1Midterm Assignment Hector M. Medina Earth Science and Society – GEOL-108 . Tycho Brahe (1546-1601). he was of the opinion that the world-system of Copernicus: 1. Galileo enumerated more reasons for the breakdown of the celestial/terrestrial distinction. most importantly Venus had phases just like the moon. Certainly the phases of Venus contradicted the Ptolemaic ordering of the planets. . Basically the ideas here were that the sun has spots (maculae) and rotated in circular motion. Finally. Assisted by his telescope. why did it take so long for the geocentric view of the universe to be overthrown and what does that tell us about scientific research and our society. 2. In these letters he claimed that the new telescopic evidence supported the Copernican theory.Modern astronomy basically begins with the re-emergence of the heliocentric view of the universe by Copernicus. and.Mid Term 2 1. he was able to prove the heliocentric theory proposed by Copernicus. and as revolving around the Sun. The earth is also spherical. despite being a Danish noble. The universe is spherical. in his Letters on the Sunspots (1612). which was the spatial key to physically locating Venus as being between the Sun and the earth. 3. The earth forms a single sphere with water. Who were the four other major contributors to the development of modern astronomy after Copernicus? Explain what those contributions were. even today? The other four major contributors to the development of modern astronomy after Copernicus are: Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) he was credited with creating the early telescope that was able to enlarge objects up to 20 times. turned to astronomy rather than politics. Can several motions be attributed to the earth? The center of the universe. The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit. eternal. Why the ancients thought the earth was at rest at the middle of the universe as its center. His cosmology was geocentric. but physically absurd.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment 4. in opposition to Copernicus Granted the island of Hven in 1576 by Frederick II. 2. whom Kepler succeeded as Imperial Mathematician in Prague. 9. He concluded that it was mathematically superior to that of Ptolemy. 3 7. . Does the earth have a circular motion? What is its position? 6. 5. 8. he established Uraniborg. The immensity of the heavens compared to the size of the earth. The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci. A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. While he attained immortal fame in astronomy because of his three planetary laws: 1. an observatory containing large. The motion of the heavenly bodies is uniform. against the followers of the new “mixed system” of Tycho Brahe. against the Aristotelian natural philosophers. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) a convinced Copernican. and even against the standard Copernican position according to which the new system was to be considered merely as a computational device and not necessarily a physical reality. and circular or compounded of circular motions. accurate instruments. 3. The inadequacy of the previous arguments and a refutation. Kepler was able to defend the new system on different fronts: against the old astronomers who still sustained the system of Ptolemy. two lenses of different kinds of glass stuck together. and even made his own tools for the job. He was one of the most significant representatives of the so-called Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion. and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Newton’s first major public scientific achievement was the invention. an effect called chromatic aberration.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment 4 Kepler also made fundamental contributions in the fields of optics and mathematics. unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed thereon Law 2: The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impressed. published in 1687. built the tube. design and construction of a reflecting telescope. and directed to contrary parts. This problem is minimized nowadays by using compound lenses. and thus tend to cancel each other’s shortcomings. which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries: Law 1: Every body perseveres in its state of rest. . This was a real advance in telescope technology. He ground the mirror. laid the foundations for most of classical mechanics. but mirrors are still used in large telescopes. that errs in opposite directions. Law 3: To every action there is always opposed an equal and opposite reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal. and ensured his election to membership in the Royal Society. or of uniform motion in a right line. In this work. His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. The mirror gave a sharper image than was possible with a large lens because a lens focusses different colors at slightly different distances. he made some radical changes. Einstein’s Theory of Relativity upset both models. such as asserting that the stars do not orbit the Earth and declaring that the Earth’s rotation is what makes it appear as if the stars orbit our planet. they altered it in order to account for these