PhilHis Halili

Philippine HistoryBy Maria Christine N. Halili Chapter I Knowing Philippine History 1. Understanding History It is by the possession and transmission of a culture that man differs from other animals, and the first culture began with the habitual use of tools and articulate speech (Pulmer, ed. 1965: 16). For some writers like Nick Joaquin, history as culture is not merely a chronological reconstruction of the past nor an analytical interpretation of past events, but a process of creation or a formation of culture, specifically a "national culture." In its broadest meaning, history is the study of past events. It generally presents the known past. What is unknown is yet to be retrieved. The recording and analysis of experiences of a society comprise the totality of a people's history. In analyzing history, the use of correlated disciplines is necessary to understand the reasons and consequences of human actions. By referring to philosophies of history, the theories of some great thinkers should be considered. In the investigation and interpretation of the past, these theories could explain how and why events happen in societies. Arnold Toynbee's challenge and response theory is based on the idea that man responds to the situation placed before him. His actions are based on his thoughts. Thus, the society's way of facing the challenges depending upon its capabilities uncovers the pattern of the society's history. Mankind's approach in coping with challenges determines history. The 12-volume series of A Study of History (1934-61) is based on Toynbee's thesis that history reflects the progress of civilizations and societies. He viewed the past as a succession of civilizations rather than political entities. For him, there were patterns in the histories of various civilizations for which he came to the conclusion that there appears to be laws governing the lives of human civilizations. The general pattern shows the growth, breakdown, and eventual dissolution of a particular civilization leading to the formation of a new one. Based on his hypothesis, the failure of a civilization to survive was the result of its inability to respond to challenges. Under various circumstances, a power will wish to extend its influence at the expense of another. The threatened power will then reevaluate the challenge and adopt the course of action to curb the strategy of the opposing power. To illustrate, the prehistoric men had shown their ability to respond to the challenge of surviving amidst the conditions of the environment. The use of crude stone tools, then later, highly polished ones, and those made from metal and other raw materials like clay soil, shows the capacity of human beings to devise material equipment for subsistence. The preservation of the man's material equipment is another challenge that people have to face. Cultural artifacts made of wood, barks of trees, and other organic materials decompose more rapidly in hot and humid regions. Many of the objects left behind by ancient societies are no longer existing as part of archaeological record because they have disintegrated over time. This predicament gives an incomplete view of the past. The response include various kinds of information and techniques on how to preserve the material legacy of the ancient past. Some of them are best kept in their original sites like caves that were used for habitation in the past. While, items such as potsherds (small fragments of pottery), devices made of stone, metal, bones, and teeth (covered with hard enamel) can most likely survive and be presently known and retrieved through the untiring efforts of the archaeologists. In the struggle of dauntless Filipinos to regain the lost rights and freedom during the Spanish era, the propagandists and revolutionaries responded to colonial oppression by resisting. The challenge was posed by the colonial subjugation of the Filipinos, generally characterized by injustice and corruption. The response was defiance to the prevailing rule. Man's actions are not just involuntary movements especially when time allows him to plan his next action. These responses pass through the process of reasoning and analysis. Often, he deals with other people to discuss on how to answer a certain situation. Associated with the aforementioned premises, the exchange theory of Alvin Scaff may be carefully thought about. His exchange theory refers to the systematic statement of principles that govern the exchange of goods (tangible goods like property or money and intangible goods like peace or prestige) between individuals, between groups, between organizations, and even between nations. This is based on the idea of reciprocity. Alliances of people, communities as well as nations are rooted in the idea of interchange. There are some motivational forces found in the society affecting the actions of people involved in the situation. A case in point is the barter system, used in business transactions because there was no currency during those days. Aside from domestic trading existing among the barangays and the islands, the early Filipinos also engaged in foreign trade with China, Japan, Siam (now Thailand), Borneo, Sumatra, Cambodia, and other islands of old Malaysia. Another example in relation to this theory, Mrs. Corazon 'Cory' Aquino, wife of the slain opposition leader, was chosen as the presidential standard bearer amidst high expectations that she would free all political prisoners, abolish censorship of the media, and institute legal proceedings to recover ill-gotten wealth taken by corrupt public servants once elected into office. For Georg Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831), an idea is the moving force of History. However, man has tasks to do so that events may happen. Hegel's role of historical man follows a principle, which he called Weltgiest or world spirit, which embodies ideals like patriotism, heroism, and unity. Since historical individuals are ideals and man follows his ideal, this thought, which is guided by a particular ideal becomes what Hegel called as Geisteswissenchaften or the world of Spirit of thought. This area of thought is the thesis. This combines with a particular situation or matter called Naturwissenchaften, the antithesis or the complete opposite of the Geisteswissenchaften. By the combination of thesis and antithesis, man achieves the synthesis, which is the historical reality. Applying this theory in history, there were guerilla fighters in World War II who were guided by their sense of duty and responsibility to lead the people during the warfare. The situation was the Japanese invasion. The combination of their thoughts like patriotism and heroism resulted to their historical acts, manifested through their deeds and exploits in the battles that were fought against the Japanese forces during the war era. In understanding history, another theory to be considered is the materialist concept of history or economic theory by Karl Marx, another German philosopher. He asserts that the prevailing economic system determines the form of societal organization and the political and intellectual history of the epoch, which thus attribute actions and events in history to economic motives. For him, human interrelations depend on the material conditions of their production. The struggle to maintain life is the most enduring motivation for any human activity. To cite an instance, the intensification of inter-island contacts and the increasing specialization in craftsmanship by early dwellers were brought about by economic consideration. Centuries of trade and personal relations with Southeast Asian neighbors led to the enrichment of Filipino life and culture. As more dwellers traded with foreign merchants, influences in the field of commerce, science, religion, language, and the arts became more evident as they were transmitted to other members of the society. Another example is the Spanish colonial era. It has been said that the three primary motives for vast exploration of lands were for God, gold, and glory, but the main incentive was for economic reasons. Colonies are the important sources of raw materials and opportunities for investment. Spain was at the height of its power in the 16 th century since it exercised political and economic control in its several colonies. Another approach to historical studies is the method of historiography developed by Fernand Braudel (1902-1985), considered the father of historical structuralism. According to Braudel, human actions are not only based on human decisions but also on 'structures' that may be natural (like topography and natural resources) or man-made (like existing laws and technological devices). For example, men build houses for shelter. Even if they want to construct high-rise condominiums in the area, the builders have to consider the availability of resources, the budget of the clients, and the building site, to narrje a few. Furthermore, the introduction of new technology literally transforms societies and thereby, history. In the Braudelian approach, to achieve "total history" is to integrate all aspects of man's past. This involves the study of history in its total view made possible by examining the circumstances underlying such political, economic, social, and cultural events. The pioneers of Philippine nationalist historiography generally wrote in Spanish, and occasionally, in Tagalog. The group in Spain included the Filipino propagandists Jose P. Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, as well as Pedro Paterno, T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Gregorio Sancianco y Gozon, and among others. For Rizal, history offers the key to national identity and the basis for future development. In his writings, he used history to show a uniquely Filipino culture, one which evolved through centuries of contact with other Asians. He edited Dr. Antonio de Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. His annotations of Sucesos was Ms major historical work. He depicted the destructive effects of western colonization on early Filipino societies. Teodoro Agoncillo (1912-1985) is considered as the father of Filipino nationalist historiography. He wrote the conditions of the Philippine past by analyzing the conditions of the masses. His efforts in rewriting history like other contemporary historians were reactions to the traditional presentations of Philippine history, being colonial and elitist. Philippine history is a people's history. As defined by Renato Constantino, history is "the recorded struggle of people for ever increasing freedom and for newer and higher realization of the human person." It is not about the story of man as the individual, but man as the associated man. Man interacts with nature and with other men, thus, consciously changing his own perspective and to some extent, the system of environment. Based on Constantino's supposition that "Philippine history is a story of struggle," the study has to be reassessed with a nationalist perspective in the interest of objectivity. This is to allow the modern Filipino to form a clear picture of his ancestors' conditions and sentiments from the point of view of Filipino writers to correct some historical impressions made by colonial historiography tending to racial bias. *** History is not merely tin 1 woi \ »>! heroes and great men as elucidated by Constantino in his book the Philippines: A Pant Revisited. He pointed out that the masses of individuals as well as the social forces generated by collective lives and struggles have to be included. Men must struggle together to survive the exigencies of natural or social forces intervening their development. The associated man, as part of the society, makes history through his collective lives. Constantino further mentioned that history is not necessarily presenting a long, unbroken chain of events. It illustrates movement of people and ideas over time and space. They may even be in conflict with one another. It is now the task of the historian to weave particular events into a total view so that these experiences can be summed up and analyzed. However, for Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), absolute objectivity is inconceivable. Since people grow up in cultural environments, they have imbibed the prevailing worldview in addition to their own nature. The worldview that they have developed are colored with perspective from which people understand their environments and the events that happen. Clearly, this results to subjectivity according to Dilthey. In conclusion, history can serve as a guide to present and succeeding generations in facing the challenges of the times. By projecting the people's aspirations, a people's history will enable us to grasp the direction of the country's development and identify the factors that impede real progress. Truly, the need for a real people's history becomes more urgent as we Filipinos search for truly Filipino solutions to the problems besetting our country. 2. Sources of History Sources of information provide the evidence from which the historian obtains facts about the past. In writing history, the historian not only relies on past thoughts, rather, reenacts it in the context of analyzing the documents and other records left. This is an indispensable condition in the quest for historical facts. Literature, sports, visual and performing arts like dance can also be considered as visual records of a country's history and culture. Printed sources for the study of early Philippine history can be traced from the missionary chronicles published by the various religious orders assigned to the Philippines, which include the Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits, and Recollects. Although generally viewed as moralistic and ethnocentric with regard to description of Filipino culture and society, these records provided valuable contribution for the study of history during the Spanish period in the Philippines. Friars of the religious orders who had later known the dialects of the natives, recorded observations of Filipino society and culture like Fray Juan de Plasencia (1589), a Franciscan and Fray Pedro Chirino (1604), a Jesuit. **** 1I w only sociilnr histor ian in the islands before 1887 was Dr. Antonio de Moi'j'.a with his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinos (Mexico, 1609), a book on 16 th century Philippines. The Filipino Muslims were able to preserve written materials of great historical value. The first is the sarsila or tarsila, which is a genealogical record of the sultans or datus who tried to preserve the lineage of the ruling class like the Sulu Sarsila and the Maguindanao Tarsila. Copies are in the possession of the existing heirs. Translations are found in Najeeb Saleeby's works. Another material is the kitab, a book attributed to the late Hadji Butu Abdul Baqui, Wazir of the Sulu Sultanate, who tried to record the historical and personal events of his time-the early 20 th century. Philippine Insurgent Records (renamed the Philippine Revolutionary Records, now located in the National Library) represents the records captured by the United States Army during its suppression of the Filipino resistance against American takeover of the Philippines from 1899-1903. An important repository of Filipiniana materials is the National Library, established in Manila on March 9, 1900 to honor the memory of American military personnel killed during the Filipino-American War. Years later, Public Law Act No. 1935, mandated the creation of The Philippine Library, to consolidate all libraries in the Philippine colonial government. Then, in 1916, the colonial administration decided to merge The Philippine Library with other entities and it came to be known as the Philippine Library and Museum. However, in 1928, the Philippine Legislature passed Public Law No. 3477 providing for the separate entities to be called The National Museum and the National Library. Pursuant to Executive Order No. 486, s. 1951, issued by President Elpidio Quirino and a follow-up order, Executive Order No. 39, s. 1963 by President Diosdado Macapagal, public school teachers throughout the Philippines were assigned to collect the histories and customs of their localities. These records are now known as the Historical Data Papers or Provincial Histories, intended to replace government records destroyed during the World War II. Sources of history may be classified as primary and secondary. Primary sources are those that have witnessed the event that took place or have been part of the incident being studied. These include written records (e.g. narratives, manuscripts, public documents, letters, diaries), fossils, artifacts, and testimony from living witnesses. On the other hand, secondary sources have not been part of the event being considered such as magazines, newspapers, pamphlets, typescripts, and articles written about the primary sources. In the Philippines, aside from the National Archives, there are other important repositories of historic documents, which include the Archives of the Dominican Province of the Philippines (Sto. Domingo Convent), the Archives of the University of Santo Tomas, the Archives of the Province of Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary, the Jesuit Archives at the Ateneo de Manila University, and the Archives of the Archbishopric of Manila. Primary and secondary sources are also found in libraries as well as in private collections. Archaeology studies and reconstructs the cultural events of the past through the material remains left by people. Archaeologists study artifacts (material equipment made by people of the past like tools, pottery, and jewelry) and fossils (preserved remains of plants, animals, and people of a remote geological past). Archaeological excavation refers to the systematic recovery and study of these pieces of material evidence. Prehistory, a term given by 19 th century French scholars, covers the past human experiences prior to the existence of written records. The basic source of prehistory is prehistoric archaeology, which is one of the fields of anthropological archaeology. It studies societies at the time writing system has not yet been invented. Societies with written records are being studied in historical archaeology. Archaeology gives us an idea on how things might have looked like at a particular time. Cultural artifacts may be looked at as concrete expressions of the ancient settlers' way in dealing with the problem of adaptation to the environment. Their achievements in material and social culture show much of their behavior, values, and beliefs as well as their intellectual maturity. Unfortunately, the reconstruction of Philippine prehistory will always be incomplete. Many of the objects recovered have disintegrated over time. Materials like wood, barks of trees, and clothing decompose easily particularly in a tropical climate such as ours. Devices made of stone, clay soil, metal and the like, can survive the society that created it and thus, be presently known through the efforts of the archaeologists. Early archaeological undertakings in the Philippines began with the first major expedition in 1881 by a Frenchman, Alfred Marche in the island of Marinduque and the other sites in Central Philippines. Most of his collections are now with the Musee de 1' homme in Paris, and some in Madrid. There were also sporadic finds and pot-hunting activities in various parts of the archipelago prior to this major archaeological excavation. Feodor Jagor, a German traveler, reported having encountered a priest in Naga, Camarines Sur who collected artifacts from ancient graveyards. Dr. Antonio de Morga, in his Sucesos de Las Islas Filipinas (Historical Events of the Philippine Islands), described the ancient artifacts that were recovered by farmers in Luzon, particularly in Ilocos, Pangasinan, I'a m pang, i and Manila. Phese were day vessels of dark brown color and some marked with characters. These items are no longer being manufactured in the islands. Jose Rizal was noted to have found ground and polished stone tools during his exile in Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte. The second major archaeological exploration was carried out by Carl Guthe from the University of Michigan from 1922-1925. With his team, they conducted several test-digs in Palawan, Bohol, Northern Mindanao, and other places in Central* Philippines. The purpose of this Michigan archaeological expedition was to collect Chinese ceramics exported to the Philippines from China, to look into the early Filipino-Chinese relationship. The collection, resulting from the excavation, consisted of more than 30 cubic tons of prehistoric artifacts. They are now kept at the University of Michigan. From 1926 to the outbreak of the Second World War, much of the archaeological discoveries were done by Henry Otley Beyer (1883-1966) born in Edgewood, Iowa who had married Lingayu Gambuk, the 15-year- old daughter of a powerful Ifugao chief in 1910. The discovery of a major archaeological site in Novaliches in 1926, resulting from the construction of a dam for Manila's water supply, was Beyer's first archaeological research in the country. In 1947, Beyer published the Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology by Islands and Provinces, a pioneering research activity in Philippine prehistory. Larry Wilson, a mining prospector, assisted Beyer in the exploration of numerous Pleistocene sites in Northern Luzon. It was Beyer who first disclosed the importance of Palawan in the search of the early man in the Philippines. All over the archipelago, the fossilized remains of large mammals that roamed the islands during the Middle Pleistocene Epoch have been discovered in the 1920s. The fossils of elephas, stegodons, rhinoceroses, and deer have been discovered in Cagayan, Pangasinan, Rizal, Panay Island, and in Northeastern Mindanao. The elephas, stegodon, and rhinoceros are now extinct in the country. In Cabarruyan Island in Lingayen Gulf, a fossilized tooth of a dwarf elephant was reported to have been retrieved. This specie of dwarf elephant was subsequently identified and named Elephas beyeri after H. Otley Beyer, considered as the Father of Philippine Archaeology and Prehistory. Von Koenigswald, a paleontologist known for his work on Java Man, gave the name for this specie. After the Second World War, increased interest in the prehistoric beginnings of the Philippines evolved. Archaeology was later on introduced as part of the curriculum at the University of the Philippines. Wilhelm <.. Solheim II conducted the first postwar excavations in Masbate Island from 1951 to 1953. Alfredo Evangelista and E. Arsenio Manuel assisted him in undertaking the work. Between 1950 and 1954, Solheim was the research associate at the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of the University of the Philippines and the librarian and curator of the American Historical Collection of the U.S. embassy in Manila. His earliest work in Philippine archaeology was in 1951, with the publications on archaeological fieldwork in San Narciso, Tayabas (now Quezon). His activities included extensive field experience in Southeast Asia, as well as the various islands of the Pacific Region. From 1958 to 1962, Robert B. Fox and Alfredo Evangelista, both working for the National Museum of the Philippines, undertook a series of test-digs in the caves of Cagraray, Albay, and Bato, Sorsogon. Tradeware ceramics from China and Thailand were recovered in Calatagan. Fox led the Tabon Caves Archaeological Project in Southwestern Palawan, resulting in the unearthing of late Pleistocene human fossils and stone tools and implements. Charcoal materials analyzed by carbon-14 technique revealed the presence of man in the area between 22,000 to 24,000 years ago. Human fossil bones of at least three individuals were found. These included a large frontal bone, with the brows and part of the nasal bones as well as fragments of a mandible and teeth. Classified as modern man or Homo Sapiens, these are the earliest known human inhabitants of the Philippines. "Neil Mcintosh of the University of Sydney in Australia undertook the analysis and X-rays of the Tabon skullcap and mandible in 1975. Details showed the presence of a thin fissure on the right side of the skull, which according to Mcintosh, may have been the cause of death of the individual. It was probably due to a fall or a bump on the head. Other minor diggings and explorations followed in the 1960s, particularly in the southern regions of the Visayas and Mindanao, led by anthropologists of the University of San Carlos in Cebu and Silliman University in Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental. In 1963- 1964, Marcelino Maceda of San Carlos University, technically assisted by the National Museum, conducted archaeological excavations at Kulaman Plateau in Bukidnon and recovered a number of limestone burial jars. North of this place, Samuel Briones, a graduate student at Silliman University reported the presence of limestone burial jars in several caves he visited in 1966. In Cebu, Karl Hutterer and Rosa Tenazas of San Carlos University recovered prehistoric artifacts in the middle of Cebu City. Tenazas carried out archaeological excavations in the Laguna area and recovered valuable materials, mostly 10 th and 14 th century artifacts in 1968-1969. In I miery. Bat.mgas, .1 group of students from Ateneo de Manila conducted archaeological diggings from 1968 to 1970. The team was composed of Cecilia V. Locsin, Maria Isabel Ongpin, and Socorro P. Paterno. The National Museum of the Philippines, led by its chief archaeologist Robert B. Fox, began a systematic archaeological work in Cagayan Valley in the 1970s. This marked the ardent quest for prehistoric man in the area. Comparable to those previously reported animals (such as elephas, stegodons, and rhinoceroses), new fossil discoveries such as those of crocodiles, giant tortoises, pigs; and deer were found in Cagayan. In 1971, Karl Hutterer returned to the site he previously explored in Basey River in Southern Samar. The following year, Wilhelm Solheim II and Avelino Legaspi dug in the area of Davao del Sur. They found tools made from large shells, manufactured through a flaking technique similar to that used in making stone tools. 3. Unhistorical Data There are some narratives that have been previously accepted in Philippine history as facts but later were found out to be historical errors. It is to the credit of many historians who investigated and took position on what they have discovered in their careful research. These unhistorical accounts include the Maragtas (Story), the Code of Kalantiaw, and the Legend of Princess Urduja. Maragtas is about the 10 Malay datu from Borneo who settled into the Philippine islands. According to the Maragtas, at around 1250 A.D., 10 Bornean datu and their families left their kingdom in search of new homes across the sea to escape the merciless rule of Sultan Makatunaw. Led by Datu Puti, the Borneans landed in the island of Panay and bought the lowlands from the Ati king named Marikudo in exchange for one gold saduk (native hat) and a long gold necklace for Queen Maningwantiwan. After the land sale and pact of friendship, the Atis went to the hills. The Malay datus settled in the lowlands. Datu Puti, Balensusa, and Dumangsil sailed northward to Luzon and landed in the region around Lake Bonbon (Taal). There they built their settlements. Dumangsil and Balensusa's families occupied other neighboring regions now known as Laguna and the Bicol Peninsula. Datu Puti left for Borneo after he knew that his men were leading peaceful lives. The other seven datu stayed in Panay. They divided the island into three districts. Hantik (now Antique) was under Datu Sumakwel. Datu Paiburong ruled Irong-Irong (now lloilo). Datu Bangkaya governed Aklan (now Aklan and Capiz). Led by Datu Sumakwel, a political confederation of barangays (Madya- as) was formed for purposes of protection and close family relations. The story as told by Father Santaren, further described the expansion of the Malay settlers to other parts of the archipelago. The legal code written by Datu Sumakwel also known as the Maragtas Code was previously known as the "oldest known written body of laws" in the Philippines. William Henry Scott (1921-1993) made the study of prehistoric source materials for the study of Philippine history, the subject of his doctoral dissertation at the University of Santo Tomas. He defended his paper before a panel of well-known historians on June 16, 1968. The panelists include leodoro Agoncillo, Gregorio Zaide, Mercedes Grau Santamaria, Nicolas Zafra, and Father Horacio de la Costa, SJ. The research of Scott showed that Maragtas is not a prehispanic document but a book written by Pedro Monteclaro, a local historian of Panay. Monteclaro's publisher in 1907, noted that this Maragtas should not be considered as facts, all of which are accurate and true. The publisher pointed out that many of the author's data do not tally with what we hear from old men. The author wrote that two of his manuscripts were rotten and hardly legible. None of these written materials were preserved for future generations. He made no explanation about the date as well as the origin of his sources. Neither were there claims to clarity. There is no tradition of recording history nor legal decision in Panay during the precolonial times. Thus, the Maragtas could neither support the presence of any pre-Spanish Confederation ofMadiaas (also spelled as Madyaas) nor uphold the existence of a Sumakwel Code. Previously regarded as the second oldest legal code in the Philippines was the Code of Kalantiaw. This code was said to be a set of ancient laws promulgated in 1433 by Datu Bendara Kalantiaw (Spanish spelling, Calantiao) of Aklan, the third Muslim ruler of Panay. The code itself was contained in one of the chapters of the Las Antiguas Leyendas de la Isla de Negros (Ancient Legends of Negros Island) written by Fr. Jose Maria Pavon, a Spanish secular priest who became a parish priest of Himamaylan, Negros Occidental in 1838-1839. Jose E. Marco of Negros Occidental discovered the spurious Pavon manuscripts and presented it to Dr. James Robertson, Director of the Philippine Library and Museum in 1914. According to Marco's confession, he obtained the two manuscript volumes from someone who had stolen them from the Himamaylan conuento during the Revolution. Director Robertson had the Pavon manuscripts published in its English translation in 1917. The Philippine Studies Program of the University of Chicago reprinted the translation in 1957. Eventually, Filipino historians and textbook writers acknowledged the authenticity of the Pavon manuscripts without any doubt. In 1971, the late Ferdinand E. Marcos issued Executive Order No. 294, which created the Order of Kalantiaw Award for services in law and justice. He also issued Presidential Decree No. 105 in 1973, making the Kalantiaw Shrine in Batan, Aklan sacred. It prohibited all forms of desecration including unnecessary noise and violation of such would mean 10 years ol impi isonrnent. Postage stamps, naval ships, paintings, and even beauty pageants (I akambini ni Kalantiaw) were made to honor Datu Kalantiaw. In the unprecedented doctoral study of Scott, he concluded that the Pavon manuscripts were not genuine and that the Code of Kalantiaw was a hoax. He presented his serious objections to this fake code. They are as follows: 1. There is no evidence that Fr. Pavon, the alleged author of the manuscript, was ever in the Philippines in 1838, or parish priest of the town in 1839/ the dates of the manuscript. The discoverer of the alleged manuscript, Jose E. Marco, was also involved in the sale of other fake historical documents. There is no historical evidence for the existence of Datu Kalantiaw, or a code of his name other than the documents presented by Jose Marco. 2. The contents of the manuscript are of dubious value. For example, the author prays for the preservation of the King of Spain in 1838 and dedicates a book to him in 1839, but Spain had no king between 1833 and 1874. 3. The author also states that the month of November was called a bad month for it brought air laden with putrified microbes of evil fevers. It was only in the 1850s that Louis Pasteur discovered the theory of infectious germs. The word "microbe" itself was invented by Dr. Charles Emmanuel Sedillot. He proposed the term for the first time in a lecture before the Academy of Sciences in 1878. 4. The Kalantiaw Code contains many strange edicts that contradict the character of the JFilipino. For example, the code prescribed death penalty for the crime of trespassing on the datu's house, but imposed only a year's slavery for stealing his wife. Eventually, Scott's doctoral dissertation was published by the UST Press (Unitas, Vol. 41, 1968). The following year, it was reissued with the title, Prehistoric Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History (UST Press, 1969). The same book was published in the second revised edition by New Day Publishers (Quezon City) in 1984. In the last chapter of the book, Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino issued in 1992 by New Day Publishers, Scott wrote a chapter titled, Kalantiaw: The Code that Never Was. Scott's conclusions have not been challenged by any historian to date. Another narrative that many Filipinos have learned is about the legendary warrior princess named Urduja. She has been adopted as a symbol of a woman of distinguished courage, an inspiration for women in the country. Unfortunately, this tale is another historical error that has created false impressions and should be corrected. The story reportedly came from Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Ibn Batuta also known as Ibn Batuta (1304- 1378), an Arab traveler from Morocco. His book, Rihlah (Travels), includes descriptions of the Byzantine court of Constantinople (now Istanbul) and the Black Death of Baghdad (1348). According to his travel accounts, while somewhere in Southeast Asian waters, he reached the land of Tawalisi after a voyage of 71 days, and China was 15 days away with a favorable wind. In Tawalisi, he mentioned a mysterious amazon named Princess Urduja who would only marry the man who could beat her in fistfights. She presided over a court so fascinating and majestic. She gave Ibn Batuta gifts of silk, spices, sheep, buffaloes, and two elephant-loads of rice. The legend of Princess Urduja is quite amusing but historians could not certify its authenticity. Modern historians agreed that Princess Urduja was just an illusory creation of Ibn Batuta, a contemporary of Marco Polo (1254-1324), the Venetian traveler whose accounts in the East, particularly China (the English translation of the original title of the book was The Description of the World recorded by Rustichello, a romance writer from Pisa), drew the attention of a great number of Europeans and stimulated interest in Asian trade. » Efforts to correct historical errors are still ongoing. Many historians even investigate for themselves the validity of sources and data. The concern of historians has been to collect and record facts about the past and to discover new facts with utmost care and truthfulness. The damage caused by deception is surely immeasurable but the blunder itself is a challenge that every individual should face. The determination to uncover the past necessarily involves the use of auxiliary disciplines and literary forms. Study Guides A. Terms/Concepts to Understand Historical structuralism Prehistoric archaeology Primary and secondary sources B. Questions to Answer 1. Why did some civilizations fail to survive according to Arnold Toynbee? 2. How do events happen in history according to Alvin Scaff? 3. How can historical reality be achieved according to Georg Hegel? 4. What is the motivation for any human activity according to Karl Marx? 5. How can total history be achieved according to Fernand Braudel? 6. Explain Renato Constantino's supposition that "Philippine history is a story of struggle." 7. Give the brief history of Philippine archaeology. 8. What made William Henry Scott to conclude that Maragtas is not a prehispanic document? 9. Why did Scott say that the Code of Kalantiaw was a hoax? 10. Did Princess Urduja really exist in the past? Chapter II The Natural Setting and its People 1. How the Earth Was in the Beginning The story of creation shows the formation of the world and the infinite character of the Creator. The Holy Bible tells us that, "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth (Genesis 1:1)." The first part of the book relates the story of creation. God created man in His own image, male and female. Adam and Eve, the first man and woman, became the progenitors of mankind. In Filipino mythology, creation stories were popularized by various tribal groups of the islands. One Tagalog legend tells the story of how Bathala created the Filipino people. In the beginning, Bathala (god of the Sky), Aman Sinaya (goddess of the Sea), and Amihan (Northeast Wind) were the only beings that existed. Bathala and Aman Sinaya have been rivals for quite a time. One day, Aman Sinaya decided to send her waves and storms into the sky. In return, Bathala threw giant boulders to stop her. This resulted to thousands of islands on the surface of the sea, which became the Philippine archipelago. Amihan decided to stop the battle and took the form of a bird. She flew back and forth between them, which led to a closer sky and sea. Finally, both deities agreed to end the fight. As a friendly gesture, Bathala planted a seed underneath the ocean and it grew into a bamboo reed. Amihan pecked the reed after hearing voices from within the bamboo asking that they be freed. The bamboo reed cracked and slit open. Inside were two human beings. Amihan named the man Malakas (Strong) and the woman Maganda (Beautiful) and then flew them onto one of the islands. Soon, Malakas and Maganda had a huge number of offsprings. They asked their children to work in the fields but the latter disobeyed. The man and woman prayed to their god Bathala for guidance. Bathala told them to teach their children a lesson. This would make them into what they are meant to be. Malakas and Maganda grabbed spoon laddies and began to give blows to all their children who started fleeing away. Some of them hid under bamboo tables and became slaves. A few went inside the burning cauldron and turned into Aetas. Others climbed the rooftop and became the datu (chieftains) of the villages; while some climbed on trees and became the commoners. Those who ran to the mountains turned into hunters; while the ones who stayed near the seashore turned into fishermen. Based on a Visayan legend, there was also a mythical bird named Mntiiiul searching for a place to rest but cannot find one. Then, he pleaded the god of the sea, Kaptati, and the god of the air, Magauayan to help him. The gods, asserting their might in answering the bird's request, showed their strength. The god of the sea created tidal waves to beat the sky. In response, the god of the air threw the waves back by whirlwinds of rock and soil. Dry land was built in the process. The fight continued for thousands of years, until Manaul grew tired of it. He collected the rocks from the mountains and dropped them on both gods. This ended the battle. The masses of rocks thrown by the mythical bird became the islands of the Philippine archipelago. After getting exhausted, Manaul flew to a nearby grove of tall bamboos to rest. When he alighted on the stalk, he heard a voice coming from the bamboo, asking to be freed from within. The bird pecked at the bamboo until it split apart. Out of the stalk came the first man, Si-Kalac, and the first woman, Si-Kavay. They were advised by the earthquake as well as the fish of the sea and the birds of the air to marry so that they would multiply on earth. They did, so Si-Kavay bore her first-born son Sibo. Satnar, their first daughter came next. Numerous legends explain how places got their names. In many instances, the name of a place is derived from a brief form of word linked to the story, for example Tagaytay from "taga ltay"; Mindoro, from the names of a couple Mina and Doro; and Manila, from the word Maynilad (there are nilad plants in the place). Legends and myths at times provide a fanciful counterpart to actual explanations of things and events. The legend of Bernardo Carpio, called Hari ng mga Tagalog (King of the Tagalogs) presents an imaginative explanation of how the country was shaken by earthquakes. According to the legend, Bernardo Carpio was rebuked by the gods for his insolence and left endlessly chained in the Montalban Gorge in Rizal Province. He was cursed to keep two mountain walls from colliding. Whenever he pauses to regain strength, the walls of Montalban Gorge start closing in. Carpio pushes them back so that the mountains would not grind him into pieces. As a result, the ground around him shudders. The analytical study of geology commenced with the publication of James Hutton's Theory of the Earth (2 volumes, 1795). Hutton (1726-1797), a British geologist, formulated the uniformitarian theory of geology, which maintains that the laws of nature have remained constant. He further explained that the physical and chemical processes that have acted throughout geologic time are the same processes seen today. Taking the hydrologic cycle for instance, condensation always precedes precipitation. Processes such as volcanism and erosion that have caused changes in the earth's surface had been operating in thr same manner over a very long period of time. He rejected the theory of catastrophism, which was the prevailing belief during his time. Catastrophism asserts that only major catastrophes could alter the formation of the earth. Maps or charts covering the entire world or specific regions are contained in an atlas. Ptolemy, an Alexandrian scholar, produced the first collection of maps in about A.D. 150. In the 16 th century, Gerardus Mercator used the term atlas in the title of his collection of maps. The term was derived from the custom of placing the Greek mythological figure Atlas holding the earth on his shoulders on the title pages of map collections. The first modern atlas titled, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (Theater of the Earth), was published in 1570 by Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch cartographer. Ortelius noticed that the American continents seemed to have been disjoined from Europe and Africa. He realized that the coasts of the three continents could be linked together like a huge jigsaw puzzle. Alfred Wegener (1880-1930), a German meteorologist, also noted his inquiry regarding the three continents, which Ortelius had noticed 300 years ago. He began to combine some observations, which centered on the view that the east coast of South America fits within the contours of the west coast of Africa. This suggests that these continents may have been part of one huge landmass. He postulated that these continents had simply drifted apart over millions of years. Wegener's theory of continental drift was contained in his book, The Origin of Continents and Oceans, published in 1915. He named the. supercontinent, Pangaea, a Greek word meaning "all land." Pangaea had begun breaking up approximately 200 million years ago, earlier into a northern portion, which he named Laurasia, and a southern portion, termed Gondwanaland by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess. Wegener supported his theory with fossil evidence. Plant and animal fossils from the coastlines of South America and Africa found to match. Fossils in unlikely climates fu rther defended his claim, such as the discovery of tropical plant fossils in Antarctica and of glacial deposits in Africa. During Wegener's lifetime, his theory did not receive scientific validation since the technological means to prove it had not yet been developed. During those days, most people believed that all earth's formations never moved. Arthur Holmes (1890-1965), a British geologist advocated support for Wegener's theory. In 1928, he proposed that the convection currents within the earth's mantle driven by radioactive heat might have caused the mechanism for continental drift. In the 1950s, scientists began oceanographic research, which revealed the phenomenon known as sea floor spreading. In the 1960s, the theory of plate tectonics was established. The plates of the earth move. The theory explains th.it the lithosphere (the outer layer of the earth) moves sideways above a less rigid layer called the asthenosphere, which is under extreme pressure. Eventually, the theory of continental drift gained far-reaching acceptance in the field of science. The surface of the earth is continually changing because of forces either from the internal heat of the earth or the energy produced by the sun. The first one results in the motion of tectonic plates while the latter, involves the movement of water from the earth's surface to the atmosphere and then back to earth, which is also known as hydrologic cycle, which eventually results to the washing out of soil. 2. Geological Foundation Prior to the appearance of modern man in the Philippine archipelago, history has to depend on the works of geologists. The geologists seek to understand how the earth evolved into what it is today and forecast possible geologic events. In Arthur Holmes' book, The Age of the Earth (1913), he developed a geologic time scale, which he continued to work on until 1959. The dates given for certain geological formations are informed estimates, in terms of years before the present (BP). According to present estimates, the planet earth is between 4.6 and 4.8 billion years BP. The first dinosaurs were believed to have appeared around 225 million years ago, during the Mesozoic Era. At about 65 million years ago, the dinosaurs that once occupied the valleys, plains, and swamps became extinct. It is believed that these huge creatures perished with a huge meteorite that hit the earth or with shattering volcanic eruptions. The Philippine soil is composed of numerous rocks, which came from regions far from the archipelago's present location. It was during the Tertiary period(54 million-2 million years BP) of the Cenozoic era that the land structure of the Philippines was defined (looking like a nymph lying across the ocean). In the northern part, the Philippine archipelago was believed to be adjoined to Formosa (now Taiwan) during the Eocene (53-54 million years BP) and Oligocene epochs (37-38 million years BP). However, the Formosan connection was severed during the Miocene epoch (26 million years BP). The combined effects of volcanism and other tectonic movements of the basement complex brought about the disjunction. As connections with other areas changed, the internal structure of the archipelago also underwent changes with the flattening of the crustal surface of the existing higher grounds during the Pliocene epoch (7-13 million years BP). The emergence of man on earth was estimated at 5 million years BP. Pleistocene epoch (1.6 million years to 10,000 years BP), the first division of the Quaternary period, is the epoch prior to the Holocene epoch (10,000 years BP to the present). During the Pleistocene epoch, the earth underwent a series of alternating warm and cold climates. In Europe, scientists agree that there occurred four cold phases known geologically as Gunz, Mindel, Riss, and Wurm. In the United States, these cold phases were known as Jerseyian, Kansan glacial, Ulinoian-Iowan glacial, and Wisconsin glacial. Between the cold phases are the three interglacial or warm periods. Each interglacial period lasted for several thousands of years. The Pleistocene marked the beginning of evolutionary processes in both flora and fauna. The freezing of the northern and southern hemispheres caused an extensive spread of sea ice in the area and helped provide a suitable climate for ice-age animals like the mastodon and saber-toothed tiger. In Asia, the Mongolian area and the Himalayas were also topped with ice sheets. There was a widespread distribution of glaciers in the higher regions of the African continent. In some regions of Africa and Asia, particularly along the southern coasts, there were no ice sheets. Instead, the climatic condition was characterized by extensive and continuous rain. This phenomenon is known as the fluvial condition. Such condition gave rise to the growth of rainforests and marshes, which favored the survival of large animals. Based on recent studies, the earth has undergone 20 cycles of glaciation over the past two million years. During the Pleistocene, the glaciers accumulated a big quantity of water in the form of ice, causing water levels in the world's oceans to drop. The earth's climate, which began warming some 18,000 years ago, caused the oceans to regain their present levels. The movements of the water resulting from vast glaciations and deglaciations in the temperate region caused convergence, as well as the separation of landmasses. Some historians claim that the Philippines is a remnant of a lost continent in the Pacific called Mu or Lemuria, the other remnants are Marianas and other mid-Pacific islands, and Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and the Celebes. The adherents of the Pacific or Magmatic theory say that the Philippines came into existence after the eruptions of volcanoes beneath the Pacific Ocean in remote epochs. When the spewed magma piled up and cooled down, this resulted to Philippine island formation. This theory explains that the cores of our mountain systems are similar to the rocks found beneath the ocean. On the other hand, the Asiatic Theory or Land Bridges Theory states that the Philippines was once part of Continental Asia. At the end of the last Ice Age, the ice sheets melted, causing the sea level to rise and submerge the land bridges that had connected the Philippines to the Asian mainland. I )uring the glm lal periods, ocean levels were much lower, thereupon exposing the Sunda Slu-ll and the Sahul Shelf. These are extensions of continents otherwise known as continental shelves. In Asia, the Sunda Shelf, which is an extension of the coastal shelf of Southeast Asia, included the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to Palawan. From Borneo, the Philippines was linked through a narrow projection of island now occupied by Balabac, Palawan, and Calamianes. The continental shelf known as Sahul Shelf is an extension of the coastal shelf of Australia. It covered the islands of New Guinea and the Aru Islands of Indonesia. When the Sunda and Sahul Shelves were exposed, the land bridges were believed to have connected most of Indonesia, New Guinea, and Australia. Dark-skinned people, ancestors to the Australoids, traveled across the bridges to New Guinea and other islands of Melanesia. The Mongoloid people then populated New Guinea and gradually journeyed to the southeast by sailing canoes. The Pleistocene lasted for a long period of time. At the height of the interglacial period, a great river system flowed from the interior of Asia mainland and Australia, pouring into the outlying areas. The riverine connections brought about the drifting of species of fish. This explains the striking similarities of fish fauna in Eastern Sumatra with those in Western Borneo and species found in the Philippines. Similarly, there is a close faunal and floral relationship between Eastern Mindanao and North Borneo. The existence of the shallow China Sea between the Asian mainland and the Philippines, as well as the presence of a foredeep at the eastern margin of the country, indicates that the archipelago was once the edge of the Asian continental platform. These reasons further support the Asiatic Theory or the Land Bridges Theory that most scientists accept. 3. The Archipelago's Name During the pre-Spanish era, early Chinese traders and geographers already knew the Philippines. Sung Dynasty sources in 982 A.D. referred the islands as Ma-yi. Chau Ju-kua, a Chinese trade official, gave a detailed account of his travel to various parts of the islands in 1225, which he called Ma-i. In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan named the islands, Islas de San Lazaro (Archipelago of St. Lazarus) when he first set foot on our native soil. Many other names have been given to the archipelago. The name Philippines came from the word Filipinos given by the Spanish navigator Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1543 in honor of Prince Philip of Asturias, who became King Philip II of Spain, successor to King Charles I. The word Felipina was at first given by Villalobos's men to refer to Leyte and Samar. Later, it was given to the whole archipelago. In 1751, Fr. Juan J. Delgado, a Jesuit historian called Manila, Pearl of the Orient since it became a rich outlet of Asian trade even prior to the coming of the Spaniards in the archipelago. Dr. Jose Rizal, the country's foremost hero, gave the name Pearl of the Orient Seas to his native land on the eve of his execution in 1896. The name Filipinas first appeared in a rare map published in Venice in 1554 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, an Italian geographer. The Spanish Filipinas or Felipinas was later changed to Philippine Islands (P.I.) during the American colonial era. It was renamed Republic of the Philippines (R.P.) after the recognition of its independence in 1946. There were some Filipinos who proposed new names for the Philippines since the name of our country was given by the colonizers. Artemio Ricarte, a Katipunan general, wanted it to be called the Rizaline Republic, after Jose Rizal. Former President Ferdinand Marcos proposed the name Maharlika (also the name of his guerrilla group in World War II), after his dream of making this nation great again. 4. Geography and Resources The Philippines, found in the Western Pacific Ocean, has an astronomical location of 4 0 23'-21°25' N. Latitude and 116°-127°E. Longitude. It is situated in the southeastern portion of Asia. Taiwan bounds the country on the north, on the west by South China Sea and Vietnam, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Celebes Sea and Indonesia and, on the southwest by Malaysia and Singapore. Because of its central location in the Far East, the Philippines has been dubbed as the "Crossroads of the Pacific." The country is an archipelago of 7,107 islands and islets. It has a total land area of 300,000 square kilometers. Manila is the capital and largest city of the country. It is also the chief port and main commercial center of the islands. In 1948, Quezon City was declared as the capital of the Philippines but on May 29,1976, President Ferdinand Marcos' Decree No. 940 returned the national capital to Manila (a national capital since 1595). Luzon, the biggest of the three major geographical groups, has an area of 141,395 square kilometers. Visayas has an area of 56,606 square kilometers; and Mindanao, with an area of 101,999 square kilometers. The northernmost point of the country is Y'Ami Isle, which is 78 miles from Taiwan. The southernmost point is Saluag Isle, only 34 miles east of Borneo. The Philippines is in the middle of two opposing tectonic plates, making it prone to seismic activity. Between tectonic plates is a zone known as fault. The Philippine Fault stretches from Luzon to the tip of Mindanao. The Marikina Valley Fault System, which is located five kilometers east of Metro Manila branched from the Philippine Fault. I'he Philippines h.is the longest irregular coastline in the world, 36,290 kilometers in length. This is longer than the coastline of Great Britain and twice the coastline of the United States. The country has 61 natural harbors (with 20 landlocked straits). Manila Bay, the finest natural harbor in the Far East, has an area of 1,970 square kilometers. Palawan, which forms the country's western boundary, has a total of 1,768 islands and islets. It has marvelous subterranean caves, unexplored dive sites, unpolluted beaches, and dense tropical jungles. It is also a sanctuary to a variety of fauna and flora. The country has 16 regions, which include the IIocos Region, Cagayan Region, Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog (CALABARZON and MIMAROPA), Bicol Region, Western Visayas, Central Visayas, Eastern Visayas, Western Mindanao (or Zamboanga Peninsula), Northern Mindanao, Southern Mindanao (or Davao Region), Central Mindanao (or SOCCSKSARGEN), Caraga Administrative Region, Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR), and Metropolitan Manila. These regions are comprised of provinces, which are subdivided into districts. The districts consist of municipalities with a number of barangays. As of 2002, the number of provinces has increased to 79, with the creation of Compostela Valley in 2000 and Zamboanga Sibuguey in 2001. The ARMM was created by Republic Act No. 6734 in 1989. The region has jurisdiction over administrative organizations, family relations, natural resources, economic, social and tourism development. It does not have powers over certain matters, including national defense and security, monetary and fiscal policies, citizenship, international relations and foreign trade. The ARMM is composed of the provinces of Maguindanao, Lanao del Sur, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, and Basilan. The Philippines is represented by a variety of ecosystems: forests, ponds, grasslands, valleys, plains, rivers, and seas. The La Mesa Nature Reserve Eco Trail, officially launched on June 2, 2005 by the ABS-CBN Bantay Kalikasan Foundation, the MWSS (owner of the forest reserve), and the Quezon City government, is an eco tourism spot. The 2,700-hectare La Mesa Watershed is now being run by the Maynilad Water Co. of the Lopez group as part of its concession agreement with the government. The ABS-CBN Foundation obtained a 15-year management contract for the forest reserve five years ago to shoulder the cost of further reforestation efforts and maintaining it properly, along with the numerous partners, donors, and volunteers. The La Mesa Watershed is the only forest reserve in Metro Manila. Forests on mountain slopes, characterized by a diversity of natural vegetation, provide materials for food, medicine, and building shelter and natural habitats tor wildlife. Some mountains have been regarded as sites for spiritual regeneration. In the Tagalog region, some people find Mounts Makiling and Banahaw as mystic mountains for reflection and recreation. According to legend, Mount Makiling in Laguna is the abode of a goddess named Mariang Makiling who protects the forest that covers the mountain. Mount Banahaw along the Quezon border is also considered a powerful energy source for pilgrims, spiritualists, and cults having a blend of both indigenous and Catholic beliefs and rituals. Three major mountain ranges are situated in Northern Luzon: the Sierra Madre Range, the Cordillera Range, and the Caraballo Range. The Sierra Madre, which is the largest and longest range in the country, faces the Pacific Ocean on the eastern coast of Luzon. It begins near Aparri and proceeds further through Isabela, Cagayan, and Aurora provinces. The southern part of Sierra Madre includes Aurora, Quezon, Bulacan, Rizal, and Laguna provinces. The Cordillera Mountains in the western part of Northern Luzon are parallel to the Sierra Madre Range. The Cagayan Valley occupies the region between these two mountain ranges. The Cordillera extends from Ilocos Norte down to the Benguet and La Union area. In the Cordillera Range, Mount Pulag, is the second highest peak in the country. The most productive gold and copper mines in the country are located within the Cordillera region. Roads along the mountain range are known for their zigzag curves. The famous Banaue Rice Terraces, looking like stairways to heaven, is in the Cordilleras. There are places where the rice fields reach from an altitude of 1,500 feet to 4,500 feet. The Ifugaos have built these terraces out of the mountain slopes using the barest of tools over hundreds of years. Their devotion for rice has compelled them to carve these majestic terraces on which to plant. In regions inhabited by a pure Ifugao population, the walls of the terraces are of round hard river stones. One of the major appeals of the terraces to local and foreign tourists is the hiking trail in the area. The city of Baguio amidst the mountainous region of Cordillera is one of the most popular vacation destinations in the country. Owing to the scenic attractions as well as cool temperature of the place, Baguio has become the "summer capital" of the country. The Caraballo Range, near Nueva Ecija and Nueva Vizcaya, crosscuts the Sierra Madre at its middle section and the southern end of the Cordilleras. To the south of Caraballo is the Central Plain in Luzon. On the southwestern coast of Luzon is the Zambales Mountain Range. It extends from the shores of Western Pangasinan to parts of Bulacan and Bataan. Luzon has a mountainous extension to the southeast called Bicol Peninsula. In the Visayas, tin- most prominent mountain ranges are found across major islands The islands in the Visayas have mountainous terrains except Samar and Bohol. In Mindanao, there are four major mountain ranges: the Diwata Range, the Tago-Apo Range, the Kalatungan-Kitanglad Range, and the Daguma Range. The Diwata Range borders the Pacific coast and west of it lies the valley of Agusan. Tago-Apo Range forms a parallel ridge to Diwata Range. Located in the area are the Balatukan Mountains, the volcanic peaks of Camiguin, Kinabalin, Kumakata, and the Mount Apo in Davao del Sur, which is also the highest mountain in the country (2,954 meters high). The Kalatungan-Kitanglad Mountain Range, which includes Mounts Butig, Kidongin, and Ragang, is situated in the Lanao provinces. The Daguma Range extends near Sarangani Bay in the south. Volcanoes at the boundaries of Daguma Range are Mount Blik, south of Cotabato City, and Mount Parker, west of General Santos City. The country has over 50 volcanoes wherein 22 are active. The most active among them are Iraya in Batanes, Pinatubo in Zambales, Taal in Batangas, Banahaw in Quezon, Mayon in Albay, Bulusan in Sorsogon, Kanlaon in Negros, Hibok-Hibok in Camiguin, Makaturing in Lanao, and Apo in Davao del Sur. Mt. Pinatubo, which has been dormant for 611 years started to emit fumes on April 2,1991 after a hydrothermal explosion at the volcano's crater took place. The most destructive series of eruptions were on June 12-15, 1991. Its ashfalls reached as far as Metro Manila, Mindoro, Palawan, and Cambodia to the east, worsening damage to the ozone layer. Several places in the provinces of Zambales, Tarlac, and Pampanga, including Clark Air Base in Angeles City were filled with pyroclastic flows and lahar (an Indonesian term for volcanic mud flow). Devastation to public and private properties was greatly unfavorable, placing these areas under a state of calamity. The lahar deposits along Mt. Pinatubo still cascades down the lowlands after heavy rains. These volcanic mudflows are expected to last for years. They continue to defy the billion-peso dike built to contain lahar flows. Taal Volcano, a regular tourist drawer, is a volcano within a volcano. It is rising from a lake, which is the crater of a larger volcano, now extinct. It is a part of a chain of volcanoes along the western side of Luzon. Subsequent eruptions between 500,000 and 100,000 years have built up the current Mount Taal, on an island known as Volcano island in the lake. Since 1572, Mt. Taal had 33 recorded eruptions with violent ones that occurred in 1749, 1754,1911, and 1965. Mount Mayon, world famous for its near-perfect conical shape, had its first recorded eruption in 1616. The name was derived from the Bicol word magayon (meaning beautiful). It continually emits a plume of smoke even when it is not erupting. Mt. Mayon had a history of at least 47 eruptions. In 1814, it erupted disastrously, destroying five towns surrounding its base. During the height of the volcano's fury, 1,200 people who took refuge inside the church of the town of Cagsawa (now Daraga) were killed. The ruins of the church tower solely remain above ground after the tragedy. Kanlaon Volcano had erupted six times in 1985 and thrice in 1986. In 1989, it had a minor eruption. Fortunately, this did not cause any destruction. There are some volcanoes whose hot rocks beneath are being penetrated by groundwater. When the heated underground water reaches the surface, hot springs are formed. These hot springs are used as baths in the houses and resorts around Mt. Makiling and Mt. Bulusan. Topographic elevations less than 600 meters in altitude are considered hills. The most popular of these in the country are the Chocolate Hills, with more than 1,000 of them in Bohol. During the dry months of February until May, these dome-shaped limestone hills turn chocolate-brown as the grasses wither. Thus, the name was given to it. Chocolate Hills is one of the geological monuments of the country. The other four national geological monuments are Taal Volcano in Batangas, Montalban Caves in Rizal Province, Sand Dunes in llocos Norte, and Hundred Islands in Pangasinan. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA), and the National Committee on Geological Sciences (NCGS) issued the declaration of national geological monuments to highlight the protection of geological structures and features with high scientific or aesthetic/environmental value. These geological monuments would serve not only as travel destinations in the country but also as laboratories for geological research. Large rivers traverse the principal islands of the country. The Cagayan River, with a length of 513 kilometers, is the longest river in the country. It flows from the Caraballo Mountains near the Nueva Vizcaya-Nueva Ecija provincial boundary and proceeds down into the Babuyan Channel in Northern Luzon. Other important rivers in the country include Chico, Abra, Pampanga, Bicol, Pulangi, and Agusan. Between Samar and Leyte is the San Juanico Strait, the narrowest strait in the world. Lagima de Bay is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. The deepest among the lakes of Laguna is Lake Calibato, which is 176 meters deep. This is brought about by low silt inflow from its small watershed area. The downstream flow of Lake Lanao propelling hydroelectric plants supply around three-fourths of Mindanao's power requirements. In the middle of the tropical blue and emerald green waters of the Sulu Sea and Palawan lies the Tubbataha Reef, just one of the sandbars and reefs known for its rich beautiful dive sites and marine resources. Seabirds, turtles, giant clams, and other marine animals have been settling in the area. The reef covers an area of 12 miles within the island municipality of Cagayancillo in Palawan. In August, 1987, the reef was declared a national marine park. It gained greater distinction and international recognition when the UNESCO named Tubbataha a World Heritage Site. Boracay is the perfect island getaway. It is known for its warm blue waters, powder-fine white sand, and a palm fringed four-kilometer beach. Located in Aklan province, Boracay is accessible by air from Manila or Cebu. The largest plain in the archipelago is the Central Plain in Luzon, known as the "Rice Granary of the Philippines." The surrounding greenery yields vegetables, tendrils, sprouts, flowers, and fruits. Among the famous Philippine fruits are lanzones, sweet mango, and the durian. There are about 10,000 species of flowering plants and ferns in the country. Among the flowers in the islands are the sampaguita, gardenia, dama de noche, water lilies, orchids, and a lot more. Of the 1,000 varieties of orchids that bloom in the country, the ivaling-waling (Vandasanderiana) is regarded as the "Queen of Philippine Orchids." Famous of the Philippine woods is narra, proclaimed as the country's national tree in accordance with an executive proclamation of Governor General Frank Murphy dated February 1,1934. Referred to as the forests of the sea, mangrove swamp forests grow in saltwater or brackish water. The mangroves are among the significant ecosystems that characterize the coastal areas of the archipelago. They are considered minor forest type, compared to mixed lowland tropical rainforest ecosystem. Economically, the mangroves are beneficial, especially to the coastal dwellers. They provide poles for shelter, wood for cooking, charcoal as domestic energy source and as a source of income, nipa sap for tuba and vinegar, nipa shingles for roofing, and ground for aquaculture. Mangrove- dependent fishery products include shellfish, shrimps, and mangrove crabs. These mangroves likewise help prevent erosion of riverbanks. Sea grass communities are dynamic ecosystems where rhizomes and roots of sea grass stabilize the near-shore bottom. Sea grass beds filter suspended sediments from the water. The Philippines has 16 reported species of sea grass out of 58 known worldwide. Sea grass is the only food of the dugong or sea cow. The country abounds in animal life. Of the 201 species of mammals in the country, 179 are terrestrial and 22 are marine. The Philippine carabao, a swamp type of domesticated water buffalo has long been an important work animal. Other animals include several species of deer, wild and domesticated pigs, cattle, rodents, reptiles, birds, and mollusks. Some unique animals in the world are also found in the Philippines: the tamaraw or Bubalus mindoretisis of Mindoro, which looks like a dwarf carabao; the tarsier of Bohol, the smallest monkey in the world; and the Calamian deer or Cervus calamianensis (pilandok) of Palawan, the world's smallest deer. Unfortunately, some animals are near extinction (called endangered species), which include the Philippine eagle, the tamaraw, and the tarsier. Ln 2004, the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Appendix I released by the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) listed 27 species of flora and fauna in the country. There are about 25,000 species of insects in the islands. The largest insect in the country is the giant moth (Attacus atlas), with a wingspan of one foot. The largest and smallest bats in the world are found in the country. The lesser flat headed bats or the lesser bamboo bats weigh around 2 grams. The golden-crowned flying fox weighs about 1.5 kilograms. It has a wingspan of 1.7 meters. These two species of bats are found in Olongapo City, Zambales at the Subic Bay Forest Reserve (SBFR). The world's second largest after the Harpy eagle found in the Amazon forests is the Philippine eagle (Pithecopaga jefferyi), found in the jungles of Luzon and Mindanao. It has earned the title of "King of Philippine Birds." It measures five and a half feet in height and a wingspan of seven feet. It was previously called the monkey-eating eagle. In the 1970s, its name was changed since it was found out that it only ate monkeys occasionally. Its main food consists of flying lemurs, lizards, and snakes. In 1996, the Philippine eagle was officially named the national bird of the country by virtue of a presidential proclamation. Other interesting birds in the country are the kalaw, which the Spanish colonizers dubbed as "clock of the mountains," the katala (Philippine Cockatoo), which mumbles and croons like a man, and the tiny Philippine falconet, only six and a half centimeters long. Also found in the Philippines is the world's rarest shell, called Glory of the Sea (Connus gloriamaris) and the Tridacna gigas, which is the world's largest shell and has a length of one meter and weighs 600 pounds. The smallest shell in the world, the Pisidum, is also found in our country. It is less than one millimeter in length. In 1995, R. M. de la Paz and E. D. Gomez recorded a total of 2,140 species of Philippine fishes. Among the commercially known fish found in numerous fishing grounds are the bangus (milkfish), dalag (mudfish), dilis (anchovy), lapulapu (seabass), galunggong (round scad), tanguingi (mackerel), tamban (Indian sardines), and bariles (tuna). Some of the endemic freshwater species are considered endangered. rhese include the Harengula tawilis, locally known as taivilis; Mestichthys luzonensis, or simrapan; and pandaka pygmaea, the pygmy goby. Tawilis, a freshwater species of sardines, are found in Lake Taal, Batangas. Sinarapan, the smallest commercial fish, can only be found in Lake Buhi and Lake Bato, Camarines Sur. It measures between 1 and 1.4 centimeters. The dwarf-pygmy goby or locally known as tabios, the world's smallest vertebrate, which ranges from 7.5 to 11 millimeters, is said to be dwelling in the Navotas and Malabon Rivers. It is strongly believed that the tabios is already extinct due to water pollution. The world's largest fish is also found in the country. This is the whale shark, which is 50 feet or more in length. It was first sighted off the coast of Mariveles, Manila Bay, in 1816 by Filipino fishermen, who called it pating bulik (striped shark). The Philippine archipelago has rich deposits of gold, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, chromite, silver and other metals. Non-metallic minerals include coal, salt, asphalt, asbestos, clay, marble, and limestone. Gold mining is an ancient industry in the country. Before the coming of the Spanish conquerors, the Filipinos were already mining gold in Paracale, Camarines Norte, in the mountains of Northern Luzon and the islands of Masbate and Mindanao. Mount Diwalwal located at Compostela Valley province has been the site of gold rush since 1983. The Bureau of Mines officially attributes the discovery of gold in the vicinity to the members of the Mandaya tribe. Gold nuggets were found, and those who have entered and engaged in small-scale mining were able to gain a lot from this business venture. Since pre-colonial times, the Igorots have been mining copper in the mountains of Northern Luzon. Mankayan, the oldest and largest copper mine in the country still exists. Other copper deposits are found in the islands of Negros and Rapu-Rapu (part of Albay) and the province of Zambales. Iron deposits are found in Larap, Camarines Norte; San Miguel, Bulacan; Marinduque; and Samar. The greatest iron-bearing area in the country is Surigao. The world's largest deposit of nickel has been discovered in Nonoc Isle, off the coast of Northern Mindanao. Vast marble deposits are found in Mindoro, Romblon, Palawan, Cebu, and Bicol while deposits of coal are in Cebu, Sorsogon, Masbate, and Sibuguey Peninsula. Potential oil and natural gas reserves are to be tapped in the disputed Spratly Islands located in the South China Sea. It is an archipelago of more than 100 islets, reefs and atolls, with a total landmass of less than 5 sq km. The Philippines is one of the claimants of these islands, along with China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Brunei, and Malaysia. The dramatic increase of Philippine crude oil production was primarily due to the development of deep-sea oil deposits beneath the natural gas-bearing structures in the Malampaya field. 5. Country's Climate The Philippines, situated at the Torrid Zone, has a tropical climate with a mean annual temperature of about 27'C (about 80°F). Mountain slopes and peaks found in the archipelago are cooler. The country has two seasons, dry and wet. In most of the islands, rainy season occurs from May to November. During this period, the wind blows from the southwest. Often, the country experiences typhoons from the months of June to October. The dry season occurs from December to April, when the wind blows from the northeast. When typhoon signal no. 2 is hoisted, classes at the pre- school, elementary, and secondary levels in all public and private schools are automatically suspended. In 2007, the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) issued a memorandum stating that information from the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) could be used as basis to recommend decisions to the Department of Education (DepEd) and Commission on Higher Education (CHED) concerning suspension of classes. 6. The Filipino People In 2002, Philippine population is estimated at 78 million. The country is inhabited by different ethnic groups. The Filipino people is a harmonious mixture of diversity and homogeneity. Despite of diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds, forces of assimilation have constantly worked to overcome the differences. Within the blood veins of the Filipinos are the blends of their forefathers from Malay, Chinese, Negrito, Indian, European, and American lineage. The intermarriage of a Filipino and a foreigner did happen, owing to the strategic location of the country to Southeast Asian neighbors and the colonial rule of Spain and America. The intermingling of people resulting to adaptation of different cultures made the country a melting pot of people and culture. Since the 19 ,h century, Filipinos have been referred to as the Christianized Malays who constitute the bulk of the population. They are the descendants of those who were colonized by Western settlers. Numerically greater in number are the Visayans (primarily in the central portion of the archipelago) and the Tagalogs. The Cebuanos, Ilonggos, and Waray-Waray comprise a big number among the Visayans. In the Visayas, the Ilonggos live in Western Negros, in Southern Mindoro, and in Panay Island while the Cebuanos predominate in Cebu, Western Leyte, Bohol, Eastern Negros, and in some coastal areas of Mindanao. The Waray- Warays are in the provinces of Samar and Eastern Leyte. Most of the Tagalogs live in Manila, in Central Luzon, and Southern Luzon. People coming from certain provinces in the Tagalog region like Batangas, Bulacan, and Quezon have intonations of their own. Phe Ilocanos are considered the third biggest group. They live particularly in llocos Norte, llocos Sur, and La Union but many have migrated locally and abroad. Other members of the populace include the Pangasinenses, Pampanguenos, Zambals, Ibanags (Cagayanos), and Bicolanos. The Pangasinenses live in the Lingayen Gulf region of Pangasinan, including the province of Pangasinan. Many of them have already migrated in other provinces of Central Luzon. The Pampanguenos or Kapampangans live in Central Luzon, particularly in the province of Pampanga. The non-Malay groups include people of Spanish and Chinese descent. Today, the country has a growing number of Filipino-Chinese who are engaged in various commercial activities. They are part of the economically and politically important minority. Nature and ancestral beliefs have helped shape the lifestyle of the tribal communities. The indigenous groups in various parts of the archipelago have kept their own cultural tradition distinct through the generations. Most of them maintain indigenous belief system based on animism (worship of nature deities and spirits). Included here are the various mountain people of Cordillera, which consist of the Isnegs of Apayao; Kalingas of Kalinga; Ifugaos, Igorots, Ibalois, Kankanays, and Bontoks of Benguet and Mountain Province. The culture of the people in this region is quite different from that of the lowland communities. Although a number of the populace are Christians, still many of them are pagans. The Kalingas tattoo their bodies as a sign of bravery. For them, prestige can be achieved through oratorical ability. The Isnegs, like the Kalingas, tattoo their bodies as a status symbol. The Ifugaos have a high regard for the family's honor and dignity. They are forbidden to induce hostility, cause bloodshed or practice adultery. Hagabi, a chair sculpted from a large mass of wood, plays an important part in the lives of the Ifugaos. This indicates the high position of the owner in the community. The principal agricultural work of the Ifugaos is rice culture. They also grow camote on hillsides where the soil need not be fertile. Rice, on the other hand, requires irrigation and constant care. The Igorots live on rootcrops grown in their yard and on wild pigs, deer, and fowl in the forest. The Igorots of the past engage in headhunting to avenge the death of a kin or tribesman. This custom is least practiced nowadays. The Bontoks basically do hunting and agriculture for a living. They perform rituals like bagbato to ensure a bountiful harvest and the ulog, where the unmarried woman stays in a place called ulog to receive male visitors and suitors. The Ibalois and the Kank.mays of benguet and Southern Mountain Province are considered the most sophisticated mountain region people because they are the most exposed to lowland life. Although the people of Cordillera dwell in the highlands, they no longer live in isolation. The influences of modern civilization have ushered in new changes in their communities through the years. Modern types of buildings are also found elsewhere in the region. The young generations that have gone to schools in the Christian lowlands have almost adopted the way of life of the lowland communities. Other indigenous groups are the Gaddangs of Isabela, the Negritos or Aetas of Zambales and the hinterlands; the Mangyans of Mindoro; the Tagbanuas, Batak, Tao't Bato, Molbogs and Jama Mapuns of Palawan; Mamanwa (a Negrito group) of Surigao del Norte; the Kalibugans, Subanuns, and Samals of Zamboanga del Sur; the Manobos, Tirurays, Iranuns, and T'bolis of Maguindanao, Cotabato, and Sultan Kudarat; Mandayas of Davao Oriental; Bagobos and BTaans of Davao del Sur; Yakans of Basilan; the Tausugs of the Sulu Archipelago; the Badjaos of the Sulu Sea; and the Muslim groups of Mindanao. The Mangyans belong to such tribes like the Alangan, Bangon, Tau- Buid, Hanunuo, Tadyawan, Iraya, and Ratagnon. Each of these tribes has its own language and customs. The Hanunuo (real Mangyan) are found within the municipalities of Mansalay, Bulalacao and some parts of Bongabong in Oriental Mindoro. Christian lowlanders surround them on the east. Various Mangyan groups have always been threatened by inclement weather, limited food supplies and difficulties in farming the rugged land. The economic activities of the Mangyan centered on swidden farming however they also engage in hunting and fishing. They believe in spiritual beings that can influence their harvest. The Hanunuo Mangyans believe in a Supreme Being Mahal na Makaako, the giver of life. Peace and order in the Mangyan tribes are attributed mainly to the people's being good-natured. When conflicts happen, this is settled among the members of the community by the elder. Offering a good meal may be enough to resolve minor disputes. In cases of theft and adultery, the possible offenders may be subjected to trial by ordeal. The Yakans in Basilan traditionally wear colorful hand woven clothes. Men and women wear narrow cut pants. The women wear tight fitting short blouses partly covered with a wrap-around material while the man wraps a sash-like cloth around the waist. Nowadays, most Yakans wear western clothes and use their traditional clothes for festivals. The Maguindanaos constitute the largest Muslim group in the country. The Maranaos meaning "people of the lake," live principally near Lake Lanao. The Samals are in the Sulu Archipelago. Traditionally, the Muslims built houses raised high on poles above water. I hey used sailboats called vintaa, Though majority of Muslim Filipinos live in Southern Philippines, there are a number of Muslim communities in other areas of the country. Leaders of tribal communities are chosen for their skills and their ability to evoke support from the communal group. Remnants of animism linger among some ethnic minorities in the north and south. They believe in the existence of several unseen beings bestowing blessings when honored and inflicting pain when displeased. The indigenous people have adapted to various ecological zones ranging from coastal to rugged mountain highlands. They prefer permanent settlements, except for Aetas who are highly nomadic. Badjaos live in houseboats, while others live in pile dwellings. The Aetas have already established their intimate relationship with the woodlands as forest foragers and hunters. The Pinatubo Aetas continuously resist acculturation process. They assimilate only the cultural elements compatible with their needs like some techniques and rituals in agriculture, concepts of spirits, curing, and burial rituals. On the other hand, migration by Visayan settlers in Mindanao during the American period eventually altered the population profile in the region. Increased immigration from the north drove more cultural communities in the hinterlands. Ilocanos, Tagalogs, and Visayans settled in some provinces of Mindanao like Davao Oriental and Davao del Sur. In response to the call of preserving indigenous culture in the country, some ethnic tribes specifically the Ifugaos initiated moves adapting ancient practices with Christian religion, which scholars refer to as inculturation. High literacy in the country may be attributed to Filipinos' love for education. Viewed as a key to progress, education is believed to improve one's means of livelihood and status. Elementary education in the Philippines is free and compulsory for children ages 6 to 12. Filipino and English are the primary languages of instruction. Most Filipinos love the theater and the arts. Cultural activities include dramatic presentations and readings, concerts, dancing, art exhibits, and contests. Most of these are presented in school and community theater stages and auditoriums like the Cultural Center of the Philippines. There are some local playhouses like the open-air theater at Fort Santiago. There are a number of art galleries in Ermita and in Malate. Filipino (formerly spelled Pilipino) is the national language of the people although a good number of them are conversant in English. The English language is commonly used for governmental, commercial, and instructional purposes. Some Filipinos are trilingual, speaking in Filipino, English, and an indigenous language. Filipinos speak different regional languages and dialects since the country has over HO local dialects, Fhe widely spoken dialects are Tagalog, Cebuano, llocano, Hlligaynon (also known as llonggo), Bicol, Waray, Pampango, Pangasinense, and Maranao. Intermarriages, internal migration, and language education have helped to reduce language barriers. In everyday communication, the Filipinos combine English and I ilipino resulting to a lingo called Taglish (from Tagalog and English). For instance, one could hear one say, "Happy ako for you. Sana you won't forget us," (I'm happy for you. Hope you won't forget us) or "Okey tia ang lahat, thank you sa iyo!" (Everything's okay, thanks to you!). Age is highly valued in Philippine culture. The word po, or its variation ho is employed in conversation to show respect. The close approximation of its English translation is Sir or Madam. Adult male and female who are unfamiliar to the speaker are greeted as mama and ale. Siblings in the family are addressed according to their position within the family hierarchy like kuya or manong for the oldest brother and ate or manang for the oldest sister; diko and ditse for the second brother and sister; and sangko and sanse, for the third oldest brother and sister. Traditionally, Filipinos have close family ties. Apart from their blood relatives, Christian Filipinos adopt new kins (kumpadre and kumare) through having sponsors (ninong and ninang) during baptisms and weddings. They also extend help in the spirit of bayanihan (cooperation). Family relationships usually extend to third cousins. The social support provided by these kinship circles is reflected in the absence of regular retirement homes. -Filipinos are known for their hospitality. They receive their visitors with warmth and friendship. They are also thankful to those who have been good to them, manifesting the Filipino value of utang na loob or one's debt of gratitude to those who have contributed to their success. This often creates a long-term relationship of giving and receiving between individuals or families. The social values of loyalty, support, and trust are deeply embedded among Filipino communities. On some formal gatherings, Filipino men wear the barong tagalog, which is an embroidered shirt made of either pineapple fiber, cotton, or raw silk while women wear Filipiniana dress, usually with long puff-sleeves. Filipinos wear Western clothing on casual and semi-formal occasions. The Filipina women have more rights being exercised in her country than most of her counterparts in Asia. Because a woman's lineage is equally valued, her rights to property and inheritance are recognized. Filipina women are strongly represented in politics, business, and in various fields. At home, the mothers usually manage the family household and are the primary caretakers of the children. For centuries, the Filipinos kept faith in tin- Almighty God. Throughout the good and bad times, they can easily assimilate, bend but never break like the strength of the narra and the resilience of the bamboo. 