanthinol and ailanthin (Cordell et al., 1978; Bhatia et al., 1983), excelsin, 13,18-dehydroexcelsin, glaucarubin, glaucarbol, 13,18-dehydro 15-iso-valearte and trihydroxy tirucal 7ene (Ogura et al., 1978a; Jain, 1964; Khan and Shamsuddin, 1978; Khan et al., 1980; Sherman et al., 1980; Suroor et al., 1980) in AE. In order to check its antifertility study, the effect of hydroalcoholic extract of stem bark of AE was studied in rats where strong anti-implantation (72%) and abortifacient activities (56%) were observed at the tested dose levels (200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.). The extract showed, furthermore, significant (p < 0.05) increase in uterine weight in immature ovariectomised rats. Simultaneous administration of extract with ethinyl estradiol caused significant antiestrogenic activity (Ravichandran et al., 2007). Phytochemical studies indicated the presence of alkaloids and terpenoids in AE (Ghosal et al., 1981). The loss of implantation and litters caused by the bark extract might be due to their anti-zygotic and blastocytotoxic activities (Hafez, 1970). Dhanasekaran et al. (1993) also reported remarkably anti-implantation and early abortifacient activities in female albino rats at a dose of 250 mg equivalent of plant material/kg body weight. In conclusion, Ailanthus excelsa possess antifertility activity in female rats. 3.4. Ananas comosus Linn. (Family: Bromeliaceae) compound showed the maximum abortifacient effect at both stages of pregnancy, but the action was delayed (starting from days 13 to 16), especially when given after implantation. However, recently Yakubu et al. (2011) have investigated the effect of unripe fruit juice of AC for abortifacient activity in pregnant Wistar rats (7–14 days after gestation) and reported that number and weights of live fetuses, number of implantation sites, corpora lutea, computed percent implantation index, resorption index, pre- and postimplantation losses were not significantly (p > 0.05) altered. Neither fetal death nor provoked vaginal bleeding was observed in the pregnant rats whereas maternal weight increased in all the experimental animals with that of the control augmenting least. The 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight doses increased (p < 0.05) the serum concentrations of progesterone and estrogen in the pregnant rats. In conclusion, the fruit juice of Ananas comosus does not exhibit abortifacient activity in pregnant Wistar rats whereas petroleum ether extract of green fruit and rhizome possess antifertility activity. 3.5. Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. (Family: Aristolochiaceae) Aristolochia bracteolata (AB) is a climbing perennial plant with cordate leaves and dark-purple tubular flowers with unpleasant smell (Ghazanfar, 1992). AB is known as “worm killer” due to suppose anthelminthic activity and trypanocidal effects (Samia et al., 2006). It possess potent antiallergic (Chitme et al., 2010), antibacterial and antifungal activities (Kavitha and Nirmaladevi, 2007). AB is used in traditional medicine as a gastric stimulant and in the treatment of cancer, lung inflammation, dysentery and snake bites (Negi et al., 2003). The plants of this species are being used in India for their antifertility and abortifacient effects (Pakrashi and Pakrashi, 1977a,b). Aristolochic acid-A was isolated from the root of AB in Sudan (Mohamed et al., 1999). The ethyl acetate soluble fraction of the ethanolic extract of AB was tested for precoital and post-coital anti-implantation and abortifacient activities in female albino rats. The ethyl acetate soluble fraction of ethanolic extract of aerial parts of AB at doses of 20 and 40 mg/kg body weight by oral route (5–6 days postcoitum) exhibited 28.86% and 58.65% anti-implantation activity, respectively. These treatments also caused 18.61% (p < 0.01) and 37.22% (p < 0.001) abortifacient activities, respectively. The total antifertility activity in the precoital studies was found to be 47.47% and 95.87% for the two doses tested, respectively (Natraj et al., 2007). The main active constituents responsible for antifertility activity are identified as aristolic acid (Chakrabarty et al., 1987). In conclusion, Aristolochia bracteolata possess significant antifertility activity in female rats. 3.6. Azadirachta indica (Family: Meliaceae) Ananas comosus (AC) has long been one of the most popular of tropical and subtropical fruits. It is grown extensively in Hawaii, Philippines, Caribbean area, Malaysia, Taiwan, Thailand, Australia, Mexico, Kenya, South Africa and Hainan province of China. Besides agricultural utilities such as the fruits for nutritional food, some folk medicinal uses are also reported. AC is used for the treatment of dysuria (Sripanidkulchai et al., 2000, 2001), as antidyspepsial or antidiarrheal (Song, 1999) and antidiabetic agent (Xie et al., 2006). The juices of the unripe fruits and leaves of AC have long been claimed to possess abortifacient properties in Indian medicine (Manjunath, 1948). Further, antifertility effect of the petroleum ether extract of the rhizome (Bhaduri et al., 1968) and green fruits (Garó et al., 1970; Näf-Müller and Willhalm, 1971) have been reported. Pakrashi and Basak (1976) isolated various steroids (ergosterol peroxide, -sitosterol, 5 -stigmastane-3 ,5,6 -triol (III) 3-monobenzoate) from AC leaves, out of which, -sitosterol showed