discrepancies. which assisted in setting standards for scientific publication down to the present time. In this book. The Principia is generally considered to be one of the most important scientific books ever written. As astronomers saw problems with the geocentric theory. Einstein showed that Newton's laws . In the 16th century. both due to the specific physical laws the work successfully described. For example. neither one are necessarily correct. The irony is that after all the disputes over these different theories. As technology advanced. the geocentric model explained why things fall toward Earth – gravity – as well why Venus seems to stay the same distance from Earth based on its unchanging brightness. Another reason why this model remained in popularity so long was because it went along with the Roman Catholic Church’s policy.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment Newton showed that the motion of objects on Earth and that of celestial bodies is governed by the same set of natural laws: by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation he removed the last doubts about heliocentrism and advanced the scientific revolution. 5 One reason why the geocentric model remained in popularity for so many years is because it did explain many observations made by the early Greeks. and for its style. the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus built on the work of earlier scientists and published his heliocentric theory in his book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies. more problems surfaced facing the geocentric model. such as the linkages between international development and environmental conservation. deforestation. Astronomers use both the heliocentric and geocentric models for research depending on which theory makes their calculations easier. such issues become more than isolated events when they are placed in a broader context of global understanding. New evidence has also shown that the Solar System’s center of gravity is not the exact center of the Sun.Explain the relationship of geography to other scientific disciplines. Objects of higher masses and densities (stars and remnants of stars) require Einstein’s theory of general relativity where the gravitational force is actually due to the curvature of empty space. and they only worked fairly well for (and near) "low mass" objects like planets. transport navigation.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment 6 were not the correct description of gravity. It definitely seems as if some things are relative after all. monitoring the impact of hurricanes. This means that either model is acceptable regardless of the fundamental differences between the theories. conservation. What is a good definition for geography or the geosciences in general? What are the strengths and weaknesses of geography as a discipline and how do you think that has influenced its development. military targeting. . the debt crisis. or lack thereof? Geography is an integrative discipline connecting the social sciences. Within this framework. consumer profiling. With a geographic perspective. physical sciences and humanities in the study of the relations between humans and the earth. and hunger. geographers examine virtually any social/physical issue. In an interdependent world where . the opportunities and problems associated with growth in Florida. 2. to name a few. While others focus on mapping these applications with computer software and global positing systems at ever improving accuracy and precision. resources. computer technology and all sorts of resources that allows geographers to have access to a wealth of data. labor markets and international trade. Because of the breadth of its focus. It helps them to understand the changes in climate and other elements that will affect our society. perceptions of the environment. It forms an interdisciplinary bridge between the physical and cultural worlds. social. As technology advances. soil. and hazards and their relations to humans. landforms. settlement patterns. and political geographers investigate such issues as agricultural land use. boundary disputes. or space. vegetation.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment decisions made in Tokyo or Iowa affect the lives of people in all societies. responsible citizenship requires a solid foundation in geographic knowledge. distribution. Geography is both a natural science and a social science. and interrelationships in the physical and cultural realms. Economic. The advancement in the field nowadays has created a vast field of opportunities for professional geographers today who now often find employment in government. it makes geography a more exact science by using resources that were not available when this discipline was in its infancy. The development of satellites. our natural resources and the way we live every day. 7 We can also add that Geography is the study of place. The first question a geographer asks is "where are things located?" but even more important is "why are they located where they are?" and “how do we map them?” Geographers are concerned with interpreting and explaining the occurrence. either at the local or state . including patterns of climate. in the same sense that history is the study of time. and the trade areas of cities. examining both humans and their environment. Some geographers specialize in environmental issues. cultural diffusion. visibility. more formally it is the weather of a locality averaged over some period (usually 30 years) plus statistics of weather extremes. and its short-term (minutes to weeks) variation.Weather and climate are separate. and Soil Conservationist. it represents the synthesis of weather. Landscape Ecologist. Intelligence Officer. but related. what is the greenhouse effect and global warming? Are they the same thing? If not. In popular usage. terms. 