Plant Growth

1ÞLAN1 GkCW1n ÞLAN1 GkCW1n ÞrofŦ Gorakh Þandhare W rucure of a seed W A seed ls a maLure and ferLlllzed ovuleţ havlna (1) Seed coaL (2) Lmbrvo (3) 8eserve foods eed coas Ŷ W 1he ouLer seed coaL whlch ls Lhlck and hard ls called esa W 1he lnner Lhln and paperv coverlna ls called egmenŦ Lmbryo Ŷ W 1he embrvo conslsL of one or Lwo coLvledons and embrvonal axlsŦ W Lmbrvonal axls has plumule (fuLure sLem) Ǝ radlcle (fuLure rooL)Ŧ W ÞarL of embrvonal axls beLween coLvledon and plumule ls eplcoLvl whlle parL of embrvonal axls beLween coLvledon and radlcle ls hvpocoLvlŦ W keserve food Ŷ Lndosperm presenL ln Lhe seed ls Lhe reserve food uLlllzed bv developlna embrvoŦ eed germ|na|on 1he process bv whlch a dormanL embrvo wakes up arows ouL of Lhe seed coaLs and esLabllshes lLself as a seedllna ls called seed aermlnaLlonŦ W 1vpes of aermlnaLlon Lp|gea| germ|na|on Ŷ When Lhe coLvledons are pushed upwards bv Lhe rapld elonaaLlon of Lhe hvpocoLvlţ Lhe aermlnaLlon ls called Lplaeal aermlnaLlonŦ W ln Lplaeal aermlnaLlon coLvledons comes above soll surfaceŦ 1he coLvledons Lurn areenţ flaL and leaf llke followed bv lLs arowLh of eplcoLvl Lo produce Lwo areen leavesŦ W LgŦ Ŷ CasLorţ cucumberţ coLLonţ papavaţ LamarlndŦ (Lplaeal aermlnaLlon ls common ln dlcoLs and verv rare ln monocoLsŦ) eed germ|na|on nypogea| germ|na|on Ŷ ln hvpoaeal aermlnaLlonţ Lhe eplcoLvl elonaaLes and pushes Lhe plumule upwardsŦ CoLvledons do noL Lurn areen buL araduallv drv upŦ ln monocoL planLs hvpoaeal aermlnaLlon ls verv commonŦ LgŦ Ŷ Þaddvţ malzeţ wheaLţ coconuLţ eLcŦ Pvpoaeal aermlnaLlon ls verv rare ln dlcoL planLsŦ LaŦ Ŷ Porse aram ţ Clcerţ eLcŦ eed germ|na|on V|v|par|y Ŵ ÞlanLs arowlna ln marshv places show a speclal Lvpe of seed aermlnaLlonŦ 1he seeds aermlnaLe lnslde Lhe frulLţ whlle Lhev are sLlll aLLached Lo Lhe parenL planLŦ 1he radlcle elonaaLes and Lhe welahL of Lhe aermlnaLlna seed lncreasesŦ As a resulLţ Lhe seedllna separaLes and falls down verLlcallv lnLo Lhe mudŦ lL soon flxes ln Lhe soll and develops laLeral rooLs for proper anchoraaeŦ vlvlparv ls an adapLaLlon of halophvLesŦ examp|e Ŷ 8hlzophoraţ SonneraLlaţ PerlLleraţ Avlcennlaţ eLcŦ Þhys|o|og|ca| and b|ochem|ca| changes |n seed germ|na|on lŦ 1he lmblblLlon of waLer bv seedŦ llŦ 1he upLake of waLer ls accompanled bv rapld lncrease ln Lhe raLe of resplraLlonŦ lllŦ 1he sLored reserve food maLerlals such as polvsaccharldes (carbohvdraLes) and proLelns aeL hvdrolvsed Lo resume meLabollc acLlvlLlesŦ Þhys|o|og|ca| and b|ochem|ca| changes |n seed germ|na|on lvŦ 1he radlcle and plumule arow bv cell elonaaLlon and cell dlvlslonŦ vŦ 1he radlcle emeraes ouL and arows downwardţ and Lhen plumule comes ouL and arows upwardŦ vlŦ 1he emeraence of radlcle from one end of Lhe embrvonlc axls ls consldered as Lhe svmbol of seed aermlnaLlonŦ acors affec|ng seed germ|na|on W Ava||ab|||y of waer Ŷ WaLer ls an essenLlal facLor for seed aermlnaLlonŦ WaLer helps ln Lhe hvdrolvsls of reserve food maLerlals ln Lhe embrvoŦ W Ava||ab|||y of oxygen Ŷ Cxvaen ls needed for aeroblc resplraLlon of embrvoŦ 1he aeroblc resplraLlon provldes meLabollc enerav for developlna embrvoŦ acors affec|ng seed germ|na|on W 1emperaure Ŷ 1he opLlmum LemperaLure for aermlnaLlon of seeds of LemperaLe planLs ls H o 25Hţ and of Lroplcal planLs ls 25H o 35HŦ W L|gh Ŷ MosL of Lhe seeds cannoL aermlnaLe ln presence of llahLŦ ln such seedsţ llahL ls noL an essenLlal facLor for seed aermlnaLlonŦ 8uLţ some seeds are senslLlve Lo llahL and Lhelr aermlnaLlon ls affecLed bv Lhe presence or absence of llahLŦ lor exampleţ leLLuce and LobaccoŦ W LLD DCkMAN W uurlna Lhe perlod of resLţ arowLh of Lhe embrvo ln Lhe seed ls suspendedŦ W 1hls suspenslon of arowLh mav be due Lo Lwo reasonsŦ Lxoaenous conLrol (LnvlronmenLal condlLlons) Lndoaenous conLrol (lnLernal condlLlons) W ;u|escence Ŷ 1he condlLlon of a seed when lL falls Lo aermlnaLe due Lo unfavorable envlronmenLal condlLlonsŦ W ;u|escen seed Ŷ A seed whlch ls unable Lo aermlnaLe due Lo unfavorable envlronmenLal condlLlon ls called qulescenL seedŦ eed dormancy 1he condlLlon of a seed when lL falls Lo aermlnaLe due Lo unfavorable endoaenous reasons even Lhouah favourable envlronmenLal condlLlons are presenL ls called seed dormancvŦ W auses of seed dormancy W Seed dormancv mav be caused due Lo a number of endoaenous reasonsŦ 1hev are Lhe followlnaŦ W Mechan|ca||y res|san seed coas Ŷ 1he seeds of some planLs have verv hard and Louah seed coaLŦ lL prevenLs expanslon of Lhe embrvoŦ W mpermeab|e seed coas 1he lmpermeablllLv of seed coaL prevenLs Lhe absorpLlon of waLer and aasesŦ W kud|menary embryos 1he embrvo ls poorlvŴdeveloped when Lhe seeds are shedŦ lor Lhe compleLlon of embrvo developmenL lL mav Lake furLher Llmeţ So aermlnaLlon ls posLponed unLll Lhe seed developmenL ls compleLedŦ W auses of seed dormancy Þhys|o|og|ca||y |mmaure embryos Ŷ ln some planLs Lhe embrvos are fullvŴ developed when Lhe seed ls maLureţ buL Lhe seed ls unable Lo aermlnaLe prompLlv because Lhe embrvo ls phvsloloalcallv lmmaLureŦ Such a seed can be lnduced Lo aermlnaLe lf lL ls sLored ln molsLţ wellŴaeraLedţ and low LemperaLure condlLlonsŦ W auses of seed dormancy Þresence of germ|na|on |nh|b|ors Ŷ 1he lnhlblLors presenL ln Lhe endospermţ embrvoţ seed Llssue or seed coaL prevenL seed aermlnaLlonŦ LgŦŴ lerullc acld found ln LomaLo [ulce lnhlblLs Lhe aermlnaLlon of LomaLo seedsŦ reak|ng of seed dormancy W Naura| W Ar|f|c|a| car|f|ca|on ra|f|ca|on 1emperaure L|gh Þressure reak|ng of seed dormancy W car|f|ca|on of seed coa Ŷ 1he process of sofLenlna or rupLurlna