7. Theories on the Origin of Filipinos Long before the Spanish colonizers came into the Philippines, people with distinct cultures had already inhabited the islands. The Migration Theory of H. Otley Beyer, regarding the peopling of the archipelago became the most widely known version in Philippine prehistory. According to Dr. Beyer, the ancestors of the Filipinos came in waves of migration. First to reach the archipelago was the caveman "Dawn Man" type, who was similar to the Java Man and other Asian Homo sapiens of 250,000 years ago. Dr. Beyer called the first Filipino the "Dawn Man," for he emerged on the islands at the dawn of time. Next to settle in the islands were the aboriginal pygmy group or the Negritos. They were said to have reached the islands before the land bridges from Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Australia disappeared. They came between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago. They were described to have black skin, darky kinky hair, round black eyes, flat noses, and with a usual height of 5 feet. Third to arrive were the seafaring and tool-using Indonesian group who came about 5,000 to 6,000'years ago. They came in two waves of migration, with type A, arriving about 3,000 to 4,000 B.C. and type B, about 1,500 to 500 B.C. Indonesian A was tall, slender with light complexion, and thin lips. Indonesian B was shorter, with bulky body, dark complexion, and thick lips. They were able to displace the Negritos to the mountains with their more advanced culture. The last to reach the archipelago were the seafaring Malays who introduced the Iron Age culture. They moved into the islands from 300 B.C. to the 14 th and 15 th centuries A.D. Beyer's migration theory became popular and unquestioned for quite a number of years. Presently, the so-called waves of migration is now being dismissed because there is no definite evidence, whether archaeological or historical, to support it. No evidence of any "Dawn Man" type (250,000 years ago) or hominid species have been found in the country. So far, the oldest human relic discovered is only about 22,000 BP. In reality, Southeast Asian people shared many customs and traditions without any ethnic group racially or culturally dominant. It was the Western colonizers who divided the Asian inhabitants into ethnic groups. *** In place of the waves of migration theory, modern scholars suggest the so-called core population theory. According to this theory, the inhabitants of the Philippines consist of a core population to which came accretions of people who moved in from the region. The movements of people were erratic rather than in sequential waves. The Southeast Asian people who reached the Philippines during prehistoric times became the core population. Each group, the Indonesians, Malays, and others, stood as equal, without any of them racially or culturally dominant. *** Study Guides Terms/Concepts to Understand Uniformitarian theory of geology Magmatic theory World heritage site Continental drift theory Asiatic theory Torrid Zone This core population shared common cultural traits or base culture. 1'hey used similarly fashioned tools, pottery, and ornaments; and upheld common beliefs and rituals. If there were some differences, these may be due to some factors like adaptation to the environment. Furthermore, the immigrants did not come into the archipelago in a fixed period of time nor with a definite destination. Inculturation Questions to Answer 1. What do creation stories tell about the early Filipinos? 2. How does the country's geography affect the Filipino people? 3. Identify and describe the culture of the indigenous people of the Philippines. 4. Why do modem day scholars oppose Beyer's waves of migration theory? Chapter III 1. Cultural Evolution of the Early Filipinos Through archaeological records and extensive researches, the peopling of the Philippine archipelago could somehow be theorized. Historians believed that during the Pleistocene epoch, the first settlers of the Philippines came from the present-day islands of the Malay Archipelago when sea levels were lower, creating land bridges connecting to the Southeast Asian mainland. These Paleolithic hunters may have followed herds of wild animals across these land bridges to the Philippine Islands. Some of these early migrations were made by the ancestors of the present-day people of the Aeta and Agta tribes. These people continue to be primarily hunters and food gatherers. Eventually they explored the new land even more and sojourned in the islands after the land bridges had disappeared with the rise of sea level brought by deglaciation period. The Spanish colonizers of the 16 th century called them Negritos. Some western historians assume that the aborigines of the Philippines were the Australo-Melanesian people who are distinctively small with dark skin and curly brown hair. They were the ancestors of the people known today as Negritos or Aetas. - The Mainland Origin Hypothesis by Peter Bellwood of the Australian National University and K.C. Chang of Harvard University maintains that the early inhabitants originated from South China and Taiwan. From there they spread southward and westward reaching Northern Philippines by about 5,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C. and to Eastern Indonesia 4,500 years ago. They gradually replaced the hunting and gathering populations. The other hypothesis, the Island Origin Hypothesis, believes that the prehistoric people originated and dispersed from an island in Southeast Asia. Wilhelm Solheim II of the University of Hawaii has been the leading proponent of this idea. He assumes that Proto- Austronesian developed primarily in Northeastern Indonesia and Mindanao Island, expanding northwards with a developing maritime population through the Philippine Archipelago and into Taiwan. From there they reached South China. Solheim II believes that it was the Nusantao (the maritime- oriented prehistoric people) who developed Proto-Austronesian as a trade language along the coasts of Northern Luzon, Southern Taiwan, and South China, between 4,500 and 5,000 B.C. Pre-Colonial Philippines Historians presuppose that between 30() and 2(X) B.C., inhabitants of Malay-Polynesian descent settled in the Philippine archipelago. They were mainly the agricultural and fishing people, others wandered from place to place. There were 30 to 100 families in a society known as barangay. Tool assemblages, clothing, pottery, jewelry, and the like are technological artifacts. These man-made objects illustrate the ability of man to respond to the conditions of the environment. The inhabitants of the islands had to adapt to their surroundings for subsistence. Such technology that has been developed became a part of civilization. Skills were handed down from generation to generation. Whatever has been learned in the process is cultural in nature. Of course, people are not born with culture. Through practice, word of mouth, written text and rituals, culture is learned. A country's past history unveils its cultural tradition. Culture may be associated with manufactured materials, for these are products of human behavior. Certainly, the structuring of the early Filipino society has been achieved in response to the needs of prehistoric Philippine communities. Old Stone Age or Paleolithic Period (50,000-10,000 B.C.) is the era of crude stone tools and weapons. In the Philippines, it was believed to have started in Cagayan Valley. This can be inferred from the archaeological materials unearthed in the area, bearing imprints of human use. These traces show the emergence of people that once wandered in the valley. The study of tool assemblages indicates the dominance of flake tools over large cobble tools. However, no fossil evidence of human beings was found in the vicinity. Perhaps, they had migrated to some other places, inasmuch as several wild animals were roving along the area. Man had no other tools than sharp edged stones that could be held by the hand. Many kinds of stones, which naturally produce sharp edges when broken or chipped (e.g. flint and chert), were commonly used. Such implements are called core tools if the remaining core itself is used as the tool. Pebble tools are those rounded stones like those found in the riverbeds. They are called cobble tools if these rounded stones are larger. Flake tools are skillfully edged and shaped. At the onset, man's principal way of adaptation to the environment was by hunting. These stone tools could be used for smashing the bones of animals and shellfish that they have gathered. These implements may also be used in cutting, splitting, stripping, and piercing wooden branches, palm leaves, and bamboo. Tree barks were used for clothing. Certainly, with the abundance of fish in rivers and seas, methods of preparing food were conceived. Archaeological evidence shows kinilaw to be the earliest method of preparing fish for consumption where vinegar or lime juice enhances the taste of the fish. In Mindanao, the juice of the tabon-tabon (Hydrophytune orbiculatum), a green fruit, is added to remove the fishy smell. In Leyte and Cebu, they use coconut milk. The selection of the labon Cave Complex in Lipuun Point, Quezon, Palawan, some 30,000 years ago is an example of prehistoric planning for adaptation. The main chamber entrance is about 41 meters long. Sunlight enters into the interior area, making it habitable and warm. Upon its discovery in 1962, the present surface of the Tabon Cave was noted to have been a habitat of the Tabon bird (also known as the Philippine mound builder). The cave must have gotten its name from this wild fowl. New types of stone tools appeared in various parts of the Philippines, more polished and highly specialized, primarily blade and ax- and adzlike forms for forest clearing and boat making. The smooth surface of this type of stone tools was made possible by rubbing against another stone. This development resulted to the so- called New Stone Age or Neolithic Period (10,000-500 B.C.) otherwise known as Agricultural Revolution by anthropologists. Root crops like taro (gabi) and yam (ubi) were among the important crops. This period also indicates that upland rice farming has been developed, although this practice did not appear at the same time in every area. By striking the stones, sparks have been produced, which resulted to the making of fire at will by the ancient settlers. Light and heat became available any time of the day. The production of baked clay pots in the New Stone Age implies that fire had been fully utilized. The manufacture of pottery was made possible by a process called kilning, which makes use of fire. Fire eventually changed the lifestyle of the people, particularly in the preparation of their meals. Thus, the inhabitants could already grill or boil their food. The slash- and-burn agriculture practiced by the early settlers also caused them to search for new land. Jars as burial coffins for secondary burial were also made. Bones of the departed were enclosed in these vessels after being buried underground for a period of time. Closely related with burial practices were bone washing and bone painting or dipping with materials like sappan wood or red dye wood (Caesalpinia sappan) and hematite (iron ore) for protection from decay. In El Nido Cave, Palawan, painted bones were placed in small niches inside the cave. In some areas of the archipelago, corpses were interred directly into the ground in reclining or bent positions. In all kinds of burial, funerary offerings or pabaon were included such as clothes, food, and weapons. Many indigenous groups in the interior mountains and coastal areas still practice this tradition in the belief that the dead will use these materials when he sojourns towards the "soul world." Others cover the faces of the dead with thin sheaths of gold to prevent bad spirits from entering the body. The Manunggul jar (now at the National Museum), an example of funerary vessel dating between 890 B.C. and 710 B.C., is now considered a National Cultural Treasure of the Philippines. I'he upper portion of the jar has curvilinear incised st roll designs, painted with red hematitite (iron oxide). On the lid cover is a form of a boat with two human figures. The figure at the back is a boatman steering the "ship of the dead." The figure in front is the passenger whose arms crossed over his chest represent the soul of the deceased whose bones were placed in the jar. Philippine pottery shows a variety of shapes and decorative techniques, such as Incision, stippling, applique, and impression by rope and mat. Their designs were usually geometric. Subsequently, pottery became more functional like the palayok for cooking, the banga and tapayan for storing liquids. In Ilocos, the making of burnay pottery lives on. The Early Metal Age (500 B.C.) refers to the time in the development of human culture where tools and weapons were made of metal, which gradually replaced stone tools. The metal implements at this stage were crudely fashioned. The first metal to be widely used was copper. Raw copper was then pounded into ornaments and to some extent into tools. Bronze, made of imported tin and other metals like copper, emerged simultaneously with copper as a result of interisland movements of people. Although bronze had entered the Philippines, it did not constitute a major technological phase in the development of Metal Age in the country because of the preference of early inhabitants to iron ore in tool making (200 B.C.). Jewelry during the early phase of the Metal Age consists mainly of beads. There were beads made of jade, stones, glass, shells, seeds, twigs and stems, especially reeds of plants created into necklaces and other ornaments. Only the beads made of semiprecious stones endured decay in the graveyards and habitation sites. Jewelry as an ancient art began as amulets and charms to ward off bad spirits or to give supernatural powers to the wearer. In particular tribes like the T'boli, they wore body ornaments to please the gods and to signify the status of the wearer. It was only later when personal adornments became purely decorative. Ornaments of different kinds and designs (ranging from earrings to necklaces and bracelets) were buried with basic metal tools in various sites throughout the archipelago. There were personal adornments made of materials like nephrite and carnelian beads, which were available only through trade. This indicates that the economic resources of the community had fairly advanced. Jewelry at this period indicates the emergence of some kind of social stratification. The appearance and utilization of improved iron tools as the major technological device for exploiting the environment constitute the Developed Iron Age. As the use of iron became widespread, community specialization emerged as shown by the advances in tin- smithing, jewelry making, and in the utilization of resources. Iron tools were recovered in Luzon (particularly in Bulacan, Batangas, and Rizal areas). Tool specimens were also dug up in Palawan and Masbate. The early Filipinos made metal implements like knives (from simple to elaborate ones), the sumpak (blowguns), the kalikot for pounding betel nuts into powder, and gongs to mark the hours of the day and night. Scholars contend that during this age important industries were metalworking, pottery making, glassmaking, and tie-and-dye weaving. Cloth weaving replaced the bark cloth beaters for fashioning dress and other apparel. It is believed that the backloom similar to that of the Ifugaos, Bontoks, and other Mindanao groups was utilized. Fabrics and blankets were not only used for everyday living but also for important rituals. About the turn of the Millennium A.D., some families from surrounding island kingdoms set sail in boats and established their communities along riverbanks or on deltas. Filipino contacts with other countries became intensified. The development of a relatively efficient maritime transportation became the major impetus for inter- island contacts and commerce especially with Asians. This phase of Filipino prehistory is known to the anthropologists as the Age of Contact (500-1400 A.D.), which is the period of trading relations with neighboring islands, mostly by Asian traders. Community life throughout the archipelago was dominantly founded on trade and by increasing specialization in craftsmanship. The common sharing of cultural orientation like religion and writing was facilitated by intensive internal trade, principally between riverine and coastal communities. The people of Southeast Asia became highly nomadic because of water transportation. For the natives to succeed in engaging maritime trade with their Asian neighbors, they had to improve their seamanship and boat- building skill. These early wooden watercrafts in the country were called balangay. The balangay was basically a plank boat. It was driven either by a sail or by paddling. The discovery of balangay boats in Butuan, Agusan del Norte in the late 1970s served as pieces of evidence to further prove the technical know- how of the early Filipinos. The first boat, now preserved and displayed in a site museum in Libertad, Butuan City had a carbon-date of 320. While the second boat, which was dated 1250 A.D., has been transferred to the National Museum in Manila. Malay was the principal language of Southeast Asian commerce during those times. It is not surprising that a number of Malay loan words to Philippine languages pertain to commerce. These include talaro (scales), upa (payment), lako (peddle), gusali (hall), tunay (real) means "hard cash," and biyaya (grace) means "disbursement." Still other words illustrate the impact of commerce on culture like atsara (pickles), patis (brine), puto (native cake), kcilan (stove), pinggan (plate), aral (learning), and pagsamba (adoration). At the height of the Sri Vijaya power (which originated in Palembang, Sumatra in the 7 th century) around 1000 A.D., the Sri Vijayan merchants conducted extensive trade with China and India. In the 12 th century, the Sumatra-based kingdom of Sri Vijaya had also expanded its influence in the Philippine archipelago. According to Sulu tradition, between 900 and 1200 A.D., immigrants from Champa, an Indianized kingdom in Indochina, established a trading colony with the Buranuns of Sulu. The men of Champa were called Orang Dampuans, who were then vassals of the Sri Vijaya Empire. The Orang Dampuans settled in Taguima (now Basilan). They became the ancestors of the Yakans. Years later, immigrants from Bandjarmasin, Borneo (another Sri Vijaya dependency) settled in Sulu. They were the Orang Bandjar (Men of Bandjarmasin). They engaged actively in the rich pearl trade. To establish goodwill with the Buranuns, they brought with them a beautiful princess and offered her as bride to the native ruler. This state marriage resulted to deeper relations between Sulu and Borneo. Like the Dampuans, the Orang Bandjar introduced Indian culture in Sulu. Centuries of direct contact-with these Indianized traders left vivid traces on Filipino history and culture. The Indian influences were clearly noticeable in the religious beliefs, language, literature, and customs of the ancient Filipinos. Bathala, the name of the chief god of the pre-Christian Tagalogs, came from a Sanskrit term Bhattara, meaning "Great Lord." Also of Hindu origin was the belief of the early natives that the universe is filled with good and bad spirits. They offered religious sacrifices and prayers to these spirits for help and protection. Many Filipino fables werelinked to Indian literature. Included here are the story of the monkey and the turtle, the tale of the race between the deer and the snail, and the Visayan anecdote of the hawk and the hen. Filipino folk literature was also to some extent, influenced by Indian literature. Popular epics, including Darangan of Lanao, Lam-ang of llokandia, Ibalon of Bicolandia, and the Alim and the Hudhud of the Mountain Province, were inspired by the Mahabharata (Sanskrit, "Great Story") and Ramayana (Sanskrit, "Story of Rama"), which likely begun in the 3 rd century B.C. These epics were ritually recited. The early Filipinos had already developed a system of syllabic writing, with each symbol representing a syllable. The Tagalog script was called baybayin, sometimes erroneously called alibata. It consisted of three vowels and 14 consonants, with a total of 17 letters. The writing system was horizontal, from left to right. The writing instrument used was a sharp pointed iron locally known as sipol. With this iron instrument, the natives engraved words on bamboo shafts, wooden boards, leaves of plants, pottery, .ind metal. Remaining pieces of evidence of pre-colonial writing are so rare. Only three had been previously found: the 14^-15 th century Butuan silver strip, the 10 th century Butuan ivory seal, and the 15 th century Calatagan jar. The first artifact of pre-Hispanic origin that had writing on copper material dates back to 900 A.D. The script inscribed on it was written in Kavi (Old Javanese writing system), which does not look similar to the ancient baybayin. The text was in a language similar to four languages, namely: Sanskrit, Old Tagalog, Old Javanese, and Old Malay. The copper object is now called Laguna Copperplate Inscription (LCI). It was found near the mouth of the Lumbang River of Laguna province in 1990. The thin copper plate measures 20 by 30 centimeters in size. Antoon Postma, a Dutch national who has lived with the Mangyans for a long time and the director of the Mangyan Assistance and Research Center in Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro, was able to unlock the message on the copper material. The LCI is an official record imprinted in the Saka year 822 in the months of March-April on the 4 th day of the dark half of the moon on a Monday. This document was issued to Lady Angkatan together with her relative Bukah (child of His Honor Namwran) clearing Namwran, his family, and all their descendants of a debt equivalent to one kati and eight suwarnas of gold from the Chief of Dewata (Diwata, a town near Butuan). The pardon was issued by the chief of Tundun (Tundo), represented by the leader of Pailah Jayadewa. Others who witnessed the document include the leader of Puliran (Pulilan); Ganasakti, representing the leader of Paila (Norzagaray); Bisruta, representing the leader of Binwangan (Obando); and the Chief of Medang. The settlements during the LCI era flourished for some centuries but things like natural catastrophes, epidemics, and emigration made them disappear. The Dutch expert who looked into the LCI's authenticity concluded that the specific script style used in the copper material was consistent with its indicated date and that the correctness of the languages and words used would have been very hard for forgers to produce. Both oral and written literature had already flourished in the country prior to the coming of the Spaniards. This consists of bugtong (riddles), awit (songs), salawikain (proverbs), legends, myths, and poems. Some of the folk epics of the early times include: in Ilocano, the Lam-ang; in Ifugao, the Alim and Hudhud; in Kalinga, the Ulalim; in Bicol, the Handiong; in Maranao, the Bantugan; and in Maguindanao, the Indarapatra and Sulayman. The customs and traditions of the early Filipinos bear Hindu influence. Among them were as follows: the placing of a fresh flower garland around the neck of a visitor; the giving of bigaykaya (dowry) and rendering of personal services in the house of the bride's parents by the groom before the wedding; the throwing of rice grains to the newlyweds after the matrimonial ceremony by the guests; and the offering of buyo (mixture of betel nut, ikmo leaf, and lime) to a guest as an expression of hospitality. There were early superstitions in the country that came from Indianized migrants. Until today, many believed that a girl, who sings in front of the stove while cooking will marry a widower and that a cat cleaning its face indicates the coming of a visitor. Likewise, eating twin bananas would cause a mother to give birth to twins. The mode of dressing in pre-Spanish Philippines shows Indian influences. The putong (turban) of the early Filipino men and the sarong (lower garment) of the early Filipino women resemble the Indian putees and sari. The archaeological relics excavated in the Philippines further indicate Indian influences. Some of these are the following: the gold image ofAgusan, which was excavated on the left bank of Wawa River near the town of Esperanza, Agusan Province in 1917 (now preserved at the Gem Room of the Chicago Museum of Natural History); the copper image of Ganesha, elephant god of the Hindus, which was also found in Mactan in 1843; and the god Garuda pendant of Palawan found at Brooke's Point in 1961. The garuda is a mythical bird that Hindu god Vishnu used as vehicle. Certain industries in the country are of Indian origin, notably boat building, weaving of cotton clothes, and metalwork. Decorative arts were also influenced as shown in the design of gold necklaces and bolo handles. The manufacturing of some musical instruments like the kudyapi (guitar) and the planting of some species of flowers like sampaguita and champaka; fruits including mango and nangka; and vegetables such as ampalaya, patola, and malunggay came from Indianized sojourners. According to paleographical experts, the ancient Filipino writing has originated from India. According to Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, there are more than 340 Sanskrit words found in the Tagalog language. Dr. Jose Villa Panganiban, former Director of the Institute of National Language, gives a longer list of 375 Sanskrit loan words in the Filipino national language, which is basically Tagalog. These include the Filipino words: ama (father), nanay (mother), asawa (spouse), halaga (price), kalapati (dove), kuta (fort), sutla (silk), saksi (witness), tala (star), raha (king), sandata (weapon), and maharlika (noble) to name a few. Historically speaking, Sino-Philippine relations began in the 10 th century A.D. The earliest known authentic date of these relations was 982 A.D., when sever.il traders from Ma-yi (believed to inc lude Mindoro, liatangas, Manila, and I'ampanga) arrived in Canton board on an Arab ship and sold their valuable merchandise. Ma-Tuan-lin, a Chinese chronicler, included this detail in his Wen Shiann Tung Kao (General Investigation on the Chinese Cultural Sources). \ China during those times, having refined many of its developments in the fields of historical writing, painting, calligraphy, and hard-glazed porcelain, was beginning to expand its maritime activities in Nanyang (Southeast Asian world) especially during the Southern Sung (1127-1280), Yuan (1280-1368), and Ming (1368-1614) dynasties. Chinese merchants on board their junks left Chuanchow, Canton and other ports in China and traded with the people of Lingayen, Manila, Mindoro, and Sulu. In 1225, Chau Ju-kua, a Chinese Superintendent of Foreign Trade, described China's trade with Ma-i in his book, Chu-fan-chi (Reports on the South Sea Barbarians). This narrative pointed out the honesty of the early Filipinos in their business transactions with the Chinese traders. This was confirmed by another Chinese writer, Wang Ta-yuan. Wang Ta-yuan's description of medieval Filipino life appears in his Tao-i-chih-lio (Summary Notices of the Barbarians of the Isles), which was written in 1349. Both Chu-fan-chi and the Tao-i-chih-lio have sections about a barbarous place called P'i-she-ya, which is presumably Visayas. Wang Ta-yuan describes the natives of P'i-she- ya as being tattooed up to the neck. During the reign of Zhu Di (Chu 1i), the Yung-lo Emperor in 1403-1423 when China was expanding the boundaries of its domain, he induced the countries visited by his missions to pay tributes to the Ming court. The native rulers of the Philippines, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Indochina, and other Southeast Asian countries sent regular tribute embassies to the imperial court of the Ming emperor. According to the Ming Shih (Annals of the Ming Dynasty), Record of Luzon, Record of Camilig, and the Record of Sulu, the Philippines sent eight tribute embassies to Beijing between 1372-1424. China's greatest maritime explorer, Admiral Zheng He, also known as Cheng Ho, (1371-1435), led seven expeditions from 1405- 1433 in the south seas and reached the Philippines, Borneo, Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Indochina, India, and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). It is said that Cheng Ho's first expedition, which consisted of 62 ships, landed in the Philippines in December 1405. While in Jolo, one of his men, Pei-Pon-Tao (also known as Pun Tao King) died and was buried in Jatti Tunggal, Jolo. Annually, on December 26, the Chinese of Jolo until these days visit the tomb of Pei-Pon-Tao to pay homage to the forerunners of Sino-Philippine relations. t enturies of trade and personal relations with the Chinese inevitably led to the enrichment of Filipino life and culture. Decorated enameled ceramics painted in traditional patterns were exported in the Philippines. The blue-and-white pieces of Chinese porcelain had their origins in the Ming period. The manufacture of gunpowder, the art of metallurgy, the use of porcelain, gongs, lead, silver, tin, and certain occupations like blacksmithing and goldsmithing in the country were learned from the Chinese. The Filipinos practiced a form of duck culture around Pateros and Taguig in Rizal that resembled the Chinese, which includes the method of artificial incubation of eggs. They also taught the Filipinos of kite-flying and other games including various forms of gambling like jueteng, kuwaho, and pangginggi. The Chinese improved the culinary art of the early Filipinos. From them, the natives learned the roasting of pigs, the brewing of tea for drinking and the cooking of dishes like pancit, lumpia, chopsuey, and okoy. The Chinese also taught the Filipinos the use of seasonings like toyo (soy sauce) and tahuri, and vegetables like bataw, petsay, and upo. During the early times, the Filipino manner of dressing bore Chinese traces. The sleeved jackets (kangan) of the Filipino males, the loose trousers of the Muslim women of Mindanao, and the use of slippers, wooden shoes (bakya), fans, and umbrellas were of Chinese origin. The social customs of the early Filipinos showed Chinese influence. Among them were the arrangement of marriage by the parents of the boy and the girl, the hiring of a go-between in marital negotiations, the honoring of departed ancestors, and the employment of professional mourners during the funeral. Certain existing social customs bear indications of Chinese origin like the blasting of firecrackers on New Year's Eve, the beating of gongs to celebrate a feast, and the collection of tong (percentage fee) by the owner of a gambling joint. Haggling between the merchant and the customer to arrive at a price for a commodity is another practice that the natives have learned from them. The linguistic influence of China on the Filipino language is quite exceptional. About 1,500 Chinese loan words are included in the present vocabulary of the Filipinos. These words usually pertain to kinship and family relations, clothes, ornaments, food and drinks, agriculture and commerce, tools and occupations, and abstract ideas. Among these are as follows: ate (older sister), sanse (third older sister), kuya (older brother), diko (second older brother), sangko (third older brother), suki (friend), gunting (scissors), hiya (shame), pakyaw (wholesale), and susi (key). In the 13 th century, Japan was said to have traded with the Philippines based from the early historical records in Ryukyu. Japanese wakos (pirate- traders) sailed the Orient waters, and many of them were able to reach the Philippine archipelago. The Japanese made some early contributions to Filipino culture and economy. They taught our people some industries such as the manufacturing of arms and tools and the tanning of deerskins. In the 1400s, they established a trading post at Aparri, Northern Luzon. In the middle of the 14 th century, the Muslim traders from Malaysia brought Islam (in Arabic means "submission to the will of God") to the Philippines. It spread through the southern parts of the islands. Historians say Tuan Masha'ika brought the Islamic faith in Sulu. He was mentioned to have established the first Muslim (means "one who surrenders to God") community in the archipelago. Karim ul Makhdum is the next mentioned in the Tarsilas (records). He was a noted judge and scholar from Mecca. After converting the sultan and the people of Malacca, he went to Sulu (1380 A.D.) and began missionary work. He built a house for religious worship (a mosque) at Tubig-Indagan on the Island of Simunul and won many converts, particularly at Buansa (ancient capital of Sulu). About 1390, Rajah Baginda, a Muslim prince from Menangkabau, Sumatra, landed at Buansa. He overpowered native resistance because his warriors fought with firearms, the first to be used in combat on the Philippine soil. The stage of the makhdumin, an era of receptivity to Islam, resulted to conversions to the Islamic faith with the arrival of missionaries in Sulu, an event contemporaneous with the work of other missionaries in Java, Indonesia. The Muslims established settlements that dominated the region for years. In some instances, the conversion process became easier as soon as the male proselytizers marry the daughters of families belonging to the ruling class. In 1450 A.D., Sharif ul-Hashim (popularly known as Sayid Abu Bakr), an Arab authority on Islamic religion and law arrived in Buansa, Sulu from Johore, Malacca. He married Princess Paramisuli, the beautiful daughter of Raha Baginda (from Sumatra). Abu Bakr founded the Sulu sultanate in the same year, after his father-in-law's death. He organized the government patterned after that of the Arabian caliphate and promulgated the first Sulu code of law. He later transformed the Muslim Tausugs into a powerful army. Abu Bakr was said to have unified the coastal and the hill dwellers (Buranun) of Sulu. He adapted the local traditions to the Qur'an (bible). He received the title of Sultan Sarif. After reigning for 30 years, he died in 1480. All sultans of Sulu until the present day trace their ancestry from him. In the lirst quarter of the 16 th century, more Muslims migrated into the archipelago. The Islamic conquest of Mindanao was attributed to the legendary Sharif Muhammad Kabungsuwan, a johore Muslim. In 1475, he arrived in the Malabang area in Cotabato (Maguindanao) with an invading force of Islamized Samals. The pagan natives ferociously opposed him but his Samal warriors subdued them. After conquering the Cotabato Valley (Maguindanao), Kabungsuwan married a native princess in the place. He converted the overpowered inhabitants to Islam. Those who refused to accept the new faith fled to the mountains. They became the present-day Bilaans, Manobos, Subanuns, and other pagan Filipinos. Kabungsuwan founded the sultanate of Maguindanao sometime in 1515. Years after, several sultanates were also established in the region. Other Muslim missionaries entered the Philippines subsequently. Shortly before Magellan's arrival in 1521, Muslim traders from Borneo actively disseminated the teachings of Islam in Mindoro, Batangas, Manila, and Pampanga. One of them was Siat Saen, who introduced Islam in the town of Balayan, Batangas. Through their efforts, the spread of Islam was accelerated. The last recorded Muslim missionary to bring the Islamic faith into the country was Alawe Balpake, an Arab Sharif from Sarawak, Borneo. During the early years of the 17 ,h century, he introduced Islam in Northern Mindanao and the Lanao Lake region, after which, he moved to the island of Basilan and became its first Muslim sultan. In 1956, his grave was discovered in Taguima, Basilan. The spread of Islam occurred in two waves: the first was the expansion of Islam out of Arabia to the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, Central Asia, and the latter parts of Eastern Europe, while the second wave brought Islam towards Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. The introduction of Islam in the Philippines is part of the second wave. The southern part of Luzon and its islands became under the control of Muslim sultanates. Islam, which professes monotheism, or in the belief of a single God, teaches that Muhammad was the last and the most important in a series of prophets. Furthermore, it advocates that all Muslims belong to one community, the umma, regardless of ethnic background. Islam believes that man has to treat all God's creation with kindness and compassion. The five pillars of Islam are as follows: first, the profession of faith (shahada): "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God," which is a prerequisite for membership in the Muslim community; second, the ritual prayer (salat) wherein the adult Muslim has to implore the Almighty five times a day facing Mecca, i.e., before daybreak, at noontime, in mid-afternoon, at sunset, and any time after sunset, before sleeping preceded by ritual cleansing; third, the almsgiving (zakat), which is the obligatory giving of one fortieth of one's income to the needy or religious cause to purify one's wealth .»nd attain salvation; fourth, the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), which is a mandatory once-in-a- lifetime trip to the House of God (the Kaaba) where the title of hadji shall be given to a Muslim who has performed this pilgrimage; and fifth, fasting (sawm), which is done during the lunar month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the Arabic calendar). Ramadan commemorates the Holy Qur'an's revelation (Chapter II, Verse 185) to Prophet Muhammad Sallalahu Alaihi Wassalam. During the period of fasting, all Muslims must refrain from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse from daybreak to sunset. The sick, travelers, and menstruating women are exempted from fasting but they have to make up the days they skipped at a later date. Islam celebrates Eid ul-Fitr or the Festival of Breaking the Fast, after the sighting of the crescent moon at the end of Ramadan. (Republic Act 9177 declared Eid ul-Fitr a national holiday in the Philippines to be observed not only by Muslims but also by Christians). This is a day on which the Muslims are called upon to visit one another and exchange i greetings among themselves. Considered the sixth pillar of Islam by some Muslims is the jihad, which in Arabic means "to struggle" or "to exhaust one's effort" in order • to please God. Within the belief of Islam, jihad refers to living a virtuous life, helping other Muslims, and preaching Islam. It has lately evolved to holy war, which focused on the militant interpretation of the jihad. Islam had left her lasting impression on the life and culture of the Muslim Filipinos, which include the Maranaos of Lanao, Maguindanaons of Cotabato, Samals of Zamboanga, Yakans of Basilan, and Tausugs of Sulu. The Muslim Filipinos should abide the rules and laws to be followed by all Muslims like the overt expression of belief in Allah and fasting between dawn and sunset during the Ramadan. Friday is a holy day for Muslims. The mosque is their special place of worship and point of convergence for social activity. In most Muslim communities, there is at least one mosque. The muezzin calls the faithful to public prayer. Those who responded should remove their footwear before entering the mosque and aligned themselves in rows and offered prayers in the direction of Mecca. An imam (prayer leader) leads the recitation in Arabic verses from the Qur'an. The Muslim settlers also brought their political system by establishing a series of sultanates in Mindanao. Abu Bakr established his dynasty's legitimacy by claiming to be a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. In the sultanate form of government, title of political dignitaries, such as sultan (supreme ruler), raja muda (heir apparent), dayang (princess), and kali (judge) became known. The Islamization of a number of Filipinos led to the introduction of Arabic alphabet, Islamic holidays, and the Arabic arts. Singkil (a Maranao word for "getting a leg or foot entangled in an object") originated from Lanao del Sur. The dancers, with solemn faces and dignified poses, dressed in elegant Muslim costumes begin dancing in a slow pace, which soon progresses to a taster tempo to the rhythmic clapping of crisscrossed bamboos. The ladies gracefully wave big fans while the men glide with brightly colored handkerchiefs. When performed by ladies of the royalty of Lanao, the dance is usually ushered by a waiting lady, who holds an exquisitely embellished umbrella over the Princess' head wherever she goes. Legend has it that singkil originated from the time the dizvatas (nymphs or fairies) played a joke on Princess Gandingan as she was on a stroll. The diwatas caused the trees to tremble and the rocks to roll; however, the princess skipped nimbly from place to place unharmed. In their artworks, the Maranaos used the okir or okkil design, a curvilinear floral design. The different types of okkil design appear as border decoration on the cover and in the pages of the Qur'an. They are also replicated in furniture, boats, farm implements, silverware, brassware, jewelry, and ceramics. Similar okir designs were also made on ancestral houses called torogan. The indigenous bird motif, the sarimanok, is also said to have been developed by the Maranaos. It is decorative in nature, having the appearance of a bird or a rooster holding a fish in its claws or beak. Another artistic expression by the Muslims is the kris used extensively by the Tausug, Samal, and Yakan warriors. This is a sword with a straight or wavy blade. These swords were not only used as weapons but also considered as great works of arts, at times inlaid with silver and gold or pearls. The Muslims usually carry their kris at the right side of their bodies. Another fearsome weapon is the lantaka (swivel gun) placed on flexible beams that allowed the gunner to pursue a moving target. The people in a society collectively create and preserve culture. The Filipino people culturally evolved because they were able to exchange their thoughts with others through communication. The transmission of ideas and skills was made possible through interaction since the early Filipinos no longer lived in complete isolation. The ancient Filipinos prior to the coming of Spaniards have already possessed a distinctive culture as proven by the material remains of past societies. They were not uncivilized but intrinsically endowed with abilities to stand as equal to the people elsewhere in the world. 2. Traditional Filipino Communities Early Filipino settlements varied in population sizes. Some were inhabited by thousands of people while others were small, composed only of a few scattered family members. The unit of social organization with broader political, economic, and religious features than the family was the barangay, headed by the native chieftain called datu or rajah. Usually several barangays were situated near each other to mutually assist in case of war or any emergency. Consolidation of barangays was formed through marriages and blood compact, locally known as sandugu. This traditional ceremony signifies that the partakers of such rite become blood brothers, presumably because the same blood now flowed in their veins. They drew blood from their arms and mixed it with wine, which they shared and drank at the same time, as viewed by witnesses. Chroniclers noted and characterized the social stratification system of pre-colonial Filipino community organization based on wealth, political influence, and social privileges enjoyed. The ranks were as follows: (1) the datu class or the ruling class; (2) the maharlika or the aristocracy; (3) the timagua (pronounced timawa) or the common class; and the (4) alipin (also known as uripon among the Visayans) or the dependent class. The datu or rajah ruled the barangay. Since the term barangay came from the word balangay, which means boat, Fr. Juan de Plasencia, a Spanish chronicler in the 16 th century, speculated that the role of the datu arose from the captain of a boat migrating to the Philippines with his family, relatives, and servants. Miguel de Loarca, in his Relacion de las Islas Filipinas (1582) said that the datus who live in the same town obey the wealthiest among them. Furthermore, Antonio de Morga in his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas mentioned that only the best warriors were obeyed. The Boxer Codex, an anonymous late 16 th century manuscript mentioned that only men were qualified for the title. The datu's power depends upon the faithfulness of his followers. - The datu exercised administrative powers. In arriving at important decisions, the datu also exercised legislative powers, calling his people all together and securing their consent. The datu usually had a council of elders to advise him, especially in the enactment of a law. He had the duty to protect his community. A datu also was given judicial powers since he could render judgment in any dispute. He should hear the testimony of the claimants before handling down the verdict. His decision could be appealed to an arbiter of the claimants' choice from another community. Control over the disposition of the barangay's real property was vested in their native chief. The chieftain received the agricultural produce, personal services as well as respect from his people. He took his share of the harvest as tribute except from the aristocracy or the maharlika. Other historians include the family, relatives, and elders of the datu as members of the aristocracy. The maharlikas were believed to be the descendants of mixed marriages between a ruling dynasty and the one out of power. The timawa class enjoyed their rights to a portion of the barangay land. Their normal obligation was agricultural labor but they were also called to catch fish, to accompany expeditions, or paddle boats. They were also called out for irregular services like supporting feasts and building houses. An alipin was a man indebted to another. His creditor could have been a datu, maharlika, timaiva, or another alipin. His subordination was obligatory. A person may be born alipin, for that reason he was called gintubo. He inherits the debt of his parents. The degree of alipin indebtedness may vary. For example, if alipin and timawa marry, their offspring would be half-alipin where he would only work half of his father's obligation. There were two kinds of alipin, the aliping namamahay and the aliping sagigilid. The alipin with land rights was called namamahay (householder). He owned a house. He came at his master's call to work on the fields and do other services. A man enters the namamahay status either by inheritance from namamahay parents, dropping down from the timawa status or rising from the sagigilid status. The aliping sagigilid (gilid is the part of the house where the stove is) were members of the master's household who ate from their master's pot. They may be transferred to another creditor at any moment and may be rewarded at their master's pleasure. Slaves purchased from outside the community and captives in battles or raids were included in the sagigilid status. The dependent population whom the Spanish chroniclers called slaves were released from dependence by paying back debts, by marriage, by purchase or by the voluntary act of the master. The barangay had both oral and written laws. The oral laws were their customs (ugali), which had been handed down from generation to generation. The written laws were promulgated by datus with the help of the council of elders. However, these laws may be changed by consensus among ruling datus or by any among them powerful enough to do so. Such written laws were announced to the people by a barangay crier known as umalohokan. The unwritten codes of conduct were strictly obeyed. Righteousness was cabanalan and an upright person was described banal. Any wrongdoing would mean reprehension from the community leaders and more importantly, from the supernatural beings. When a witness was called to testify against anybody, it was customary to say, "May lightning strike me if I am telling a lie. May the heavens or the sun fall upon me if I will tell a lie." They believed that after death, the soul would travel to another world to receive due reward or punishment. The good soul would go to kalwalhatian (state of bliss) according to the Tagalogs and ologan, to the Visayans. The bad soul would go to a place of doom called kasamaan by the Tagalogs and solad by the Visayans. Aside from their strong belief for life after death, archaeological sites show that there was a local form of ancestor worship. Religion was animistic or based on the worship of spirits of dead relatives and other spirits, such <is nature deities. Early Filipino contacts with other Asians brought in the belief system like the anito concept to honor ancestors. The Visayans called their ancestor spirits umalagad (from the word alagad or follower). The notion of diwatas (spirits) that dwell in nature was also pervasive in the Visayas and Mindanao. The abstract idea of religion was concretely shown in sculptured objects known as licha (pronounced likha) or larawan, reverently worshipped by the natives. The Cordillera people carved anito figures called bul-ul, signifying as ancestral spirits and granary gods. There are over 1,500 gods in the Ifugao pantheon by which sacrificial offerings were made. The matung-ngulan takes care of the welfare of animals. The pil-le looks over the property. The minnahu regulates welfare while the bul-ul controls rice. The bul-ul figures, usually made in pair is carved by a senior priest-carver or by older members of the village. The figures are carved either by standing or sitting and most often the wood is taken from the narra tree. The figures are then placed in a granary house or house attic where they are believed to guard the harvest from pests and thieves. Every harvest time, the bul-ul is brought out to share the bounty of the harvest and to consume the non-material essence of the sacrificial rice, chickens, pigs, and rice wine, while the people eat the material part. Aside from sculptured objects, the relationship between ancient spirits and men were expressed in elaborate paintings executed on the bodies of human beings. Tattooing, as believed by some people, was done as a thanksgiving offering to the gods, while others in many instances, had it done to acquire protective powers from spirits or were applied after a man had shown remarkable courage in battle. TattoOs were also part of the body ornaments of pre-Hispanic Filipino men and women. These were also regarded as war medals. Other minor gods and idols include lakambini, the god of the throat; bibit, who was offered food by the people for good health; lakambacod, guard of the crops; and, lakapati, who was the god of the fields and had a half-woman and half-man figure. There were also major gods considered by ancient Filipinos. The supreme god of the Tagalogs was Bathala or Abba. He was said to inhabit a faraway realm of eternal space known as kalwalhatian. For the Bontoks and Kankanays of the Central Cordillera, Lumawig was the creator and preserver of life. Among the Ifugaos, the highest of all their deities is Kabunian, who dwells in the fifth region of the universe. Mediums were called upon to communicate with spirits who often resorted to divination to ascertain the will of the gods. Such divination usually took place during the rituals practiced by the natives. Festivities and ceremonies to appease the different divinities were celebrated customarily by the people, ranging from simple to complex performance of rites appropriate for the occasion. Temporary shelters or roofs were built for religious feasts and rites. The Patipat, more popularly known as tagitag was an Ifugao ritual performed by the menfolk of the community to drive away bad spirits, which they believe bring poor harvest or ailments to people. The worship service called the baki, which starts at the crack of dawn, was headed by a mumbaki (native priest). Animal sacrifices were offered to the gods for good omen. The participants, with their bodies adorned with leaves of the red Ti plant or the dongla, beat their wooden planks called bangibang (painted with chicken blood) from the terraces to the river and to their homes. This was to frighten hidden rodents and prowling wicked spirits. At the end of the ritual, the dongla leaves were removed from the participants and strung together. One of the most popular religious ceremonies during the ancient times was the paniwata, frequently celebrated for thanksgiving and for curing illness. The religious rituals were performed by mediums and healers, which the Tagalogs called catalonan while the Visayans termed as babaylan or baylan. They belonged to the highest rank of the early Filipino priestly caste. They were highly respected by the community members. The priestly caste also included the mankokolam, which was of a lower ranlc. People feared him because he was believed to have the power to inflict diseases. One feast, the pandot, was observed at night under a balete tree or in the open field wherein those who came to participate brought food and an offering, such as a mat, which they tied to a tree. The celebration was more of drinking than eating. Another feast, the maganito, was a month-long celebration. Usually, they put lights to several poles, which surrounded a central light. Leaves served as decorations. At times when the occasion demanded a sacrifice, the prettiest girl was first asked to stab the offering (usually a live pig). The people in the feast followed her, and the meat of the dead hog was then given to the guests. Meat was primarily provided during rituals and feasts. The everyday meal of the early Filipinos included rootcrops, fruits, and fish. The staple food of the early Filipinos was rice. They cooked food in earthen pots or in bamboo tubes. They ate with their bare hands, using banana plant leaves as plates and coconut shells as drinking cups. They made fire by rubbing two pieces of dry wood. They stored their drinking water in large earthen jars or in huge bamboo tubes. In many provint « wineinaking is an age-old enterprise. Their most popular wine was the tuba, made from the sap of coconut or nipa palms. I he other wines manufactured in the islands were basi, an llocano wine Irom sugarcane juice; pangasi, a Visayan wine made from rice; lambanog, a lagalog wine produced by distillation of tuba; and the tapuy, an Igorot wine made from rice. The early Filipinos taught their children how to endure life's challenges. The fathers trained their sons in hunting, fishing, timber cutting, boat making, mining, and agriculture. The mothers, on the other hand, t rained their daughters to do household tasks like cooking, gardening, and sewing. It is said that in ancient Panay, there was a barangay school called bothoan, under the charge of an old man, acting as the teacher. The subjects taught were reading, writing, arithmetic, the handling of weapons, and the acquiring of amulets or kinaadman. From the Negritos and similar aboriginal people in the mountains of Luzon, Panay, and other islands came indigenous dances and music made by primitive jaw harps of bamboo, flutes of mountain cane and bamboo violin with abaca string. Jaw harps became popular all over the archipelago. Though mostly made of bamboo, some of them were made of metal. The bamboo jaw harps of the Kalingas were called olibaw. The Tagalogs called it barimbaw. In Mindanao, kubing was the common term for these bamboo jaw harps. Other musical instruments being played by the natives were the kudyapi (Tagalog guitar), kalaleng (Tinggian nose flute), babandil (Maguindanaoan gong), kulintang (Muslim xylophone), tultogan (Visayan bamboo drum), silbay (llocano reed flute), the suracan (Subanun cymbal) and tambuli (trumpet made from carabao horn). Bungkaka is a bamboo buzzer played by striking the split ends against one's palm. Ancient songs exhibited varied emotions, with themes about thanksgiving, birth, death, love, war, labor, religion, and victory. Among these were as follows: tagumpay, Tagalog song of victory; ayeg-klu, Igorot serenade song; bactal, Tagbanua death song; and tudob, Agusan harvest song. Ethnic dances, which had been part of every tribe and culture, reflected the sentiments and artistry of the populace. Their dances, customarily light- hearted and mimetic, were in connection with their beliefs in spirits, in thanksgiving and healing, in courtship. Tribes of Malay stock had preserved many dances accompanied by nose flutes, bamboo guitars, gongs of various sizes and shapes, drums, and wooden sticks. Some of the native dances included the mahinhin, a Tagalog courtship dance; the dandansoy, a Visayan tuba dance; the sua-sua dance, a Sulu courtship dance; and the paunjalay, a Muslim wedding dance. Dances of the highlanders were more energetic, in contrast to lowlanders that were generally slow and tender. People residing near the sea sang and danced about fishing and rowing of their bancas. In areas where coconuts abound, shells of the nut were used in some dances. Dances of rice-growing regions depicted rice- planting, harvesting, pounding, and winnowing. The fast-moving dances of Visayan, Tagalog, and Bicol regions depict abundance. In llocos, where life was harder, dances were slower and emotional. Theater originated within the early communities through ritual practitioners in their dance-dramas to appease supernatural powers that were believed to control natural forces, to ensure good harvest and success in hunting and battles. Kali, later called amis during the Spanish era, was popular all over the islands. It was a method of self-defense with instruments made of rattan canes or betel nut tree trunks. As an art of battle, the kali requires basic skills for parrying, offense, and defense. In commerce, the early Filipinos had their own weights and measures. They used the talaro, a kind of balance with scales, for weighing things. Measurement for capacity were the kaban (25 gantas), the salop (one ganta), the kaguitna (one-half ganta), and the gatang (one chupa). For length, measures used were the dipa, the length of the outstretched arms; the tumuro, the length between the tip of the thumb and that of the forefinger when extended; the sandamak, the width of the hand with the five fingers pressed together; and the sandali; the width of one finger. They also knew the art of coinage and had gold used as medium of exchange. Modern numismatists call these ancient gold coins piloncitos (little cones) because of their conical shape. Shells and bronze gongs were also used as money in exchange of other goods. However, the usual method of trading during those times was barter in which they offered their own products in exchange of other goods. Aside from rattan, pearls, precious shells, and other marine and forest products, the early Filipinos traded their native merchandise such as baskets and mats. Non-textile weaving industry in the archipelago was a result of the proliferation of organic materials such as bamboo, rattan, vines, and rotio reeds. To the mountain people of Cordillera, a basket was a functional household or agricultural container. This light bushel was essential in carrying clothes and vegetables especially in a rugged terrain. The multipurpose backpack was the best known Cordillera basket. The Ilocanos had produced baskets for storing valuables and their clothes, the tampipi. The Hanunuo of Mindoro had embellished baskets to hold betel nut chewing ingredients, beads or money. Mat-making was also popular in the islands. Various palms were the sources for this flourishing Industry. The natives made distinctively large mats for sleeping. Mats were also fashioned as home furnishings to sit on and receive distinguished guests. Sulu mats were the most intricately woven. They colorfully dyed pandanus mats and occasionally incorporated sy inbols and geometric designs. The early natives also knew mathematics. They could count up to 100,000,000 (bahala) and could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. The terms for numericals were as follows: isa (one), puo (ten), daan (hundred), libo (thousand), yuta (one hundred thousand), angao (one million), kati (ten million), and bahala (one hundred million). They also learned how to calculate time and identify seasons by reading the signs of nature. The early or late flowering of certain plants could indicate a long dry season or early rains. The Ifugaos, on the other hand, devised a calendar, which contains 13 months in a year, each month having 28 days. Some members of this ethnic group still utilize this calendar method. They had a tribal calendar recorder called tumunoh, who kept 13 strings representing the 13 months of the year. At the end of each day, the tumunoh tied a knot per string to show that a day had passed. A string with 28 knots represents one month. The Ifugao calendar has a total of 364 days a year. The early inhabitants also had some knowledge of medicine. Folk healers applied certain roots and leaves, flowers and fruits, branches and pistils of plants containing substances with curative powers. Long before the coming of the Spaniards, the natives of the islands were already wearing clothes. Men wore collarless, short- sleeved coat called kangan and a strip of cloth called bahag, wrapped around the waist and between the legs. Usually, they wore putong, a piece of cloth worn around the head. Though they had no footwear, they wore jewels such as gold necklaces, gold armlets called kalombigas, and gold anklets filled with agates, carnelians, and other colored glass. The women's upper garment was a wide-sleeved blouse called baro. Their skirt was called patadycmg or saya with a strip of cloth over it called tapis. Their personal trimmings consisted of necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and rings made of gold at times filled with pearls, carnelian beads, and other precious gems. Numerous types of glass and stone beads have been unearthed in Philippine archaeological sites, providing substantial proof of early trade relations of the archipelago with foreign lands. One personal garb in the islands was the salakot (native hat), worn as protection from heat or sudden rain. Generally made of anahaw (a forest palm), the salakot was widely used in Central Luzon and the Visayas. The llonggots used leather (from animals they hunt) in making shallow hats, while neighboring Bontoks used coiled rattan. The Ifugaos, on the other hand, wore perfectly fitted carved bowl-like hats, while the Maranaos and the Bagobos (Davao) made wooden hats as shields for combat. When the first Spaniards arrived in the 16 th century, they were surprised to see the early Filipinos living in these well-organized and independent villages, the barangays. The native dwellers lived in houses made of wood and bamboo, roofed by nipa palm leaves called bahay kubo (nipa hut). Other materials used include yantok (rattan), cogon grass, stone, and clay. These houses were elevated three to four meters from the ground and usually supported by four or more posts made of wood or bamboo. The space beneath the house called silong, served as workspace, storage space, a granary or pen for livestock. A hagdan (ladder), which could be drawn up at night or when the owners of the house went out, was used to enter the nipa hut. The roof of the bahay kubo may be constructed on the ground, then completed over the house frame. The wall was built from nipa shingles or bamboo. The tinilad na kawayan (bamboo slats), which served as the floor of the house, were set slightly apart to induce ventilation. The doors, as well as the stairs, were made of bamboo. The windows of the house differ in size, with a tukod (mast) to prop the swinging cover open during the day. The principal space inside the bahay kubo, called the bulwagan, about 10 square meters in area or larger, could be used for receiving guests, dining, and sleeping. Furniture in the bahay kubo is minimal, commonly with a low table for meals called dulang and a built-in seat called papag. A small silid (room) served as a dressing room and closet for clothes, pillows, and mats. There were houses with an open porch called batalan, an unroofed platform, where water jars are placed. Sometimes the cooking was done in an open hearth or on a clay kalan (stove) or tungkong kalan (three stones) in a space in front of the ladder of the batalan. The structure and design of the native houses resulted from various factors that may be dictated by the natural setting, available resources, customs, beliefs, and needs of the occupants. The seafaring Samal built their houses over the water, along the seashore. Their domiciles were on stilts, high enough to let their boats dock under them even at high tide. Footbridges made of planks were connected to these clustered dwellings. The Badjao lived in houseboats. The Bagobos of Davao del Sur and the Kalinga of the Mountain Province built houses on trees for protection from enemies and wild animals on the ground. Cats were kept in most houses to get rid of rats. There were also dogs and pet monkeys to warn the household members of approaching strangers. Study Guides Terms/Concepts to Understand Mainland Origin Hypothesis Island Origin Hypothesis Nusantao Umma Shahada Eid ul-Fitr Burnay Questions to Answer 1. How did the peopling of the Philippine archipelago come about? 2. What were the cultural influences brought about by the Asian traders to the ancient Filipinos? 3. How did the teachings of Islam influence the Filipino society? 4. How was a chieftain selected in a barangay? Should he be considered a tyrant? Why? 5. Discuss how the early Filipino communities live and interact with other islanders. 6. Which among the ancient Filipino traditions still exist at present? Chapter IV The Spanish Era 1. In Search of New Lands The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought an era of worldwide exploration and expansion that resulted from the desire to gain new lands, power, and wealth for the explorers and their countries. In the last two centuries of the Middle Ages (1300- 1500), the Europeans, while regaining the Holy Land from the Muslims, were able to establish commerce with the Orient through trade routes. Spices like pepper, ginger, nutmeg, onions, and garlic were the most important items of trade from the East, owing to the desire of the Europeans to enhance the taste of food and to preserve meat during winter time. The fall of Constantinople (1453) and the emergence of the Ottoman Turks closed the former trade routes to the East, causing the monarch s and navigators of Europe to find new routes across the seas. The Portuguese were a few years ahead of the Spaniards in the discovery of new trade routes. Inspired by Prince Henry, the Navigator (1394-1460), Portuguese navigators sailed down the African coast to reach the East. In 1487, led by Bartolome Dias, the Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope. A few years later, in 1498, Vasco de Gama reached Calicut, India, by sailing eastward from the cape. The end of the reconquistas (wars against the Moors) in 1492, paved the way for great voyages including the discovery of the New World (America) for Spain. Christopher Columbus, who had failed to convince the King of Portugal that he could reach the East by sailing westward, was able to get the support of the Spanish Crown. After these remarkable voyages, Portugal and Spain became keen rivals in colonizing new lands because of gold, spices, and other merchandise found in the Orient, as well as their religious zeal to proselytize the natives. European adventurers made daring voyages and sought new lands and riches. Great explorers were able to discover various routes for their expeditions, which marked the Age of Exploration (1492-1682). On May 3,1493, Pope Alexander VI, attempting to settle the rivalry, issued a papal bull known as the Inter caetera. The Pope decreed that the Spanish zone of exploration should be west of the imaginary line drawn north to south, 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. All lands east of the demarcation line should belong to Portugal. The demarcation line was drawn to identify Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration and conquest. The following year, the two kingdoms agreed in the Treaty ofTordesilU* to move the demarcation line 170 leagues (about 1,100 miles) west of Cape Verde islands and still be guided by the provisions of the papal bull. The revised treaty allowed Portugal to claim what is now Brazil while Spain was given the rest of the Americas (Perry et al., 1988: 353). In 1505, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521), a member of the nobility of Portugal sailed with a fleet carrying the first Portuguese viccroy to the I last Indies in 1506 and from there, was sent to Malacca (Melaka) in the Malay Peninsula and the spice markets of Ambon and Banda in Western Indonesia. He was promoted to the rank of captain in 1510. He returned to Portugal in 1512. During those days, all explorations were done by latitude sailing by means of an astrolabe. Through observing wind directions and ocean tides, Magellan later conceived the idea of a passage to the west or around South America to reach the Moluccas or Spice Islands (islands of present-day Indonesia). While finding the chance to present his plan to King Manuel of Portugal, he fought against the Moors in Morocco in 1513. There he received his wounds that left him lame for life. After his return to Portugal, Magellan proposed to the king his plan to travel a westward route to the Moluccas. The king refused and even canceled his promotion probably because of charges of financial irregularities while he was in Morocco. Disgusted by the king's response, he renounced his Portuguese citizenship. He went to Spain in 1517. In his new found home, Magellan met influential persons who helped him get support for his plan to find a new route to the Spice Islands from King Charles I (later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). One of them was Bishop Juan de Fonseca, the head of the Royal Council of the Indies (division in charge of overseas expeditions). Spurred by the competition to win against Portugal in obtaining high- priced spices, Spain commissioned Magellan to find a route to Moluccas by sailing west. Such passage would be beneficial to Spain for Portugal controlled the eastward route to the East Indies around Africa's Cape of Good Hope. The contract for the expedition was signed on March 28,1518. Magellan was named captain general of the expedition. 2. Magellan's New Route to the East Magellan left the port of San Lucar de Barrameda, Spain, on September 20,1519 with five ships namely: Trinidad, Conception, Santiago, San Antonio, and Victoria together with about 250 men. The expedition intended to circumnavigate the earth in the service of Spain. Accompanying him were Fr. Pedro de Valderrama (fleet chaplain), Antonio Pigafetta (chronicler of the expedition), Duarte Barbosa (Magellan's brother-in-law), and his Malay slave Enrique of Malacca (acting as interpreter). The fleet sailed through familiar waters along the westcoast of Africa. They reached the Canaries on September 26. Crossing the Atlantic, they landed on the South American coast, now Pernambuco, Brazil, on November 29. Magellan continued the voyage, reaching Rio de Janeiro on December 13. He named it Santa Lucia, because he landed there on the saint's feast day. There they traded with the native Americans for provisions. The voyage continued at Rio de Plata. By the time they were at the tip of the South American continent, it was already winter. The snowstorms were in a headstrong. The men became apprehensive and asked Magellan that they all return to Spain. Magellan declined. Instead, he asked them to take courage. The ships took shelter from storms in Port San Julian (now in Argentina) in March 1520. Unknown to Magellan, some officers took into command the maneuvering of three ships, the San Antonio, the Conception, and the Victoria. The next day, Gaspar de Quesada, captain of the Conception, wrote to Magellan that he and others would not recognize his authority unless they return immediately to Spain. Still, Magellan refused to heed their petition. Juan de Cartagena, Antonio de Coca, Juan Sebastian del Cano (called Elcano), and Gaspar de Quesada were found guilty of treason but pardoned. But Cartagena continued to plot again, this time with one of the priests, Pero Sanchez de Reina. They were probably jealous because the captain-general of this Spanish expedition was a Portuguese. Magellan had the two left off the coast of an unnamed island. With the first signs of spring, the exploratory voyage continued in search of a route to the Southern Sea (now Pacific Ocean). A strong typhoon had driven ashore and destroyed the smallest ship, Santiago. In August, the four ships went farther south and eventually, they came upon a strait, which Magellan called "Strait of All Saints" (now Strait of Magellan). Magellan sent the San Antonio to explore the southeast opening of the strait. Trinidad entered the southwest. Secretly, San Antonio, piloted by Esteban Gomez (a Portuguese), deserted on the night of November 20 and sailed back for Spain. The fleet reached the Southern Sea, which Magellan named Ocean Pacific because it was calm. Unfortunately, Magellan had underestimated the ocean's size. In the next five months, the ship was running out of supplies. Instead of biscuits, the men ate sawdust. They also started to eat leather rope guards and even rats. Many got sick with scurvy (a gum disease). A number of his men died. But Magellan and his men bravely sailed on and by March 6, 1521 they had reached an island in the Western Pacific. He called it Islas Ladrones (or Islands of Thieves, later to be named Marianas, in honor of Maria Ana of Austria, Queen Regent of Spain) because some of the native Chamorros had stolen a boat from the flagship. To stop them, Magellan ordered his men to fire their guns. 1. Voyage to the Philippines From Ladrones Islands, Magellan's fleet went on their journey westward. At the dawn of Saturday, on March 16, 1521, they saw the towering heights of Samar and named the island Islas de San Lazaro, for it was the feast day of St. Lazarus. They stayed overnight off Suluan Island. I he following day, they landed on the small uninhabited islet of Humunu (Homonhon) found at the mouth of Leyte Gulf and built two tents for the sick. On the third day after their arrival on March 18, they met nine natives from the neighboring island of Suluan who arrived in a boat. Seeing them .1 friendly people, Magellan gave them red caps, mirrors, combs, small I ells, ivory, fine linen cloth, and other trifles. In return, the islanders gave them their cargo of bananas, fish, coconuts, and palm wine (tuba). On Holy Thursday, March 28, the fleet landed in another island called Mazaua, which could be Limasawa in Leyte or Masao in Butuan. Rajah kolambu was rowed to where the Europeans were. At first, he refused to board Magellan's big ship. Finally, the rajah welcomed Magellan and visited him aboard his ship. He gave Magellan three porcelain jars of rice, while Magellan gave a red cap and a red-and-yellow robe. Subsequently, Magellan's men held a mock fight. The soldier in a suit of armor remained unhurt even after he was struck. Rajah Kolambu was fascinated and noted that one man in such attire was worth 100 fighters. These newcomers could help them win their battles. Thus, the rajah decided to seal their new friendship. Afterwards, he performed the kasi kasi or blood compact ceremony with Magellan on March 29, Good Friday. Pursuant to Republic Act No. 2733 dated June 19, 1960 Barangay Magallanes, Limasawa, Southern Leyte is the site of the first Christian mass in the Philippines. In 1980 the National Historical Institute (NHI) sponsored a workshop for historians to determine the site of the first mass in the Philippines. They concluded it was Limasawa. They based their findings from the evidence presented in 1800 by Carlo Amoretti, a conservator in Ambrosiana Library in Milan. Amoretti said that Mazaua where Magellan landed in 1521 and the island of Limasawa in the book written by Father Francisco Combes are one and the same. This idea was supported by known writers in history, which include Father Pablo Pastells, S.J., Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Jaime de Veyra, and James Robertson. Noted historian Dr. Sonia M. Zaide presented the evidence for Masao rather than Limasawa as the site of the first recorded mass in the Philippines. First, in all primary sources including the diary of Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of Magellan's voyage, the name of the place was Mazaua. Limasawa has four syllables and begins with another letter. Second, according to primary records, the expedition traveled 20 to 25 leagues from I lomonhon, iht* first landing point. If they had been to Limasawa Island, the distance is only 14.6 leagues or one-half of that length. Third, the distance to Cebu from Mazaua according to Pigafetta was 35 leagues (140 miles). The distance from Limasawa to Cebu is only 80 miles. Fourth, it was mentioned that the king came to their ship in a balanghai. Butuan is now the site of at least nine excavated balanghai relics; by contrast, Limasawa has no significant archaeological relics or balanghai tradition. Fifth, the Western explorers got excited at the abundance of gold in Mazaua, for that was the main currency at that time. Both archaeological relics and the gold mines today attested to the abundance of gold in the Agusan Valley. The site of the first mass in the Philippines was first mentioned by Maximilian Transylvanus in his De Moluccis... in 1523. He interviewed the survivors of the Magellan expedition and noted that they landed in Messana (at times written as Massana), where the mass was first officiated. Due to numerous copies of De Moluccis in Europe, the Italian manuscript of Antonio Pigafetta (the chronicler of the expedition) was deferred in printing. In 1536, Gian Battista Ramusio also wrote a chronicle about the voyage of Magellan based on the Pigafetta manuscript. He pointed out that it was in Butuan where the first mass in the Philippines took place. When Father Francisco Colin, S.J. wrote a book about the spread of Christianity in the Philippines, he could not exactly determine the site of the first mass in the archipelago. From the Ramusio version it was in Butuan, while from the writings of Antonio de Herrera (based from accounts of Andres de San Martin) it was in Mazaua.