3. Popularly. and poverty abatement. in which geographers are engaged in monitoring environmental problems. "How hot is it right now?". emergency planning. We talk about the weather in terms of "What will it be like today?". . cloudiness. rather. weather is thought of as the combination of temperature. and in international organizations. the military. Additionally. precipitation. or in a variety of federal agencies.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment 8 levels. land use changes. Most positions do not carry a title of “Geographer”. since they are important issues when dealing with the subject of climate today. and "When will that storm hit our section of the country?" Climate: is defined as statistical weather information that describes the variation of weather at a given place for a specified interval. geographers fill such jobs as Cartographer. housing. how are they different? What influence would global warming have on “nature” and our lives? Weather: is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere. Geographic Information Specialist. Provide a definition of each and then give an example of a concept related to both weather and climate. humidity. . transportation patterns. and wind. Another rapidly developing field is metropolitan and regional planning. waste disposal. and also to place cycles or other phenomena into the bigger picture of possible longer term or more permanent climate changes. Scientists study climate to look for trends or cycles of variability (such as the changes in wind patterns. primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests. this produces an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases Radiation coming from the Sun at the frequencies of visible light largely passes through the earth’s atmosphere to warm the planetary surface. have intensified the natural greenhouse effect. but the way it retains heat is fundamentally different as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow. which in turn re-radiate much of the energy to the surface and lower atmosphere. causing global warming. Part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere. human activities. This mechanism is named after the effect of that solar radiation has when passing through glass and warming a greenhouse. 9 The greenhouse effect is the process by which thermal radiation from earth’s surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases. However. . decades or even centuries. which then emits this energy at the lower frequencies of infrared thermal radiation. This infrared radiation then is absorbed by greenhouse gases. and is re-radiated in all directions. isolating the warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment We talk about climate change in terms of years. ocean surface temperatures and precipitation over the equatorial Pacific that result in El Niño and La Niña). Earth’s natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible. Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment 10 In contrast. but an erratic climate that if left unchecked could cause pervasive natural disasters and species extinction. which can contribute to changes in global climate patterns. . While the international scientific community is in agreement about the reality of global warming. segments of the general public. In common usage. Global Warming is defined by The U.” There is a correlation between the Greenhouse effect and the Global Warming. Environmental Protection Agency definition of global warming as: “an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth’s surface and in the troposphere. this is mostly because humanity by burning fossil fuels and polluting the environment with all sort of chemicals. The projection is that the warming will increase by six to ten degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the century. “global warming” often refers to the warming that can occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities. both natural and human induced. are still skeptical. The greenhouse gas emissions that cause the warming trend are likely to continue into the future. The results are not just merely warmer weather. particularly in the United States. The concern is that global warming is increasing. explosive urban development and the destruction of the rain forest among other manmade disasters are having a drastic effect in our planet’s climate change and temperature in a global scale. Global warming can occur from a variety of causes.S. . In meteorology and oceanography. Using at least 3 reasons. Even when the definition of these terms can be applied in many ways.Explain the pressure gradient force. the centrifugal and Coriolis forces are introduced. it is convenient to postulate a rotating frame of reference wherein the Earth is stationary. the pressure gradient force is balanced by the gravitational force. Their relative importance is determined by the applicable Rossby numbers (named for Carl-Gustav Arvid Rossby. I am aiming my definition towards physical geography: Pressure Gradient Force: In the case of atmospheres. The global map of total annual rainfall shows great differences in precipitation received from place to place. Tornadoes have high Rossby numbers. wind zones and precipitation patterns. Coriolis Effect and frictional Force: Coriolis effect is in the large-scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. for example.