Lhe seed coaL ls known as scarlflcaLlonŦ lŦ Mechanlcal scarlflcaLlon and llŦ Chemlcal scarlflcaLlonŦ Mechan|ca| scar|f|ca|on Ŷ ln mechanlcal scarlflcaLlonţ Lhe seed coaL ls weakened for easv permeablllLvţ mechanlcallv wlLh sand paperŦ hem|ca| scar|f|ca|on Ŷ ln chemlcal scarlflcaLlonţ Lhe seed coL ls LreaLed wlLh chemlcals llke sulphurlc acldţ poLasslum nlLraLeŦ W ra|f|ca|on of seeds Ŷ 1he process of LreaLlna of molsL seeds ln Lhe presence of oxvaen Lo varlable perlods of low or hlah LemperaLure ls called seed sLraLlflcaLlonŦ SLraLlflcaLlon helps Lo desLrov aermlnaLlon lnhlblLorsŦ W L|gh Ŷ CerLaln seeds are senslLlve Lo llahLŦ 1he llahL senslLlve seeds are called phoob|as|c seedsŦ ÞhoLoblasLlc seeds are of Lwo LvpesŦ poslLlvelv phoLoblasLlc and neaaLlvelv phoLoblasLlcŦ Þos||ve|y phoob|as|c seeds Ŷ Some seeds aermlnaLe afLer exposure Lo llahLŦ Such seeds are called poslLlvelv phoLoblasLlcŦ LgŦ Ŷ 1omaLo Nega|ve|y phoob|as|c seeds Ŷ CerLaln seeds wlll remaln dormanL on exposure Lo llahLŦ Such seeds are called nega|ve|y phoob|as|cŦ LgŦ Ŷ Pelleborus nlaerŦ 1emperaure Ŷ CermlnaLlon of some seeds ls promoLed bv alLernaLlna dallv LemperaLuresŦ Þressure Ŷ Plah pressure mav chanae Lhe permeablllLv of seed coaL ln some seedsŦ LgŦ Ŷ Alfalfa (Madlcaao saLlva) Growh and characer|s|cs of growh 1he permanenL and lrreverslble lncrease ln slze accompanled bv an lncrease ln drv welahL ls called growhŦ Mer|sema|c |ssues MerlsLemaLlc Llssues or MerlsLems are a aroup of lmmaLure LoLlpoLenL cellsţ malnlv presenL aL Lhe aplcal realon and have Lhe power of cell dlvlslonŦ uependlna on Lhelr poslLlon ln planL bodvţ 1ÞL a) Aplcal merlsLem b) lnLer calarv merlsLem and c) LaLeral merlsLem Þhases of growh W 1he perlod of planL arowLh ls dlvlded lnLo Lhree phases (sLaaes)Ŧ W orma|ve phase (phase of ce|| d|v|s|on) Ŷ W Þhase of e|onga|on (phase of en|argemen) Ŷ W Þhase of maura|on (phase of ce|| d|fferen|a|on) W Growh curve W When Lhe arowLh of a planL or a planL oraan ls measured and ls ploLLed aaalnsL Llmeţ an 'S'Ŵ shaped curve ls obLalned called growh curveŦ W 1hls slamold curve conslsLs of 3 parLsŦ W Lag phaseţ W Lxponen|a| phase and W a|onary phaseŦ W acors affec|ng growh W ood supp|y Ŷ 1he supplv of food ls dlrecLlv proporLlonal Lo Lhe raLe of arowLhŦ lood provldes poLenLlal enerav Lo arowlna realonŦ W Waer supp|y Ŷ WaLer ls necessarv for meLabollc acLlvlLles of proLoplasm and for malnLalnlna Lhe LuraldlLv of Lhe cellŦ W Cxygen supp|y Ŷ Cxvaen lncreases arowLh because lL helps ln resplraLlon Lo break down food lnLo A1ÞŦ vlLal for planL arowLhŦ W acors affec|ng growh W 1emperaure Ŷ 1emperaLure affecLs arowLh dlrecLlv or lndlrecLlvŦ CrowLh occurs beLween 3HC Lo 43HC whlle opLlmum arowLh Lakes place beLween 28HC Lo 33HCŦ 1he amounL of waLer presenL ln proLoplasm ls relaLed Lo LemperaLureŦ AL LemperaLure above 43HCţ enzvmes aeL denaLured and aL 0HC waLer forms lceŦ W L|gh Ŷ LlahL lnLenslLvţ quallLv and perlodlclLv affecLs arowLhŦ nens|y of ||gh Ŷ 1he presence of weak llahL promoLes shorLenlna of lnLernodesŦ 1hus arowLh ls reducedŦ ;ua||y of ||gh Ŷ ln blue vloleL llahLţ lnLernal arowLh ls more whlle areen llahL helps expanslon of leafŦ 8ed llahL favours arowLhŦ Dura|on of ||gh Ŷ CerLaln phvsloloalcal processes llke phoLoperlodlsm are conLrolled bv duraLlon of llahLŦ o|| qua||y Ŷ AvallablllLv of nuLrlenLsţ pP of sollţ and presence of waLer ln soll affecLs arowLhŦ |o|c facors Ŷ Þresence of oLher planLsţ anlmals and mlcro oraanlsms affecL arowLhŦ CompeLlLlon amonasL planLsţ arazlna anlmalsţ human acLlvlLlesţ presence of paLhoaens affecLs arowLhŦ nerna| facors Ŷ CrowLh reaulaLors llke Auxlns ţ albberelllnsţ A8A eLŦ AffecL arowLhŦ Growh regu|aors W ln planLsţ cerLaln chemlcal subsLances occurrlna ln mlnuLe quanLlLles reaulaLe arowLh and dlfferenLlaLlonŦ W 1hese chemlcal subsLances are called planL arowLh reaulaLors or phvLohormones or planL hormonesŦ W 1ypes W Auxlns W Clbberelllns W CvLoklnlns W LLhvleneţ and W Absclslc acld W oLher relaLed arowLh reaulaLors are [asmonlc acldţ sallcvllc acldţ and brasslnosLeroldsŦ W Some vlLamlns also reaulaLe Lhe arowLh ln Lhe planLsŦ W Aux|ns W Auxln ls Lhe flrsLŴdlscovered arowLh facLor ldenLlfled as a arowLh reaulaLorŦ W har|es Darw|n was Lhe flrsL Lo demonsLraLe Lhe effecL of llahL and aravlLv on bendlna of canarv arass W 1he erm 'aux|n' was |nroduced by ŦWŦ Wen |n 28Ŧ W Aux|n was f|rs |so|aed by kog| and naggenŴm| from human ur|ne |n 3Ŧ W Aux|ns W Avena curvaLure LesL W Þrac|ca| app||ca|ons of aux|ns W koo |n||a|on Ŷ W Auxln promoLes rooL lnlLlaLlonŦ (rooLlna hormone)Ŧ W nAA and l8A are wldelv applled (used) as rooLlna hormoneŦ W Þroduc|on of parhenocarpy Ŷ W lL lnduces Lhe producLlon of parLhenocarplc frulLsŦ W lAA and l8A are commonlv applled Lo produce seedless LomaLoţ appleţ cucumberţ arapesţ eLcŦ Aux|ns W 1h|nn|ng of f|owers and fru|s Ŷ W lL ls applled for Lhe Lhlnnlna of flowers and frulLs for healLhv arowLh of remalnlna onesŦ W nh|b||on of absc|ss|on and preŴharves fru| drop Ŷ W nAA ls commonlv used Lo conLrol preŴharvesL frulL dropŦ W |ower |n||a|on Ŷ W Auxlns normallv lnhlblL Lhe flowerlna ln all planLs excepL plne apple (ananas saLlvus) and llLchlŦ 1husţ folalr sprav of nAA and 2ţ 4Ŵu are applled for lnduclna Lhe unlform flowerlna ln plne apple and llLchlŦ W orage Ŷ 1ubersţ cormsţ and rhlzomesŦ NAAM (naphLhalene aceLamlde) ls commonlv used for Lhls purposeŦ Aux|ns W Ap|ca| dom|nance Ŷ W lL causes aplcal domlnanceŦ W Auxlns ln Lhe shooL apex lnhlblLs Lhe arowLh of laLeral buds and promoLes Lhe arowLh of aplcal budsŦ W LaLeral buds sLarL