The N¯ satyas, the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion ∗ aAsko PARPOLA Swing low, sweet chariot, coming for to carry me home... Abstract In “classical” Vedic religion, the N¯ satyas or A´vins are deities of secondary impora s tance, mainly associated with healing. Their cult had largely been absorbed into the cult of Indra and his sacred drink Soma. Thus they were worshipped in such minor components of the Soma ritual as the offering of hot milk called gharma or pravargya, and morning litanies called pr¯ taranuv¯ ka and asvina´astra. That these horse-related gods a a s ¯´ were formerly more important deities is suggested by the prominence of the horse and chariot in such “pre-classical” rites as the a´vamedha and v¯ japeya. s a ∗ Revised version of the paper read at the Kansai session of the 50th International Conference of Eastern Studies on Saturday 28 May 2005 at Kyoto International Community House. The abstract will appear also in the Transactions of the International Conference of Eastern Studies, vol. 50 (2005). — An earlier draft of this paper, entitled “On the cult of the twin gods associated with the horse-drawn chariot”, was presented at a mini-seminar on “Vedic religion from the perspective of Eurasian archaeology and linguistics”, organized by Jan Houben and Arlo Griffths on the occasion of the 65th birthday of Professor H. W. Bodewitz at the University of Leiden on 12 November 2004. I thank the T¯ h¯ Gakkai and my Leiden colleagues for their invitations and o o hospitality. I am grateful to Werner Knobl for his copious critical comments. Jorma Koivulehto’s constructive criticism helped me to improve some of my proposals for new Proto-Aryan loanwords in Finno-Ugrian languages and to delete some others. Yasuke Ikari’s comment likewise helped me to eliminate an irrelevant argument. Petri Kallio has given me some bibliographical references and an advance copy of his (and Ante Aikio’s) review of Katz 2003. Stanley Insler has with great generosity summarized his not fully published explanation of the divine name M¯ tari´van and allowed me to communicate it. The following recent (August 8, 2005) comment from a s Stanley Insler, which has given me cause to elaborate on the A´vins’ connection with the chariot, deserves to be s quoted here in full: “As to the A´vins, if they stem from very ancient times, I see no difficulty in assessing them as s horsemen (from pre-chariot days). For the RV there is no doubt that they possess a chariot, but please note that their chariot is often drawn by animals other than horses, attesting to the fact that we are in the midst of an ever shifting mythology. In general, this is the great problem of Rigvedic mythological interpretation. Ancient names of gods survive, in part with some (often dim) memory of their original functions. But to a large degree, the gods are reworked into an ever changing framework of shifting ritual and political conditions. As Agni and Indra rise to prominence in the pantheon, the other gods fall into the shadows of memory and myth, and the whole business becomes a hodge-podge of mythic references and new attributions, which are for the most part vexingly difficult to sort out. I struggle with this problem all the time.” — I thank Masaaki Hattori, Muneo Tokunaga and Akihiko Akamatsu for their kind invitation to publish this paper in the Journal of Indological Studies. 2 Journal of Indological Studies, Nos. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) In the Rgveda, the N¯ satyas are worshipped especially by the K¯ nva and Atri poets resia a. ˚ dent in Gandh¯ ra, the K¯ nvas associated with the earlier immigration wave of Indo-Aryan a a. speakers. The gharma vessel seems to be connected with the ‘face urn’ of the Gandh¯ ra a Grave culture (c. 1600–900 BCE). This suggests that the N¯ satyas may have had a fua nerary function. Vedic texts indeed contain previously unnoticed evidence associating the N¯ satyas with a funerary chariot race. Such a funerary race is attested in the Greek and a Baltic traditions. Archaeology and Proto-Aryan loan words in Finno-Ugrian languages spoken in northeastern Europe have enabled locating the emergence of the Aryan branch of the IndoEuropean language family in southeastern Europe (the Poltavka, Abashevo and SintashtaArkaim cultures). Its diffusion can be followed in the Eurasiatic steppes and through Central Asia (Bactria and Margiana Archaeological Complex) to Syria (Mitanni kingdom) and to South