Phthalate Alternatives-.pdf

technical briefingPhthalates and Their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns january 2011 The Lowell Center for Sustainable Production at the University of Massachusetts Lowell helps to build healthy work environments, thriving communities, and viable businesses that support a more sustainable world. The Lowell Center for Sustainable Production at the University of Massachusetts Lowell developed this technical briefing to provide an overview of alternatives to phthalates used as plasticizers in a wide range of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic products, with particular emphasis on children’s products. The document describes uses of and products containing phthalates (Table 1) and outlines some of the health and environmental concerns raised regarding these substances. Drop-in substitutes are an attractive solution for manufacturers as they do not require a major production process change, but they may also pose health and environmental concerns, which are summarized in Table 2. Another solution for manufacturers is to choose a type of plastic that does not require a plasticizer. This document identifies petroleum-based and biobased plastics that do not require the use of phthalates and describes the known human health and environmental concerns of these alternative plastics (Tables 3 and 4). We gratefully acknowledge the support of the New York Community Trust for our continued work on sustainable products. © 2011 Lowell Center for Sustainable Production Contents Why There is Concern about Phthalates 4 Sources of Exposure to Phthalates 6 Human Health and Environmental Concerns 7 Chemical Alternatives to Phthalates 8 Alternative Plastics that Do Not Require Phthalates     Petroleum-Based 13     Biobased 16 References 21 Phthalates and their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns  •  3 . their primary function. School supplies made of PVC such as notebooks and binders. The addition of phthalates to PVC makes this brittle plastic more flexible and durable. Thus. Phthalates have been identified as reproductive and developmental toxicants. automotive parts. art supplies. and electrical cords. most commonly phthalates. and the products in which they are used. boots. sucking or teething. di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP). paints. water. diisononyl phthalate (DINP). and benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP or BzBP). a According to the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). reduce cracking of nail polish. house dust. In addition. Phthalates are also used as solvents in many applications and in cosmetics to hold fragrance. DIDP and DnOP are prohibited pending additional study and review. lunchboxes. handbags. building materials. soil. phthalates are not chemically bound to the PVC polymer. paperclips. and umbrellas may contain phthalates. diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP). such as China and India. they are unregulated and continue to be used in toy making in many other parts of the world. and BBP in children’s toys and childcare articles in concentrations exceeding 0. food wrap. Table 1 identifies six common phthalates. The annual global production of phthalates is estimated to be 11 billion pounds. backpacks. and make products more effectively penetrate and moisturize the skin. Six of the commonly used phthalates in consumer products are di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Because of health concerns. food. and childcare articles made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). dibutyl phthalate (DBP). In addition. and soft plastic shoes such as flip-flops may also contain phthalates. particularly under conditions involving heat. reduce stiffness of hair spray. PVC products may contain up to 50 percent by weight of plasticizers. lotion. DINP. shampoo. packaging.Why There Is Concern about Phthalates P hthalates are a class of synthetic chemicals that are widely used in a variety of consumer products including medical devices. DBP. Further. Other consumer products may also be direct or indirect sources of phthalate exposure. and other media. a children’s toy is a product intended for use by a child 12 years or younger for playing and a childcare article is a product that a child 3 years of age or younger uses for sleeping. automotive parts. feeding. though their toxicity varies somewhat depending on the specific phthalate structure. the US EPA classifies DEHP and BBP as probable and possible human carcinogens respectively.1 percent. living organisms. home furnishings. children continue to be exposed to phthalates in cosmetics and personal care products such as nail polish.a Although six phthalates are now restricted from children’s products in the US and European Union (EU). soap. Raincoats. pharmaceutical coatings. food wrap. 4  •  Lowell Center for Sustainable Production • University of Massachusetts Lowell . children’s toys. These include medical devices such as plastic tubing and intravenous storage bags. over time they leach out of products and diffuse into the air. floor tiles. and hair spray. as of February 2009 the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act restricted DEHP. 9]. Dolls. drinking straws. car care products. DINP Primarily used as a plasticizer for PVC [1]. raincoats. Floorings. toys. Their Primary Functions and Products in Which They Are Used Phthalate Function(s) Product(s) DEHP Primarily used as a plasticizer for PVC [1]. rattles. gloves. not intentionally added to those products) [1. paints and lacquers. shoes. Phthalates and their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns  •  5 . car care products. poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) and rubber. automobile upholstery. cosmetics. (low concentrations have been detected in baby equipment and children’s toys as by-products and impurities. BBP Used as a plasticizer for PVC.3. DIDP Primarily used as a plasticizer for PVC [1]. ink. adhesives. spoons. food conveyor belts. balls. clothing. automotive trim. medical devices (plastic tubing and intravenous storage bags). pool liners. DBP Used as a plasticizer for PVC.7]. Electrical cords. adhesives. paint. Vinyl flooring. food wrapping materials. conveyor belts and garden hoses [1]. car and public transport interior [1. sealants. (may sometimes be present in toys as impurity or by-product in trace amounts) [1.Table 1 Six Common Phthalates. Teethers. sealant. bottle cap liners. shoes. Also used as solvent and fixative in paint and cosmetics [1.9]. home furnishing.12]. rubber. tarps. polyurethane.13]. food wrapping material. Latex adhesives. insecticides. clothes. and artificial leather. DnOP Primarily used as a plasticizer for PVC [1]. clothing and pharmaceutical coating. furniture. some inks and dyes. food and food related uses. polysulfide and acrylic-based polymers [12]. sealants. and floor tiles [1. leather for car interiors and PVC flooring [1]. as well as intravenous bags and tubing which may contain as much as 80 percent DEHP. Once in the environment. Food may become contaminated when it comes in contact with packaging that contains phthalates. 4]. and respiratory therapy [4. Neonates and developing fetuses at critical points in their development may be exposed through maternal use of PVC products. 40].Sources of Exposure to Phthalates S ince phthalates are not chemically bound to the PVC polymer. major medical uses of PVC are in blood and plasma bags. processing and waste disposal. Phthalates may leach when the medical device is heated or when the PVC comes into contact with blood. Phthalates have low volatility and are slowly released from PVC products during use. this may be a major source of exposure. and gloves. They are also released into the environment during their production. An additional exposure route for young children is through mouthing toys. Studies of skin exposure to phthalates are limited. 13]. and other products containing phthalates. In addition to the length of time of mouthing activity. 11. Fetal exposure to phthalates has been shown to be correlated with maternal exposure. extra- corporeal oxygenation. catheters. Other uses include intestinal feeding and dialysis equipment. childcare articles. For example. oral absorption depends on the migration rate of the phthalate in the product that is being mouthed. Newborns and children in pediatric settings may receive the highest doses from blood transfusions. drugs. Human exposure to phthalates occurs through inhalation and ingestion of contaminated air and food as well as from skin contact. phthalates can dissolve in saliva and become absorbed into the body [2]. Studies suggest 100 % oral absorption of phthalates such as DEHP and DINP at daily exposure levels [3. but this route is thought to be insignificant [2]. Children may be exposed to higher concentrations of phthalates from food consumption because they tend to consume more food than adults relative to their body weight [1. the duration of mouthing activity for toys and childcare articles varies by age [3]. phthalates bind to particles––primarily dust particles in the home––and can be carried in the air over long distances [2]. For the general population. According to the CPSC. 8. The extent of oral absorption through mouthing of phthalate-containing products at amounts to which children are expected to be exposed is not well studied. or intravenous fluids. 6  •  Lowell Center for Sustainable Production • University of Massachusetts Lowell . diffusing into the air. A study by the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that younger children’s higher concentration of phthalates may be partly due to mouthing of toys and childcare articles as well as coming into closer contact with PVC flooring products [4]. the most frequently used plasticizer in medical devices. they can be released from products or dissolve upon contact with liquids or fats. Through mouthing of these products. However. Epidemiologic studies have also evaluated the human health impacts of phthalate exposure. 13. fertility impairment. 28. Studies suggest BBP may have endocrine disrupting effects in fish. 24. 8.] Phthalates and their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns  •  7 . and thyroid effects. 30. 50. For example. liver and kidneys have been observed in animals and in some limited human studies. 29. 31. 4. BBP has been shown to be toxic to aquatic organisms and may cause long-term adverse effects in aquatic environments. [See 2. asthma. These studies have identified a possible association between exposure to phthalates and male reproductive malformation. Adverse effects on the lungs.Human Health and Environmental Concerns M ost of the early studies on the health effects of phthalates experimented with doses administered to laboratory animals above human exposure levels. sperm damage. Phthalates may also pose risks for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems particularly in the vicinity of phthalate processing industries. other phthalates such as DEHP have the potential to biodegrade under aerobic conditions. early puberty in girls. researchers have noted health effects such as reproductive abnormalities and developmental effects in animals given doses of phthalates similar to those to which humans are exposed. In recent years however. Some phthalates are bioaccumulative and have been detected in aquatic organisms. female reproductive tract diseases. 