developlna lnLo branches when Lhe aplcal bud lsremovedŦ 1husţ aplcal domlnance ls caused bv auxlnsŦ W Lrad|ca|on of weeds Ŷ W A svnLheLlc auxln 2ţ 4Ŵu ls commonlv used as a selecLlve weedlclde (selecLlve weed klller) Lo eradlcaLe unwanLed broadŴleaved dlcoL weedsŦ W lL ls nonŴLoxlc Lo narrowŴleaved monocoL planLsŦ G|bbere|||ns W Clbberelllns are weak acldlc planL hormonesŦ W 1hev were dlscovered bv kurosawaţ a !apanese planL paLholoalsLţ ln 1926Ŧ W 1hev were flrsL lsolaLed bv abua and umuk| ln 1939 from an ascomvceLous funausţ W Clbbetello fojlkotol W lL causes foollsh seedllna dlsease or bakanae dlsease (!apanese) ln rlce planLsŦ G|bbere|||ns W em e|onga|on and |eaf expans|on Ŷ W reak|ng dormancy Ŷ lL breaks Lhe bud dormancv ln manv Lrees durlna wlnLerŦ 1he bud dormancv ln poLaLo Luber can be broken bv albberellln LreaLmenLŦ 1he seed dormancv of cerLaln planLs can be overcome bv Lhe appllcaLlon of albberelllnsŦ W Lnzyme produc|on Ŷ lL lnduces producLlon of hvdrolvzlna enzvmes ln aermlnaLlon seedsŦ Lmbrvos of Lhe seeds aLe Lhe ma[or slLes of albberellln producLlonŦ 1he lmporLanL hvdrolvzlna enzvmes ln Lhe seeds are proLeasesţ amvlasesţ llpases and rlbonucleasesŦ G|bbere|||ns W Þarhenocarpy Ŷ lL lnduces parLhenocarpv ln pome frulLs such as apple and pearŦ ln lndlaţ now albberelllns are applled (used) Lo lncrease Lhe frulL slze and bunch lenaLh ln arapesŦ W |ower|ng Ŷ lL conLrols flowerlna ln lonaŴdav planLsŦ 1he albberellln can be applled as a subsLlLuLe for lonaŴ dav requlremenL ln lonaŴdav planLsŦ G|bbere|||ns W o||ng Ŷ lL lnduces bolLlna of roseLLe planLsŦ CerLaln dwarf planLs produce onlv a roseLLe of leaves aLLached Lo verv shorL axls ln Lhe veaeLaLlve sLaaeŦ An elonaaLed shooL develops [usL prlor Lo Lhe reproducLlve phaseŦ 1hls phenomenon ls called bolLlnaŦ Cabbaae ls a aood example for bolLlnaŦ lL has a roseLLe hablLŦ 8olLlna can be lnduced arLlflclallv ln cabbaae bv albberellln LreaLmenLŦ G|bbere|||ns W ex express|on Ŷ eŦgŦ albberellln sLlmulaLes Lhe producLlon of male flowers ln aeneLlcallv female planLs of CannablsŦ W eed germ|na|on Ŷ lL lnduces aermlnaLlon of poslLlvelv phoLoblasLlc seeds of leLLuce ad Lobacco ln compleLe darknessŦ W Gene|c dwarf|sm Ŷ CeneLlc dwarflsm ls caused bv Lhe muLaLlon of a slnale aeneŦ Clbberellln LreaLmenL on aeneLlcallv dwarf varleLles causes Lhem Lo arow Lall bv Lhe elonaaLlon of lnLernodesŦ W yok|n|ns CvLoklnln ls planL arowLh promoLersŦ 1he Lerm CvLoklnln was proposed bv LehamŦ lL was exLracLed from endosperm of coconuL called klneLlnŦ lL ls also called zeaLln (SkooaŴMlller) W Þrac|ca| app||ca|ons of yok|n|ns e|| d|v|s|on Ŷ 4 ln assoclaLlon wlLh auxlnsţ cvLoklnlns promoLe cell dlvlslon (cvLoklnesls) even ln nonŴmerlsLemaLlc LlssuesŦ 4 CvLoklnlns almosL never acL aloneŦ 4 CvLoklnln ls consldered as Lhe ºrue ce|| d|v|s|on facor"Ŧ 4 lL plavs a vlLal role ln Lhe morphoaenesls (oraan formaLlon) ln planLsŦ 4 lL ls use ln Llssue culLure experlmenLsŦ 4 ln Llssue culLureţ cvLoklnln ln assoclaLlon wlLh auxln promoLes mlLosls ln Lhe parenchvma cellsŦ 4 none of Lhese Lwo hormones ln lLself can promoLe mlLoslsŦ e|| en|argemen and ce|| d|fferen|a|on Ŷ 4 1he klneLlnŴauxln lnLeracLlon conLrols cell dlfferenLlaLlon of shooL and rooL merlsLemsŦ 4 lf boLh are presenL ln equal quanLlLlesţ cells dlvlde buL do noL dlfferenLlaLeŦ 4 1he proporLlon of Lhese Lwo hormones conLrols oraan formaLlon ln callusŦ 4 lf Lhere ls relaLlvelv more cvLoklnln Lhan auxlnţ shooL buds develop from a callusţ and lf more auxln Lhan cvLoklnlnţ rooLs developŦ yok|n|ns W Ap|ca| dom|nance Ŷ Auxln promoLes Lhe arowLh of aplcal budţ whereas cvLoklnln promoLes Lhe arowLh of laLeral budsŦ 1husţ Lhese Lwo hormones can acL anLaaonlsLlcallv (acLlna ln opposlLlon) ln Lhe conLrol of aplcal domlnanceŦ W De|ay of senescence Ŷ 1hev can reLard aaelna of planL oraans or planLs bv moblllzaLlon of resources and conLrolllna proLeln svnLheslsŦ W CuL leaves dlpped ln cvLoklnln sLav areen lonaer Lhan conLrol leavesŦ 1he effecL of cvLoklnln ln reLardlna aaelna ls called Lhe k|chmond Lang effec (1967)Ŧ W reak|ng of dormancy Ŷ W 1hev lnduce Lhe breaklna of seed dormancvţ and promoLe seed aermlnaLlonŦ Lhy|ene W lL ls a unlque hormone LhaL exlsLs ln aaseous sLaLeŦ lL ls a volaLlle aas presenL ln aLmosphereŦ W ÞlanLs produce eLhvlene bv meLabollc process durlna arowLh and developmenLŦ W 1he mosL remarkable effecL of eLhvlene ls lLs effecL on frulL rlpenlnaŦ W 8emoval of eLhvlene bv a currenL of alr prevenLs rlpenlna and helps ln sLoraae of frulLsŦ Lhy|ene W ko|e of Lhy|ene W k|pen|ng of fru|s Ŷ LLhvlene promoLes frulL rlpenlna hence used ln arLlflclal rlpenlna of frulLsŦ W |ower|ng Ŷ Larlv flowerlna of plneapple ls promoLed bv eLhvleneŦ W enescence Ŷ lL promoLes absclsslon of planL oraans such as leavesţ flowersţ frulLsţ eLcŦ lL lnduces ep|nasyŦ 1he drooplna of leaves and flowers due Lo lncrease arowLh on upper surface Lhan on lower surface ls called eplnasLvŦ lL ls conLrolled bv eLhvlene ln manv planLsŦ W lL lnhlblLs sLem elonaaLlonŦ W number of female flowers and frulLs can be lncreased ln cucumber bv eLhvlene LreaLmenLŦ Absc|s|c ac|d (AA) W Absc|s|c ac|d (A8A) ls a naLurallv occurrlna arowLh lnhlblLorŦ W lL ls weaklv acldlc ln naLureŦ W lL was flrsL lsolaLed bv Add|co ln 1963 from coLLon frulLsŦ W A8A ls also called dorm|n because lL causes bud dormancvŦ W lL ls lsolaLed from dlfferenL parLs of hlaher planLsŦ A8A ls svnLheslzed ln leaves and Lhen LranslocaLed Lo sLem Llps Lhrouah phloemŦ Absc|s|c ac|d (AA) W ko|e of AA W orma|on of absc|ss|on |ayer Ŷ W enescence Ŷ AcceleraLes senescence