significant abortifacient effect after day 1 but no activity on days 6–7 in mice when administered orally before and after implantation at a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight. Ergosterol peroxide Azadirachta indica (AI) is perhaps the most useful traditional medicinal plant in India. Each part of the neem tree has some medicinal property and is thus commercially exploitable. Neem oil, bark and leaf extracts have been therapeutically utilized as folk medicine to control leprosy, intestinal helminthiasis, respiratory disorders, constipation and skin infections (Biswas et al., 2002). Since the early report on nimbin, the first bitter compound isolated from neem oil (Siddiqui, 1942), more than 135 compounds have been isolated from different parts of neem (Koul et al., 1990; Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1994; Mitra and Patel, 1963; Warthen, 1979; Taylor, 1984; Champagne et al., 1992; Kraus, 1995; Devakumar and SukhDev, 1996). Neem tree is reported as antiviral (Gogati and Marathe, 1989), antibacterial (Singh and Sastry, 1997), hypolipidaemic (Purohit and Daradka, 1999), anti-inflammatory, antipyretic (Okpanyi and Ezeukwu, 1981), antiseptic, antiparalitic (Allan et al., 1991) and antioxidant (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2002) agents. Along with leaves, bark, seeds, NIM-76, a volatile fraction from neem oil is reported to have post-coital antifertility activity D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 21 in rats, rabbits and monkeys (Riar et al., 1991). In another study, intrauterine application of neem oil caused a pre-implantation block in fertility (Upadhay et al., 1990). Earlier, isolated constituents like nimbidine and nimbin have shown spermicidal action (Sharma and Saksena, 1959). Neem oil is reported to have both post-coital antifertility activity and spermicidal action (Sinha et al., 1984a,b). It can be concluded from the above findings that Azadirachta indica has post-coital antifertility as well as spermicidal actions and thus has the potential of being developed into a nonsteroidal male as well as female contraceptive. 3.7. Bambusa vulgaris Linn. (Family: Poaceae) Bambusa vulgaris (BV) known as Bamboo (English), is found in tropical and subtropical areas, especially in the monsoon and wet tropics. Yakubu and Bukoye (2009) reported alkaloids (4.10%), tannins (0.93%), phenolics (2.27%), glycosides (0.63%), saponins (1.14%), flavonoids (0.05%) and anthraquinones (0.06%) in BV aqueous leaf extract. Bamboo leaves have been claimed to be used as astringent, ophthalmic solution and febrifuge. In Nigerian folklore medicine, bamboo is used as an emmenagogue, abortifacient, appetizer and for managing respiratory diseases as well as gonorrhea (Gill, 1992). The extract at 250 mg/kg body weight significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the number of live fetuses, whereas the 500 mg/kg body weight dose produced no live fetus. The extract at both the doses reduced the survival rate of the fetus to 29% and 0%, whereas the same doses produced abortion at the rate of 60% and 100%, respectively. The extract also decreased the concentrations of serum progesterone, follicle-stimulating and luteinizing hormones. While there was no effect on the weight of the uterus, uterine/body weight ratio, length of the right uterine horn and uterine cholesterol, however, the alkaline phosphatase activity and glucose concentration were decreased significantly (Yakubu and Bukoye, 2009). In conclusion, Bambusa vulgaris possesses abortifacient potential. 3.8. Butea monosperma Lam. (Fabaceae) Butea monosperma (BM), commonly called as flame of the forest or flame tree, grows throughout India and South Asian peninsula (Khan, 2010). BM is a medium sized deciduous tree, grows about 10–15 m in height. The plant parts used are bark, leaf, flower, seed and gum (Burli and Khade, 2007). BM is mainly useful as antihelmenthic, appetizer, aphrodisiac, laxative etc. (Prasad et al., 2006). From the flowers of BM, flavonoids like butin (Barwick, 2004), butein (Jayaweera, 1981), butrin (Somani et al., 2006), isobutrin, palasitrin, coreopsin, isocoreopsin, sulphuresin, monospermoside (Mengi and Deshpande, 1999), isomonospermoside (Somani et al., 2004) and 7,3 ,4 -trihydroxyflavone (Gunakkunru et al., 2005) have been isolated. The BM extracts exhibited other biological activities including aphrodisiac activity in male rats (Ramachandran et al., 2004), anthelmintic activity (Prashanth et al., 2001; Iqbal et al., 2006) and dermal wound healing in rats (Sumitra et al., 2005). BM flowers, leaves and seeds have been traditionally used for abortion in India (Chopra et al., 1958; Kirtikar and Basu, 1946). Butin extracted from seeds of BM showed anti-implantation activity when administrated orally to adult female rats at the doses of 5, 10 and 20 mg/rat from day 1 to 5 of pregnancy (Bhargava, 1986). Bhargava (1986) observed that there was a dose dependent termination of pregnancy and reduction in the number of implantation sites at lower doses and reported Butin, a weak estrogen, in that a significant uterotrophic effect was discerned even at 1/20th the anticonceptive dose. Pandey (2001) reported seed oil use as traditional sexual toner and contraceptive. In another study by El-Halawany et al. (2011), methanol extracts of BM revealed significant estrogenic activity on ER only. In