42. 11. Birds and mammals may suffer impacts from food chain exposures. Table 2 Alternative Plasticizers Alternative Environmental Concerns Function/Product Human Health Concerns ATBC: Acetyl tributyl citrate • Primarily used as a plasticizer in cosmetic products. There is also evidence of effects on the kidney. significant exposure may lead to adverse health effects. In addition to their application as alternative PVC plasticizers. toys. sebacates. printing inks [17]. Blood and transitional epithelium cells in urine was also observed [22. exercise mats and cushions. • Can bioaccumulate and is inherently biodegradable (in an inherent biodegradation test. 2-dicarboxylate • Primarily used as a plasticizer in PVC medical devices (blood tubes or packaging for nutrient solutions). Most evidence on human health effects is derived from laboratory studies as few epidemiologic studies have been conducted on these materials. shoes. pharmaceutical tablet coatings. spleen. thyroid weight. printing inks and plastics in concrete. However. 80 percent was degraded). and phosphates. Most of these alternative plasticizers are not well studied with regard to their potential effects on human health and the environment. in a nonstandard test aerobic degradation was slow and no data is available on anaerobic degradation [21]. food packaging.Chemical Alternatives to Phthalates A number of substances have been identified as alternative plasticizers. May have moderate irritation effects on eyes and increase liver weights [21]. skin. 40]. textile coatings. Although many of these alternatives show promising application potential. • Also used as a surface lubricant in the manufacture of metallic articles that contact food [14. DINCH: Di-isononylcyclohexane-1. cosmetics products. and their potential health and environmental effects. 21]. • No data found regarding effects of environmental exposures. medical devices. • Intravenous exposure affects the central nervous system and blood in laboratory animals. However. Table 2 identifies some alternative plasticizers currently used in children’s and other consumer products. liver weight. liver. flavoring substance in foods. testes. and uterus. adipates. Like phthalates. inks. Some documented effects from exposure to the alternative plasticizers that are currently being used in children’s products and other consumer products include eye. In addition. some alternative plasticizers may be toxic to aquatic organisms and may not biodegrade in the environment. 17. adhesives. 8  •  Lowell Center for Sustainable Production • University of Massachusetts Lowell . 15. and respiratory irritations. and other consumer products. these alternative plasticizers are not chemically bound to the polymer and can leach out of products. these substances are also being used as solvents and fixatives in cosmetic products. toys. serum gammaglutamyl transferase and thyroid-stimulating hormone was observed in laboratory animals after repeated exposure. an increase in testes weight. • Studies show that it inhibits the proliferation of Lymph node T cells [16]. They are being substituted in products that traditionally use phthalates. adhesives. These alternatives include citrates. childcare articles and medical devices. • Acute toxicity effect is low. • Exhibits fire and explosive hazard in the presence of strong oxidizers and nitrates [14]. food packaging. 19. such as toys. vinyl. • Very limited data on environmental effects is available. and packaging [18.Alternative Function/Product Human Health Concerns Environmental Concerns DOTP: Dioctyl terephthalate • Primarily used as a plasticizer for PVC toys. secondary agent in bronchospastic reaction. acrylonitrilebutadiene rubber. TETM: Tri-2-ethylhexyl trimellitate • Primarily used for heatresistant PVC articles. adhesives. • Studies involving rats have reported skin and eye irritations. testis and uterus by repeated oral administration [18]. • Toxic to the crustacean Daphnia magna. Two standard tests administered by OECD concluded it is biodegradable in aerobic environments [21]. Vapor may also produce asthmatic symptoms in as little as 5 minutes [21]. childcare articles. cables. and chloroprene rubber [24]. • No data found describing human exposure. printing inks. consumer products. in aquatic sediments and in soils treated with sewage sludge. styrene-butadiene rubber. tubes. • Slightly lower migration rate was found when compared to DEHP [40]. • In rats. beverage closures and other polymer materials including cellulose acetate-butyrate. • Slightly irritating to eyes but will not damage eyes. polyurethanes. and PET [40]. exposure through diet resulted in slightly increased liver weights and peroxisome proliferation [21]. and floor/ wall coverings [21] • May cause irritation. packing. natural rubber. • Toxic to laboratory animals through inhalation. • Available data indicate that it does not biodegrade readily [21].40]. rabbits and mice and the eyes of rabbits. Mesamoll II: alkylsulphonic phenyl ester (ASE) • Used as a plasticizer in PVC. • A worker developed asthma from exposure to vapors from heated PVC film. styrene. • Has not been comprehensively studied for toxic effects. • Potential for bioconcentration in aquatic organisms is low. Phthalates and their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns  •  9 . nausea and vomiting in humans from exposure to mists and fumes. fillers. ESBO: Epoxidized soybean oil • Primarily used as a plasticizer in closure gaskets used to seal glass jars. • No data found regarding potential environmental effects. blends of styrenebutadiene rubber and butadiene rubber. • Studies in dogs showed an increase in weight of liver and