Asia (Gandh¯ ra Graves). a The horse-drawn chariot was centrally involved in this emergence and diffusion of Proto-Aryan speakers. The two-man team of warrior and charioteer was deified, and the mythology of these divine twins spread together with the chariot from the Proto-Aryans to Proto-Greeks and Proto-Balts. Loanwords in Finno-Ugrian languages, too, suggest that the N¯ satyas were important divinities for Proto-Aryan speakers. a Proper names associate Mitanni kings with the chariot. It is argued that Mitra and Varuna are “abstract” deities created by Proto-Indo-Aryans under Assyrian influence c.1900 . BCE and that they replaced the N¯ satyas in the royal function. Earlier the N¯ satyas, like a a the Dioskouroi in Sparta, were models of dual kingship. The twins represented dualistic cosmic forces, day and night, birth and death. As márya, they were warring youths and wooing bridegrooms, and thus also functioned as gods of fertility and birth. Archaeology and the prehistory of the Aryan languages Several terms related to wheeled vehicles can be reconstructed for the Indo-European protolanguage. Therefore, its speakers knew this technical innovation datable to c. 3500 BCE. With the chronological and geographical starting point supplied by the earliest finds of heavy carts and waggons pulled by oxen — not horses —, one can attempt a systematic and holistic correlation between archaeological cultures and linguistic groups in order to trace movements of peoples and contacts between them that can explain the historical distribution of the Indo-European languages and their contacts revealed by loanwords and other indications of interaction. On such a basis, the Proto-Indo-European language can The N¯ satyas, the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. Parpola) a 3 be located in the Pontic steppes north of the Black Sea, where it started disintegrating around 3500 BCE.1 The Pit Grave culture (c. 3500-2800 BCE) extending from the Danube to the Urals probably had Proto-Graeco-Aryan as its language. In the west, it was succeeded by the Catacomb Grave culture, where an early form of Proto-Graeco-Armenian may have been spoken. The Catacomb Grave culture was flanked in the east, between the lower Volga and the Urals, by the Poltavka and Abashevo cultures where Proto-Aryan seems to have developed, split into two dialects. There is one very important support for the Aryan affinity of the language mainly spoken in the Poltavka and Abashevo cultures and their successors. These cultures partly extended to the forest zone of central Russia, occupied by the Volosovo culture where, in all likelihood, a late form of Proto-Finno-Ugrian was spoken. Several Finno-Ugrian languages are still spoken in this area as minority languages, alongside Turkic and Russian which arrived here in medieval times. Eventually, the Volosovo culture prevailed linguistically, absorbing the Aryan-speaking upper class minority. About one hundred early Aryan loanwords have been identified in Proto-Finno-Ugrian; I will take up some of them later on. Late Proto-Aryan was probably the language of the succeeding Sintashta-Arkaim culture, dated to c. 2200-1800 BCE. This culture controlled tremendously rich copper mines in the southern Urals — at Kargaly, shafts sometimes 90 metres deep yielded two million tons of copper ore during the Bronze Age. Bones of hundreds of animals slaughtered for sacrifice indicate that the people were very rich also as pastoralists. Their numerous fortified ceremonial centres have the shape of a wheel, while aristocratic graves contain the earliest known evidence of horse-drawn chariots. Some of these Sintashta-Arkaim graves are radio-carbon dated to c. 2000 BCE, using samples taken from the skulls of buried horses.2 The chariots had both plank-wheels and spoked wheels.3 Origin and dispersal of the horse-drawn chariot Whether the horse-drawn chariot originated in the steppes (in the Sintashta-Arkaim cul1 On the central thesis of this section, see especially Anthony 1995 and its critical review by Raulwing (2000: 79-85). On the correlation of archaeology with the prehistory of the Indo-European languages, see Mallory 1989 and Carpelan & Parpola 2001; and with the Aryan languages in particular, also Parpola 2002a, 2002b. These publications contain detailed documentation for this section. 2 Anthony 1998: 106; cf. Raulwing 2000: 90; Littauer & Crouwel 2002: 45. 3 Cf. Gening et al. 1992; Anthony & Vinogradov 1995; Raulwing 2000: 86-95 and 123-126; Epimakhov 2002. 