conclusion, Butea monosperma possesses antifertility activity in female rats whereas aphrodisiac effect in male rats. 3.9 Citrus medica Linn. (Rutaceae) Citrus medica (CM), commonly known as Citron, is a native of India. It is a small tree having large fruit (20–22.5 cm long), large and oblong leaves and red-porpora colored flowers. The ripe fruits are big, with a thin, smooth, and lemon-yellow peel. The peel of Citrus fruits has been used in traditional Asian medicine for centuries (Wichtl and Bisset, 1994; Blumenthal et al., 1998). The peel contains citroflavonoids consisting of a mixture of hesperidoside (rhamnoglucoside of hesperetol), naringoside and ecryodietyoside (flavonones) alongwith essential oils, Vitamin-C, hesperidin (Vitamin P) and rutin (Kachroo and Agrawal, 2011). The essential oil of the whole fruit of Citrus medica var. sarcodactylis contains limonene, -terpinene, (Z)-citral and (E)-citral. The peel oils of CM contain limonene and -terpineol (Ali et al., 2005). Singh et al. (1999) reported that the major constituents in leaf oil contain citronellal, citronellol, limonene, citronellyl acetate, isopulegol, linalool etc. Fruit decoction of CM is mentioned as the traditional medicine for fertility regulation in India (Malhi et al., 1972). Citrus medica is reported to have anthelmintic (Bairagi et al., 2011), antidiabetic (Sah et al., 2011) and fungitoxic activities (Emmanuel et al., 2008). The petroleum ether extract of Citrus medica seeds exhibited estrogenic activity (Sharangouda and Patil, 2008). The alcoholic extract (2.5 mg/kg) and the chloroform extract (1.0 g/kg) in female Wistar rats (1–7 day post-coital) exhibited significant anti-implantation activity, respectively. The ethanol and chloroform extract of CM peel showed 71.96% and 77.19% anti-implantation activity as compared to the control respectively (Kachroo and Agrawal, 2011). In another study, petroleum ether, benzene and ethanol extracts of CM seeds were investigated for antifertility activity in female albino rats at the dose level of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight respectively. Of these three extracts, the petroleum ether extract showed significant anti-implantation and pregnancy interruption activities owing to estrogenic activity which were reversible upon withdrawal of the extract treatment (Sharangouda and Patil, 2007). In conclusion, Peel and seeds of Citrus medica possess significant antifertility activity. 3.10 Dalbergia saxatilis Linn. (Family: Fabaceae) Dalbergia saxatilis (DS) is a local African shrub noted for producing durable ornamental wood (Dalziel, 1937). Different parts of the plant are used as a remedy for diverse forms of ailment by the natives in southern Nigeria (Oliver, 1960) where aqueous root extract is used by the natives to accelerate birth and to expel the placenta in human subjects. Antifertility activity of a triterpenoid glycoside, DSS, isolated from the root of DS was investigated in female Wistar rats of breeding age. When administered by gastric intubation at a dose rate of 200 mg/kg body weight at the premating period, conception was inhibited in 71.4% of the treated animals. DSS administered at a dose of 200 mg/kg was unable to induce abortion in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy neither did it terminate near term pregnancy in the rat (Uchendu et al., 2000). This observed disparity in activity is not unusual because different compounds have different propensity to alter normal endogenous humoral and hormonal factors and regulation at these levels may disrupt the overall physiological and reproductive patterns of the animals (Farnsworth et al., 1975). This may explain why different results with a given chemical compound are possible in the same animal model. Recently, Vasudeva and Vats (2011) have reported antispermatogenic potential of DS stem bark. In conclusion, Dalbergia saxatilis possess both anticonceptive and antispermatogenic activities. 22 D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 3.11 Embelia ribes Burm. (Family: Myrsinaceae) Embelia ribes (ER) commonly known as Baobarang, a large woody climbing shrub, is widely distributed in the moist deciduous forests of the Western Ghats, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and South China (Guhabakshi et al., 2001). It is highly esteemed in Ayurveda as a powerful anthelmintic drug (Hordegen et al., 2006). Pippaliyadi vati, an ayurvedic contraceptive formulation containing ER as one of its ingredient, is practiced by females in India since ancient time (Pandey, 1961). The fruit cures tumors, ascites, bronchitis, jaundice and mental disorders (Kirtikar and Basu, 1987a,b). ER is also reported to have antispermatogenic (Gupta et al., 1989); anti-inflammatory (Kapoor et al., 1983); antidiabetic, antidyslipidemic, antioxidant (Bhandari et al., 2002, 2007) and cardioprotective (Bhandari et al., 2008) properties. Embelin, 2,5dihydroxy-3-undecyl-p-benzoquinone, is the bioactive molecule in the berries of ER, quercitol and fatty ingredients; an alkaloid, christembine, a resinoid, tannins and minute quantities of a volatile oil (Khan et al., 2010). Embelin has shown antifertility (Krishnaswamy and Purushothaman, 1980a); anti-implantation (Radhakrishnan and Alam, 1975); antitumor, anti-inflammatory, analgesic (Chitra et al., 1994); antioxidant (Joshi et al., 2007); hepatoprotective (Dharmendra et al., 2009); wound