spleen. • Shown to irritate the skin of guinea pigs. cellulose nitrate. • Suspected to cause some effects on the kidney. COMGHA: Acetylated monoglycerides of fully hydrogenated castor oil • Used in PVC-containing films. • No data found regarding effects of environmental exposures. Studies involving rodents showed inflammatory damage to the kidneys [23]. • Prolonged exposure may cause dermatitis. Likely to be biodegradable under aerobic and anaerobic conditions [32]. profiles. • Potential for environmental effects is associated with the accumulation of the compound in biota. PVC-products used in the hospital sector (blood platelet bags). food packaging materials and other polymers such as polyolefin. Estimated to be bioaccumulative.21]. bottles. isobutyleneisoprene rubber. and chloroprene rubbers [32. and as a stabilizer to minimize the ultraviolet degradation of PVC resins baby food jars. liver. paint and lacquers. daphnids and algae. it does not migrate when used in PVC even under harsh conditions such as high temperature [41]. printing inks and other PVC products [21. 40]. DEHA: Di(2-ethyl hexyl) adipate • Used as a plasticizer in toys. fillers. • Chronic data on crustaceans show adverse effects on reproduction of Daphnia magna. • May produce dose-dependent changes in the body. and rubber products. • No data found. coated fabrics. wood veneer. shoes. plastic in concrete. Also used as a food additive [19]. tubing. flexible film. • Readily biodegradable. coatings for cloth. reduced bodyweight and increased liver weight (may be a result of hepatic peroxisome proliferation) in mice and rats [21. crustaceans and fish. • Available data indicate evidence of biodegradability [21]. HPCL: Hyperbranched poly (Є-caprolactone) • Intended primary use is in PVC applications including coating resins. adhesives. • No data found on bioaccumulation [53]. • No data found. • Expected to be widely used in the near future in products for the hospital sector. • No data found regarding potential environmental effects. hepatocellular injury and carcinogenesis [19]. • Slightly toxic when administered intravenously in animal studies. sealants. • No data found regarding potential environmental effects. artificial leather. • May cause impaired blood clotting. 40]. paint and lacquers. 4-benzenedicarboxylate • Used as a plasticizer in PVC toys. pavement. and carpet backing. DBA: Di-butyl adipate • Primarily used as a plasticizer for resins. hemorrhage. [39]. BHT: Butylated hydroxytoluene • Used in childcare articles intended to be mouthed such as teething products and as an antioxidant in EVA and polyethylene plastics. stationery. cytotoxicity. • Toxic to algae. • Combustible. other vinyl products. • Not a bioaccumulative substance. striping compounds. gloves. • No data found on long-term exposure effects. • Reported to cause liver tumors. polymer additive. 10  •  Lowell Center for Sustainable Production • University of Massachusetts Lowell . • Moderately toxic to fish. sheet vinyl flooring. walk-off mats. Mildly irritating to skin and causes coughing when inhaled [54]. • According to one study. wire and cable. • No data found regarding potential environmental effects. vinyl flooring. • Also used in films employed in food packaging materials. Also used in floor wax [53]. bottle caps and closures.Alternative Function/Product Human Health Concerns Environmental Concerns Eastman 168: bis(2ethylhjexyl)-1. and processing aids [41]. electric connectors. adhesive agents. and PVC/VA copolymer resins. TEHPA: Tri(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate • Used in fillers. paint and lacquers. • Slowly biodegrades under anaerobic conditions when present in weak solutions [21]. In a test involving the microorganism thiobacillus ferrooxidans. • May produce moderate erythema and slight irritation to eyes. as well as vinyl and urethanes [21. • Does not readily biodegrade [21]. 38]. Also used as a plasticizer in PVC products used in the hospital sector. respiration was inhibited.2. • Has been observed to be slightly irritating in guinea pigs. • Sulfonamides may cause hyperbilirubinemia in infants. Also used in fillers. • Reversible liver weight changes have also been observed in rats from chronic exposure [21]. • May be associated with eye irritation and nasal allergies [47]. • Observed effects in rats include hematological changes and reduced body weight gain. packaging. Phthalates and their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns  •  11 .Alternative Function/Product Human Health Concerns Environmental Concerns DEHPA: Di(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate • Primarily used as a flame retardant in products with specific fire resistant demands. sulfonamides may cause hemolytic anemia in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase-deficient neonates [37]. • Ecosystem toxicity data indicate it is harmful to algae. adhesives. • Has a high bioaccumulation potential and has been shown to degrade slowly [21. plastic in concrete and similar DEHPA applications [21]. Oral administration to rats also showed increased liver weight. inhalation caused weakness. • Compatible with nitrocellulose and polyvinylidene chloride. irritability and headache. floor and wall coverings [21]. flooring. but only exhibiting a weak mutagenic effect (this is however based on studies without detailed descriptions of the study design) [21]. • Exhibits moderate acute toxicity when administered orally to rats. TXIB: 2. 