-Finally, Father Colin wrote that it was in Limasawa where the first mass in the Philippines was officiated. In 1667, Father Francisco Combes mentioned in his Historia de Mindanao... description of the voyage of Magellan and his Armada de Molucca. He mentioned the word Limasaua, which never existed in any primary source about the Magellan expedition. It was William Henry Scott who was able to identify that it was the Ramusio version that first mentioned Mazaua in Butuan. From the findings of Scott and Vicente C. de Jesus, they had come into conclusion that the inclusion of Limasawa in the voyage of Magellan may be attributed to Colin (with his Dimasaua) and Combes (with his Limasawa). For Scott, de Jesus and the NHI, the eyewitness account of Gines de Mafra, the Spanish mariner should be considered in determining the location of Mazaua. Mafra was the only navigator who reached Mazaua twice, first in 1521 in the Magellan's expedition and in 1543 in the Villalobos expedition. Andres de San Martin gave Mafra some important documents before he was killed by the warriors of Rajah Humabon in Cebu after the Battle of Mactan. Martin was an astrologer and one of the finest mariners during the Renaissance. He died in the Cebu massacre that took place on May 1, 1521. Mafra held the documents given to him by Martin for five years. I hrse documents were confix «ii«'d by the Portuguese and were kept in the Lisbon archives. Finally, the documents were transferred to Madrid at the lime when Portugal became part of Spain (1580- 1640). Based on the Mafra accounts, from Homonhon, Magellan and his men iiaveled westward, southwest to the tip of Seilani (Panaon) to avoid the Northeast monsoon. (From Panaon, Limasawa is in the northwest direction). According to Mafra, Mazaua has a circumference of 3-4 leagues, equivalent t:o 9-12 n.m., while Limasawa has a circumference of 2.0313 n.m. Mafra mentioned that Magellan and his men were able to reach Mindanao. Mazaua is 45 n.m. south of Surigao. The western part of the i .land is a perfect harbor during the Northeast monsoon. Mazaua has two hilly areas, Pinamangculan at Dalindingan, as drawn in the map of Pigafetta. Planted near the foot of the hills were rice, coconut, and fruits. There was gold in the area. Houses were described as stilted. On Easter Sunday, March 31, 1521, a mass was held on Mazaua's shore with Reverend Father Pedro de Valderrama officiating. At sundown, Magellan, in the presence of Spaniards and Filipinos, planted a large wooden cross on the summit of a hill overlooking the sea. He named the country the Islas de San Lazaro. On April 7, 1521, Magellan together with King Kolambu and the Spanish and native fleets landed on Sugbu (now Cebu). On the same day, Humabon made a blood compact with Magellan after the latter had won his trust and friendship. Asked who would succeed him, Rajah Humabon told Magellan that he had no sons, only daughters. His nephew who had married his daughter was therefore the crown prince. Rajah Humabon added that parents were no longer honored in their old age and instead their children commanded them. Magellan explained to the Cebuano chieftain the Christian teaching about honoring one's parents. This confounded Rajah Humabon. Soon, he sought to be baptized as a Christian. On Sunday, April 14,1521, a mass on the shore of Cebu was held with Rajah Humabon and his people attending the ceremony. After the mass, Magellan planted a huge wooden cross and gave Queen juana, wife of Rajah Humabon, an image of the Child Jesus as a gift. There were about 800 Filipinos who participated in the mass and underwent ritual baptism. As for Humabon (renamed Carlos), Magellan made him the king's representative in Cebu and promised to unite the local chieftains under his authority. Magellan likewise tried to impose Christianity and Spanish sovereignty on local chieftains. Rajah Humabon and Datu Zula of Mactan welcomed the Spaniards, but not Lapulapu, another chieftain of Mactan. Lapulapu's real name was Cali Pulacu as written by Carlos Calao, a Chinese-Spanish poet in the 17 th c< ntwry 111 his poem, Que Dios Le Perdone (That God May Forgive Him). I his was a result of the research of Prof. Guillermo Gomez-Rivera, a 1975 Zobel Prize awardee. Lapulapu refused to accept the new political system and pay tribute. He decided to break away from Rajah Humabon. To teach him a lesson, Magellan invaded Mactan on April 27, 1521. He led an army of 60 steel- clad Spaniards in three vessels and 1,000 Cebuano warriors in 30 boats. He told Rajah Humabon and his men to stay on their boats, watch how the Europeans fight. Magellan had misjudged the fighting skill of Lapulapu and his men. The Mactan warriors repulsed the Spanish force with their spears and bamboo stakes. They aimed their spears at the unshielded legs of the Europeans. The Spaniards were forced to go back to their boats. Magellan was wounded in the battle. A poisoned arrow hit his right leg and then a bamboo spear struck his face. Lapulapu and his fighters pounced and killed him. The remaining Europeans retreated and left the body of their captain behind. The Battle of Mactan was a scandalous defeat for the Spaniards for they were not able to prove themselves better in combats. On May 1; the natives of Cebu carried out the plan to massacre them. While the Europeans were attending a banquet prepared for them by Rajah Humabon, the warriors attacked them. Duarte Barbosa, Juan Serrano, and 27 other Spaniards were killed. The remaining members of the expedition were forced to flee the islands before the Cebuanos could kill them all. They burned the ship Conception for lack of men to operate the vessel. With two ships left - Trinidad and Victoria, they continued their voyage to Moluccas. On November 8, 1521, they finally landed in Tidore, an island in Moluccas. They were able to secure a rich cargo of spices. The survivors decided that the Trinidad, led by Gomez de Espinosa, would sail back to Spain by crossing the Pacific to Panama, while the Victoria, under Juan Sebastian del Cano's command would sail via Cape of Good Hope, but on lower latitudes to avoid the Portuguese. The Victoria crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope and finally reached San Lucar, Spain on September 6,1522, with only 18 survivors. The voyage around the world lasted 2 years, 11 months, and 16 days. As for the crew of the San Antonio (the ship that had deserted the expedition), they had been imprisoned until Elcano's return. They were tried and convicted. Pigafetta's story of the expedition spread. Shortly thereafter, the geographers adopted new dimensions of the earth and the wider scope of the Southern Sea (Pacific Ocean). The voyage enhanced their knowledge about the existence of othet inlands in the Pacific and the Philippines. It also confirmed that the earth is round and that it is really possible to sail around the world since the world's oceans are connected. The cargo of cloves sold for such a high price that it was more than sufficient to pay for the expenses of Magellan's expedition. As a reward, the Spanish Crown granted Elcano a proud motto for his shield, Primus (. ircumdedisti Me (you circumnavigated me first). In unwritten history, it was really an Asian who first circumnavigated the world ahead of the Europeans. He is no other than Enrique of Malacca who acted as interpreter for Magellan. From Malacca, he was able to join the voyage of the Portuguese after he was taken by Magellan to be his aide, cruising across the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean and reached Portugal. When he became part of the Magellan's expedition, he was able to sail from Spain via Atlantic Ocean, reached the tip of South America iind across the Pacific Ocean then finally returned to Asia, particularly the Philippines. Magellan's expedition paved the way for Spain's expansion to the Orient. Driven by the thrill of adventure and the reward of gold and spiritual dispensation, the conquistadores took the risks of the journey. The first post-Magellan expedition (1525), led by Captain Garcia Jofre de Loaysa sailed with seven ships and 450 men. After crossing the Strait of Magellan, the vessels were dispersed by a storm. Unfortunately, Loaysa got ill. They served him broiled rat, the traditional treatment for constipation. He did not recover. Eventually he died. His men failed to reach the Philippines. Sebastian Cabot, son of Venetian explorer John Cabot, headed the second expedition in 1526 with four ships and 250 men. They failed to find the Strait of Magellan. In 1527, A1 varo Saavedra Ceron, cousin of Hernando Cortes of Mexico, together with 110 men constituted the first expedition to the Philippines from the Viceroyalty in Mexico (New Spain). Three ships were set out to investigate what had happened to the two earlier expeditions and rescue any survivors. Only one ship, the Florida, reached Surigao in Northeastern Mindanao but failed to colonize. They were able to rescue several survivors from the first two expeditions in Tidore, Moluccas. Loaded with spices, the Florida attempted to return to Spain but strong winds drove her back. Saavedra Ceron tried the second and third time to sail against strong winds. He fell ill and died. His successor also failed to make a return trip. Finally, they decided to surrender to the Portuguese. In 1542, King Charles I sent another expedition. This was to reassert the claims of Spain to the islands, which is part of the Eastern Hemisphere. Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the Eastern Hemisphere was reserved to Portuguese colonization. However, with the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, <i new demarcation line was fixed .it 297 1/2 leagues east of Moluccas. Portugal gained the rights of ownership over all the lands on the west of the line, while Spain gained the right of ownership over all the lands found on the east of the line. Spain sold the Moluccas to Portugal for 350,000 gold ducats ($630,000), which lay within the Portuguese sphere ot influence and claimed ownership over the Philippines then known as Islas del Poniente (the Sunset Islands). He instructed Ruy Lopez de Villalobos to command a fleet of six ships and around 400 men. He exhorted Villalobos to avoid any of the Spice Islands in their voyage to Islas del Poniente. Villalobos reached Baganga Bay in Eastern Mindanao on February 2,1543 after three months of sailing. He named Mindanao Caesarea Caroli, or the imperial island of Charles. Searching for food, they reached the southern island of Sarangani, which Villalobos renamed Antonia in honor of Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza of Mexico. Some of his men went as far as Leyte, which they renamed Felipina, in honor of the future king Philip II of Spain. Later, the name Felipinas was given to all the islands. Villalobos also failed to colonize Mindanao. He died in the Moluccas, consoled by St. Francis Xavier, acclaimed as the Apostle of the Indies. King Charles T of Spain abdicated his royal crown after getting weary of far ranging duties brought about by his scattered dominion. His son Philip II succeeded as ruler of the Netherlands in 1555 and in Spain in 1556. During the reign of King Philip II, Spain was at the height of its power. He wrote to Mexican Viceroy Velasco ordering him to prepare an expedition for the conquest of the Philippines. The command of this expedition was given to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1505-1572), a soldier, lawyer, and administrator. Since the Mexican government was then in the brink of bankruptcy, Legazpi spent his own resources to finance the expedition. Legazpi and his fleet, consisting of four ships with 380 men, left Natividad, Mexico, on November 19, 1564 (some say November 20, a Monday). Besides royal officials and crew, five Augustinian friars joined the expedition. Legazpi was accompanied by Father Andres de Urdaneta (survivor of the Loaysa expedition), and Captain Felipe de Salcedo (Legazpi's grandson), Guido de Lavezaris (survivor of the Villalobos expedition), and Melchor de Legazpi (Legazpi's son). The fleet stopped in Guam, and there they obtained fresh water and supplies. On February 13,1565, Legazpi and his men anchored near the island of Cebu. Due to Cebuano opposition, they sailed to the neighboring islands and landed in Samar. Legazpi made a blood compact with Urrao, a friendly chief, on February 22. They proceeded to Limasawa and were received by a young chieftain named Bankaw. Later, Legazpi landed in Bohol and befriended two native kings, Sikatuna and Sigala. On March 16, 1565, Legazpi and Sikatuna made a blood compact. A few days later, Legazpi and Gala did a similar pact. On April 27, 156.5, I egnzpi .n rived in Cebu and hit the shore. Rajah lupas and his Cebuano warriors challenged the enemy forces but were overpowered by the Spaniards. Soon, the natives burned their houses and if treated to the uplands. The next day, April 28, one of Legazpi's men, a Greek sailor named Mermeo (others say Juan de Camuz) discovered the image of the Sto. Nino in one of the houses. Viewing it as a sign of God's approval, Legazpi named I he f irst settlement Ciudad del Santissimo Nombre de Jesus (City of the Most I loly Name of Jesus), in honor of the sacred image. The statue can be found m the present Augustinian Church of the Holy Child. The earliest Spanish settlement was in the form of a triangle. The i wo sides face the sea and the third fronts the land. The settlement was urrounded by fences. Wells were dug for stable water supply. A church lor the Augustinian Fathers was erected. In this church, the historic image of the Child Jesus was kept. One day, a soldier, Pedro de Arana, went out alone from the camp. He was speared to death. Ln retaliation, a unit was sent to grab captives, one of them a niece of Rajah Tupas of Cebu. Upon learning this, Legazpi sent her nursemaid to inform Rajah Tupas that the hostages were free to go home, on the condition that he had to come for a talk. Tupas did not heed the invitation of Legazpi, but Tamuyan the girl's father came with six men. Tamuyan offered himself as a slave in place of his daughter but Legazpi assured him the freedom of his daughter without making him subservient to the Spaniards. The father was stunned to see his daughter dressed as befitted her rank. He knew that captives taken in war were not given noble treatment. Moved by their kindheartedness, Tamuyan accepted Legazpi's friendship. He promised to convince his brother Tupas to accept Spanish good will. After a few more days, convinced that Legazpi was sincere with his words, Rajah Tupas accepted Legazpi's friendship. 4. The Spanish Conquest of the Islands Legazpi tried to win Rajah Tupas and the people of Cebu through the policy of attraction, inviting them to return, rebuild their homes, and live in peace with them. With the help of Cid Hamal (Sidamit), a Muslim Malay, Legazpi succeeded. The Cebuanos paid yearly tribute to the king of Spain and recognized him as their sovereign. Legazpi promised Spanish protection. When Legazpi began on his conversion efforts, most Filipinos were still practicing a form of polytheism, although some had converted to Islam. The Augustinian missionaries were assiduously spreading the Christian faith. The first Cebuano convert was Jandulaman, a widowed niece of Tupas, later on named Isabel in honor of Isabel Garces, Legazpi's deceased wife. After her baptism, she married Master Andres, a Greek member of Legazpi's expedition. Fray Diego Herrera officiated the wedding, the first Christian marriage on Philippine soil. Rajah Tupas also accepted baptism. Legazpi stood as the godfather. He was named Felipe, in honor of Philip II. His son, Pinsuncan was likewise baptized and was named Carlos. The natives followed the same. In 1569, Legazpi transferred to Panay due to meager food provisions in Cebu. Meanwhile, he sent his grandson back to Mexico with his first reports to the Spanish King. On the bank of the Panay River, the second Spanish settlement was founded. Due to the continuing apostolic work of Fr. Juan de Alba and other Augustinian missionaries, the people became friendly to Legazpi. Two chiefs of Panay, Datus Macabaog and Madidong became Christians. In 1570, Legazpi sent his grandson, Juan de Salcedo who arrived in Cebu from Mexico in 1567, to Mindoro to punish the Moro pirates who plundered upon Panay's villages. With 30 Spaniards and several hundreds of Visayans, Salcedo destroyed the Moro forts in Ilin and Lubang (islets near Mindoro). On May 8,1570, Marshal Martin de Goiti and his men left Panay. With a force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Visayans, they explored the Pansipit River in Batangas. Native volunteers who had already made friends with the Spaniards joined Goiti's men to avenge the harm done to them by hostile neighboring villages. From the bay, Goiti saw on the south bank of the Pasig River a wall protecting a port. He sent his interpreter ashore to invite the local chief to a conference, which Rajah Matanda and his nephew Rajah Sulayman (or Soliman) accepted. Rajah Sulayman led Goiti to a house and they sealed their new alliance with the traditional kasi kasi. The Maynilad chief was willing to befriend the Spaniards but would not submit to Spanish sovereignty and pay tribute to the Spanish king. This lack of trust led to an armed clash between them. Goiti landed his 80 fighters against Sulayman's fort, (where Fort Santiago stands today) and ordered his men to destroy the artillery. Sulayman defended his kingdom from the Spaniards who took the offensive. A bloody hand-to-hand battle ensued until the Manilans turned their backs as flames began to engulf their houses. Sulayman and his warriors retreated across the river. Goiti and his men captured Maynilad on the 24 th of May and seized some cannons that Panday Pira had made for Sulayman. After the battle, Goiti returned to Panay. He told Legazpi about the rich kingdom of Maynilad, a trading center where Chinese, Borneans, Siamese, and other foreign merchants engaged in. From thereon, Legazpi decided to colonize Maynilad. He left Panay and reached Manila Bay in the middle of April 1571, with a stronger expedition consisting ot 27 vessels, 280 Spaniards, and 600 Visayan allies. Lakandula, king of Tondo and Sulayman's uncle, realized that it was useless to resist the Spanish forces. He welcomed Legazpi and persuaded his nephew Sulayman to make peace with Legazpi. On May 19,1571, Legazpi took possession of Maynilad in the name of King Philip II of Spain. Bambalito, a Pampango warlord from Macabebe; wanted to resist the Spanish forces in Maynilad. He conferred with Lakandula and Sulayman to support his cause. The two former native rulers did not want to join him since they had already made peace with Legazpi. However, a son and two nephews of Lakandula and some of Sulayman's warriors joined his war camp in Navotas. On June 3, 1571, Bambalito's more than 2,000 fighters in 40 caracoas (boats) from Hagonoy, Macabebe, and other Pampanga villages sailed into Bankusay's creek, off the north shore of Manila Bay. They fought Marshal Goiti's forces in this furious naval battle. Bambalito perished at the height of this bloody fight. His men were routed. The rest paddled frantically away. Ten native boats were captured. On June 24, 1571, the Feast Day of St. John the Baptist, Legazpi proclaimed Manila as the capital of the Philippines (celebrated as the Manila's FoundationDay). He called the city Nueva Castilla, because he had been told that there had been an old fort or castle on the site. On the same day, the city government was established with a cabildo or city council and a court. Years later, King Philip II, by his Royal Decree of June 1,1574, named Manila, Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad (Distinguished and Ever Loyal City) and by his Royal Decree of March 20, 1596, conferred a beautiful coat-of- arms on this city. On August 20,1572, Legazpi, the first Spanish governor and adelantado (title given to those who personally funded their expeditions) of the Philippines, died of heart attack. Guido de La vezaris succeeded and stayed in post until 1575. Captain Juan de Salcedo, grandson of Legazpi, subdued the region along Laguna de Bay; discovered the gold mines of Paracale across the mountains; and pacified Ilocandia and Cagayan in 1572. He founded Villa Fernandina de Vigan in honor of Prince Ferdinand, son of King Philip II who died at the age of four. Ln recognition of Salcedo's military services, the Spanish Crown gave him encomienda in llocos. From Vigan, Salcedo explored the tip of Luzon. In 1573, he conquered Camarines, Albay, and Catanduanes. The Bicolanos refused to yield to them. The natives used their arrows against the Spanish forces, however they hurriedly withdrew for their safety after Salcedo fired his guns. I'he Philippines was a crown colony considering she was under Spanish domination. From the beginning of Spanish rule in 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was a dependency of Mexico. The Mexican viceroy, in the name of the Spanish King, administered the country. After the independence of Mexico from Spain in 1821, the Philippines came to be directly governed from Madrid. In 1863, the Overseas Ministry (Ministerio de Ultramar) took over the functions of the Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias). The colonial code titled Recopilacion de leyes de los reynos de las Indias (Compilation of Laws on Royal Lands in the Indies) popularly known as Leyes de Indias (Laws of the Indies) issued in 1680, was used by Spain to rule its extensive possessions. It was on November 16,1568 when King Philip II issued instructions to Legazpi to establish cities and towns and create encomiendas to be distributed to deserving soldiers, in the first three decades of Spanish rule, the Philippines was divided into encomiendas. With a cross in one hand and a sword in the other, the Spanish conquistadores imposed upon the Filipinos this feudal system of administration. The word encomienda comes from the verb encomendar meaning "to commend or to commit to one's care." Originally, an encomienda was a feudal institution used, in Spain to reward deserving generals and conquerors during Spanish wars of recover}' of territory from the Moors. The earliest encomendergs in the West Indies were delegated with the power to collect tribute and to use the personal services of the inhabitants of their encomiendas. This feudal grant was introduced by the Spanish Crown for the combined purposes of rewarding deserving Spaniards and attracting others to settle in the colonies. Permanent settlement of the Spanish soldiers assured the defense of the colonies. This also facilitated the conversion of the natives to the Catholic faith. Encomienda in the Philippines was not a land grant. It was more of an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tribute from the natives and to use the personal services of the King's vassals in the encomienda. The encomendero undertook ways to look after the well- being of his people and to educate them with Spanish norms of conduct. In the domain of relations, the encomienda had been considered as a kind of benevolent paternalism. In reality, the encomienda was looked upon by its beneficiaries as a pretense for slavery. Tributes were collected in cash or in kind. From the total collection, not exceeding one-fourth of this went to the encomendero and the rest to the friars as well as the government. The cabeza de barangay (former datu) collected the tribute and gave it to the encomendero. The Laws of the Indies provided that the encomendero must not own a house in the native settlements, within their encomiendas to avoid the commission of abuses. C >ovenwr Gomez Perez Dasmariftas, as commanded by King Philip 11, urged the encomenderos to reside near their wards to promote the latter's welfare. However, this arrangement became an opportunity for the encomenderos to enrich themselves. The unlawful inaction of numerous services coupled with greed and cruelty made the lives of the natives miserable. The early Spanish friars took the side of the exploited people because they saw that the colonizers had failed to instruct their people in the Catholic religion. The national economy, founded upon the medieval concept of master cind slave, paved for the introduction of a class of landed aristocracy, while the broad masses lived in distress. Haciendas and encomiendas are not the same though both were forms of colonial appropriation. The demands or exactions of an encomendero were incidental to his position as representative of the King, thus, he exacted tribute and drafted labor. The hacendero on the other hand, under the fiction of partnership (with the tenant as companion or kasama), had the right of inheritance and free disposition of the land. Because of the abuses perpetrated by the encomenderos, the encomiendas were replaced by a system of provincial government. There were two types of provincial administrations: the alcaldia- mayor or the province, where peace had been established by the Spanish government placed under a civil official called alcalde-mayor; and the corregimientos or territories that had not been completely pacified under the charge of corregidores or politico- military governors. Tomas de Comyn, a Spanish social scientist, nevertheless described the office of the alcalde-mayor as a model of graft, corruption, and inefficiency brought about by inexperienced men being assigned to govern the provinces. Some of them had little or no background at all to execute their varied responsibilities. The province was divided into towns or pueblo, which were administered by gobernadorcillos. The office of the gobernadorcillo was open to Filipinos. This local position was at first occupied by pre-colonial chieftains and their descendants and later elected by an electoral board composed of the outgoing gobernadorcillo and twelve members of the principalia. The principalia (social and political aristocracy) referred to the prominent land-owning and propertied citizens who could read, write, and speak Spanish. Each town had several villages or barangays placed directly under the cabezas de barangay. This position remained an appointive office. The king appointed the governor general and other colonial officials administering the country. The governor general was the chief executive as well as the commander-in-chief of the military forces in the colony. Aside from this, he was also the vice-royal patron wherein he has the power to recommend priests in parishes, and the authority to intervene in controversies between religious authorities. The governor general could also reject or suspend the implementation of any royal decree or law from Spain with his cumplase power, if in his opinion, the conditions in the colony did not justify its implementation. The office of the governor general was oftentimes bought or granted as a favor. Since it generally involved a short tenure of office, averaging two years and ten months, and in the 19 th century even shorter, the governor general oftentimes became eager in accumulating wealth before his term of office expired. However, checks to gubernatorial powers were made possible through the following: first, the Audiencia Real or Royal Audiencia established in 1583 to act as the Supreme Court of the colony also served as advisory body to the governor and audited the expenditures of the government; second, the residencia, which was a judicial institution headed by the incoming governor general to conduct a trial of an outgoing governor general and other Spanish officials for the purpose of punishing those guilty of corruption, but the case may be appealed to the King for clemency; third, the visitador-general, who was the investigator sent by the King or an official dispatched by the Council of Indies in Spain to check the behavior of the high officials in the colony; fourth, the Archbishop and clergy who were appointed by the Pope upon the recommendation of the King; and fifth, subordinate public officials and influential private citizens. The counterbalance efforts of the aforementioned nevertheless proved ineffectual in reprimanding corrupt administrators, for it was quite easy for them to bribe the officials conducting the investigation. They could even seek for the revocation of the decisions given by the investigating officials through political influence in the country or in Spain. The local officials as well as the Spanish high officials became the main instruments of "pacification." The subjugation of the natives became complete after they have agreed to pay the tribute. One tribute corresponds to one family, consisting of husband, wife, and minor children. Half of the tribute has to be paid by an unmarried man or woman. One tribute is equivalent to eight (8) reales or one peso. It may be paid in money or in kind like rice, honey, corn, and the like. In 1851, it was increased to 12 reales or one peso and a half, in 1884, the cedula tax replaced the tribute. Exempted from paying the tribute were as follows: incumbent gobernadorcillos, cabezas and their families, government employees, soldiers with distinguished service, descendants of Lakandula, a few other native chieftains, choir members, sacristans, porters of the churches, and government witnesses. Encomenderos often had to send soldiers to collect the tribute by force. Nonpayment of tribute meant torture or imprisonment. Sometimes houses were burned or looted by them? soldiers as punishment for the natives' defiance. Other natives |ust fled to the mountains to escape punishment. The Filipinos hated the tribute for it was a symbol of subjugation to Spain. Likewise, it resulted to Spanish abuses especially by tribute collectors. Opposition to colonial authority became quite difficult. Although the Spaniards constituted a small number in the country, they had conscripted natives from different regions to put down revolts in other regions to remain in power. Polo or forced labor instituted in 1580 was another form of pacifying the natives. Male Filipinos between 16 to 60 years of age rendered manual service for the country for the purpose of building ships, churches, roads, and other forms of infrastructure. The polista or worker has to work 40 days a year in the labor pool. In 1884, forced labor was reduced to 15 days a year. To be excluded from the polo, one has to payfalla (exemption fee), which only a few Filipinos could actually pay. The chieftains and their eldest sons were also excused from forced labor. Polo led to the abandonment of the fields, separation from families or homes, as well as illness and death for some. The alcaldes often drafted hundreds of men, more than what was necessary for woodcutting and then pocketed the money, which must be paid for the polistas. Bandala, which was instituted in the first half of the 17 th century by Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera was another way to overpower the Filipinos. This refers to the assignment of annual quotas to each province for the compulsory sale of products to the government. Due to lack of funds, the government issued promissory notes in exchange for the goods. Nonpayment on the part of the government meant seizure of products. The system meant virtual confiscation of products for the government that was usually out of money; promissory notes were first given in exchange for the goods. The political condition in the Philippines was worsened with the union of Church and State. The friars, like the government officials, exercised political, economic, and other non-spiritual powers. They controlled the educational system as well as the collection of taxes and the conscription of natives into the army. They even controlled municipal elections and censored plays and reading materials. So extensive was the so-called friar interference in the country that in the 19 th century, Filipino propagandists demanded their expulsion. 5. Towards the Hispanization of the Natives The Spaniards integrated into the Filipino society their religion, language, customs, arts, and sciences. The Church and State inseparably carried out Spanish policy in the country. When the Spaniards came into the country, they destroyed the carved idols out of wood and stone because these artworks were regarded as abominable to the faith. To a great extent, the Spanish Catholic missionaries were able to remodel Filipino culture and society. The Spanish authorities clustered the Filipino population into village settlements where they could more easily be instructed. Since most secular colonial officials had no intention of living far from home, the friars took on the roles as the King's representatives and interpreters of government policies in the countryside. Spanish urbanization was centered in the city of Manila, within a walled city called Intramuros. Infrastructure showing Spanish domination in the country, such as massive colonial churches, convents, schools, roads, bridges, and the bahay na bato at kahoy (Antillian stone and wood houses) were constructed. Initially, buildings during the Spanish era were of thatch and bamboo. After accidental fires that hit some of them, stones, wood, bricks, and tiles were used for construction. Structurally, the bahay na bato at kahoy also known as bahay na mestiza (or mixed, because wood and stone were blended together), perpetuated the features of the pre-Hispanic bahay na kubo. The ground floor was used for storage and for parking vehicles. Habitation took place upstairs with specific rooms for guests (azotea and sala), dining (comedor), cooking (cocina), and sleeping (cuarto). The Spaniards imposed the feudal system and created towns and estates by converging the people through reduction, referring to the resettlement of inhabitants in Spanish-style poblaciones - or at least - bajo de las campanas (within hearing distance of the church bells). The Spanish model for a poblacion (town center) was organized around a rectangular plaza, with the church (the most important structure of the plaza complex) and convent on one side, bounded by the tribunal or municipio, and by the houses of Spanish officials and principales (elite). The presence of principalia residences in the plaza complex reflected the existence of socioeconomic ascendancy. Spanish society had always stressed "purity" of blood in indicating societal rank. At the top of the social pyramid were the espanoles, with both Spanish parents, which included the espanoles peninsulares (born in the Spanish peninsula) and the espanoles insulares or Filipinos (born in the colony). Below the espanoles were the mestizos and mestizas - the children of an espanol and an indio or india. The term mestizo referred to the mestizos de sangley or Chinese mestizos, while Spanish mestizos were called mestizos de espanol. Constituting the majority of the population were the indios or indios naturales, pertaining to the natives of the Philippines without Spanish or I hinese ancestry. Generally, the Spanish colonizers believed that the indios k could not comprehend more than the basic knowledge. The ceremonial splendour of the Roman Catholic Church aroused the admiration of the natives. More representatives of various religious orders such as the Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits came to the Philippines after Legazpi's expedition. The first bishop of Manila was Fray Domingo de Salazar, a member of the Order of Preachers (OP). He was succeeded by Fray Ignacio de Santibanez, a Franciscan priest who became the first Archbishop of Manila. The territory of the old Archdiocese of Manila covered the civil provinces of Nueva Ecija, the Southern half of Tarlac, Zambales, Pampanga, Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite, Batangas, Laguna, and the islands of Mindoro and Marinduque. Pope Clement VIII on August 26,1595, established the Diocese of Nueva Segovia in Lal-lo, Cagayan. In the same year, the Diocese of Nueva : Caceres in Camarines Sur and the Diocese of Cebu (cradle of Christianity ' in the Philippines) were also established. Consequently, the missionaries learned local dialects and introduced the Roman alphabet. By the 16 lh century, there were Filipinos like Tomas Pinpin (the first Filipino printer), who became conversant with the Spanish language. He wrote the first published Tagalog book titled Librong Pag-aaralan nang manga Tagalog nang uicang Castila (Book that the Tagalogs Should Study to Learn Spanish) for the benefit of unlettered Filipinos in the Spanish language. Basic education was rendered by parochial schools, established primarily for religious instruction. The first one was established in Cebu. In 1582, Archbishop Domingo de Salazar ordered that every town was to have one school for boys and one for girls. Attendance was made compulsory. Parents paid the teachers' salaries. The subjects taught were catechism, reading and writing in the dialect, music, the rudiments of arithmetic, and trades and industries. Education was still in the early stage of development during the Spanish period. Even by the late 19 th century, the Spanish language was still unknown to a great majority. They were literate in their own native dialects. The Spanish aristocracy tried to distinguish themselves from the indios with the use of language and level of education. Higher education was established exclusively for the Spaniards and Filipinos, referring to those born in the colony to Spanish parents. Colleges and universities were closed to indios. (The natives were only allowed in these institutions after 200 years of colonial rule). The Jesuits in Manila founded the first college for boys in 1589. It was originally called College of Manila (for the scholastics), and later changed to College of San Ignacio. In 1621, it was elevated to the rank of a university by Pope Gregory XV and was named University of San Ignacio. However, this school was closed in I7h8 when the Jesuits were expelled from the country. In 1601, the Colegio de San Jose also under the Jesuits, was established. In 1611, Fray Miguel de Benavides, the third archbishop of Manila established the Colegio de Nuestra Senora del Santissimo Rosario, later renamed Universidad de Santo Tomas (in 1645 by Pope Innocent X). The Dominican order that administered Colegio de Santo Tomas also established the Colegio de San Juan de Letran to take care of orphaned Spanish boys. The girls were also given special education. Schools were of two kinds: the colegio, which is a regular school for girls; and the beaterio, a combined school and nunnery. The first college for girls in the Philippines was the College of Santa Potenciana (1594). After the school ceased its operations, the students transferred to College of Santa Isabel, now the oldest existing college for girls in the country. The institution was originally built to care for orphaned Spanish girls. Eventually, it became an exclusive school for the daughters of affluent Spaniards. In 1621, the Franciscan nuns established the Real Monasterio de Santa Clara (now St. Claire Convent of Manila), the first nunnery in the Philippines. In 1694 the Beaterio de la Compania de Jesus, which was directed under the Jesuits was founded by Mother Tgnacia del Espiritu Santo, a Filipina nun. This was a school established to accommodate Filipino girls, the indias. Mother Ignacia's spirit of poverty, humility, penance, confidence in God and charity became the distinguishing mark of the beatas (resident pupils). The beatas had extended their apostolate to education. The beaterio has developed into the Congregation of the Religious of the Virgin Mary (R.V.M.) of the 20 th century. - Primary education consisted of courses in reading, writing, arithmetic, religion; geography, the history of Spain, the Spanish language, vocal music; and agriculture for boys and needlework for girls. The girls were taught basic education, as well as religion, needlework, painting, and music. Academic reforms were later on implemented, after the Spanish government conceded to its growing demand. The Educational Decree, dated December 20, 1863 introduced a system of public education that opened opportunities to Filipinos for higher learning. It ordered the establishment of an educational system consisting of elementary, secondary, and collegiate levels. It also provided for the establishment of normal schools to train teachers. The Board of Public Instruction was likewise created to supervise the schools. The decree also provided for the use of Spanish as the language of instruction, starting at the elementary level. The Escuela Normal (Normal School) for the training of male teachers for elementary instruction, was delegated to the Jesuits. It was inaugurated in 1865. In 1893, it became the Normal Superior, which trained teachers of secondary courses. Schools for the arts were also built aside from these regular schools. Archbishop Juan A. Rodriguez founded the Escuela de Tiples in 1743. The institution was to provide elementary education and offer courses in vocal and instrumental performance. In the late 19 th century, the school was able to pattern its plan of study after the Conservatory of Music in Madrid. Damian Domingo founded the Academy of Fine Arts, the first school in painting in Manila in 1820. With this, he was called the "Father of Filipino Painting." The Academia de Dibujo y Pintura (Academy of Drawing and Painting) was founded in 1824. Some of its students were sent by the government to pursue higher studies in Madrid, Rome, and Paris. In the 19 th century, various technical schools were established like the School of Mercantile Accounting and Modern Languages, patterned after the Commercial School in Barcelona. Commerce was introduced as a three-year vocational course, with the degree of perito to be earned by the student after studying. Mechanics and other vocational courses were offered in secondary instruction leading to the bachillerato en artes. After finishing the course, the students could take examinations for the title of perito mecanico (mechanical expert). Surveying was also introduced as a vocational course, which conferred the degree of perito agrimensor to its graduates. It was in 1860, that a nautical school was opened upon orders of the queen. It was placed under the commander of the fleet. After four years, the student was to board a ship. The degree of piloto de marina mercante was to be given after the training. The seeds of vocational education were sown by the early Spanish missionaries who taught the natives better methods of farming, the cultivation of foreign plants like indigo, corn, cotton and wheat, and various crafts like printing, carpentry, masonry, and dyeing. The early missionaries were also the first to establish a printing press in the Philippines. Books were being printed by xylographic method, using engraved wood blocks. The earliest book printed was the Doctrina Christiana en lengua espaiiola y tagala (1593), written by Fray Juan de Oliver. This catechetical book sought to explain the importance of Christ, chastity, and devotion to God in the vernacular. At the beginning of the 19 th century, the pasion was the prevalent form in print. Written in verse and chanted during Lent, it depicted the life and passion of Jesus Christ. The first Tagalog pasion was written by Caspar Aquino de Belen. It was published in 1704. The second written pasion titled Casaysayan ng Pasiong Mahal ni Jesucristong Panginoon Natin na Sucat Ipag-alab ng Sinomang Babasa (The Story of the Holy Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ that Should Inflame the Heart of the Reader, circa 1814) was preferred over the lirst one. It was also known as Pasyong Genesis. This version was edited by Father Mariano Pilapil (circa 1758-circa 1818) and published by the Imprenta de Santo Tomas. It was later translated into several native dialects. During the first half of the 19 ,h century Jose de la Cruz was the most prominent poet in the oral tradition. He was said to have written many literary pieces in elegant Tagalog language. Among them were: Doce Pares de Francia; Bernardo Carpio; and, Adela at Florante. He was popularly known as Husefig Sisiw because whenever zealous writers approached him for guidance in their verses, he required them to bring sisiw (chick) as payment. Pedro Bukaneg, the blind poet who wrote the popular Ilocano epic, Lam-Ang, was hailed as the "Father of llocos Literature." Among the Tagalogs, Francisco Balagtas (later dubbed as the Prince of Tagalog Poets) became popular with his poetical pieces particularly, Florante at Laura. Momentous feasts and events like the arrival of a new Spanish official also meant stage presentations. The first recorded drama was staged in Cebu in 1598, a comedia written by Vicente Puche. It was performed in honor of Msgr. Pedro de Agurto, Cebu's first bishop. Christian victory over the Muslims was depicted with a linambay (moro-moro in Tagalog) in 1637. At the end of the 17 th century, the first theater was established in Intramuros, Manila, known as Teatro Comico. At the turn of the 19 th century, the zarzuela, a Spanish one-act opera with satirical theme became popular in the country. These stage plays were performed at fiestas where townfolks eagerly watch so as not to miss the gala presentation. In the field of music, the Sampaguita composed by Dolores Patemo became popular. The first music teacher to win distinction in Philippine history was Geroriimo de Aguilar, a Franciscan missionary. In 1811, the first newspaper in the country appeared in Manila, which was the Del Superior Govierno (Of the Supreme Government) with Governor General Manuel Gonzalez de Aguilar as editor. In the field of science, the first scientists in the Philippines were the Spanish friars. Fr. Manuel Blanco, the "Prince of Botanists/" wrote Flora de Filipinas, which was published in 1837. This book identified 1,200 kinds of plants in the country. The first sundials in the country were built in 1871 at Tagudin, llocos Sur by Fr. Juan Sorolla, a Spanish Augustinian. Father Marcial Funcia Ramos introduced the first iron printing press in the Philippines in 1847. He also initiated the use of better paper such as papel de kilo (linen paper), instead of rice paper and Chinese paper. George Oppel, a German, introduced lithography in the country in 1858. Transported through galleons (huge Spanish trading ships) were plants like corn, cassava, sweet potato, cotton, maguey, indigo, achuete, tobacco, cacao, peanut, tashew nut, pineapple, avocado, pepper, squash, tomato, lima bean, turnip, and eggplant. The Spaniards also brought to the Philippines some animals like horses, cow, sheep, and goats. The galleon ships were used to ferry the cargoes via Pacific Ocean to Acapulco, Mexico were brought into the Philippines by Asian traders from China, Japan, India, Siam (now Thailand), Moluccas, and other nearby places. Manila became an important port for the galleons. The galleon would be carrying minted coins or silver bullion and products of Mexico on its return. The galleon trade was a government monopoly, however, the Chinese merchants outnumbered the Spanish and Filipino traders in selling their goods mainly silk textiles and porcelain to Mexico. The Chinese formed an economically important community in Manila by the 1590s but years later were given restrictions. When the galleon trade ended in 1815, Philippine trade was opened to the world, but links to Latin America weakened. The financing of the galleon trade was made possible primarily through the Obras Pias, the earliest banking institution in the country. The funds were donated by rich people for charitable purposes. Later, the friars had the funds given as loans to businessmen at various rates of interest. The friars were also able to borrow from die government. Unfortunately, they were not able to pay back the government resulting in the bankruptcy of the national treasury. In 1717, Governor General Fernando Manuel de Bustamante compelled the friars to return the money they borrowed from the government. This however, only resulted to his death in 1719 in the hands of an angry mob, agitated by his stringent rules against the members of the church. The Spanish government also attempted to introduce economic reforms in the country, through the efforts of some enlightened officials like Governor General Jose Basco y Vargas. Governor Basco implemented series of reforms not only to promote economic development but also to make the country independent of subsidy from Mexico. He envisioned large-scale production of silk, cotton, tobacco, spices, and sugarcane; the application of scientific knowledge to Philippine agriculture and industry and the growth of foreign trade on the basis of Philippine natural resources. Governor General Basco (1778-87) founded the Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Pais (Economic Society of the Friends of the Country) in Manila on April 26, 1781. The society helped much in the agricultural development of the country. In 1824, importation of martines (birds) from China was made to fight the locusts that were destroying Philippine crops. The society also offered prizes for best agricultural projects and techniques developed. In 1853, Candido Lopez Diaz, a Filipino, was awarded for his invention of a machine cleaning hemp fibers. In 1861, the society established the tirst .igi n ultural school in Manila. It introduced the cultivation of tea, cotton, poppy, and mulberry trees. Large tracts of land in Camarines were planted of mulberry trees to feed silkworms. Upon Governor Basco's recommendation, King Charles III issued a royaT decree in 1780 establishing a government monopoly in the Philippines that took effect in 1782. Thus, the government established monopolies on tobacco, wine, gunpowder, playing cards, and among others. The tobacco monopoly raised much money for the colonial government but resulted to the abuses of some crooked Spanish officials. They often cheated the farmers in the payment of their produce. The farmers on the other hand cultivated more than what was required and hid their excess tobacco to be sold in the black market. In 1882, Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera abolished the monopoly. Private firms took control of the tobacco business. Governor General Felix Berenguer de Marquina succeeded Governor Basco. His first official act was the demolition of nipa houses in the city of Manila, which to him was an ugly sight and can even cause fire. He also ordered the abolition of indulto de comercio (license to trade), which gave the alcalde mayor (provincial governor) the privilege to control the prices of goods in his province. Monopolies on playing cards, gunpowder, and wine were also abolished. He established the minting of money in the country to prevent the outflow of gold. In 1842, Don Sinibaldo de Mas, an economist, w T as sent by Spain to the Philippines to make an economic survey of the country. In his report, he made the following recommendations: first, the opening of more Philippine ports to world trade; second, the encouragement of Chinese immigration in the country to stimulate agricultural development; and third, the abolition of the tobacco monopoly. The opening of the Philippines to world trade resulted to a great demand for its products in the world market. This brought about the need of machinery for massive production. The first steam machine for hulling rice was introduced in 1836 by Eulogio de Otaduy. Then a few years later, Nicholas Loney, a British merchant, introduced the first steam machine for hulling sugar in Negros. The end of the galleon trade together with Spain's involvement in the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1858), reduced the large-scale importation of fabrics. This became beneficial to the local weaving industry. The most important materials used in weaving were cotton, abaca, silk, and pina. Sinamay or pinukpok is made from beaten abaca fibers, which were extensively woven in Camarines, Albay, Panay, Bohol, and Samar. Finest of the fabrics were usually woven in combination. Nipis (sheer) is from pure Nllk in combination with cotton and abaca (trom the trunk of wild banana). A particular type of riipis produced in lloilo came to be called jusi (from the taw silk fibers brought in by i hinese traders). Since weaving of the riipis requires a great amount of skill, patience and time, the cloth was priced highly. Also popular during the Spanish era was the pina fabric (from the Ir.ives of the wild pineapple). Batangas was known for its kulambo (gauze mosquito net). The Northern Luzon provinces produced a type of cloth l.nown as abel lloco. As early as in the 1700s the Spaniards brought in their dressy shirt (tucked out) with standing collar. Woven embroidery of the fabric is for display and for some, due to health reasons. With the sinamay or pinukpok material, skin irritation at times developed because of the material's fibers >md the country's warm temperature. The trousers used with shirt were loose and required the use of slippers or shoes. In the early 19 th century, the Augustinian missionaries introduced spinning wheels and more sophisticated looms in Panay Island, which greatly developed the local weaving industry of the place. In time, needlework developed in Ermita, Malate, and Sta. Ana, Manila. Finished articles were expensive, primarily because of embroidery. Elaborate works of embroidery were sewn on hemlines, sleeves, scarves, handkerchiefs, and on children's clothes. With skilled labor, this cottage industry gained popularity. The Christianization of the Filipinos was the most lasting legacy of the Spanish missionaries. The Spaniards converted much of the Philippines to Christianity except Mindanao and Sulu. The use of Philippine dialects by the early missionaries facilitated the teaching of the Gospel. The striking resemblances between the pre-colonial religion and Catholicism have made the latter acceptable to the local inhabitants. During the Spanish period, no building structure was allowed to rise higher than the church's bell tower. The highest part inside the church was the retablo. At the center and above the altar table was the tabernacle for storing the sacred hosts. Many holy images arid their corresponding devotions have originated from New Spain (now Mexico). Some of the popular images are the following: statue of Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage (also known as Our Lady of Antipolo); the Black Nazarene venerated at the Quiapo Church, and Our Lady of Guadalupe. Jesus Christ has been represented in various forms. As a child he is depicted as the Santo Nifio, either placed on a manger or standing as the Sovereign King with a globe and a scepter. On His way to Calvary, he is presented as the Nazareno. While placed inside a sepulcher, the image is called Santo Entierro. The image of the resurrected Christ is known as Cristo Hi in ituiio. Christ on the cross known as the Santo Cristo is regarded as the most important symbol of the Church. It is to be placed at the center of every altar. During the Spanish era, it occupied the central pinnacle of the church's retablo (decorated medieval altar). Family life during the Spanish period focused on the Christian way of life. The father although acknowledged as the head of the family, considered the sentiments of his wife on family matters. The mother was regarded as the custodian of the family. She usually acted as the first teacher of the children. Families became more considerately close since parents and children did pray together, particularly during the Angelus, in saying the rosary and before each meal. They went to church together to hear the Sunday mass as well as other masses, marking important religious events like Christmas, Holy Week, and the feast day of the patron saint of the town. Owing to the influence of Christianity, social welfare was also promoted in the country. The sick and the needy were given care through medical services, juan Clemente founded the first hospital in Manila in 1578. Out of this hospital originated the present San Juan de Dios Hospital and the San Lazaro Hospital. In 1594, the Santa Hermandad y Cofradia de la Misericordia (Holy Brotherhood and Confraternity of Mercy) was organized for charitable works and services for the needy. The first regular orphanage, Real Hospicio de San Jose, was established in 1810. The religious calendar stemmed from celebrations in reverence of Jesus Christ and Mother Mary and in the feasts of saints. Every December 8, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, which solemnizes the dogma of Mary being conceived without original sin is celebrated through eucharistic rites and a grand procession. The whole Christendom celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ on December 25. The joyous celebration begins on December 16 with the start of Misa de Aguinaldo (Mass of the gift), popularly known as simbang gabi, a novena dawn mass to prepare for the midnight mass on Christmas Eve called Misa de Callo (Mass of the Rooster). A religious play called panunuluyan, which reenacts the search by Joseph and Mary for an inn has also been observed in some parishes prior to the midnight mass. After the mass, families gather for the traditional noche buena, a feast usually of ham, cheese, and other native delicacies. The passion and death of Our Lord is solemnly remembered during Lenten season, particularly during Holy Week from Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday. People chant the pasion or attend the cenaculo (religious play depicting the life, sufferings, and crucifixion of Jesus Christ). In Easter Sunday, the traditional salubong commemorates Christ's first meeting with His mother. In Marinduque, the Moriones Festival is held during the Holy Week. This glittering pageantry rei .ills the story of Longinus, the Roman centurion who was converted to Christianity. In this colorful parade, the participants wear masks and costumes portraying the Roman era. A typical Moriones mask bears a bearded Caucasian face with large arrogant eyes and an open mouth. The tradition of self-flagellation during the Lenten season was introduced in the Philippines from Mexico. During those times, public penance was practiced in Spain and the rest of Europe. But in Mexico and i n the Philippines self-flagellation was primarily done to carry out a promise (panata in Tagalog) to the Lord. Every town established during the Spanish period has a patron saint, whose fiesta is celebrated annually with masses, procession, fireworks, feasting, music, and often, theatrical presentations. Towns or barrios named after San Jose (St. Joseph) hold their fiesta on March 19. Those named Sta. Monica celebrate every May 4. Those named after Sta. Rita de Casia commemorate her feast day on May 22. Those named San Juan (St. John the Baptist) observe his feast on June 24. Every May 15, the Pahiyas Festival in Lucban, Quezon is held in honor of San lsidro Labrador, the patron saint of farmers. The word "pahiyas" comes from the root word hiyas, which gives a notion of a joyous shower of blessings or treasures. Elaborate decorations like rice wafer, fruits, and vegetables are placed on houses, as an outpouring of creativity and thanksgiving for good harvest. In Pulilan, Bulacan, the Carabao Festival is also held in honor of San lsidro ever)' May 15. Work animals mostly colorfully groomed and shaved carabaos are led on parade on the streets of Pulilan to genuflect or kneel in front of the church. Also in Bulacan, the Obando Festival is in honor of the town's patron saints - Nuestra Senora de Salambao, San Pascual Baylon, and Santa Clara, which begins on the 17 ,h of May. It is a three-day celebration. Pilgrims attending the festival usually wear straw hats adorned with quills, flowers, ribbons or paper and join the dance to appeal for heavenly intercession for a future spouse in the case of singles or a child in the case of childless couples. Farmers also attend to thank the Virgin of Salambao for bounteous harvests. Bicol's grandest celebration is the annual Penafrancia Festival where a fluvial procession is made in honor of Our Lady of Penafrancia every 17 th of September in Naga, Camarines Sur. Culminating the final novena prayers is a Gregorian Mass, in thanksgiving to God and in honor of Our Lady. During the entire month of May, parishes annually hold the Flores de Mayo (Flowers of May), where devotees offer flowers every day at the church altar to honor the Blessed Mother. Before the month ends, the Santa Cruz de Mayo or the Santacruzan procession is held to commemorate the finding of the I loly Cross by Empress Helena and Emperor Constantine. The participants called sagalas play various characters found in Christian history, which include the Reyna Elena. This festive celebration ends inside the church. Solemn rites and celebrations were followed by dining and merrymaking among families and friends. During these occasions, Spanish culinary specialties like paella (a mixture of rice, chicken and shellfish), arroz valenciana (rice and chicken cooked in coconut milk), and lengua (sauteed ox-tongue) were usually served in feast tables. 6. Chinese in the Philippines During the Spanish times, the Chinese were called Sangleys, derived from the terms xiang and ley meaning "traveling merchant." Since Legazpi and those who succeeded him favored Sino-Philippine trade, more trading junks from China came to the Philippines annually, bringing their merchandise like silk, textiles, and porcelain wares. Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the Chinese had already established their settlements in the country. The Chinese, who were able to learn the styles and techniques from native craftsmen, predominantly occupied the manufacturing of carriages, stone masonry, printing, shoemaking, and tailoring. In Manila, they were forced to live outside tine city walls. The place was called Parian, erected in 1581 by Governor General Gonzalo Ronquillo de Penalosa. Outside Manila, many Chinese engaged in retail trade, while others invested in land. Many Chinese settled in the Philippines after the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) in China. A number of them were converted to Catholicism and married Filipina women. Their descendants, called Chinese mestizos, were formed. During the Spanish period, the Chinese mestizos were able to acquire land from peasants through the pacto de retroventa. This was also known as pacto de retro, which was a contract under which the borrower who conveyed his land to the lender could repurchase it for the same amount of money that he had received. Generally, the borrower could no longer pay the sum of money; thus, the transfer of land ownership to the lender has been completed. The Chinese in the Philippines had given valuable services to the community but still they were not given fair treatment by the Spanish authorities, owing to their constructive role in the economic development of the country. To discourage Chinese immigration to the country, the Spanish authorities taxed them heavily. They were also taxed twice the amount required of Filipinos because they earned more. The Spanish government encouraged the immigrants to become agricultural laborers. Soon, the Chinese gained position in the cash-crop economy in the provincial level. The Chinese mestizo could legally change his classification through the dhpcrtsaie ley, which involved the transfer of his family to the tax register of Indios. The Chinese compound name was combined into a single surname, • g., Tan Hwang Co to Tanjuangco. 1 le wore the camisa de chitio and the top li.it, a status symbol of the native priticipalia. I he first Chinese threat to Spanish rule in the Philippines was the m\ .ision of Lim-Ah-Hong. He appeared in Manila Bay on November 29, l'v I with 62 war junks and shiploads of farming and household goods. M» was in search of a kingdom. In Paranaque beach, Lim-Ah-Hong landed a force of 600 men under Sioco, his Japanese lieutenant. On November 30, 1574, Sioco attacked H.n.umbayan, killed Marshal Martin de Goiti, and assaulted the city of Manila. But the Spanish forces aided by Filipinos, drove the invaders back to their ships. Lim-Ah-Hong himself led the second attack in Manila. This time, Juan Salcedo has already arrived from Vigan upon knowing the previous attack in Manila. He succeeded Goiti as marshal. Sioco died in action while Lim-Ah-Hong retreated with his ships and men northward, to Pangasinan. He established a colony at the mouth of Agno River. However, Lim-Ah-Hong's colony in the Philippines did not last long. Marshal Salcedo with a fleet of 1,500 Filipinos and 250 Spaniards sailed from Manila to Pangasinan and destroyed Lim-Ah-Hong's stronghold in Lingayen Gulf. Lim-Ah-Hong evaded capture. He managed to escape through a man-made canal and fled to the hills and mingled with the Igorots and Tingguians. Then, he returned to China and reorganized his forces but he was defeated by the Chinese viceroy in Fookien in a naval battle of Palahoan. He fled to Thailand but was not permitted to stay there. He went to other kingdoms, but for fear of China, these kingdoms did not welcome him. He wandered from one place to another, till his whereabouts could no longer be traced. The first Chinese revolt was brought about by the deep-seated suspicion of the Spaniards. On May 23, 1603, three Chinese mandarins arrived in Manila. They wanted to see Chin-San (Mountain of Gold), which was believed to be in Cavite. The Spaniards looked at it as a plausible scheme. After the mandarins had left, the Spaniards strengthened the city defenses, which alarmed the Chinese residents. In Parian, a secret plot to overthrow the Spaniards was planned under the leadership of Eng-Kang, a rich Chinese merchant. They attacked Tondo and Quiapo on October 3,1603 by setting the buildings on fire and by killing the inhabitants. Don Luis Dasmarinas (former governor general) and Captain Tomas Bravo de Acuna (nephew of Governor General Acuiia) led the retaliatory attacks but they were ambushed. I lowever, the Chinese failed to capture the city walls because of the Spanish, F ilipino and Japanese joint forces, including the friars as well as the residents of the area. The Chinese rebels retreated to the hills of San Pablo, Laguna, but they were defeated by the forces led by Cristobal de Axqueta Monchaca. In 1639, the Chinese revolted for the second time. This was caused by Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera's order forcing the Chinese to work in Calamba, Laguna. The Chinese denounced the abuses committed by Spanish tribute collectors. On November 19,1639, hostilities began in Calamba and it spread to other towns killing several Spanish friars, including the alcalde mayor of Laguna, Marcos Zapata. In the early part of 1662, Koxinga (real name was Cheng Chengkung) was able to take Taiwan from the Dutch. He sent Fr. Victorio Ricci to Manila, to extend his directive for tribute from the Spanish authorities. This infuriated Governor General Manrique de Lara and thus, he prepared to drive out all Chinese residents in the country. The Chinese retaliated by burning the district of Santa Cruz. Many Filipinos and Spaniards were killed. An army of 4,000 Pampanguenos under Francisco Laksamana came to the rescue and defeated the rebels who had fled to the mountains of Taytay and Antipolo. The fourth Chinese revolt (1686) was planned by Tingco, a Chinese ex-convict. He was desperate to raise money to return to China. He tried to burn the city of Manila and to loot the churches. His group of rebels attacked in August, starting at the Parian, in the house of Don Diego Vivien, the alcalde mayor. The government forces arrived and routed them. Tingco was caught and executed. To put an end to possible Chinese insurrection in the country, the governor in 1729 ordered that all unbaptized Chinese in Manila were to reside in the Parian. The baptized ones had to reside in Binondo and Sta. Cruz. However, when the British came and occupied Manila in 1762 the Chinese collaborated with them to fight the Spaniards. The Chinese in Manila as well as the Chinese in Guagua, Pampanga secretly plotted to massacre the Spaniards on Christmas Eve of December 24,1762. One of the plotters happened to reveal the plot to his Filipina sweetheart. The latter relayed the news to Fr. Jose Salas, the parish priest of Mexico, Pampanga. Governor General Simon de Anda who was informed of this plot, led his forces to Guagua on December 20 and crushed the Chinese rebels. This bloody confrontation was considered in Philippine history as the "Red Christmas." 7. More Europeans In the Islands Towards the end of the I6 ,h century, some European nations began the attempts to establish settlements in the Philippines. In 1579, English mariners including Sir Francis Drake started to harass Spanish shipping. I he Dutch also began to raid some islands in the Philippines. They likewise assaulted Chinese, Portuguese, and Japanese trading vessels. In 1602, the Dutch trading companies sent fleets capable of seizing control of the spice trade from the Portuguese. As Portugal's ally, Spain committed its forces in the Philippines to help avert Dutch assaults. Thus, the Dutch were drawn to the Philippines to weaken the Spanish fleet stationed in the colony. Their base of operations was Formosa (Taiwan). Dutch naval squadron attacked various places in the Philippines from 1600-1747, which discouraged Chinese and Japanese traders from entering the colony. In February of 1646, a Dutch fleet arrived in the Philippine Sea. As the Spanish officers and crew prepared for battle, the Dominican friars advised the people to do penance and pray for the intercession of Nuestra Sefiora del Santissimo Rosario (Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary). After five naval skirmishes between March 15 and October 4,1646, the Filipinos and Spaniards won the eight-month naval battle of Manila against the Dutch. This naval victory, until now is being celebrated as Festival La Naval de Manila in honor of Our Lady, the patroness of the Spanish fleet. This is truly a manifestation of divine intervention for people to reflect on the social and moral pressures that threaten the Filipino society. The first successful foreign invasion of the Philippines, after the Spanish conquest was the one staged by the British. It happened when Spain became involved in the Seven Years War (1756-1763) on the side of France and Austria against Britain and Prussia for the control of Germany and for supremacy in North America and India. In counterstrike, Britain laid claim to most of the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Orient, including the Philippines. On the evening of September 22, 1762 (Manila time), the British fleet consisting of 13 ships (with around 2,000 men) entered Manila Bay. The commander of the fleet was Rear Admiral Samuel Cornish, while Brigadier General William Draper was in command of the troops. The following morning, September 23, two British officers sent ashore under a white flag, a truce carrying an ultimatum to the Spanish officials, demanding the surrender of Manila. Upon the advice of the council of war, Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, the interim governor general rejected the ultimatum. Thousands of Filipino warriors from Pampanga, Bulacan, and Laguna reinforced the military army in Manila, then with only 556 regular troops. I heir leader was Manalastas, .1 Pampanguefto. Still, they were outnumbered and out armed. Knives and spears were no match against British rifles. Draper's cannons tore down the southwest corner of the city walls. Finally, they were forced to retreat. Although unsuccessful, this battle was significant for the Filipinos, for it proved their loyalty to Spain and to Catholicism. Manila fell into British hands on October 5, 1762 after a white flag was hoisted at Fort Santiago. This was to stop the horrible slaughter of city defenders and residents. Terms of surrender were discussed. Simon de Anda, the youngest oidor of the Audencia Real had escaped in a boat on the eve of the fall of Manila. He was dispatched by Archbishop Rojo to Bulacan to ensure the loyalty of the rest of the provinces to Spain. He established his headquarters in Bacolor, Pampanga. He continued the government with himself as the governor general. Archbishop Rojo had also sent messengers to Palapag, Samar where the galleon Filipino docked. The ship had brought back from Mexico the situado (subsidy) of over a million silver pesos. The government wanted to keep this fund from the British. Under Rojo's instructions, the ship was burned after the silver coins were taken out safely. Learning about it, Cornish sent his frigates to Samar but the money had already been placed under Anda's care. During the brief occupation of the British in Manila, the country had three governors: Archbishop Rojo, Oidor Simon de Anda, and Honorable Dawsonne Drake, who established a civil government in Manila. He was appointed by the East [ndia Company to govern the Philippines. The brief occupation of Manila by the British resulted to different reactions. When the British took Pasig, Alimud Din sought refuge and was later restored to his sultanate in the south. In return, he signed a treaty permitting the British to establish a trading center in Jolo. The people of Paranaque stood loyal to the Spaniards. Pampanga and Bulacan rallied behind Anda. However, in North and Central Luzon, some people roused in action against the Spanish government. In Pangasinan, a revolt was instigated by Juan de la Cruz Palaris. In the Ilocos region, Diego Silang accepted the British bid of support for his cause in fighting against the Spaniards. The Seven Years War in Europe came to an end with the Treaty of Paris signed on February 10, 1763. Among the terms settled was the acquisition of almost entire French Empire in North America by Britain. The British also acquired Florida from Spain. England has to restore the Philippines to Spain. The news reached Manila in a much later date. On May 31,1764, Anda and his troops went back to Manila amidst the jubilation of the populace in conformity with the treaty, which formally ended the war. Study Guides "Terms/Concepts to Understand Inter caetera bull Vassalage Reduccion Plaza complex Retablo Pacto de retroventa Questions to Answer 1. What prompted the Europeans to search new lands in the 14 th . century to the 16 th century? 2. Explain the efforts of the westerners to conquer the Philippines. 3. What made some historians believed that it was in Masao, Butuan and not in Limasawa, Leyte where the first recorded Christian mass took place? 4. Did the Spaniards succeed in promoting Hispanic culture among the early Filipinos? 5. Describe the general condition of the Filipino-Chinese during the Spanish period. What caused them to revolt against the colonial government? 6. When the British forces occupied Manila in 1762, what happened as a result to the Philippine political scenario? Chapter V Struggle for Rights and Freedom 1. Revolt of Lakandula and Sulayman (1574) Cause: Lavezaris's Reversal of Legazpi's Policy After the death of Legazpi on August 20, 1572, Governor Guido de Lavezaris no longer exempted the native rulers and their descendants from paying tribute. He ordered the confiscation of their patrimonial land properties. Because of the new policy, Lakandula and Sulayman decided to rise in arms. Taking advantage of Lim-Ah-Hong's attack in Manila in 1574, the two chieftains proclaimed their revolt and gathered their warriors in Navotas. Juan de Salcedo and Fr. Geronimo Marin were sent by Lavezaris to persuade them not to carry out their plan. They were given an assurance that all their grievances would be remedied and those who took arms would be pardoned. Governor Lavezaris did this gesture to ask help from Filipino natives in driving away Lim- Ah-Hong from the country. 2. First Pampanga Revolt (1585) Cause: Abuses of Encomenderos Disgruntled by the way the encomenderos administered, some brave Pampangueno leaders connived with the people of Manila and the Borneans to rise in revolt. According to their plan, they would secretly enter the city of Manila one dark night and massacre the Spaniards. A native woman who was married to a Spanish soldier happened to learn of it and warned the Spanish authorities about it. The leaders were arrested and executed without any fair trial. 3. The Tondo Conspiracy (1587-88) Cause: Regain Lost Freedom Attempting to restore freedom and local leadership being enjoyed during the pre-colonial years, Agustin de Legazpi (nephew of Lakandula), together with other leaders like Martin Pangan (gobernadorcillo of Tondo), Magat Salamat (son of Lakandula), Juan Banal (another Tondo chief), Esteban Taes (chief of Bulacan), Pedro Balinguit (chief of Pandacan), Pitonggatan (chief of Tondo), Felipe Salonga (chief of Polo), and Geronimo Basi (brother of Agustin de Legazpi) planned to overthrow the Spanish rulers in the country. *** Through a Japanese I luisli.m, Dionisio Fernandez, Agustin de Legazpi, and his fellow conspirator contacted a Japanese sea captain, Juan Gayo, to get amis and Japanese warriors to fight the Spaniards. In exchange, he and his Japanese warriors would be given one-half of the tribute collected in the Philippines. Aside from this, help would also be secured from Borneo, l.aguna, and Batangas. The conspirators with their warriors would then assault the city of Manila and start killing the Spaniards. Magat Salamat innocently revealed the plan to Antonio Surabao, «i Cuyo native who was pretending to be a supporter. Surabao later recounted this to his master, Pedro Sarmiento (the Spanish encomendero of Calamianes). Immediately, Captain Sarmiento rushed to Manila and informed Governor General Santiago de Vera on October 26, 1588, the existence of a conspiracy against the Spanish government. Eventually, the governor ordered the arrest of all persons implicated in the revolutionary plot, including Dionisio Fernandez, a Japanese interpreter. All these suspects were investigated and tried in court. They were given harsh penalties. Agustin de Legazpi and Martin Pangan were brutally hanged. Their heads were cut off and placed in iron cages. The government seized their properties. The sites of their homes were plowed and sown with salt to remain barren. Dionisio Fernandez was hanged and his property, confiscated. Also executed were Magat Salamat, Geronimo Basi, and Esteban Taes. The rest were given lighter punishments - heavy fines and some years of exile from their town. Five of the leading members of the conspiracy were exiled to Mexico - Pedro Balinguit, Pitonggatan, Felipe Salonga, Calao, and Agustin Manuguit. 4. Magalat's Revolt, Cagayan (1596) Cause: Tribute During the rule of Governor Francisco Tello, two brothers instigated the people of Cagayan to rise in arms against the colonial government because of the latter's arbitrary levy collection. One of the brothers was called Magalat. The uprising was suppressed by the authorities. He and his men were kept in Manila as exiles. The Dominican missionaries of Cagayan persuaded Governor Tello to pardon them, after knowing the plight of the two brothers. The favor was subsequently granted. After Magalat was released, he went back to Cagayan and incited the people to continue the fight. Many Spaniards and loyal natives were killed by the rebels. Governor Tello sent Captain Pedro de Chavez to quell the revolt. Magalat, however, remained undefeated in open battle. Later, the Spaniards decided to hire native assassins. Magalat was murdered in his own house. 5. Revolt of the Igorots (1601) Cause: Refusal to Accept New Religion The Spaniards were determined to convert the Igorots to Christianity. They launched a crusade to proselytize the highland natives of Luzon and to place them under Spanish authorities. A strong expedition was sent to the Igorot land to stop the natives from resisting colonial subjugation. However, the Spaniards were only able to gain nominal political and military control over them. 6. Revolt of the Irrayas, Northern Isabela in the Cagayan Valley (1621) Cause: Oppression of Spanish Officials Fray Pedro de Santo Tomas, a Dominican missionary, tried to convince the rebels to avoid an uprising against the abusive Spanish officials. The rebels led by Gabriel Dayag and Felix Cutabay refused to heed the priest's words of peace. However, they treated Fr. Santo Tomas and his missionary companions with respect. They allowed the friars to leave unmolested, with all their ornaments and jewels of the churches. After the missionaries had left, the Irrayas began their fight by killing the oppressive encomenderos and burning their houses. After this bloody incident, the rebels went up to the Basili River and built their fortification on a rocky hill. Fr. Santo Tomas returned and exhorted the leaders to lay down their arms and promised them that the government would pardon them and remedy their grievances. The revolt ended without a fight. 7. The Revolt of Tamblot, Bohol (1621- 22) Cause: Return to Native Religion In 1621, Tamblot, a babaylan (native priest), reported the appearance of a diwata who promised the people a life of abundance, without the burden of paying tribute to the government or dues to the church. He persuaded the natives to abandon the Catholic religion and rise against the Spaniards. Around 2,000 Boholanos responded to Tamblot's call. They began the uprising at the time when most of the Jesuit fathers, the spiritual administrators of the island, were in Cebu celebrating the feast of the beatification of St. Francis Xavier. They burned the villages being supervised by the Jesuits, as well as their churches. They threw away all rosaries and crosses they could find. News of the revolt reached Cebu. Don Juan de Alcarazo, the alcalde mayor, sent immediately an expedition to Bohol, consisting of 50 Spaniards and more than 1,000 natives from Cebu and Pampanga. In the midst of a heavy downpour, Tamblot and his followers were crushed. 8. Hankow's Revolt Leyte (1622) Cause: Return to Native Religion The leader of this rebellion was the aged chieftain of Limasawa, Bankaw, who was one of the first local leaders who received Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565. He had been previously converted to Christianity and became loyal to Spain. But in his old age, Bankaw together with his sons and a native priest named Pagali, led the people of Carigara, Leyte to rise i n arms in defense of their old religion. Soon they had the whole island into armed resistance. Fr. Melchor de Vera, a Jesuit, went to Cebu and warned the Spanish authorities of the uprising. Alcalde Mayor Alcarazo sent a fleet of 40 vessels, manned by hundreds of Cebuanos and some Spanish arquebusiers to Leyte. The rebels were offered peace but they turned it down. The Spanish-Filipino forces pursued them in the hills and defeated them. Bankaw, together with his son and Pagali perished in the battle. Soon his second son was beheaded as a traitor. His daughter was taken as captive. Bankaw's head was placed on a stake as a public warning, to generate fear among the natives. 9. The Revolt of Ladia (1643) Cause: Spanish Oppression Pedro Ladia, a native of Borneo, who claimed to be a descendant of Rajah Matanda, instigated the people of Malolos, Bulacan to rise in arms against the Spanish government. He was able to recruit a number of followers but before he could carry out his plan, Fr. Cristobal Enriquez had already entreated the people to remain loyal to Spain. Ladia was later on arrested and sent to Manila to be executed. 10. The Revolt of Dabao (1650s) Cause: Controversial Decree to Send Carpenters to the Cavite Shipyard To move freely among fellow Christians, Dabao, a Manobo chieftain in Northern Mindanao allowed himself to be baptized to the Catholic faith. He convinced some new converts to join him in his plan to kill the religious and all the Spanish soldiers in the fort. Dabao's opportunity to carry out his plot came as natives who stole a quantity of maize and rice were being hunted down. He offered himself to catch them. He took his men to act as prisoners. Just when the men were going to be set in the stocks for their punishment, Dabao attacked the captain and the supposed prisoners joined him by taking out their concealed weapons. All Spaniards in the garrison were killed. Governor Diego Fajardo offered amnesty to the rebels to end the Northern Mindanao unrest. However, the rebels who surrendered were either hanged or enslaved or taken to Manila, where they were sold to Spanish household. 11. Sumuroy's Revolt, Samar (1649-50) Cause: Forced Labor Under Juan Sumuroy's leadership, the people of Palapag, Samar rose in arms against the government. They resented Governor Diego Fajardo's order, which involved the sending of men to Cavite shipyards. Hostilities began on June 1,1649, with the killing of the curate of the town. The revolt spread to Albay and Camarines, Cebu, Masbate, Camiguin, and as far as Northern Mindanao. Sumuroy won several victories over the Spanish-Filipino forces. At one time, the Spanish commander offered a large sum of money in exchange of Sumuroy's head. The rebels sent him the head of a pig instead. In July 1650, under cover of darkness and rainfall, the government forces staged an assault on the natives' fort. The rebels were caught by surprise. Sumuroy's mother perished in the battle. The revolt ended with individual surrenders. The rebels themselves killed Sumuroy and brought his head to the Spanish commander. 12. Maniago's Revolt, Pampanga (1660) Causes: Frequent Recruitment of Men to Cut Timber in the Mountains and Bandala Pampanga's rice production suffered exceedingly from the disruptive effects of polo. One thousand Pampanguenos had been working for eight months as timber cutters. To show their sentiments against the government, the workers mutinied and set their campsite on fire. They chose Don Francisco Maniago, a chief from the village of Mexico to be their leader. The armed rebels gathered in Lubao under Maniago and another group made preparations in Bacolor. They closed the mouths of rivers with stakes. Letters to other chiefs in Pangasinan, Ilocos, and Cagayan were sent, asking them to join the uprising against the Spaniards and later elect a king of their own. By the time the province of Pampanga revolted, the government owed the local inhabitants more than 200,000 pesos due to unpaid rice purchases from the bandala system. The Spaniards tried to end the rebellion immediately because they knew that the Pampanguenos had been trained in military art. Governor Manrique de Lara began his maneuver with a show of force, by bringing with him 300 men in Macabebe. Seeing the well- armed Spaniards, the Pampanguenos showed cordiality. This caused other rebels to waver and distrust one another. Governor Lara called for Juan Macapagal, chief of Arayat, to a discussion. De Lara treated him well and assured him rewards if he would Mcle with the government. Mai apagal consequently accepted Ihr offer. He went back to Arayat and organized a force to repress the rebels. His defection discouraged other chiefs. Parish priests as well as mercenary soldiers were also employed to demoralize the rebels. The governor general moreover, I imposed a partial payment of 14,000 pesos on the total amount of 200,000 pesos that the government owed to the Pampanguenos. The Spaniards concluded an agreement with Maniago, which brought about peace in Pampanga. For fear that the Pangasinenses would strike back, the Pampanguenos themselves demanded two Spanish garrisons in the province, one in Lubao and another in Arayat. From then on, they never revolted against the colonial government. 13. Andres Malong's Revolt, Pangasinan (1660-61) Causes: Spanish Oppression and the Desire to Replace the Spaniards as Personal Rulers of the People Spurred by the Pampangueno rebellion, the natives of Pangasinan also rose in arms against the Spanish government in Lingayen on December 15, 1660. Several Spaniards were killed, including an alcalde mayor. Inspired by the growing number of their followers and their early successes, Malong proclaimed himself a king and directed his military leaders to place the province under rebel control with his defenses at the capital town of Binalatongan. He appointed Pedro Gumapos as count, Francisco Pacadua as judge, and Jacinto Macasiag, and Melchor de Vera as army generals. Letters were sent to the people of Tlocos, Zambales, Pampanga and Cagayan, inviting them to rise against the Spaniards. The Pampanguenos under Maniago did not join because they had already made their peace with the Spaniards. To extend his sovereignty, Malong sent 6,000 men to Pampanga and 3,000 men to llocos and Cagayan, leaving 2,000 men with him in Pangasinan. But this depleted his forces. The government troops led by Don Felipe de Ugalde and Don Francisco Esteban outmaneu vered his army in Pangasinan. He was pursued into the mountains and was caught alive. He was executed together with Vera, Pacadua, and Macasiag in 1661 in Binalatongan. 