healing (Kumara Swamy et al., 2007); antibacterial (Chitra et al., 2003) and anticonvulsant (Mahendran et al., 2011) activities. Previousely, root powder of ER at 100 mg/kg, p.o. exhibited 100% inhibition of pregnancy in female albino rats (Garg and Garg, 1978). Kholkute et al. (1978) administered powdered berries of ER in the diet at a dose level of 2 and 4 g/day and observed 62% antifertility activity with a dose of 4 g/day. Embelin, 50–100 mg/kg, p.o. in rats (day 1–7 of pregnancy) exhibited 85.71% anti-implantation activity, significant antiestrogenic and progestational (Prakash, 1981) properties. Oral doses (15, 30, 60 and 120 mg/kg) of embelin, when administered (day 1–5 of pregnancy) in proven fertile female rats exhibited 55.55–83.33% anti-implantation effect (Radhakrishnan and Alam, 1975). In conclusion, both Embelia ribes and embelin possess significant antifertility activity in female rats whereas embelin also possesses antispermatogenic activity in male rats. 3.12 Ferula hermonis Boiss. (Family: Apiaceae) Ferula hermonis (FH), a perennial shrub that grows on the Hermon mountain, between Lebanon and Syria commonly known as “Shirsh-el-Zallouh” which means hairy root, is used in the Middle East to improve sexual behaviour in the treatment of frigidity and impotence (Auzi et al., 2008; El-Taher et al., 2001; Lev and Amar, 2002). A slight antibacterial and insecticidal activities against Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium oxysporum have been previously reported (Al-Shae’r et al., 2001; Galal et al., 2001; Al-Nahar et al., 2006; Hilan et al., 2007). Toxic effect of ferula in cattles is associated with hemorrhagic disease, due to constituents like ferulenol, ferprenin, 4-hydroxylated and prenylated cumarins (Argano et al., 1988). In one study, it has been reported that the intragastric application of the ethanolic extract of FH at dose of 3 mg/kg per day for 6 weeks resulted into significant decrease in fertility as well as toxic effects on reproductive organs in both male and female mice (Homady et al., 2001). In another study, acute oral administration of the acetone extract stimulated sexual motivation in potent male rats (30 and 60 mg/kg) and improved copulatory performance in sluggish/impotent rats (60 mg/kg) in parallel with increased testosterone serum levels whereas the repeated daily ingestion for 10 days elicited negative effects on the copulatory pattern of potent male rats, even if the dosages were strongly reduced (Zanoli et al., 2003). Similar results were also obtained with ferutinin, an isolated compound from FH in male rats (Zanoli et al., 2005). It can be concluded from the above findings that Ferula hermonis shows antifertility as well as aphrodisiac effects which might be due to its heterogeneous nature. 3.13 Gloriosa superba (Family: Liliaceae) Gloriosa superba (GS) is a semi-woody herbaceous climber found throughout India upto an altitude of 6000 ft. (Ghosh et al., 2002). It is a native of tropical Africa and now grows in many parts of tropical Asia including India, Burma, Malaysia and Srilanka (Jayaweera, 1982; Singh, 2006). GS is known as ‘Malabar glory lily’ in English, ‘Kalihari’ in Hindi, ‘Agnisikha’ in Sanskrit and its trade name is ‘Glory lily’ (Ambasta, 1986; Warrier et al., 1995; Pulliah, 2002). The leaves are etiolated, alternate, sessile, lanceolate, and spear shaped with curved end, which helps them to climb and creep (Finnie and Van Staden, 1994; Pulliah, 2002). It has brilliant wavy edged yellow and red flowers that appears from November to March every year (Rajak and Rai, 1990). Flowers are large, solitary at ends of branches, greenish at first, then yellow, passing through orange, and scarlet to crimson. The peculiar structures of the large flowers with six perianth lobes bent backwards, six radiating anthers and the style bent almost 90◦ at the point of attachment to the ovary does not make them suitable for pollination by small insects (Gupta and Raina, 2001). Fruits are oblong and ellipsoid capsule. Seeds are numerous and rounded. The medicinal importance of GS is due to the presence of alkaloids in all parts of the plant, mainly colchicine, an amino alkaloid derived from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine (Sivakumar et al., 2004). Other compounds such as lumicolchicine, 3-demethyl-N-deformyl-N-deacetylcolchicine, 3demethylcolchicine, and N-formyl-deacetylcolchicine have been isolated from the plant (Sugandhi, 2000; Suri et al., 2001). The tubers contain colchicines, benzoic and salicylic acid, sterols and resinous substances – colchicines, 1,2-didemethyl colchicines, 2,3didemethylcolchicine, N-deacetylcolchicines, colchicoside, gloriosine, tannins and superbine (Capraro and Brossi, 1984). Joshi et al. (2010) reported isolation of colchicine, 2-demethylcolchicine, 3demethylcolchicine and N-formyl-N-deacetylcolchicine from the GS seeds. The active principles of leaves are superbine, colchicine, gloriosine, gloriosol, phytosterols and stigmasterol (Kayode and Kayode, 2008). In Zambia, the tuber is part of a preparation for impotence, and also used as abortifacient (Iwu, 1993; Burkill, 1995). GS is an important corm-bearing genus that provides commercial colchicines and colchicoside (Rajak and Rai, 1990). Corms are thermogenic, abortifacient, antipyretic whereas powder of root tuber is given in rheumatic fever (Nadkarni, 2002; John et al., 