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment 11 4. . maintaining hydrostatic equilibrium. the Coriolis Effect and the frictional force and their effects on the direction and speed of air at the surface and aloft in the atmosphere. while tornado-associated centrifugal forces are quite substantial. Coriolis forces associated with tornados are for practical purposes negligible. thus providing a pressure gradient force which counteracts the force of gravity on the atmosphere. In the Earth's atmosphere. explain why this is so. air pressure decreases at increasing altitudes above the Earth's surface. so. is a dimensionless number used in describing fluid flow). There is a close relationship between atmospheric pressure patterns. In accommodation of that provisional postulation. Describe the wind and pressure systems (surface and aloft) that exist in the zone from the Equator to the North Pole in the Northern Hemisphere. These high pressure cells shift towards the poles in the summer and towards the equator in the winter. South Pacific High. North Pacific High. . and nearly balanced by the outwardly radial pressure gradient.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment Frictional Force: 12 High pressure systems rotate in a direction such that the Coriolis force will be directed radially inwards. also explain why the western United States has dramatically different climates from the eastern United States. Low pressure systems rotate in the opposite direction. An important consideration when considering climate and climatic change today is the role of El Nino. In each case a slight imbalance between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient accounts for the radially inward acceleration of the system's circular motion. wet winters. 5. South Atlantic High. playing a major role in the formation of the world's tropical deserts and the Mediterranean Basin's climate. and Indian Ocean High. dry summers and mild to cool. Mediterranean climate zones are associated with the five large subtropical high pressure cells of the oceans: the Azores High. Explain the ocean/atmosphere changes that take during an El Nino/ENSO cycle and the effects these changes have on our lives and societies. so that the Coriolis force is directed radially outward and nearly balances an inwardly radial pressure gradient. We can begin by describing the CSA weather in California as warm to hot. Considering that comparison. .Compare/contrast the Mediterranean (Csa) climate found along the coast of southern California and the humid subtropical (Cfa) climate found in South Carolina. This direction is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. rainy and humid summer. While the mountains in the southwest receive generally large amounts of snow. which experience dry winters (by humid subtropical standards) and warm springs. South Carolina). usually three inches or less. CFA Precipitation is plentiful in the humid subtropical climate zone in North America. while the South Pacific High is related to the Atacama Desert and central Chile's climate. and Gibson Desert) and the Mediterranean climate of southwest and south-central Australia. and the Indian Ocean High is related to the deserts of western Australia (Great Sandy Desert. Although most areas tend to have precipitation spread evenly throughout the year. The physical geography on the Western United States plays an important role in the different types of climates throughout this region.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment 13 The South Atlantic High is similarly associated with the Namib Desert and the Mediterranean climate of the western part of South Africa. and temperatures reach freezing only a few times in the winter with rare snowfall. The seasonal temperatures vary greatly throughout the West. because the summers are long and almost tropical. Summers in this zone are hot and humid. with daily averages above 25 °C (77 °F) with average daily maximums above 30 °C (86 °F). Georgia and Columbia. The North Pacific High is related to the Sonoran Desert and California's climate. The Desert Southwest has very hot summers and mild winters. The Inland Northwest has a continental climate of warm to hot summers and cold to bitter cold winters. The typical humid subtropical climate is best demonstrated by the American Deep South. In contrast. Great Victoria Desert. followed immediately by a long. Low elevations on the West Coast have warm to very hot summers and get little to no