4 but Stuart Piggott has suggested a reasonable compromise that may settle the dispute: “[T]he natural habitat of the wild horse and its early domestication was on the South Russian steppe. a technological reservoir on which Mesopotamia could draw. and especially Raulwing 2000. steppe pottery called Piggott 1992: 37-68. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) ture) or in the Near East is a debated issue. The criticism of Littauer and Crouwel (1996) tabulated by Raulwing (2000: 124-126) amounts to pointing out that much information on the Sintashta-Arkaim vehicles is missing and that the available data suggest they “cannot yet be true chariots” but admittedly are “proto-chariots or spoked wheeled carts”. 5 Piggott 4 See . Cattani 2004 [2005]: 312. see Parpola 2004 [2005]. Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 138. 8 Cf. southern Ukraine.. Littauer & Crouwel 2002: 45-52. and pottery typical of the Bactria and Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC). and the southern Urals.9 Steppe ceramics are rare at the BMAC sites in the Togolok period (c. and then create the chariot.” 9 The characteristic “face urn” of the Gandh¯ ra Grave culture seems to be related to the gharma or pravargya a vessel of the Vedic ritual and with the A´vin cult.4 Journal of Indological Studies. which a sophisticated political setting alone could make possible.8 which is the first culture of northern Pakistan a to have the domesticated horse.). 2000 BCE) or Late Bronze Age (c. Here the first experiments were made in light spoke-wheeled vehicles. Moorey (1986: 211ff. Nos. the upper course of the river Don.10 During the Final Bronze Age (c. along with a horse-topped bronze rod or sceptre.) and Anthony & Vinogradov (1995) summarized in Raulwing 2000: 120-123. yet are found in room fill within BMAC architectural contexts. 1550-1350 BCE). and Kuznetsov 2004. 6 See Penner 1998. The numerous new finds of related cheek-pieces concentrate in Rumania. A disturbed aristocratic grave that recently came to light in Tajikistan contained two horse-bits and two pairs of cheek-pieces of the Sintashta-Arkaim type. more exactly its Dzharkutan phase dated between 2034 and 1684 BCE. and its later development of organized chariotry and chariot-warfare.6 Cheek-pieces for chariot horses have been introduced from the south Russian steppes also to southern Central Asia. 7 See Bobomulloev 1997. Penner 2004: 63f. mid-Volga. Mallory (1989: 41f. cf. The Mycenaean cheek-pieces for chariot-horses can be traced back through eastern Europe to prototypes in the south Russian steppes.). Cf.. Sarianidi 2001: 432: “apart from the common funeral ceremonies. 1800-1550 BCE). the graves at the Gonur necropolis [in Margiana] and the Swat graveyard manifested similar ceramic complexes which represent the late variation of the BMAC. 1992: 48. Hiebert 2004 [2005]: 298. Piggott (1983: 103f. 2004. s 10 Cf. This suggests that Proto-Indo-Aryan speakers had become the elite layer of the BMAC culture in southern Central Asia before spreading to the Indian subcontinent.”5 There is important new evidence for the steppe origin of the proto-chariot.7 The BMAC pottery is the source of the ceramics of the Gandh¯ ra Grave culture of Swat. Lombardo 2004 [2005]. 10. Parpola 2002a: 87f. and the BMAC type trumpets17 of Tepe Hissar III C were the principal reasons why Roman Ghirshman suggested that the Proto-Indo-Aryan-speaking elite which ruled the Mitanni kingdom of northern Syria 1500-1300 BCE came from northeastern Iran. Hiebert 1994: fig. 17 See now Lawergren 2003. archaeologists would deny a general Indo-Iranian identity for most of the bearers of the Andronovo culture. 12 Cf. 19 Cf. also Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 96ff. from the Urals to the Altai.19 As shown by the appearance of Egyptian and Syrian motifs on BMAC seals and the appearance of the Bactrian camel on Syrian seals. Tienshan and the Kopet Dagh mountains. surrounding practically all known BMAC sites. Cattani 2004 [2005]. Littauer & Crouwel 2002: 279 & pl. 20 Cf. the 20th century BCE. with further references.13 “Few. 21 Cf. Togolok-1. . 16 Cf. Ghirshman 1977: 10-19. 18 Cf. 1900-1750 BCE) is considered to represent the BMAC. 11 Cf. 13 Cf.The N¯ satyas. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. The horse and the camel are known from a number of BMAC seals and other objects as well. Parpola) a 5 “Incised Coarse Ware” (ICW) has been recognized on the surface of most of the main BMAC sites (including Auchi. 