2009). It is also used for the treatment of inflammations, leprosy, piles, ulcers (Kala et al., 2004); intestinal worm infestations, thirst, bruises, skin problems and snakebite (Mors et al., 2000). GS is also reported to possess analgesic, anti-inflammatory (John et al., 2009); anthelmintic (Pawar et al., 2010); antifungal (Ravi et al., 2011) and antispermatogenic (Dixit et al., 1983) activities. Malpani et al. (2011) have reported that aqueous extract of GS at a dose of 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight by oral route shows significant abortifacient, anti-implantation and uterotonic activities in female Wistar rats. The early abortifacient activity of the plant is owing to its oxytocic potential which may be due to the presence of alkaloids such as colchicines. In conclusion, Gloriosa superba possess preliminary abortifacient effect in female rats where as antispermatogenic activity in male gebril. 3.14 Heliotropium indicum (Family: Boraginaceae) Heliotropium indicum (HI) is an annual, erect, branched hirsute plant about 15–50 cm high. The leaves are always opposite or alternate, ovate to oblong-ovate, somewhat hairy, acute or acuminate, D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 23 base decurrent along the petiole and about 3–8 cm long. The flowers are calyx green and about 3.5 mm in diameter. The fruits are dry 2–4 lobed of 2 or 4 nearly free, more or less united nutlets, 4–5 mm long. It is a common weed in waste places and settled areas, flowering throughout the year (Osungunna and Adedeji, 2011). It is distributed in the tropical and temperate regions of the world and found throughout India (Anonymous, 2000). The plant is reported to be highly valued in the folklore medicine and is believed to be useful in skin diseases and as a powerful expectorant (Braga, 1976); for diarrhea, malaise or vomiting in infants in Belgium (Gupta and Dutta, 1977); to treat ulcer and fever in Nigeria (Adelaja et al., 2008). Its leaves are used in the treatment of ophthalmic disorders, erysipelas, pharyngodynia, inflammation and tumor whereas the roots are used as astringent, expectorant and febrifuge (Catalfamo et al., 1982). Phytochemical screening of HI has reported various compounds like pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tannins and saponins (Burkill, 1985b; Oluwatoyin et al., 2011). Its alkaloidal components confers on it antiseptic, febrifuge, secretagogue stimulation (of gall bladder functions), menstruation activator (Sofowora, 1993), antiinflammatory (Srinivas et al., 2000), antitumor (Kugelman et al., 1976) and wound healing (Reddy et al., 2002) properties. In one antifertility study, Andhiwal et al. (1985) have reported 40% antiimplantation activity of HI. The HI leaves ethanol extract, fractioned with n-hexane and benzene, at oral doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight in albino rats, has shown better abortifacient and moderate anti-implantation activities. Ethanol extract exhibited 50% abortion whereas n-hexane and Benzene fractions caused 60%, 50% and 60% and 30% and 60% abortion in pregnant rats respectively at dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg body wt. respectively. The effect on percentage pre implantation lost in pregnant rats was 30% and 35% in ethanol extract, 40% and 60% in n-hexane fraction, 30% and 50% in benzene extract at the dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight respectively (Savadi et al., 2009). In conclusion, Heliotropium indicum possesses better abortifacient activity with moderate anti-implantation effect. 3.15 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. (Malvaceae) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (HR), a native of China, is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world and possesess various medicinal properties. It is a common Indian garden perennial shrub which grows 1–3 m tall. The leaf blade is broadly or narrowly ovate, not lobed and measures 4–9 × 2.5 cm. The base is rounded or cunneate, the margin dentate or lobed and the apex acuminate. The flowers are solitary, axillary on upper branches, usually pendulous, simple or double. Pedicel is 3–7 cm, sparsely stellate pilose or nearly glabrous and articulate near apex. The petals (usually five) are obovate, corolla rosy red, reddish or orange-yellow in color, funnel shaped and 6–10 cm in diameter (Mudgal, 1974). HR has protective effect against the tumor promotion stage of cancer development (Sharma and Sultana, 2004). Some of the chemical constituents isolated from this plant are cyanidin, quercetin, entriacontane, calcium oxalate, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid (Nair et al., 2005). The anthocynidin isolated from the plant is hepatoprotective (Obi et al., 2001). Plant has been traditionally used as abortifacient in India and Cameroon (Nadkarni, 1976; Emmanuel and Claidette, 2007) whereas as aphrodisiac in Nigeria (Olagbende-Dada et al., 2007). The flowers have been reported to possess anti-implantation and antispermatogenic activities (Kholkute and Udupa, 1976; Murthy et al., 1997). HR ethanolic root extract, at dose of 400 mg/kg body weight orally from day 1 to 7 of gestation, prevented pregnancy in colony-bred female albino rats and showed strong anti-implantation (inhibition 100%) and uterotropic activities (Vasudeva and Sharma, 2008). In another study on mice, oral administration