lŦeŦ aaelnaŦ W hedd|ng of |eaves W Growh |nh|b|or Ŷ A8A promoLes seed dormancv and lnhlblLs seed aermlnaLlonŦ W omaa| c|osure Ŷ A8A promoLe sLomaLal closure under exLreme condlLlons Lo check LransplraLlonŦ W lL lncreases Lolerance ln planLs Lo varlous klnds of sLressesŦ lL acLs as a sress hormoneŦ W lL helps Lhe planL Lo overcome adverse envlronmenLal condlLlonsŦ W Þhooper|od|sm W uav lenaLh has a areaL effecL on Lhe flowerlnaŦ W 1he phenomenon of Lhe response of planLs Lo relaLlve dav and nlahL lenaLh ls called phooper|od|smŦ W 1he Lerm #phooper|od|sm" was flrsL used bv WŦWŦ Garner and nŦAŦ A||ard of uŦSŦ ueparLmenL of AarlculLure ln 1920Ŧ W 1hev demonsLraLed phoLoperlodlsm for Lhe flrsL Llme ln N|co|ana obacum (Marvland MammoLh varleLv of Lobacco)Ŧ W A day |engh (da||y dura|on of ||gh) |s referred o as a phooper|odŦ W on|nuous 2 hours of day |engh |s ca||ed cr||ca| day |enghŦ W 1he con|nuous 2 hours of darkness |s cr||ca| dark per|odŦ W Þhooper|od|sm W Accordlna Lo Lhe phoLoperlod responsesţ Garner and A||ard classlfled flowerlna planLs lnLo Lhree aroupsŦ W hor Day Þ|ans W Long Day Þ|ansţ and W Day Neura| Þ|ansŦ W Þhooper|od|sm W hor day p|ans (DÞ) W 1he planLs whlch flower when Lhe phoLoperlod (dav lenaLh) becomes shorLer Lhan Lhe crlLlcal dav lenaLh are called shor day p|ansŦ W ln shorL dav planLsţ flowerlna wlll bealn onlv lf Lhe dav lenaLh ls shorLer Lhan Lhe crlLlcal dav lenaLhŦ W 1hese planLs requlre a lona nlahL Lhan Lhe crlLlcal dark perlod for flowerlnaŦ Soţ Lhev are also called |ong n|gh p|ansŦ W MosL wlnLer flowerlna planLs are shorL dav planLsŦ W LŦaŦ Cosmosţ uahllaţ ChrvsanLhemumţ rlceţ Marvland MammoLh varleLv of Lobaccoţ suaarcaneţ poLaLoţ sovabeanţ sLrawberrvţ xanLhlumţ eLcŦ W W Þhooper|od|sm W Long day p|ans (LDÞ) W 1he planLs whlch flower when Lhe phoLoperlod (dav lenaLh) becomes areaLer Lhan Lhe crlLlcal dav lenaLh are called |ong day p|ansŦ W ln lona dav planLsţ flowerlna wlll bealn onlv lf Lhe dav lenaLh ls areaLer Lhan Lhe crlLlcal dav lenaLhŦ W 1hese planLs requlre a shorL nlahL Lhan Lhe crlLlcal dark perlodŦ Soţ Lhev are also called shor n|gh p|ansŦ LŦaŦ wheaLţ barlevţ suaar beeLţ larkspurţ splnachţ leLLuceţ cabbaaeţ radlshţ eLcŦ W Þhooper|od|sm W Day neura| p|ans (DNÞ) W 1he planLs whlch flower afLer a perlod of veaeLaLlve arowLhţ reaardless of phoLoperlod are called dav neuLral planLs or lnLer medlaLe dav planLs or phoLoneuLral planLsŦ W LŦaŦ Lobacco (mosL varleLles)ţ cucumberţ sunflowerţ LomaLoţ cornţ chllllţ peaţ coLLonţ eLcŦ W Þhooper|od|sm W Day neura| p|ans (DNÞ) W 1he planLs whlch flower afLer a perlod of veaeLaLlve arowLhţ reaardless of phoLoperlod are called dav neuLral planLs or lnLer medlaLe dav planLs or phoLoneuLral planLsŦ W LŦaŦ Lobacco (mosL varleLles)ţ cucumberţ sunflowerţ LomaLoţ cornţ chllllţ peaţ coLLonţ eLcŦ W Þhooper|od|sm W Mechan|sm of phooper|od|sm W ln 1936ţ Challakhvan suaaesLed LhaL a flowerlna hormone ls svnLheslzed ln Lhe leaves soon afLer percelvlna Lhe requlred favourable phoLoperlodsŦ W 1hls flowerlna hormone ls called f|or|genŦ W lL ls Lhen LranslocaLed Lo Lhe shooL apex (aplcal merlsLem) Lhrouah Lhe phloem for lnduclna flowerlna bv converslon of veaeLaLlve merlsLem lnLo reproducLlve merlsLemŦ As a resulLţ Lhe axlllarv bud or Lermlnal bud becomes flower budŦ 1hls concepL ls called f|or|gen concepŦ W Þhooper|od|sm W mporance of phooper|od|sm W knowledae of phoLoperlodlsm ls useful for commerclal flower arowersŦ W knowledae of phoLoperlodlsm can be applled Lo keep cerLaln economlcallv lmporLanL planLs such as poLaLoţ alnaerţ eLcŦ ln Lhelr veaeLaLlve sLaLe and some ln Lhelr reproducLlve sLaLeŦ W 1he phenomenon helped planL breeders ln obLalnlna hvbrldsŦ W knowledae of phoLoperlodlsm mav help aarlculLure ln lavlna ouL crop paLLern ln an areaŦ Verna||sa|on W vernallsaLlon ls deflned as Lhe meLhod of lnduclna earlv flowerlna ln planL bv preLreaLmenL of Lhelr seeds aL verv low LemperaLuresŦ W lL ls Lhe acceleraLlon of Lhe ablllLv Lo flower bv chllllna LreaLmenLŦ W Þhenomenon was observed bv 1 sL kllpparLŦ W 1he Lerm vernallsaLlon was used bv LvsenkoŦ 8eversal of vernallsaLlon ls called devernallsaLlonŦ Verna||sa|on W kequ|remen of verna||sa|on W Low emperaure Ŷ 1HC Lo 10HCŦ W Þer|od of |ow emperaure Ŷ 8anaes from few hours Lo few davsŦ W Ac|v|y d|v|d|ng ce||s Ŷ ln drv seeds vernallsaLlon does noL occurŦ lL Lakes place ln molsL seeds whlch are havlna acLlve merlsLemaLlc cellsŦ W Waer W Aerob|c resp|ra|on W Þroper nour|shmen Verna||sa|on W Þhys|o|ogy of f|ower|ng |n ÞL1kU kL W ln colder counLrles Lhere are Lwo varleLles of ÞeLkus rveŦ 1hev are w|ner rye and spr|ng ryeŦ W 1he recepLor slLe for low LemperaLure ln ÞeLkus rve ls aplcal merlsLemŦ W 1he Sprlna sLraln ls a Lvplcal annual roseLLe planLţ flowerlna and frulLlna ln one arowlna seasonŦ W 1he wlnLer sLraln ls a Lvplcal blennlal roseLLe planL wlLh veaeLaLlve arowLh ln flrsL season and Lhen flowerlna and frulLlna ln nexL season afLer a prolonaed exposure Lo Lhe cold LemperaLure of wlnLer W ÞeLkus rve can be vernallsed ln seed sageŦ W 1he wlnLer sLaln LreaLed wlLh low LemperaLure produces flowers ln Lhe flrsL summer and acL as sprlna varleLvŦ Verna||sa|on W mporance of verna||sa|on W ?leld of Lhe crop lncreasesŦ W lnduces earller flowerlna and earller maLurlna of Lhe crop Lo escape frosLţ drouahL and floodŦ W Pelps Lo culLlvaLe Lhe planLs ln verv low LemperaLureŦ W 8eslsLance Lo cold and dlseaseŦ W ÞlanL breedlna an be acceleraLedŦ W Crops can be produced earller lŦeŦ a crop can be harvesLed much earller Lhan Lhe conLrol cropŦ W 
n
€f¾ W ¾¾f¯f
f°€