1998. where Tepe Hissar has yielded a cylinder seal depicting a horse-drawn chariot. The seal is attributed to stratum III B. 15 Cf. there is clear evidence of the parallel presence of both the BMAC and Andronovo traditions and of their mutual influence in southern Central Asia during the Late Bronze Age. Togolok-21 and Gonur).18 Ghirshman connects the trumpets with the Near Eastern evidence.21 from where Assyrian merchants operated a lucrative tin trade with Central Asia — the realm of Gubaev et al. now dated to c. and the III C stratum (c. 129. according to which chariot horses were trained to the accompaniment of trumpet signals. nor would they deny its fundamental genetic association with its western neighbours in the Pontic-Caspian. Cf.16 This seal. the southwestern Late (Alakul Phase) variant of the Andronovo complex. 8 showing a bas relief of Ramses III from Medinet Habu in Egypt.12 The Andronovo complex continues the Sintashta-Arkaim culture and is distributed widely over the Central Asian and South Siberian steppes. Ghirshman 1977: 30-31 with fig. Taip. 28-29.”14 Another extension of the BMAC15 is in the Gorgan plain of northern Iran. the BMAC had trade relations with Syria around 1900-1750 BCE. too. Littauer & Crouwel 2002: 15-21. if any.11 In metallurgy. The ICW closely resembles the ceramics of the Tazabag”yab culture of Choresmia. Kuz’mina 1994. Mallory 1989: 227-231. 14 Mallory 1989: 227.20 Seals depicting a horse-drawn chariot dated to the beginning of the second millennium have also been found in Syria and Anatolia. 131ff. and so far 340 steppe people camp sites have been identified in Margiana..8. Ward 1968: 10ff. Gonda 1974: 34-58. Moreover. Ugarit and Nuzi in Syria and Amarna g ˘ ˘ in Egypt use for ‘chariot warrior’ the term mariannu. Alalah. The chariot was a prestigious and effective new instrument of war and sport. For the Greek Dioskouroi. the A´vins are called several times ‘sons of heaven’. Bethe 1905. Renou 1967. Latvian saules meita ‘maiden u a e or daughter of the sun’ and Lithuanian saules dukryte ‘daughter of the sun’). For the Baltic 23 Cf. ‘youths of Zeus’ (i. Farnell 1921: 175-228.g. which is widely agreed to go back to Proto-Indo-Aryan *marya. 339-374. 431-510.. as is somea s times maintained. 1993. 329f. many of the hippological terms in the handbook for training chariot-horses written in Hittite by a Mitannian called Kikkuli have a sound Proto-Indo-Aryan etymology. Burkert 1985: 212-213. Akkadian documents of archives in Hattuša (Bo˘ azköy) in Anatolia. see Muir 1874: V. and developed it to chariotry after they had taken over the rule of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni and made the Assyrians their vassals. Zeller 1990. Pirart 1995-2001.25 There are other common features. 5-20. the last quarter or the end of the third millennium BCE. some generally recognized.6 Journal of Indological Studies. Bergaigne 1883: a s II. 1974: 14ff. 24 I would like to maintain that this phrase refers exclusively to the A´ vins — the one contested case will be s discussed below. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) the BMAC — in 1920-1850 BCE. Baunack 1896. In the Rgveda.. After c.26 Mayrhofer 1996: II. Harris 1906. that is.‘young man’ + the Hurrian nominal suffix -nnu. Geldner 1928: 21-23. 26 For the Aryan N¯ satyas alias A´ vins. sons of the Sky God). It relates them historically to the horse-riding divine twins of early Greece aa who are called the Dioskouroi. too. divó náp¯ t¯ or s aa ˚ 24 dívo nap¯ t¯ . Nilsson 1955: I. 1899. There is indeed every reason to believe that it was the Proto-Indo-Aryan speakers who introduced the horse-drawn chariot to the Near East. which was quickly adopted by the elites of neighbouring peoples. . 406-411.. Myriantheus 1876. Helén¯ ‘torch’ in Greece. III. Raulwing 2000: 113-116 with uptodate bibliography. Nos. some not. but goes back to the times when the horse-drawn chariot evolved. Together with the chariot. Hillebrandt 1927: I. Lithuanian Dievo s¯ neliai) in the pree u Christian religion of the Balts. see Eitrem 1902. S¯ ry¯ in India. 