48]. • A slight evidence of carcinogenicity has been observed in female mice [21]. wallpaper. • Reported to be teratogenic in rats.4-trimethyl 1. artificial leather. plastic in concrete. • Anticipated to be used in printing ink and adhesives [21. • Has low bioaccumulation potential and is inherently biodegradable [21]. printing inks. • Has some potential for bioaccumulation [21]. Anticipated to be used in the future mainly in PVC cables [21]. peroxisome proliferation and increased levels of peroxisome enzymes [21]. cables. products used in the hospital sector. and first and second degree skin burns. Reported to be corrosive to the skin and eyes in rabbits [21].3-pentanediol diisobutyrate • Primarily used as a plasticizer in PVC toys. 38]. In addition. • Data show it is toxic to algae. 47. packaging. OTSA: O-toluene sulfonamide • Information on use is limited. DOS: Dioctyl sebacate • Primarily used as a plasticizer for PVC products and elastomers. crustaceans and fish. • In humans. Not readily biodegradable according to the available aerobic biodegradation data. paint and lacquers. • Causes irritation of the eyes. there is no indication of aquatic toxicity [27]. it shows no indication of dermal absorption/ irritation or eye irritation.Alternative Function/Product Human Health Concerns Environmental Concerns DBS: Di-butyl sebacate • Used as a plasticizer. vinyl flooring. 12  •  Lowell Center for Sustainable Production • University of Massachusetts Lowell . • According to the manufacturer (Danisco). Grindsted soft-n-safe: Made from fully hydrogenated castor oil and acetic acid • Primarily used as a plasticizer in food contact materials (approved for use in the EU. adhesives and sealants [26. • Low and moderate potential for bioaccumulation and bioconcentration in aquatic organisms respectively [56]. shrink wrap film. South America and most of Asia). ink applications. • Mildly toxic when ingested [56]. • Biodegradable [26]. • No hormone-disrupting or mutagenic effects may result [27]. • Combustible. • Biodegradable. textile dyes. and cosmetic and perfume additive [56]. wallpaper. US. • Chronic skin contact may cause skin sensitization [55]. medical devices. flavoring agent. • According to the manufacturer.27]. severe irritation to mucous membranes. mental aberrations. chlorofluorocarbons. ataxia. University of Massachusetts. wheels. fabrics (in furniture garments and upholstery). PU: Polyurethane b Environmental Concerns • Methylene diphenyl isocyanate and toluene diisocyanate degrade rapidly in the environment. Petroleum-based plastics are produced from non-renewable fossil fuel resources. and nitrogen and sulfur dioxides. children’s products.Alternative Plastics that Do Not Require Phthalates Petroleum-Based Plastics C hoosing a plastic that does not require the addition of phthalates is another substitution approach. medallions). chest tightness. breathlessness. The production of these plastics poses a variety of health and environmental concerns. columns. Used in foam toys. These plastics have a wide range of applications in toys. decoration moldings (door frames. sulfuric acid. and disposal of petroleum-derived plastics generate greenhouse gases and pollutants including hydrogen chloride. Table 3 describes nine common petroleum-based plastics that can serve as substitutes for PVC plastic in consumer products and their associated human health and environmental concerns. inflammation of the bronchi. Information in Table 3 is from: Alvarez-Chavez. Lowell. and other consumer products. • No effects have been observed in landfill disposal or after incineration [49]. • Can cause mechanical irritation to the eyes and lungs in dust form. asthmatic attacks. Phthalates and their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns  •  13 . Although all plastics require the use of additives in processing to improve material properties. and in construction as sealants. Produces highly toxic hydrogen cyanide in fires.  Doctoral Dissertation. C. • Exposure to high levels of methylene diphenyl isocyanate and toluene diisocyanate (substances used to produce PU) causes severe lung and eye damage. Table 3 Petroleum-Based Plasticsb Plastic Application/Product Human Health Concerns • Extensively used for applications where PVC or rubber are used [6].  Sustainability of Bio-Polymers: Comparative Analysis of Corn and Potato Based Bio-Polymers. many types of plastic require fewer and less harmful additives than those required by PVC. • Combustible. and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema [49]. volatile organic compounds. Sub- stituting alternative plastics for PVC may also alleviate some of the health and environmental concerns that have been identified in the PVC manufacturing and disposal stages of the life cycle. Extraction of raw materials. heavy metals. coughing. polycyclic aromatic compounds. • Toluene diisocyanate is classified as a possible human carcinogen by IARC [52]. windows. (2009). euphoria. insulators in kitchen appliances. • Also used as adhesive for woods and in varnishes [49]. hydrogen sulfide. manufacturing. tubes. automobile parts. • Ideal disposal method is in landfill. teethers. and recording tapes [49]. abdominal pain. educational and handcraft items. • Recyclable but not biodegradable or compostable [49]. fittings. stationery. vomiting. PP: Polypropylene • Used for tubes. footwear items (shoes insoles and slippers). • Risk of fire due to pellets or powder plastic. except rotocasting [49]. water tanks. household. • International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies formaldehyde as a known human carcinogen) and acetaldehyde as a possible human carcinogen [52] • Recyclable but not compostable [49]. flexible sheeting. insulation material and other soft PVC applications [49]. hinges. diarrhea. • Byproducts of ethylene production. • Raw materials are flammable and explosive. Chloride catalyst used in some vinyl acetate production. It remains in the material and can leach [49]. packaging and coating applications [6. • Chloride catalyst is used in some vinyl acetate production. graphics. packing material. neuritis. foil and plastic bags. • Incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide and low molecular weight aldehydes [49]. • Antimony trioxide is a catalyst in production. bottles. film base. • Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are released during fires [49]. • Exposure to antimony trioxide dust and fumes can irritate the respiratory tract and mucous membranes. and cause antimony pneumoconiosis [51]. electrical components. • Ethylene vinyl acetate has been shown to contain phthalates. 