14. The Revolt of Gumapos (1661) Cause: Continue Andres Malong's Revolt Pedro Gumapos and his army of Zambals killed many Spaniards in llocos. The Ilocanos did not join them; for their loyalty was to their property. During the Zambal invasion, they hid their valuables in the Bishop's house and buried other properties. The bishop assembled the Zambals and threatened them with excommunication the moment they get anything from the churches or from his house. But the bishop's words fell on deaf ears. Gumapos's campaign ended after an encounter with the Spanish forces. Four hundred rebels were slain and Gumapos himself was taken prisoner and was later hanged in Vigan. 15. The Revolt of filmazan (1660s) Cause: Personal Ambitions The flames of rebellion soon spread in Ilocos with Pedro Almazan as the defiant leader. Almazan, a rich chief of San Nicolas, crowned himself King of Ilocos during the wedding ceremony of his son to the daughter of another chief. He wore the crown of the Queen of Angels taken from the church, which the rebels sacked. The rebels were gaining some headway at the start but the Spaniards eventually suppressed them. 16. Tapar's Revolt, Panay (1663) Cause: Found a New Religion Under Native Supervision The prevalent misdemeanor of Spanish friars alienated countless natives from the Catholic faith. Tapar, a native of Panay, wanted to establish a religious cult in Oton. He attracted many followers with his stories about his frequent conversations with a demon. Tapar and his men were killed in a bloody fight against the Spaniards, along with native volunteer soldiers. Their corpses were impaled on stakes. 17. Dagohoy's Revolt, Bohol (1744-1829) Cause: Refusal to Give His Brother a Christian Burial Father Gaspar Morales denied Francisco Dagohoy's brother a Christian burial because the latter died in a duel. Dagohoy argued that his brother's burial was the responsibility of the Jesuit priest because he had died carrying out the missionary's order, to arrest an apostate. The priest refused to bury Dagohoy's brother unless the proper limosnas, or church offerings were given. The body was left decomposing for three days. Humiliated by this tragic incident, Dagohoy got mad and incited the natives of Bohol to revolt. He took around 3,000 men and women to the uplands of Talibon and lnabangan. He set up a self- sustaining community far from the Spanish authorities. Dagohoy's community grew in number as more people fled to the hills to avoid being recruited by the government to join its expeditions in Northern Mindanao as well as to avoid the harsh impositions of the government. Dagohoy and his men raided the Jesuit estate of San Javier. Then they killed the Italian Jesuit curate in Jagna, Father Guiseppe Lamberti in 1744. Because of the killing, the Spanish authorities tortured and killed Dagohoy's future father-in-law and the porter of the church of the slain priest. II* death of the innocent ^nuter drove more people to join Dagohoy's ^roup. Shortly afterwards, l ather Morales was killed in cold blood. Bishop Miguel Lino de Kspeleta of Cebu tried to pacify the rebels through negotiations. The plan to send secular priests to Bohol was not carried out. A 20-year deadlock set in. The community continued to subsist without outward sign of rebellion. Twenty Spanish governors from Caspar de la Torre (1739-45) to Juan Antonio Martinez (1822-25) tried to stop the rebellion but failed. In the 1740s and the 1750s, the Spanish government was preoccupied with the Muslim raids. In 1829, the rebellion finally ended when Governor Mariano Ricafort pardoned 19,420 survivors and permitted them to live in the new villages. Nothing has been heard on how Dagohoy died. His autonomous community lasted for 85 years. 18. Silong's Revolt (1762-63) I . Causes: His Imprisonment, Abusive Government Officials, Heavy Taxation The Ilocanos had already been complaining about the anomalous collection of tribute and the abuses of the alcaldes max/ores in the exercise of indulto de comercio. Diego Silang appealed to Don Antonio Zabala, the provincial governor of llocos to consider the demands of the natives. Regarding him an agitator, Zabala had Silang incarcerated. Silang's followers and friends successfully worked for his release. Taking advantage of the Spanish preoccupation with the British in Manila, Silang led the revolt of the Ilocanos and made Vigan the capital of his independent government. His defiance of the Spaniards lost him support of many principals. He ordered that those principals who were opposing him be arrested and brought to him. Should they resist, they were to be slain. He also imposed a fine of 100 pesos on each priest but lowered it to 80 pesos on their petition. Property of the church was also taken. Bishop Bernardo Ustariz of Vigan issued an interdict against Silang and his followers. He exhorted the Ilocanos to withdraw support for the rebels' cause. In retaliation, Silang imprisoned all of the latter's followers. Finally, Spanish Governor Simon de Anda sent Silang an ultimatum. Fearing that Anda was planning to march to llocos, Silang decided to seek the protection of the British. Shortly thereafter, he accepted the Bri tish offer of friendship to fight against the Spaniards. However, Silang's leadership ended with an assassin's bullet. Miguel Vicos, a Spanish mestizo who wished to take revenge on Silang and Pedro Becbec, a trusted aide of Silang conspired to kill the rebel leader in exchange of a large monetary reward. Vicos shot Silang in the latter's house. Gabriela Silang, Diego's wife, continued the fight. Nicolas Carino, Silang's uncle, temporarily took command of the forces. He and Gabriela attacked the town of Santa in Ilocos Sur and won over the government forces. After the battle, Gabriela went to the forests of Abra and recruited the Tingguians (Itnegs). Another battle was fought at Cabugao, but this time the rebels were beaten. Carino perished in action. Gabriela and her warriors fled to Abra and organized a new army of Ilocanos and Tingguians. With her newly reorganized battalion, Gabriela marched towards Vigan. She rode on a fast horse and led her troops into the combat. The loyal archers of the Spanish government repulsed her attack. Once more, she went back to the mountains of Abra with her followers. Don Manuel de Arza, lieutenant governor of Northern Luzon and his Cagayan warriors followed her trail. With the aid of Apayaos and Kalingas, they captured her and her surviving followers. On September 20,1763, Gabriela and her companions were executed in Vigan, Ilocos Sur. 19. Polaris'* Revolt (1762-65) Causes: Tribute, Spain's Loss of Prestige Due to the British Occupation of Manila Simultaneous with the Silang revolt was an uprising in Pangasinan. The local inhabitants wanted the abolition of the tribute and the removal of loaquin Gamboa, alcalde mayor of the province for irregularities in tax collection. The rebellion began on November 3,1762 at the town of Binalatongan under the leadership of Juan de la Cruz Palaris. From Binalatongan, the spirit of insurrection spread to other towns of the province. Palaris urged the people to fight since the Spaniards were very weak because of their defeat at the hands of the British in Manila. For over a year, he succeeded in driving the Spaniards and friars out of the rebel towns. The Dominican friars tried to pacify the rebels, but failed. In March 1764, Don Mariano de Arza together with 3,000 loyal Ilocano soldiers suppressed the Revolt of Palaris in Pangasinan. Palaris was publicly hanged. 20. Basi Revolt (1807) Cause: Wine Monopoly of 1786 Due to the wine monopoly of the government, the Ilocanos were prohibited to drink homemade basi (wine fermented from sugarcane). They were compelled to buy wine from government stores. On September 16, 1807, the Ilocanos of Piddig, Ilocos Norte, rose in arms in defense of their favorite wine, basi. The rebellion spread to the neighboring towns, Badoc and Santo Domingo. The Spanish alcaldc muyot, who was residing in Vigan, sent a force ot 36 soldiers and two column* of civilian guards with a cannon to attack Badoc. However, on September 28, 1807, the alcalde mayor together with a strong force of regular troops attacked them at San lldefonso and quelled the revolt. 21. Revolt in Defense of the Spanish Constitution (1815) Cause: Abolition of the Liberal Spanish Constitution The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was very much influenced by the ideals of the French Revolution - Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. This democratic constitution granted human rights to both Spaniards and Filipinos. It was promulgated by the Spanish Cortes (Parliament) and approved and signed by 184 delegates of Spain and her colonies (including the Philippines). One of its signatories was Ventura de los Reyes, a Filipino. Upon knowing that this constitution was abolished on May 4, 1814 by the despotic ruler King Ferdinand VII, an explosion of violence in the country against the principales took place. The masses suspected that the principales were behind this, since they had been presumed aiding the Spanish authorities to perpetuate in power. On March 3, 1815, more than 1,500 Ilocanos of Sarrat, Ilocos Norte, under the leadership of Simon Tomas rose in arms in defense of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The Ilocanos plundered the houses of rich Spaniards and pro-Spanish natives. They also looted the churches and killed some friars and officials. The Spanish government rushed infantry and cavalry forces to the rebellious towns in the Ilocandia. The revolt ended on March 6, with the surviving leaders of the rebellion severely punished. 22. Revolt of the Bayot Brothers (1822) Cause: Feeling of Distrust between the Peninsulares and the Creoles The insulares in the Philippines, as well as the Creoles in other colonies of Spain resented the extra privileges given to the peninsulares. The feeling of distrust and antagonism between the peninsulares and the Creoles became intense in the early decades of the 19 th century. Inspired by the achievements of the Creole liberators in Latin America from 1808 to 1826 and influenced by the ideals of the French Revolution (1789-1799), the three Bayot brothers - Manuel, Jose, and Joaquin - sons of Colonel Francisco Bayot, a prominent creole of Manila, conspired with other Creole officers of the Battalion Real Principe, to overthrow the government, which was dominated by the peninsulares. The plot was to be carried out on April 17,1822 at dawn. A few days before April 17, the plan of the Bayot conspiracy was discovered. Governor Mariano de Folgueras alerted the Queen's Regiment and surrounded the barracks of suspected rebels with loyal troops and 15 cannons. The Bayot brothers were imprisoned after a trial. 11 ktfllglout Revolt of Mermano Pule (1840-41) *** • .uittiN K«'li);i«»us Freedom In 18 W, Apolinario de la Cruz went to Manila to pursue priestly vocation under the Dominican order. He was not accepted on the ground that he was an itidio (native). At that time, all religious orders were closed to indios. In June 1840, Apolinario, better known as Hermano Pule returned to Lucban, Tayabas Province (now Quezon Province), and founded the Cofradia de San Jose (Confraternity of St. Joseph), a nationalist fellowship, which fostered the practice of Christian virtues. Hermano Pule sought the recognition of his religious brotherhood. However, Governor General Marcelino Oraa and Archbishop Jose Segui, upon the recommendation of the Spanish friars, banned his confraternity. Undaunted by the intolerance of the government authorities, he carried on his religious movement at Barrio Isabang of Mount Banahaw, then later moved his camp at Alitao, at the foot of Mount Cristobal. His brotherhood attracted thousands of followers in Tayabas, Laguna, and Batangas. On November 1,1841, Lt. Col. Joaquin Huet, a veteran Spanish combat commander, launched a massive assault in Alitao, killing hundreds of defenseless old men, women, and children. Hermano Pule was captured the following evening at Barrio Ibanga and was executed on November 4, 1841. The Spanish soldiers paraded his chopped body from Tayabas to nearby Lucban, his birthplace. Enraged by the merciless killing in Alitao, the non- commissioned officers and soldiers of the Tayabas Regiment secretly planned to rise in arms under the leadership of Sergeant Irineo Samaniego. After a few hours of fighting at Fort Santiago, Samaniego and his men were routed, captured and shot to death at Bagumbayan at sundown of January 21,1843. 24. Muslim Wars (1578-1898) The Spaniards made attempts to subdue the inhabitants of Mindanao by deploying its military forces in the South. The Muslims on the other hand, valiantly resisted and repulsed the colonizers. They retaliated by raiding territories under Spanish rule with varying degrees of intensity. The war between the Muslim Filipinos and the Spaniards (aided by Christian Filipinos) lasted for more than 300 years. The Muslim wars were brought about by the following reasons: the Spanish invasion of Mindanao and Sulu, preservation of Islam, and the love of adventure arising from the spoils of wars. In 1597, the Spanish colonizers tried to seize Jolo and force the sultanate into submission. After his victorious battle in Borneo for the Spanish Crown, Governor Francisco de Sande sent forces to Jolo, under the command of Captain Esteban Rodriguez Ue I igueroa. He ordered the pacification of the place and the payment ot tribute by the inhabitants to the colonial government. Sultan Pangiran Budiman (Muhammad ul- Halim) resisted the •ittack. However, Sulu fell into Spanish hands. Pearls were given as tribute to the Spaniards. The Muslims, haughtily referred to by the Spaniards as Mows, avenged by plundering coastal towns under Spanish dominion. Sirungan and Salikala prepared a stronger force of 70 vessels and 4,000 warriors, a year .liter their first successful raid in the Visayas in 1599. This time, they were repulsed with heavy losses at Arevalo, lloilo province by 1,000 Visayan warriors and 70 Spanish arquebusiers under the command of Don Juan Garcia de Sierra, a Spanish alcalde mayor who died in the fight. To embark its operations over Muslim Mindanao, the Spaniards built fortified stations in particular areas. On June 23, 1635, Father Melchor de Vera along with 1,000 Visayans began the building of the stone fort in the province. This fort was named Fort Pilar (in honor of Nuestra Senora del Pilar, the patroness of Zamboanga), which helped the government forces in their campaign against the belligerent natives. The Spaniards tried to conquer Maguindanao but were thwarted by native resistance. From 1600-1650, the sultan of Maguindanao, Sultan Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat (Corralat in Spanish records) held power in regions from the Gulf of Davao all the way to Dapitan. On March 13, 1637, Governor Corcuera with his Spanish- Filipino troops landed at the mouth of Rio de Grande de Mindanao. The next day, Lamitan, Sultan Kudarat's capital in Cotabato fell into the hands of the Spaniards. Kudarat retreated to a hill called Ilihan. Corcuera's troops assaulted the place and finally captured it after a bloody encounter. Defeated by the Spaniards, Kudarat was able to escape together with his brave wife, carrying a baby. On May 24, Governor Corcuera returned to Manila and was given a conqueror's welcome - with music, religious festivals, and a moro-moro performance (a stage play about the contending Christians and Muslims with the former emerging as victors). The fighting Moros intensified their efforts to continue the battle against the Spaniards. After nursing his bullet wound in one arm, Sultan Kudarat later mounted raids on Spanish settlements in Luzon and the Visayas and inspired fellow Muslims never to submit to the Spanish colonizers. The Muslims also assaulted the Spanish outposts in Mindanao and Sulu. In 1645, the Tausugs finally liberated Jolo from the Spanish forces. In 1749, Sultan Alimud Din I was deposed by his brother Bantilan because of his friendship with the Spaniards. On January 2,1750, he and his family, together with some faithful followers arrived in Manila. The sultan was royally received by Bishop Juan de Arrechedera, the acting governor general. On April 28 of the same year, he was baptized by the Dominican fathers at Paniqui, Tarlac. He was named Don Fernando Alimud Din I, the first Christian sultan of Jolo. His son, Israel, and his daughter Fatima were likewise converted to Christianity and given education in Manila. In 1751, Governor General Jose Francisco de Obando wanted Alimud Din I to regain his throne in Jolo. The sultan left Manila for Jolo and stopped at Zamboanga. The Spanish commander in Zamboanga claimed to have intercepted a letter from Alimud Din I to a sultan in Mindanao, which was allegedly treasonable. Alimud Din I was shipped back to Manila and later imprisoned at Fort Santiago. Governor General Pedro Manuel de Arandia, Obando's successor, released Alimud Din I and granted him royal privileges. In 1762, the British troops rescued Alimud Din I at Pasig and later restored to him his throne in Jolo. The Spanish forces, plunged in its conflict with the British and the local rebels, were unable to control the Mow (plunderer) raids on Christian pueblos in the Visayas and Luzon. The height of Moro wars occurred in the second half of the 18 th century. In 1769, the Moros landed at Malate and plundered the place. According to Spanish records, an average of 500 Christians were captured and sold annually as slaves in Betavia, Sandakan, and in other slave markets in the East Indies. The Spanish government spent huge sum of money for military operations against the marauding troops of the South. In the closing decades of the 19 th century, the Moro power declined. In 1848, Governor General Narciso Claveria, using new steamships, attacked the Samals at Balanguingui. They brought 350 Samal prisoners to Manila. On December 11,1850, Governor General Antonio de Urbiztondo left Manila for Zamboanga in command of a force consisting of 100 troops of artillery and 500 infantry to subjugate the Muslims of Sulu. Upon his arrival in the last week of the month, he desisted from fighting, realizing that his force was not enough to capture Jolo. He sailed again to Jolo in January 1851. Sulu warriors fired upon his ships. The Spanish force retaliated and burned down 1,000 houses and around 100 bancas (boats) in Tungkil before sailing back to Zamboanga. The following month, after a reinforcement of his troops, Urbiztondo attacked Jolo. The natives of Sulu lost over 100 men, and were forced into the interior. In 1861, after more expeditions by the Spaniards in Maguindanao, the sultan finally recognized Spanish sovereignty. However, resistance continued under Datu Ugto in upper Pulangi. Superior Spanish arms allowed the colonizers to remain in Maguindanao until 1899. In 1874, Admiral Joni? M.iU.impo became the Spanish governor general in the Philippines. I le prepared a mighty armada for the invasion of Jolo. This would put an end to the devastating raids of the Tausugs on the Christian pueblos. The attack lasted for 24 hours. On March 1, 1876, Sultan Jamalul A'lam worked for peace with the Spaniards. Sultan Jamalul A'lam of Jolo transferred his capital to Maimbung. The Sultanate of Sulu, being a sovereign government was able to lease Sabah (North Borneo) to a British company. On January 22,1878, Sultan Jamalul A' lam leased Sabah to Mr. Alfred Dent, an Englishman and Baron Gustavus Von Overbeck, an Austrian of British North Borneo Company for an annual rental of 5,000 Malayan dollars. The contract in 1878 used the Tausug word "padjack," which means lease. (The rental was increased to 5,300 Malayan dollars in 1903 to 1963). The sultan of Jolo, a direct descendant of Sultan Kudarat, acquired sovereignty over North Borneo (Sabah) the second half of the 17 th century. When the sultan of Brunei sought help to the sultan of Jolo to suppress a rebellion in 1704, the Sabah territory was ceded to the latter in 1715 out of gratitude. In 1886, Governor General Emilio Terrero led the invasion to Cotabato to subdue the Moro Maguindanaoans. Terrero's forces destroyed some kutas (forts) of Datu Utto but failed to crush Utto's fighters. After suffering heavy losses, Governor Terrero decided to return to Manila. In 1891, Governor General Valeriano Weyler, known as the "Butcher" for his ruthless suppression of early revolts in Cuba, invaded Lanao. On August 21, 1891, he won the First Battle of Marawi in Lanao Lake. Datu Amai Pakpak, the defender of Marawi, was able to escape. He recruited more warriors to fight against the Spanish invaders. Failing to conquer Lanao, Weyler assaulted Cotabato. However, he was overpowered by Datu Ali Jimbangan and his fierce krismen (warriors). In 1895, Governor General Ramon Blanco invaded the Lanao Lake region. Blanco's troops attacked Marawi on March 10,1895. In this second battle of Marawi, the heroic Datu Amai Pakpak died in action. Blanco won his battle, but he failed to conquer Lanao like Terrero and Weyler. To avenge the fall of Marawi and the death of Datu Amai Pakpak, the Muslim warriors declared a jihad (holy war), forcing Blanco to halt the campaign and return to Manila. The bitter warfare between the Spaniards and the Muslims ended in 1898, after the signing of the Peace Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898, which ended the Spanish domination in the Philippines. 25. The Rise of Filipino Nationalism Nationalism was said to have rooted from a strong feeling among populace that they belong to the same race. Such sentiment has not yet existed in the Philippines prior to the 19 th century. Although the cultural traits of the early Filipinos had striking similarities, their linguistic differences as well as the local autonomy of each political unit in the archipelago barely yielded to the development of this national sentiment. The absence of adequate means of transportation and communication made the situation even more dismal. The transition of the country's traditional societal structure to colonial bureaucracy brought about the awareness of the local inhabitants as to their common source of anxiety and suffering. Unknowingly, the Spanish government planted the seeds of nationalism by perpetuating poverty and injustice among the lower classes of society. The following have been regarded in history as factors that gave rise to Filipino nationalism: 1. Spread of liberalism. When Spain gradually exposed the Philippines to international commerce in the late 18 th and early 19 th centuries, liberal ideas from Europe filtered in. The thoughts of Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Locke, Jefferson, and other political philosophers were made known through books and periodicals brought into the country by men from foreign ports. The transformation of the Philippine economy into a raw material market for Europe unconsciously increased their contact with the intellectual tradition of the West. The improvement in transportation and communication facilities required by increased foreign trade also brought the Filipinos closer, and made them realize their common predicament. When Spain opened the Philippine ports in 1834 to free trade, commercialization of Philippine agriculture and economic expansion greatly benefited the principalia in the country. They were able to send their children to schools and even to educational institutions in Spain, thereupon giving them exposure to libertarian ideals. The dissipation of European and American liberalism in the country was even facilitated with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. In like manner, the ideas of masonry (i.e., freethinking, anticlerical, and humanitarian) also made the new middle class aware of the repressive policy of the Spanish authorities in the colony thus, making themselves more outspoken on the excesses of the friars and government officials. 2. Sentiment against the principales. There was a mounting dissatisfaction against the principales (or the political and social aristocracy, which includes the prominent land- owning and propertied citizens), accommodated as intermediaries of the Spanish government from the inception of its colonial rule. The manse* Iwul Nfen skeptical about the local aristocracy due to their proportion of influence in the society. The Ilocano insurrection in 1815 was a manifestation of the people's cry to mass movement. 3. Racial prejudice. The Spaniards commonly regarded the Filipino natives as belonging to the "inferior race" and haughtily called them as indios. The preconceived notion of the Spanish colonizers that the natives could not rise beyond their "limited intelligence" instigated the enlightened Filipinos to struggle for equality. Jose Rizal's annotation of Antonio de Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas denounced the allegations of the Spaniards that the Filipinos were savages and had no culture prior to the coming of the Western colonizers. 4. Cultural changes. The educational reforms of 1863 dramatically improved the standards of education in the primary level. With the implementation of a new educational system, qualified Filipinos were able to pursue higher education. Young men from prosperous Chinese mestizo and native families were able to take up law, medicine, and pharmacy. They were able to see the repressive colonial policies of Spain after being enlightened with liberal ideas; thus, giving birth to a new breed of Filipinos - the ilustrados (enlightened ones). The ilustrados got the chance to manifest their political will when Carlos Maria de la Torre became governor general in 1869. This benevolent governor was able to show his liberal disposition in administering the government after he invoked reforms in the government like the revocation of press censorship and the abolition of flogging as a form of punishment. He even lived simply within his means. Governor de la Torre as a result, inspired the Filipino middle class to sustain their campaign for reforms in the country. 5. Secularization controversy. The mandatory provision of the Council of Trent (1545-1563) affirmed that secular priests be appointed to administer the parishes in the colony. Due to lack of secular priests, Pope Pius V issued in 1567, upon the request of King Philip II, the Exponi Nobis, which allowed the regular clergy (those belonging to monastic orders) to serve as parish priests without diocesan authorization and be exempted from bishop's authority. However, the appointment of regular clergy to Philippine parishes brought about dissension among members of the Church. The regular orders at the outset resisted diocesan visitation on the ground that this would place them under two superiors, the head of their religious order and the bishop as well. This caused the expulsion of priests who refused the visitation of parishes by representatives of the bishop. The members of the Society of Jesus, SJ (Jesuits) were expelled from the country for this reason. The parishes vacated by the Jesuits (expelled in the country in 1768) were given to the native seculars. In the 18 th century, Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa accepted the resignation of regular priests and appointed native secular priests to the parishes. The royal decree, which was promulgated on November 9, 1774 ordering the secularization of the parishes (or the turnover of parishes supervised by regular clergy to the seculars), became the basis for the appointment of native secular clergy. However, this royal decree was suspended in 1776 owing to friar opposition, as well as the unpreparedness of the native priests. The return of the Jesuits in 1859 as well as the policy of desecularization directly affected the native seculars. In the 1870s, overt opposition against the abuses of Spanish officials and agitation for reforms became evident among Filipino clergy. The secularization controversy transformed into a Filipinization issue since the secular priests were mostly Filipinos. The effort to secularize the parishes in a way heightened the nationalist feeling of the people. Some of the strong proponents of the secularization movement of parishes were Archbishop Gregorio Meliton Martinez and Father Jose Burgos (both from the Archdiocese of Manila). In December 1870, Archbishop Martinez wrote to the Spanish Regent advocating secularization and mentioned that discrimination against Filipino priests would encourage anti- Spanish sentiments. Cavite Mutiny of 1872. In 1868, a revolution led by the liberals in Spain deposed Queen Isabella II and gave rise to the Provisional Republic of Spain. With the victory of the Spanish revolution, many colonial officials with democratic ideals were sent to Manila, which included Governor General Carlos Maria de la Torre in 1869. The republican government was overruled with the restoration of monarchy. Amadeo, son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy accepted the invitation to assume the Spanish Crown in December 1870. With the alteration of the system of government in Spain, the political atmosphere in the Philippines likewise changed. When Rafael de l/quierdo replaced Governor de la Torre in he promptly d i.scarded the liberal measures. The privileges of the arsenal workers and engineer corps regarding exemption from tribute and forced labor were also abolished. As an expression of protest, on the night of January 20, about 200 Filipino soldiers and dock workers in the province of Cavite mutinied and killed their Spanish officers under the leadership of Sergeant Lamadrid (others write La Madrid). The rebellion was quickly suppressed. Two days after the mutiny, Lamadrid was executed together with 41 mutineers in Bagumbayan. The mutiny became an opportunity for the Spanish officials to implicate the liberal critics of the government. The governor general asserted that a secret faction existed in Manila to overthrow Spanish rule. Accused of alleged conspiracy in the rebellion were Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora. They were sentenced to death by garrote on February 17,1872. Some were thrown into jail while the rest were exiled to the Marianas Islands on March 14,1872. Among those who left on board in the Flores de Maria were Father Jose Maria Guevarra, Father Pedro Dandan, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio Maria Regidor, Maximo Patemo, Jose Maria Basa, Balbino Mauricio, and Pio Maria Basa. The Spaniards succeeded in uniting the Filipinos in a common spirit to oppose colonial authority. Between 1872 and 1892, national consciousness was growing among Filipinos who had settled in Europe. The execution of GOM-BUR-ZA eventually hastened the growth of Filipino nationalism. The concept of nationhood coincided with the development of the concept of Filipinos. Before, Filipinos would only refer to the espafioles insulares. Later, they had included the mestizos de sangley and the native elite who had Hispanized themselves. The propagandists tried to infuse the term Filipino with national meaning, which later included the entire people in the archipelago. 26. Propaganda Movement Many Filipinos took refuge in Europe and initiated in Spain a crusade for reforms in the Philippines. The emergence of more Filipino ilustrados gave birth to a unified nationalist movement. This campaign was known in our history as the Propaganda Movement. The aim of the Propaganda Movement was peaceful assimilation, referring to the transition of the Philippines from being a colony to a province of Spain. The propagandists believed that it would be better if the Filipinos would become Spanish citizens, since they would be enjoying the same rights and privileges of the latter. Its adherents did not seek independence from Spain but reforms. These reforms were as follows: equality of Filipinos and Spaniards before the laws; restoration of the Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes; secularization of Philippine parishes and the expulsion of the friars; and human rights for Filipinos, such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom to meet and petition for redress of grievances. Those who joined this peaceful campaign were the Filipino exiles of 1872, the patriots who left the islands to escape persecution, and those who had been to Spain for their studies. Although not all of the propagandists were sons of wealthy Filipinos, they were scions of good families. One of the greatest was Marcelo H. del Pilar, a lawyer and journalist from the town of Bulacan. His eldest brother Toribio, a priest, was implicated in the Cavite Mutiny and exiled. From then on, he joined in dupluhan and dalitan or literary jousts during fiestas. During a pintakasi (cockfighting day), he spoke out to the crowd by satirizing corrupt officials and friars. Del Pilar also sought to reach out to people through his pen. He wrote his anti-friar pamphlets in simple yet forceful Tagalog. In 1882, he helped establish the first bilingual (in Spanish and Tagalog) newspaper, the Diariong Tagalog. He became the editor of the Tagalog section. Between 1887-1888, when anonymous manifestos against the friars were distributed to the public, he released Dasalan at Tocsohan (Prayers and Mockeries), a manual of anticlerical commentary in the format of novena. He parodied the Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, the Apostles' Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Act of Contrition, and the catechism. With these anticlerical protests, Del Pilar's stay in the country became dangerous. His house was burned mysteriously. He left the Philippines in October 1888 to escape the prosecution of the friars. Like Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena parodied religious literature in his satires. In lloilo, he saw the misery of rural communities and the abuses perpetrated by civil and religious authorities. He wrote Fray Botod or "Friar Potbelly" (circa 1874) where he ridiculed a cleric named Fray Botod, who arrived looking like a hungry mosquito and soon became stout because of the stocks taken from the people. Because of his anticlerical literature, he moved to Madrid where he joined other Filipino expatriates into journalism. Among those who had gone to Spain to study was Jose Rizal, born to a well-to-do family in Calamba, Laguna. In 1882, he went to Spain and studied medicine at the Universidad Central de Madrid. His prestige was greatly enhanced by the publication of his socio- historical novel Noll Mi' lungere (Touch Me Not) in 1887. The Noli reflected the defects of the Spanish rule in the Philippines, particularly the abuses of the friars. The impact of the story on the Spaniards in the Philippines was so intense, that later the reading of it was forbidden in the country. Rizal may have been the first Filipino political cartoonist. In his Ketchbook, he drew lampoons of Chinese merchants and the cover design lor the Noli included the hairy calf and the slippered foot of a Spanish friar. Other great Filipino propagandists were Pedro A. Paterno, lawyer; Antonio Luna, pharmacist and essayist; Pedro Serrano Laktaw, teacher- tutor of Prince Alfonso de Bourbon (later King Alfonso XIII of Spain); and I abelo de los Reyes, folklorist and newspaperman. Juan Luna, known lor his monumental painting Spoliarium, and Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo, acclaimed for his masterpiece, Virgenes Cristianas Expuestas al Populacho (Christian Virgins Exposed to the Rabble), also joined the movement for reforms. The Filipino propagandists were also supported by a number of Spanish friends. In 1882, Juan Atayde, a Spaniard born in Manila founded the Circulo Hispano-Filipino. Unfortunately, the society did not stay long due to shortage of funds and also because of the lack of confidence of the members in Atayde. Professor Miguel Morayta, Rizal's professor at Central University of Madrid, tried to form the Asociacion Hispano-Filipino in 1889. This association was concerned with instituting reforms in the Philippines. The association lobbied successfully for the passage of some laws, which included the law pertaining to the compulsory teaching of Spanish and the laws providing reforms in the judiciary. However, these laws were not fully implemented considering the return to power of the reactionary group in Spain. Since the membership of the association was composed mostly of Spaniards, it failed to secure the support of many Filipinos, including Dr. Jose Rizal and Antonio Luna. The young Filipinos felt that the Spaniards and the Creoles were too moderate in dealing with their clamor for reforms. Finally, the La Solidaridad (Solidarity), a purely Filipino organization was established in Barcelona on December 31, 1888. This took place at a traditional New Year's Eve banquet with Galicano Apacible as president and Graciano Lopez Jaena as vice- president. Rizal, who was in London during that time, was named as the honorary president. To make known the objectives of the Propaganda, Graciano Lopez Jaena founded a fortnightly newspaper, La Solidaridad in Barcelona on February 15,1889. Marcelo H. del Pilar recently arrived from the Philippines. He joined the group and helped prepare the issues. hi Solidaridad was printed in Barcelona from February 15 to October 31, 1889, then in Madrid, where it was printed from November 15, 1889 until its last issue on November 15,1895. From December 15,1889 until its last issue, M. H. del Pilar became the editor, replacing Lopez Jaena. The contributors of La Solidaridad were mostly Filipinos like M. H. del Pilar (Plaridel), Dr. Jose Rizal (Dimas Alang, Laong Loan), Mariano Ponce (Naning, Kalipulako, or Tigbalang), and Antonio Luna (Taga-Ilog). Some foreigners also contributed their articles, like Professor Ferdinand Blumentritt and Dr. Morayta. Many Filipino propagandists turned masons, including Dr. Rizal and M. H. del Pilar because they needed the help of the masons in Spain and in other countries in their fight for reforms. This organization called Freemasonry, consisted of fraternal lodges, which later evolved into social societies subsequently opened to non- masons. In the Philippines, the first masonic lodge was established in Manila in 1856. As a rule, masonic lodges, were not opened to Filipinos. It was in Spain where Filipino expatriates, students, and intellectuals found themselves attracted to the ideals of equality, religious tolerance, fraternity, and liberty espoused by the free and accepted masons. The first Filipino Masonic Lodge called Revolution was founded by Lopez Jaena in Barcelona. This lodge was recognized by the Grande Oriental Espanol headed by Morayta in April 1889. The Revolution did not last long. It ended after Lopez Jaena resigned as Worshipful Master on November 29,1889. The following month, M. H. del Pilar, with the help of Julio Llorente, organized Lodge Solidaridad in Madrid, with the latter as the first Worshipful Master. Grande Oriente Espanol recognized it in May 1890. Lodge Solidaridad eventually prospered that other Filipinos joined it, including Dr. Rizal, Pedro Serrano Laktaw, Baldomero Roxas, Galicano Apacible, and others. Towards the end of 1891, M. H. del Pilar sent Pedro Serrano Laktaw to the Philippines to establish the first masonic lodge in Manila. Thus, the Lodge Nilad was founded on January 6,1892. In one of their meetings, the masons set forth their platform. They wanted a dignified, free and prosperous country with a democratic regime and a genuine and effective autonomy, and a good government. They were asking for reforms. They wanted representation in the Cortes as well as the declaration of the country as a Spanish province, with all the rights and obligations. As of May 1893, the masonic lodges in the country numbered thirty- five, nine of which were in the city of Manila. They also accepted women members. The first woman to be admitted was Rosario Villaruel, who was initiated as a member of the Lodge Walana on July 18, 1893. Other female members were Trinidad Rizal, Romualda Lanuza, Josefa Rizal, Marina Dizon, Sixta Fajardo, Valeriana Legazpi, and Purificacion Leyva. Almost simultaneously with the introduction of masonry in the Philippines, Rizal wrote the constitution of La Liga Filipina (The Philippine League) while living in Hong Kong with the help of Jose Ma. Basa. In Hong Kong, Rizal drafted a proposal to Governor General Eulogio Despujol to establish a Filipino colony in Sabah, Borneo, but the latter refused. Rizal's scheme was meant to help resolve the plight of ejected tenants from Calamba, Laguna. After arriving in Manila on June 26, 1892, Rizal conferred with Governor General Eulogio Despujol to obtain pardon for his family. He met with some Filipinos around the city, then took the train to Malolos, Bulacan; San Fernando and Bacolor, Pampanga; and Tarlac. On the night of July 3, 1892, Rizal founded La Liga Filipina at the residence of Doroteo Ongjunco in llaya St., Tondo, Manila with Ambrosio Salvador as president; Deodato Arellano, secretary; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and Agustin dela Rosa, fiscal. Among those present in the meeting were Pedro Serrano Laktaw (Panday Pira), Domingo Franco (Felipe Leal), Jose A. Ramos (Socorro), Moises Salvador (Araw), Faustino Villaruel (Haw), Numeriano Adriano (Ipil), Apolinario Mabini (Katabay), and Andres Bonifacio {May Pag-asa). La Liga was to be a sort of mutual aid and self-help society, dispensing scholarship funds and legal aid, loaning capital and setting up cooperatives. The league's motto Unus Instar Omnium (one like all) served as an avowal of their ideals. Based in its constitution, the objectives of the Liga were: the unification of the whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous, and homogeneous body; protection in cases of want and necessity; defense against violence and injustice; encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce; and the study and implementation of reforms. The goals of La Liga were to be carried out by the Supreme Council, the Provincial Council, and the Popular Council. Each member of the league had to pay 10 centavos as monthly dues. The members ought to choose a symbolic name. The members became quite active. Bonifacio for one, exerted great efforts to organize chapters in various districts in Manila. Rizal himself caused the circulation of a handbill, Ang Karapatan ng Tao, printed in both Tagalog and Spanish. This was his translation of the French, Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789. This situation alarmed the Spanish authorities. On July 6, 1892, Rizal was secretly arrested by order of Governor General Despujol and subsequently imprisoned at Fort Santiago. The following day, the governor general ordered the deportation of Rizal to Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte as punishment for his allegedly subversive materials. 27. The Katipunan Some of the members of the La Liga Filipina found out that peaceful agitation for reforms was not enough. This time, they opted for thr country's freedom more than anything else. Andres Bonifacio was one of them. He did not join the Los Compromisarios or Cuerpo de Compromisarios led by Domingo Franco. This faction pledged to continue supporting the Propaganda Movement in Spain. The radical ones led by Bonifacio believed that the welfare of the people could' not be achieved by requests for reforms but by an armed revolution. Their goal was transformed from assimilation to separation and then independence. On the night of July 7, 1892, Bonifacio and his friends met secretly at Deodato Arellano's house at No. 72 Azcarraga Street (now Claro M. Recto) near Elcano Street in Tondo, Manila. They decided to form a secret revolutionary society, modeled in part on Masonic Order called Kataastaasan Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Highest and Respected Society of the Sons of the People), otherwise known as K.K.K. or Katipunan, dedicated to national independence through armed revolution. The men, gathered around a flickering table lamp, signed their membership papers with their own blood. It was agreed that the members be recruited by means of the triangle method in which an original member would recruit two members who did not know each other but only knew the original member who took them in. They also decided during the meeting, the payment of an entrance fee of one real fuerte (twenty-five centavos) and a monthly due of medio real (about twelve centavos). The triangle method was abolished in December 1892 after it was found out to be too cumbersome. New converts were initiated into the secret society using rites borrowed from the masonry. The neophyte was made to swear to guard the secrets of the society. More than a secret society, the Katipunan was a government itself with a constitution promulgated in 1892, and another constitution replacing the first one in 1894. The central government of the Katipunan was vested in a Kataastaasang Sanggunian (Supreme Council) with the officials aforementioned. In each province, there was a Sangguniang Bayan (Provincial Council), and in each town, a Sangguniang Balangay (Popular Council). The judicial power resided in a secret chamber called Sangguniang Hukuman (Judicial Council). There were three grades of membership in the Katipunan. The first grade called a katipun (associate), wore a black mask at the Katipunan meetings. His password was Anak ng Bayan (Sons of the People). The second grade called kawal (soldier), wore a green mask. His password was i.OM'BUR-ZA. The third gi.ulr tailed bui/um (patriot), wore a red mask. I Us password was Rizal, the honorary president of the Katipunan. During the first election, the following officers of the Supreme Council were chosen: Deodato Arellano - President Andres Bonifacio - Comptroller Ladislao Diwa - Fiscal Teodoro Plata - Secretary Valentin Diaz - Treasurer There were also women members of the Katipunan, but they were not required to sign with their own blood. To be admitted in the women's section, one had to be a wife, daughter, or sister of a Katipunero (male member) to ensure the secrecy of the movement. Among the women members were Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's wife, who was called the Likambini of the Katipunan; Benita Rodriguez, the wife of Katipunero Restituto Javier; and Josefa and Trinidad Rizal, sisters of Dr. Jose Rizal. The women guarded the secret papers and documents of the society. When the Katipunan held a meeting in a certain house, they made it appear that a real social party was going on. Likewise, they were also helping the society by recruiting more members. The women's chapter of the Katipunan was born during the presidency of Roman Basa (second president) in July 1893. Josefa Rizal was elected President of the women's chapter called La Semilla. Bonifacio deposed Arellano as president in a meeting in February 1893 because of the latter's inaction. However, early in 1895, Bonifacio realized that Roman Basa was as ineffective as Deodato Arellano, that he called a meeting of the society and readily deposed Basa. Bonifacio himself was elected Supremo (President). With the Katipunan's organizational setup, Bonifacio turned his attention to the symbol of its authority. Upon his request, Benita Rodriguez, with the help of Gregoria de Jesus, made a flag, which consisted of a red rectangular piece of cloth with three white K's arranged horizontally at the center. This was the first official flag of the society; however, some members had their flag with three K's arranged in the form of a triangle. Others had one K at the center of the red flag. Some generals of the revolution, likewise, adopted their own designs. Knowing the importance of a primer to teach the members of the society its ideals, Emilio Jacinto prepared one, which he called Kartilla, a word adopted from the Spanish cartilla, which at that time meant a primer for grade school students. (Former UP President Rafael Palma, a revolutionary patriot, noted that Apolinario Mabini wrote the original statutes of the Katipunan's Kartilht .hkI Emilio Jacinto translated it into Tagalog for the benefit of the unschooled members of the Katipunan). The Kartilla consisted of 13 teachings, which the members of the society were expected to observe. The primer constituted the following: I. Life which is not consecrated to a lofty and sacred cause is like a tree without a shadow, if not a poisonous weed. II. A good deed that springs from a desire for personal profit and not from a desire to do good is not kindness. III. True greatness consists in being charitable, in loving one's fellowmen and in adjusting every movement, deed and word to true Reason. IV. All men arc equal, be the color of their skin black or white. One may be superior to another in knowledge, wealth, and beauty, but cannot be superior in being. V. He who is noble prefers honor to personal gains; he who is mean prefers personal profit to honor. VI. To a man with a sense of shame, his word is inviolate. VII. Don't fritter away time; lost riches may be recovered, but time lost will never come again. VIII. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor. IX. An intelligent man is he who is cautious in speech and knows how to keep the secrets that must be guarded. X. In the thorny path of life, man is the guide of his wife and children; if he who guides moves toward evil, they who are guided likewise move toward evil. XI. Think not of woman as a thing merely to while away with time, but as a helper and partner in the hardships of life. Respect her in her weakness, and remember the mother who brought you into this world and who cared for you in your childhood. XII. What you do not want done in your wife, daughter and sister, do not do to the wife, daughter and sister of another. XIII. The nobility of a man does not consist in being a king, nor in the highness of the nose and the whiteness of the skin, nor in being a priest representing God, nor in the exalted position on this earth, but pure and truly noble is he who, though born in the woods, is possessed of an upright character; who is true to his word; who has dignity and honor; who does not oppress and does not help those who oppress; who knows how to look after and love the land of his birth. When these doctrines spread and the Sun of beloved liberty shines with brilliant effulgence on these unhappy isles anil hinds its null rays upon the united people and brothers in everlasting happiness, the lives, labors, and sufferings of those who are gone shall be more than recompensed. (Teodoro Agoncillo, History of the Filipino People, Quezon City: Malaya Books, 1970, p. 181). Bonifacio wrote a decalogue or 10 commandments titled Katungkulang (iagawin tig mga Anak tig Bayan (Duties to be Observed by the Sons of the Country) to lay down the guidelines for good citizenship. This document in manuscript form still exists. The rules include love of God; love of country and one's fellowmen; diligence in work; sharing of one's means with the poor; punishment of scoundrels and traitors; and the guarding of the mandates and aims of the K.K.K. Another step taken by the Katipunan to propagate its teachings was the establishment of a printing press. In 1894, the Katipunan bought an old hand press with the money donated by two patriotic Filipinos from Visayas - Francisco del Castillo and Candido Iban. These two Katipuneros, who came back from Australia in 1895, had one thousand pesos between them for having won in the lottery. The types used in printing were purchased from Isabelo de los Reyes, and many were stolen from the press of the Diario de Manila (Manila Daily) by Filipino employees who were members of the Katipunan. Under Emilio Jacinto's supervision, two patriotic printers, Faustino Duque and Ulpiano Fernandez, printed the Kalayaan, the organ of the Katipunan, to disseminate the ideals of the society. Kalayaan had its first and only issue in January 1896, which carried a false masthead stating that it was being printed in Yokohama with Marcelo H. del Pilar as editor. This was to deceive the Spanish authorities and evade arrest. Published in the Kalayaan was an essay titled "Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog" (What the Filipinos Should Know) attributed to Bonifacio. This composition dealt with the three questions asked of Katipunan applicants: "What were the conditions in the Philippines before Spanish conquest? What is the condition of the country today? What will the Philippines be tomorrow?" Copies of the Kalayaan reached members and possible recruits through the efforts of Macario Sakay and Pio del Pilar as distributors. The Katipuneros were tirelessly recruiting members in Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, and Cavite. The society grew and began to spread into the non-Tagalog provinces. By August 1896, there were thousands of Katipunan members in the arrabales of Manila and some 18,000 in other towns. During the Holy Week of 1895, Bonifacio and some Katipuneros went to the mountains of Montalban in search of a good hideout where they could hold their secret meetings. On April 10, 1895, Bonifacio and his companions including Emilio Jacinto, Restituto Javier, and Guillermo Masangkay entered the Pamitinan Cave (Cave of Bernardo Carpio) on Mount Tapusi in the mountain ranges of San Mateo and Montalban. There they held a secret session leading to the initiation rites of new recruits. After the session, Aurelio Tolentino picked up a piece of charcoal and wrote on the cave wall in Spanish, "Viva La Independencia Filipina!" In the early part of 1895, Bonifacio became the Supremo (head of the Supreme Council). He also occupied this position in the fourth and fifth elections of the Supreme Council, in December 1895 and August 1896, respectively. On June 15, 1896, Dr. Pio Valenzuela, acting as Bonifacio's emissary, sailed for Dapitan to get Rizal's support for the armed revolution. To cover his real mission from Spanish authorities, he brought with him a blind man named Raymundo Mata, who was in need of Dr. Rizal's medical services. Rizal did not agree to the Katipunan's plans of an armed uprising since the people were not ready for it. 28. The Revolution of 1896 By the middle of 1896, as the Katipunan was busy preparing for a revolution, hints about its existence reached the Spanish authorities. On July 5,1896, Manuel Sityar, the Spanish lieutenant of the Civil Guards stationed at Pasig, reported the questionable activities of some Filipinos. On August 13, 1896, Father Agustin Fernandez, Augustinian curate of San Pedro, Makati, wrote to Don Manuel Luengo, the civil governor of Manila, about the evening gatherings in his parish, apparently by men plotting against the Spaniards. The Katipunan was finally discovered on August 19. Teodoro Patino, a member of the Katipunan betrayed the secrecy of it to Father Mariano Gil, an Augustinian parish curate. On the basis of Patino's information, the Spanish authorities acted immediately. The Spanish cazadores (civil guards) began making hundreds of arrests. Many of them died of suffocation while detained at the overcrowded Fort Santiago. Two Katipuneros acting as spies for the governor of Manila told Bonifacio about the discovery. On August 21-22, Bonifacio called for a meeting at the house of Vidal Acab, then to the residence of Apolonio Samson in Kangkong, Caloocan to issue the call to arms. Emilio Jacinto summoned the heads of Katipunan Councils to Kangkong to discuss their measures against the Spanish forces. The next day, August 23, Bonifacio, Jacinto, and other Katipuneros met at Bahay Toro, Pugadlawin, Balintawak, north of Manila and gathered at the residence of Melchora Aquino, known as Tandang Sora. In the mass meeting held in the yard of a son of Melchora Aquino, fhe Katipuneros tore their ccdulus personates (certificates), the symbol of the Filipino vassalage to Spain .it the same time shouting, "Long live the Philippines! Long live the Katipunan!" This event is recorded in history .is the Cry of Pugadlawin or Cry of Balintawak, which proclaimed their defiance to the Spanish government. At Hagdang Bato, Mandaluyong, Bonifacio gave his last manifesto Katipunang Mararahas ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Society of Enraged Sons of the Country) regarding the revolution that would take place in Manila. Bonifacio led his army to attack the polverin (powder depot) in San Juan .it the dawn of Sunday, August 30,1896. This is now known as the Battle of Pinaglabanan. The Spaniards outnumbered the revolutionaries who were not fully armed. Due to heavy casualties, Bonifacio and his surviving men were forced to retreat to Balara. A day earlier, August 29, Melchora Aquino, was arrested by the Guardia Civil at Pasong Putik, Novaliches, and jailed at Bilibid (prison) for giving aid to the Katipuneros. In the afternoon of August 30, Governor General Ramon Blanco, in trying to quell the Philippine Revolution, issued a decree declaring a state of war in Manila and seven Luzon provinces - Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, and Tarlac and placed them under martial law. The decree also provided that those who would surrender within 48 hours after the publication of the decree would be pardoned except the leaders of the Katipunan. •s - Taking advantage of the amnesty provision, some Katipuneros surrendered like Valenzuela. However, the Spanish authorities only subjected them to torture to make them squeal matters about the revolution. After the San Juan del Monte Battle, Bonifacio, Jacinto, and other leaders like Macario Sakay, Apolonio Samson, Faustino Guillermo and General Lucino (alias Payat) set up camp in the hills near Mariquina (now Marikina), San Mateo, and Montalban. More Filipinos joined them. Series of executions by the government began after the proclamation of a state of war. Blanco inaugurated a reign of terror in the belief that this would stop the rebellion. On September 4, four members of the Katipunan were executed at Bagumbayan. On September 12, thirteen were put to death at Plaza de Armas, near the Fort of San Felipe in Cavite and are now remembered as "Los Trece Martires" (The Thirteen Martyrs of Cavite). They were Maximo Inocencio, Luis Aguado, Victoriano Luciano, Hugo Perez, Jose Lallana, Antonio San Agustin, Agapito Conchu, Feliciano Cabuco, Maximo Gregorio, Eugenio Cabezas, Severino Lapidario, Alfonso de Ocampo, and Francisco Osorio. On September 16, 22 prominent residents of Manila were imprisoned at Fort Santiago for alleged involvement in the insurrection. Among them wereTelesforoChuidian, Ambrosio Salvador, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautr i t Juan Luna, Antonio Luna, and Mariano Limjap. The following month, around 150 Filipino citizens were loaded on S.S. Manila bound for Cartagena, Spain. From there, they were taken Fernando Po in Africa to serve as exiles for their alleged involvement in the rebellion. Meanwhile, Rizal was arrested while on his way to Cuba to serve an a doctor for the Spanish army. On November 20, Dr. Jose Rizal appear* I before Colonel Francisco Garcia Olive to answer the charges filed again t him. By December 26, the litigation of Rizal took place before a military court. Two days after, Governor Camilo Polavieja approved the verdii I Convicted of sedition, rebellion, and illicit associations, Rizal was executed by a firing squad at Bagumbayan Field (now Luneta) on December 30,1896, at 7:03 a.m. Eight Filipino soldiers, with eight Spanish soldiers behind them carried out the execution. Such incidents involving detention, deportation, and execution only made the Filipinos more unrelenting to the Spanish government. The more they became determined to continue the struggle. The Katipuneros in Cavite rose in arms on August 31, 1896. They assaulted the tribunal (municipal building) of San Francisco de Malabon. At Cavite el Viejo (now Kawit), the Magdalo troops led by Candido Tria Tirona attacked the enemy garrison. The Magdiwang forces on the other hand, pounded the Spaniards in Noveleta. In the morning of September 5, Emilio Aguinaldo and his men assailed the Spanish troops stationed at Imus under the command of General Eusebio Aguirre. In this battle, the Spaniards lost hundreds of men and 60 guns with ammunition. From that time on, the Cavitenos recognized Aguinaldo as a man of distinguished valor and called him Heneral Miong, no longer Capitan Miong. The Spanish regular army were tremendously defeated at the twin battles of Binakayan and Dalahican in Cavite, fought on November 9-11. Both Magdiwang and Magdalo forces in their respective trenches built by General Edilberto Evangelista (an engineer trained in Belgium) fought furiously against the Spanish army under the personal command of Governor General Blanco. Unfortunately, Candido Tria Tirona, the secretary of war in the Magdalo Council died in the Battle of Binakayan. The citizens of Taal, Lemery, Calaca, and Bayungyungan in Batangas also joined the revolution at the end of October 1896. However, they were dispersed after the Spanish garrison in Taal came to the aid of the besieged towns. At the outbreak of the revolution, the number ot Katipuneros grew, i in December 4, 18%, tin* katipunan members ot Balangay Dimasalang met »it Bigaa (now Pandi and IJalagtas) in the province of Bulacan. They inted to reinforce their operation against the Spaniards and to conduct an election of officials under their newly founded Kakarong Republic. Led l»v Cieneral Eusebio Roque (also known asMaestrong Sebio and Dimabungo), i .uiuto Villanueva, and Casimiro Galvez, around 6,000 men and women r-nlisted themselves as members. I he Spanish government had already known the existence of the Katipunan at Kakarong Real (a.k.a. Kakarong de Sili) because of the armed resistance it had begun against them since August of 1896. On January 1, 1897, the government troops under General Olaguer- Miu rushed to the fortifications of Kakarong and launched a massive assault against the people, including civilians. The revolutionaries, caught by surprise, resisted with ferocious courage but they were overwhelmed by the superior armaments of the enemy. Around 1,100 rebels were killed. I he government forces captured six fortified positions, seven cannons, a ta rt ridge factory, and a large number of firearms. Maestrong Sebio managed to escape his persecutors at first. Ten days later, he was captured and arrested at Bunga Mayor, Bustos. On January 16, at 5:00 in the afternoon, Maestrong Sebio was executed. With the objective of ending the revolution, Governor Polavieja launched an all-out offensive on February 15,1897 in Cavite. On February 17, a Spanish sniper killed General Evangelista in the Battle of Zapote. Two days later, General Lachambre of the Spanish forces captured the town of Silang. General Aguinaldo aided by Generals Vito Belarmino and Artemio Ricarte, mounted a counteroffensive, but failed to get Silang back. On February 25, 1897, the town of Dasmarinas, Cavite, was taken by the Spanish troops led by General Antonio Zabala who also attacked Salitran (barrio of Dasmarinas), which was defended by General Flaviano Yengko. Yengko was mortally wounded in action and died on March 3, 1897 at Imus Military Hospital. Yengko was the youngest general of the Philippine revolution, being younger than General Gregorio del Pilar by one year, two months and seven days. In the bloody battle of Salitran, General Zabala was killed by Yengko's troops. On May 17 of the same year, the Katipuneros led by Francisco del Castillo attacked a Spanish garrison in Aklan. Unfortunately, the leader died in action. His men decided to retreat into the mountains. The amnesty offer of government lured 20 Katipuneros to accept it. Not true to its promise, the government killed 19 of them. The martyrs of Aklan were Ramon Aguirre, Benito Iban, Maximo Mationg, Tomas Briones, Candido Iban, Simplicio Reyes, Domingo dela Cruz, Simeon Inocencio, Canuto Segovia, Valeriano Dalida, Isidro Jimenez, Gabino Sucgang, Claro Delgado, Catalino Mangat, Angelo Fernandez, Gabino Yorisal, Francisco Villorente, Lamberto Mangat, and Valeriano Masinda. 29. Rivalry in the Katipunan In Cavite, there were two Katipunan councils - the Magdalo Council, headed by Baldomero Aguinaldo (Emilio Aguinaldo's cousin), and the Magdiwang Council with Mariano Alvarez (uncle of Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's wife) as president. The capital of Magdiwang Council was Noveleta, then later transferred to San Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias). The other towns under its jurisdiction were Rosario, Tanza, Naic, Ternate, Maragondon, Magallanes, Bailen, Alfonso, Indang, and San Roque. The Magdalo Council had its capital in lmus. The other towns under its jurisdiction were Kawit, Dasmarinas, Silang, Amadeo, Mendez, Nunez, Bacoor, and Carmen. Emilio Aguinaldo first gained popularity after he had beaten a sergeant of the Guardia Civil in a single combat. He even became more renowned after his successful uprising in Kawit (his hometown), then in the Battle of lmus and in the early part of November 1896, he liberated the town of Talisay, Batangas, from the Spanish soldiers. Upon invitation of the Magdiwang Provincial in Cavite, Bonifacio left his hideout in Morong. On December 1,1896, he and his wife, together with his two brothers (Ciriaco and Procopio), General Lucino, and 20 soldiers arrived in Cavite. The Magdalo Council hosted a general assembly of both factions in lmus on December 31, a day after Rizal's execution. Bonifacio conducted the meeting. Among the issues discussed were the establishment of a revolutionary government under the new elected officials and uniting the Magdiwang and Magdalo forces under a single command. The Magdalo faction believed that with the outbreak of revolution, the Katipunan had ceased to be a secret society and therefore should be replaced by a new one. The Magdiwangs insisted that there was no need to create a revolutionary government because the Katipunan was actually a government with a constitution and bylaws recognized by everyone. General Edilberto Evangelista tried to reconcile the two groups by drafting a constitution establishing the Philippine Republic. This constitution was reportedly discussed in the assembly. Due to heated debates arising from the issues, the assembly accomplished nothing definite. Its proceedings ended with the arrival of Josephine Bracken (Dr. Jose Rizal's widow), accompanied by Paciano Rizal. They later agreed to reschedule the joint assembly at a different place. The Second Convention of these two Katipunan factions was held on March 22, 1897 at Tejeros, San Francisco de Malabon, Cavite. The two factions met at an estate-house of the friars, which the rebels had captured earlier. Majority of those who attended were the Magdiwangs. General Aguinaldo and other Magdalo officials were absent because they were defending the Magdalo towns at that time. The session, which started at about two o'clock in the afternoon was presided by Jacinto Lumbreras, a Magdiwang. Severino de las Alas, a Magdiwang, suggested that the convention assembled should resolve whether there should be a new government to replace the Katipunan. Lumbreras called for a recess after this issue led to another heated discussion. As it turned out, the convention upheld the views of the Magdalo Council. The majority wanted a new revolutionary government. This resulted to the election of new officials. Bonifacio presided over the election. Before the casting of votes had taken place, Bonifacio reminded that whoever should get elected in any position should be respected. Elected were as follows: President - Emilio Aguinaldo Vice-President - Mariano Trias Captain General - Artemio Ricarte Director of War - Emiliano Riego de Dios Director of the Interior - Andres Bonifacio Daniel Tirona, a Magdalo, protested Bonifacio's election saying that his position should be occupied by a lawyer. He suggested a Caviteno lawyer, Jose del Rosario, for the post. Bonifacio felt insulted. He demanded Tirona to retract what he had said. But Tirona, instead of offering an apology, tried to leave the scene. This infuriated Bonifacio and made him drew his revolver to shoot Tirona, but Ricarte and others intervened. The people began to leave the hall. Bonifacio angrily declared the election null and void and left the assembly room with his bodyguards. From Pasong Santol, a barrio of Dasmarinas, Aguinaldo went to Tejeros as informed by a special committee headed by Col. Vicente Riego de Dios. Being the new president, he had to take his oath. He was sworn into office inside the Catholic Church of Santa Cruz de Malabon (Tanza) together with other newly elected officials. A day after the Tejeros Assembly, March 23, Bonifacio gathered his followers and drafted a document called Acta de Tejeros, signed by Bonifacio and 44 other plotters. This document rejected the revolutionary government of Aguinaldo on the following grounds: first, the Tejeros Assembly lacks legality; second, there was a Magdalo conspiracy to oust Bonifacio from leadership; third, the election of officials was fraudulent; and fourth, that actual pressure has been brought upon the presidency. Another secret meeting was held on April 19, 1897 at the friar estate house in Naic. Bonifacio and his coconspirators drew up another document called the Naic Military Pact, signed by 41 men, including Bonifacio, Ricarte, Pio del Pilar, and Severino de las Alas. An army corps under the command of General Pio del Pilar was created. While Bonifacio and his companions wen." busy conferring, Major Lazaro Makapagal who was held prisoner downstairs managed to escape and informed President Aguinaldo, who was in bed suffering malaria, about the recent developments. Aguinaldo rose from his sickbed and went to the friar-estate house to confront his conspirators. Seeing that Aguinaldo's soldiers had already surrounded the estate house, Bonifacio and his Magdiwang followers left hurriedly except General Pio del Pilar and General Mariano Noriel who subsequently joined Aguinaldo's troops. President Aguinaldo convoked a revolutionary assembly in Naic. The following matters were taken up: adoption of a new red flag with a white sun of eight rays at the center, a standard uniform for the soldiers - the rayadillo and a set of new rules fixing military ranks and their insignias; and, the reorganization of the revolutionary army. Bonifacio, with his wife Gregoria, his two brothers (Ciriaco and Procopio) and loyal followers fled to Limbon (barrio of Indang). Upon learning of Bonifacio's presence at Limbon and the alleged crimes committed by his soldiers in Indang, Aguinaldo summoned Colonels Agapito Bonzon, Felipe Topacio, and Jose lgnacio Paua to go to Limbon with some troops and arrest Bonifacio and his men. Bonifacio furiously resisted. Ciriaco Bonifacio and two soldiers were killed, while Bonifacio himself was wounded in the left arm and neck. Bonifacio (in a hammock), Gregoria, and the surviving Bonifacio soldiers were taken prisoners and brought to Naic. The case of the Bonifacio brothers evolved quite rapidly after a Council of War headed by General Mariano Noriel was created. The trial begun on May 5, with Placido Martinez as defense attorney for Bonifacio and Teodoro Gonzalez for Procopio. Tragically, the Bonifacio brothers were given the penalty of death the next day The charges were treason, conspiracy to assassinate President Aguinaldo, and bribery. Pio del Pilar testified in the trial of Bonifacio saying that the latter had been forcing officers to join him. As for Severino de las Alas, it was he who made the false charges that the friars bribed Bonifacio to establish the Katipunan and made the Filipinos into fighting a war for which they were poorly armed. He also said that Bonifacio ordered the burning of the convent and church of Indang and that his soldiers had taken by force from the people, carabaos and other animals. He also accused Bonifacio and his men that they were planning to surrender to the Spaniards. Lieutenant Colonel Pedro Giron, turning as state witness, told the Council that Bonifacio gave him an initial payment of 10 pesos to assassinate Aguinaldo but he refused to follow the order. On May 10, 1897, General Noriel ordered Major Lazaro Makapagal to release the Bonifacio brothers from prison. He gave Makapagal a sealed letter with orders to read its details after reaching their destination. Makapagal took four men with him and opened the letter upon the request of Bonifacio. The letter ordered the execution of Andres and his brother Procopio. Included in the letter was a warning that failure to comply with the order would result to severe punishment. Makapagal followed the order and executed them at Mount Nagpatong, Maragondon (according to the National Historical Institute). Makapagal placed a few twigs on the shallow grave of the two brothers. On the same day, the Spanish army attacked Maragondon. Upon Makapagal's return, he found the Filipinos retreating. On May 12, after two days of defending the town, Aguinaldo and his men were compelled to leave. They crossed the mountains to Batangas and aided General Miguel Malvar in a fight against the Spaniards in Talisay. On June 10, they crossed the Pasig River and bivouacked at Mount Puray, Montalban. Two days later, the Morong freedom fighters under General Licerio Geronimo arrived and joined them. Tired of successive combats, General Camilo de Polavieja asked for his relief as governor general. His request was given on April 15,1897, with Fernando Primo de Rivera succeeding his post on April 23. Governor General Rivera issued a decree granting pardon to rebels who would give up their arms and surrender until May 17. Most Filipinos simply ignored this decree. Thereafter, the governor general launched a campaign against the rebels, forcing Aguinaldo and his forces to seek refuge in Batangas. On June 14, the Spanish troops led by Colonel Dujiols attacked the rebel camp at Mount Puray. Aguinaldo and his men resisted. After six hours of bloody fighting, they won over the Spaniards. After the Battle of Mount Puray, President Aguinaldo organized the Department of Central Luzon under the jurisdiction of the revolutionary government. The Department Government was headed by Father Pedro Dandan, canonist of the Manila Cathedral as President with Dr. Anastacio Francisco, Vice-President; Paciano Rizal, Secretary of the Treasury; Cipriano Pacheco, Secretary of War; Teodoro Gonzales, Secretary of the Interior; and Feliciano Jocson as Secretary of Welfare. 30. The Biak-na-Bato Republic President Emilio Aguinaldo and his men headed for Bulacan. Finally on June 24, 1897, they arrived at Biak-na-Bato, San Miguel de Mayumo. From this area, Aguinaldo and his men joined the troops of General Mariano Llanera of Nueva Ecija in assaulting Spaniards stationed in the Central Luzon provinces. With the coming of the rainy season, Primo de Rivera's offensive attacks temporarily ceased. On November 1, the revolutionary leaders met and adopted a constitution titled the Provisional Constitution of the Philippine Republic. It was intended to be effective for two years. It declared that the aim of the revolution was the separation of the Philippines from Spanish monarchy and the formation of an independent state. Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer wrote the provisional constitution, which was based on the Cuban Constitution known as Jimaguayu Constitution. On the same day, the Biak-na-Bato Republic was also inaugurated and the officials were: Emilio Aguinaldo, President; Mariano Trias, Vice- President; Isabelo Artacho, Secretary of the Interior; Antonio Montenegro, Secretary of Foreign Affairs; Baldomero Aguinaldo, Secretary of the Treasury; and Emiliano Riego de Dios, Secretary of War. The struggle between the Spanish government and the Biak-na- Bato Republic had reached a deadlock. Governor General Primo de Rivera sent Pedro Paterno to Biak-na-Bato for peaceful negotiations with the revolutionaries, which began in August and was concluded in December. This agreement known as the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, resulted to the voluntary exile of Aguinaldo and his men to Hong Kong. This pact consisted of three documents. The first two were signed on December 14, and the third on December 15,1897. The first document, called Program, provided that Governor Primo de Rivera would pay 800,000 pesos to those who rose in arms and would let Aguinaldo and his men to retire in voluntary exile to Hong Kong. The second document called Act of Agreement, reiterated the granting of amnesty to those who would lay down their arms and the privilege to move freely in the Philippines and abroad. The third document discussed the question.of indemnity, wherein Spain would pay a total of 1,700,000 pesos, of which 800,000 pesos was to be paid to those who would lay down their arms as mentioned in the first document. The remaining 900,000 pesos was to be distributed among the civilian population as indemnity for the damages created by the war. On December 25, 1897, Aguinaldo with Pedro Paterno and others went to Lingayen, Pangasinan, from where a Spanish merchant steamer was to take them to Hong Kong. Two days after, Aguinaldo and 25 other leaders sailed for Hong Kong on board the steamer Uranus, in compliance with the pact. General Artemio Ricarte stayed behind at Biak-na-Bato to supervise the surrender of arms by the revolutionaries. The Spanish government announced the end of hostilities on January 23, 1898. It proclaimed amnesty two days later; and it gave part of the promised money to the rebels in Hong Kong. However, after the peace pact, neither side fully complied with the terms of the agreement. The government never instituted the expected reforms. Likewise, the Filipinos continued their plan to overthrow the government. There were sporadic uprisings in different parts of the country. On iMarch 7, 1898, the revolutionaries in /ambales besieged the cable station at Bolinao and seized the telegraph line connected to Manila. On March 25, Federico Isabelo Abaya and his men were able to get Candon, llocos Sur, from the Spaniards. Pantaleon Villegas, popularly known as Leon Kilat incited a revolt in Cebu known as Tres de Abril in retaliation of the March 25 incident when the Spaniards massacred many Visayan sailors at Camba Street, Manila. In Central Luzon, General Francisco Makabulos of Tarlac established a provincial revolutionary government with a constitution written by him. The Makabulos Constitution adopted on April 17, 1898, set up this provisional government in Central Luzon to continue in force until a general government for the Republic was established. In Malolos, General Isidoro Torres established his camp to continue the revolutionary spirit. Revolts were also experienced in Bohol, Cebu, Panay, and other islands in the country. Feliciano Jocson, a pharmacist, incited the patriots in Manila to continue the fight against the Spaniards. Aguinaldo and his officers went into exile but did not end the fight to win independence from Spain. On a letter written in Hong Kong dated February 19,1898, Mariano Ponce stated that General Aguinaldo had signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato because under its terms, the Filipino revolutionists could rest and regain their lost strength and then return to combat with renewed vigor. 31. The Spanish-fimerican War (1898) The Spanish-American war, which broke out on April 25,1898, ended on August 12 of the same year. There were factors that contributed to the United States' decision to open hostilities against Spain. These included the Cuban struggle for independence, efforts of the Americans to extend influence overseas, and the sinking of the U.S. warship Maine. Like the Filipinos, the Cubans were fighting against Spain to obtain their independence. Under the leadership of Jose Marti, the Cubans revolted in 1895. The Cuban rebels rejected Spain's offer of autonomy, instead of complete independence. The brutalities committed by the Spanish government in Cuba such as the rounding up of peasant population and placing them in concentration camps were made to suppress local rebellion. Thousands died due to illnesses and limited food provisions. Such cruelties infuriated the American public. The New York Journal and the New York World were among the American newspapers, which published the stories about the alleged atrocities committed by the Spanish government in Cuba. They called for the U.S. government to intervene on the side of the Cubans. This idea won widespread support among American citizens and politicians. This gave rise to the belief of Manifest Destiny, where the United States has the divinely ordained duty to help troubled countries. America's open support for the Cuban revolution and her vast investments in Cuba's sugar industry led her involvement in this Spanish colony. Spain could not oppose the United States, a rising powerful nation, in the face of the Cuban Revolution. A letter of Spain's Ambassador to the United States (Dupuy de Lome) to a friend in Havana, Cuba, was stolen and published in a New York periodical. It stated that US President William McKinley was a weakling and a low politician. This created a national feeling among the Americans to support the war against Spain. The replacement of the Spanish ambassador could not, however, relieve the aggrieved American populace. The provocation was heated up after the mysterious blowing up of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana, Cuba, which was sent by the U.S. consul general in the city to protect American citizens and property. This incident happened on the night of February 18, 1898. It reportedly resulted in the death of 266 officers and men. (In 1976, based on U.S. Navy Study, the findings suggested that the explosion could have been caused by spontaneous combustion in the ship's coal bunkers). The American authorities viewed the assault in Havana as an act of treachery. US newspapers blamed Spain for the tragedy and evoked American sympathy with this cry, "Remember the Maine." On April 19, the U.S. Congress passed several resolutions demanding the pull out of Spanish forces in Cuba. To save her honor, Spain declared war against the United States on April 24. The next day, the U.S. Congress declared war on Spain and thus, the Spanish-American war began. Past noon of April 25, Commodore George Dewey, commander of the Asiatic Squadron received a cable from the Secretary of Navy stating that war has commenced between the United States and Spain. Dewey was instructed to proceed against the Spanish fleet anchored in Manila Bay. An often-debated question in the U.S. during those times was why a U.S. naval squadron should be sent to the Philippines in order to end Spanish rule in Cuba. This has been ascribed to the growing spirit of American imperialism induced by supporters of Manifest Destiny, which in like manner encountered considerable opposition in the United States. The conclusion of the Spanish-American war, which resulted to the victory of the Americans, paved the way to the end of the Spanish colonial rule and the rise of the United States as a global power. 32. Filipino-American Collaboration At the time of the Spanish-American war, General Emilio Aguinaldo was in Singapore where he had negotiations with the American consul general, Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, regarding the Americans' offer to support the Philippines in fighting the Spaniards. The United States would then recognize Philippine independence after the defeat of Spain. Pratt advised Aguinaldo to meet with Commodore Dewey who was then based in Hong Kong, if he were to join the latter should he sail for the Philippines. General Aguinaldo rushed to Hong Kong but missed Commodore Dewey who had already sailed to Manila to destroy the Spanish fleet. Dewey proceeded at once to Manila with his fleet consisting of four armored cruises - Olympia, Baltimore, Boston, and Raleigh and two gunboats - Concord and Petrel The Battle of Manila Bay began on May 1,1898 at 5:40 a.m. and ended at noon. Admiral Patricio Montojo of the Spanish forces incurred heavy casualties with 160 of his men killed and 210 wounded. The Spanish forces consisting of 12 ships, including the flagship Reina Castilla were subdued. The U.S. naval squadron had no fatal casualties. None of the ships was heavily damaged. This battle made Dewey an instant hero. The Congress promoted him to rear admiral and later admiral. However, the U.S. naval squadron could not attempt to occupy Manila in the absence of ground troops, which did not arrive until about three months later. On news of Dewey's victory, ships from Britain, France, Japan, and Germany began to arrive in the Manila Bay area. They had recently obtained concessions from China for naval bases and designated commercial spheres of interest. At that time, Germany had sent her warships to protect the interests of her nationals in the Philippines. The German fleet of eight warships led by Admiral Von Diedrichs was especially aggressive. The fleet acted provocatively by cutting in front of American ships. They supplied the city with flour and other products, ignoring the American economic blockade on the Spaniards in the city. This angered Dewey. He sent an ultimatum to Von Diedrichs to stop it or else fight. Captain Edward Chichester of the English fleet came to support Dewey. Von Diedrichs, fearing to risk battle with the combined Anglo- American fleets, ended his hostile activities. Upon the advice of the Hong Kong junta, General Aguinaldo left on board the McCulloch (others say McCullough), Dewey's dispatch vessel, and arrived in Cavite on May 19, 1898. He reassumed command of rebel forces. His first act upon his return was his proclamation on May 21, urging the people to rise in arms and join the Americans in a common struggle against the Spaniards. On May 24, 1898, General Aguinaldo established a dictatorial government, with him as the dictator, upon the advice of Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista. Aguinaldo established a new government to revoke the authority of the Biak-na-Bato Republic and unite the revolutionary forces. At that time, a dictatorship was necessary to carry out the war successfully. This government was temporary and was to last only until a republic could have been established. On May 28, the Consultative Assembly instituted by Governor General Basilio Augustin met for the first time. But the Filipinos did not like to settle for the projected reforms. They clamored for total independence. On the same day, Aguinaldo's new army repulsed the Spanish marines at Alapan, a barrio in Imus, Cavite. The Philippine Flag (The Sun and Stars Flag) was first unfurled in the Battle of Alapan. This initial success inspired other people to relive the revolutionary spirit. During the subsequent days, the Spanish forces were routed in Bataan, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas (now Quezon), and other provinces. The capture of Manila was the principal objective of General Aguinaldo. He and his troops commanded by General Gregorio del Pilar, Pio del Pilar, Artemio Ricarte, and Mariano Noriel, among others, surrounded the city. Dewey's squadron dominated the bay and thus, the Spaniards were trapped within the city walls. Aguinaldo's men had cut off the supply of foodstuffs and potable water in the city. The populace suffered terribly during the siege. Aguinaldo offered Governor General Augustin terms for an honorable surrender but the latter rejected him. Dewey demanded the surrender of Manila on August 7. Consequently, the Spanish governor general honorably conceded. Study Guides A. Terms/Concepts to Understand Nationalism Liberal ideas Racial prejudice Secularization Manifest destiny B. Questions to Answer 1. What were the common grievances of the Filipinos against the Spanish colonial administration? 