 f
°– %%nf %%
¯ 
 %%¾
€¾ nf¾ W @
¾nf
n¾nf°f¾nf¾f W @°°°f°½f½
n
°–¾nf–¯°
¯ 
 W @¯ 
n°¾¾€°
n
°¾f°¯ 
°f f
¾  W
¯ 
°f f
¾f¾½
¯
 %€

¾¯%  fn %€

% W 9f€¯ 
°f f
¾ 
°n
°f°½
¯
 ¾ ½n

½f€¯ 
°f f
¾ 
°n
°f° fn ¾
½n
 W ¾
€
°¾½¯½¾°°¾¾¾
 €



½°–¯ 
 –¯°f° @½n¾¾

nf¯f°¯ 

f¾
½–
¾
€¾nf¾f°¾f ¾¾ ¾€f¾f¾°–¾nf¾–¯°f° W @
½¾€–¯°f°
½–f –¯°f° J°n
°¾f½
¾
½
f¾
 f½°–f°€
½n
  –¯°f°¾nf
½–f –¯°f° W °
½–f –¯°f°n
°¾n¯¾f 
 ¾¾
€fn @n
°¾
°–° €ff° f€€

¾–
€½n
  ½
n
–°f
¾  W
–  f¾ n
n
¯  n° ½f½f
f f¯f°  %
½–f –¯°f°¾n¯¯°°n¾ f°

f°¯°n¾ % –¯°f° 
½–f–¯°f° °
½–f–¯°f° ½n
 °–f¾f°½
¾¾½
¯

½
f¾  
°¾°
°–°
–f
f
 

½ °¯°n½f°¾
½–f–¯°f°¾

n¯¯° 
–  9f
¯f
 
f nn°
 n  
½–f–¯°f°¾

f°n ½f°¾ 
–  ¾–f¯ . n n . . –¯°f° I
½f
9f°¾–
°–°¯f¾
½fn¾¾
f¾½nf 
½€¾–¯°f° @¾¾–¯°f°¾€
 

 f¾ffn½f°½f°  @fn °–f¾f°
–€ –¯°f°–¾°nf¾¾ ¾f¾
  ¾°–¾½ff¾f°€f¾
°
nf
° ¯
  ¾°€
¾°¾f°
½¾ff¾ €½½f°nf–  I
½f
¾f°ff½f°€f½
¾  
f¯½ 
½f °°ff f  
n°°f n  . 9
¾–nff° n¯nfnf°–¾°¾ –¯°f°  @¯  °€
f
¾  @
½f€
f¾fnn¯½f°
f½ °nf¾°f€¾½f°  @¾¾
€¯ff¾¾
nf¾ ½
¾fnnf¾%nf 
f¾%f°½°¾ –

¾¾
¯¯f nfn
¾ . 9
¾–nff° n¯nfnf°–¾° ¾–¯°f° 
@fn f°½
¯
 –

n °–f°f°n
¾°
@fn ¯–¾
f°–
¾ 
°
f f°°½
¯
 n¯¾
f° –
¾
½
f 
 @¯–°n€fn €¯°°€ ¯ 
°nf
¾¾n°¾f¾ ¾
¯ €¾–¯°f°  . fn¾f€€n°–¾–¯°f° W 
ff 
€
f Jf¾f°¾¾°f€fn€¾ –¯°f° Jf½¾°

¾¾€ ¾
€¯ff¾°¯ 
 W 
ff 
€

–° 

–°¾°€f n¾½f°€ ¯ 
 @f n¾½f°½
¾ ¯f n°–
€
½°–¯ 
 . fn¾f€€n°–¾–¯°f° W @¯½f
 @½¯
¯¯½f
€–¯°f°€ ¾¾€¯½f½f°¾¾H. H. f° €½nf½f°¾¾H. H. W – .¾€¾¾nf°°–¯°f° ½¾°n€–  °¾
n¾¾ –¾°f°¾¾°f€fn €¾–¯°f° 
 ¾¯¾¾f ¾°¾
–f°–¯°f°¾ f€€n
½¾°nf ¾°n€–  
f¯½ 
nf° fnn . -.W 