of the benzene extract of HR flowers, at a dose level of 1 g/kg body weight/day from days 5 to 8 of gestation, led to termination of pregnancy in about 92% of the animals where the effect was associated with a significant fall in peripheral level of progesterone and increase in uterine acid phosphatase activity, as measured on day 10 (Pakrashi et al., 1986). Olagbende-Dada et al. (2007) reported the anabolic effect of leaf extract of this plant in immature albino male rats. In conclusion, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis possesses anti-implantation activity which might be due, at least partly, to estrogenic property of the extract. However, its anabolic effect of in immature albino male rats needs to be further evaluated to know their effect on the gonadotrophin hormones which regulate the activity of the androgens in relation to spermatogenesis. 3.16 Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Family: Nymphaeaceae) Nelumbo nucifera (NN), commonly known as Lotus [English] and Kamla [Hindi], is one of the oldest perennial aquatic herbs consumed throughout Asia. Lotus is an agricultural crop that is cultivated for food and drink. NN is a folk medicine that is traditionally used for regulating fertility by females in India. It is an important aquatic economic plant, not only as a dainty and ornamental flower but also as a source of herbal medicine with strong anti-obesity, antioxidant, antipyretic, cooling, astringent, and demulcent properties (Kashiwada et al., 2005; Ling et al., 2005; Mukherjee et al., 1997; Sinha et al., 2000; Qian, 2002). Its flowers have been used in the treatment of various ailments such as cancer, hypertension, diarrhea, fever, weakness, infection and body heat imbalance (Saengkhae et al., 2008). The major constituents isolated from the lotus plant are alkaloids (liensinine, neferine, nuciferine, remrefidine and isoliensinine), flavonoids ((+)-1(R)-coclaurine), (−)-1(S)-norcoclaurine, quercetin 3-O-b-d-glucuronide and a new ursane triterpenoid ester, urs-12en-3 -O-9E,12E-octadecadienoate (Chaudhari and Singh, 2009; Venkatesh and Dorai, 2011). Mutreja et al. (2008) investigated effect of NN seeds on the reproductive organs of female rats and reported that ethanolic seed extract at a dose of 800 mg/kg by oral route brought about a significant decline in the weight of ovary, protein and glycogen levels and as a result, caused estrogen inhibition in female rats due to its antiestrogenic nature. The decrease in the weight of ovary and uterus shows antiestrogenic nature of NN since antiestrogenic substance decreases the wet weight of the uterus. In another study, antisteroidogenic effect of seed extract of NN in testis and ovaries of rat has been reported (Gupta et al., 1996). Hence, the plant has the antiestrogenic nature without altering the general physiology of the female rats. In conclusion, Nelumbo nucifera possesses a significant antifertility effect in female rats. 3.17 Plumbago zeylanica L. (Family: Plumbaginaceae) Plumbago zeylanica (PZ) is an erect handsome semi-climbing sub herb widely used as a complementary and alternative medicine around the world including India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Australia (Chopra et al., 1956). The aerial parts of the plant are traditionally used in ailments like rheumatic pain, scabies, skin diseases, wounds, inflammations, etc. (Nguyen et al., 2004), while the roots are said to have abortifacient (Premakumari et al., 1977; Chowdhury et al., 1982; Anonymous, 2001), antioxidant (Tilak et al., 2004), central nervous system stimulatory (Bopaiah and Pradhan, 2001), antimicrobial (Ahmad et al., 1998), antiplasmodial (Simonsen et al., 2001), wound healing (Reddy et al., 2002), hypolipidaemic, and antiatherosclerotic (Sharma et al., 1991) effects. PZ is reported to have anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal (Krishnaswamy and Purushothaman, 1980b), antitumor (Kavimani et al., 1996) and anticoagulant (Shen et al., 2003) properties. The active constituents reported in PZ are plumbagin (Devi 24 D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 Fig. 1. Isolated compounds from plants with antifertility activity. D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 25 et al., 1998), 5-hydroxy-1,4-napthaquinone, sitosterol glycoside, fatty alcohol and tannin (Anonymous, 1985; Wang and Huang, 2005). In antifertility study, the effects of petroleum ether, chloroform, acetone, ethanol and aqueous extracts of the PZ leaves on the estrous cycle of rats were studied at two dose levels, namely, 200 and 400 mg/kg and assessed with regard to their oestrogenic activity in the same species. The resulted indicated that the acetone and ethanol extracts were most effective in interrupting the estrous cycle of the rats (p < 0.05). The animals exhibited a prolonged diestrous stage of the estrous cycle leading to a temporary inhibition of ovulation. The antiovulatory activity was reversible on discontinuation of the treatment. Both extracts showed significant (p < 0.05) oestrogenic and anti-oestrogenic activities (Edwin et al., 2009). In conclusion, the acetone and ethanolic extracts of leaves of Plumbago zeylanica possess reversible antifertility activity. 