2. Why did the early Filipino revolts fail to liberate the country from the Spaniards? 3. What were the efforts of the Filipino propagandists to achieve peaceful reforms? 4. When is a revolution justifiable? 5. Describe the organizational structure of the Katipunan. 6. Who could be a better revolutionary leader, Andres Bonifacio or Emilio Aguinaldo? 7. What caused the Filipino-American collaboration against the Spaniards? Chapter VI The Birth of a Nation I. Proclamation of the Philippine Independence The struggle for independence against Spain continued in many provinces, particularly after the news of General Emilio Aguinaldo's return to the Philippines. In anticipation of the ultimate triumph of rebel armies, on June 12,1898, between four and five in the afternoon, General Aguinaldo before a huge crowd proclaimed the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite. Finally, after 333 years of Spanish domination, the Philippines obtained her independence. General Aguinaldo guided the Philippine revolution to its end. The Sun and Stars flag was officially unfurled at the Aguinaldo's mansion as the Philippine National March was played in public. Dona Marcela Marino Agoncillo, assisted by her daughter Lorenza and Mrs. Delfina Herbosa de Nati vidad (niece of Dr. Rizal) had sewn the flag in Hong Kong. General Aguinaldo made its design. The flag was made of silk with a white triangle at the left containing a sunburst of eight rays at the center, a five-pointed star at each angle of the triangle, an upper stripe of dark blue and lower stripe of red. The national anthem titled, Marcha National Filipina (formerly Marcha Filipina Magdalo, named after Aguinaldo's nom de guerre and his Katipunan faction) composed by Julian Felipe, was played by the town band of San Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias) whose members had learned the music just a day before the occasion (at present, Republic Act 8491 provides the rules and guidelines on the proper display and use of the Philippine flag, as well as the singing of the National Anthem and the prohibited acts on its use). In 1896, Andres Bonifacio favored Julio Nakpil's Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan to be the himno national (national hymn) of the revolution. Since Bonifacio lost his leadership to Aguinaldo, another hymn was preferred. It was on June 5,1898 when Julian Felipe went to Aguinaldo, handling a letter of introduction from Gen. Mariano Trias. Felipe was then asked to compose a march to be played for the 1898 Declaration of Independence. On June II, Felipe presented his draft to Aguinaldo and played the march on the piano, in the presence of General Mariano Trias, Baldomero Aguinaldo, and other revolutionary leaders. After some discussion with his generals who were then attending a conference with him, Aguinaldo agreed to accept it as the Marcha National Filipina. The anthem remained without words until toward the end of 1899, the poem in Spanish verses entitled, Filipinas by Jose Palma was adopted as lyrics. The Act of the / declaration of Philippine Independence was solemnly read by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, which he himself wrote. Included in this document was the explanation for the design and color of the flag. The declaration was signed by 98 people with one of them an American - L. M. Johnson, Colonel of Artillery. After the proclamation of Philippine independence, Apolinario Mabini became the adviser of General Aguinaldo. Upon Mabini's advice, Gen. Aguinaldo changed the form of government from dictatorial to revolutionary. Thus, Aguinaldo became the President of the Revolutionary Government. By a decree of June 18,1898, President Aguinaldo organized the municipal and provincial governments. He directed the town chiefs in all provinces to elect members to a Congress from among the residents in these provinces who are noted for their education as well as social position. On August 1, 1898, the first convention of municipal presidents was held in Bacoor, Cavite, capital of the Revolutionary Government. The Declaration of Philippine Independence on June 12 was ratified in this convention. While President Aguinaldo was laying down the foundations of an independent government, troops were coming from the United States to reinforce Dewey's forces. By the end of July 1898, nearly 12,000 American troops under the overall command of Major General Wesley Meritt had arrived from San Francisco. 2. The Incredulous Battle of Manila General Fermin Jaudenes succeeded General Basilio Augustin as governor general of the Philippines. The new governor negotiated the surrender of Manila with an arranged show of resistance to save the prestige of the Spanish government. Governor General Jaudenes, through a Belgian consul, Edouard Andre, secretly told Dewey and Meritt in early August 1898 concerning the capture of Manila. With the end of hostilities, American forces would be occupying the beleaguered city and its harbor. It was a rainy morning on August 13, 1898 when the sham Battle of Manila began after Dewey's naval gun bombarded Fort San Antonio Abad near the Luneta. At about 11:20 a.m., the Spaniards had already raised the flag of surrender. General Greene only noticed the flag at around noontime. The American troops entered the city gates after which they closed it. At around five in the afternoon the terms of capitulation were resolved. The Spanish authorities decided to surrender the Spanish troops and the Filipino volunteers within the Walled City. The Americans agreed to secure the city, including its inhabitants and churches. Although some 12,000 Filipinos had taken part in the siege of Manila, the Americans did not allow them to enter the city and its suburbs, even if unarmed. The Filipino troops deeply resented this American gesture. Many frankly voiced the apprehension that the Americans wished to exercise colonial power in the country. On the other hand, the Spaniards insisted on the exclusion of the Filipinos in the capitulation area. The Americans established a military government in the Philippines, after the surrender of Manila. The Philippines was ruled by the President of the United States in his capacity as commander- in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. On March 2,1901, the military government in the Philippines ended when the United States Congress enacted the Army Appropriations Act. This law carried the Spooner Amendment, which removed from the United States President the final authority to govern the Philippines, instead this power was to be exercised by the United States Congress through the President. After the fall of Manila, General Diego de los Rios became the governor general. He became the last Spanish governor general of the Philippines. On August 28, 1898, he transferred his headquarters to Iloilo and took command of the Spanish forces. But the Visayans led by General Martin Delgado forced Governor de los Rios to leave Iloilo on December 24 for Zamboanga. The next day after the Spanish forces evacuated Iloilo City, Visayan patriots under General Martin Delgado occupied it. On May 19, 1899, the American troops occupied jolo, displacing the Spanish garrison of Governor General de los Rios in Zamboanga. Meanwhile, in Baler (then part of Nueva Ecija, now Aurora), the Spanish soldiers led by Lt. Martin Cerezo, continued to fight for their country, unaware that Spain had lost its fight in the Philippines. Suffering from scarcity of provisions and continuous assaults, the soldiers held fort in the Church of Baler and refused to surrender. Finally on June 2, 1899, 33 Spanish soldiers marched out of tKe church, ending their 337 days of encirclement and siege by superior Filipino forces. The siege of Baler, that highlighted the gallantry of both Filipino and Spanish soldiers, ended on June 30,1899 (now Philippine-Spanish Friendship Day pursuant to Republic Act No. 9187). In November 1899, all Spanish forces were shipped to Spain. The pull out of Spanish military in the Philippines was provided in the Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10,1898. The treaty negotiations were initiated by Spanish and American representatives. The treaty provided for the Spanish withdrawal from Cuba, leaving the island temporarily to America. The Teller Amendment, passed when the U.S. declared war against Spain, prevented the United States from taking Cuba. Spain had to cede the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the United States, which in turn paid Spain the sum of $20 million. The civil and political status of the inhabitants in the ceded territories was to be determined by the U.S. Congress. With their impending defeat from the United States, Spain signed the treaty. US Secretary of State John Hay, in behalf of the US government handed to Spanish commission member Jules Cambon the $20 million sum as payment to Spain for the Philippines. Before the signing ol the Treaty of Paris, President McKinley said he did not know what to do with the Philippines and added that one night he prayed to God to give him guidance. At that time, he was surrounded by men, which constituted pressure groups in the field of business, the military and naval group, and the religious. General Aguinaldo tried to persuade foreign countries to recognize Philippine independence. He sent Felipe Agoncillo, a Filipino patriot- lawyer, together with Sixto Lopez to Paris to ask for the recognition of the revolutionary government. However, Agoncillo was not even permitted to attend the conference in Paris. From there, he went to Washington, where he worked against the ratification of the treaty by the United States Senate. The treaty and the U.S. occupation of the Philippines prompted opposition from among American citizens, including Mark Twain, a writer and satirist; Andrew Carnegie, a business tycoon; and some members of the U.S. Senate. After a heated debate in the U.S. Senate, the treaty was finally ratified on February 6,1899 by a margin of one vote. It was argued that the Philippines would simply fall into the hands of Germany or other countries if U.S. forces left the region since the Filipinos were unprepared to govern themselves. 3. The Malolos Republic Uncertain about the outcome of the forthcoming peace conference in Paris, General Aguinaldo ordered on August 22, 1898 the transfer of the government's seat of power from Bacoor, Cavite, to Malolos, Bulacan and used the convent of the Malolos Cathedral (now Basilica Minore de la Immaculada Conception) as the Palacio Presidential (presidential palace). Aguinaldo refused to acknowledge American control in the country. He had already been preparing the foundation of a republican state. He wanted a government without foreign supervision. A number of Filipinos had shown support for autonomy. On September 15,1898, the Revolutionary Congress was inaugurated at the Barasoain Church in Malolos amidst colorful festivities. Outside the church Banda Pasig played the national anthem. Spectators lined the streets as President Aguinaldo, his advisers and members of the Congress walked to the church where the ceremonies were to be held. The altar of the church was draped for the assembly. General Aguinaldo convoked the constituent assembly in the opening session. He urged the delegates to promulgate a constitution that would be the most glorious expression of the noble aspirations of the Filipino people, a proof that the Filipinos already had the capacity to govern. President Aguinaldo sat with his cabinet facing delegates on both sides of the aisle. The Congress adopted the parliamentary rules of the Spanish Cortes. In the afternoon, the Congress elected the following officers: Pedro Paterno - President Benito Legarda - Vice-President Gregorio Araneta - Secretary Pablo Tecson - Secretary (who replaced Araneta) Pablo Ocampo - Secretary A total of 93 representatives took part in the Congress, 35 of them were directly elected. Many of them were holders of academic degrees from universities in Europe. The president of the Congress himself, Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, was a holder of a bachelor's degree in law from the University of Salamanca and a doctorate degree from the Universidad Central de Madrid. As the delegates converged at Malolos, they made it evident that they wished to enact a constitution and establish a permanent government for the country. The seat of the Revolutionary Congress was fixed at the Barasoain Church. Mabini argued that under the decree of its creation, the Congress was a mere consultative body. It possessed no legislative powers. It was essential for all powers to be vested in one person or entity to ensure swift action. Felipe C. Calderon contended that it was necessary to show that the Philippines was duly constituted as a State in order to strengthen its claim to recognition of its sovereign status. President Aguinaldo upheld Calderon's views, evidently considering Congress to be the authoritative spokesman for the Filipino people and the true reflection of their dreams and aspirations. The committee to draft the constitution was composed of 19 members with Felipe Calderon as the chairman. It studied the three constitutional drafts submitted - the Mabini Plan, the Paterno Plan, and the Calderon Plan. The Mabini Plan was the Constitutional Program of the Philippine Republic. The Paterno Plan was based on the Spanish Constitution of 1868. The Calderon Plan was a constitution based on the constitutions of France, Belgium, Mexico, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Brazil. After a thorough examination and deliberation, the Committee chose the Calderon Plan and submitted it to the Malolos Congress for approval. According to Felipe Calderon, the Committee rejected the Mabini draft because it was based on the Statutes of Universal Masonry, abhorred by the majority of the delegates who were Catholics. However, significantly written in Mabini's draft were the provisions advocating women's rights like the exercise of public office, education in any branch of science or of the arts in public institutions, exercise of a profession or industry, right to vote, and exemption from military service and from personal tax. Calderon mentioned that the Paterno draft was also discarded because it was patterned from the Spanish Constitution of 1868. Other matters were also taken up in the Congress. On September 29, 1898, the Declaration of Philippine Independence made on June 12, 1898 in Kawit was confirmed in special ceremonies. The declaration was not recognized by the United States and Spain since the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the American government in the 1898 Treaty of Paris in consideration for an indemnity for Spanish expenses and assets lost. In the following month, the Congress authorized the Executive to float a domestic loan of 20 million pesos redeemable in 40 years, to support the new government. Discussions on the draft constitution lasted until November 29,1898. Article 5, Title III of the draft became the most debatable. This refers to religion and the separation of Church and State. Tomas del Rosario, one of those who figured prominently in the conference, spoke in favor of the principle of separation of Church and State; while Felipe Calderon, on the contrary position wanted to make Catholicism the state religion. After the members of the Congress voted for it, the result was a tie. The second voting resulted to the separation of Church and State, winning by only one vote given by Pablo Tecson. On whether or not Church and State should be united showed the democratic orientation of the delegates. Though the Malolos Congress formally separated church and state - by the narrowest vote possible - the revolutionary experience did not establish a tradition barring Filipino clergy from politics (Wurfel, 1988:8). A few other amendments was placed in the draft constitution before it was submitted to Aguinaldo for approval. The draft constitution provided for an executive, legislative, and judicial branch of government and the creation of a Permanent Commission acting as a legislative body when the Assembly was not in session. Finally, on January 21, 1899, President Aguinaldo proclaimed the Malolos Constitution as the fundamental law of the land. Then on January 23, the First Philippine Republic was inaugurated amidst festive ceremonies at the Barasoain Church. It was popularly known as the Malolos Republic. Amidst the inaugural rites, President Aguinaldo issued a decree granting pardon to all Spanish prisoners of war, except to members of the Spanish regular army. He also gave the Spaniards as well as other foreigners the right to engage in business within the limits of the Republic. To disseminate the ideals and aspirations of the Republic, publications were made. The Casa Real (Royal House) in Malolos (declared a National Shrine in 1965 by President Diosdado Macapagal by virtue of Executive Act No. 173) became the National Treasury and National Printing Press where the revolutionary organs—La Independencia, El Heraldo de la Revolucion, Kalayaan at Kaibigan ng Bayan—were printed. The official organ of the Republic was El Heraldo de la Revolucion (Herald of the Revolution), with its first issue on September 29,1898, about four months before the emergence of the Republic. In a special issue of the newspaper was the poem 'A1 Heroes Nacional' (To the National Hero), composed by poet laureate Don Cecilio Apostol and the December 20,1898 decree of President Aguinaldo declaring December 30 as Memorial Day to honor Jose Rizal and many other Filipinos who suffered martyrdom. The name of the newspaper was afterwards changed to Heraldo Filipino, then to lndice Oficial, and finally to Gaceta de Filipinas, with its last issue on October 14, 1899. Some Filipinos who wrote articles using their nom de plume for the newspaper were Rafael Palma (Dapit Hapon), Cecilio Apostol (Catullo), Fernando Ma. Guerrero (Fulvio Gil), Epifanio de los Santos (G. Solon), and Salvador V. del Rosario (Juan Tagalo). In the provinces there were many revolutionary newspapers published by patriotic individuals like El Nuevo Dia (The New Day), founded and edited by Sergio Osmena. Its first issue appeared in Cebu on April 16,1900. In 1899 Jose Palma, the 23-year old brother of Rafael Palma and member of La lndependencia, wrote the poem "Filipinas," which was later adapted as the Spanish lyrics of the national anthem of the Philippines, still at war against the Americans. (The English translation of the lyrics were done by Camilo Osias and M. A. Lane, while in 1951 the Tagalog translation was used). For Mabini, true independence would not simply mean liberation from Spain but also educating- the people for autonomy and refraining from colonial mentality. Thus, the Malolos Congress had set up educational institutions. A system of free and compulsory elementary education was provided for by the Malolos Constitution. A college for boys called Burgos Institute was established in Malolos under Enrique Mendiola, with a regular academic course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts and special vocational courses in agriculture, commerce, and surveying. The girls learned their lessons at home under private tutors. They were conferred the degree of Bachelor of Arts after passing the government examination. The Universidad Literaria de Filipinas (at the convent of Barasoain Church) was also established with Joaquin Gonzales as the first president. Gonzales was subsequently, replaced in September 1899 by Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrero. The university offered courses in law, medicine, pharmacy, and notary public. However, its existence was short-lived due to Filipino- American conflict, which resulted to the dispersion of its faculty and students. Military training for officers in the Army of the Republic was offered in the Military Academy of Malolos whose director was Major Manuel Sityar, a former Spanish lieutenant of the Spanish Guardia Civil. Some of its instructors were graduates of the Military Academy of Toledo, Spain like Major Jose Reyes and Major Candido Reyes. President Aguinaldo made efforts to reconcile the new government with the former enemies. The Filipino army in Luzon included a battalion of Igorot lancers and a company of Negrito archers. There were more soldiers than rifles in the armed forces of the Republic. Those without rifles were armed with bolos, bamboo spears, anting-an tings (amulets), and bows and arrows. The Republic has a relatively small navy. It consisted of eight steam launchers captured from the Spaniards and several interisland steamers donated by rich families in Batangas. Filipinas, an inter- island steamer owned by Compania General de Tobaccos became the army flagship. In Mindanao, Spanish colonial rule particularly ended in Butuan, Agusan del Norte with the hoisting of the Philippine flag. Butuan was then the military capital of the province of Surigao. Emissaries of the Revolutionary Government led by Wenceslao Gonzales proclaimed a Philippine Republic in Butuan on January 17,1899. Four flags were hoisted on that day: the tricolor flag of the Philippine Revolution, the white flag of surrender, the national flag of Spain, and the Pontifical flag. These flags were symbols of the forces operating in the Philippines at that time. The Malolos Republic is the first Republic in Asia. The new government has empowered the people to choose their representatives to create laws beneficial for the nation. The decisions of the members of the Congress became the cornerstone of democracy. It has manifested the capability of the Filipinos to govern in the midst of turbulent times. At a time when most of Asia was still under colonial power, the Philippines stood out as a beam of hope. Study Guides Terms/Concepts to Understand Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan Constituent Assembly Dictatorial government Separation of Church and State El Heraldo de la Revolucion Pontifical flag Questions to Answer 1. What is the significance of the proclamation of Philippine Independence in 1898? 2. How was the transition of governance from the Spaniards to the Americans made possible in the Philippines? 3. What has transpired in the Malolos Congress, which brought about the establishment of the First Philippine Republic? 4. Explain, why is the Malolos Republic considered in history as the First Philippine Republic and not the Kakarong Republic nor the Biak-na-Bato Republic? Chapter VII The American Rule 1. War of Philippine Independence from the United States At first, President Aguinaldo regarded the United States an ally in the Philippines' road towards independence. Filipino-American relations deteriorated as the American military authorities took over Manila in August 1898. The mandatory evacuation of the Filipino troops in the captured districts of the city dismayed Aguinaldo and his men who joined the battle, thinking that the Americans were on their side. The signing of the Treaty of Paris without consulting the Filipinos heightened the tension. Neither Spain nor the US gave Felipe Agoncillo, Aguinaldo's special envoy, a chance to join the Paris peace talks. Previously in Hong Kong, the Americans offered assistance to Aguinaldo in fighting the common adversary, the Spaniards. However, the negotiations turned out to be tentative in nature. The plan of the new colonizers was becoming more evident as the Americans eventually controlled more areas in the country. There was a popular belief among the supporters of Manifest Destiny that the United States had the God-given right to help oppressed countries and build democratic nations. When US President William McKinley issued his so-called Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation on December 21,1898, he expressly indicated American policy regarding the Philippines, that the US shall exercise sovereignty over the entire archipelago. He argued that the Americans must educate and uplift the conditions of the Filipinos. This ideology was used by the Americans to rationalize their actions in the country. On January 5, 1899, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation and specified that his forces were prepared to fight any American attempt to take over the country. The Filipinos waged a guerrilla warfare. They were supported in their struggle by the local folks. Even if the American flag was publicly displayed and the local elite officials openly acknowledged support to the United States government, the guerrillas continued to receive food supplies, and shelter from the people. Local resistance showed that the Filipinos did not want to be under American rule. Suspicion and bitter feelings were growing between the American soldiers and the Filipino dissidents. Still, the Americans occupied the Philippines. On January 20, 1899, President McKinley appointed the First Philippine Corrtmission to make recommendations in the administration of the country. This commission headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman, issued a proclamation on April 4, 1899, declaring the establishment of American sovereignty in the Philippines in the midst of the Philip pine-American war, which broke out months ago. Hostilities began on the night of February 4, 1899 at about 9 p.m. An American soldier named Private Robert Willie Grayson of the First Nebraska volunteers with two other members of the U.S. sentry shot and killed a man who happens to be a Filipino soldier. The man together with three other Filipino soldiers were already entering into American lines on their way home. The American soldiers tried to stop them and shouted, "Halt!" twice. Unfamiliar with the word halt the Filipino shouted "Halto!" Thinking that the Filipino soldier was making fun of them, the American soldiers fired on the Filipino soldiers who were caught unprepared. The site of the first shot of the Philippine-American war, called Philippine Insurrection by the Americans is in Silencio corner Sociego St. in Sta. Mesa, Manila. (This is pursuant to National Historical Institute Board Resolution 07 s.2003, 'Authorizing the Transfer of the Historical Marker for the Site of the First Shot of the Philippine-American War from San Juan Bridge to Silencio Corner Sociego St., Sta. Mesa, Manila' after a thorough deliberation on the position of Dr. Benito Legarda). News reached the United States that the Filipinos were the ones who started hostilities. The Americans viewed the fighting as an insurrection. The next day, Sunday, General Arthur MacArthur issued his order to advance against the Filipino troops without investigating the shooting incident. Aguinaldo tried to avoid war. He sent an emissary to inform Governor General Elwell Otis that the firing on their side had been against his order. Governor General Otis answered that since the fighting had begun, it must go on to the grim end. On the same day, Aguinaldo issued a declaration informing the Filipino people that they were now at war. This turned out to be the seven-year Philippine- American War (1899-1906). Because of their advanced preparations and firearms, the American troops captured Rizal Province, La Loma, and Kalookan (now Caloocan City). The Muslims, uncertain of both Christian Filipinos and Americans opted to remain neutral. They signified their non- involvement in the Filipino-American war. The Americans knew that the Filipino Muslims in Mindanao had not been completely subjugated by the Spaniards. General John C. Bates tried to win the friendship of the Muslims by negotiating with them on the basis of equality. On August 20, 1899, John Bates and Sultan Jamalul Kiram II of Sulu with three datus signed the Bates Treaty. This treaty provided that the rights and dignities of the sultan and his datus shall be respected. Likewise, the Muslims shall not be interfered with on account of their religion. Nevertheless, the Muslim province remained under American military rule until 1914. Schools that taught non-Muslim curriculum were established. The United States, seen as a challenge to Islam, intensified armed resistance in the region. Panglima Hasan led a rebellion against the American authorities. His fight for freedom ended on March 4,1904. In the suburbs of Manila, the American fleet started bombarding the Filipino tort north of San Juan del Monte on February 5, 1899. In the afternoon of that day, a fierce battle in La Loma, near the Chinese cemetery ensued. Major Jose Torres Bugallon, one of General Antonio Luna's gallant officers, fell mortally wounded. After capturing La Loma, General Mac Arthur headed for Caloocan. In Caloocan, a fierce battle followed, with the Americans once again victorious. Undismayed by his defeat, General Antonio Luna (younger brother of Juan Luna) prepared for a plan for the recapture of Manila by burning American occupied houses in Tondo and Binondo. This took place on February 22, Washington's birthday (an American national holiday). American fire brigades rushed to the area and fought the flames. They repulsed Luna's men with heavy losses. Luna then retreated to Polo where he established his headquarters. In late February, reinforcement arrived from the United States. The American troops under General Mac Arthur began their offensive north of the city. They wanted to capture Malolos, capital of the Philippine Republic. Luna resumed his command by building his position at the junction of Rio Grande and Bagbag Rivers, just outside Calumpit. The Filipinos fought with fierce valor near Malinta. Colonel Harry O. Egbert of the 22 nd U.S. Infantry died in action. Fighting as they retreated, the Filipinos burned Polo and Meycauayan in order to delay the enemy advance. On March 30, the American army was already in Malolos. By this time, the Aguinaldo government had evacuated Malolos and established its headquarters in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. General MacArthur wanted to pursue Aguinaldo but Governor General Elwell Otis ordered him to rest in Malolos. On March 31, General MacArthur captured Malolos. The Filipino troops, although insufficiently armed and inadequately fed continued fighting. In Quingua (now Plaridel), on April 23, the American cavalry under Major Bell suffered heavy losses under General Gregorio del Pilar. In this battle, Colonel John Stotsenberg was killed. General MacArthur continued his drive northward. The fierce battle of Bagbag River in Calumpit ensued for three days. On April 25, Calumpit fell into American hands. General Gregorio del Pilar and his troops were left to defend the Filipino lines since General Luna and his men, had already left for Pampanga at the height of the battle to see what had happened to the reinforcement troops being asked from General Tomas Mascanit Whi n I una returned to C'alumpit, the Americans had already succeeds in penetrating the Filipino defensive lines. It was on March 6, 1899 that Apolinario Mabini, in his capacity ni head of the Cabinet and minister of foreign affairs met with the Schurman Commission and requested for a temporary cease-fire but was refused. I le issued a manifesto dated April 15,1899 in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija urging his countrymen to continue the struggle for independence. Unlike him, flu- members of the Filipino Assembly (formerly Congress) like Pedro Paterno, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, and Felipe Buencamino wanted the American offer of autonomy rather than independence. Mabini made another attempt on April 28 by seeking armistice but was again turned down. Since the Assembly knew that Mabini opposed to their views, they persuaded Aguinaldo to remove him from office. A resolution was passed by the Assembly asking Aguinaldo to reject Mabini's stand and to removo him as President of the Cabinet. When Mabini resigned from his post on May 7,1899, President Aguinaldo named Pedro Paterno the head of the new Cabinet. Mabini spent his last years writing articles against the Americans. The Paterno Cabinet, known as the "P.eace Cabinet" created a Committee headed by Felipe Buencamino to negotiate peace with the Americans. When General Antonio Luna heard this, he blocked the trip of the Committee to Manila and arrested the members. He opposed any attempt to make peace with the colonizers and strongly advocated a fight for independence. His dreadful temper won him enemies. His plan to recapture Manila was supposed to be carried out together with the Kawit Company, Aguinaldo's bodyguards. Due to the latter's lack of cooperation, Luna recommended to Aguinaldo that the Kawit Company be disarmed for military insubordination. General Luna met his tragic end in the hands of his fellow patriots. Early in June 1899, he received a telegram from Aguinaldo asking him to go to Cabanatuan. He left his command in Bayambang, Pangasinan. On June 5 he went to a convent in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija, which served as Aguinaldo's headquarters. He got mad when he did not find Aguinaldo who had already left for San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. After he had heard a rifle shot, General Luna rushed downstairs and cursed the soldiers and then slapped one of them. Pedrong Kastila, a captain from Cavite drew his bolo and hacked him. Seeing him wounded, the other soldiers stabbed him while others shot him. He received more than forty wounds. His aide-de-camp Colonel Francisco Roman was also killed. The next day, he was buried with full military honors on Aguinaldo's orders. Severino de las Alas, the Secretary of the Interior in his circular informed the provincial chiefs of Luna's death and said that it was caused by Luna's insulting and assaulting of the President's bodyguards and the Hta of Luna to take over the presidency from Aguinaldo. After Luna's ^Bith, some demoralization set in. Many officers began to surrender to the Americans. Aguinaldo's army gradually broke up with one defeat after Bpiotiicr on the battlefields. By November 12, 1899, the regular army was dissolved by Aguinaldo. He formed guerrilla units instead, to carry on the War. The capture of Aguinaldo was one of the priorities of the Americans. They mounted a full-scale offensive on October 12,1899. From Cabanatuan, Aguinaldo moved his government to Tarlac, then to Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya and then to Bayambang, Pangasinan. With his wife, son, mother, Sister, and some members of the Cabinet, he boarded the train on the night off November 13 bound for Calasiao, with the Americans still finding ways to trap him. In order to elude the American forces, Aguinaldo and his forces proceeded to the Cordillera mountain range. In Candon, Ilocos Sur, Aguinaldo and his troops went east and crossed the Ilocos range. This passageway to the Cordillera was Tirad Pass. Del Pilar saw the advantageous terrain of the Tirad Pass. This could shield the Filipino troops. From atop Mt. Tirad, which could provide view of pursuing Americans, Del Pilar and with 60 riflemen were given the mission of defending the pass. They stood as guards to intercept the American soldiers and to give Aguinaldo sufficient time to escape. In the morning of December 2, 1899, Major Peyton G. March and about 300 American troopers stormed the Pass, but were repulsed by Del Pilar's men. The Americans had not so far located the exact position of the Filipinos. Tirad was 4,500 feet high. Through Januario Galut, an Igorot guide of the Americans, the secret trail to the top from the rear was known. In the midst of the combat, General del Pilar, was hit with a bullet that passed through his neck. Only eight men escaped alive to relate the tragic news to Aguinaldo. After the Battle of Tirad Pass, which took six hours, the American authorities lost track of Aguinaldo until Cecilio Segismundo, Aguinaldo's messenger fell into the hands of General Frederick Funston, stationed in Nueva Ecija. He was carrying important letters to Baldomero Aguinaldo, General Urbano Lacuna, and other guerrilla leaders. The dispatch to Baldomero Aguinaldo directed the sending of reinforcement to Palanan, Isabela. This gave Funston a clue to the whereabouts of Aguinaldo. The Americans perceived conquest of Filipinos as dependent on the fall of the Aguinaldo government. With the approval of General MacArthur, who had succeeded Otis as military governor, Funston employed 80 Macabebe scouts, two former officers of Aguinaldo (Lazaro Segovia and Hilario Tal Placido), three Tagalog natives, and four other American officers for the capture of Aguinaldo. Pretending to be the reinforcement with five American prisoners, tin Macabebe scouts were able to enter Aguinaldo's camp. Aguinaldo and I us men met them and even gave them food. At a given signal, the Macabebi"* 1 suddenly opened fire. Tal Placido, a fat, powerful man grabbed Aguinaldo ] from behind. General Funston and four other American officers entered the ; room and arrested him in the name of the United States. Aguinaldo was taken aboard the Vicksburg and brought to Manila General Mac Arthur graciously received him at the Malacariang Palace \ On April 19,1901, he took the oath of allegiance to the United States and j appealed to all Filipinos to accept the sovereignty of the United States. At the time when some patriotic Filipinos were still fighting for independence, some officials of the revolutionary government had already decided to make peace with the colonizers. The Pacificados (Pacifists) led by Pedro Paterno and Felipe Buencamino founded Asociacioti de Paz. Among the organizers were Cayetano Arellano, Tomas del Rosario, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Leon Ma. Guerrero, Rafael Palma, Justo Lukban, and Pascual Poblete. While Aguinaldo and some of his men were in the highlands of Northern Luzon, the Pacificados (Pacifists) in a meeting on December 23, 1900 renamed the league for peace the Partido Federal (Feder.al Party), with Trinidad Pardo de Tavera as elected president. The Federal Party wanted to make the Philippines a part of the United States and be given rights and privileges extended by the U.S. to other territories becoming eventually a state of the union. The Federalistas were haughtily called Americanistas or pro-Americans by the nationalists. The Filipino civilians, caught between the Americans and the Filipino revolutionaries suffered badly. More than 200,000 Filipinos died during the war, most often by famine and disease. Some Filipinos accepted the offer of amnesty. Notable exceptions were Apolinario Mabini and Macario Sakay. On July 4,1902, President Theodore Roosevelt declared that the Philippine- American War was over. However, local resistance continued. 2. A Government Under America Although the Philippine-American war was still in progress, on March 16,1900 President McKinley appointed the Second Philippine Commission (Taft Commission). He gave the commission the legislative and executive authority to put up a civilian government. On July 4, 1901, the American civil government was proclaimed with Judge William Howard Taft as the first civil governor. Governor Taft exercised both executive and legislative functions because he was the head of the Second Philippine Commission that served as the lawmaking body. His policy, the Philippines for the Filipinos, laid the foundation of a democratic government during his administration. Subsequently, the Second Philippine Commission passed a law establishing a high school system in the country. One of the achievements of the Taft administration was the sale of huge i1 acts of friar lands (410,000 acres) to Filipinos on easy installment terms. In I'>04, the US government paid the Vatican US $7.2 million for these lands held by the religious orders. However, this scheme did not really alleviate ■He plight of Filipino tenants because estate owners bought most of these lands. The first congressional law about the government of the Philippines Kjfev.is the Cooper Act also known as the Philippine Organic Act of 1902. It i n >vided for the extension of the United States Bill of Rights to the Filipinos, i .i lso guaranteed the establishment of an elective Philippine Assembly, after ilir proclamation of complete peace and two years after the publication of census. Governor Taft proclaimed March 2,1903 as Census Day. It was the first official census of the Philippines during the American period. It reported n total Philippine population of 7,635,426. Filipino nationalists organized political parties to counteract the pro- American activities of the Partido Federal. Among these parties were Partido Nacionalista (Nationalist Party), founded by Pascual Poblete in August 1901; Partido Independista (Independence Party), founded by Dr. Pedro A. Paterno; and the Partido Democrata (Democratic Party) founded by Alberto Baretto, Leon Ma. Guerrero, Justo Lukban, and Jose de la Vina in 1902. Partido Democrata like Partido Nacionalista advocated the independence of the country through peaceful means. The Partido Conservador, composed of prominent members of the Spanish community like Macario Adriatico, Francisco Ortigas, and Gregorio Singian, was organized in February 1901. This group recognized American sovereignty in the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris. It advocated for autonomous representative government after peace and order had been restored. Though thousands of Filipinos surrendered as a result of the American peace propaganda, some military commanders refused to lay down their arms. In Samar, General Vicente Lukban resorted to ambushing American soldiers. The brutality of the war was best exemplified by the Balangiga Massacre. This happened in 1901, a few weeks after a company of American soldiers arrived in Balangiga, Samar, took over the affairs of the town and occupied some local huts to protect the inhabitants from the Muslim rebels. On September 28,1901, the American soldiers were attacked by the townsfolk. At 6:30 a.m., the bells of Balangiga were rung, signaling the attack of around 400 men. Enraged at this tactic, General Jacob Smith ordered the massacre of all men and children above ten years of age. He wanted the province of Samar to be turned into a "howling wilderness." Balangiga massacre took place in 1901 -1902. After the end of the bloody campaign, Smith was court-martialed for the cruelties inflicted by his troops and found guilty. They retired him from service. The American forces took the two Balangiga church bells ant I a rare 1557 cannon as war booty and transported them to Wyoming (now being placed in a brick display museum in their home base Fort Russell Wyoming). The fearless General Miguel Malvar continued the fight for Philippine independence. In a manifesto to the Filipino people dated July 31,1901, he urged the continuation of resistance to the American occupation. Gener.il Franklin Bell believed that the entire population of his area of operations in Batangas and Laguna were actively aiding the guerrilla forces of General Malvar. Accordingly, he decided to employ tactics to cause so much general apprehension. The principal measure he used was reconcentration. On April 16,1902 General Malvar surrendered in Lipa, Batangas, two months after the capture of General Lukban in Catubig, Samar. Bell directed his commanders to set up the outer limits of an area around each town chosen as a zone of reconcentration. Before December 25,1901, the people must have moved into this zone with all food supplies they could bring. All property found outside the zone after said date would be confiscated or destroyed by the Americans. Furthermore, after January 1,1902, any man found outside the reconcentration area would be arrested and imprisoned if he could not present a pass. He could either be shot if he attempted to run away. Several other Filipinos refused to conform to the American rule. However, the American authorities were determined to assert sovereignty in the Philippines, as manifested by the anti-nationalist laws imposed on the local inhabitants. These included the Sedition Law, Brigandage Act, Reconcentration Act, and the Flag Law. Subsequently, these anti-nationalist laws were scrapped following the policy of Filipinization in 1916 except the Flag Law, which was repealed in 1919. Flag Law (1907) prohibited the display of the Philippine flag and other symbols used by the resistance against the United States. It was on November 4,1901 when the Second Philippine Commission or Taft Commission passed the Sedition Law, which imposed death penalty or a long prison term on anyone who advocated separation from the United States even by peaceful means. Sedition was defined as action pro- independence, meant to inculcate a spirit of hatred and enmity against the American people and the Government of the United States in the Philippines and to incite the people to open an armed resistance to the constituted authorities. Within this precept, the display of the Philippine flag, the singing of the national anthem, and plays advocating independence were prohibited. Juan Abad's Tanikalang Guinto (Gold Chains) was closed after its jfatl.mgas performance on May 10, 1903. The author was found guilty of wil it km i He was sentenced to two years imprisonment and a fine of US mooo. Iiindi Aco Patay (I Am Not Dead) by Juan Matapang Cruz was closed liin May 8, 1903 at the Teatro Nueva Luna in Malabon. The red sun on a jl; fcatipunan flag that rose behind the stage caused the riot inside the theater. A > i ninken American soldier climbed the stage and tore the scenery apart. ^Hk month later Cruz was arrested and later imprisoned, which he served in full. Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow), a play JSP written by Aurelio Tolentino was also regarded as seditious. It had its last . .how on May 14,1903 at the Teatro Libertad. There were different versions i)! the last scene. In the uncensored version, Inangbayan's (mother country, iIn Philippines) children rise in arms against Malaynatin (Who knows? i eterring to the U.S. Insular government) and Bagong Sibol (newcomer - the United States). In the censored version, Bagong Sibol grants the children i heir freedom. The uncensored version resulted to Tolentino's arrest. He was given life imprisonment in 1905. In 1912, he was pardoned. On November 12, 1902, Governor William H. Taft pushed through the passage of the Brigandage Act or Ley de Bandolerismo, which punished with death or with a prison term of not less than 20 years for members of an armed band. Persons aiding brigands were to be given prison terms of not less than 10 years. On June 1,1903, the Philippine Commission passed the Reconcentration Act, which gave the governor general the power to authorize any provincial governor to reconcentrate in the towns all residents of outlying barrios if ladrones or outlaws operated in these areas. This law was passed to facilitate the arrest of guerrillas who were being protected by the people. The Philippine Constabulary, Philippine Scouts, and members of the United States Army combined to apprehend guerrillas. In September of 1902, the resistance groups that had been operating in Rizal and Bulacan merged into a consolidated movement with General Luciano San Miguel as supreme military commander. Starting with a force of around 150 men armed with a few guns captured from municipal police detachments, San Miguel's group soon attracted new recruits. They raided towns to obtain more weapons. They also captured some Filipino Scouts serving the U.S. Army. The end for San Miguel came on March 28,1903, after some Philippine Scouts discovered his headquarters between Caloocan and Marikina. San Miguel and his force of two hundred men defended themselves. Hit three times, San Miguel nevertheless fought until his last breath. With the death of San Miguel, Faustino Guillermo assumed the leadership of the New Katipunan movement in Rizal and in Bulacan. Soon after, Guillermo was captured. Two men pretended to have defected from the Constabulary force under Captain Keithley. While inside Guillermo's camp, they took Guillermo as prisoner and turned him over to Keithley. At the height of the rebellion in Samar in 1902, Macario Sakay, Julian Montalan, and Cornelio Felizardo organized their resistance forces in the Rizal-Cavite-Laguna-Batangas area by formally establishing the Philippine Republic, or what Sakay referred to as the Tagalog Republic. Sakay claimed that his republic was a continuation of Bonifacio's Katipunan. He was chosen as president with Montalan in charge of military operations. Francisco Carreon, a former councilor of the Katipunan, as the vice-president. Sakay exerted efforts to provide some amenities for the movement. In April 1904, Sakay released a manifesto addressed to all foreign consulates declaring that he and his men were real revolutionaries and not mere brigands as the U.S. government claimed because they had a flag, a government, and a constitution. To obtain security of his followers, Sakay imposed sanctions to uncooperative Filipinos. In one instance, they abducted the family of Mariano Trias, a former general of Aguinaldo. This was a retaliatory move for his collaborationist acts. Trias ordered the arrest of four town presidents suspected of supporting the guerrillas when he became the first civil governor of Cavite. Thereafter the Philippine Constabulary rescued Mrs. Trias and her children. The same way, the government forces nevertheless were not able to suppress the Sakay rebellion. In mid-1905, Governor General Henry C. Ide authorized Dr. Dominador Gomez, a well-known labor leader, to conduct negotiations for the surrender of Sakay and his men. Dr. Gomez went to Tanay and told the rebel leader that his surrender would help restore peace and order in the country, a condition provided by the Cooper Act of 1902 for the establishment of a Philippine Assembly. This assembly would serve as a training ground for self- government, the first step toward independence. Sakay agreed to end his resistance on condition that a general amnesty be given to them, that they be permitted to carry firearms, and that he and his men be allowed to leave the country assured of personal safety. Gomez assured Sakay that his conditions were acceptable to the American government. In July 1906, Sakay left his headquarters in Tanay and went down to Manila. He viewed his surrender as a genuine step towards independence. The people honored him through receptions and banquets. Colonel Harry H. Bandholtz, who had been handling the negotiations with Dr. Gomez, invited Sakay, his principal lieutenants and Dr. Gomez to a party in Cavite. While at the house of Cavite Governor Van Schaik where the party was being held, the Americans and the Philippine Constabulary arrested and disarmed Sakay and his men. Sakay and his principal officers were charged with ladronism or banditry and other crimes such as robbery, rape, kidnapping, and murder. In accordance with the provisions of the Brigandage Act, the court sentenced General Macario L. Sakay and Colonel Lucio de Vega to die by public hanging. The other officers were sentenced to long prison terms. Julian Montalan and Leon Villafuerte were eventually given executive clemency. On September 13, 1907, Sakay and de Vega were taken out of their Bilibid Prison cells. Standing on the death platform in the prison plaza, General Sakay shouted saying that he was not a brigand but a sincere patriot working for Philippine independence. By calling Sakay a bandit, the Americans regarded him a mere criminal. Sakay's resistance became the final chapter in the Philippine-American War. The last revolutionary general to surrender to the Americans was General Simeon Ola, who surrendered to Colonel Bandholtz in Guinobatan, Albay on September 25,1903. Like Malvar, Ola took the oath of allegiance to the United States. They surrendered to the Americans in order to save the people from brutality and hunger. Artemio Ricarte refused to take oath of allegiance to the United States and was exiled in Hong Kong and later in Japan. As the 1907 elections for the First Philippine Assembly approached, the nationalists saw the need for fusion in order to win against the well- organized Partido Nacional Progresista (National Progressive Party), which was formerly the Partido Federal The Partido Nacionalista and Partido Nacional Progresista clashed in the elections of July 30,1907 for 80 seats in the First Philippine Assembly. The Partido Nacionalista advocated immediate and absolute independence. It won a landslide majority. The Philippine Assembly was inaugurated at the Grand Opera House, Manila on October 16, 1907. Sergio Osmena was chosen Speaker of the Assembly while Manuel L. Quezon became the majority floor leader. The first bill passed by the Philippine Assembly was the Gabaldon Law (sponsored by Assemblyman Isauro Gabaldon), which appropriated one million pesos for barrio schools. Pursuant to the Philippine Organic Act of 1902 (also known as Cooper Act), two Filipino resident commissioners represented their countrymen in the U.S. Congress. They were Benito Legarda (1907- 12) and Pablo Ocampo (1907-09). The resident commissioners took part in the debates in Congress in defense of Filipino interest in America but were not given the privilege to vote. On August 19,1916, the U.S. Congress passed the Jones Law, which w.v* signed by President Woodrow Wilson. The Jones Law provided a bicamer.il Philippine legislature with an Upper House called the Senate (with JA members) and a Lower House called the House of Representatives (with 93 members). The law contained a preamble declaring that independence would be granted to the Filipino people as soon as a stable government could be established in the Philippines. The new legislature under the Jones Law was inaugurated on October 26,1916, with Quezon as President of the Senate and Osmena as Speaker ot the House (until 1922, since he became the Senate Pro-tempore after 1922). The Nacionalistas dominated both Houses. The Progresistas had only one seat in the Senate and seven in the House of Representatives. On October 5,1921, Leonard Wood replaced their popular Governor General Francis Burton-Harrison. In his first year of administration, he vetoed 16 bills passed by the legislature, whereas Harrison, in his whole term (1913-21), vetoed only five bills. The heightening tension between Governor Wood and the Filipino leaders came to its climax on July 23,1923, when Senate President Quezon, Senate President Pro-tempore Osmena, and the Filipino Department Secretaries resigned from the Council of State. The incident, known as the "Cabinet Crisis of 1923" happened when Governor Wood governed the country without the cooperation of the legislature. Upon Quezon's advice, Filipino cabinet members resigned from their posts in protest of Governor Wood's handling of the Ray Conley case. Detective Conley of the Manila police was charged with immorality and misconduct in office. Wood created an administrative committee, which later exonerated Conley and recommended his reinstatement. Secretary of Interior, Jose P. Laurel and Mayor of Manila, Ramon Fernandez had earlier resigned because of Wood's interference in the prosecution of Conley. Laurel's resignation incurred political repercussions. Quezon, acting as spokesman of the Filipino members of the Cabinet, accused the governor general of controlling the affairs of the government in utter disregard of the authority the department heads and other officials. In 1926, Governor Wood abolished the Board of Control, which was created by law during Governor Harrison's term to oversee and manage the ownership of stocks of government-owned and controlled corporations. Those institutions included the Manila Railroad Company, the Manila Hotel, and the Philippine National Bank. Governor Wood found himself opposed by Filipino advocates of political autonomy. The dilemma awakened the nationalistic spirit of the people. The Nacionalista and the Democrata Parties joined forces in a common cause against this governor general and to work for the recognition of the country's independence. A coalition called National Supreme Council was formed. Tension ended with the governor general's death while Undergoing surgery in the United States. Governor Wood died on August W, 1927. From 1919 to 1933, there had been 12 Independence Missions sent to the ' United States to campaign for the recognition of Philippine Independence. In December, 1931, the ninth mission popularly called the Os-Rox Mission, Bfter its leader, Senate President pro tempore Sergio Osmena and House Speaker Manuel A. Roxas, brought home the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act. The III K Act divided the Philippine Congress into two opposing camps - the /\ litis and the Pros. The Antis, led by Senate President Quezon, opposed the Act because of its objectionable features while the Pros headed by Senator Osmena and Speaker Roxas upheld it on the ground that it was the best independence measure. The HHC Act provided the granting of Philippine independence after 12 years, but reserving military and naval bases for the United States. Also included in this controversial measure was the control of the currency system and the conduct of foreign affairs by the US President. American goods were allowed free entry into the Philippines. The bill also directed the U.S. to retain land for military and other reservations. In December 1932, Quezon sent a one-man mission (Benigno Aquino) to Washington to discuss his objections. Aquino, however, was won over by Osmena and Roxas to their side. In November 1933, Quezon led the twelfth mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. A new independence measure called Tydings-McDuffie Law was passed and signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 24, 1934. It closely resembled the HHC Act. The law was accepted by the Philippine Legislature. The Tydings-McDuffie Law provided for a 10-year transition period under the Commonwealth of the Philippines, preparatory to the granting of absolute and complete independence on July 4,1946. Also included in the provisions were an annual quota of 50 Filipino immigrants to America; control of the currency, coinage, foreign trade, and foreign relations by America and representation of one Filipino resident commissioner in America and an American High Commissioner in the Philippines. The Tydings-McDuffie Law authorized the Philippine Legislature to call a constitutional convention to draft the Constitution of the Philippines. It is also required that the Constitution be approved by the American president and ratified by the people in a plebiscite. On July 30, 1934, the Convention met in an inaugural session at the hall of the House of Representatives, Legislative Building in Manila. The elected officers were Claro M. Recto, President; Ruberto Montinola and Teodoro Sandiko, First and Second Vice-President, respectively; Narciso Pimentel, Secretary; and Narciso Diokno, Sergeant-At-Arms. The drafting of the (Constitution lasted six months - from July 30, 1934 to February 8,1935. The Constitution was approved by the Convention by M( vote of 177 to 1. Twenty-two members were absent. One member had died^ in August 1934. Tomas Cabili of Lanao cast the dissenting vote. He opposed tint constitution because it did not provide the system of popular election foi* the members of the National Assembly from Lanao. Gregorio Perfecto, fll delegate from Manila, signed the constitution in his own blood, like tin- Katipunan blood compact or pacto de sangre. President Roosevelt approved the Constitution. Then on May I I 1935, the plebiscite for the ratification or rejection of the Constitution wjr< held. For the first time, Filipino women exercised the right of suffrage. The Constitution was overwhelmingly ratified by the people with a total ol 1,213,046 in favor and those against were only 44,963. The first national election under the 1935 Constitution was held on September 17, 1935. The candidates for President and Vice- President were Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio Osmena (Coalition Party); General Emilio Aguinaldo and Raymundo Melliza (National Socialist Party); and Bishop Gregorio Aglipay and Norberto Nabong (Republican Party). Quezon and Osmena were overwhelmingly elected as President and Vice-President respectively by majority vote. 3. The American Legacy After the victory of the Americans against the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila on May 1, 1898, the US military reinforcement grew in number. The United States in fact, sent its top generals to the Philippines, including General John "Blackjack" Pershing who urged the Colt gun factory to manufacture the famous Colt .45 caliber automatic revolver. This kind of weapon was used against the Muslim warriors in battle. Veterans of the Indian wars were also sent to the country. Among them were General Elwell Otis and General Henry W. Lawton, (for whom a street and a plaza were named respectively). Some of the American soldiers helped in building roads. The rest of them staffed the American public schools. They came to be known as Thomasites, from the name of the U.S. army ship that they boarded on their way to the Philippines. These American teachers, numbering about 540 who arrived in the country on August 21, 1901, established the modern school system. Public elementary education, which provided educational opportunity for all citizens, was financed by government funds. Education was sought to acquire not only theoretical knowledge but also practical skills to meet the essential demands of life. The English language was used to transmit these new ideas in the country. The Americans propagated the use of the English language for better "^^■Btanding with the Filipinos. English became the language of instruction v all schools and became the official language of the government. The first American newspaper to appear in the Philippines was the rUnding Billow, published at irregular intervals on board Dewey's flagship §£)lympia. The first American daily newspaper to be published in Manila Sis the American Soldier, with its first issue dated September 10, 1898. The first Filipino weekly paper in English was the Philippine Herald, founded by Senate President Manuel L. Quezon in 1902. Nationalistic periodicals like El Renacimiento and Muling Pagsilang also circulated. Despite the Sedition Law of 1901, local writers continued criticizing individual Americans committing offenses against Filipinos by using talinghaga or embolism as a literary device to elude detection of censors. In 1908, El Renacimiento attacked the then Secretary of the Interior, Dean Worcester in the article Aves de Rapina (Birds of Prey). Worcester immediately sued the owner and editors of the newspaper for libel. The litigants were .lefeated in court. The newspaper, together with its machinery was sold at auction. Teodoro M. Kalaw, the editor of the newspaper, was imprisoned but later pardoned by Governor General Harrison. Anew generation of Filipino writers in English attracted appreciation from die people. Carlos P. Romulo won the Pulitzer Prize for international reporting in 1942. Jose Garcia Villa was listed among the top short story writers in America in 1932 by Edward O'Brien, a known American anthologist. The period from 1905 to 1930 was the golden age of the zarzuela in the country. Severino Reyes' Walang Sugat (Not Wounded) was one of the most famous Tagalog zarzuela. With the introduction of the Hollywood talkies (talking pictures), the zarzuela gradually vanished as a popular theatrical art. Two Swiss entrepreneurs introduced film shows in Manila in 1897. The film clips showed recent happenings and natural calamities in Europe. Then in 1912, two American entrepreneurs made a film about Jose Rizal's execution. This became a big hit and greatly inspired the making of the first Filipino film in 1919. The credit of being the first Filipino to make a film goes to Jose Nepomuceno, dubbed as the Father of Philippine Movies. Nepomuceno's first movie was based on a highly acclaimed musical play, Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden) by Hermogenes Ilagan and Leon Ignacio. Cartooning began to blossom at the turn of the century after the American colonial government allowed free press to flourish. Artists like George Pineda (1879-1972), who invented the immortal representation of the Filipino - the salakot-wearing slippered Juan de la Cruz, did political cartooning like Jose Perreira (1901-1954), chief cartoonist of the Philippine Free Press magazine from the 1920s to the 1930s. In music, the young generation enthusiastically welcomed American jazz and swing music. However, talented Filipino musicians tried to preserve the country's musical heritage. Nicanor Abelardo, a Bulakeno, became a prominent Filipino composer of kundimans, waltzes, marches, and sonatas for piano and violin. Among his famous compositions are Mutya ng Pasig (Muse of Pasig), Nasaan Ka hog (Where Are You My Love?), and Bituing Marikit (Beautiful Star). Other luminaries in this field were Francisco Santiago, Jovita Fuentes, and Naty Arellano. Santiago became known for his Anak Dalita (Child of Woe) and Madaling Arazv (Dawn). Protestant Christianity was introduced in the country by the Americans. This new religion, which stresses personal salvation through faith, was able to attract a number of new Filipino converts. In 1899, Mr. C. B. Randall, a lay worker, distributed the first bibles in Manila. Bishop James M. Thoburn of the Methodist Episcopal Church of India delivered the first Protestant sermon in the country. Methodism, which began in 1729 at the University of Oxford in England, was brought to the United States before the American Revolution (1775-1783) by migrants from Ireland and England. Other Christian denominations were also allowed to practice their faith. Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) was founded in 1914 by Felix Manalo. The members reject the doctrine of Trinity and argue the duality of Christ's nature. The Seventh-Day Adventists (SDA) bears the Christian Old Testament doctrine of worshipping on the Sabbath (Saturday); Felix Manalo, before founding the Iglesia ni C'risto, was said to have belonged to the SDA. The Jehovah's Witnesses is another fundamentalist group. Like the INC, the Jehovah's Witnesses rejects the concept of the Trinity. During the American occupation in the country, the people were permitted to honor and celebrate the anniversaries of the Filipino national heroes. The country came to commemorate the Bonifacio Day (November 30) and Rizal Day (December 30). America also added some holidays such as Valentine's Day (February 14), Washington Day (February 22), Glorious Fourth (July 4), and Thanksgiving Day (4 th Thursday of November). The Filipino people adopted the American mode of dressing. Men started wearing pants with belts or with suspenders. For casual wear, polo shirts became popular. Coat-and-tie became the typical formal attire. The women began to wear skirts, high-heeled shoes, nylon stockings, artificial eyelashes, make-up, and even perfumes. Mr., Miss, or Madam as salutations became conventional. Women were granted more rights in education, in places of work, and even in politics. Coeducational schools were also instituted. In 1903, Charles M. Swift established the MERALCO (Manila Electric Company). Its original name was Manila Electric Railroad and Lighting C ompany, the first company given the franchise to operate electric cars called tranvia and supply electricity to Manila. Communication likewise improved with the creation of the Philippine Long Distance Telephone by virtue of Act No. 3436 in 1928. On February 17, 1905, the Philippine Constabulary School was established. Later it became the Philippine Military Academy, the first military officers' school in the country. From Intramuros, it was moved to Baguio. In 1910, the Philippine General Hospital (PGH) located at Taft Avenue, Manila was established by the government to attend to indigent patients. The Americans also trained the Filipinos in various physical activities. Outdoor games such as baseball, Softball, calisthenics, football and volleyball, and indoor games like bowling, billiard, table tennis, poker, black jack, and other card games became tremendously popular. The Americans emphasized the importance of sport activities to improve physical fitness and ease tension arising from work. They also inculcated in the minds of the players the notion of sportsmanship. The American era also marked the improvement of infrastructure, transport, and communication facilities as well as community services. Manila and other population centers had modern buildings constructed along American architectural lines resembling Greek or Roman temples with porticoes. The architectural plan for the City of Manila and the Quezon Memorial Circle (with eight main roads encircling from the rotunda) were done by the Americans. It was Daniel Burnham, noted Chicago architect and town planner who designed Baguio City. Filipino sculptors were given remarkable recognition in the middle of the 19 th century. One of the most prominent in die field was Guillermo Tolentino (1890-1976), best known for his masterpiece, the Bonifacio Monument, which is a group sculpture composed of several figures gathered around a central obelisk. The principal figure is Andres Bonifacio, the leader of the Philippine revolution in 1896. Behind him stands Emilio Jacinto. The monument was completed in 1933. The Americans used their stay in the Philippines to teach us their way of life and the principles of democracy. Individual freedom, respect for rights and liberties of the people, free and open elections, and multiple political parties are among the principles found in a democracy. The Americans came and enhanced the knowledge of the Filipinos on democratic ways and institutions. They organized the civil courts, including the Supreme Court with Cayetano Arellano as the first Filipino Chief Justice. Local governments were established in towns and provinces under the control of American troops. The first election under the American flag was conducted on May 7,1899 in Baliuag, Bulacan. It is a fact that the Filipinos had already some idea of a democratic government as proven by the establishment of a republican government in Malolos, Bulacan. However, the First Philippine Republic did not last long having been overthrown in 1899. 4. Philippine Independent Church The Philippine revolution in the late nineteenth century both affected the Church and State. In the second phase of the revolution, which began with Aguinaldo's return from Hong Kong, Governor General Basilio Augustin and Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda commissioned Father Gregorio Aglipay to confer with the revolutionary leaders to bring them back to the Spanish side with a promise of autonomy for the Philippines. On the other hand, Emilio Aguinaldo sent Colonel Luciano San Miguel as his emissary to Aglipay for the purpose of persuading the latter to go to the North to work for the revolutionary cause. Aglipay went North to investigate the condition of the bishopric of Nueva Segovia (Cagayan). Upon his return to Manila to report to Nozaleda, he found Manila besieged by the Americans. He decided to go to Cavite and join Aguinaldo's movement, particularly the Malolos Congress. On October 20,1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree appointing Aglipay as Military Vicar General, making him the religious leader of the revolutionary movement. A day after his appointment, Aglipay issued a letter to the Filipino clergy to form an ecclesiastical council, which would ask the Pope to appoint Filipinos in all Church positions from archbishop to the lowest parish priest. Archbishop Nozaleda, deeply alarmed by Aglipay's decisions charged the latter with usurpation of power. Nozaleda issued his decree excommunicating Aglipay, which took effect on May 5,1899. Returning to the Philippines early in 1901, Isabelo de los Reyes, a newspaperman imprisoned for conspiracy against Spain, campaigned for the establishment of a Filipino Church, the Iglesia Filipina Independiente. The church was a breakaway from the Catholic Church. It was launched in August 1902. In July of the same year, he founded the Union Obrera Democratica (Democratic Labor Union). On August 3,1902, de los Reyes called a meeting of his Democratic Labor Union at the Centro de Bellas Artes and proposed the establishment of a Filipino Church independent of Rome with Fr. Aglipay as the Supreme Bishop. The proposal was accepted and thus, the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Philippine Independent Church) was founded. In a conference with the Jesuits, Fr. Aglipay made his last attempt to prevent a schism in the Church. He did not yet accept the position of a Supreme Bishop in the Philippine Independent Church when he was being interviewed at the Jesuit house in Sta. Ana, Manila. For four days, Fr. Francisco Foradada, a Spaniard, exerted all efforts to win back Aglipay to the Catholic fold although the latter had not yet given up his Catholic faith. On the fifth day, Foradada handed Aglipay a document for his signature, affirming his return to Catholicism. Aglipay wanted an assurance that by signing the document, the problem of the Filipino Catholic priests will be solved, that is, their appointment to the posts formerly held by the Spanish regulars. Foradada in return replied why did he mind so much the Filipino priests considering they are vicious and inefficient. Aglipay felt very offended and he demanded Foradada to withdraw his odious remark. He left the Jesuit house and severed relations with Roman Catholicism. Years later, the Jesuits tried their best to make up with Aglipay. Father Joaquin Vilallonga was chosen to deal with Aglipay but the latter had already made his decision to support the Philippine Independent Church. In September 1902, bishops were consecrated. On January 18,1903 Aglipay was consecrated Supreme Bishop by the bishops of Manila, Cavite, Nueva Ecija, Isabela, Cagayan, Pangasinan, and Abra. Subsequently, more Filipino priests joined the Philippine Independent Church, which became popularly known as Aglipay an Church. According to the Philippine census of 1918, out of a total population of 10 million, close to one and a half million Filipinos were members of the Aglipayan Church. 5. The Colorums Indigenous religious groups mostly thrive in isolated islands and mountainous localities. Some are induced by the power of natural forces, others a mixture of Catholicism, and superstition. The remnants of Hermano Pule's Cofradia de San Jose retreated to the mountains between Tayabas and Laguna. They settled at the mountain of San Cristobal and considered this place their Jerusalem. This group came to be known as colorum, a corruption of the Latin phrase, et saecula saeculorum (world without end) used at Mass to end certain prayers. During the American occupation, the term colorum was used by the authorities to refer to rebel organizations with mystical characteristics.These colorum groups were characterized by religious fanaticism, which was a combination of Catholic devotion, hero- worship and folk-superstition. Members were recruited from the oppressed masses that sought the messiahs for their redemption. Colorum organizations were active in the 1920s. In Leyte and Samar, the Sociedad de la Confianza was formed. The Caballeros de la Sagrada Familia had one thousand followers in Pampanga, Pangasinan, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija. Other colorum groups were established in Tarlac, Rizal, La Union, Batangas, and Surigao. In Tarlac, the colorums worshipped Jose Rizal and Apo Ipe Salvador. They believed that the two leaders would resurrect and save them. Felipe Salvador, otherwise known as Apo Ipe was born in Baliuag, Bulacan on May 26, 1870. When the Katipuneros from Balintawak arrived in Baliuag, Ipe joined them. He was appointed as colonel by Aguinaldo in 1899. When Aguinaldo surrendered to the Americans, he went to the mountains and began his guerrilla operations. Soon, he organized his group and called it Santa Iglesia or Holy Church. Apo Ipe warned his followers that a second deluge would occur and destroy all non-followers and that after the flood, there would be rain of gold and jewels for his followers. The colorums of Tarlac believed that anting-antings made all members invulnerable to the bullets fired by the enemy. In Surigao, the colorum groups were devoted to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Immaculate Heart of Mary, and Jose Rizal. They believed that one day Rizal would return and rule the Philippines. The group grew in number and spread from Surigao to Agusan, Cotabato, Samar, and Leyte. The colorums of Surigao began their uprising by the end of 1923. They killed five Constabulary soldiers and later attacked a Constabulary detachment, which resulted in the death of the provincial commander and 12 soldiers. The government had to suppress the colorum rebellion, which lasted from January to October, 1924. Governor General Leonard Wood, recognizing the patriotic zeal that animated the colorum rebellion, prohibited the display of pictures of Filipino heroes in all public schools in Mindanao. In Nueva Ecija, Pedro Kabola founded a secret society in 1923 called Kapisanan Makabola Makarinag. They intended to assault the municipal building of San Jose and execute all town officials so that independence could be achieved. Subsequently, land would be equally apportioned among the masses and the caciques as well as the Americans would be expelled from the country. But before the appointed date of the attack, the Constabulary troopers were able to discover the plan. Kabola was killed. Hundreds of Kapisanan members were arrested and jailed for conspiracy and sedition. In Pangasinan, an Ilocano named Pedro Calosa began organizing a colorum group in 1929. Members were given ranks ranging from corporal to general and wore colorful red and white uniforms with anting-antings embroidered on them. In January 1931, the colorums decided to attack the town of Tayug, supposed to be the spark of that would ignite the Central Luzon area in a peasant revolution. Armed with knives, bolos, and a few guns, Calosa and his followers marched on Tayug at the night and managed to rout the soldiers. When a Constabulary detachment arrived, the colorum group retreated into the convent. Pedro Calosa escaped but was captured a few days later. In an interview years later, Calosa himself said that many of the colorum members were tenants who had been ejected by hacenderos, or were small farmers deprived of their lands by land grabbers who used their power to advance their personal interests. 6. Land Tenure System During the American colonial rule, the Spanish feudal system was not dismantled. Through the system of land registration that favored the Filipino elite, tenancy became more widespread. The hacienda (estate) system kept the peasants in bondage. The landlord- tenant relations ensued even after the institution of a democratic government. Tenants were either inquilinos (cash tenants) or kasamas (share tenants). The inquilino paid yearly rent for using a piece of land. Aside from this, he was often required to give various services to the hacendero for free. Refusal to work or to contribute to the expenses could mean outright dismissal from the hacienda. It became customary for the children of the tenants to serve the landlord as domestic servants to help their parents pay the interest on debts incurred due to cash advances. The kasama or sharecropper provided the labor on the hacienda where he shared the harvest on a 50-50 basis with his landlord or hacendero, after deducting the expenses incurred in planting and in harvesting. Like the inquilino, he was expected to render personal services to the landowner, at the latter's discretion. Low productivity, due to traditional farming methods, along with cacique (landlord) exploitation insured the tenants a low standard of living. Free trade likewise reinforced the feudal agrarian system of the Spanish regime and twisted the normal development of local industries. The leading families of the Filipino elite joined the free trade system. This system paved the way to multinational corporations. Rich landowners and investment capitalists took control of the economy, laying the groundwork for limited per capita income, inflation, and structural poverty. Dependence upon duty-free, American goods increased the suffering of local producers. In the 1920s to the 1930s, a number of peasant uprisings and labor protests evolved from cases of exploitation and poor living conditions. The Philippines, though a country rich in resources, was unable to sustain the basic needs of the masses. The Filipino leaders, absorbed with much attention on how to gain political autonomy had not fully given efforts to bring about economic independence. Pressing issues like social reform, land ownership, tenancy rights, and the distribution of wealth had been the causes of public discontentment. 7. The First Labor Groups In January 1902, Isabelo de los Reyes organized the first labor union in the Philippines, the Union de Litografos e Impresores de Filipinas. Soon after its founding, the members decided to reorganize themselves into the Union Obrera Democratica (U.O.D.), a federation of smaller unions of printers, lithographers, cigar makers, tailors, and shoemakers, which demanded higher wages and worker's benefits. With its official organ, La Redencion del Obrero, the Union voiced the social demands and nationalistic feelings of the workers. As a result of one of the strikes, Isabelo de los Reyes was imprisoned. A few weeks later, he was pardoned. Dr. Dominador Gomez, who succeeded De los Reyes, led a group of laborers on May 1,1903 in a demonstration before Malacanang. However, Gomez was replaced by Lope K. Santos for the union members distrusted the former's involvement in the surrender of Sakay, which led to his capture. Lope K. Santos, a printer and newspaperman, was the last president of the U.O.D. Under him, the union became known as the Union del Trabajo de Filipinas. Political rivalries had led to its dissolution in 1907. On May 1,1913, Labor Day was first officially celebrated in the country. The labor leaders organized the Congreso Obrero de Filipinas (C.O.F.). This Congress approved resolutions demanding eight-hour labor day, child and women labor laws, and an employer's liability law. Barely four years later, Vicente Sotto established his Asamblea Obrera, which he used to support his candidacy for the House of Representatives. In 1917, Joaquin Balmori founded the Federacion del Trabajo to support the candidates of the Democratic Party. The Congreso Obrero de Filipinas for its part, backed the Nacionalista Party's candidates. In Bulacan, the Union ng Magsasaka was formed in 1917 to fight the evils of tenancy and usury. In 1919, Jacinto Manahan, formed his own group in view of the decline of the original peasant organization. Also in 1919, the Legionarios del Trabajo was formally organized as a result of a strike against the Manila Electric Company. The group pressed a number of nationalistic demands such as protection of Philippine products from foreign competition. Crisanto Evangelista, one of its organizers, later left the association due to the adoption of Masonic initiation rites. In 1924, Evangelista, Domingo Ponce, and Cirilo Bognot formed the Partido Obrero de Filipinas. Its platform showed a strong Marxist influence. Attendance at world conferences and their affiliation with international organizations of the Left, radicalized some labor leaders. In 1927, the C.O.F. affiliated itself with the Red International of Labor Unions. During its convention, subjects such as communism, class struggle, and proletarian internationalism were discussed. The following year, the C.O.F. leaders Evangelista and Bognot attended the Red International of Labor Unions Conference in Moscow. 