.
¾n°¾ ¾
n¾
°f –¯°f

°€f
f °
°¯°fn°°¾nf 
¾n°¾ . W 
°–½€¾ –
€¯ 
 °¾¾¾
¾½°  W @¾¾
¾½°¾°€–
¯f
 

 f¾°¾

–°
¾n°%
°
°¯°fn°°¾%
°–°
¾n°%°°fn°°¾% W .
¾n°n @n°°€f¾
°€f¾–¯°f 

°€f
f °
°¯°fn°°¾  W . ¯f°n
 @n°°€f¾
°€f¾ –¯°f

°€f
f °–°
¾ f¾°¾ 
°
–€f

f  °
°¯°fn°°¾ f½¾°¾nf ¾¯f°n
. W . f
¾¾€¾¯f°n
 W ¯f°n
¯f
 nf
¾
f°
¯  €°–°
¾f¾°¾ @
f€
°– W .nf°nf
¾¾f°¾nf¾ @¾¾€¾¯½f°¾f


ff° 
–¾nf ½
°¾
½f°¾°€ ¯ 
 W ¯½¯f ¾nf¾ @¯½¯f 
€¾nf½
°¾ f ¾½°€
ff°–f¾¾ W 
¯°f
¯ 
¾ @¯ 
¾½

½
°¾¾ f¾ n¯½°€¯ 
 
½¯°¯f
f€
¯ –¯°f°¾½¾½°
°¾ 
½¯°¾n¯½ . W . f
¾¾€¾¯f°n
 9
¾–nf
¯¯f
¯ 
¾ °¾¯½f°¾¯ 
¾f€


½
°¾¾¯f
 
 ¾¾
°f –¯°f½¯½
 nf
¾ ¯ 
¾½
¾–nf
¯¯f
 
n f¾nf° °
n–¯°f€¾ ¾°¯¾ 
 ff f°
 ¯½f
n°°¾ . W . f
¾¾€¾¯f°n
 9¾°n€–¯°f°° ¾ @° ¾½¾°°°¾½¯  ¯ 
 ¾¾¾
¾nf½
°¾ –¯°f° 
– 
n fn€
°°¯f©
n° ¾ –¯°f°€¯f¾¾ . f°–€¾¯f°n
W -f
f W €nf nf€nf° f€nf° @¯½f
 – 9¾¾
 . f°–€¾¯f°n
W nf€nf°€¾nf @½n¾¾€¾€°°–
½
°–¾ nf¾°
°f¾¾nf€nf°   .nf°nf¾nf€nf°f°  . nf°nf¾nf€nf° °¯nf°nf ¾nf€nf° ¾nf¾
f°€ f¾
½¯f 
¯nf°nf

¾f° ½f½ .¯nf¾nf€nf° . ¯nf¾nf€nf° °n¯nf ¾nf€nf° ¾n¾f
 n¯nf¾¾
½
n fn ½f¾¾
¯ °f . W f€nf°€¾¾ @½n¾¾€f°–€¯¾¾¾° ½¾°n€

–°
ff ½¾€
 –¯½f
¾nf¾ ¾f€nf° f€nf°½¾¾
–¯°f° ° ¾ . W – . f°¾¾f¾°¾
– @– ¾°¾
¾¾fnf½ f¾n ¾¾  9 f¾n ¾¾f€

½¾  ½¾

½ f¾n f°°–f

½ f¾n 9¾

½ f¾n ¾¾ ¯¾¾–¯°ff€
½¾
–  
n¾¾fnf½¾

½ f¾n 
–  @¯f -–f

½ f¾n ¾¾ . f°¾¾
¯f°¯f°°
½¾
 –  
n¾¾fnf°–f

½ f¾n 
–   
¾ -– . fnf– ¾f
f% .@¯½f
 ¯°f°€¾¯¾¾¾½¯
 f°f°–f
¯½f
¾ 9¾¾
 –½¾¾
¯f
nf°–½¯f 
€ ¾nf°¾¯¾¾ 
– €f€f%. 
f°nffn¾n¾€–
 @½¯f°°f°
¾ °nf¾°¾
 fnn¯½f°
f°°nf¾°

–¾ nf–
 .¾¯fn ¾¾
¾ .¾¯fn ¾¾
¾.¾¯¾ ff–
½€ ¯¯f
½° n¾ ¯f°
½¾°f f½nf–°f°f
½
€n
¾°  ½°°–°½¾°°½f° 
 @9
 f%½nf¯¾¯ %°nff
¯¾¯ f° n%ff¯¾¯ . 9f¾¾€–
 W @½€½f°–
¾
° ½f¾¾%¾f–¾%  W ¯f
½f¾%½f¾€n
¾°% W 9f¾€°–f°%½f¾€°f–¯°% W 9f¾€¯f
f°%½f¾€n €€°f°% . W 
n

 W J°–
€f½f°f½f°–f°¾ ¯f¾
f°¾½f–f°¾¯ f°## ¾f½n

¾ f°nf–
n

  W @¾¾–¯n

n°¾¾¾€½f¾  W f–½f¾  W

½°°f½f¾f° W f°f
½f¾ . W fn¾f€€n°––
 W ¾
½½
 @¾
½½
€€¾n
½½°f f€–
 ½
¾½°f°–
 –
°––° W Jf¾
½½
 Jf¾°n¾¾f
€¯f nfn
¾€ ½½f¾¯f°€¯f°f°°–
–
€ n W 

–°¾
½½
 

–°°nf¾¾–
 nf
¾½¾° ¾½f° f
°€°@9 If€ ½f°–
 . W fn¾f€€n°––
 W @¯½f
 @¯½f
f€€n¾–
n
°n
 
nn
¾ 
°H. H. 
 ½¯
¯–
f¾½fn 
°H.  H. @f¯
°€
f½¾°° ½½f¾¯¾f¯½f
  ¯½f
f 
H. °

¯¾–°f
 f°fH. 
f€¯¾n .
f
€– ° 

– °°f–
¾¯
 –°–½¾
½f°¾°€f€ –€f

¾ –
 
f°€– .W – –°°¾

f
f°½n
f€€n¾ –
  °°¾
€– @½¾°n€
f–½¯¾¾°°–€ °°¾ @
¾–
¾
n  . f°½
¾–nf½n¾¾¾½½¾¯ fn°

f°€– . 
f
 
ff 
€°
°¾ ½€¾ f°½¾°n €
f°¾f€€n¾–
 n€fn¾ 9¾°n€½f°¾ f°¯f¾f°¯n –f°¾¯¾f€€n–
 . ¯½°f¯°–¾ ½f°¾ –f
°–f°¯f¾ 
¯f°fn
¾  ½¾°n€½f–°¾f€€n¾–
 °°f€fn¾ 
–
f¾