49]. film. PET: Polyethylene terephthalate • Used for fibers. which could be intentionally added to the material or present as a result of contamination during processing [6]. dizziness and headaches. HDPE: High density polyethylene • Used for toys and childcare articles. • Workers exposed to antimony trioxide developed gastritis. exercise mats. • Uses carbon monoxide in production. • Produces toxic chemicals in fires. fittings.Application/Product Human Health Concerns Environmental Concerns EVA: Ethylene vinyl acetate • Used for toys. • Risk of children choking from small parts due to product breakage [49]. and other PVC applications. • Recyclable but not biodegradable or compostable [49]. doll parts. • Flammable compounds (organometallic compounds and peroxides) are used in its production [49]. Plastic 14  •  Lowell Center for Sustainable Production • University of Massachusetts Lowell . • Methylene diphenyl isocyanate and toluene diisocyanate degrade rapidly in the environment. use and disposal of products. tubes and bolts. • Difficult to recycle and not compostable. industrial rollers and a variety of mechanical goods [49]. red blood cells. • Difficult to recycle. Phthalates and their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns  •  15 . • No effects have been observed in landfill disposal or after incineration [49]. water and soil after release from the manufacture. • Styrene can leach from polystyrene and is toxic to the brain and nervous system. • Styrene produces toxic chemicals in fire. SBS: Styrene butadiene styrene • Used for toys and childcare articles [49]. automobile body parts. automotive parts. cabinets. water and soil after release from manufacture. • Consumes higher energy during production than PVC. sports boots. polycarbonate and polystyrene applications [49].Plastic Environmental Concerns Application/Product Human Health Concerns PS: Polystyrene • Suitable for a wide range of applications in children’s products. use and disposal of products [49]. liver. kidneys and stomach in animals [49]. Acrylonitrile is volatile and significant quantities escape into air during use. kidneys and stomach in animals [49]. solid tires. • Produces toxic chemicals in fire. suitcases. red blood cells. • Produces toxic chemicals in fire. • Polyurethane produces toxic chemicals in fires. • Styrene is toxic to the brain and nervous system. liver. • Styrene can leach from polystyrene and is toxic to the brain and nervous system. red blood cells. Can be used for polyvinyl chloride. • IARC classifies acrylonitrile and styrene as possible human carcinogens and butadiene is a known human carcinogen [52]. • Does not degrade easily in the environment. water and soil after release from manufacture. liver. • Styrene can be found in the air. use and disposal of products [49]. [49]. use and disposal of products. • IARC classifies styrene as a possible human carcinogen and butadiene as carcinogenic to humans [52]. liver. • Acrylonitrile is volatile and significant quantities escape into air during use. water and soil after release from the manufacture. • Extremely difficult to recycle. • Styrene can be found in the air. ABS: Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene • Used for toys. • Styrene can leach from PS and is toxic to the brain and nervous system. • Styrene can be found in the air. Styrene is classified as a possible carcinogen by IARC [52]. kidneys and stomach in animals [49]. kidneys and stomach in animals [49]. • IARC classifies acrylonitrile and styrene as possible human carcinogens and butadiene as carcinogenic to humans [52]. signs. polypropylene. machine parts and picture frames [49]. • Extremely difficult to recycle. red blood cells. ABS/Polyurethane Alloy • Used for shoe soles. • Styrene can be found in the air. disposable articles. (2009). Lowell. sugar beets. • 1-octanol used as a polymerization initiator is volatile and combustible and can cause irritation to tissues. • Uses tin octanoate as a catalyst in processing. film and fibers (apparel and carpeting applications. • E-coprolactone used to improve properties causes skin irritation and may cause respiratory tract irritation [57]. Table 4 Biobased Plasticsc Plastic/Source Polylactic Acid (PLA)/corn. Tin octanoate can cause neurotoxic and cytotoxic effects in animals. Properties are similar to polyethylene terephthalate. Furthermore. The biodegradability or effective composting of biobased plastics is dependent on the material’s chemical structure and composition. • Emerging health concerns about tin residues in PLA used in medical applications. rice. wheat. not all biobased plastics are biodegradable or compostable. C.Alternative Plastics that Do Not Require Phthalates Bio-Based Plastics B iobased plastics are alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. soy. May replace thermoplastics in many applications. Organic tin compounds can cause irritation of the skin and lungs. University of Massachusetts. sweet potatoes or rice c Application/Product Human Health Concerns • Used for hard resin for food containers. sugar cane. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) used in development of biobased plastics are also a concern because their effects in the environment are not well understood. Plants such as corn. Many of these plastics are currently under development for a wide range of commercial applications. • 1-octanol used as a polymerization initiator is toxic to aquatic organisms Information in Table 4 is from: Alvarez-Chavez. The use of large quantities of pesticides in industrial agricultural production and hazardous chemicals/additives such as sodium hydroxide. clothing). • Can be completely recycled to lactic acid (but required infrastructure for recycling does not exist).  Doctoral Dissertation. Table 4 lists biobased plastics under commercial development and their potential health and environmental concerns. • Will compost at temperatures above 60 ºC (must hydrolyze first and needs commercial composting infrastructure which it is not widely available) and can be safely incinerated [57]. • Purification of lactic acid requires sulfuric acid. and also masculinization of female or infertility in male aquatic animals. carbon disulfide. Environmental Concerns • Concerns about environmental impacts from use of bioengineered microorganisms in crop production. and chlorine in processing are of concern to human health and the environment. polypropylene and polystyrene [57].  Sustainability of Bio-Polymers: Comparative Analysis of Corn and Potato Based Bio-Polymers. wheat and linseed can be converted to plastics. 16  •  Lowell Center for Sustainable Production • University of Massachusetts Lowell . They may be completely made from plant materials or may be a blend of plant-based and petroleum-based plastics. The production of biobased plastics is not without hazards. Performs better than traditional plastics and comparable to acrylic polymers. nausea. • PHA is non-toxic and nonallergenic to consumers. straws. • Highly biodegradable by numerous aquatic and terrestrial microorganisms [57]. methylene chloride. causes irritation in eyes. is flammable and causes irritation in eyes and skin. rice. irritation of the eyes. • Finely pulverized starch can suspend in the atmosphere and cause powerful explosions. nose and is neurotoxic. shopping bags. and 1. skin. • Concerns about ecosystem impacts from bioengineered microorganisms used in crops. molded goods. Plastic/Source Phthalates and their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns  •  17 . Properties are similar to polyethylene and polystyrene [57]. chemical or enzymatic extraction method.Application/Product Human Health Concerns Environmental Concerns Starch derived plastics Thermoplastic starch (TPS)/corn. adhesives. • Can biodegrade depending on the type and amount of additive and copolymer used [57]. vomiting. skin. and upper respiratory system. upper respiratory system. potato. inks. • Calcium carbonate used as additive may cause irritation in eyes. Methanol is flammable and causes irritation in eyes. • Concerns about impacts on the environment from use of bioengineered microorganisms in crops and during PHA synthesis. beets. films. Diethyl ether is flammable. and a variety of other applications. strings. • Sodium hypochlorite used in processing can burn eyes and skin. skin. • Solvents such as chloroform. golf tees. edge protectors. films. can produce explosive peroxides in contact with oxygen. and optic nerve damage (blindness). tapes. cellulosic biomass • Used for toys. trays. hexane and diethyl ether are used in purification. cups. corn steep liquor. • Another solvent. may use physical. and respiratory system and cough [57]. fibers. Enzymatic method is safer for workers. packaging. toys. tableware. • In processing. planters and planting pots. 2dichloroethane used in physical extraction method are considered possible human carcinogens by IARC. causes narcosis. liver and kidney damage. pyridine. visual disturbance. and produce toxic chlorine [57]. Hexane is flammable. • Titanium dioxide used as additive is a potential occupational carcinogen. PHA: Polyhydroxyalkanoate/ Sugar cane. • Methanol. and mantling for candles and nets. coatings. palm kernel. soy oils. Can behave both as a traditional thermoplastic polymer and an elastomer [57]. wheat and tapioca • Used for packaging. cutlery. ataxia. • The potential for biodegradation of cellulose acetate may be affected by the number of ether linkages in cellulose backbone. • Combined with isocyanates (toluene diisocyanate or methylene diphenyl isocyanate) to make foam products. cellulose acetate propionate (CAP) and cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB)/ cotton fibers and wood • Used for toys. • Methylene diphenyl isocyanate can irritate the skin. and exposure to it can cause severe irritation to mucous membranes. • Poor fire resistant properties. containers. pens. is an irritant of the skin and eyes [57]. adhesive tapes. rapeseed. and elastomers [57]. sunflower and linseed • Used for adhesives. and may cause chronic toxic effects. selective filtration. cellophane. • Cellulose acetate is made by reacting cellulose fibers with a corrosive mixture of acetic compounds and sulfuric. hydrogen peroxide. coatings. • One study showed evidence of compostability of cellulose acetate [57]. euphoria. eyeglass. chest tightness. inflammation of the bronchitis. which may lead to asthma [57]. steering. flexible film substrates for photography. • Corrosive. which is used to reduce flammability. eyes and respiratory tract. mental aberrations. • N-methylmorpholine n-oxide produces explosive peroxides in contact with oxygen. toothbrush handles. • Toluene diisocyanate is classified by IARC as a possible human carcinogenic [52]. flammable and toxic chemicals including dichlorine. Cellulose Cellulose acetate (CA). breathlessness. Chronic exposure to methylene diphenyl isocyanate can sensitize the skin or respiratory tract. frames and sheeting [57]. • Production process has relatively high energy and water requirements. 