8. The Communist Party of the Philippines During the 1929 Congress of the Congreso Obrero de Filipinas (C.O.F.), the conservative members clashed with Crisanto Evangelista and his group over the proposals submitted by the latter. Some of the recommendations included the organization of factory committees as a first step toward the formation of industrial unions, the establishment of a workers' political party, the advocacy of class struggle and the condemnation of the Nacionalista and Democrata parties. With the radicals in the minority, Evangelista and his followers walked out and immediately launched the Katipumn ng mga Anak- pawis ng Pilipinas or K. A.P. Evangelista became the elected executive secretary while Manahan, the vice-president, in charge of the peasant movement. Other officers were Jose Hilario, Antonio Ora, Patricio Dionisio, Cirilo Bognot, and H. C. Hao. The K.A.P. wanted unity among workers, peasants, and the exploited masses. It advocated struggle against American imperialism in the Philippines, betterment of living and working conditions, immediate and complete independence of the country, unity among revolutionary movements all over the world, and an establishment of a Soviet system in the Philippines. On November 7, 1930, the Communist Party of the Philippines was formally established with all the officers of the K.A.P. except Hao and Hilario, as members of the first Central Committee of the Philippines. Communist parties have been instituted in some countries in Europe and Asia to establish and maintain the Soviet system. The working class has been designed to dominate the administration of the government. Communism is a concept of society in which the major resources and means of production are communally owned. Theoretically, there would be equal sharing of the benefits of production. This ideology involves the abolition of individual ownership of property. It advocates the revolution of the working masses to overthrow the capitalist society so that a classless society may be achieved. The promises of Communism confounded a number of people. The CPP became more unrelenting after some of its officials were apprehended by the military. Soon after, Antonio Ora, a CPP Central Committee member was arrested in Manila. While Ora was being taken to prison, he died reportedly due to an automobile accident near Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija. The CPP members became skeptical about it. They were thinking that the incident was not purely by chance. As a result, the Communists staged a demonstration on January 25,1931. More than 10 thousand workers joined the funeral march carrying red flags and placards with anti-imperialist slogans. Evangelista, Manahan, Dominador Ambrosio, Guillermo Capadocia, and Alfonso Pangilinan were arrested the following month. Charged with sedition on the basis of the platform actions and demands of the Communist Party, they were found guilty by the Court of First Instance and sentenced to jail. It was on October 26, 1932 when the Supreme Court declared the CPP an illegal organization. 9. Sakdalism Benigno Ramos, leader of a popular movement Sakdal, used to be a Senate clerk. In 1930, he purposely left his job to work against the administration. The immediate cause of his resignation was his involvement in a student picket staged in a Manila high school, which had been provoked by negative remarks made by an American teacher against the Filipino students. A number of Filipino professionals gave their support for the students. Ramos had already been warned by Quezon not to join the protest action but still he declined. Ramos consequently founded Sakdal, a weekly tabloid, which became the vehicle for bitter denunciations of the ruling oligarchy. This tabloid exposed the discontentment of the masses. It also adopted the position that independence is not given but must be taken through the united action of the people. Through its newspaper, the Sakdal movement campaigned against maldistribution of property, excessive taxes, and the concentration of land ownership to a few. Subsequently, Ramos transformed the movement into a political party. In the 1934 election of delegates to the Constitutional Convention, the Sakdalistas desired to have a number of candidates. In campaign meetings and through their paper, the Sakdalistas opposed colonial education in the country, in particular Camilo Osias' grade school "Readers," for their glorification of American culture. They also expressed opinion against American economic control and the military bases. In this election, the Sakdalistas with three candidates for representatives won. With the coalition of the Antis and Pros of the Nacionalista Party for the 1935 National Elections, the Sakdalistas predicted the greater expansion of American economic power. They continued their barrio campaigns to boycott the plebiscite for the Commonwealth Constitution. However, Governor Frank Murphy issued a ruling that any campaign against the plebiscite shall be branded as seditious. As a consequence, many Sakdalistas were arrested. In various parts of the country, perpetuation of feudal and usurious practices, which originated from the Spanish regime, intensified the agony of the peasant masses. On May 2,1935, one hundred fifty peasants armed with bolos and paltiks marched to the municipal hall of San Ildefonso, Bulacan and hauled down the American and Philippine flags, and raised the red Sakdal flag. Other Sakdalistas did the same in Cavite, Rizal, and Laguna. The peasants occupied the town halls and burned American flags in such places as Tanza, and Caridad in Cavite, and Cabuyao and Sta. Rosa in Laguna. Altogether, almost sixty thousand Sakdalistas were involved. On the second day, constabulary troopers suppressed the uprisings in the beleaguered towns. Disorganized and poorly armed, the peasants were in no way equal to the Constabulary detachments dispatched in the centers of the rebellion. Fifty-seven peasants were killed, hundreds were wounded, and around five hundred were imprisoned. Benigno Ramos was in Japan when the revolt broke out. He was then arranging for Japanese support for the Sakdal party. He denied his involvement on the May 2 incident. Disowned by their leader, many peasants withdrew support for Ramos. As a result, Sakdalista influence greatly diminished in the countryside. Study Guides A. Terms/Concepts to Understand Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation Bates Treaty Philippine Commission Brigandage Act Autonomy Sedition Law B. Questions to Answer 1. What were the incidents that precipitated the Filipino- American War in 1899? 2. Why did Apolinario Mabini resign as cabinet member of the Aguinaldo government? Would you agree with his decision? 3. What were the cultural changes brought about by the Americans to the Filipinos? 4. How did the militant groups in the country operate during the American regime? 5. What were the significant American policies that led ,to the recognition of Philippine sovereignty? Chapter VIII Commonwealth Period 1. The Transition The Filipino people opted to continue asserting their right to political independence. A transition government was a precondition given by the United States pursuant to the Tydings-McDuffie Law. Amidst colorful ceremonies, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated on November 15, 1935 at the Legislative Building. The country now had a self-ruling government except in matters of treasury and foreign affairs. Recognition of Philippine independence by the United States was to come in 1945. Some U.S. officials and dignitaries who attended the ceremonies were Vice-President Nance Garner, Speaker Joseph Byrnes of the U.S. House of Representatives, U.S. Secretary of War George Dern, and General Douglas MacArthur. Chief Justice Ramon Avancena of the Supreme Court sworn into office the new state officials, which include President Manuel L. Quezon, Vice-President Sergio Osmena, and the members of the National Assembly. In this occasion, U.S. Secretary Dern proclaimed the existence of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and the termination of the Philippine government established under the Jones Law. Upon assuming office, President Quezon secured the enactment of laws that would improve the conditions of the marginalized society. He readily adopted the policy of social justice, referring to justice to the common tao by improving his condition. The policy measures included the following: the establishment of a Court of Industrial Relations to resolve labor disputes and the promotion of social justice as shown by the Eight-Hour Labor Act and the Minimum Wage Law. Written contracts between landowners and tenants as requisite, as well as the establishment of credit facilities for farmers were also included. Authority given to the President to acquire private lands for resale to farmers was also part of the social justice policy. Considering the problem of national security, the National Assembly enacted Commonwealth Act No. 1, the National Defense Act, which provided for citizens' army. In formulating the Philippine defense system, President Quezon requested and obtained the services of General Douglas MacArthur who became the Field Marshal of the Philippine Army. Filipino-American relations continued in the transition period provided by the Tydings-McDuffie Law. In 1937, Quezon and President Roosevelt agreed to create a joint Philippine-American committee to probe into the economic problems of the Philippines and to recommend a program for economic development. The Joint Preparatory Committee on Philippine Affairs (JPCPA) was established on April 14, 1937. For over a year, conferences were held in Washington, San Francisco and in Manila. In 1938, the JPCPA recommended the grant of political independence to the Philippines on July 4,1946 and the extension of Philippine-American preferential trade to December 31,1960. Growth of agriculture, commerce, and industries also took place in the economy although this may be attributed to a considerable number of foreign capitalists who had investments in the country. The Chinese for one, heavily invested in industries, which included rice production, tobacco, hemp, copra, logging and timber, manufacturing, banking, and real estate. They also controlled a big percent of the retail trade. Together with the Americans, they controlled the country's foreign trade. Aside from the Chinese, the Japanese also invested largely in the country. Prior to Japanese invasion in the country, the Japanese had already penetrated the Philippines for economic reasons. In 1903, when Baguio was chosen as a summer capital, the Americans hired one thousand five hundred Japanese workers to build the zigzag road to that city. After the road was completed, one hundred of them stayed and migrated to Davao to work on American hemp and coconut plantations. By 1907, their leader, Kyosaburo S. Ohta had formed the Ohta Development Company. Soon other Japanese corporations were established. By 1930, the Japanese had practically controlled the deep-sea fishing industry. By 1935, a big percentage of the abaca production in Davao came from the Japanese corporations. They likewise invested in mining, logging, manufacturing, and extractive industries. Thus, prior to the outbreak of World War II, Davao had a big population of Japanese migrants. In these Japanese enterprises, Filipinos were often used as fronts or dummies. Alarmed by this situation, the National Assembly passed the Anti-Dummy Law in May 1939, which punished Filipinos who would allow themselves to be used as fronts by alien businessmen and investors. The government in this manner attempted to secure the utilization of resources by Filipinos. There was also a growing apprehension over the political and social consequences of unchecked immigration of a big number of foreigners, especially the Chinese and the Japanese. Thereupon in May 1940, the Philippine Immigration Law was enacted. The law limited to 500, the number of immigrants permitted annually to enter the country. Civic-minded citizens, supportive of the government's program in enabling Filipinos to engage in retail merchandising, established the National Economic Protectionism Association (NEPA) and the Consumers' Cooperative League of the Philippines. Consequently, Filipino participation in retail trade substantially improved. In accordance to Commonwealth Act No. 184, s. 1936 enacted by the National Assembly, the Institute of National Language was established to make a study of the different Philippine languages for the purpose of evolving and adopting a national language. After a comprehensive study of the country's language condition, the institute recommended to President Quezon the adoption of Tagalog as the basis of the national language. On December 30, 1937, President Quezon proclaimed through Executive Order No. 134 the National Language of the Philippines based on the Tagalog vernacular. The teaching of the National Language in all schools in the country began on June 19,1940. By virtue of Commonwealth Act No. 570, the National Language was declared one of the official languages of the Philippines effective July 4, 1946. The said act also ordered that all textbooks written in the National Language be prepared under the supervision of the Bureau of Education, subject to the approval of the Institute of National Language. (Secretary of Education and Culture Jose E. Romero issued Department Order No. 7 on August 13,1959 mandating Pilipino in referring to the National Language, The Tagalog-based Pilipino remains an official and common national language until the ratification of the 1987 Constitution, which prescribes Filipino as the national language of the Philippines and an official language). Other accomplishments of the Commonwealth Government included the creation of the following new offices: National Economic Council, Census Commission, and the Commission of Mindanao and Sulu. Filipinization of the judiciary from the Supreme Court to the municipal courts was completed. Woman suffrage was finally allowed as shown in the May 14, 1935 plebiscite to ratify the 1935 Constitution. Pursuant to the Public Defenders Act, appointment of public defenders (government lawyers) was made to extend legal services to the people. New chartered cities were also established - Cebu, Iloilo, Bacolod, Davao, Zamboanga, San Pablo, Quezon City, Cavite, and Tagaytay. Three amendments to the 1935 Philippine Constitution were ratified by the national plebiscite on June 18,1940. The amendments included the tenure of the office of the President and Vice-President to four years with reelection for another term. Another legislative revision is the establishment of a bicameral Congress of the Philippines, with the Senate as Upper House and the House of Representatives as Lower House. The creation of an independent Commission on Elections composed of three members to supervise all elections was also part of the revised provision. 2. Decade of Unrest It was in the 1930s when Hitler's troops occupied Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland and invaded Norway, Denmark, France, the Soviet Union, and the rest of Europe. Japan had been at war with Manchuria in 1931 and later invaded China in 1937. In 1940, Japan occupied the northern part of French Indo-China and the following year the whole French colony. America and Britain consequently imposed economic sanctions in Japan. America froze Japanese assets in America to prevent Japan from using these to her advantage. Britain renounced her commercial treaties with Japan. The imperialistic design of Japan in Southeast Asia could not simply be ignored. The Commonwealth government feared that the country would be the next target; thus it tried to lay its groundwork for any contingency. Compulsory military training of able-bodied Filipino youths under the supervision of General Douglas MacArthur was made. In July 1941, the Philippine reserve and regular forces joined forces with the United States Army. This combined military forces known as United States Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) was placed under the command of General MacArthur. The Civilian Emergency Administration was likewise organized. The Philippine National Red Cross conducted practice evacuation drills in Manila and in other towns. The first simulated blackout was conducted in Manila on July 10,1941. In October of the same year, the whole archipelago experienced other simulated blackout. Notwithstanding the diversification and growth of agricultural production, the living conditions of the farmers did not improve. Exorbitant rental fees, arbitrary ejection, and other agrarian problems intensified their agony. Though the previous government assumed control of many religious estates, still many tracts of land were sold to private American entrepreneur and big Filipino landowners. The problems of the peasants were compounded when some influential landowners resorted to a system of landownership characterized by fraudulent resurvey of their estates. Conscious of their common grievances, the peasants formed organizations to realize their objectives. One of these organizations was die Kapisanan Panahoti Na (The Time Has Come), composed of tenants in haciendas in Dinalupihan, Bataan; San Rafael, San Ildefonso, Bigaa, and Polo in Bulacan; San Pedro Tunasan in Laguna; and Lian in Batangas. The members were concerned with the resale of the lands to the tillers. Other peasant organizations were Dumating Na (It Has Come), composed of tenants of Hacienda Buenavista in San Rafael and Oras Na (It is Time) in a Jesuit estate at San Pedro, Laguna. From 1935 to the outbreak of war in 1941, the recognized leader of the peasantry in Central Luzon was Pedro Abad Santos, known as Don Perico. A bar topnotcher and a member of the landed aristocracy, Don Perico was elected in 1917 to the Philippine Assembly. In 1929, he founded his Socialist Party. Regarded as a traitor by his hacendero province-mates, he devoted the remaining years of his life to the cause of the peasants. Under his guidance, the peasants and rural workers conducted many protest actions, from strikes to the burning of rice and cane fields and the carting away of farm produce. 3. Entry of Japanese Imperial Forces The Philippines was still getting used to the American colonial lifestyle when World War II (1939-1945) broke out. The country was drawn into this war as an ally of America. The Japanese assault in the country was meant to cut America's lines of communication in the Pacific as Japan sought to expand her empire in the region. While Admiral K. Nomura was in Washington to present Japan's peace proposals to the American officials, the Japanese forces on December 7, 1941 (Washington time) bombed Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, the main base of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. This resulted to the death of 2,897 men. The Japanese also launched offensive attacks in Malaya, Hong Kong, Guam, Wake Island, Midway Island, and the Philippines. On that tragic day, President Theodore Roosevelt asked the US Congress to declare war, which the latter did with only one dissenting vote. The general offensive plan of the Japanese was to acquire the Dutch and British possessions in Southeast Asia, which include Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). In order to carry the scheme, the Japanese navy and air forces had to destroy the U.S. Pacific Fleet. At the dawn of December 8, 1941 (Philippine time), 10 hours after the attack in Pearl Harbor, the Japanese bombers under the command of General Masaharu Homma, conducted air attacks in various places of the Philippines. They destroyed the air and naval defenses in Davao, Tuguegarao, Baguio, Iba, Tarlac, and Clark Field. Generally, the country had few planes to assault the enemy forces. American planes on the ground were caught by surprise. Davao was bombed twice on December 8. The Japanese were able to land in Batan Island without any opposition. On December 9, the city of Manila experienced its first wartime air raid. Lacking air cover, the American Asiatic Fleet in the Philippines withdrew to Java, Indonesia on December 12, 1941. Capt. Jesus Villamor of the Philippine Air Corps defiantly led a flight of pursuit planes against the Japanese who were then raiding Nichols Field. He was able to destroy an enemy plane in the aerial combat, which took place on December 10. On the same day, the Japanese invaders made their first landing in Aparri and Vigan. Two days later in Legazpi, Albay and on I ember 20, they landed in Davao. Two days later, December 22, the main l.ipanese forces, under the command of Lt. Homma landed in Lingayen, Pangasinan. At the onset of the attacks, civilian structures were burned and crumbled in succeeding explosions. Many were shocked. Bodies littered the ground together with the wounded. Emergency operations were compounded by the evacuation of the civilian casualties to nearby hospitals. On December 14, after the enemy landings in Legazpi, all remaining 14 fortresses were withdrawn to Fort Darwin in Australia for repair service. Some 11 Navy patrol bombers were flown to the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia today) to join the Asiatic fleet. General MacArthur was left with few fighters and observation planes. The landing of General Homma's main force, the 48 th Division in 1 ingayen made General MacArthur finally decide to use the War Plan Orange 3 (WPO-3). This was the master plan later renamed Rainbow 5, which ordered the withdrawal of all island forces to Bataan peninsula, which was considered key to the defense of Manila Bay. This assumed that the Japanese forces would have Luzon as primary target. Delaying action was to be enforced against the enemy forces in Bataan until the arrival of the U.S. reinforcement. It also required the evacuation of all civilians within the area before the entry of troops. The USAFFE officers and men had in mind the U.S. aid while on systematic withdrawal. The enemy bombers were hitting Port Area Manila at the time President Quezon and his group were about to leave. The President was advised by General MacArthur to evacuate to Corregidor Island, strategically located at the entrance of Manila Bay. The presidential party left Manila on December 24,1941. President Quezon, his wife Dona Aurora, his two daughters Maria Aurora and Zenaida, and his son Manuel, Jr. together with Vice-President Sergio Osmena, Chief Justice Jose Abad Santos, Maj. Gen. Basilio J. Valdes, Col. Manuel Nieto, the President's aide and Serapio I). Canceran, the president's private secretary on board S.S. Mayon were able to reach the island fortress. On December 26, General MacArthur declared Manila an open city, wherein the enemy forces may enter the area provided they stop shooting. This would spare the city from further destruction. Immediately, all military i nstallations were removed from Manila. The northern and southern armies of the USAFFE were retreating to Bataan. On December 30, 1941, the second inaugural ceremonies of the C ommonwealth were held outside the Corregidor tunnel. President Quezon took his oath of office as President of the Commonwealth, marking the commencement of his second term. Administering the oath of office to President Quezon and Vice-President Osmena was Chief Justice Jose Abad S.intos. General MacArthur ordered that all troops must have crossed Calumpit Bridge (in Bulacan) by six in the morning of New Year 1942, before their explosives destroy the structure. This was to prevent the enemy from crossing it. By the time the people of the province learned about the blasting they began to prepare for evacuation to the outlying fields. By January 2, 1942, the Japanese forces had already entered Manila. The people of nearby areas left hurriedly. Evacuation became the frequently repeated word as families gathered their portable belongings, stored and preserved food, and went into safer places like the mountainsides for refuge. For many days, the people stayed in evacuation areas. People dug underground shelters for threatening air raids. The bolder ones ventured to return to their respective homes to get provisions they failed to take along with them while fleeing hastily from the invading forces. Almost everywhere there was panic and fear. Many people stayed in air-raid shelters for many days. Others went to the fields, hills and fishponds, mindful of the radio broadcast by the Voice of America in Corregidor that the Japanese soldiers were committing atrocities in areas they have occupied. As the Japanese occupied the towns, their immediate task was to reinstate order in the area. To achieve this, the Japanese employed austere rules to demand obedience from the local inhabitants. Once this was achieved, they worked for the development and procurement of war materials and strategic resources. The Japanese rushed to deliver the immediate needs of their war machinery. Many Filipinos thought that the stay of the Japanese would only take a month or three. The American forces made the Filipino people hope that the invading Japanese forces will be repulsed immediately. With the formation of the Bataan Defense Force (BDF), the North Luzon Forces were deactivated. The BDF established the advance Command Post at Signal Hill near Mt. Samat. The first Main Line of Resistance (MLR) ran 20 miles from Morong to Abucay. The Abucay line stretched across the peninsula to Mauban on the west. For three months, the Filipino-American troops, which numbered around 80,000 (65,000 Filipinos and 15,000 Americans) held out in Bataan against the assault of the enemy forces. Thousands of soldiers and civilians perished due to malnutrition, dysentery, and malaria. In the midst of enemy attacks in the Philippines, President Roosevelt urged President Quezon to flee to the United States since the Japanese could inevitably use him as the leader to rally Filipinos behind Japan. President Quezon and his family left Corregidor for Australia on February 18 on board submarine Swordfish. From there, on board another submarine S.S. Pres. Coolidge, President Quezon sailed for San Francisco, California on April 20,1942. Likewise, General MacArthur on orders of the US President, left Corregidor for Australia on the night of March 11,1942 to assume command of the newly designated Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA). On this day, the USAFFE was deactivated. Constituted was the United States Army Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP) under the command of Major General Jonathan Wain wright. After landing in Australia on March 17,1942, General MacArthur made his promise to the Filipinos, "I came through and I shall return." Major Gen. Wainwright was promoted as Lieutenant General on March 21. He became the Commander of Filipino-American troops, the USAFIP (formerly USAFFE). The U.S. Air Force and other units in the Western sector were able to trim down the Japanese night raiders at the beaches of Mariveles. Gen. Momma's 50-day deadline to take the Philippines had ended. Homma failed to conquer the country in time. He called a halt to offensive action and waited for reinforcement from Tokyo. The 48 th Division was pulled out to invade the Netherlands East Indies. For one and a half months, small military action took place in Bataan. During this period, the Japanese sent propaganda teams with leaflets.from planes and portable speakers, urging the Filipino fighters to surrender. They even played sentimental music and recordings of pleas from loved ones. They asked the Filipino soldiers to desert their American comrades-in- arms, assuring them of safe passage outside the peninsula. But the Filipino soldiers ignored this kind of psychological warfare. As the battle in Bataan went on, more and more civilians were arriving in Hagonoy, Bulacan. Most of the evacuees came from Abucay, Balanga, Pilar, Orion, Limay, Morong, Bagac, and Mariveles. These towns were totally destroyed by war. The exit point from the Bataan peninsula was barrio Camachile in Orion and the nearest point of deliverance was Hagonoy, the closest bayside town from Bataan to Bulacan. The POWs who were able to escape the Death March, sought safety in the hands of some Filipino families. They hid their uniforms to prevent Japanese patrols or sentries from recognizing them as soldiers. Old women pretended to be their mothers or older sisters. The exodus to Hagonoy resulted to an increase of population from around 25,000 to 90,000. The Religious of the Virgin Mary (RVM) based in Hagonoy proved to be very helpful in providing for the needs of the people. This was the only religious congregation that openly assisted the wounded, the hungry, and the orphaned. They placed a number of children under their custody. What they did was not easy, for their selfless service could mean something else to the Japanese that might cost a number of lives among the religious. At the end of March, General Homma finally got the military support he needed. The Japanese brought in reinforcement from Singapore. On April 3, Good Friday (after Singapore surrendered to Japan) the enemy forces launched their final offensive in Bataan. Bombers attacked anything that moved. The main thrust centered on Mt. Samat, where hostilities started from 8 A.M. and lasted until 2 P.M. The forest dimmed with smoke and explosion. The capture of Mt. Samat would give the Japanese a key observation post, which overlooked the whole Bataan peninsula. General Homma pressed hard on this area to deny the Filipino- American forces the chance to regroup and mount a counterattack. However, General Edward P. King managed to pull together the American 31 st Infantry Regiment and the Philippine Scout units. Resistance began to weaken on April 7. The aggressiveness of the enemy forces, the long days in the battlefields and the shortage of food and medicine claimed the lives of many. The next day, conditions worsened and the Bataan defense forces were disintegrating. To prolong the fight would mean the loss of more men. On April 9, around 78,000 men from Bataan under General Edward King surrendered, while the rest headed by Lt. Gen. Wainwright had escaped to Corregidor and to surrounding provinces. General King sent peace feelers to the Japanese. Surrender negotiations were conducted in front of the public school in Lamao. Since General King was not the senior officer in the Philippines, the Japanese refused to recognize the surrender of the whole Bataan force. They accepted the surrender of each unit as they laid down their arms. (Today, a Shrine of Valor was erected in Mt. Samat to commemorate the historic defense of Bataan). The infamous Death March began in Mariveles and Cabcaben on April 10, 1942. The Filipino-American troops were forced at gunpoint to march from Bataan to San Fernando, Pampanga. Some were kicked and beaten. Those wounded had their legs or head wounds bandaged with shirt uniforms. Others were carried on army wool blankets folded in hammocks, tied in bamboo poles, and carried by other comrades. Other soldiers limped on crutches made out of tree branches. Those who were too sickly to walk were left to die. The Japanese army had little provisions for Filipino-American POWs. Around 10,000 lives were claimed by this infamous trail. The POWs reached San Fernando and were billeted in schoolhouses, warehouses, and vacant lots. The next day, the weary marchers were herded like cattle into the boxcars. Close to 100 POWs were huddled in every boxcar, which was supposed to accommodate only 50 people. Many of the weak and exhausted passengers died. The freight train stopped at Capas, Tarlac. From there, they walked seven kilometers more to Camp O'Doruiel, the prison camp. Some 56,000 reached the camp alive on April 15,1942. The camp contained the barracks of the Philippine Army before the Japanese occupied the area. It was actually a group of unfinished structures made of bamboo and cogon grass and fenced with barbed wire. The suffering of the survivors did not end there. Those who managed to stay alive had to endure the dirty surroundings, hunger and diseases, which further reduced their number. In Manila, the people could hear successive bombings directed against the island of Corregidor. General MacArthur had established USAFFE headquarters on this island On December 24, 1941, after he had declared War Plan Orange in effect. After the fall of Bataan, the Japanese pounded the island daily. The Japanese also raised an observation balloon daily to spot Corregidor's gun positions. Even though the enemy constantly assaulted Corregidor, the forces in the island fortress gave downright protection to it. Inside the Malinta Tunnel, a radio station had been established, called the Voice of Freedom. Major Carlos P. Romulo, the prewar editor of the Philippine Herald, headed this station in broadcasting news to men in Bataan and in occupied areas like Manila. Well-known writers like Salvador P. Lopez, Leon Ma. Guerrero, and including Major Romulo prepared the scripts. The Japanese were able to seize a beachhead on May 5. The Americans tried to counterattack but were stopped by Japanese artillery fire and the appearance of Japanese tanks in the area. Should the Japanese forces reach Malinta Tunnel, the noncombatants in the tunnel and the wounded in the hospital would be in great danger. General Wainwright decided to surrender Corregidor and the harbor forts. In the morning of May 6, General Wainwright addressed a message to General Homma through the Voice of Freedom offering his surrender with men directly under him. At noon, the American flag was lowered from the flagpole and replaced with the flag of surrender. Wainwright was taken to Cabcaben, Bataan to meet Homma. Upon learning that Wainwright only offered to surrender the harbor forts, Homma rejected his surrender. The American general explained that he had command only of Corregidor and its satellite islands. He could no longer communicate with General Sharp, who took command of Visayas and Mindanao, because he had no radio facilities. Realizing the hopelessness of his position, at midnight of the same day, Wainwright signed the surrender documents according to Homma's wishes. On May 7, Wainwright was brought to Manila to broadcast a message to General Sharp and the guerrilla leaders in Luzon, saying that he was taking command and ordering them to surrender. American commanders in the Visayas and Mindanao debated on whether the orders were genuine and therefore should be followed or whether they had been forced on Wainwright by the Japanese, making it unlawful. General MacArthur himself radioed General Sharp that Wainwright's surrender was not valid. General MacArthur ordered Sharp to initiate guerrilla operations against the enemy forces. The POWs were brought to Capas. On August 11, 1942, General Wainwright and ranking officers were shipped to Formosa and later to Japan. On Corregidor, the Japanese maintained a reinforced company with about 300 POWs mostly American technicians to restore necessary installations. The battered Filipino and American soldiers submitted to the enemy forces. They received orders to lay down their arms. Life in the prison camp was a grueling sequel to the agony in Bataan. Nevertheless, the strength and will of the Filipino people did not waver even after the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor to the Japanese. Underground guerrilla movements were put into action by Filipino and American soldiers, as well as unyielding civilians in the countryside. Study Guides A. Terms /Concepts to Understand Social justice Anti-Dummy Law National language Official language Rainbow 5 POWs Death March Religious us of the Virgin Mary B. Questions to Answer 1. How did President Manuel L. Quezon implement the Social justice Program under his administration? 2. Why is there a need for a national language? 3. What caused the Japanese forces to invade the Philippines during the Pacific War? 4. Discuss the gruesome picture of the Philippine archipelago at the onset of World War II. 5. Do you think the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor was necessary at that time? Chapter IX The Japanese Occupation 1. Japanese Martial Law By early 1942, the Philippines, Burma, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and other territories in southeastern Asia and the Pacific were placed under the Japanese rule. After conquering the lands, Japan claimed that it was creating an Asia for Asians. On January 3,1942, a day after Manila became an occupied city, General Masaharu Homma, commander-in-chief of the Japanese Imperial Forces issued a proclamation announcing the end of the American occupation and the imposition of martial law in the country. One of his first orders was the surrender of firearms. Those who were still caught with weapons were detained at the dungeons of Fort Santiago and in other detention posts. Detention camps became places of torture. Water cure, pulling of fingernails and toenails, pouring and burning of extremities with gasoline, and severe beatings were some of the abuses committed to prisoners. Americans and other foreigners who were allies of America and Great Britain were rounded up in Manila and in other parts of the country as early as January 4, 1942. Most of them were held in custody at the University of Santo Tomas campus in Manila, a 22- hectare university campus. Other internment camps were established in Los Banos, Laguna and in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija. Priests suspected of engaging in subversion activities were also imprisoned like Father Rufino Santos who was then a young priest and later became the first Filipino Cardinal of the Catholic Church and Archbishop of Manila. General Homma allowed the laws then enforce the Commonwealth to stay for the moment. He ordered all public officials to continue to discharge their duties. Jorge B. Vargas, who was then the mayor of greater Manila before the Japanese occupation of the city, had been instructed by President Quezon and General MacArthur to cooperate with the enemy hoping that with the cooperation of Filipinos, the occupation might be less severe. This was to avert further anguish on the Filipino people. On the very same day that the city of Manila was occupied, Vargas met with a representative of Imperial Japanese forces to see to it that peace and order be maintained and that public utilities such as water, electricity, and transportation be restored. Three weeks later, on January 23,1942, Vargas received an order from General Homma to assume the position of the Executive Commissioner of the Central Administrative Organization of Occupied Philippines. He had to coordinate the activities of all existing central administrative departments in the Philippines and was to see to it that all commands of the Japanese commander-in- chief were carried out. Movement was registered with the imposition of curfew, first from 8:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m., and finally from midnight to 6:00 a.m., from May 18 onwards. After the fall of Bataan, total blackout was lifted on May 4,1942. Arbitrary arrests and executions were done by the kempeitai (military police) any time of the day. The people were not assured of their safety in their houses nor in the streets. The most dreaded Japanese word was kura, which meant two things depending upon the movement of the hand. When the word was mentioned with an inward wave of the hand it meant, "Come here!" The moment kura was uttered with an outward wave of the hand it meant, "Scram!" or "Dismiss!" For the slightest offense, soldiers would slap the face of the civilians. Many were also executed on mere suspicion of being with the resistance movement. Other offenses punishable by death were arson, murder, robbery, spreading rumors against the Japanese forces, cutting military lines of communication, counterfeiting and spying, and printing or distributing anti-Japanese leaflets. During the initial period of the Japanese occupation, no one could travel without a pass from its army. This prohibition in travel was lifted a month and a half after the fall of Corregidor. In Manila, the streetcar was still operational. Many people rode bicycles and dokars (wartime carriages pulled by horses). The casco, a large banca, pulled by motorboats transported goods and foodstuffs from Manila to Guagua, Pampanga. Most of the passenger coaches and freight cars of the Manila Railroad Company were destroyed at the onset of the Japanese invasion. Taliba, La Vanguardia, Tribune, and Liwayiuay were allowed to continue publication but under rigid censorship by the government. Some old Hollywood films were shown in movie houses. Many theaters switched from movies to stage shows. Knowing that the Church had played an important role in shaping 1 ilipino minds for centuries, the Japanese did not wish to incur open hostility with the Church. As early as January 14,1942, Colonel Murosawa, head of the Religious Section of the Japanese Army, issued a Declaration to Christians in the Philippines in which he expressed the view of the Japanese army to assure freedom of religion. By 1943, parish priests were being required to use their pulpits to convince the people that it was useless to resist Japanese rule. Conciliatory moves were also done to the Philippine Independent Church. The Japanese also showed leniency towards the Muslims. In contrast, the American Protestant ministers were detained at the Santo Tomas Internment Camp. Japanese Premier Hideki Tojo said on January 21, 1942 before the Japanese Diet, Japan's legislature, that the Philippines would be granted independence provided it recognizes Japan's program of establishing "The Philippines for the Filipinos" as a member of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. He visited Manila on May 6,1942. He noted that the Filipinos desired to cooperate with the Japanese government. 2. Life Daring the Wartime Years Neighborhood and district associations were organized based in an executive order issued by Vargas on August 8, 1942, "for the purpose of providing means for protection under joint responsibility." They were supposed to cooperate with the Japanese Army to keep the residents within the area of jurisdiction from anti- Japanese activities. Each neighborhood association was to be composed of at least 10 families, their leader of which was to be appointed by their respective town or city mayor. Then they, in turn grouped into district associations. The president of the district association was appointed by the mayor with the approval of the directors of the local branch of the military administration. The head of each family had to report to the Constabulary officers, the leaders of the neighborhood association, or other competent authorities any movement of bandits or other suspicious persons in their place. He was also to report changes within his family, such as birth or death of any family member. The Sendenbu, the propaganda section of the Japanese army, and later the Hodobu, or Department of Information did its best to convince the people to collaborate with them. They sought to promote the cultural ideas of the New Order and the policy of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Violation of Japanese orders and laws was considered a hostile act, which meant death penalty. Also punishable with death was the injuring of a Japanese soldier. If the assailant could not be seen, some Filipinos were held hostage by the Japanese military. The Japanese military authorities instituted outright confiscation and direct management of banking institutions and public utilities, including transportation. They also supervised the production and distribution of agricultural yields for systematic extraction. In different parts of the country, the Japanese refloated inter- island ships, which they themselves sunk for revival of transport service. Trucks and automobiles were shipped to Japan in huge volumes. Oil companies were forced to sell their stocks to the army. This led the Filipinos to use their improvised charcoal-fed transportation facilities. They assumed direct management of railroad, electrical, telephone, and other facilities from different companies. The schools were again made open to the public. Books used before the war were again utilized, except the ones with pictures and stories about the Americans. To get the Filipinos to the Japanese side, the United States and England were projected as bent on world power. Japanese language and culture were taught and disseminated. Various contests with attractive cash prizes were held to encourage further the study of the language. Tight restrictions on the movement of commodities by the Japanese had made the supply of rice, sugar, and other crops scarcer. Prices of commodities had increased to the point when most people could no longer afford to buy. As months passed by, very few families could afford to enjoy three meals in one day. The worsening food crisis reached a point where the populace started eating plain lugaw (rice porridge). At times they subsisted on binatog or boiled grains of dried corn with grated coconut and pinches of salt. Toasted rice was brewed as coffee but even these lowly meals could har.dly be available regularly. In spite of the government's ardent call for national food production, the people suffered from deprivation and starvation. Several well-to-do families had to dig up the canned goods they had placed under the ground at the start of the war. The Japanese soldiers confiscated palay stocks stored in the ktimalig (warehouse) of the farmers. They ransacked private backyard loading their trucks with chicken and hogs. These frequent food forays virtually stopped land production causing imminent food scarcity and escalating prices of prime commodities. A cavan of rice sold clandestinely in Japanese money costs thousands of pesos. Currency and banks were also closely monitored. The Department of Finance of the Japanese Military Administration controlled all existing banks. One of the first acts that the Japanese did was to circulate military money, also known as military pass money or war notes. It was in peso and centavo denominations. These bills had been prepared before the war. The peso was decreed equal to the Japanese yen in its monetary value. Since the peso was equivalent to two yens before the war, this order favorably served the purpose of the Japanese. They found everything cheap in the Philippines. Bales of Japanese war notes, without any foreign exchange value, were forced on the people. In local transactions, the Filipinos used this Japanese money for the payment of commodities, which before would cost a few in Philippine pesos. The new peso bills looked like play money. They lacked serial numbers. They were not backed by silver or gold reserves. Filipinos were doubtful to accept them. The Japanese, however, threatened punishment to anyone who refused the war notes. The threats convinced the Filipinos to use them but they haughtily called it Mickey Mouse money. Others called it gurami, a small fish so plentiful and cheap and apa, the sweet wafer for ice cream cones, implying flimsiness. Prewar bills and coins immediately disappeared as people chose to keep them for future use. The Japanese realized the Filipinos were apathetic about the military money. In 1942, the Southern Development Bank was established to finance projects in occupied territories in Southeast Asia. The bank printed war notes and produced a modified Ho note, which started circulating in 1943. The new notes in denominations of 1, 5, and 10 pesos had serial numbers this time. The Rizal Monument was printed at the front side. Since the highest denomination was 10 pesos, more bills were required to buy basic necessities as prices soared high. Salaries were paid in bundles. Bayongs (woven buri bags) of small bills were carried to market. Severe inflation set in as supplies ran low. Fuel shortage, confiscation, and deteriorating peace and order hampered food production. In March 1942, in order to meet the rice shortage, the Japanese Military Administration introduced a fast-maturing grain from Taiwan called horai rice. Experimental farms directly under the Japanese army control were developed to test the new grain. The controlled media proclaimed that this would make the Philippines self-sufficient after a year. However, due to heavy rains in 1942, many of these experimental crops were destroyed. Pests hit other crops. The cotton industry likewise did not fair well. It was readily affected by unfavorable weather and soil conditions. Moreover, the abundance of pests as well as the reluctance of the Filipino farmers to plant a crop that was hard to tend and yet destined for Japanese war factories contributed to this adverse situation. The exorbitant price of meat resulted to the slaughtering of cows and carabaos in large numbers. Farms were running out of work animals. The administration had to restrict the number of animals to be killed. Only those certified to be no longer useful in the fields were to be butchered. To save on matches, some families lighted dry "cakes" of carabao manure, which burn out slowly and serve as light at night. Although factories and stores for prime commodities were soon reopened, they were not as free to operate. In order to assure steady supply and affordable prices, a Japanese-controlled economy put into effect. This involved price control measures, registration and issuance of permits, and a ration system for basic commodities like rice, sugar, matches, laundry soap, and cloth. Hoarding and profiteering were banned. Retailers and suppliers were ordered to follow price lists issued by the government. Price tags had to be displayed prominently. Rents were also fixed. Life had become harder for most people. The residents having no land to cultivate had to gather items of value from their cabinets or drawers. Things like clothes, jewelry, and kitchenware were disposed in buy and sell in Manila's downtown. They spent the proceeds to buy food, which they would be consuming for a few days. Many families were forced to sell their furniture and other personal belongings. Pushcarts loaded with furniture traveling along the highway, was a common sight. Cascos (local boats) were also used in transporting these items. The railroad train became a common vehicle of smuggling rice to the city at the Tutuban station, where the Japanese sentries lay in wait for the viajeros (passengers). Among these viajeros were children as young as 12 years old. They fought for every available space on the train, even on the rooftops. To evade arrest, those carrying half a cavan or more would jump off somewhere at Solis, Tondo after their merchandise had been pushed off the freight or passenger cars by their companions. They usually did this at night. However, train jumpers began to be plagued by nocturnal hijackers waiting for viajeros to drop their goods. They would then run off with the sacks of rice before their owners had the time to jump off the speeding train. Aside from the rice business, people became preoccupied with cigarette making. Steady tobacco supply came from the North. Sometimes the genuine tobacco leaves were blended with dried papaya leaves. Another trade that prospered during the era was the making of fakes and forgeries. Some doctors made adulterated medicines, while some lawyers made fake documents. Fake Lucky Strike, Camel, and Chesterfield cigarettes became part of consumers' goods. Clever counterfeiters produced fake passes, IDs, ration tickets, and even Mickey Mouse money. Due to scarcity of food, medicine and basic services, thousands died of malaria, malnutrition, tuberculosis, and other diseases. Sulfathiazole, the wonder drug of the period, was sold at a very high price. Many died on the sidewalks. Such desolate condition brought about the increase of crime rate, which included burglary and hold- up. Others even tried to kill in order to survive in a highly competitive and hostile environment. Disheartened by their dismal situation in the country, a number of Filipinos did anything simply to survive in the wartime years. Some had lost their social balance and moral strength in these most trying times. Others collaborated with the enemy. In the midst of turmoil, still there were Filipinos who kept their faith in God and waited for the liberation of the country. 3. Reforming the Philippine Government On December 2,1942, the Japanese Military Administration announced that political parties had been dissolved "of their own free will." The Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas (KALIBAP1), a non-political organization, was established. KALlBAPl's aim was to bring about the rapid reconstruction of the Philippines and the rehabilitation of the Filipino people. This organization was designed to coordinate all activities and services of associations and individuals concerned with the promotion of the total well-being of every person and to foster a stable foundation for the New Philippines by inculcating the Asian virtues of hard work, faith, self-reliance, loyalty, bravery, discipline and self-sacrifice. Jorge Vargas became the ex-officio president of the KALIBAPI. Benigno Aquino was appointed director-general of the said organization. At their June 18,1943 convention in Manila, the KALIBAPI members appointed a committee to nominate the members of the Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence (PCPI). Four months after the establishment of the PCPI, the first draft of the new Philippine Constitution was completed. Written in Tagalog and in English, the Constitution had a preamble and twelve articles. The Constitution was quite similar to the Commonwealth Constitution however, several modifications were made in keeping with the requirements of the Japanese Occupation. This body of laws was not submitted to the Filipino people for ratification. With the approval of the Constitution by the members of the KALIBAPI and the election of Laurel as President of the Republic, Laurel, Aquino and Vargas flew to Tokyo on September 29, where they met with high-ranking Japanese officials to discuss Philippine independence. They made an official call on the emperor on October 2. Then on October 5, these three Filipino leaders returned to Manila. Two days later, the government announced the inauguration of the Republic of the Philippines would be on October 14. The Japanese worked for the enlistment of the Philippines into the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, a long-range economic plan for Japanese-conquered territories. The pool of raw materials from these territories would be a source for Japan's industries as well as outlets for its export products. 4. The Second Republic of the Philippines On October 14, 1943, Manila was in a holiday mood, despite the traces of war. Five hundred to eight hundred thousand people gathered in front of the Legislative Building that morning to witness the proclamation of Philippine Independence and the inauguration of the Republic of the Philippines. In the afternoon, a Pact of Alliance between the Philippines and japan was signed by the Philippine Minister of Foreign Affairs, Claro M. Recto, and the Japanese Ambassador, Shozo Murata. Then on October 18, Laurel announced the appointment of his cabinet: Claro M. Recto, minister of foreign affairs; Antonio de las Alas, minister of finance; Teofilo Sison, minister of justice; Quintin Paredes, minister of agriculture and commerce; Jose Yulo, chief justice of the Supreme Court, and Jose Villa, acting executive secretary. The President of the Republic, elected by the majority of all members of the National Assembly, was given the highest executive power by the Constitution. He was to serve a single term for six years. Being the commander-in-chief of all armed forces of the country, he could place the Philippines or any part of the nation under martial law, when public safety required it. He could also declare war and make peace with the concurrence of two-thirds of all members of the National Assembly. And with the agreement of the majority of all members of the Assembly, he could make treaties with other nations. The Constitution did not provide for a vice-president, however, the ranking minister in the order of precedence established by law could assume presidency in the event of a permanent disability of the President. The power to make laws was vested in the unicameral National Assembly, which was composed of provincial governor generals and city mayors as ex-officio members and of delegates to be elected every three years, one from each province and chartered city. The Assembly was to meet in regular session once every year. Judicial power was vested in a Supreme Court, composed of a chief justice and six associate justices who were appointed by the President with the advice of the Cabinet. The President with the advice of the Supreme Court appointed judges in the lower court. A governor ran the provincial civil government. The governors and city mayors, in an ex-officio capacity became members of the 108-man National Assembly. Civil administration was operating under the supervision of a Japanese garrison commander headquartered at the provincial capitol. However, civil administration was ineffectual. The Japanese continued to maltreat the local inhabitants. The garrison was tolerant of the abuses committed by the Japanese military stationed in the provinces. The supply requisitions were never coursed to the local administration. The extended Japanese occupation caused widespread anxiety among the people in the islands. With the inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic, President Laurel created the National Education Board to study curriculum changes and to develop a more suitable educational program for the country. The board advocated enhancement of the Filipino identity by giving emphasis to the study of the national language and history. It also recommended the teaching of Asian history and culture. The board also adopted the semestral system, with a vacation long enough for the students to rest, and in time for the rainy season to lessen disruption of classes. (Before the outbreak of war, in 1940, school calendar had been changed to four terms with only one week between terms. This exhausted both students and teachers). To direct the educational thrust more thoroughly, the government was given more powers to supervise all schools, both public and private. President Laurel saw schools as complementary to the family and church in shaping morals and character. The government also sent selected young men to japan as pensionados to study at Japanese schools. Members of the Japanese constabulary taught them Japanese methods of discipline. These pensionados had to be cleansed of anything anti-Japanese to operate in the new environment. Simultaneous with the restructuring of the educational system, control over media and culture was also emphasized by the Hodobu. Movies, stage shows, radio programs, and even letters at the post office were checked. Under the Laurel administration, the media was used to spread more Filipino propaganda line. Posters and leaflets called for the support of the republic. New periodicals such as Filipino, a monthly magazine, were also read not only in Manila but also in the provinces. On the anniversary of the Japanese-sponsored republic, a new newspaper was born (The Republic). Both periodicals tried to portray a more Filipino perspective rather than other publications. New stamps were also printed for the republic, showing the government's nationalist orientation. One stamp issued to commemorate the 1943 independence showed a Filipina in traditional costume, with the Philippine flag and the Rizal monument in the background. In publications, the flag was highlighted. The Philippine national anthem was translated into Tagalog. It replaced the Japanese national anthem and Awit sa Paglikha ng Bagong Pilipinas. Even cigarette boxes were used for the propaganda. One box bore the slogan, "AFree Philippines in United Asia." Another had "Freedom Implies Responsibility" written on the box. The brand was called Independencia cigarettes. President Laurel went his way to Filipinize the Catholic Church. He wrote the Pope explaining that Filipinos would understand the Church better if they ran the parishes and religious schools. He met with religious leaders to explain his views. The government tried to keep the Church under some degree of control. The Japanese Military Administration did closely supervise the affairs of the Church. The Bureau of Religious Affairs was created as an agency under the Executive Commission to control the activities of the religious orders like the issuance of permits for special collections, meetings, and religious parades. The Church was ordered to report the amount of money it had received as donations. Its financial status was obliged to be disclosed. All priests, ministers, and other religious officials had to secure permit from the government in solemnizing marriages. The Board of Information, which replaced the Bureau of Information and Public Security of the Executive Commission, was created. This prevented the printing of reports that was not in keeping with the republic's ideals. Following the government's pro-Filipino line, the Kabataang Pangarap ni Rizal (The Youth of Rizal's Dreams) and Revtrufilnism (Revive True Filipinism), were organized according to some historians. Both civic organizations aimed at developing nationalism consciousness. This cultural campaign was launched somehow to make the Filipinos aware of Japanese and Filipino native traditions. Somehow, prolonged exposure to Asian spirit could win Filipino cooperation and sympathy. Pre-war American films, previously censored, were still shown in some movie theaters. Japanese films glorifying the Japanese war machine and way of life were also shown in between presentations of American films as part of the cultural propaganda. The Japanese discouraged the Filipinos from writing in English. In a way, these Asian colonizers contributed to the promotion of the Tagalog language. They bolstered the enthusiasm of local writers to rediscover the richness of the country's mother tongue. Liwayway, the only Tagalog weekly magazine, was allowed to continue publication. A number of writers began to create short stories and verses similar to the Japanese haiku. Two magazines that became popular during those days were the Philippine Review and Pillars. However, freedom of expression was suppressed during the occupation period. The writers who were limited to their subject matter had the rural scene as the popular theme. Moreover, the writers were not well compensated. Their income was good enough to buy them a kilo of coffee-corn. In 1943, the Dramatic Philippines, Inc. was formed to stage popular plays in English, adapted in Tagalog. These plays were performed at the old Metropolitan Theater. Under the management of a group of college actors, the organization presented highly acclaimed plays translated in Tagalog such as Passion Play, Julius Caesar, Golden Boy, and Applesauce. Sa Pula, Sa Puti, an adaptation of Julian Cruz Balmaseda's Isang Kuwaltang Abaka, became a crowd favorite. Musical Philippines, Inc., a sister organization of Dramatic Philippines, Inc., enabled classical musicians to present their performances at the theater. Despite Laurel's attempts to make independence real, many elements of the Japanese policy were still there. Censorship of the media continued as before. Nippongo classes were still mandatory. Listening to foreign short wave stations (except Radio Tokyo) remained restricted. At the forefront of Japanese attempt to establish the New Order was the kempeitai. Being a separate army organization, it reported directly to the Japanese commander-in-chief in the Philippines, and from there on to the kempeitai headquarters in Tokyo. It had established branches throughout the Philippines. Anywhere in the country, they struck terror and fear. The Japanese occupation in just about a few years had relatively changed the Filipino outlook. Because of the grim consequences of the war, they became more pragmatic, or rather materialistic. The people had come face to face with violence. They had learned to use weapons to kill the opponents, obviously the Japanese and those who work for them, to the detriment of their own safety and security. For want of doing something, some men, both young and old learned to indulge in many forms of vices. Smoking, cockfighting, dice games, mahjong, jueteng, monte, and other card games became common pastimes. However, there were also other forms of recreation like stage shows (mostly of the hometown variety) and fist bouts. People kept leaving and returning, depending upon the situation. Those who could not stand the condition any longer had to evacuate to other barrios. Some opted to live with relatives in far provinces. With the enemy occupation, the old social elite, the wealthy land-owning families, no longer held the monopoly of the social circle. The rushing in of the new rich led to the rise of a new bourgeoisie. Everywhere in the land, people lived in fear. Men did fear the spies (like the Ganaps and Makapilis) as well as the dreaded kempeitai and their zona system, whereby the local males were herded in one place, usually a public one, to pluck out the guerrillas. 5. Resistance and Restoration What strongly nullified the Japanese policy of attraction was the series of atrocities ranging from confiscation of personal goods to wanton killing of people. There was the imposition of severe penalties for slight violations of the law. Persons caught violating the curfew were punished with water cure. Afterwards, nothing would be heard about them. Pedestrians who refused to bow to the Japanese military were slapped on their faces or hit with closed fists. The Filipinos looked at this gesture as a grave personal assault. Health and living conditions deteriorated throughout the Japanese occupation. Tuberculosis, malaria, and nutrition ailments became common illnesses. Many people died of starvation. The war years witnessed the mass contact of Filipinos and Japanese, characterized by mutual suspicion. The Filipinos could not simply trust the motives of the Japanese in promoting the national culture. The Japanese showed unreasonable harassment and executions of Filipinos deemed dangerous to the new order of the society. There were others who thought that the war was about democracy and against fascism. The unprovoked attack of the Japanese in the Philippines led many Filipinos to resist in defense of the country. Thoughts in having recognition and a challenging experience did help in encouraging more volunteers for the army. Others joined the struggle for freedom because it seemed to be the natural thing to do. Classes had been suspended for quite a time. When the enlistment of recruits for the army took place, many young men signed up. If the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor and the immediate retreat of General MacArthur to Australia marked the end of American assistance to the country, these events were only perceived as temporary. Moved by their sense of nationalism, others felt that it was glorious to fight for the country's freedom. They had realized that it was their duty to their fellow Filipinos to defend the country from foreign aggression. Guerrilla fighters all over the country kept their faith in democracy. Many waited for the return of the Americans. The United States Army Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP), North Luzon, was one of the earliest guerrilla units to be organized after the fall of Bataan and Corregidor. The USAFFE soldiers of Northern Luzon who had been unable to join the American and Filipino Forces in Bataan banded together under two Filipino captains, Guillermo Nakar and Manuel P. Enriquez. This was recognized as the First Guerrilla Regiment by USAFFE headquarters. Walter Cushing, an American mine operator in the Mountain Province, led the first ambush against the Japanese. Cushing organized some 200 Filipino guerrillas shortly after the enemy invasion. (Unfortunately, on September 19,1942, Cushing and two of his men were killed instantaneously by Japanese soldiers at Jones, Isabela while on a mission to contact a large guerrilla outfit). American soldiers in Northern Luzon who did not surrender with General Jonathan M. Wainwright placed themselves under the command of Captain Nakar and Captain George Barnett, an American engineer. Other American officers who managed to escape from Bataan like Major Russell Volckmann (a West Point Graduate) organized their own guerrilla units. Volckmann set up secret training camps for his guerrillas. The North Luzon guerrillas were consolidated under his overall command. Among the prominent guerrilla leaders under his direction were Governor Roque Ablan of Ilocos and Bado Dangwa in Baguio. He also established a communication and intelligence network, which reported the movements of the enemy. Reports from this network were transmitted to MacArthur's headquarters in Australia. Volckmann's Northern Luzon guerrilla army was responsible for driving General Tomoyuki Yamashita's troops from the Mountain Province in the last days of the war in the Philippines. Marcos V. Agustin, a bus driver before the war, formed a guerrilla unit centered in Antipolo. This eventually became one of the largest in Luzon owing to its membership from different sectors. In its ranks were soldiers, teachers, lawyers, writers, laborers, drivers, young inmates of a reformatory school, and a few reformed convicts. Some Chinese and Americans joined Agustin's group. The Hunters ROTC (Reserve Officers' Training Corps) guerrilla group, headed by two young cadets of the Philippine Military Academy, Eleuterio Adevoso (better known as Terry Magtanggol, during the war), and Miguel Ver, was formed at Ver's house in San Juan, Manila. After the surrender of Bataan, the group moved to Antipolo. During the latter stages of the war, the Hunters ROTC guerrillas cut Japanese communication lines, blew up roads and bridges, and destroyed convoys passing through their territory. Their newspaper, Thunderclap, which came out in 1943, oftentimes changed its place of publication to confuse the enemy forces. Other guerrilla units were established in Central Luzon. In Bulacan, Captain Alejo S. Santos, "C" Company, 31 st Infantry of the USAFFE, who escaped the Death March from Bataan at Betis, Pampanga, organized the Philippine Legion at his hometown Bustos. Captain Santos and his comrades wanted to continue the battle against the enemy forces. No longer did they want to suffer silently in pain. The Philippine Legion was initially envisioned as a force of small combat units with primary mission of destroying enemy intelligence groups. It also aimed to gather information on military installations as well as political and economic activities sponsored by the Japanese government. The group members were also directed to eliminate Filipino traitors. In August 1943, Captain Bernard L. Anderson, a U.S. Airforce officer, took command of the USAFFE Luzon Guerrilla Army Forces and appointed Captain Santos as his personal representative in the area. On October 12, 1943, Captain Anderson issued a directive confirming Captain Santos' command over the Bulacan Military Area (BMA). BMA had four regiments at the start. By the middle of 1944, it had a force over 18,000. The BMA was regrouped into 10 regiments as follows: Valenzuela Regiment (Meycauayan, Marilao, Bocaue, Polo, and Obando); Republic Regiment (Malolos and Paombong); Del Pilar Regiment (Hagonoy and Calumpit); Kakarong Regiment (Plaridel, Guiguinto, and Bigaa); M. Ponce Regiment (Baliuag, Pulilan, and Bustos); Buenavista Regiment (San Ildefonso and San Rafael); Natividad Regiment (Northern San Miguel); Biak-na-Bato Regiment (Southern San Miguel); Mountain Regiment (Angat and Norzagaray); and the Batute Regiment (San Jose and Sta. Maria). These regiments were named after famous personages and places in the province of Bulacan. Procurement groups were organized to collect arms and ammunitions. Some Bulacan guerrillas went back to Bataan to look for weapons buried prior to the surrender of the Filipino-American troops in April 1942. In the latter part of 1943, the guerrillas raided some municipal buildings to get the arms and ammunitions. Daring assaults were mounted by the BMA fighters against the Japanese garrison in Malolos and in the other towns in Bulacan. Military intelligence reports continuously needed by General Headquarters Southwest Pacific Area (GHQ-SWPA) were supplied by the BMA. In August 1944, the submarine Nawarhal landed arms and ammunition, signal equipment, and other supplies at the Kalayaan Headquarters of Major Anderson in Infanta, Tayabas. Salanga Point, just off the mouth of Masanga River became the surface point of the Nawarhal submarine. Some officers and men of the BMA, together with some loyal Dumagats of the mountains journeyed across the Sierra Mad re Mountains to bring the military supplies to Bulacan. Together with the group of Americans was Captain Bartolome Cabangbang. He manned the Philippine Islands Detachment of the Allied Intelligence Bureau. A graduate of Philippine Military Academy, Capt. Cabangbang fought in Bataan and Corregidor. He was released from Capas Concentration Camp to be trained at the Philippine Constabulary School. He was able to escape in October 1942 and later joined Capt. Villamor in Negros Occidental. He boarded submarine Gabriela to Australia and thereon was trained in communications and jungle warfare. Airstrips were also constructed by the BMA guerrillas for the emergency landing of American airmen like the ones found at Akle in San Ildefonso, at Atlag, Malolos and Bustos. Each of these airstrips had a runway of about 600 yards right for L-5s, which required 200 yards to get airborne. These airstrips did facilitate the transport of supplies and men from the army posts in Lingayen and Dagupan to Bulacan guerrilla headquarters and vice versa. All units of the BMA were alerted for any ill-fated plane that would need help. They were set to rescue these pilots before they could fall into the hands of the Japanese. Their other concern was retrieving whatever equipment remained intact in the damaged planes. On November 16, 1944, three men from Admiral William Halsey's Third Fleet belonging to the Carrier USS Essex were rescued by the Republic Regiment. (Halsey's Fleet had undertaken air strikes in the Visayas prior to General MacArthur's landing in Leyte). They were later on escorted to BMA headquarters. Among those ferried from Akle (home base of BMA) to San Jose, Mindoro were Colonel Gwen G. Atkinson, Lts. Floyd Fulkerson, Yates Hicky, Russel Reed, and Landry. On January 4, 1945 at Camp Jerusalem, the first air drops in Luzon were done by giant B-25s of the US Air Force. Crated TNT (trinitrotoluene), arms and ammunitions, medicines, rations and radios for the BMA were dropped. On the evening of January 9, 1945, the Sixth Army, under Gen. Walter Krueger, landed 68,000 combat troops. Some army units rolled eastward to Nueva Ecija and turned to Pozorrubio-Rosario-Aringay Line. Others penetrated the Pampanga and Pangasinan areas - all of them, including the 37 th Division entered through Bulacan towns. In Southern Luzon, the PQOG (President Quezon's Own Guerrillas) engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese in Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, and Quezon Province. In the Bicol region, former Assemblyman and Governor Wenceslao Vinzons, headed the guerrilla activities in the area. The guerrilla movement in Samar and Leyte was led by Colonel Ruperto Kangleon; while Colonel Macario Peralta of Tarlac headed in Panay Island with Governor Tomas Confessor as the civilian leader. In Mindanao, Tomas Cabili, Salipada Pendatun and Wendell Fertig organized the guerrillas in the region. Another guerrilla unit that confronted the Japanese forces was the communist-led Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon known as the Hukbalahap. The organization was founded on March 29,1942 in a forest near the boundaries of Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Tarlac. Luis Taruc was chosen chairman of the committee. Casto Alejandrino (GY), became second in command. Other Huk leaders were Bernardo Poblete (Banal) from Minalin, Eusebio Aquino from Magalang, and Felipa Culala (Dayang- Dayang) from Candaba. Other Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (PKP) members who became leaders of the Hukbalahap aside from Taruc and Alejandrino were Lope de la Rosa and Mariano Franco. "Anti- Japanese Above All" became the battlecry of this underground movement, mostly consisting of peasants and workers. The guiding principles of the Huks were found in this document, The Fundamental Spirit. The duties and privileges of a Huk soldier were discussed in another document, The Iron Discipline. The kind of discipline imposed on its members was quite tough. Members found deviating from the rules of the organization were reportedly liquidated in the name of unity. For instance, Dayang- Dayang was executed by her own men. Katubusan ng Bayan (Redemption of the People) was the principal Huk publication, which started in mid-1942. It was issued weekly with between 3,000 to 5,000 copies mimeographed. Its editors included peasant leaders, trade unionists from Manila and university people. They chronicled the Huk victories against the Japanese. The Huks fought guerrilla battles with the enemy forces. In mid- January, 1945 they liberated much of Tarlac and Pampanga. By the time the Americans were already in Cabanatuan, there they found the Huks had already secured the town for them. Municipal governments attacked by their squadrons were placed under Huk auspices. The Huks occupied a number of towns in Central Luzon and also rose against exploitative landlords. There were some Filipinos who chose to cooperate with the Japanese and aided them in apprehending the guerrillas and their supporters. These fanatical pro-Japanese included the Ganaps, the Pulahanes, the Palaaks, the United Nippon, the Painpars, and the MAKAPILJs. The Gamps were the former pro-Japanese Sakdalistas who served as spies for the Japanese military authorities while the Pulahanes (from Samar, "pula" means red) acted as guides for the Japanese in their efforts to arrest people who supported the guerrilla cause. The Palaaks, armed with bamboo spears, worked as guards for the Japanese army while the United Nippon (U.N.), armed with rifles, wore army uniforms as part of the Japanese military. The members were recruited from the Ganap Party. The Pampars (Pambansang Pag-asa ng mga Anak ni Rizal) were also armed with rifles. The Japanese military authorities in Pililla, Rizal Province organized the group in 1943. The group members wore blue denim uniforms with short pants. The most dreadful one, the MAKAPILI (Makabayan: Katipunan ng mga Pilipino) was headed by General Artemio Ricarte, Benigno Ramos, and Pio Duran. This group was organized after the American liberation forces had already entered the Philippine territory. MAKAPILI was formally launched in Manila on December 8,1944, amidst a gala ceremony attended by General Yamashita, President Laurel, Ricarte, Ramos, Duran, and other high officials. Escalated guerrilla operations pressed the Japanese army to offer amnesty. Such offer was given throughout the land but eventually no guerrilla fighter accepted such dubious proposal. The Japanese continued their propaganda to secure the cooperation of the people in various ways like the sponsorship of the Japanese Youth Leadership Program. Young Bias Ople had already left the program and joined the ranks of the BMA. The guerrillas carried out missions that were of great importance to the Allied forces leading to the eventual liberation of the Philippines. In June 1944, the Battle of the Philippine Sea began. The air raid strikes started in Guam to neutralize Japanese offensive. In desperation, Japanese suicide pilots known as kamikaze (meaning, divine wind in Japan) engaged in dog-fight air battles against American warplanes. By August 9, the American fighter planes began their devastating raids on Japanese military installations in Mindanao, Visayas, and Manila. Casualties ran high in the Pacific because of the Japanese feeling that surrender meant dishonor (Perry, et. al., 1989:711). On September 21,1944, President Laurel proclaimed martial law in the country by virtue of Proclamation No. 29. News about General MacArthur's Pacific Forces nearing the Philippines through the newspaper, The Tribune, and short wave radio broadcasts made the Japanese fiercer and more distrustful. Japanese raiding forces swooped into barrios and assembled all men in tine barrio chapels to be warned against subversive acts. More zonas were conducted. The male residents were detained for days. On October 20,1944, the Leyte beaches were severely bombarded by American bombers and fighter planes. The new P-38 fighter planes had proven its prowess in air battles. With faster velocity to go up at a higher altitude, the planes pounded the Japanese planes below with bullets from the 30/50 caliber machine guns. The path to Leyte was cleared on the same day, paving the way for General MacArthur's return together with his allied forces, landing at Palo Beach. Warships formed a line of defense to protect the American forces in the island. Consequently, the American flag was raised at Hill 120 in Dulag, Leyte. The Japanese suicide pilots crashed their planes on the American warships at Leyte Gulf. The Battle of Leyte Gulf, the greatest naval battle in history was fought from October 24 to 26. Simultaneous with this naval warfare were the following battles: the Battle of Surigao Strait, the Battle of Samar, and the Battle of Cape Engano. On December 21, 1944, President Laurel and his Cabinet moved to Baguio. The Japanese forces retreated to the "Yamashita Line," a battlefront stretching along the jungle of Sierra Madre from Antipolo to Aparri. While retreating, the Japanese took some provisions from the Filipino civilians, massacred innocent people, and burned towns and villages. Despite kamikaze attacks, landings were made at Lingayen Gulf on January 9,1945. Other American troops landed in Zambales, Tagaytay, and Batangas. The U.S. Sixth Army, with its headquarters in Dagupan City, had issued on February 2, a letter of instruction calling for coordination of all guerrilla units in Central Luzon in combat operations against the enemy forces. The units of the Sixth Army were seen riding in a new type of vehicle, which was later learned to be jeeps. (The army jeeps left by the Americans after World War II inspired the making of the Philippine jeepney, resized and remodelled to accommodate commuting passengers numbering from 20 to 30, making it a smaller versions of a bus). Others boarded armored cars and half trucks. On February 3, an American cavalry division entered Grace Park in the northern outskirts of Manila. With Filipino guerrillas as guides, they rescued the suffering prisoners at the Santo Tomas Internment Camp. By March 3,1945 the Americans had won the war in Manila. Baguio was captured from the Japanese on April 26. By July 4, the Americans had officially completed liberating Luzon. The Japanese made their last stand in Northern Luzon. The US 6 th Infantry entered Kiangan, Ifugao province and engaged in series of close fighting. The so-called "Million Dollar Hill" sheltered the 14 th Area Army under the overall command of General Tomoyuki Yamashita known as the "Tiger of Malaya" and his elite officers. There were three infantry divisions to entrap the enemies — the USAFIP NL, the 6 th Division, and the 32 nd Division. The Buenavista boys, detailed with the 6 th Division and 32 nd Division, were the first ones to come near the mouth of the hill. The major obstacle in blasting the place was the Japanese woodpecker machine gun. After four months in its Northern Luzon drive, the Buenavista Regiment's task finally ended. Japan formally announced through radio broadcast its final surrender on August 14 after the bombing of Hiroshima and later Nagasaki on August 6 and August 9, respectively. Two days later, front line units of the USAFIP NL received Volckmann's order to cease firing. Negotiations for the surrender of General Yamashita and his troops began after a Filipino officer 2 nd Lt. Macario A. Abarillo, leading a patrol of the 15 th Infantry Combat Company had penetrated into enemy lines northwest of Kiangan. The Kiangan campaign ended on September 2, 1945. General Yamashita finally ordered his men to lay down their arms. The surrender was administered by the 1 st Battalion of the 14 th Infantry, supported by other units of the US 6 th Division. It was also on that day that Japan formally accepted defeat upon signing a treaty on board USS Missouri at Tokyo Bay. Ten days after the formal surrender, Laurel was arrested by the U.S. Army. He was confined in Sugamo Prison for almost a year and returned to Manila in July 1946. From Kiangan, the Japanese officers and their respective staff were brought down by trucks to Bagabag, Nueva Viscaya and flown to Luna, La Union and finally brought up in jeeps to the American High Commissioner's Residence at Camp John Hay, Baguio City for the formal surrender. From Baguio, Yamashita and his staff were brought to the National Bilibid Prison in Muntinlupa. Yamashita went on trial in October 1945 before U.S. War Crimes Commission and was convicted of war atrocities on December 7. On the early morning of February 23, 1946, Yamashita was hanged on a tree on top of a hill overlooking the U.P. College of Agriculture in Los Banos, Laguna. U.S. Army police unit headed by Col. Charles Haldermann carried the execution order. President Osmena, who succeeded the late President Quezon, tackled the task of rehabilitating the land, which had been cruelly damaged by war. Quezon died on August 1,1944 while in exile in Saranac Lake, New York. Three days after the Leyte landing, Osmena was already given the power to govern all territories liberated by the U.S. forces. This took place at a public ceremony headed by General MacArthur. On March 7, 1945, President Osmena signed an Executive Order providing for the restoration of the executive departments of the government as they existed prior to Japanese occupation. The Order, dated February 27, also created the department of information as part of the Department of Public Instruction. On March 8, the President sworn into office the new members of the Cabinet. He also outlined the principles of his government. These included the adherence to the principles of freedom and democracy and the establishment of a social and political system wherein the government officials and employees are servants of the people. The government reaffirmed the principle of Filipino- American collaboration. The Philippines at that time was practically without funds. Production at the onset was very slow owing to lack of capital to finance the rehabilitation of destroyed machinery and other equipment. In the early months of reoccupation, the United States attended to the needs of the local populace. The Philippine Civil Affairs Unit of the United States Army (PCAU) became the principal agency for relief distribution in Manila and the provinces. It also proceeded to remove municipal officials elected by the Huks and replaced them with USAFFE guerrillas (ideologically different from the Huks). General MacArthur known to be a man of action, at that time made important decisions for the President. He advised President Osmena to immediately convoke the Congress, for it was part of the policy of the American government to restore constitutional government in the Philippines as soon as law and order had been established. Osmena was reluctant at first, believing that the government might fall into the hands of collaborators whom the American government suspected of treason. Nevertheless on June 9,1945, the First Congress of the Philippines convened for the first time since the election of its members on November 11,1941 with Senator Manuel A. Roxas chosen as President of the Senate. By July 4,1945, the Commonwealth was reestablished in Manila. President Osmena offered Roxas beforehand to go to Washington as Philippine Resident Commissioner but the latter refused. Roxas at that time was having in mind his candidacy for presidency. Two days later, on May 26,1945 he instructed his men to launch his bid for the position. The worsening relations between Osmena and Roxas reached its climax when Roxas left the Nacionalista Party and organized his own party, the Liberal Party. He took many Nacionalistas with him. The election of April 23, 1946 resulted in the victory of the Liberal Party with Roxas and Quirino as the elected President and Vice-President, respectively. Their party won nine out of 16 contested senatorial seats. On May 6, 1946, Roxas was inaugurated as the last President of the Philippine Commonwealth. The inaugural ceremonies were held on the grounds of the Legislative Building. In his inaugural address as the last President of the Commonwealth, he cited the groundwork of his administration - to rebuild the economy from the ruins of war. He also advocated the establishment of political and economic ties with America, to help in the rehabilitation of the islands. Study Guides Terms/ Concepts to Understand Declaration to Christians in the Philippines Neighborhood and district associations Binatog Ration system Sulfathiazole MAKAPILI Sa Pula, Sa Puti Questions to Answer 1. How did the Japanese military rule the country before and after the inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic? 2. Describe the living conditions of the Filipinos under the Japanese occupation. 