234-257. Placing the origin in the steppes of southeastern Europe best explains the distribution of the early chariot lore among the Aryans. all these three sets of equestrian twins have a sister or wife or bride associated with the dawn or called the daughter of the sun (Usas or . Raulwing 2000: 117f.e.. and to the horse-riding ‘sons of the God’ (Latvian Dieva d¯ li.23 The A´vins as the deified chariot team s The cult of the N¯ satyas alias A´vins is not of Proto-Indo-European origin.22 Similarly. Greeks and Balts. Oberlies 1992. the mythology and cult of the deified chariot team also spread. e. Mayrhofer 1966: 15ff. 54-70. Oldenberg 1917: 207-215. and in the Baltics. 1500 BCE. Macdonell 1897: 49-54.. Güntert 1923: 253-276. 22 Cf. Lüders 1959: II. 25 Cf. and the mystique of chariotry. barbarian northwest Europe and the Mediterranean and North Africa westwards to Spain by the seventh century BC. Niniveh was destroyed by the Medes in 606 BC.. or one may suspect an influence of the Graeco-Roman Dioskouroi/Dioscuri. but these twins are either not associated with both horses and the dawn. the chariot drawn by a pair of horses was “the vehicle of prestige — the only approved conveyance for the chieftain and his noble entourage in ceremony and ritual. in 539 BC. O’Brien 1997. see Mannhardt 1875. founder of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty. but the Greek Dioskouroi and the Baltic s ˚ ‘sons of the God’ are horse-riders. . in Britain finally by the second century BC. Chariotry was to play its part. By the seventh century BC momentous re-alignments of power were taking place. but throughout the previous thousand years it had embodied for much of the known world monarchy in motion. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. King of Mari. warfare”27 . As a widespread symbol of élite transport for monarch and nobles the chariot. the earliest mention of the Dioskouroi is in the 8th or 7th century BCE inscription of the sacred rock of the city of Thera. when the Dioskouroi first make their appearance:28 “The beginnings of regal horse-riding were tentative. Parpola) a 7 The A´vins of the Rgveda move in a chariot. In much of the ancient world.. In the ancient Near Eastern tradition the king. cf. also ibid. 27 Piggott 1992: 48. These peoples all shared economy and military structure based on the mastery of the ridden horse and the use of the bow. not only in the ancient Near Eastern Akkadian world from soon after 2000 BC. and new people with a tradition of mobile horsemanship from the west Asiatic steppe were establishing themselves in the ancient centres of authority. The tribes known to the Assyrians as the Ishkuzai and Gimirrai (the Scythians and Cimmerians) were raiding the Caucasian kingdom of Urartu from the time of Sargon II (721-705) .. in some form or another. Let him mount only chariots or mules and honour his kingly head. might on occasion ride on a mule or a donkey. was to lose its prestige in favour of the ridden steed by the first millennium BC. we come to the beginning of one of the great chapters of ancient history. But .. Michalski 1961. but soon in Egypt.. Babylon conquered by Cyrus.” 28 According to Bethe (1905: 1088). if he did not appear in a chariot. throughout the second millennium BCE. Excepting Michalski. then India.. the development of the light two-wheeled chariot drawn by paired horses as a piece of technology and as an institution within the social order as an emblem of power and prestige..’ . however. cavalry was taking over chariotry in Assyria by the ninth century BC and the king Shalmaneser III (858-823 BC) is depicted as riding on horseback. these and some other authors (as well as Güntert 1923: 262-3) also compare the divine twins of several other Indo-European peoples (Celtic. there are useful comparative studies: Wagner 1960. In addition. hunting and its counterpart. Germanic. China and the Levant. gives him advice on this matter — ‘Let my lord not ride horses.. Thenceforward the monarch as a warrior on horseback became the accepted convention in the ancient Orient.. Biezais 1975.. The difference is understandable. barbarian and at least partly ‘God’s sons’. In the early second millennium a well-known letter to Zimri-Lin.The N¯ satyas. Mycenaean Greece follows. 41: “. But the situation changed in the early first millennium BCE. Ward 1968. Slavic). in the Hittite world and the Caucasus. 8 Journal of Indological Studies.. The weaponry is clear in the case of the of Assyrian mounted warriors of the ninth century — though these are not in fact a ‘very important arm alongside chariotry’ (44).59 pezoí th’ hippêés te. Littauer has shown that P. Cf.competes with -vant. The Greek warriors shown on seventh-century vases carry light spears and do not attempt to fight from horseback. the s 30 Littauer 29 Piggott . A... Greenhalgh (1973) is wrong in his thesis that “the ‘Homeric Hippêes’. L.. Nos. no matter how awkwardly at first. used either of 1992: 69-71.. he cites the appearance of horseback riders ...810). And a warrior with as much armor as the Greek warrior carries was more apt to have come out of a chariot than to have started mounted. 