3.18 Vicoa indica DC. (Family: Asteraceae) Vicoa indica (VI) is used by the tribal women of Bihar in India as antifertility agent (Dhall and Dogra, 1988). Various constituents reported in VI are germacranolide (Sawaikar et al., 1998), vicogenin (Balakrishna et al., 1995) and vicoside A (Vasanth et al., 1991). It is reported to have antifungal (Rai and Vasanth, 1995), antipyretic and anti-inflammatory (Alam et al., 1992a) activities. Two isolated compounds, Vicolides B and D showed antifertility and abortifacient effects in albino rats (Mohana et al., 1984; Susan et al., 1985, 1986; Alam et al., 1989). Vicolide B caused resorption of implants whereas Vicolide D prevented implantation (Alam et al., 1989). Vicolide D showed 52.43% and 71.43% inhibition of implantation and abortifacient activities respectively, when administered p.o. in rats at a dose of 200 mg/kg body weight (Alam et al., 1992b). The antifertility activity of VI was also tested in proven fertile bonnet monkeys (Rao et al., 1996). The dry powder of the whole plant was fed to the cycling monkeys on day 1–14 of menstrual cycle or days 9–14 of cycle or on days 2–5 after delivery and the fertility was evaluated in the following cycle in cycle fed monkey or after weaning the young one in the post-partum fed monkeys. Results indicated that while feeding in the post-partum monkeys did not confer any protection against pregnancy feeding during day 1–14 of cycle, protected from pregnancy. The monkeys did not become pregnant even after exposure to the proven fertile male monkeys for 13 ovulatory cycles while all the vehicle fed monkeys became pregnant within 3 cycles. In another study, Banjauri, herbal medicine containing VI, has successfully possessed antifertility activity in phase I and II clinical trials (Dhall and Dogra, 1988). In conclusion, Vicoa indica and its constituents (Vicolides B & D) possess significant antifertility activity in both female rats and monkeys. 4. Discussion Plants, since ancient times, have been used globally across varied cultures throughout the known civilizations as a valuable and safe natural source of medicines and as agents of therapeutic, industrial and environmental utilities. The medical historians have recorded plants that could be used as contraceptives, emmenagogues and abortifacients (Kirtikar and Basu, 1975). Ethnobotanical knowledge includes plants used in the traditional medical systems such as herbalism, folklore and shamanism. The purpose of this review is to present and analyze ethnopharmacological data of 577 plant species for regulating fertility and conception by the various ethnic groups/tribes in different countries all over the world during the last 35 years. The names of plants, parts, type of extract, isolated active compounds, dose, route of administration, animal species used, and findings of biological testing are given in Table 2. The plants have been classified according to their activity profile. As can be seen in Table 1, around 298 plants have been mentioned as abortifacient (42%), 188 as contraceptives (31%), 149 as emmenagogues (24%), and 17 as sterilizers (3%), however, some of the plants have multiple uses depending on the dose. Among 122 families containing 577 plants having role in fertility control in females, fabaceae constitutes 49.2%, asteraceae 40.98%, euphorbiaceae 19.7%, apiaceae 16.4%, poaceae 12.3%, labiatae 11.5%, and others in lesser proportion. Fabaceae family contains maximum numbers of plants with antifertility potential. Among plant parts, leaves have been maximally utilized for controlling the fertility. Among various parts of plants used in fertility regulation are leaves (25%), roots (22%), fruits (15%), seeds (12%), flowers (4%) and root barks, exudates, gums, buds etc. in small proportion. Literature survey of the cited plants confirmed that Abrus precatorius (Ross, 2005; Okoko et al., 2010), Acalypha indica (Hafez, 1970; Shivayogi et al., 1999), Ailanthus excelsa (Ravichandran et al., 2007), Ananas comosus (Bhaduri et al., 1968; Garó et al., 1970; Näf-Müller and Willhalm, 1971), Aristolochia bracteolata (Natraj et al., 2007), Azadirachta indica (Riar et al., 1991; Sinha et al., 1984a,b), Bambusa vulgaris (Yakubu and Bukoye, 2009), Embelia ribes (Radhakrishnan and Alam, 1975; Garg and Garg, 1978; Prakash, 1981), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Pakrashi et al., 1986; Vasudeva and Sharma, 2008), Plumbago zeylanica (Premakumari et al., 1977; Chowdhury et al., 1982; Edwin et al., 2009), Vicoa indica (Dhall and Dogra, 1988; Rao et al., 1996) potent antifertility effects. Among plant derived constituents, Abridine (Zia-ul-Haque et al., 1983a,b), Acacetin (Hiremath et al., 1990; Hiremath and Rao, 1990), Aristolochic acid (Chakrabarty et al., 1987), Butin (Bhargava, 1986), Embelin (Radhakrishnan and Alam, 1975; Krishnaswamy and Purushothaman, 1980a), Ferujol (Singh et al., 1985; Prakash et al., 1991), Momorcharins (Yeung et al., 1986), Oleanolic acid-3 glucoside (Pillai et al., 1982), Plumbagin (Premakumari et al., 1977; Kini et al., 1997); -sitosterol (Pakrashi and Basak, 1976), Vicolides B & D (Mohana et al., 1984; Susan et al., 1985, 1986; Alam et al., 1989) etc. have shown potential antifertility effects. Some plants have shown opposite effects in male and females. Plants like Butea monosperma and Ferula hermonis are mentioned to possess antifertility effects in females whereas aphrodisiac effects in males which might be due to their heterogeneous nature. Gloriosa superba is also reported to possess antifertility effects in both male and female animals alongwith aphrodisiac effect in Zambia. Such effect of Gloriosa superba might be due to heterogeneous actions of different constituents in its extracts on male and female reproductive hormones. Plant like Glycyrrhiza glabra is mentioned as emmengogue in India (Chopra et al., 1958; Kirtikar and Basu, 1946; Nadkarni, 1976) whereas in Japan for treatment against sterility in women (Yaginuma et al., 1982). Such contradictory traditional claimed uses are therefore required to be clarified by further experimental studies. 