18  •  Lowell Center for Sustainable Production • University of Massachusetts Lowell . • N-methylmorpholine n-oxide is used in processing cellulose and is classified by the Canadian Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System as a sensitizer. • No data found regarding potential environmental effects. • Toluene diisocyanate is volatile. coughing. asthmatic attacks. carbon disulfide and caustic soda are used in production and can result in worker exposure. semi-permeable and sealable films and automotive coatings. and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema [57]. flexible and rigid foams. castor oil. skin and eye irritant. • Triphenyl phosphate.Plastic/Source Environmental Concerns Application/Product Human Health Concerns Urethanes Polyol/soy oil/ soybean. appliance cases. Plastic/Source Environmental Concerns Application/Product Human Health Concerns Poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT)/sugar from corn with terephthalic acid (PTA) or dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) derived from petroleum • Used in fibers for textiles. which could be used in esterification of dimethyl terephtalate. carbon disulfide and caustic soda used in production. • Acrolein and allyl alcohol fumes might be produced in small amounts during processing. flax. Inhalation and skin absorption of methanol can irritate the mucous membrane and affect the nervous system. is flammable. • Kraft lignin is non toxic and approved for food and food packaging applications according to FDA regulations [57]. Accidental dermal contact with dimethyl terephtalate is of concern due to the possibility of burns from molten liquid. • Made by reacting genetically modified sugar from corn with terephthalic acid or dimethyl terephtalate derived from petroleum. • Methanol. • Can also be obtained by biological methods by using enzymes. flammable and toxic chemicals including dichlorine. hydrogen peroxide. • Biodegradable and compostable [57]. Can be used in packaging and as a substitute product for nylon [57]. • Workers can be exposed to corrosive. thermosets and rubbers. carbon disulfide and caustic soda that are used in production. pineapple leaf) • Can be used for reinforcing starch and protein based composites [57]. sisal henequen. hydrogen peroxide. • Biodegradable [57]. Phthalates and their Alternatives: Health and Environmental Concerns  •  19 . Lignin/Plants and Wood • Used as filler in thermoplastics. • Potential for toxic exposures to workers from corrosive and toxic chemicals including dichlorine. Breathing small amounts of acrolein may cause eye watering and burning of the nose and throat and a decreased breathing rate (these acute effects usually disappear after exposure stops) [57]. Can be converted into carbon fibers [57]. • Production process has relatively high energy and water requirements. • Terephthalic acid is a suspected neurotoxicant. and may cause skin to become dry and crack. hemp. carpets and apparel. • Production has high energy and water requirements. • Breathing large amounts of acrolein may damage the lungs and could cause death. Natural fiberreinforced composites (kenaf. ramie. • Biodegradation is lower than cellulose. • Produced as a byproduct of the Kraft process and requires harsh chemical treatment. particularly the optic nerve. jute. • Compostable [57]. bacteria and water [57]. varnishes. food service items. industrial packaging. • Biodegradable and compostable [57]. • Concern about unknown environmental effects of nanoparticles. and formaldehyde or glutaraldehyde as crosslinker [57]. Polysaccharide nanocomposites • Concern about unknown human health impacts of nanoparticles [57]. alkaline and acid substances. garden supplies. alkaline and acid substances. hydrogen peroxide. lacquers. water and soil emissions need to be addressed [57]. adhesives.Human Health Concerns Environmental Concerns Cellulose nano-composites (obtained by chemical treatments and steam explosion of cellulose starting materials) • Concern about unknown human health impacts of nanoparticles. • Formaldehyde is a known human carcinogen according to IARC [52]. • Air. Corn zein • Used for films. textile fibers and molded plastic objects. • Potential for toxic exposures to workers from corrosive. • Production involves the use of alcohol or volatile solvent. flammable and toxic chemicals including dichlorine. Plastic/Source Application/Product Soy protein • Can be used to make foams. • Application limited due to low strength and hydrophilicity. • Formaldehyde is a known human carcinogen [52]. carbon disulfide and caustic soda used in production [57]. and formaldehyde or glutaraldehyde [57]. • Production involves the use of alcohol or volatile solvents. • Soyplus™ has been used for toys. golf tees and building materials [57]. and irritation of the eyes and nose and occupational asthma [57]. • Chronic exposure to glutaraldehyde may cause dermatitis. • Production process has relatively high energy and water requirements [57]. • Biodegradable and compostable [57]. mulch. • Hot press molding mechanical properties of corn gluten-based materials are similar to PVC [57]. 20  •  Lowell Center for Sustainable Production • University of Massachusetts Lowell . and irritation of the eyes and nose as well as occupational asthma [57]. • Chronic exposure to glutaraldehyde causes skin sensitivity resulting in dermatitis. 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