°¾ – °¾   €€n–
 . W W W W W W W W W W 
–
f¾ °½f°¾ nf°n¯nf¾
¾f°n¾nn
°–° ¯°

f°¾–
f–
f°€€°f°  @¾n¯nf¾
¾f°n¾fnf½f°–
 –
f¾½
¯°¾ ½f°¯°¾  @
½¾ 

°¾  °¾ .
°°¾

° f°  ¾n¾n fn f–
–
f¾f©f¾¯°n fn  ¾fn
nfn f° f¾¾°¾¾  ¯
f¯°¾f¾–
f–
°½f°¾ . W 

°¾ W 

° ¾€¾ ¾n
–
€fn °€f¾f–
–
f  W . f¾f
°
f¾€¾¯°¾f €€n€–f°–f

° °°–€nf°f
 –f¾¾ W @¯#f

°#
f¾°
n
 J J°°  W 

°
f¾€¾¾f
– f°f––° ¯ €¯
¯f°
°°  . W 

°¾ W 
°f n

f
¾ . 9fnnff½½nf°¾€f

°¾ °f° 

° ½¯¾°f° %°–¯°% -f°f

f½½%
¾%f¾°– ¯° W 9
n°€½f°nf½
W °
n¾½
n°€½f°nf½n €
¾  W f°fn¯¯°
f½½½
n ¾¾¾¯f f½½ n
n
¯  –f½¾ n W W W W . %-f½f° fnf¯%¾n¯¯°

¾€¾½
½¾ .W W W W W W W 

°¾ @°°°–€€
¾f°€
¾ ¾f½½€°°°–€€
¾f°€
¾€ f
–
€¯f°°–°¾ ° °€f ¾n¾¾°f°½ f
¾€
½ -¾n¯¯°

¾n°½ f
¾€
 ½ 
°f° 

°¾ °¯f
° €
°–°f½f°¾ 
n½½°f½½%f°f°f¾ ¾f

¾%f°n @
¾  €f ¾½f
€-f°  ff½½€°
n°– 
°€¯€
°–°½°f½½f°n f– @
¾ n¯¾ f°
¯¾ -. W W W W W W W 

°¾ ½nf¯°f°n  nf
¾¾f½nf¯°f°n 

°¾ °¾f½
° ¾–
€ff
¾f°½¯¾–
€f½nf
¾  ff
¾¾f
½°–° f°n¾
° f½nf
¾¯
 @
¾ f½nf¯°f°n¾ nf
¾
f

°¾ 
fnf°€
¾ ¾
°nf

°   ¾n¯¯°

¾f¾f ¾n

n %¾n

%fnf
°
f° f f
n
¾  ¾°° 
n°f
f
¯°n½f°¾ . W W W W W  °¾  °¾f
ffnn½f°¯°¾  @

¾n


¾f
f ff½f°¾ ½f°½f–¾ °  @

€¾¾f
f
f f° 
¯
 ° €¯f°f¾n¯
n
¾ €
°–
¾   f €
©
 nf
¾¾€¾¾°–¾f¾ ff°f ¾f¾%f½f°¾%°n½f°¾ .  °¾ W ¯°–f°f°f€
½f°¾° W f°–¯f°n
 f¾
¯f°n
°¯f°
¾
°–
° @
¯f°n
°½f
nf°  °
– ° f¯° @¾¯f°n
 €nf°½f°¾nf° 
n¯
f½½nf° €– °¾ W
°

¯½
n° °
n¾½
n°€


°–°

¯¾° –¯°f°¾¾ 
¯ 
¾€¾¾f ¯f©¾¾€– ° ½
n° @¯½f° 


°–°

¯¾°¾¾f½f¾¾  f¯
f¾¾ ½f¾¾f° °
nf¾¾ .  °¾ W 9f°nf½
°
n¾½f°nf½
°½¯ €
¾¾
nf¾ f½½f°½f  °°f °
– °¾ff½½%
¾% °nf¾€
¾
f°
°n°–°–f½¾ W 
°– n°¾€
°–°°– f
½f°¾ @ – ° nf° f½½f¾f¾
¾
€°– f

¯°°°– f
½f°¾ .  °¾ W °– °
n¾ °–€¾½f°¾ . f°
f€ ½f°¾½
n°
f¾€f
¾ffn

¾f
¾°
–f
¾f–  °°–f¾
½¾©
¾½ ½
n
½f¾ @¾½°¯°°¾nf °–  . f f–¾f–
f¯½€ °– f¾f ¾f  °–nf° °
nf€nf
° nf f–
– ° f¯° .  °¾ W 

½¾¾°  – – ° ¾¯
f¾½
n°€¯f €
¾°–°nf
€¯f½f°¾€. f°°f ¾ W –¯°f° °
n¾–¯°f°€½¾

½ f¾n ¾¾€
nf fnn°n¯½f°¾¾ W °n
f€¾¯ °n
f€¾¯¾nf
¾
¯
f°€f ¾°––°  ° f¯°°–°nf
 
f€
f¾nf
¾¾¯–
f
 °–f°€°°¾ . W .
°°¾ .
°° ¾½f°–
½¯¾ @¯.
°°
f¾½½¾
f¯  
f¾
fn€¯°¾½¯€nn°
 nf°°  ¾f¾nf
f° %– .% . W 9fnnff½½nf°¾€.
°°¾ . 
¾° 4 °f¾¾nf°
f

°¾ n
°°¾ ½¯n 
¾°%n
°¾¾%
°°°° ¯¾¯fn ¾¾
¾  4 .
°°¾ f¯¾°
fnf°  4 .
°° ¾n°¾f¾#
n 
¾° €fn# 4 ½f
¾f
f°¯½–°¾¾%–f° €¯f°%°½f°¾  4 ¾
¾°¾¾
n


½¯°¾  4 °¾¾
n

 n
°° °f¾¾nf°
f

° ½¯¾¯¾¾°½f°n
¯fn¾  4 -°€¾
¯°¾°¾€nf°½¯ ¯¾¾ . . °f–¯°f°n€€°f° 4 @°° f

° °fn°n°¾n €€°f°€¾f°¯¾¯¾  4 € f½¾°°
f
f°¾ n¾

°€€°f  4 @½½°€¾
¯°¾n°¾ –f°€¯f°°nf
¾  4 €¾f

¯n
°° f°f

°  ¾
¾
½€¯fnf
¾ f°€¯ f

° f°n
°° ¾
½ . W W W W W .
°°¾ ½nf¯°f°n 

° ½¯¾–
€f½nf
 
f¾ n
°° ½¯¾–
€ff
¾ @
¾  ¾
¯°¾nf°fnf°f–°¾nf
%fn°–° ½½¾°%°n°€f½nf¯°f°n f
€¾°¾n°n @
nf°ff–°–€½f°–f°¾½f°¾
 ¯ 
f°€¾
n¾f°n°°–½° ¾
°¾¾ .
f
¾½½°n
°° ¾f
–°°–f° n°f
¾ @€€n€n
°° °f°– f–°–¾nfn¯°f°–€€n %% f°–€¯f°n
 @
°
n f°–€¾¯f°n
f° ½¯¾–¯°f° . W W W W

° ¾f
°
¯°f
¾¾°–f¾
¾¾f  ¾f
f–f¾½¾°°f¯¾½  9f°¾½
n
°
¯f n½n¾¾ 
°––
f°
½¯°  @¯¾¯ff €€n€
°¾¾€€n °€
½°°–  ¯
f€
°
fn
°€f½
°¾ ½°°–f°½¾°¾f–€€
¾ . W W W W W W