5. Conclusion Traditional medicines practiced for regulation fertility are very important in various tribal/rural cultures worldwide. Current interest in traditional medicine has led to the rapid development and studies of many herbal remedies employed for such purpose. Novel information gathered from the current data is important in preserving folk indigenous knowledge as well as in the discovery of novel potential compounds with promising antifertility potential. Therefore, this review has been prepared to provide a new compilation of plants/their parts (latest or recently) with specific traditional use in fertility regulation in females only in different countries up to year 2011. Moreover, this review has incorporated latest data on new plant species/constituents which are not covered in previous reviews on antifertility. 26 D. Kumar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 140 (2012) 1–32 In conclusion, many of the 577 plant species listed may appear to be promising as effective alternative oral fertility regulating agents in females. Information regarding ethnic claims about the traditional uses of plants in fertility regulation was cross-validated by referring various articles/reviews published in referred journals. Till date, no review has analyzed/correlated the plant family, parts used with antifertility effects of the plants. Data mentioned in Table 1 shows that fabaceae family contains maximum numbers of plants with antifertility potential. Among plant parts, leaves have been maximally utilized for controlling the fertility. A wealth of information indicates numerous bioactive components isolated from plants with antifertility potential (Fig. 1). These include butin, campesterol, embelin, Ferujol, luteolin, marsdenikoside, oleanolic acid-3 -glucoside, sitosterol, stigmasterol, vicolide, yuanchukene, yuanhuacine etc. (Bhargava and Dixit, 1985; Hiremath et al., 1990; Kong et al., 1985a; Pillai et al., 1982; Porwal et al., 1988; Prakash et al., 1991; Ren-Sheng and Yi-Sheng, 1986). As evident from Table 2, isolated phytoconstituents like abridine, aristocholic acid, butin, embelin, ferujol, oleanolic acid3 -glucoside, p-Coumaric acid, vicolide B etc. have shown 100% antifertility activities whereas acacetin, luteolin, momorcharins, piperine, plumbagin, sitosterol, yuanhuatine, yuehchukene also significantly inhibited fertility. Bhutani et al. (2007) have successfully developed an Ayurvedic oral contraceptive formulation ‘Pippalyadi Yoga’ containing embelin. As far as relevance of the current review is discussed, it might be quite useful in generating monographs on plants and recommendations on their use. What we have not dealt with is the safety of natural medicines when ingested for long periods. The plants (Table 1)/or phytoconstituents (Table 2), if their mechanisms and toxicity studies are carefully analyzed, may serve as alternate potential antifertility agents with milder/or fewer side effects and can be developed into suitable contraceptive formulations. Another area where the current knowledge can be applied includes the substantiation of marketed products, where the evidence can be quite limited. 5.1. Future needs for this area of research Majority of plants (mentioned in Table 1), traditionally used as antifertility agents, have not been thoroughly experimentally studied on animals. Table 2 shows that of the extracts reviewed the majority have been performed in conscious animals and relatively few have had their efficacy confirmed in humans. Present data also lacks information on exact mechanism of action and toxic effects of tested extracts. However, this is clearly one area that needs further investigation as findings in animals need to be translated to humans in order for a natural extract to be recommended for traditional use as a contraceptive. Therefore, significant research into the chemical and biological properties of such less explored plants is still needed to determine their contraceptive efficacy and also will possibly define their exact mechanism of actions so that it may become of importance for female fertility regulation. 5.2. Limitations The current article has been prepared by consulting the literature published in English language only, ignoring the studies published in other languages. The information mentioned in other language, if had been included, could make this review more interesting and also helpful in validating the presented data. Further, toxic studies on the cited plants/constituents is not available and not included, which otherwise, might be useful in selecting the plant for further investigation. Acknowledgement Financial assistance (F.No.39-255/2010) from University Grant Commission, New Delhi, Government of India is highly acknowledged. References Abbink, J., 2002. 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