3. Why did a number of Filipinos join the guerrilla movement against the Japanese? 4. How did the war in the Pacific end? 5. KALIBAPI Pensionados Zona system Nawarhal 6. Katubusan ng Bayan 7. Kamikaze 8. Kiangan Chapter X The Republic 1. Roxas Administration (1946-48) From the ashes of the Pacific war, a new Philippine Republic has risen. Philippine sovereignty was finally recognized with Manuel Roxas as the President of the Third Republic of the Philippines. On July 4, 1946, at exactly 9:15 a.m., High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt read President Harry S. Truman's proclamation announcing to the world the withdrawal of American sovereignty and the recognition of the independence of the Philippines. To the accompaniment of the American National Anthem, Commissioner McNutt lowered the American flag. Thereafter, President Roxas hoisted the Filipino flag to the accompaniment of the Philippine National Anthem. He took his oath of office before Chief Justice Manuel V. Moran of the Philippine Supreme Court. In his inaugural address, President Roxas thanked the coming of the United States in 1898 and urged the people to have faith in the goodness of America. Following the President's inaugural address was the public signing of the US-Philippine Treaty of General Relations. Based on this treaty, the United States withdrew and surrendered all rights of supervision, control or sovereignty over the Philippines. Likewise,, the United States would represent the interests of the Philippines in countries where there is no Philippine representation, pending the establishment of Philippine diplomatic service abroad. In the final part of the inaugural rites, a chorus of 1,000 voices sang the Philippine Independence Hymn. Closing the ceremonies was the Invocation Prayer by Most Rev. Gabriel M. Reyes, the Archbishop of Cebu. The political system of the Philippines was basically patterned after the U.S., with a bicameral legislature and a president elected every four years, limited to one reelection. When Roxas assumed his post, he solved the collaboration issue by proclaiming amnesty to all political prisoners. Senator Claro M. Recto refused to be amnestied. He fought his legal battles with the People's Court and was acquitted. The Philippines as seen by the administration could not rehabilitate its economy without American aid and investment. Subsequently it adopted two laws legislated by the United States Congress to grow and industrialize. On April 30, 1946, the U.S. Congress passed two laws that were intended to help the economic recovery of the country. The Philippine Trade Act, also known as the Bell Trade Act, provided for the continuation of free trade with the Philippines and the United States from 1946 to 1954. For the next 20 years from 1954 to 1974, Philippine exports to the U.S. will pay a gradually increased tariff rate. The value of the peso was fixed at half an American dollar. The Philippine Rehabilitation Act on the other hand, also known as the Tydings Rehabilitation Act resulted to the creation of the Philippine War Damage Commission to take charge of war damage payments. President Roxas really wanted to rebuild the Philippine economy even if it meant sacrificing national patrimony. In return for American support, the government went its way to amend the 1935 Philippine Constitution to give parity rights to the Americans. This obliged the country to grant U.S. citizens and corporations the same rights as Filipinos in the utilization and exploitation of Philippine natural resources. In addition, American citizens and corporations enjoyed the right to acquire land of the public domain, right to acquire grazing, fishing and mining rights, and the right to engage in the ownership and operation of public utilities. The people approved the parity amendment issue in the plebiscite of 1947. Luis Taruc and his colleagues in the Democratic Alliance were against the parity rights amendment because they perceived it as more disadvantageous to the Filipino people. The Huks together with a new party, the Democratic Alliance, composed of intellectuals and peasants, succeeded in electing Taruc and their other members to Congress in 1946. Upon the alleged instigation of President Roxas, the Congress passed a resolution ejecting Taruc and his six fellow party members from Congress on the ground of alleged electoral frauds and terrorism committed by the Huks in Pampanga and Nueva Ecija. The removal from office of Taruc and his companions paved the way to the amendment of the Constitution. Another government action that also generated varied opinions was the military bases issue. The Military Bases Agreement signed on March 14, 1947, gave the U.S. free use of 23 base sites for 99 years (shortened to 25 years in 1959) renewable on expiration of this treaty. The largest active bases were the Clark Field Air Base in Pampanga and Subic Naval Base, and the US Seventh Fleet base in Zambales. A provision of the Military Bases Agreement granted American military authorities an exclusive jurisdiction over all the offenses or crimes committed by American personnel within the bases or outside w 7 hile in the performance. Taruc returned to his people and thereafter cooperated with President Roxas in the pacification campaign in the countryside. It was during the pacification campaign that Taruc and Mateo Castillo got an intelligence report that they would be killed by their adversaries, among whom were allegedly government officials. The two Huk leaders took precautions as forewarned. Whereas, Juan Feleo, the peasant leader of Nueva Ecija, who did not receive the warning on time, was kidnapped and murdered while in the company of MPs who were supposed to provide him security in his pacification campaign from barrio to barrio. Following this tragic incident was the killing of Jose Joven, a labor leader. Believing that the Roxas administration was bowed on checking the movement of the masses by liquidating its leaders, Taruc wrote a letter to President Roxas reminding the latter of their demands, which were mentioned in three prior conferences with the government. These included the following: the temporary rights of the people to keep their firearms due to present insecurity, protection of constitutional rights, removal of some government officials like Governor (Pablo Angeles) David of Pampanga and the creation of social welfare projects and agrarian reform. The Huks also demanded the collectivization of farmlands and the abolition of tenant farming. They were able to organize a new rebel government with its own military and administrative procedure. Inefficient production and very low incomes were among the basic problems of the people. After the liberation, the economy improved but for many workers, wages were inadequate.The government military and the Huks were plunged into hostilities. The civilians, caught in the crossfire, lived in fear and hunger as agricultural production decreased due to constant skirmishes between the contending forces. The government had spent millions of pesos to apprehend Taruc and his men. For two years, the Roxas administration tried to pacify the local dissidents but failed. To solve the peace and order situation, President Roxas issued a proclamation on March 6, 1948'declaring the Hukbalahap and the Pambansang Kaisahan ng mga Magbubukid (PKM), which was reorganized after the war by Mateo del Castillo, as illegal associations organized and maintained to commit acts of sedition. People having affiliation with these groups were considered as enemies of the State and thus, liable to be arrested and imprisoned. This proclamation outlawing the Huks and PKMs in effect resulted to indiscriminate arrests and detention of people suspected to be aiding the rebels. As early as July 29,1946, President Roxas had already issued Republic Act No. 4 that called for the surrender of firearms not later than August 31. The Huks upheld the principle of the people's right to bear firearms. There was this sentiment among the Huks that their physical survival depended on their keeping their arms and ammunitions. There were wealthy landlords who hired civilian guards to assail Huk regions. Willful disregard for civil rights was shown in the Masico Affair in Laguna, in which a group of old and young men were machine-gunned. The same transgression was committed in Maliwalu, Bacolor in Pampanga where a group of men and women were fired upon while they were having a party at night. Those who committed these acts were not penalized for their crimes. Internal strife ensued as local dissidents continued to defy the duly constituted authorities. The peasants and workers were socially and economically dislodged due to societal constraints. There were instances wherein the landlords backed by their civilian guards, coerced their tenants into signing 50-50 agreements, with crop expenses paid by the tenants. This was inconsistent with Republic Act No. 34 (approved on September 30, 1946), which gave the tenants a better share in the rice harvests, with 70% for tenants and 30% for the landlord. Fraudulent practices like takipan, which consisted in paying 100% interest; talinduwa, consisted in paying 50% interest on a loan; and pasunod, where the peasant was forced to borrow from his landlord whether he liked it or not, continued to oppress the masses. Postwar unionism became active. In 1948, the Committee on Labor Organization (CLO) unions led strikes in large corporations such as the Philippine Refining Company, Benguet Consolidated Mines, Manila Trading Company, the Luzon Stevedoring Company, and Franklin Baker in Laguna. After the CLO's initial successes, the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (PKP) members in the organizing committee began to invite non-affiliated labor leaders to join. Cipriano Cid who was then the first CLO president was succeeded in 1947 by Amado Hernandez. President Roxas incessantly undertook other activities to promote the people's welfare. On April 15, 1948, President Roxas made a public statement on the reaffirmation of Filipino loyalty to the United States at the Kelly Theater in Clark Air Base, Pampanga. The audience enthusiastically received his speech. At that time, he was no longer feeling well. By evening, his condition became worse. At around 9:30 p.m., he died of heart failure at the residence of Major General E. L. Eubank at Clark Field. Two days later, Vice-President Elpidio Quirino took his oath of office as President of the Philippines, serving the unexpired term of the late President Roxas. His first official act was the proclamation of a state of mourning throughout the country for the former Chief Executive. 2. Quirino Administration (1948-53) President Elpidio Quirino took the task of resolving the peace and order situation of the country so that economic mobilization could be achieved. The President saw his mission as restoring the people's faith in government. To realize this objective, the President sent his brother, former Judge Antonio Quirino to have a dialogue with Taruc and his men to know what the Huks wanted. Through the representatives of the Manila Chronicle, I. P. Soliongco and a photographer, the meeting with Taruc was set on June 6 in a barrio between the towns of San Miguel and Baliuag, Bulacan. The negotiations were not readily disclosed to the public. Taruc allegedly entered into an agreement with Judge Quirino, which led to his jubilant entry to Manila. On June 21, Taruc went to Malacanang and in his presence, President Quirino issued a proclamation granting amnesty to all Huk and PKM leaders and members. The amnesty given was absolute and covered crimes of rebellion, sedition, illegal association, assault, resistance, and disobedience to persons in authority. The Huks agreed to surrender their arms and ammunitions to duly constituted authorities within a period of 50 days following the amnesty grant. Taruc resumed his seat in Congress and collected his three years' back salaries. Three hours after the 50-day period, a clash between the 507 th MP Company and a band of 50 Huks occurred in a barrio of Cabanatuan. Fighting between the military and the Huks ensued. Taruc accused the Quirino administration of bad faith when it refused to give the peasants on- the-spot permits for possessing firearms, which they need for self-defense. He denounced the noncompliance of the government to the agreement, which was approved by Judge Quirino. According to him it included the following: scrapping of the Bell Trade Act; no resumption of trade with Japan; division of large estates for distribution to tenants; release of all Huk prisoners; industrialization; and no military bases agreement with the United States. Judge Quirino disproved Taruc's allegations. The Huk rebellion became more intense in 1949 to 1950. The Huks continued terrorizing Central Luzon and the provinces around Manila. They believed that programs regarding land reform were not instituted. There was no breakup of vast landed estates. The government did not release more than 600 imprisoned Huks and PKMs. The Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (PKP) decided to place their main emphasis on an armed struggle. The PKP worked out a systematic expansion program and changed the Hukbalahap to Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan (HMB) or Army of National Liberation. The peace and order contingency reached its climax when on April 28, 1949, Mrs. Aurora Aragon Quezon, the late President Quezon's wife, her daughter, Baby, and 10 others were ambushed in Bongabon, Nueva Ecija. Taruc denied any Huk involvement in the incident. In the presidential elections of November 8,1949, President Quirino was elected, besting Jose P. Laurel (Nacionalista Party) and former Senate President Jose Avelino (rebel Liberal). He promised to restore the people's faith in the government. President Quirino created the President's Action Committee on Social Amelioration (PACSA) to aid the needy families, the Labor Management Advisory Board, to advise him on labor matters and the Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA) to help the farmers market their crops. Rural banks were also established in the rural areas to facilitate credit facilities. President Quirino also launched his "Total Economic Mobilization Program" to employ natural resources, manpower, and technical knowledge for economic progress. Nongovernmental organizations were also given approval from the administration. In 1949, the Philippine Jaycees (Junior Chamber of Commerce) was organized. It is best known for the selection of the TOYM (Ten Outstanding Young Men) in various fields of endeavor. In promoting news and information, the Philippine News Service, the first news agency in the country was established in 1950. In 1951, Fort Santiago was declared a national shrine. During the Spanish era, this served as a detention cell where many Filipinos suspected of rebellion died. It served the same purpose during the Japanese occupation. In the realm of diplomacy, President Quirino impressed foreign heads of states and world statesmen by his intelligence. He represented the Republic in his official travels to the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia. The Bell Mission was sent by the United States to survey all aspects of the Philippine economy. It found out that the country had low income, excessive volume of imports, misdirected investment, mounting deficits, and corruption in the government. The Bell Report recommended the following: improvement of production, higher taxes, a more efficient collection of government revenues, a minimum wage law, a tax on the sale of foreign exchange, reforms in public administration, and land reform. The principal item of the Bell Report was the recommendation that the United States grant $250 million in economic aid provided that the Philippine Government would implement the Mission's suggested programs. To secure this aid, President Quirino had to accept the recommendations of his American advisers. Thus, on November 14,1950, the Quirino-Foster Agreement was signed wherein the Americans would decide on how the Philippine money would be spent. Under the provision of technical cooperation, the Philippines had to accept American overseers in various departments, especially those dealing with military, economic, and educational matters. The U.S. Pentagon-State Department sent the Melby Mission to the Philippines to look into the military equipment needs of the Philippine Armed Forces and to set up a program for improving its counter-insurgency capability. The Joint U.S. Military Assistance Group (JUSMAG) was assigned the task of implementing the Melby Mission's recommendations, especially on its anti-Huk campaign. Strict security measures were implemented to check rebel activities. HMB suspects were arrested and taken to Camp Murphy. Ramon Magsaysay, the Secretary of National Defense, based his activities on the government's objective in eliminating the HMB threat. Secretary Magsaysay urged President Quirino to suspend the writ of habeas corpus to be able to detain the Communist suspects beyond the six- hour limit pending the filing of charges. President Quirino sent Magsaysay to meet a rebel leader, Commander Arthur or Taciano Rizal who wanted to surrender. Rizal told Magsaysay about certain high ranking rebel officers who were operating in Manila. The Military Intelligence Service (MIS) of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) worked to hunt down the nerve center of the HMB Politburo, the administrative body of the HMB Central Committee. Before dawn of October 18,1950, 22 units of the Armed Forces, aided by the Manila Police raided several places simultaneously. Among those arrested were Atty. Jose Lava, Federico Bautista, Simeon Rodriguez, Salome Cruz, Ramon Espiritu, Angel Baking, and others. Important rebel documents were taken and presented as evidence in court. The Manila Court of First Instance, presided by Judge Oscar Castelo pronounced them guilty of the crime of rebellion. They were sentenced to life imprisonment. This resulted to the demoralization of a number of HMB members. Many surrendered and were brought to Mindanao for rehabilitation. In September 1951, the Philippine government signed a peace treaty with Japan. However, in early 1952, the agreement was suspended because the Philippines demanded $8 billion in war damages. Pending the conclusion of talks on the issue, the Philippine legislature refused to ratify the peace treaty. In the last days of the Quirino administration, Moises Padilla, a Nacionalista Party candidate for town mayor, was mauled and murdered. After a painstaking investigation, Magsaysay ordered the arrest of Negros Governor Rafael Lacson, allegedly involved in the crime. As a result, Magsaysay unquestionably turned out to be the hero of the people or "man of the masses" for his crusade for peace and justice. Magsaysay was able to project his image to the public as a simple and dedicated man. When the proper opportunity came, Magsaysay resigned from his cabinet position and joined the opposition, the Nacionalista Party, which subsequently nominated him as the presidential standard bearer. This time, he would run against the Chief Executive. Magsaysay's presidential campaign was characterized by his emphasis on both the barrio and the masses. He moved from barrio to barrio and listened to the grievances of the common people. He shared with them his humble meals and projected himself as a friend of the people. He became more popular with his slogan, "land for the landless." To ensure peaceful, clean, and honest elections throughout the country, the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL) was formally inaugurated in August 1951 with Jaime Ferrer, as the director. Throughout the Philippines, NAMFREL chapters were organized. Rallies were held and leaflets were distributed to urge citizens to vote freely and be vigilant against possible fraud. In the 1953 presidential elections, the Liberal Party lost. Nacionalista Party's bet Ramon Magsaysay won a decisive victory over the incumbent president. 3. Magsaysay Administration (1953-57) On December 30,1953, Ramon Magsaysay and Carlos P. Garcia were inducted into office at the Luneta amidst a million spectators. Both of them were dressed in barong tagalog. President Magsaysay opened the gates of the Malacanang Palace to the masses. He used the basi, an Ilokano drink, instead of the customary foreign liquor to exchange toasts with foreign diplomats. He banned nepotism. Moreover, he prohibited the naming of towns, plazas, bridges, and avenues after him. As President, Magsaysay was empowered to purchase large estates and distribute land to tenant farmers. To implement his land reform, three legislations were made. The Agricultural Tenancy Act of 1954 resulted to the shift of share tenancy system to leasehold system. This law also provided the reduction of land rentals as well as the prohibition of ejection of tenants except for just cause. The Court of Agrarian Relations was also created to determine if there was a just cause in the ejection of tenant. The Land Reform Act of 1955 was also passed to improve landlord-tenant relations. The Presidential Assistant for Community Development (PACD) was also established to ensure rural development. The PACD was created for increased productivity, building of feeder roads, and improvement of government services in the barrios in the field of health and education. Community roads and irrigation projects were expanded. Agricultural experts were sent to the barrios to instruct farmers in improved agricultural production. Loans were extended to farmers through the Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA). Marketing associations, known as Farmers Cooperative and Marketing Associations (FACOMAs) were organized throughout the country. The legislation approved by the Congress on August 11, 1955 empowered the President to break up large landed estates. Lands were to be distributed to tenant farmers. Some public lands were also distributed to qualified settlers. During the first year of the administration 28,000 land patents, covering 241,000 hectares were issued. The following year, the number of land patents was increased to 33,075. In 1955, the National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA) resettled some 8,800 families in 22 settlement projects. It was during Magsaysay's term that Japan agreed to pay war reparations brought about by World War II amounting to $800 million to the Philippines over a 20-year period. Mitigation of peasant unrest became the most successful achievement of the Magsaysay administration. Early in 1954, President Magsaysay secretly sent Benigno "Ninoy" S. Aquino, Jr., a journalist of the Daily Mirror and known Filipino war correspondent in Korea, to confer with Taruc. After four months of negotiations, Taruc on May 17, 1954 unconditionally surrendered to the government and duly recognized the authority of President Magsaysay. Taruc was tried in court and sentenced to 12 years in jail. Many of his men likewise surrendered or were arrested, except Dr. Jesus Lava (later became the chief of the Communist Party of the Philippines), who was captured in May 1964 in a house on P. Leoncio St., Manila. The back of rebellion fell into government custody. To counteract the communist activities in the Philippines and the rest of neighboring countries in the Southeast Asian region the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was established in Manila. On September 8, 1954, the SEATO, patterned after the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was founded with the following member-states: Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and the United States. Senator Claro M. Recto had been lukewarm to the idea of SEATO, for such organization might unnecessarily provoke some Asian neighbors. He was also against the commitment of Filipino troops in foreign wars particularly in Indochina. On the Senate floor, Recto mentioned that President Magsaysay had committed the Philippines in excess of his constitutional authority. Recto opposed Magsaysay on several issues. This included the Foreign Investment Bill, which allowed private U.S. investment in the Philippines, labeling it as another American scheme to impede the country's economic development. Another issue that Recto criticized was about the signing of the Laurel-Langley Agreement that took place on December 15,1954, signed by Senator Jose Laurel and James Langley in Washington D.C. This agreement provided for the gradual abolition of free trade between the U.S. and the Philippines from January 1, 1956 to July 3, 1974. According to him, such agreement would perpetuate the status of the Philippines as an economic satellite. Recto's Rizal Bill, which proposed to make Rizal's Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo compulsory in all universities and colleges was opposed in the Senate by Decoroso Rosales, brother of Archbishop Rosales; Mariano Cuenco, brother of Archbishop Cuenco; and Francisco Rodrigo, former president of Catholic Action. Their contention was that the measure would violate freedom of conscience and religion. On May 12, 1956 the controversial bill was finally approved by a substitute measure authored by Senator Laurel and based on the proposals of Senators Roseller T. Lim and Emmanuel Pelaez. It was now possible for students to be exempted from using the unexpurgated edition of the Noli and Fili on grounds of religious beliefs. By virtue of Republic Act No. 1425, the Rizal Bill was signed as a law on August 26,1956. President Magsaysay, who was hoping for reelection died in a fatal airplane crash at Mt. Manunggal in Cebu on March 17,1957. The next day, March 18 th , Vice-President Carlos P. Garcia was inducted into office to complete the last eight months of Magsaysay in office. In the presidential elections of November 12,1957, Garcia ran under the Nacionalista Party with Jose Laurel, Jr. as his running mate. Jose Yulo and Congressman Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal Party; Manuel Manahan and Vicente Araneta of the Progressive Party; and Senator Claro M. Recto and Lorenzo Tariada of the Lapiang Makabarisa (Nationalist Citizens Party) ran for President and Vice-President, respectively. The election of 1957 was recorded in history as one of the noisiest and most expensive. Garcia won his four-year term as president, but his Liberal Party rival defeated his running mate. Voters were allowed to split their votes for president and vice- president. 4. Garcia Administration (1957-61) On December 30, 1957, President Carlos P. Garcia and Vice- President Diosdado Macapagal were inducted into office. Underscoring the socioeconomic problems that confronted the country, President Garcia anchored his program of government in austerity, which involves temperate spending, less imports, and less extravagant consumption. He was instrumental in pressing the Philippine case in the United States for war damage claims arising from World War II. President Garcia expressed himself as against alien domination in the national economy. On August 28,1958, the National Economic Council passed Resolution No. 204, officially promulgating the Filipino First policy of the administration. The resolution called for the adoption of guidelines giving preferential treatment to Filipino businessmen. Despite pressure from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), President Garcia refused to liberalize import controls. Not surprisingly, Garcia's nationalistic policies caused disapproval from foreign business quarters. The American Chamber of Commerce vehemently opposed the measure. A. V. H. Hartendorp, editor of the American Chamber of Commerce Journal, mentioned that the passage of the NEC resolution would willfully destroy existing industry. The Filipino Chamber of Commerce resigned from the International Chamber of Commerce because of the latter's opposition to the policy. On November 16,1958, a coup d' etat plan of a group of military men was revealed by Bartolome Cabangbang, Congressman from Garcia's home province of Bohol. According to Cabangbang, the initial steps consisted of a propaganda campaign to brand Garcia as a communist supporter and to build up Defense Secretary Jesus Vargas as the heroic defender of the Philippine democracy in the 1951,1953,1955, and 1957 elections. Garcia's administration was also criticized for graft and corruption. Cabangbang claimed that the coup planners had not gone beyond the first stage of their schemes because they could not get the support of the armed forces. As a result of the publications of Cabangbang's revelations, a libel suit was filed against him by Colonel Nicanor Jimenez, one of those alleged to have been involved. Cabangbang won the case. Secretary Vargas and the Chief of Staff, General Alfonso Arellano, later resigned. Nevertheless, a considerable number of accomplishments may be attributed to the Garcia administration. International goodwill by state visits to Japan, the United States, South Vietnam, and Malaysia were also made stronger.There was the revival of Filipino culture. Filipino folk dance groups like the Bayanihan Dance Troupe were encouraged. The government sponsored the annual Republic Cultural Heritage Awards for Filipino scientists, artists, musicians, fiction writers, and historians. The Dr. Jose Rizal Centennial Commission was created to supervise the compilation of writings of Dr. Rizal. From the 1950s to 1969, Carlos "Botong" Francisco, a modernist became popular for his work on paintings and murals. He portrayed scenes from history and characters from Philippine folklore such as Mariang Makiling. He did the mural for the Manila City Hall. Hernando R. Ocampo, Vicente Manansala, and Cesar Legaspi also became known in the art scene. In sculpture, Napoleon Abueva became a byword among art enthusiasts. He uses a wide variety of materials like wood, stone, metals, and a combination of these. Comic strips reflected the concerns of the times as in Kenkoy by Tony Velasquez, Darna and Captain Barbell by Mars Ravelo, Kalabog en Bosyo and Asyong Aksaya by Larry Alcala. In the presidential election of November 14,1961, the results showed that Garcia's zealous campaign had not garnered adequate electoral support. Graft and corruption in the bureaucracy continued to plague the society. The administration failed to stop inflation, smuggling, and criminality. President Garcia lost his bid for reelection. The Liberal Party once again mounted into power. 5. Macapagal Administration (1961-65) On December 30, 1961, Diosdado Macapagal with his running mate Emmanuel Pelaez were inducted into office. In addressing the Congress on January 22,1962, President Macapagal targeted the following areas for his administration: self-sufficiency in the staple food of the people, conditions that will provide more income and a well-formulated socioeconomic program. He promised to strengthen the sense of morality of government by instituting modes of reform and set the example of honest and simple living. On the eve of the turnover of Malacanang to him, Garcia appointed more than 200 of his followers to some important positions in the government. One of these was that of the Central Bank Governor. It was given to former Secretary of Finance Dominador Aytona by outgoing President Garcia. Macapagal appointed Andres Castillo to the said position. Both appointees held office at the same building. On January 2, 1962, the Philippine Constabulary Rangers, called in by Castillo through Defense Secretary Macario Peralta, besieged the building to throw out Aytona. Aytona then filed with the Supreme Court an appeal for the issuance of a writ of prohibition and mandamus with preliminary injunction to pull out Castillo from the Central Bank Governor's chair. The Supreme Court in its decision, upheld Castillo as the legitimate governor of the Central Bank. When Macapagal occupied Malacanang, he vowed that he would root out graft and corruption in the government. High government officials, from cabinet to congressman were constantly the focus of public attention owing to rumors of illegal transactions involving million of pesos. On March 3, 1962, Secretary of Justice Jose W. Diokno ordered the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) agents to raid the offices of the Industrial and Business Management Corporation on San Luis Street (now Teodoro M. Kalaw St.). Arrested were Harry S. Stonehill and his associates John L. and Robert P. Brooks. The NBI raided some forty widely scattered business establishments owned by Stonehill. Seized during the raids were huge amounts of cash, electronic devices, which included telephone-tapping instruments and telephone-jamming device, and most importantly, the so-called Blue Book, a small orange book containing the names of persons in and outside the government, who allegedly received various sums from Stonehill. During the congressional investigation of the Stonehill case, President Macapagal ordered the immediate deportation of Stonehill and Robert P. Brooks since their presence constitutes a menace to the welfare and security of the country. The order was severely criticized by many. Senator Arturo M. Tolentino, a Nacionalista, called the presidential order a dangerous precedent. Six months after his election, President Macapagal issued an executive order shifting Philippine Independence Day from the traditional July 4 to June 12, the day, when in 1898, Philippine Independence from Spain was proclaimed at Kawit, Cavite by Emilio Aguinaldo. Former President Aguinaldo was the guest of honor during the first Independence Day celebration in 1962. July 4 was then declared Philippine-American Friendship Day. In continuing his campaign for nationalism, President Macapagal encouraged the use of the Filipino Language in diplomatic passports, diplomatic credentials, school diplomas, traffic signs and stamps as well as naming of typhoons. It was d uring his term that the Philippines officially filed her claim over North Borneo (Sabah) on June 22,1962. President Macapagal, who loved to call himself the "poor boy from Lubao," saw the need of beneficial changes in the countryside. He was called the "Champion of the Common Man" because of his accomplishments in improving the plight of the masses. On August 8, 1963, Republic Act No. 3844 or the Agricultural Land Reform Code was signed into a law after stormy debates in the Congress. Under the Code, share tenancy system in agriculture had to be replaced with agricultural leasehold system. It provided for the purchase of private farmlands and distribution of lots to landless tenants on easy terms of payment. Experiment in leasehold system was conducted in 12 towns in Central Luzon, declared as land reform areas by President Macapagal. Plaridel, Bulacan became the first land reform area. The new system had reportedly improved the living conditions in the land reform areas. The President also sponsored notable projects like the construction of the North and South Expressway, housing for soldiers and government employees, beautification of Rizal Park, and the establishment of the Philippine Veterans Bank. In external affairs, the Philippines had been cultivating closer relations with Asian countries. President Macapagal proposed a conference among the leaders of the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaya. The conference held in Manila from June 7 to 11,1963 resulted to a 16-point agreement known as the Manila Accord approved on July 31 and was signed by President Macapagal, President Sukarno of Indonesia, and Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman of the Federation of Malaya. Then, on August 6, the three national leaders issued the Manila Declaration, which laid down the principles that would direct their countries known as MAPH1L1NDO (Malaya, Philippines, and Indonesia). In preparation for the creation of Malaysia in 1963, which would include Federation of Malaya and former British crown colonies North Borneo (Sabah) and Sarawak, President Macapagal refused to recognize the establishment of Malaysia to force the latter to recognize the country's territorial claim to Sabah. In the 17 th century, Sabah was given to the Philippines as a part of the agreement between the sultan of Sulu and sultan of Brunei until it was leased in 1878 to British North Borneo Company, which had no authority to bestow Sabah to Malaysia. The contract of lease of 1878 used the word "■padjack," which means "lease" according to Dutch, American, and Spanish scholars. The British had translated it to "cession." The Philippines, in an attempt to resolve the Sabah issue suggested that the question be elevated to World Court for decision, but the Malaysian leaders refused. The Cobbold Commission formed by the British and Malayan government determined that about two- thirds of Sabah residents wanted to join Malaysia. A United Nations mission sent to Borneo held a poll regarding the Sabah territorial claim issue. It had a similar finding. The Federation of Malaysia was established. On September 16, 1963, the Philippines severed diplomatic ties with Malaysia. Malaysia closed its embassy in Manila as well. MAPHILINDO ceased to operate. The President's integrity and impressive record of accomplishments made it possible for him to lead his people and withstand the pressing needs of the nation. Despite the government's concern to solve the problem of peace and order, graft and corruption as well as inflation, the Nacionalista Party took advantage of public displeasure on some issues like the administration's decontrol policy, which favored foreign investors and the floating rate of the peso. Instead of P2 to $1, the peso devaluated to the dollar at a P3.90. Many hopeful candidates exercised various political schemes in upcoming elections. Senate President Ferdinand E. Marcos had his film biography shown titled Iginuhit ng Tadhana (Written by Fate). It did a lot to project a good image of the leading character in the movie. People came to know the life story of Marcos. Senate President Marcos was born in Sarrat, Ilocos Norte in 1917. While he was still a law student he was incriminated in a politically motivated murder in 1937. Marcos was convicted in November 1939 for the assassination of Assemblyman Julio Nalundasan, one of his father's political rivals. In the Laoag Provincial Jail he spent time preparing his defense. Released on bail, he graduated at the University of the Philippines (U.P.), topped the bar, appealed his own case before the Supreme Court, and won acquittal. During World War II, he served as an intelligence officer of the liberation forces. In 1949, he was elected to the House of Representatives and to the Senate in 1959 under the Liberal Party. In 1964, he joined the Nacionalista Party and became the party's presidential bet. His wife Imelda and her circle of "Blue Ladies" gave him full support. His popular maxim, "This nation can be great again," won the hearts of the Filipino people. In the presidential election of November 9, 1965, the Liberal Party lost. The Nacionalista Party once more became the party in power. Marcos won a big majority. 6. Marcos Administration (1965-1986) For more than 40 million Filipinos, what they wanted to see at that time was whether or not the present government can provide the leadership necessary to restore peace and harmony in the society. During the first term of his administration (1965-1969), President Ferdinand E. Marcos met the enormous task of restructuring the country's social and economic conditions. Prior to his term of office, the national treasury was primarily empty due to heavy government spending. The government-owned bank itself, the Philippine National Bank (PNB) was nearly insolvent, due to unpaid loans to government corporations, which amounted to more than P400 million. President Marcos was able to stabilize the government finances by means of effective collection of taxes and getting loans from foreign banks and governments. To achieve self-sufficiency in rice and corn, financial aid and technological assistance were extended to farmers. More aid to agriculture was offered by the government through the construction of more irrigation systems, cultivation of a rice variety called LR8 better known as Miracle Rice and other fast growing rice seeds. This Miracle Rice propelled the Green Revolution in rice production in many Third World countries. Building of more roads, bridges, schoolhouses, and other structures like the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) complex in 1969, which consists of a theater for the performing arts, museum, and an art library were likewise done to best serve the needs of a growing population. Vigorous campaign against smuggling, kidnapping, drug trafficking, and other crime syndicates was also given emphasis, since the peace and order situation was quite alarming owing to the rising incidence of criminality. Rapid development and economic progress characterized President Marcos' first term. In general, the people were satisfied by the President's performance, thus resulting to his reelection in 1969. He was the only President of the Philippines to be reelected for a second term. On December 30,1969, he took his oath of office in the native language, the first ever for a Philippine president. President Marcos also met opposing views during his first term in office. The people were surprised when he allowed the Philippines to give military support to the United States in the Vietnam War. Late in 1964, when Marcos was still the Senate President, he opposed the bill providing for the sending of a military engineering battalion to Vietnam. He made clear that the sending of Philippine combat troops to war is unconstitutional. Based on the 1935 Philippine Constitution, the country renounces war as an instrument of national policy. No less than 3,000 members of the youth sector demonstrated on the first day of the Manila Summit scheduled from October 24 to 25,1966. They rallied near the American Embassy and the Manila Hotel, where the U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson was billeted. They denounced the participation of the country in the Vietnam War as well as condemned the abuses and brutality of the police who lost their temper at the height of the political protest. The police reacted by filing charges against 41 students for breach of peace and assault. President Marcos ordered the dropping of the charges against the students to put the situation in order. The Summit was held regarding the settlement of the war in Vietnam. Delegates from the United States, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, South Vietnam, and South Korea were invited. The conference resulted to the preparation of three documents: a joint communique; a declaration of peace and progress in Asia and the Pacific; and the goals of freedom. The joint communique pertained to the summary of the discussions of the seven nations, with emphasis on conditions in South Vietnam, the search for peace, economic stability, and progress. The declaration of peace and progress included the following ideals: that aggression must not succeed; that the bonds of poverty, illiteracy and disease be broken; that the economic, social, and cultural cooperation within the Asian and Pacific region be strengthened; and that there would be reconciliation and peace throughout Asia. The third document, "The Goals of Freedom," contained a commitment to achieve the ideals contained in the second document. President Marcos succeeded in including in the communique that aid to South Vietnam refers not to military but to the economic and social assistance. Any Philippine effort to increase her aid to South Vietnam shall be subjected to constitutional and congressional ethics. Be that as it may, Marcos was reelected to an unprecedented second full term in 1969. He based his campaign on his achievements, which include the increase of gross domestic product, expansion of infrastructure, and the breakthrough in rice production in which made us an exporter of the product. His popularity started to decline due to perceived dishonesty in the 1969 campaign, alleged government corruption, and worsening peace situation. With the global economic crisis brought about by the rising oil price, the Philippine economy was adversely affected in the 1970s. Aside from economic recession, civil unrest caused by the ascendancy of dirty politics, graft and corruption continued to afflict the nation. There was also the upsurge of communism and subversion. The increasing gap between the rich and the poor became more evident. The 1935 Philippine Constitution was seen by the Marcos administration as unable to cope with the new socioeconomic problems of the country. Due to the deplorable conditions of the country, student militarism became intense. Realizing the need for unification and the importance of knowing the issues, student organizations, councils, and fraternities were formed. Among the militant groups were the Kabataang Makabayan (KM) and the National Union of Students of the Philippines (NUSP). Professors and other intellectuals played a major role in providing support. Some had formed and headed their own organizations and provided some radical ideas through lectures, meetings, symposia, and classroom discussions. Aside from them, various labor groups closely associated themselves with student movements. In January 1970, President Marcos met NUSP President Edgar "Edjop" Jopson of the Ateneo de Manila and other student leaders in a dialogue at Malacanang. This took place four days after a riot took place following the State of the Nation Address of the President on January 26. These youth leaders were calling for a nonpartisan Constitutional Convention. They wanted an assurance that the president would not run for a third term for this is sanctioned by the present constitution. However, the dialogue was unproductive. Another confrontation occurred between riot police and about 2,000 demonstrators outside the Palace. The demonstrators were attempting to ram a fire truck through Gate 4 of Malacanang. This is now known as the "Battle of Mendiola." By dawn, six students had already been killed. The press dubbed these events as the beginning of the First Quarter Storm. Protests and riots continued. After holding a People's Congress in Plaza Miranda, around 3,000 youths and militant groups attacked the U.S. embassy in Manila in February. They were accusing the United States with being a fascist imperialist power supporting the Marcos administration. Various schools in Manila became nurseries of student activism. The following month, the Movement for a Democratic Philippines organized a People's March, a 23-kilometer march from Quezon City- Manila Rotonda along the streets of Manila and ending at the Post Office building (Plaza Lawton) in Manila. Tt was in the 1960s that President Marcos allegedly created a military force composed of Muslim youths to forcibly take Sabah. The invasion did not take place. The Muslim young recruits were killed by their commanders after they have discovered the real reason of their training. The marchers were prevented from entering the U.S. embassy. By the early 1970s two separatist groups, the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and the communist New People's Army (NPA) waged guerrilla warfare against the Marcos administration. Nur Misuari, a respected intellectual and campus radical at the University of the Philippines (in the mid-1960s), formally established the MNLF in an island off the coast of Perak, Malaysia in 1971. Muslim secessionist movement in Mindanao was gaining ground. Misuari was among the first group of 90 trainees who worked for the independence of the Moro nation (Bangsa Moro). Founded two years thereafter was the National Democratic Front (NDF), serving as the political arm of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP). It was given the duty to make strategic alliances with militant, government, and other opposition groups. The NPA became the military force (Hukbo) of the CPP. The political dissension reached its peak in the so-called "Plaza Miranda Massacre" on the evening of August 21, 1971 during the proclamation rally of the Liberal Party (LP) candidates for the local elections scheduled on November 8,1971. Unidentified men on the platform hurled two fragmentation grenades and killed 8 persons and injured 120, including most of the opposition senatorial candidates. Among those injured were Jovito Salonga, John Osmena, Eddie llarde, Ramon Mitra, and Eva Estrada Kalaw. (The CPP-NPA under the direction of Jose Maria Sison admitted decades after that they had caused the bombing. Sison had anticipated that the split of political leadership in a revolutionary situation would lead to a communist takeover). President Marcos blamed the communists for the bombing incident. He vowed to impose martial law if the communist attacks persist. On the same day, President Marcos issued Proclamation No. 880, suspending the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus in order to maintain peace and order and preserve the au thority of the State. However on January 12, 1972, the President restored this constitutional right, except for those who were already in detention. Terrorist bombings of public and private property and residences ensued. On September 11, two explosions hit the main office of the Manila Electric Company. Assassination attempts on President Marcos, Congressman Eduardo Cojuangco, Senator Jose Roy, and Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile were allegedly to be carried out by the rebels. These destabilization efforts would ostensibly warrant the imposition of martial law in the country. Senator Ninoy Aquino who became the most outspoken critic of the Marcos administration in various issues, mentioned in his privileged speech, that sources in the Armed Forces had revealed to him plans for Oplan Sagittarius, which would place Manila and its environs under martial law. Soon this revelation became a dismal reality. Facing leftist insurgency and mass unrest, Marcos declared martial law. On September 23, 1972, at 7:30 p.m., President Marcos appeared on nationwide radio and television to formally announce that he had placed the entire Philippines under martial law as of 9 p.m. of the previous day. The implementation of martial law in the country was pursuant to Proclamation No. 1081, which he had signed on September 21,1972. This law was declared by the President "to save the Republic" from lawlessness and civil strife. Some sectors believed that President Marcos declared martial law as his second term was about to end. The constitution was suspended. The Congress was dissolved and President Marcos governed by issuing presidential decrees, letters of instruction, and other rules deemed favorable to the society. Under martial law, President Marcos being the Chief Executive had emergency powers. The President suspended the writ of habeas corpus and curtailed the freedom of speech, press and assembly. He also imposed strict implementation of curfew. Political opponents and detractors were arrested and detained. Among them were Senators Ninoy Aquino, Jose Diokno and Ramon Mitra, Teofisto Guingona, Jose Nolledo, Jose Mari-Velez (radio- television commentator), and journalist Maximo Soliven. Mass media were closed and placed under military control. Some of them were later permitted to reopen but under strict censorship. Even public utilities and industries were seized and placed under.government control. These included the Manila Electric Company (Meralco), Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company, and the Iligan Integrated Steel Mill. Student demonstrations, public political meetings, and labor strikes were strictly prohibited. All schools were closed for one week. Curfew was imposed from midnight to 4 a.m. Travel ban was imposed on Filipinos who wanted to go abroad, except on official missions. The ban was lifted on August 22,1977, together with the curfew. A force of nearly 1,000 men attacked Marawi City on October 21,1972. The assailants called themselves the Mindanao Revolutionary Council for Independence, led by a former police chief of Marawi City. After the incident, Nur Misuari and his Bangsa Moro Army (BMA) likewise initiated armed struggle in Sulu, Cotabato, and Zamboanga. Muslim separatist movement in South began in the 1970s. After the country gained independence, the Filipino government has encouraged non-Muslims to move to Mindanao. The Filipino-Muslims view this policy as designed to de-Islamize the region and to take control of the island's resources. This resulted to years of bloody encounters between the government and the separatist groups. Amidst confusion in the country, President Marcos outlined his land reform program in accordance to Presidential Decree No. 27. This law provides that all tenants whose landlords own more than seven hectares of rice and corn lands are to be sold at a price two- and-a-half times the average annual production. The eligible tenant would receive a Certificate of Land Transfer (CLT) identifying his cultivated area and promising him the right to purchase the land. President Marcos took forceful steps against the heightening illegal drug trade. On January 3,1973, he ordered the immediate execution of Lim Seng by firing squad for drug trafficking. The highly publicized execution, shown on national television was meant to serve as a warning for drug dealers. A new constitution was promulgated. The 1973 Constitution established a modified parliamentary form of government with the Prime Minister as the head of the government and the President as ceremonial head of state. Both were to be elected by the unicameral National Assembly. In the plebiscite of January 10-15, 1973, the citizen assemblies, composed of voters (including the 15-year olds) were reported to have ratified the constitution by 95% positive majority, in open and group voting by raising their hands. (The assembly could declare a quorum with 20 percent attendance). At noon of January 17,1973, President Marcos signed the constitution and thus, such body of laws was put into effect. Mr. Marcos ruled as President and Prime Minister under martial law powers until 1981. The transitory provisions of the constitution legalized all decrees, proclamations and orders of the President, and extended his term of office beyond 1973. President Marcos sought popular sanction of his acts by referendums. A referendum held on July 27-28,1973, asked the people to decide whether they wanted President Marcos to continue beyond 1973. According to the official results, 90% of the voters voted yes. President Marcos, moreover, continued exercising his emergency powers under martial law as approved by 92% voters in a third referendum held on February 27-28, 1975. The President claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating a Bagong Lipunan (New Society) based on new social and political values. HLs proposed reforms for the building of this New Society are based on the acronym PLEDGES. P - Peace and Order L - Land Reform E - Economic Development D - Development of Moral Values G - Government Reforms E - Educational Reforms S - Social Services To check the abuses of the military men, President Marcos established the military tribunals to try military officers and men who commit crimes. The citizen assemblies used to ratify the constitution and amendments subsequently became the barangays. The Kabataang Barangay (Youth Council) was later added at local, provincial, and national levels of government, headed by Tmee Marcos, the president's eldest daughter. At the end of 1975, the Sangguniang Bay an was created in every town council. The National Legislative Advisory Council (Batasang Bayan) was created in September 1976. Before conducting the first national election under Martial Law, President Marcos implemented a new Election Code of 1978. Marcos formed the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL or New Society Movement), which fielded candidates in all regions, headed by Mrs. Imelda Romualdez Marcos in Metro Manila. The opposition parties of the past, such as the Liberal Party boycotted the elections. However, Lakas ng Bayan (Laban or People's Power) led by former Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. became the principal contending party of the KBL for the national elections. This election brought about a landslide victory for the KBL. In 1975, the Metro Manila Commission was organized through Presidential Decree No. 824 to supervise community development and services in the National Capital Region. Its first governor was Mrs. Marcos, the First Lady. Mrs. Marcos sought for the construction of edifices for the Filipino people. In 1975, the Manila Planetarium, a dome-shaped structure was inaugurated. It was primarily built for students to ponder on lessons about celestial bodies while seated. The Philippine International Convention Center (PICC) was made operational in 1976. The structure was regarded as the most modern institution in Asia on world conferences and meetings. To provide low-cost shelter facilities to urban families, the BLISS program (Bagong Lipunan Improvement of Sites and Services) was established on June 11,1978. President Marcos took steps in liberalizing Philippine policy toward Communist countries such as the People's Republic of China (June 9,1975) and the Soviet Union (June 2,1976). He opened diplomatic relations with Romania and Yugoslavia and granted permission for Communist traders and vessels to enter the country, thus, ending a ban that had been in force since 1945. Relations with the United States continued. The status of the US military bases was redefined when some amendments to the RP-U.S. Military Bases Agreement in 1947 was signed on January 6,1979, where the U.S. acknowledged the sovereignty of the Philippines over the American military bases and reduced their total area. The contract also provided that the U.S. would pay rentals to the Philippines for the use of the bases. In 1979, through the joint cooperation of the Philippine government and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the Philippine Refugee Processing Center (PRPC) was established in Morong, Bataan for the war refugees from Vietnam, Kampuchea, and Laos. In 1980, the Light Rail Transit Authority was organized to construct the first light railway transit (LRT) system in the country. This was to ease the problem of traffic and congestion from Monumento to Baclaran. Several opposition groups including the church hierarchy sought for the end of martial law. Urban insurgents carried out series of bombings in Manila in defiance to military rule. Finally on January 17, 1981, President Marcos signed Proclamation No. 2045 ending martial law in the country. Changes in 1981 gave birth to the "New Republic," historically speaking, the Fourth Philippine Republic. On June 16, 1981, the first presidential election after the lifting of martial law was held. President Marcos (KBL presidential candidate) won a new six-year term. He prevailed over other candidates—Alejo Santos of Nacionalista Party and Bartolome Cabangbang of the Federal Party. Santos was a former guerrilla leader and defense secretary while Cabangbang was then the President of the Statehood USA movement. Opposition to the Marcos administration persisted as the conditions during the martial law ensued. Protestations against the administration continued to be restricted under the provisions of the Presidential Commitment Order (PCO) and arrest and seizure without warrant orders (ASSO). These laws allowed the president to order the detention of anyone suspected of subversion or rebellion. Senator Benigno Aquino, Jr., a leading oppositionist to President Marcos was brutally murdered by a shot from behind while going down the plane of China Airlines (CAL) on August 21,1983 at around 1:00 p.m. When he decided to come back in 1983, the government tried to stop him, noting that some people wanted to kill him. Yet he was able to fly back to the Philippines upon returning home from exile in the United States. Ninoy Aquino, born in 1932 entered politics at the age of 22 and became the youngest mayor, then governor, and finally a senator of the Philippines. He was married to Corazon Cojuangco in 1954. He was imprisoned in 1972 after martial law was declared. He spent nearly eight years in a military detention cell at Fort Bonifacio. President Marcos allowed him to leave the country in 1980 and to move his family to the United States to undergo a heart bypass surgery. Upon Aquino's arrival at the Manila International Airport (now named the Ninoy Aquino International Airport in his honor), he was shot dead while in the custody of the guards from the Aviation Security Command (AVSECOM). Government reports placed the blame on Rolando Galman, the alleged lone gunman. They laid the body of the assassin near Aquino on the airport tarmac. The assassination led the country into the forefront of international news. Thousands of Filipinos sympathized with Aquino's bereaved family. Many joined his funeral march. His assassination became a catalyst that united the Filipinos to fight the evils of dictatorship openly. The battlecry "Ninoy, hindi ka nag-iisa" (you are not alone) and other similar slogans were heard in various demonstrations that had erupted in Metro Manila and other areas in the country. Many militant and cause- oriented groups were organized. They called for an end to Marcos regime. These groups included the following: August Twenty-One Movement (ATOM), Justice for Aquino, Justice for All QAJA), and Bagong Alyansang Makabayan (BAYAN). The opposition members of the Batasan took the step in filing a case for the impeachment of the President for graft and corruption, culpable violence of the Constitution, gross violation of his oath of office, and other high crimes. On August 13, 1985, the impeachment signatories filed the resolution. On the same date, the pre- government KBL, with the majority vote of 105 (over 55 opposition members) decided to reject the resolution to impeach the President. Investigation of Aquino's death and that of his alleged killer, was assigned to a five-man independent body created pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 1886 issued by President Marcos on October 14,1983. The body known as Agrava Fact-Finding Board (AFFB) was headed by Mrs. Corazon Juliano Agrava, a retired Court of Appeals Justice. The four other members were businessman Dante Santos, labor leader Ernesto Herrera, lawyer Luciano Salazar, and educator Amado Dizon. After almost two years of investigation, AFFB submitted two reports to President Marcos the Minority and Majority Reports. The Minority Report, written by the Chairman alone, submitted on October 23,1984, stated that the Aquino Murder was a military conspiracy. It implicated that only Brig. Gen. Luther Custodio (commander of the AVSECOM) and six other soldiers. Chairman Agrava cleared General Fabian Ver and Major General Prospero Olivas of the crime. The Majority Report signed by all the four members of the board confirmed that Aquino's murder was a military conspiracy with a soldier as an assassin but it implicated 26 men in the crime, including General Ver, Maj. Gen. Olivas, Brig. Gen. Custodio, and others. President Marcos referred the two reports to the Sandiganbayan for trial of the 26 accused people (including one civilian). The trial of the Aquino-Galman double murder case, known as the "Trial of the Century," began in February 1985 and lasted for seven months. On December 2, 1985, the three-member Sandiganbayan presided over by Justice Manuel Pamaran, released its verdict unanimously acquitting all the 26 accused. The people were skeptical on the outcome of the prosecution. In 1985, the Philippine political and economic scenario worsened. There was a slow down of economic activities largely brought about by the increase of oil price in the world market. In contrast, the country's traditional exports such as sugar and coconut oil were experiencing price decline. The government's recovery scheme, which started in 1984 through Sariling Sikap livelihood program suffered a setback due to graft and corruption in the bureaucracy. Foreign investors were apprehensive to expand resources because of political instability. Furthermore, the anti- Marcos demonstrations affected the tourism industry. To have enough supply of foreign exchange and to restructure the country's foreign debts, President Marcos negotiated with foreign creditors, which include the World Bank, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The country's foreign debt has reached $26 billion. The country's foreign creditors pressured President Marcos to institute reforms as a condition for the grant of additional economic and financial help. Since the President needed a new mandate from the people to carry out a national economic recovery program, the Batasang Pambansa enacted a law scheduling a special presidential election on February 7, 1986. This was to prove that Mr. Marcos was still in control of the situation. There were several opposition leaders who would like to run for presidency and one of them was former Senator Salvador "Doy" Laurel, son of the late President Jose P. Laurel who was nominated in June 1985 by the United Nationalist Democratic Organization (UNIDO). Majority of the opposition and other anti-Marcos groups proposed Mrs. Corazon "Cory" Aquino, wife of the slain oppositon leader, be the presidential standard bearer. Mrs. Aquino agreed to run if at least one milllion people would sign a petition urging her to run for that position. Joaquin "Chino" Roces, who organized the Cory Aquino for President Movement (CAPM), was able to obtain more than a million signatures nationwide. The snap presidential election of February 7,1986, witnessed for the first time, a woman candidate under the joint UNIDO-PDP- Laban Party (United Nationalist Democratic Organization-People's Democratic Party- Lakas ng Bayan). Doy Laurel, upon the advice of Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin decided to sacrifice his presidential ambition for the sake of a united opposition. He became the vice- presidential candidate. In the official tallies made by the Commission on Elections (COMELEC), as certified by the Batasang Pambansa, the Marcos- Tolentino ticket won. But as tabulated by the National Movement for Free Elections (Namfrel), with their Operation Quick-Count, Aquino and Laurel had a margin of around 800,000 votes to win against the KBL candidates. There were reports of fraud, ballot box snatching, vote buying, and intimidation during the snap elections. Thirty computer workers walked out of the COMELEC tabulation center at the Philippine International Convention Center (PICC), protesting that the results were being manipulated. On February 15, 1986, the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines issued a pastoral letter to be read in all Catholic churches, saying that the government had lost its moral basis due to pieces of evidence of electoral fraud. The following day, Cory Aquino led a rally called Tagumpay ng Bay an (Victory of the People) at the Luneta Grandstand. Over two million people attended the assembly. She proclaimed a victory for the people despite the proclamation of Marcos as the winner. She vowed to lead a civil disobedience campaign against Marcos. She also allowed the boycott of crony-owned companies and products. She presented an initial list of crony enterprises that would be the target of consumer boycotts. These included the three major newspapers, the San Miguel commercial empire (which was then controlled by Eduardo Cojuangco, her cousin but a strong Marcos supporter) and a number of banks reportedly managed by Marcos cronies. While the anti-Marcos sentiment in the country was becoming more intense, a group of young officers in the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) was planning to overthrow the Marcos dictatorship. The group was known as Reform the AFP Movement (RAM). This movement started in March 1985. This group of officers who graduated from the Philippine Military Academy wanted the restoration of professionalism in the military and to regain its honor and pride. Minister of Defense Juan Ponce Enrile secretly sympathized with the RAM. The RAM soldiers were also known as reformists. Colonel Gregorio "Gringo" Honasan, chief security officer of Enrile, together with the reformists decided to stage a coup d' etat after President Marcos and AFP Chief of Staff Fabian C. Ver faltered to consider RAM's pleadings. Nonetheless, the President discovered the coup plot. Many of the reformists were arrested. Consequently, the RAM soldiers sought refuge at the Ministry of National Defense building at Camp Aguinaldo in Quezon City. General Fidel V. Ramos, the AFP vice-chief of staff and Philippine Constabulary Chief, sided with the reformists. He took control of the Philippine Headquarters at Camp Crame, located across Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) from Camp Aguinaldo. On February 22,1986, at 6 p.m., Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and Deputy Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. Fidel Ramos, gave a press conference announcing their withdrawal of support for the President. Minister Enrile admitted that it was Mrs. Aquino who won the elections. Marcos had won through fraud. He called on Marcos to step down from his office. He also asked the people to support the military defectors. Immediately, Jaime Cardinal Sin through the Radio Veritas, appealed for public support. On the same day, thousands of people went to Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) to form a human barricade. These protests were the culmination of people's resistance against the 20-year Marcos regime. Now known as People Power Revolution (also known as EDSA Revolution), these nonviolent mass demonstrations that lasted for four days involved over 200,000 civilians, as well as political and military figures. Men stood and served as perimeter guards and set up barricades and makeshift sandbags in case loyalist troops decided to attack. Priests and nuns led prayer vigils. The people were armed only with prayers, rosaries, and statues of Mary, the mother of Jesus. The mood in the street later on became festive, with a number of them bringing their whole families. Several groups sang Bay an Ko (My Land) and frequently flashed the LAB AN (fight) sign, an "L" formed with their thumb and index finger. On February 23, the Marcos loyalist troops under General Ver prepared to attack. At about 8 p.m., of the same day, armored tanks and carriers under the command of Brig. Gen. Artemio Tadiar, arrived at EDSA in front of Camp Crame to assault the camp.The soldiers were not able to carry out the plan because of the people blocking the way. Guns and tanks were met with statues of Mother Mary, rosaries, flowers, sandwiches, and even hot coffee from demonstrators. At dawn, marines captured the Logistics Command inside Camp Aguinaldo. The 15 th Air Force Strike Wing with seven helicopter gunships led by Colonel Antonio Sotelo decided to defect to the rebels' side. Reformist soldiers led by Colonel Mariano Santiago took over Channel 4, the government television station. At Villamor Air Base, rebel helicopters had already assaulted. Malacanang was being fired upon. Mr. Marcos, by that time was advised by U.S. Senator Paul Laxalt to "cut now and cut cleanly" meaning that, he should now step down and leave. Senator Laxalt, a close confidante of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, was called up by Marcos earlier that day to get an indication of mood in Washington. President Ronald Reagan was said to have offered political asylum in the United States. On the morning of February 25, Ferdinand Marcos took his oath of office at the Malacanang Palace grounds. At around 7 a.m., a clash between the loyal government troops and the reformists took place. When the snipers stationed at the government-owned Channel 9 began shooting at the reformists, many rebel soldiers surged to the station. Before the end of the ceremonies, some television channels went off the air after the rebels destroyed their transmission lines. By 9:00 p.m., of the same day, Marcos and his family and some friends fled Malacanang Palace and were taken by four U.S. helicopters to Clark Air Base in Pampanga, then to Guam and finally to Honolulu, Hawaii by U.S. military planes. Within minutes after the Marcoses had fled, the palace guards left their posts. The people in front of the Palace gate stormed into the building. Many Filipinos celebrated the downfall of despotism after the four-day People Power Movement that prompted President Marcos to seek refuge in America. Throughout his 20-year tenure, Marcos maintained a close alliance with the United States. When the Marcoses left the Philippines, the country was burdened with $27 billion in external debt. Ln 1988, Marcos was indicted by a US grand jury in New York on federal racketeering charges relating to his years in office. Before he could stand trial, Marcos died in Honolulu on September 28, 1989. The Philippine government allowed Imelda Marcos to return to the Philippines and place Marcos's remains in a refrigerated crypt in Ilocos Norte in 1991. 7. Aquino Administration (1986-1992) On February 25,1986, Mrs. Corazon C. Aquino took her oath of office at Club Filipino in San Juan, Metro Manila simultaneous with the oath-taking ceremonies taking place at the Malacanang Palace for Mr. Marcos. After the Marcoses had left the palace, President Aquino immediately worked for the reorganization of the government. President Aquino is credited primarily for restoring democracy in the Philippines. The promulgation of a new constitution in 1987 gave rise to the Fifth Republic. At the onset of her administration, she formed a provisional government, restored civil liberties like freedom of speech and press, released political detainees, dissolved the Batasang Pambansa, appointed new Supreme Court justices, and ordered the resignation of incumbent government officials. She established the Presidential Commission on Government Reorganization (PCGR) under Luis Villafuerte. The Presidential Commission on Human Rights (PCHR) was also created under the leadership of former Senator Jose W. Diokno. On May 5, 1987, the Commission on Human Rights replaced the PCHR pursuant to Executive Order No. 163. Aside from its primordial task to investigate cases of human rights violations committed during the previous administration, the Human Rights Commission has the power to examine the administration and conditions of jails, prisons or detention facilities. The commission shall also investigate the violations committed by the present government, as well as private parties. The Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG) was also created to recover the ill-gotten wealth taken by corrupt government officials. This was chaired by former Senator Jovito Salonga. The private ownership of media was retained but newspapers and radio-television stations that were believed to be owned by Marcos cronies were sequestered. Media companies that were taken by Marcos were returned to their owners among them, the ABS-CBN Network of the Lopezes. The Constitutional Commission, pursuant to Article V of Proclamation No. 3 (issued on March 25,1986) was assigned to draft the 1987 Philippine Constitution. With 48 members, under the chairmanship of Justice Cecilia Munoz-Palma, the Constitutional Commission convened on June 2, 1986 at the Batasang Pambansa Building in Diliman, Quezon City. The proposed constitution was approved by the Constitutional Commission on the night of October 12,1986, by a vote of 44-2. Delegate Decoroso Rosales signed subsequently by affixing his thumbmark at his sickbed on October 14,1986, in favor of the draft. Delegate Lino Brocka had resigned earlier. The plebiscite held on February 2, 1987 led to the ratification of the proposed constitution after the people voted in favor of it. This body of laws superseded the Freedom Constitution, which had repealed the 1973 Charter of the Marcos regime. The 1987 Philippine Constitution included a provision limiting the presidency to a single six-year term. On May 11, 1987, the first election under the new Constitution took place. It was for the Members of the Congress. The election of all members of the city or municipal council was held subsequently to that of the Congress. The barangay elections were held on March 28,1989. To improve the living standards in the rural areas, President Aquino launched the Community and Employment and Development Program (CEDP). Infrastructure projects as well as job opportunities were made possible through this program. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) pursuant to Republic Act No. 6657 was implemented on June 10,1988. This was designed to include all agricultural lands not only to lands devoted to rice and com. This law instituted the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) to promote justice and industrialization. From 1988-1989, the Program for Decentralized Educational Development (PRODED) was instituted in all public elementary schools to enhance the quality standard of education in the said level. In secondary education, the Secondary Education Development Program (SEDP) was likewise adopted. The launching of a five-year program by the Department of Tourism (DOT) known as "Philippines: Fiesta Islands of Asia" improved the tourism industry. Festive celebrations were made in different parts of the archipelago to attract more tourists and generate income not only for the townfolks but for the government as well. The Aquino administration intensified the privatization of the business sector. The 1987 Constitution does not favor an economy managed or controlled by the state. Regarding the justice system, death penalty was abolished to give the criminals a chance to rehabilitate. For capital offenses, the penalty imposed was reclusion perpetua or life imprisonment. In 1988, President Aquino made foreign trips to strengthen friendly relations with other countries, which include China, Switzerland, Italy, Hong Kong, and Vietnam. On September 13 of the same year, President Aquino signed Republic Act (RA) No. 6675 known as the Generic Act. It provided for the prescription and production of drugs and medicines identified by their generic names to promote drug safety and ensure the adequate supply of drugs at the lowest price. The Department of Health pursuant to Executive Order No. 119 adopted the use of generics. Community Health Service was also established in every locality to promote the physical state of every community. Despite the government's popular support, opposition within the military as well as Communist insurgency continued. Slow pace of economic development in the country aroused discontent. In December 1989, a coup attempt was staged against the Aquino administration. The U.S. Air Force jets assisted the Philippine government forces in suppressing the mutiny. It was on May 23, 1989 that former Senator Arturo Tolentino and former Solicitor General Estelito Mendoza submitted a petition to the Supreme Court for and in behalf of the petitioners. The petition prayed that the Supreme Court issue a writ of mandamus to compel the issuance of travel documents to former President Marcos and his family. The health of Mr. Marcos has greatly deteriorated and he was insistent in returning to the Philippines. The petitioners mentioned that President Aquino has no power to bar former President Marcos and his family to return home since the President has neither the power to impair the liberty of abode nor the power to impair the right to travel. The Aquino government refused to allow Marcos and his family to return to the Philippines on the ground that their return would endanger the national security and the national interest of the country. Owing to the police power of the state, President Aquino may bar former President Marcos and his family to return. Solicitor General Frank Chavez, the counsel for the respondents, defended the decision of President Aquino based on the provisions of the Constitution concerned with the protection of the people and the police power of the government. Tolentino and Mendoza answered that those constitutional provisions are not sources of power of the President. They pointed out, the police power is not properly to be exercised by the executive but a power exercised by the legislative branch. The lawyers for the petitioners also claimed that the right to travel was not only guaranteed by the Constitution but also by international law. The lawyers for the petitioners argued that even if the respondents had a discretion to withhold the giving of travel documents or perform acts that would bar Marcos and his family to return to the Philippines, this discretion was not allowable because it would be a grave abuse of discretion. On October 13,1989, the Supreme Court affirmed its original decision against the petitioners. The Court declared the power of the President to bar a Filipino citizen to return to his country a residual power, which is lodged in the executive power of the President. Chief Justice Marcelo Fernan labelled it as a presidential prerogative. The distinction between right to travel and the right to return made by Justice Cortes in the decision of the Court is the secondary basis to bar former President Marcos and his family to return to the Philippines. Although the right to travel is explicitly provided in the Bill of Rights of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, the right to return is not. Mr. Marcos had already died in Honolulu on September 28, 1989. Finally, the Philippine government allowed Imelda Marcos to return to the Philippines and place Marcos's remains in a refrigerated crypt in Ilocos Norte, his home province in 1991. It was in December 1990 that 16 military men were convicted in the Aquino-Galman double murder case. However, the mastermind of the military conspiracy was still unascertained. The issue was reopened and investigated after the Supreme Court had declared a mistrial of the case. It was also during the Aquino administration that the review of the Military Bases Agreement (MBA) between the U.S. and the Philippines took place. This review was reported to have led to an agreement increasing to $1.2 billion, the total amount of U.S. economic and military aid to the Philippines during the last two years of the RP-US Military Bases Agreement. On September 16, 1991, the Philippine Senate, by a vote of 12-11, rejected the RP-US Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Security, which will take the place of the RP-US Military Bases Agreement upon its expiration. The eleven votes in favor of the treaty's ratification were below the two-third votes needed to ratify a treaty, as prescribed by the Constitution. Those who voted for the retention of these bases were Senators Heherson Alvarez, Edgardo Angara, Neptali Gonzales, Ernesto Herrera, Joey Lina, John Osmena, Vicente Paterno, Santanina Rasul, Alberto Romulo, Leticia Shahani, and Mamintal Tamano. Those who voted "no" to bases were Senators Jovito Salonga, Juan Ponce Enrile, Agapito Aquino, Joseph Estrada, Teofisto Guingona, Sotero Laurel, Ernesto Maceda, Orlando Mercado, Aquilino Pimentel, Rene Saguisag, Wigberto Tanada, and Victor Ziga. The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, which spewed lahar to nearby provinces in Luzon affected the possible extension of the bases agreement. With the Clark Air Base in Pampanga covered with heavy tons of volcanic ashes, the U.S. government decided to move its servicemen and their families out of the country. Not far from Clark Air Base, the Subic Bay Naval station was also closed in 1992. The series of volcanic eruptions caused by Mount Pinatubo took place from July 12 to 15, 1991. Its ashfalls reached as far as Metro Manila, Mindoro, and Palawan to the South and Cambodia to the east. Considered as the world's worst volcanic eruption in the 20 th century, the Mt. Pinatubo eruption has caused great loss of lives and properties. The country was once again visited by an environmental disaster after it had a dreadful one a year earlier, which took place on July 16,1990 at 4:26 in the afternoon (DST), where two strong earthquakes struck Luzon. Typhoons and floods had caused the wear and tear of many roads and highways. Due to deforestation and illegal logging practices, which had started in the past administrations, even mild typhoons caused some flash floods and devastation such as typhoon "Uring" in Ormoc, Leyte on November 5,1991. The Philippines likewise suffered economic losses from El Nino in 1990-1992, P4.1 B ($158 M) in damage was recorded mostly in agriculture. As expected, the El Nino phenomenon extended a long dry spell, which has resulted in the drying up of water sources, reduction of water supply, the consequent damage to livestock and agricultural crops nationwide, and the rise of various diseases aggravated by the long drought. In the midst of these natural disasters, the government managed to mobilize its regional, provincial, urban, and municipal subunits to coordinate operations in badly affected areas. 