snow. a somewhat monsoon-like pattern is seen in parts of the Southeast (in locales such as Augusta. . hot. In fact. California. accompanies low air surface pressure in the western Pacific. Violent thunderstorms occur east of the Rockies. The driest place recorded in the U. the effects reverberate around the world. is Death Valley. The Southern Oscillation refers to variations in the temperature of the surface of the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean (warming and cooling known as El Niño and La Niña respectively) and in air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific. The smaller distances across the Atlantic mean that the Atlantic warm pool is much smaller.S. that occurs across the tropical Pacific Ocean roughly every five years. with the most common and most destructive centered on Tornado Alley. there is simply not enough of a warm pool to make that much difference to worldwide weather. The large width across the Pacific allows the existence of a huge pool of warm water in the west. which covers eastern portions of the West. not a storm. Drought is much more common in the West than the rest of the United States. In the Atlantic. So even if there is an analogue to El Niño in the Atlantic. The Pacific warm pool is a gigantic source of heat that is one of the main controls of the atmosphere. The two variations are coupled: the warm oceanic phase.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment 14 Annual rainfall is greater in the eastern portions. the greatest annual rainfall in the United States falls in the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest. (Texas to North Dakota). We can define El Nino as a semi periodic climate pattern. El Niño. Tornadoes occur every spring on the southern plains. causing the weather disruptions associated with this cycle. The Pacific is more important in this regard is that the fundamental driver of the whole ocean-atmosphere circulation is heat. accompanies high air surface pressure in the western Pacific. while the cold phase. it does not have the power to cause weather . La Niña. and all states in between and to the east. gradually tapering off until reaching the Pacific Coast where it again increases. When the warm pool shifts east (during El Niño) or shrinks west (during La Niña). Dreyer. The Lord of Uraniborg: A Biography of Tycho Brahe. particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean. Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study. 1964. Cambridge 1990 University of Tennessee's Dept. Galileo: A Life. but the El Niño does make these effects more likely to happen. Ernan (ed. Reprinted New York 1963 V. McMullin. James Jr. Caspar.. The extremes of this climate pattern's oscillations. Tycho Brahe: A Picture of Scientific Life and Work in the Sixteenth Century. References: Reston. New York: Dover Publications. New York: Basic Books. are the most affected. Johannes Kepler. M. Thoren. cause extreme weather (such as floods and droughts) in many regions of the world. Edinburgh 1890. 1993. as well as drought in Indonesia and Australia. Keep in mind that you aren't guaranteed these effects even though there is an El Niño going on. Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing. J. 1994.. Physics & Astronomy: Astronomy 161 page on Johannes Kepler: The Laws of Planetary Motion.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment disturbances that affect more than local conditions. Galileo Man of Science. El Niño and La Niña. 15 A strong El Niño is often associated with wet winters over the southeastern US. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.). . in Geosphere-biosphere Interactions and Climate.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/essentials/essentials_of_geography..com/36487/difference-betweengeocentric-and-heliocentric/#ixzz2DxCDL3kP Christianson.html Retrieved 2012-11-30 Artic Climatology and Meteorology. pp.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment Biography of Johannes Kepler. and the Rise of Heliocentrism. Retrieved 2012-11-29 The discipline of geography. what’s Geography?. ISBN 0-521-78238-4. Lennart O.edu/geography/Students/what_geography.universetoday. 2009 http://www. . The Galileo Project. 1984.ht ml. Cambridge University Press. August 2. http://www4.uwsp.html. G.com/36487/difference-between-geocentric-andheliocentric/#ixzz2DxChL8tlhttp://www. eds. http://www.edu/sci/kepler. Hammer.org/arcticmet/basics/weather_vs_climate. Schneider.nmsu. Bengtsson and Claus U. New York: Free Press.universetoday. National Snow and Ice Data Center. The Fall of the Geocentric Theory. E. 90-91. http://nsidc. 2001.coss. Rice University http://galileo.html Retrieved 2012-11-30 Stephen H.edu/tharriso/ast105/Ast105week04. Retrieved 2012-11-29 FSU geography.fsu. In the Presence of Creation: Isaac Newton and His Times.html.rice. Retrieved 2012-11-29 16 Difference Between Geocentric and Heliocentric by Abby Cessna. http://astronomy. Universe Today. Strategies.Earth Science and Society – Midterm Assignment 17 E. A.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact. Climate Change: Science. Davis.nasa. Nssdc. University of Michigan. V. P. & Solutions. p.nasa. http://nssdc. Cochran.gsfc. and D. Claussen. 2001.gsfc. 373. NASA Earth Fact Sheet".html .gov.