° €

° ½°°–€€
¾

°½¯¾€
½°°–°n
¾°f€nf ½°°–€€
¾ 
°–
f
€
°–€½°f½½¾½¯

°  °¾n°n ½¯¾f ¾n¾¾°€½f°–f°¾¾
nf¾f
¾  €
¾ €
¾ n °
n¾½°f¾
@½°–€f
¾f°€
¾
 °nf¾–
°
½½¾
€fnf°°
¾
€fn ¾nf½°f¾
¾n°

°°¯f°
½f°¾ ° ¾¾¯°–f° -
¯ €€¯f€
¾f°€
¾nf° °nf¾° n
n
¯ 

°f¯° . W W W W W  ¾n¾n fn%%  ¾n¾n fn %%¾f°f
f
nn
°––
 °   ¾
f
fnn°°f
  
f¾€¾¾f
n °€¯ n°€
¾  ¾f¾nf¯° nf
¾nf
¾¾
 ¯f°n
 ¾¾f€¯€€°½f¾€–½f°¾  ¾¾
°¾
°f
¾f°°f°¾nf ¾¯½¾
–½¯  . W W W W W W W W  ¾n¾n fn%% € ¯f°€f ¾n¾¾°f
 °¾n°n nnf¾¾°¾n°n  f–°– °–€f
¾ 
°  ½¯¾¾¯f°n
 f°° ¾¾–¯°f° ¯ff n¾
 ½¯¾¯ff n¾

°
¯n°°¾nnf°¾½f°  °nf¾¾f°n°½f°¾
f
¾°¾€ ¾¾¾¾ fn¾f¾f¾¾¾¯°  ½¾½f°
n¯f
¾ °
°¯°fn°°¾ . W 9½¾¯ W f
°–f¾f–f€€n°€
°–  W @½°¯°°€¾½°¾€½f°¾f
 f
f°°–°–¾nf½½¾¯  W @¯#½½¾¯#
f¾€¾
¾
J J  f°f°  f €D  ½f¯°€ –n

° W @
¯°¾f½½¾¯ €€¾¯ °-nf°f  fn
¯ %.f
f°.f¯¯
f
€  fnn% W f
°–%f

f°€–%¾€f¾ f½½  W . °°

¾
¾€f
°–¾nfnnf f
°–  W @n°°

¾
¾€f°¾¾¾nnff ½ . W 9½¾¯ W nn°–½½¾½°¾¾ f° f°f nf¾¾€€
°–½f°¾° –
½¾  W f
9f°¾ W °–f
9f°¾ f° W f
-
f9f°¾  . ¾
°€
°–½f°¾f¾f
½f°¾  W
– .W 9½¾¯ W f
½f°¾%9% W @½f°¾
n€

°½½%f
 °–% n¯¾¾f°nnff
°– fnf¾f
½f°¾  W °¾f
½f°¾ €
°–
 –°°
€f
 °–¾¾f°nnff
°–  W @¾½f°¾
f°–°–f°nnff ½€€
°–  
ff¾nf°– °–½f°¾ W . ¾¯¾ ff . f¯¯
f
€  fnn ¾
–fnf° ½f  ¾
f f° ¾f

Of°
¯ n  W .
¾f°¯
¯ n .f
f° . W 9½¾¯ W °–f
½f°¾%9% W @½f°¾
n€

°½½ %f
°–% n¯¾–ff°nnff
 °–fnf°–f
½f°¾ W °°–f
½f°¾ €
°–
 –°°
€ f
°–¾–ff°nnff
°– W @¾½f°¾
f¾°–f°nnf f½  
ff¾nf¾°– ½f°¾
– 
f  f
¾
–f  f¾½
 ¾½°fn  
n nf f– f¾ n . W 9½¾¯ W f
°
f½f°¾%-9% W @½f°¾
n€
f€f½€
–f
–
 –f¾¾€½½f nff
°
f½f°¾°¯ff
 ½f°¾½°
f ½f°¾  W
–  fnn%¯¾
f¾% n
n
¯  ¾
°€
  ¯f n° n ½f n° n . W 9½¾¯ W f
°
f½f°¾%-9% W @½f°¾
n€
f€f½€
–f
–
 –f¾¾€½½f nff
°
f½f°¾°¯ff
 ½f°¾½°
f ½f°¾  W
–  fnn%¯¾
f¾% n
n
¯  ¾
°€
  ¯f n° n ½f n° n . W 9½¾¯ W .nf°¾¯€½½¾¯ W ° . ff
f° ¾
––¾ff€
°– ¯°¾¾
°¾
°f
¾¾°f€ ½n
°–
€f

f  ½½¾ W @¾€
°–¯°¾nf€–°  W ¾°f°¾nf ¾f½
%f½nf ¯¾¯%
–½¯€°
n°– €
°–
n°
¾°€
–f
¯¾¯ °½
n
¯¾¯ ¾f¾
  f
f

¯°f
 n¯¾€

  @¾n°n½¾nf€–° n°n½ . W 9½¾¯ W ¯½f°n€½½¾¯ W °
–€½½¾¯ ¾
¾€
€ n¯¯nf€
–
¾ W °
–€½½¾¯ nf° f½½ ½nf°n°¯nf
¯½f°½f°¾¾
n f¾½f –°– n °
–f
¾ff° ¾¯°½
n
¾f W @½°¯°°½½f° ¾°  f°°–
¾ W °
–€½½¾¯ ¯f
½ f–n

°f
°–
n½½f°°f°ff . W W W W I°f¾f° I°f¾f° ¾€°f¾¯€°
n°– f
€
°–°½f°
½f¯°€ ¾¾f


¯½f
¾  ¾fnnf°€f 
€

 n°–f¯°  9°¯°°
f¾ ¾

¾ ½½f  @¯I°f¾f°
f¾
¾

¾°  
¾f€
°f¾f° ¾nf
°f¾f° . W W W W W W W I°f¾f° 
¯°€
°f¾f° 
¯½f
 H. H. 9€
¯½f
 f°–¾€¯€
 
¾€
f
¾ n


°–n¾ °
¾¾
°f¾f° ¾°nn
 f¾ ½fn°¯¾¾¾
nff
°–fn
 ¯¾¯fn n¾ Jf  n¾½f° 9½°
¾¯° . W W W W W W W I°f¾f° 9
¾–
€€
°–°9
@D
°nn
°¾f

f¾€9
¾ 
 @
f
°
 f°¾½°–
 @n½¾€
¯½f
°9
¾ 
¾ f½nf¯¾¯ @½°–¾f°¾f
½nff°°
f¾½f°  €
°–f°€
°–°°–
°–¾f¾° @
°¾f°¾f
½nf °°f¾½f°

–f
–
°€¾¾f¾°f°° €
°–f°€
°–°°
¾f¾°f€f ½°–
½¾
n¯½f
€
° 9
¾ 
nf° 
°f¾ °¾¾f–  @
°¾f°f

¯½f
 ½
n¾€
¾°€¾¾
¯¯f°fnf¾¾½°–
f
. W W W W W W W I°f¾f° ¯½f°n€
°f¾f° €n½°nf¾¾ °
n¾f€
°–f°f¯f
°–€ n½¾nf½€¾ 
–f°€ ½¾n

f½f°¾°


 ¯½f
 ¾¾f°nnf°¾f¾ 9f° °–f° fnnf . ½¾nf° ½
nf  fn½nf°  f
¾¯
nff°n°n½ .