8. Ramos Administration (1992-1998) President Corazon Aquino, prohibited by the Constitution to run for a second term, endorsed Defense Minister Fidel V. Ramos in the 1992 presidential elections. Ramos won under a new political party, the Partido Lakas Tao, based on his long-held political doctrine of people empowerment. Many of its members called themselves non-traditional politicians like their leader. Elected Vice-President was former movie star, San Juan Mayor and senator, Joseph "Erap" Estrada. Upon his assumption of office, he worked on an Agenda for Reforms to make the Philippines a New Industrialized Country (NIC) by the year 2000. Five days after President Ramos assumed office, he announced the creation of a "Malacanang of the South," to "bring Malacanang closer to the people." At the onset, President Ramos had encountered problems, which were remnants of the previous two administrations and these were as follows: mass poverty, ailing economy, power crisis, high crime rate, graft and corruption, environmental problems, and insurgency. These difficulties triggered President Ramos to formulate his agenda for reforms to achieve progress and stability. To secure the economy, President Ramos ordered the dismantling of monopolies and cartels. Legislative measures were also approved to increase domestic and foreign investments, improve human resources, and enhance the country's links with other nations in the global economy. In 1992, around 781,000 new jobs became available in the country. The national unemployment rate from 9.8 percent in 1996 was reduced to 8.4 percent as of 1997. From 1992 to 1997, the country's per capita income increased from $800 to $1,240. Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) were able to receive protection with the enactment of the Migrant Workers Act of 1995. Ten additional labor attaches were deployed in the countries where there are large concentrations of OFWs. On July 8,1992, President Ramos created the Presidential Anti- Crime Commission (PACC) and appointed the Vice-President as its head. After a year of its operations, the PACC had encountered various crime syndicates, arresting over 150 of their suspected members and forcing 58 others to voluntarily surrender. On health care services, the government pursued preventive health care programs, which have gained popular recognition. Delivery of medical services to distant areas was made possible through the "doctors to the barrio program." The average life expectancy gained a new ceiling from 67.5 years in 1992 to 69.1 years in 1995. While the Ramos administration has been promoting artificial methods of birth control, the Catholic Church continues to promote abstinence or natural birth control methods among couples. The Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) in a pastoral letter read in churches nationwide said that the government's birth control program would destroy family ties. It also virtually endorses abortion. President Ramos launched the Social Reform Agenda (SRA) on June 17, 1994, "to help the poorest of the poor help themselves." Twenty provinces from the most depressed category have been the beneficiaries of poverty-alleviation measures that include housing projects, agrarian reform programs, employment opportunities, and health care initiatives. The Smokey Mountain, once the center of abject poverty, was transformed into a model, affordable, and clean area for residential and commercial purposes, in terms of public infrastructure, from 1992 to 1998, the government has completed the construction and upgrading of 36,050 kilometers of roads and 45,464 lineal meters of bridges. The Philippine National Railways (PNR) main south line (Albay), was rehabilitated. It used to be nonoperational since 1986. The Pasig River Ferry service was also revived to promote the use of inland waterways as an alternative means of transport. In Metro Manila, more infrastructure were also built - the circumferential road known as C-5, two more Light Rail Transit (LRT) systems, the Manila Skyway, and the New Ninoy Aquino International Airport Terminal (NAIA II). In other parts of the country, additional international airports were opened like Subic, Clark, General Santos, and Zamboanga. The administration started the interlinking of the major island grids into one national power grid with the completion of the Leyte- Cebu interconnection in 1997 and Leyte-Luzon interconnection in 1998. Programs and projects were also implemented to protect the country's environment and conserve its natural resources. Critical areas such as the Tubbataha and Apo reefs, Boracay, and the Ifugao rice terraces were protected and rehabilitated under the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS). The government embarked on an intensive foreign relation campaign based on economic diplomacy. President Ramos expanded global linkages by building and strengthening partnerships through foreign trips, which have been much criticized. The United States continued to be the country's top trading partner, accounting for 26.78 percent of the total trading partners in 1990 and 26.66 percent in 1991. The country's trade with Japan had been on an uptrend, with 19.84 percent of the country's total trade during the year. The People's Republic of China (PROC) continued to be the country's leading communist trading partner. The increase of Philippine exports to PROC in 1991 was attributed to the huge demand for manufactured fertilizers. In the pursuit of peace and in nation building, the Ramos administration was able to forge a just and honorable peace with the Repormang Alyansang Makabansa (RAM) and the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) by initiating dialogues and agreements. This won the respect of the world as evidenced by the 1997 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) peace prize awarded to the country. Peace talks were also held with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and National Democratic Front (NDF) so that they may "rejoin the mainstream of civil society." It was on September 15, 1993 when President Fidel V. Ramos signed Executive Order No. 125, Defining the Approach and Administrative Structure for the Government's Comprehensive Peace Efforts. It directed the government to pursue a comprehensive peace process along the Six Paths to Peace as recommended by the National Unification Commission (NUC). The NUC recommended the creation of the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process (OPAPP), which managed and implemented the mandate of the government. Likewise in 1993, Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono apologized for Japan's having coerced some women into prostitution during the Pacific War. Three years later, on the 50th anniversary of Japan's surrender, Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama acknowledged the damage and suffering caused by Japan to many Asian countries. The Philippines once regarded as "the sick man of Asia" has transformed into a nation towards the path of peace and sustainable development. Under his management, President Ramos devised a new plan, which he called "Philippines 2000," his blueprint for national economic recovery to transform it into a tiger economy by the next millennium. The program intended to have economic development that will be propelled and sustained through the promotion of efficiency in the marketplace and the advancement of social equity in terms of asset reforms. It also included just sharing of the benefits of growth and effective people participation in the political and economic mainstream. Despite the reversal of economic interests in Asia since late 1996 and 1997, the Ramos administration managed to keep the local economy stable. The large number of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) and Filipinos who do business abroad provided a steady supply of dollar remittances supporting the local currency against the exchange rate shifts. Likewise, President Ramos repealed the anti-subversion law to bring the communist leaders to the negotiating table. This has resulted to forging of several agreements between the NDF and the government and the subsequent decrease in bloody clashes with government troops. Many communist leaders had also returned to the fold of law after Ramos approved an amnesty program. From 26,000 members in 1987, the rebels decreased to 10,000. In the early 1990s, militant activities by Muslim separatist forces continued in Mindanao. In 1996, the Government of the Republic of the Philippines (GRP) finally reached a peaceful settlement with one of the largest rebel groups in the country, the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). The signing of the GRP-MNLF Peace Agreement on September 2, 1996 in Malacanang Palace formally ended the armed conflict in Mindanao. The Final Peace Agreement was signed in the presence of the leaders of the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC). The signing was considered a "crucial step" in the arduous process of constructing peace in Mindanao. The GRP-MNLF peace accord specifically provided for the establishment of a Special Zone of Peace and Development in Southern Philippines (SZOPAD), consisting of 14 provinces; the Southern Philippines Council for Peace and Development (SPCPD); and a Consultative Assembly. It also called for the integration of MNLF forces into the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and the Philippine National Police (PNP). The peace agreement also included economic assistance to the region. In 1997, Ramos's supporters sought to amend the constitution; however such Charter Change (Cha-Cha) movement was denounced by different sectors including the Catholic Church. It was viewed as a scheme to allow the president a second term, which the 1987 Philippine Constitution had forbidden. In 1999, President Ramos, through Executive Order 137 declared the month of July every year as the National Disaster Consciousness Month. During the month, national and local government agencies have to implement disaster awareness campaigns and would also allow for the consolidation of the Civil Defense Deputization Program or Tanggol Patrols by the local government units, who serve as focal points of civil protection and disaster management programs. In late 1997 to early 1998, the Philippines was in the forefront of the worldwide campain to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases leading to global warming and eventual change. International concerns were presented at the UN Conference convened in Kyoto, Japan to discuss this phenomenon. The Kyoto Conference identified three major sources of greenhouse. gases consisting of carbon dioxide compounds in the atmosphere that cause warming: Electric power generation, still principally coal-fired around the world; emissions of factories without decarbonising systems; and millions of motor vehicles spouting deadly exhaust fumes. Climate-friendly, renewable technologies like wind, solar, cellulosic ethanol, and hydrogen are opted to be used by countries to protect the environment from further disaster. At the end of President Ramos's term, the observance of the first Centennial of Philippine Independence was carried out through the National Centennial Commission (NCC) and other nongovernment organizations (NGOs). The NCC through a five- year plan, assigned themes for every year for five years from 1994 to 1998, each one laying the foundation for the success of the major celebrations on June 12,1998 until January 23,1999. The Centennial Programs had the following objectives: revive love of country, restore appreciation for the true Filipino identity, relearn the values of the country's historic struggle for independence and use these for development of the future; and generate greater active participation in the centennial commemorative celebration to accelerate nation-building. The desired effects of the Philippine Centennial gave birth to its slogan, "Kalayaan, Kayamanan ng Bayan." In the May 1998 presidential elections, President Ramos and the ruling coalition supported Jose de Venecia, the House Speaker. However, it turned out that the opposition had the popular support for the presidency. Joseph Estrada, vice-president under the Ramos administration became the next head of the state. 9. Estrada Administration (1998-2001) President Joseph "Erap" Estrada from the Lapian ng Masang Pilipino (LAMP) took his oath of office on June 30, 1998 at the historic Barasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan. On the same date, he gave his inaugural address at the Quirino Grandstand where he promised to bring peace to the people and harmony to the society. He also pledged to fight corruption within the government and continue the economic reforms of the past administration. Elected Vice-President was Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo from the LAKAS-NUCD. Erap Para Sa Mahirap became the campaign slogan of former Vice- President Estrada. He drove his election campaign vehicle JEEP, which contains his pro-poor program of government. It meant Justice, Economy, Environment, and Peace. JEEP covered Mr. Estrada's vision of government. It revealed his 10 "steps" toward a dynamic and progressive Philippines, namely: - Efficient bureaucracy to generate more income with less expenses Economic recovery through fiscal reforms - Check all forms of criminality, particularly kidnapping, bank robberies, drug trafficking, and other heinous crimes - Stronger infrastructure to unify the nation Encourage private business as government's partner in nation building - Delivery of basic social services to the people - Food security through better agricultural technology - Providing education to ever)' Filipino - Harnessing Filipino talents in science and technology - Sustainable development through a comprehensive environmental program (Source: MagNegosyo, May 1999) It was Mr. Estrada's identity with the masses that launched him to the presidency in the May 1998 elections. He won over his opponents that included former Speaker Jose de Venecia, former Defense Secretary Renato de Villa, former Manila Mayor Alfredo Lim, Senators Raul Roco, and Miriam Defensor-Santiago. Tn the midst of economic turbulence in the Asia-Pacific region, President Estrada stirred high hopes to institute reforms aimed at the development of the country's social, economic, and political well- being. Government support was given to ERAP (Enhanced Retail Access for the Poor) sari-sari stores and Lingap sa Mahirap stores under the National Food Authority (NFA) component. These retail stores provided livelihood assistance to indigent families especially in remote barangays, in view of the administration's goal to weed out poverty. In Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, President Estrada received assurances of economic aid amounting to $5 billion from the assistance to be extended by developed economies from the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. President Estrada was designated as the spokesman of Third World countries in the Sixth APEC meeting in Malaysia. He voiced the concerns of developing economies. APEC leaders later approved the proposal of President Estrada calling for greater multilateral aid to crisis-hit Asian economies. Twenty-one APEC member States include Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Korea, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, the United States of America, and Vietnam. Many of the Southeast Asian countries facing the challenge of how all economies of the APEC member states can benefit from the opportunities presented by globalization. The Philippine and U.S. governments had signed on October 9, 1998 the counterpart agreement on the Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA), which sought to define the legal treatment of Filipino troops visiting the United States. Domingo Siazon and Thomas Hubbard signed the US-RP Visiting Forces Agreement. The Philippine government lobbied for Senate concurrence by mentioning military and economic benefits from doing so. The VFA was submitted to the Philippine Senate on October 6, 1998. The VFA in the eyes of the Philippine government provided for the mechanism for regulating the circumstances and conditions of US armed forces and defense personnel in the Philippines. The government also stressed that much could be gained from the military technology and equipment that will be given to the AFP. Joint exercises were perceived to help improve the skills of Filipino troops in military operations. US Defense Secretary William Cohen emphasized that the VFA was not directed against any country, particularly China, which has an existing territorial conflict with the Philippines over the Spratlys. The US Department of Defense stressed that they were not seeking military facilities or bases. Facing the task of reform, President Estrada made moves towards the actualization of his visions. The administration had successful negotiations regarding the Subic controversy. The congressional pork barrel, seen as a source of graft, was abolished. There was the lowering of interest rates, promotion of savings, and reduced dependence on foreign borrowings. A presidential task force against crime was established. There was also the peaceful resolution of the Philippine Airlines' labor strike. The ground crew union of the Philippine Airlines (PAL) ended its five-day strike after signing an agreement with the management, under the auspices of the National Conciliation and Mediation Board (NCMB) of the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE). The end of the strike, the second to hit PAL in a span of two months came about after nearly 15 hours of nonstop negotiations between the two sides. The PAL Employees Association (PALEA) agreed to cease all pickets and the strike within 24 hours from the signing of the agreement. The management guaranteed not to commit any retaliatory action against the striking PALE A members. PAL and PALEA agreed to reduce the airline's workforce by 1,800 employees, all PALEA members. This became effective on August 16,1998. But the affected employees were given privileges and benefits like travel privileges for them and their dependents; opportunity to attend livelihood seminars organized by PAL for a period of three years; separation benefits in two installments; benefits from the PAL Dependents Medical Plan for three years; and first preference in hiring, in the event PAL increases its manning complement in the future. The agreement came after President Estrada personally took direct hand in solving the conflict, together with the efforts of the DOLE particularly Labor Secretary Bienvenido Laguesma. The PAL management was guided by the directions of PAL Chairman Lucio Tan and President Jose Antonio Garcia. The PALEA board, headed by its President Alex Barrientos signed for the union. The government intensified its drive against illegal recruiters. Administrator Rey Regalado mentioned that the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) closed 11 illegal recruitment agencies in the year 2000 on 13 closure orders he had issued. More than 400 cases of illegal recruitment were brought to the POEA's legal assistance division, 80 percent of which had already been duly filed with the special prosecutors. The deregulation reforms initiated during the past administration opened up an abundance of business opportunities for the industrial machinery and materials industry. With the liberalization of foreign exchange, reforms followed in telecommunications, shipping, aviation, and automotive industries- all of which required industrial machinery and materials, including metal and steel manufactures. Laws intended to create business environment conducive to local and foreign investment were enacted in the year 2000. They included the Retail Trade Liberalization Act (liberalizing foreign ownership of retail firms), the General Banking Law of 2000 (reforming the financial system), the Electronic Commerce Act (establishing regulations promoting E-commerce), and the Securities Regulation Code (enhancing capital market competitiveness). In infrastructure, President Estrada's three-year-building program included the installation of 316 steel bridges in 78 provinces. The bridge program was funded through the assistance of the Austrian government. One of the* steel bridges undertaken by the program was installed in the country in the remote barrio of Masalipit, San Miguel, Bulacan. This 50-meter long bridge cost P16 million. Senior Deputy Executive Secretary Ramon Cardenas, who chaired the President's Bridge Program's Technical Working Group, indicated that 61 steel bridges had been completed in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) since the project started last 1999. Fifty-one more bridges had been opened under, the "Tulay ni Erap"- Salam (Peace) Bridge Project in four provinces of ARMM, namely: Maguindanao, Lanao del Sur, Tawi-Tawi, and Sulu. The project was likewise expected to spur socioeconomic investments in the whole of Southern Philippines and convert the region into the next food basket of Asia. The Metrostar or the MRT III along the stretch of EDSA was finally made operational after three years of construction. This rail system has provided not only speedy transportation for commuters to their destinations but also helped ease the heavy flow of traffic along EDSA particularly on peak hours. The government had provided measures to pursue its housing program. To intensify its housing project, the government had required subdivisions being developed to have a portion for socialized housing. Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council (HUDCC) spearheaded the government's low-cost housing project. HUDCC Chairwoman Leonora Vasquez de Jesus introduced the multi-window lending system endorsed by President Estrada, to make the housing finance system more accessible to the marginalized sector. Such system placed under the President's National Shelter Program, planned to build 350,000 shelter units per year until the end of Estrada's term in 2004. In the commitment of providing shelter for the homeless, President Estrada did raise funds for the new building of the orphanage of the Asociacion de Damas de Filipinas, which was destroyed by a dawn fire in 1998, killing at least 24 children and injuring others. He also provided the equipment and facilities needed by this institution for efficient management. One of the events that rocked the country was the hostage drama in Mindanao, which involved foreign nationals as well as Filipinos. The Abu Sayyaf, a group of Muslim extremists, abducted 21 western vacationers in an island resort in Sipadan, Malaysia and one Filipino resort worker, Roland Ilia. The rebels brought the hostages to jungle camps in Jolo. This was followed by the kidnapping of two French journalists and two local TV reporters and 13 "prayer warriors" of a religious group including its leader. The hostage crisis, which lasted for several months, projected the Abu Sayyaf to international notoriety. All hostages were able to return to their families except Roland Ulla, still being held captive by the Muslim extremists. Task Force Comet, an operational arm of the military, was assigned to launch offensives against the Abu Sayyaf to rescue remaining captive Ulla and to neutralize the terrorist group. Taking into account the peace condition in Mindanao, a Philippine travel ban was issued by the German government to its nationals. Nevertheless, the ban had been finally lifted after five months. Tourism Secretary Gemma Cruz Araneta disclosed on October 20, 2000 that the German government had issued a new travel advisory stating that travel to the Philippines is safe. However, the advisory still discouraged German tourists from going to some parts of Mindanao, specifically Jolo and Sulu, where military operations continued against the Abu Sayyaf. They were allowed to travel to Northern Philippines with comfort and safety. The United States government was the first to issue a travel advisory advising its citizens to skip the Philippines because of the bombing incidents that hit Mindanao and some areas of Metro Manila. Abu Sayyaf leader Ghalib Andang also known as Commander Robot told chief government negotiator and Flagship Secretary Robert Aventajado that his group was not in any manner involved with the kidnapping of the American Jeffrey Craig Edwards Schilling in Zamboanga City. Schilling was in the Philippines for several months and married to Ivy Osani, a cousin of Abu Sabaya, another Abu Sayyaf leader. Osani, a widow of a former Abu Sayyaf member, happened to be the nephew of the slain founder of the Abu Sayyaf, Abdurajak Janjalani. Abu Sabaya tagged Schilling as an agent of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which the US Embassy denied vehemently. The authorities had verified reports that Schilling stayed in Zamboanga for six months. There were also reports that Schilling himself had been seeking out this rebel group. One rebel group that opposed the administrations of the past wanted to return to the negotiating table. Muslim leaders subsequently approved a manifesto urging the Estrada administration and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) to resume the peace negotiations that were scrapped following the outbreak of hostilities in Mindanao. It was also supported by at least 100 groups comprised of organizations from the religious, professionals, farmers, and other sectors of the Bangsamoro people. Lawyer Macapanton Abbas, Jr. of the Royal Houses in Mindanao pointed out that for the peace process to proceed anew, it was necessary for the government to declare a cease-fire. Criminal charges and warrants of arrest against MILF chairman Ustadz Salamat Hashim, vice-chairman for Military Affairs, A1 Haj Murad and MILF spokesman Eid Kabalu were also asked to be dropped. Manila was once again shuddered by inconsiderable demonstrations and strikes, which loudly protested on injustice, stunted growth and progress of the country's economic life, and the perpetuating poverty of the great masses of the country's population. The public had also given their views about Malacanang's proposal to amend the constitution and allow foreigners to own land in the country. These problems had been the issues of most debatps in the land. While Cardinal Sin demanded for President Estrada's resignation, Cebu Archbishop Ricardo Cardinal Vidal maintained his silence and refused to join the movement to remove the President from office. He merely advised the President to change and reform his ways. Senate President Franklin M. Drilon and 10 of his colleagues in the Senate rejected the call for holding a snap presidential elections as an answer to the current political agitation brought about by the jueteng gambling payoff charges leveled against President Estrada. They gave varied reasons discarding the Senate resolution filed by Senator Juan Ponce Enrile asking both the Senate and the House of Representatives to pass a law authorizing the holding of snap elections. Secretary Lim cautioned the people to be vigilant. He clarified that economic recovery program of the administration had already made concrete gains. He also added that, if the constitutional process or the rule of law would not be followed there would be chaos, anarchy and violence; and the country would be transformed into a banana republic instead. The Office on Muslim Affairs Executive Director Acmad M. Tomawis expressed hope that the Muslims and other Filipinos would remain steadfast in their support to President Estrada amid the expose' on jueteng. According to him, the administration prioritizes the plight of the poor and the marginalized people in running the affairs of the nation. Just a day before 2000 year end, 14 people were killed instantly and more than 60 others were wounded in five bomb explosions in Metro Manila. The Philippine National Police (PNP) Command under PNP Chief Director General Panfilo Lacson directed all PNP units in Metro Manila to assist and provide security and maintain peace and order in the wake of these bomb attacks. The first bomb blasted at around 12 noon in a coach of the Light Railway Transit (LRT) at Blumentritt station on its way to Monumento. Fifteen minutes later, another explosion hit Plaza Ferguson in Ermita, some 200 meters away from the United States embassy. The third bomb blew up and ripped off the roof of Edsa bus at the northbound lane of EDSA in Cubao, Quezon City in front of the Superlines bus terminal. Another bombing incident followed at the NALA cargo terminal area in Parariaque. Then, at around 2:20 p.m., another bomb explosion took place at a Petron gasoline station located across EDSA from Dusit Hotel in Makati City. Four officials of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (M1LF), headed by Chairman Hashim Salamat were charged of multiple frustrated murder by the Department of Justice (DOJ) in connection with the December 30 bombings in Metro Manila. The MILF officials have also pending cases with the DOJ in connection with the May 17 and 21, 2000 bombings of malls in Metro Manila. According to PNP Senior Supt. Raul Bacalzo, the December 30 bombings had been conceived by the MILF and the plots were unearthed in an undated document coded "Feasibility Project" that detailed the bombings and economic sabotage in Metro Manila. The document was taken from Camp Bushra in Lanao del Sur and detailed the plots to bomb malls, the Light Railway Transit, water districts, provincial trains, and other structures. President Estrada condemned these bombing incidents that rocked Metro Manila and said that those behind it have resorted to acts of desperation and cowardice in order to satisfy and advance their political agenda. With the ongoing impeachment trial, President Estrada continued his provincial visits particularly in Mindanao and in the depressed areas in Metro Manila. The government has released more infrastructure funds through the regional offices of the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) for the President's Mindanao's development projects. This was part of Malacanang's confidence-building measures to push his campaign against poverty. While the staging of another People Power revolt was being contemplated by some sectors in the society, the President himself cited another evident emergency situation, i.e., the sight of uncollected garbage in the Metro Manila. The dumpsite at San Mateo, Rizal was closed at the end of that year when its operating contract expired. The Payatas dumpsite in Quezon City was earlier blocked in July 2000 after a landslide killed more than 200 people living in the area. San Mateo and Payatas have been receiving some 6,000 tons of solid waste a day, from Metro Manila's 12 million population. In the midst of a garbage crisis, President Estrada ordered on January 11,2001 the reopening of the San Mateo Landfill. The residents of San Mateo and Antipolo however, vehemently rallied against this memorandum by preventing trucks from unloading tons of garbage from Metro Manila. With no alternative site for garbage, the government tried to dispose some of the metropolis' trash on Semirara Island, 45 kilometers (30 miles) from Boracay, a premier tourist destination. This proposal was also thwarted by public protest. On the other hand, the Department of Trade and Industry, earlier sought the delay of the implementation of the Clean Air Act, which intended to improve the environmental compliance of industries. This was to give the industries more time to raise money and acquire new technology to ensure compliance. Majority of the industries had to retool their operations. As the future of the country became more uncertain, Senator Pimentel resigned his post as Senate head on the evening of January 16, 2001 after the motion to have the second sealed envelope opened was defeated in an 11-10 vote by the Senate impeachment tribunal. The political allies of the President in the Senate voted not to open the second envelope that was said to contain incriminating evidence against the President. The second envelope from Equitable PCI Bank allegedly contained bank records of President Estrada alias Jose Velarde totaling some P3.3 billion. The 11 senator-judges, which included Senate President Pro- Tempore Bias Ople, Senate Majority Leader Francisco Tatad, Senators Teresa Aquino- Oreta, Robert Jaworski, Nikki Coseteng, Ramon Revilla, Gregorio Honasan, Juan Ponce Enrile, Miriam Defensor-Santiago, and Vicente Tito Sotto rejected the prosecution's motion to open the second envelope. For them, the trial should be limited to the articles of impeachment as specified by the House of Representatives. The so-called Velarde account was not in the articles of impeachment. The 10 senator-judges who voted that the second envelope be opened in the interest of truth were Senators Rodolfo Biazon, Raul Roco, Franklin Drilon, Teofisto Guingona, Juan Flavier, Loren Legarda-Leviste, Rene Cayetano, Serge Osmena, Jun Magsaysay, and Nene Pimentel. The 11-man House prosecution panel, headed by Minority Leader Feliciano Belmonte walked out of the impeachment court in protest of the Senate decision. Joker Arroyo, a member of the prosecution panel, hinted a potential constitutional crisis due to the stalemate that emerged following the irrevocable resignation of the House prosecutors. However, Senate Majority Leader Francisco Tatad conveyed to the public that the impeachment court had not been disbanded. It had simply recessed to allow the House to address the problem presented by the resignation of prosecutors. Malacafiang expressed optimism that President Estrada's impeachment trial would resume soon. His lawyers were ready to present their pieces of evidence to prove false the prosecution's charges against him. Acting Press Secretary Michael Toledo asserted that if the case would close following the resignation of the prosecutors, it would not be the fault of the defense panel. House Speaker Arnulfo Fuentebella made clear that they have developed certain options on the impeachment prosecutors' resignation as he assured all the decisions they would make in the process would be the decision of the House as a whole. House Assistant Majority Leader Francis Joseph Escudero (1 st district of Sorsogon) pointed out that one way to resolve the deadlock at the Senate impeachment tribunal was for the House minority to choose another set of 11 congressmen to serve as prosecutors in the impeachment trial against the President. Nevertheless, Governor Singson avowed before the Integrated Bar of the Philippines (IBP) regional convention, that if he would not be satisfied with the decision of the Senate in the impeachment case, he would surely bring the fight to the highest court, which is the people. Shortly after the evidence against President Estrada was blocked at the Senate, thousands of Filipinos went out of the streets to show protest. The demonstrators stayed at EDSA Shrine for four days (January 16 to 20, 2001) demanding the President to step down from the office. The Church once again lived up its role as the moral guardian of the society. Jaime Cardinal Sin initiated the prayer rally at the shrine with Vice-President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, and former Presidents Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos were present in the area. After the resignation of the prosecution panel, more Filipinos trooped to EDSA. Text messages were instrumental in drawing a mammoth crowd at EDSA Shrine. Countless mobile phones were buzzing with the latest text messages about Malacanang and the protest rally. Nearly two million people went to the streets. At the same time, pro-Estrada rallyists gathered at Mendiola Bridge near Malacanang as early as 12 noon of January 17 to denounce the 10 senators who voted for the opening of the second envelope. The pro-Erap supporters stayed in the Mendiola area to secure all entry points leading to Malacanang. President Estrada intended to finish his term until 2004. He appealed to those exercising their right to expression and assembly for calm and sobriety and assured the public that the government is in control of the security situation. He even ruled out the possibility of resignation as called for by his political opponents. He asked the Filipino people to allow the constitutional process to take its course. Nonetheless, the last-minute defections of politicians even gave more tension to these tumultuous days. They, too, aligned themselves with the people demanding Estrada to step down from office. Mass resignation of the Cabinet was triggered by the defection of the Armed Forces led by the Chief of Staff, General Angelo Reyes. The military announced through media that they had already withdrawn their support for the Estrada presidency, invoking Article 2, Section 3 of the 1987 constitution, wherein the Armed Forces of the Philippines shall protect the people and the State. Likewise, Director General Panfilo M. Lacson, chief of the Philippine National Police announced at a press conference that the PNP had also withdrawn support for President Estrada, stressing that the police organization respects the decision of the citizenry. The pronouncement of the military was a powerful blow to the President. Nonetheless, President Estrada still refused to resign and insisted on a snap presidential election. However, the President together with his family, reportedly left Malacanang after knowing that the Supreme Court had already issued en banc resolution declaring the seat of the presidency vacant. The Supreme Court declared President Estrada unable to rule in view of mass resignations from his government. The High Court likewise through its resolution authorized Chief Justice Davide to administer the oath of office of then Vice-President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as the 14 th President of the Republic, succeeding President Estrada. However, the deposed President insisted that he did not resign but merely left Malacanang Palace to prevent bloodshed as protesters were already close to Malacanang to physically eject him from his post. 10. Arroyo Administration (2001-2010) President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was catapulted into power by the People Power Revolution II at EDSA, which ended on January 20, 2001. Facing the task of leading 76 million Filipinos in rebuilding the nation towards peace and progress, the President urged the people to help her in the "healing process" of the country. For her, healing should be with justice. The Supreme Court had its deliberation on four petitions filed in its office involving the presidency of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. Two petitions sought clarification from the tribunal on whether Mrs. Arroyo is the Acting President or President. Another petition asked the High Court to declare Mrs. Arroyo as the duly constituted President. The fourth petition pleaded for the nullification of Mrs. Arroyo's oath as the President and to declare her as the Acting President. On March 2, 2001, the Supreme Court upheld the legitimacy of the Arroyo government in a unanimous decision vote. The High Court ruled out that President Estrada had effectively resigned his post with his acts and statements and declared Mrs. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo the duly constituted President of the Philippines. Nine justices voted without reservation, while four justices reserved their votes on the loss of immunity from suit of Mr. Estrada. The High Court gave Ombudsman Aniano Disierto the legal authority to file the cases of the former President, which include plunder, perjury, and illegal use of alias before the Sandiganbayan. Regarding the Estrada impeachment trial, the Senate had officially concluded on February 7, 2001 its role as an impeachment court. This was based on Senate Resolution 927 filed by Senate President Pimentel. The resolution also contained that the pieces of evidence in impeachment case No. 001-2000, including the second envelope be sent to the Senate archives. The Senate by 18-0 vote, unanimously confirmed the designation of Sen. Teofisto Guingona jr. as the new vice-president following a resolution sponsored by Sen. Loren Legarda confirming the nomination of Sen. Guingona for the position. In her first few days as the Chief Executive, President Arroyo directed government officials to forbid her family and relatives from entering or influencing directly or indirectly official transactions with the government. These transactions include the procurement or purchase of property, supplies and materials, appointment of government personnel, and recommendations for positions in all government agencies and offices. In an effort to make the new President more accessible to the general public, Malacanang came up with a scheme to allow everyone to send their suggestions and opinions to the Chief Executive via Short Messaging Service (SMS) called "Text GMA Service." President Arroyo also placed in one of her administration's priority programs the installation of modern telecommunications facilities in every municipality. The Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC) was assigned to provide these telecenters, which include a telephone line, a personal computer, a scanner, a printer or copier, and an Internet connection. The Arroyo government at the onset was constrained by the country's fiscal condition, with P225 billion budget deficit inherited from the previous administration. The President and the Congress leaders agreed to reactivate last year's national budget to finance government expenditures. To trim the ballooning budget deficit, the President imposed frugality on all government agencies. President Arroyo established her priorities and set the direction for economic recovery. Efforts in poverty reduction and promoting good governance were among the pillars of her administration. Mrs. Arroyo likened her style of government to that of her father, the late President Diosdado Macapagal, with concern for the poor, the reliance on free enterprise, fight against poverty, and the emphasis on social equity and land reform. One of the major thrusts of the government was the intensified program of opening new job opportunities by attracting more venture capital from overseas as well as local entrepreneurs. As referred to in the State of the Nation Address on July 23, 2001, President Arroyo pointed out that the government financial institutions had about P20 billion available for mass housing programs. In the first 100 days of Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council (HUDCC) Chair Michael T. Defensor, shelter was generated for more than 100,000 families, with P450 million in housing loans released for employees in the Armed Forces and police, teachers, local government employees, and private sector workers. Implementation of the community mortgage program was done where landowners were persuaded to sell their lands to squatters residing on the land. The government provided the financing to the beneficiaries who in turn should pay at least P400 to P500 per month for a number of years until such the full payment to the lot purchased has been paid in full. Solid Waste Management Act, Republic Act (RA) 9003 was the first piece of legislation that Mrs. Arroyo signed as President. This law sought to institute mechanisms of waste minimization, resource recovery, appropriate collection and transport services, and treatment and disposal of garbage. The law also empowered the local government units to pursue their respective solid waste management systems in their area of jurisdiction. RA 9003 symbolized the reforms that the new administration would like to implement. In the second quarter of 2001, the country's Gross National Product (GNP), which was 3.5 percent, was higher than the market's estimate of about 2.25 percent growth. The economy showed sufficient resiliency in the midst of political turmoil. It was during this period when the government faced destabilization attempts, including the May attack on the presidential palace by people supporting detained former President Joseph Estrada. A year after the second People Power Revolution, President Arroyo affirmed that she had shown capable leadership during her first year of administration. The GNP growth rate in 2001 was 3.7%. The country benefitted from its electronics industry, (IT-enabled services, tourism, transport and telecommunications, among others) due to structural reform measures designed to enhance productivity and market competition, such as the liberalization of retail trade, telecommunication and utilities. NEDA noted the return of investor's confidence for the increase of gross domestic capital formation by 4.3 percent from 2.3 percent in 2000. This was augmented by investments in public construction and breeding stock and orchard development. The President focused on the economy and implemented pro- poor programs to provide jobs, food, education, and housing for Filipinos at the end of her term. This included her Kapit-bisig Laban sa Kahirapan (Kalahi) program for poverty alleviation projects and services and the Ahon Kabuhayan Project of the Ginintuan at Makabayang Alay (GMA) Foundation. Economic growth is aimed not only at increased productivity, but also at the proper use of the country's resources and positive changes in the social structure of a country. In an effort to stabilize the country, President Arroyo supported the passage of legislations in congress such as the Power Reform Act and the Anti-Money Laundering Law. To improve rice productivity and generate thousands of jobs between 2002 and 2004, the Department of Agriculture (DA), Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), the National Food Authority (NFA), and their respective agencies promoted the large-scale use of the hybrid rice technology. This was pursuant to Administrative Order No. 25 (AO 25), which targeted 135,000 hectares (ha.) in 2002; 200,000 ha. in 2003; and 300,000 ha. in 2004. The hybrid rice program was adopted by the administration under the GMA CARES Rice Program. In other highly populated countries like China and India, the hybrid rice technology was proven to be successful. To fulfill the vision of promoting economic growth and agricultural modernization in Mindanao, the Philippine government entered into an agreement with the World Bank (WB) for its $289.5 M loan funding the 12-year program in the area. The Mindanao Rural Development Program is in charge of the implementation of the project envisioned to address Mindanao's need for food security by improving agricultural productivity, mobility for goods and services, and local capabilities in using and managing its own resources. To refurbish the educational system, the Department of Education (DepEd) has provided the Basic Education Curriculum (BEC), otherwise known as the millennium curriculum. The BEC was pursuant to Republic Act No. 9155, "An Act Instituting a Framework of Governance for Basic Education, Establishing Authority and Accountability, Renaming the Department of Education, Culture and Sports as the Department of Education, and for other purposes." RA 9155 transferred to the Philippine Sports Commission, the sports promoting functions of the DepEd. It also gave the National Commission for Culture and the Arts, the culture promotion functions of the department. The collegiate and higher studies functions were given to the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). The 2002 restructured BEC focuses on the 3Rs, namely: reading, writing, and arithmetic, as well as science and patriotism. It includes the integration of values in all learning areas from elementary to secondary levels. The curriculum consists of the following subjects: Filipino, English, Math, Science, and Makabayan. The millennium curriculum decongests the overcrowded subject areas. It seeks to prepare the students' readiness for lifelong learning. BEC stresses integrative and interactive teaching-learning approaches. These involve group learning and sharing of ideas between teachers and students, and among students. President Arroyo had outlined that one of the pillars towards winning the war against poverty is quality education. Education offers opportunities for people to acquire skills and become more productive. The Arroyo administration with an ardent regard to peaceful settlement, extended amnesty to NPA guerrillas who wish to rejoin the society. It also avowed to resume aborted peace talks with the secessionist groups. President Arroyo expressed concern to restore peace and order through negotiations with both the communists (NDF/NPA) and Muslim separatists (MILF). She ordered the immediate suspension of offensive military operations against them as a prelude to the administration's conciliatory move. The Muslim leaders wanted the full implementation of the 1996 Peace Agreement signed on Sept. 2,1996 between the Government of the Republic of the Philippines (GRP) and the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). On the other hand, the National Democratic Front (NDF) discarded the peace negotiations with the Philippine government two years ago following the approval of the Senate of the Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA), which allowed US forces to hold training exercises in the country. The GRP peace panel left for Oslo, Norway via Paris to resume formal peace talks with their counterparts in the NDF, which began on April 27, 2001. President Arroyo sent off a five-man team headed by former Justice Secretary Silvestre Bello III. The GRP peace panel included Agrarian Reform Secretary Hernani Braganza, Riza Hontiveros, Rene Sarmiento, and Atty. Chito Gascon. The President expressed the government's willingness to discuss the NDF's political demand with an open mind. Regarding the military strikes in Afghanistan, President Arroyo offered to the United States the use of its former military bases in the Philippines for refueling US jets. This was in support of the war against terrorists harboring Osama bin Laden and his al-Qaeda organization, primary suspects in the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The fourth jetliner, which crashed in Pennsylvania, was believed to be the handiwork of these terrorists. The separatist MILF denied any link with international terrorist Osama bin Laden, the prime suspect of the series of attacks in America that left nearly 6,000 people dead and several others wounded. Muslims in the country called for moderation in the continuing campaign to wage war against terrorism. In an attempt to end terrorist elements in the country, the Department of National Defense cited support for the military exercises between the United States and the Philippines, which was officially opened on January 31, 2002. The exercises dubbed as Balikatan 02-1 or Freedom Eagle was expected to take place for a period of six months. This was sanctioned under the RP-US Visiting Forces Agreement duly ratified by the Philippine Senate in 1998. The command structure of the Balikatan (shoulder to shoulder) was under the command of the Armed Forces. Some 660 US military personnel and Filipino soldiers had been directed to participate in joint military training exercises held in Basilan, Mactan Air Base in Cebu, Zamboanga del Sur, and Camp Enrile in Zamboanga City. US forces were not allowed to operate independently in the Philippine territory at any time. However, the American troops were allowed to fire back and take a defensive position against an assault during the training. The government made its staunch commitment against terrorism. Mindanao, particularly, had suffered much from decades of local insurgency. In her second State of the Nation Address (SONA), President Arroyo described terrorists and criminals as enemies of the State. She brought her call for a strong Republic, declaring total war against criminals and terrorists. She pointed out that a strong republic must be able to win the twin battles against terrorism and poverty. It should efficiently deliver basic services to the people and uphold the law. Furthermore, it should be autonomous of dominant classes and sectors to represent the people's interests. To strengthen the society and the family, President Arroyo and former President Aquino headed the campaign for peace by their Prayer Power Campaign 2002. The campaign sought to consecrate families to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Immaculate Heart of Mary. Praying the rosary and masses were held in big churches and campuses around the country. This was part of preparations for the 4 th World Meeting of Families (4WMF) on January 22 to 26, 2003 with the Philippines as the host. • The WMF is held every three years upon the invitation of the Pope, the pontifical head of the Catholic Church. It is a reunion where families gather to pray and deepen their understanding of how the Christian family can fulfill its role as the initiator of evangelization in the modern world. The Holy Father Pope John Paul II named the Third Millennium, the Asian Millennium because it is the millennium for the proclamation of the Name and Gospel of Jesus in Asia (with four billion people). The Pope chose the Philippines as the venue for the 4WMF. Seventy million out of 120 million Christians in Asia are in the Philippines. Despite the eagerness of the Pope to attend the WMF assembly, his doctors shove aside his travel to the Philippines due to his frail condition. The Holy Father sent Alfonso Cardinal Lopez Trujillo to the country. One of the top priorities of the Arroyo administration is its renewed and intensified campaign against illegal drugs. Interior and Local Government Secretary and Dangerous Drugs Board (DDB) OlC-Chairman Jose D. Lina ordered the mobilization of anti-abuse councils nationwide and the monitoring of drug testing centers by the local chief executives (LCEs). The DDB's implementing arm, the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA), created by Republic Act No. 9165 and established in July 2002, is expected to crush the PI 50 billion or more or so illegal drug business in the country. The Philippine National Police (PNP) Anti-Illegal Drug Task Force has been assigned to validate the arrest and file appropriate charges on drug pushers and drug-users. To restrict the addiction to smoking, the Congress likewise passed the 2003 Tobacco Regulation Act (Republic Act No. 9211), which imposes an absolute ban on smoking in public places and restricts the packaging, use, sale, distribution and advertisement of cigarettes and other tobacco products. President Arroyo signed this law as part of her administration's commitment to a cleaner, healthier, and safer world. The increasing prevalence of smoking in the Philippines with around 20,000 Filipinos who die every year due to tobacco-related diseases, prompted many Filipino legislators to regulate the distribution and use of cigarettes in the country. Peace agreements with rebel groups as well as closure of wounds caused by divisions due to EDSA 1 and 2 are also being targeted by the Arroyo administration. On the other hand, the separatist MILF seeks to solve through peaceful means the problem in Mindanao with the pre-condition for signing a final peace agreement with the Philippine government that must be just, lasting, and comprehensive. The perennial attempted coups in the military could be manifestations of power struggles among the members of the conservative elites and discontent brought about by slow pace of economic and political change in the country. Antonio Trillanes (elected Senator in the 2004 elections) together with the Magdalo group of junior military officers and 300 soldiers staged a mutiny against the Arroyo administration in the former Oakwood Premier Hotel in Makati in July 2003. The soldiers were allegedly planning to attack Batasang Pambansa a day before President Arroyo delivers her State-of-the-Nation Address on July 24. For the Arroyo administration, this was another destabilization attempt against the government. Eleven of the Magdalo group were charged with coup d' etat. Amidst political turmoil, President Arroyo completed the remaining term of former President Estrada and ran for reelection against Fernando Poe, Jr., a.k.a. FPJ, a popular actor, in May 2004. Mrs. Arroyo and her running mate Noli de Castro were eventually proclaimed the winners of the Presidential and Vice-Presidential elections. FPJ made his electoral protest; however it was later junked by the Supreme Court shortly after he died in December of a stroke. This 2004 presidential election was widely seen as a test of legitimacy for the presidency of Mrs. Arroyo. The President credited her victory to public approval of her pro-poor, pro-growth, and pro- peace agenda. She delivered her inaugural address at the Quirino Grandstand, Rizal Park, Manila then later flew to Cebu City where she took her oath. President Arroyo and Vice-President Noli de Castro took their oath before Supreme Court Chief Justice Hilario Davide Jr. Shortly after, the President hosted the vin d' honneur, the traditional reception for the diplomatic corps led by ambassadors from different countries President Arroyo would like to uplift the economy and unify the nation by the end of her term in 2010. Her administration aims for the creation of six to 10 million jobs by tripling loans for small business owners and development of one to two million hectares of land for agricultural business. Regarding education, the construction of new school buildings, classrooms, provision of books and computers for students, and scholarships to poor families are being envisioned. Likewise, the government intends to balance the national budget in view of the country's debilitating deficit and to decentralize progress and development across the country through the development of transportation networks like the roll-on, roll-off ferries and digital infrastructure. The provision of power and water supply to all barangays is also a priority project of the government. The administration would also work for the decongestion of Metro Manila by forming new cores of government and housing centers in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The government would likewise take steps for the development of Clark and Subic as the logistics center in Asia. Automation of the electoral process is also being considered. Phase 1 of the President's economic reform agenda centered on revenue reforms topped by the passage of higher taxes on tobacco and alcohol products, the Attrition Law, and the Expanded Value Added Tax (E-VAT). On fighting poverty, the administration's micro-finance program hopes to generate jobs and uplift the lives of the poor. The economic reform program would somehow trim the country's unemployment rate and help create six to 10 million jobs. President Arroyo would like to see the day that the job abroad is an option and not longer a necessity. Some people may not be readily able to find available work or may earn wages too low to support a family. For these reasons, numerous NGOs in the Philippines were quick to adopt the Grameen Bank model (Bangladesh) in poverty eradication schemes. Peasants, fisherfolk, and upland farmers whose daily earnings are insufficient have availed of the microfinance services from host providers. The entrepreneurial poor who operate microenterprises and depend on microfinance services run by NGOs and Credit Cooperatives are able to pay on time and save regularly on a weekly basis. In 2005, demonstrations calling for President Arroyo to resign took place in various areas of the country. A tape recording of President Arroyo talking with a Commission of Elections official through telephone surfaced, suggesting that she might have influenced the outcome of the 2004 elections. Former National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) deputy director Samuel Ong made his expose' of the so-called "mother of all tapes," which according to him, contains the alleged original wiretapped telephone conversation between COMELEC Commissioner Virgilio Garcillano and Mrs. Arroyo. The President publicly apologized for what she called lapse of judgment for calling an unidentified election official before Congress could proclaim the winner of the election She denied accusations of cheating and expressed her intention to serve until the end of her term on June 2010. The probe on the wiretapped conversation was jointly conducted by five committees in the House led by Gilbert Remulla of Cavite. During the probe, Environment and Natural Resources Secretary Mike Defensor presented findings of an American expert on the tape that would discredit the charges that the President rigged the May 2004 presidential elections. Based on the findings of American forensic audio/video identification expert Barry Dickey, the two tracks submitted to him have several anomalies, which include the alteration of words in the conversation. The Hyatt 10, a group of Cabinet officials who called for President Arroyo to resign and accused the President of using charter change initiatives to evade persistent questions about her credibility is composed of former Secretaries Cesar Purisima of Finance; Corazon "Dinky" Soliman of Social Service; Juan Santos of Trade; Emilia Boncodin of Budget; Florencio Abad of Education; Rene Villa of Land Reform; Teresita Deles, adviser on the peace process; Guillermo Parayno of the Bureau of Internal Revenue; and Alberto Lina of the Bureau of Customs. Party-list groups and other organizations seeking the ouster of President Arroyo organized the "Bantay Impeachment" information bureau to provide the people with an alternative news source on the impeachment case against the President. The groups are Anakpawis, Bayan Muna, and Gabriela Women's Party. The other Bantay Impeachment organizers are the Bagong Alyansang Makabayan, Kilusang Mayo Uno, Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas, Kalipunan ng Damayang Mahihirap, Youth Demanding for Arroyo's Removal, Migrante International, Promotion of Church-People's Response, Gloria Step Down Movement, and Anakbayan. The pro-impeachment group of Congressmen include Representatives Rolex Suplico (LDP, Iloilo), Alan Peter Cayetano (Taguig-Pateros), Ronaldo Zamora (San Juan), Joel Villanueva (Party List, Citizens' Battle Against Corruption), Benigno Aquino III (Tarlac), Rodolfo Plaza (Agusan del Sur), and Mujiv Hataman (Party List, Anak Mindanao). Citing technical grounds, Atty. Pedro Ferrer, the lawyer for President Arroyo asked the House Committee on Justice to strike out all other impeachment complaints filed against her aside from the first one filed by lawyer Oliver Lozano. The House Committee on Justice junked the impeachment complaint against President Arroyo. The committee voted to declare the petition "insufficient in substance" and to dismiss it. Pro-impeachment lawmakers alleged that the original complaint was weak. They also suspected that the Lozano complaint was filed so the administration can apply the one- year ban rule on Mrs. Arroyo's case. The Lozano complaint accuse the President of betraying public trust when she allegedly cheated in the May 2004 elections. President Arroyo, from the start, was not affected by the impeachment complaints filed against her, and even dared the opposition to prove its claims that she bribed lawmakers to stop the process. Unfazed by political intrigues, the President showed no sign of retreat. She vowed not to waver her commitment to institute fiscal and economic reforms. In the 8 th SON A of the President before the joint session of Congress, the National Welfare Program became the main thrust to protect the people and the economy from increasing costs of oil and food. The President called on Congress to extend the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) for another five years. She sought for the inclusion of the use of farmland as loan collateral in the CARP extension bill. President Arroyo asked the Congress to pass a Consumer Bill of Rights promoting the rights of consumers against price gouging, false advertising, and other marketing malpractices. However, the President did not endorse the reproductive health bill in Congress but instead defended the government's policy on natural family planning and female education. The government spent P8.6 billion of revenues from Expanded Value- Added Tax (E-VAT) on social services and infrastructure in the first six months of 2006. Important infrastructure projects, particularly railways and rural electrification projects, as well as education and health initiatives that enhance the skills of our workforce were prioritized. Supplemental budget for the rehabiliation of typhoon-hit provinces in Western Visayas was obtained from the proceeds of the E-VAT. The Arroyo administration launched an energy efficiency and conservation program to cushion the adverse impact of oil price increase. The government drafted its energy independence program, which includes increasing the indigenous oil and gas reserves, developing the renewable energy, and increasing the use of alternative fuels. Coco diesel, ethanol or alcogas, and compressed natural gas (CNG) are among the alternatives that could be combined with gasoline to reduce oil purchases. Ethanol is an alternative energy resource produced from crops such as corn, grain sorghum, wheat, sugar, and other agricultural feedstocks. The use of ethanol as an additive would encourage sugar planters that shifted before to planting other crops to go back to sugar production. Under the government's National Fuel Ethanol Program, private entities are encouraged to invest in the production of bio-fuels and distribution of bio-fuel blends. In the midst of facing the challenges of the times, President Arroyo asked Congress to begin the process of rewriting the constitution, changing the presidential system of government into a federal-parliamentary system. In her State of the Nation Address in 2005, the President said she favored Charter change via the constituent assembly. For the President, charter change is the best way to respond to widespread dissatisfaction with Philippine politics. The political system is the same as that designed by the American colonial government and is not anymore capable of responding to the needs of the country of the 21 st century. President Arroyo emphasized the benefits of the parliamentary system for local government units since it will give more power and autonomy to local officials under the federal system. For the President, the federal- parliamentary form of government will improve the political interface between the executive and the legislature. Proponents of federalism believe that it is the answer to the age- old problems of inequitable distribution of wealth, slow pace of development in the countryside, and the peace and order situation in Mindanao. At that time, Speaker Jose de Venecia called Charter Change (Cha-Cha) the country's last chance for change to break the deadlock in our democracy. He said that the shift to a parliamentary system and a unicameral assembly would install in the Philippines a political structure free from destabilizing coup attempts or frequent impeachment crisis. For Secretary Ignacio Bunye, the parliamentary system is also more politically stable as a simple vote of no-confidence is enough to remove an ineffective leader. For former President Fidel Ramos, the proposed parliamentary system will also provide proportional representation for the country's leaders in Philippine politics since members of the parliament will be elected in their respective district, including the prime minister. The Muslim Movement for Federal Philippines appealed to the nation to support President Arroyo and former President Ramos' proposal to change the form of government to improve its performance and eradicate corruption. The country registered its highest economic growth in three decades in 2007. However, the benefits of the growth have been slow in trickling down to the poor. The latest Index of Economic Freedom, prepared by the Washington based Heritage Foundation with the Wall Street Journal ranked the Philippines 104 th among 183 countries in terms of economic freedom. The index gave the country the lowest score in freedom from corruption. The Arroyo administration has taken strides to address the problem of graft and corruption in the public sector. Part of the campaign against corruption include the allotment of additional funds for the Office of the Ombudsman, the Presidential Anti-Graft Commission, and other investigative arms of the government. Lifestyle checks have led to the dismissal and / or prosecution of some officials. There are a number of graft-related issues still waiting to be resolved, which include $329-million broadband project deal with ZTE Corp., the P728-million fertilizer scam, and alleged cash gifts distributed to some politicians. The country is in need of feasible solutions to achieve lasting peace and prosperity. The government alone could not carry out the arduous tasks. The Philippines, naturally blessed with bountiful resources and a historic past, has withstood the difficult times. It is resilient yet staunch like a bamboo. The nation has been striving for its primary concern, its people from its foremost strength, the Almighty God. At the beginning of 2009, the 42 nd World Day of Peace was celebrated with the theme, "Fighting Poverty to Build Peace." In the message of Pope Benedict XVI, he highlighted the need for human family to find an urgent response to the serious question of poverty, which is not only a material problem, but above all, a moral and spiritual one. Study Guides A. Terms / Concepts to Understand Bell Trade Act Coup d' etat Parity Rights Blue Book Military Bases Agreement Oplan Sagittarius Bell Mission AVSECOM Melby Mission APEC Rizal Bill Visiting Forces Agreement Filipino First Policy SONA B. Questions to Answer 1. Cite incidents under various political administrations wherein the following qualities were evident: a. creativity and resourcefulness b. faith and religiosity c. dishonesty and treachery d. loyalty and bravery 2. What brought about the People Power 1 and 2? Discuss the results of these mass actions. 3. What should the Filipinos do to achieve a sustainable economic growth? 4. Is there a need to change the 1987 Philippine Constitution? Why? References Abueva, Jose V. Filipino Nationalism Various Meanings, Constant and Changing Goals, Continuing Relevance. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1999. Agoncillo, Teodoro A. The Revolt of the Masses, The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan. Quezon City: The University of the Philippine Press, 2002. Alarcon, Norma I. Philippine Architecture During the Pre-Spanish and Spanish Periods. Manila: UST Publishing House, 1991. Baclagon, Louie. Manila Bay, 1898 'Never was there a battle more cheaply won!' Kalayaan Volume 3, No. 5,1998. Begornia, Mike L. Rio Alma Una kong Milenyum. (1963-1981). Quezon City: U.P. Press, 1998. Bellwood, Peter and Eusebio Dizon. The Batanes Archaeological Project and the Out of Taiwan Hypothesis for Austronesian Dispersal. Journal of Austronesian Studies. Volume Number 1, June 2005. Bernardo, Nicolo F. Da Unconvincing Code. The Varsitarian, September 12, 2006. Buechler, Soledad B. The Cry of Balintawak, A Contrived Controversy. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1998. Caoili, Olivia C. ed. The Sugar Bloc: Problems and Opportunities by Carmencita T. Aguilar, Philippine Political Science Journal, June and December 1989, nos. 29-30. Casal, Fr. Gabriel S., et al. Kasaysayan, The Story of the Filipino People. Volume II, Asia Publishing Company Limited, 1998. Cervantes, Leticia. Erap Pro-Poor Program in Place. MagNegosyo, May, 1999. Civil Society Organizations, Ethnic-Interfaith Relations and Democratization. Social Science Information, Vol 31, No. 2, July- December 2003. Constantino, Renato and Letizia R. Constantino. The Philippines: A Past Revisited. Quezon City: Renato Constantino, 1993. Continuous Search for Sustainable Development. Sta. Maria Municipal Planning and Development Office, 1998. Corpuz, Onofre D. Saga and Triumph (The Filipino Revolution Against Spain). Manila: Philippine Centennial Commission, 1999. Corpuz, Onofre D. The Roots of the Filipino Nation. Vol. II. Quezon City: AKLAHI Foundation, Inc., 1989. Cortes, Rosario M. et al. The Filipino Saga, History as Social Change. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 2000. C Cristobal, Adrian E. ed. Siglo, A journal of the National Centennial Commission. Manila: Committee on Publication of Centennial Materials, 1998. Cruz, Isagani A. Philippine Political Law. Quezon City: Central Law Book Publishing Co. Inc., 1991. De Pedro, Ernesto. The "Catholic Unit" of the Imperial Japanese Army, 1942: Its Futile Courtship of the Catholic Church of the Philippines, Manila: University of Santo Tomas, 1996. Dela Costa, Father Horacio. Readings in Philippine History. Makati City: Bookmark, Inc., 1992. De Viana, Augusto V. The Collaboration Issue During World War II in the Philippines. Master's Thesis, Manila: University of Santo Tomas, 1995. Fajardo, Feliciano R. Economic Development. Manila: National Book Store, Inc., 1994. Fedder, Edwin H. NATO: The Dynamics of Alliances in the Postwar World. New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1993. Fernandez, Samuel P. Philippine History: Topography and Culture. Quezon City: Velprint Corporation,1998. Garcia, Manuel B. Social Problems in the Philippine Context. Metro Manila: Navotas Press,1994. Geologo, Francis A. and Bernardita Reyes Churchill. Centennial Papers on the Katipunan and the Revolution. Manila: National Commission for Culture and the Arts, 1999. Golay, Frank Hindman. Face of Empire: United States-Philippine Relations, 1898-1946. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1997. Gonzalez, Brother Andrew. Philippine Journal of Linguistics. Volume 24, Number 1. FSC Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, Grosvenor Press (printer), June 1993. Halili, Maria Christine N. A History of the Bulacan Military Area Movement During the Japanese Occupation. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, University of Santo Tomas, October, 2000. http:/ / filipinokastila.tripod.co/FilSpa.html http: / / www.filipinoweb.com / thennow.html. http://www.msc.edu.ph/ centennial/flags.html lbon Facts and Figures. Manila: Ibon Philippines Databank and Research Center. Volume 18, Nos. 23 and 24, December 15 and 31,1995. Ibon Special Release, People's Policy and Advocacy Studies. Manila: Ibon Philippines Databank and Research Center. No. 39, October 15,1998. lleto, Reynaldo C. Filipinos and their Revolution. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1998. Isla, Carlo P. 104 days that gripped the nation and UST. The Varsitarian. January 26,2001. Joaquin, Nick. Manila, My Manila. Makati City: Bookmark Inc., 1999. Jose, Ricardo T. The Japanese Occupation, Kasaysayan, the Story of the Filipino People. Vol. VI. Asia Publishing Company Limited, 1998. Kahayon, Alicia H. and Celia A. Zulueta. Philippine Literature Through the Years. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store, Inc., 2000. Kalambakal, Jupiter L. Nation Celebrates the Centennial of the First Flag Hoisting in Mindanao. Kalayaan Special Supplement, January 1999. Karnow, Stanley. In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines. New York: Random House, 1989. Kiernan, Victoria G. and Harvey J. Kaye. Imperialism and its Contradictions. New York: Routledge, 1995. Lardizabal, Amparo S. Beautiful Philippines. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc., 1992. Leuterio, Florida C. Philippine History and Government, A Centennial Editorial. Manila: St. Augustine Publications, Inc., 1998. Llamzon, Teodoro A. S.J. and John P. Thorpe, C.S.C. Talahuluganang Pilipino- Ingles by Jose Villa Panganiban. Ateneo de Manila University Philippine Journal of Linguistics, Linguistic Society of the Philippines. Volume 3, Number 2, December 1972. Marquez, Alberto T. World War II Guerillas in the Philippines. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1992, Martin, Marian C. Masonry and the Philippine Revolution. Kalayaan, Vol. 3, No. 10, October 1998. McKaughan, Howard P. Toward a Standard Philippine English. Journal of Linguistics, Linguistic Society of the Philippines, Volume 24, Number 2, December 1993. McKenna, Thomas M. Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines. University of California Press: Berkeley, 1998. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2000. United States: Mcrosoft Corporation. Molina, Antonio. Dusk and Dawn in the Philippines, Memoirs of a Living Witness of World War II. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1996. Nakpil, Carmen Guerrero. History Today. Metro Manila: Vessel Books, 19%. Narvasa, Andres R. Lecture on the Malolos Constitution. National Centennial Commission, September 13,1996. Navarro, Atoy, Mary Jane Rodriguez and Vicente Villan. Pantayong Pananaw: Ugat at Kabuluhan, Pambungad sa Pag-aaral ng Bagong Kasaysayan. Mandaluyong: Palimbagang Kalawakan, 1997. Patanne, Eufenio P. The Philippines in the 6 th to 16 th Centuries. Metro Manila: . LSA Press, Inc., 1996. Paular, Regina P. Filipinos in History. Manila: National Historical Institute, 1990. Pelmoka, Juan J. Pre-Spanish Philippines. Caloocan City: Philippine Graphics Arts, Inc., 1997. Perez, Rafael B., et al. Current Social Issues. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc., 1997. Perry, Marvin, et al. A History of the World. Manila: National Book Store, 1989. Philippine National Historical Society. Philippine Encychrpedia of the Social Sciences Vol. II. Quezon City: Philippine Social Science Council, 1993. Philippine Political Science Journal. Marcos vs. Manglapuz: An Inquiry on a Case That Tried Ferdinand E. Marcos and Put the Supreme Court Also on Trial. June and Dec. 1989 nos. 29-30 Philippine Social Science Council, Social Development Center. Meeting the Health Challenges of the 21 s ' Century: Partnership in Social Science and Health Science. Manila: De La Salle University, 1997. Philippines, The Best of the Islands (CD-ROM). Manila: Department of Tourism, 1997. Pobre, Cesar P. History of the Armed Forces of the Filipino People. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 2000. Punongbayan, Raymundo S., et al. Kasaysayan, The Story of the Filipino People. Volume 1. Asia Publishing Company Limited, 1998. Ramos, Fidel V. A Call to Duty (Citizenship and Civic Responsibility in Third World Democracy). Friends of Steady Eddie, 1993. Ramos, Fidel V. To Win the Future (People Empowerment for National Development). Friends of Steady Eddie, 1993. Revisiting Our Indigenous Roots in the Mangyan Tribes. Philippine Panorama, January 2, 2005. Rizal, Jose P. Historical Events of the Philippine Islands by Dr. Antonio de Morga. Manila: National Historical Institute, 1990. Roxas, Rosalinda G. Baliwag: Pioneer of a Democratic Process. Philippine Panorama, May 9, 1999. Salute to the 50 th Anniversary, Liberation ofBaguio City. Philippine Information Agency, April 27,1995. Salazar, Jose A. and A.C. Polintan. Dahong Pang-alaala sa Pista ng Bayang Hagonoy. January 17,1992. Sanchez, Custodia A. and Fe B. Agpoa. Contemporary Social Problems and Issues. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store, Inc., 1997. Santos, Hector. Literacy in Pre-Hispanic Philippines in A Philippine Leaf, at http. / / www.bibingka.com / dahon / literacy / literacy.htm.US, October 26,1996. Santos, Hector. "The Laguna Copperplate Inscription" in Philippine Leaf at http://www.bibingka.com/dahon/literacy/literacy.htm. US, October 26,1996. Schreurs, Peter. Angry Days in Mindanao (The Philippine Revolution and the War Against the U.S. in East and Northeast Mindanao 1897-1908). Manila: National Historical Institute, 2000. Scott, William Henry. Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1992. Student's Handbook. Makati City: Salesiana Publishers, Inc., 1998. Tallo, Facundo S. 409 Years of Catholicism in the Philippines. Philippine l > Panorama, August 8, 2004. The Philippine Flag. Manila: Philippine Centennial Commission and Philippine History and Government Through the Years. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store, Inc., 2003 and the National Historical Institute, 1997. Tirol, Lorna K. The World of 1986. Makati: Bookmark Inc., 1998. Tubangui, Helen R., et al. The Filipino Nation, A Concise History of the Philippines. Edited by Jim Jaskins, United States: Grolier International, 1992. Veneration, Jaime B. ed. Ang Kilusang Masa sa Kasaysayang Pilipino (1900- 1992). Quezon City: CSSP Publications, 1994. * Veneration, Jaime B. 100 Taon Primer Tungkol sa Rebolusyong Pilipino, 1896. Quezon City: Lupon sa Sentinaryo, U.P., 1995. Viana, Augusto V. The Collaboration Issue During World War II in the Philippines. Master's Thesis, Manila: University of Santo Tomas, 1995. Vivar, Teofista D. Economic Theories and Principles. Quezon City: Vibal Publishing House, Inc., 1998. Wikipedia.Encarta.com. Wikipedia.Spoliarium.www.wikipedia.com. Wionzek, Karl-Heinz. ed. Germany, the Philippines, and the Spanish- American War. (Four Accounts by Officers of the Imperial German Navy). Manila: National Historical Institute, 2000. Zaide, Sonia M. The Philippines: A Unique Nation. Quezon City. All Nations Publishing Co. Inc., 1994. Zulueta, Francisco M. General Sociology. Mandaluyong City: Academic Publishing Corporation, 1998. Zulueta, Francisco M. and Abriel M. Nebres. Philippine History and Government Through the Years. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store, Inc., 2003.