11.. but still greatly inferior in numbers. These Assyrians use the weapon they used in the chariot and.and is preferred in characterizations of living beings.. [1970] in Littauer & Crouwel 2002: 63f. Wagenkämpfer die Wagenkämpfer’). any more than did their chariot-borne ancestors of the Bronze or Iron Age who are illustrated in art and literature.” 32 Cf.and -mant. actually consisted in the Dark Age of mounted pairs. riding as well as chariot-driving took place in the Olympic Games from 648 BC..150-151 pezoì mèn pezoùs ólekon pheúgontas anágk¯ i. such as one would expect to find wherever horses were used for any purpose. who still holds the reins of both horses. also Güntert (1923: 259): “Das Wort s a´vín. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) nomadic in origin. The use of the chariot in ceremony and war dwindled. consistently represented by Homer as chariot warrior and driver. translated directly from the chariot: the bowman and the driver. das Wort geht also auf die tüchtigen Wagenlenker.”30 s Vedic a´vín.. both riders with cramped and unhorsemanlike seats. But these are casual and sporadic riders.. including proper names like A´vín-.ist völlig klar: ‘der Rosse besitzt’. thus continuing their chariot-fighting tradition. but this evidence does not extend to the Geometric period. A. with the men on foot and their leaders on chariots..”29 M. To support his thesis. they persist in fighting mounted. By the seventh century cavalry was becoming a component in Greek armies and soon riding was accepted as part of the necessary education of a young gentleman.. G. The Iliad’s horsemanship and chariot warfare is therefore that of late Mycenaean Greece as imagined by the poets of five centuries later. 31 Debrunner (1954: 332-335) notes that the suffix -ín. In the Iliad hippeús denotes ‘one e who fights from a chariot’ (opposed to pezós ‘fighter on foot’)32 (2. in the Bronze Age.. (translated by Plath 1994: 113 as follows: ‘Fusssoldaten vernichteten zwangsläufig fliehende Fusssoldaten.. Iliad 8. presents abundant pictorial evidence for such pairs from the late seventh century on. These warriors always go in pairs. a warrior (who dismounted to fight) and a squire. A similar contrast prevails in Vedic India: “In the earliest Vedic texts the fighters appear grouped by clans (ví´).‘possessed of horses’31 seems to correspond to Homeric hippeús and hippót¯ s (in Homer always in Epic nominative hippóta). die im Wettfahren s die schöne Sonnentochter errangen. hippeîs e d’ hippêas. 2 and elsewhere) refers to a chariot..16. Falk ˚ (1994: 93-94) has found only two passages (RV 1. 361. indeed. which succeeded the BMAC around 1350 BCE.38 The chariot mains tains its prestige and importance over cavalry even later in India: “In the Epic age we have. but unorganized. cavalryman’ and ‘groom’ are attested from later texts. the meanings ‘horseman. Proto-Iranian speakers seem to have invented the stirrup — made of rope chariot fighter is regarded as superior [Atharvaveda 7. and Atharvaveda 11.24 are quoted. Horse-back riding is so common.The N¯ satyas.33 In Homer.61. 1. quite often from fear alone. Cf. but never to riding con˚ tests.163.9. 36 Cf. Oineus. Zimmer points out that in the context of battle and racing.66. Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 15. Nestor. and the image of riding men inspired ridicule: ‘The men have ˚ spread their thighs like women in childbirth. ¯ ´ ´ a u u 39 Hopkins 1889: 206-207. 35 Cf. also of ‘one who drives in a chariot-race’ (23. but finds other ˚ interpretations for them possible or even probable. hippeús and hippóta are honorifics of several heroes (Peleus. that we are rather surprised at the indifferent riding displayed. Terracotta figurines of horse-riders are known from the first two strata of Pirak near the Bolan Pass in Pakistani Baluchistan. árvat¯ ‘with horse’ a (in RV 1. the chariot is used in battles. L.17.34 In the Rgveda. Zimmer 1879: 294-295. 33 Cf. Zimmer 1879: 295-296. where RV 1.8. o 37 Cf. 40 Cf..162. elephant-riders. the car-men.v. Parpola) a 9 ‘the driver’ or of ‘the hero who fights’ (12. 365-366. Jarrige and Santoni 1979: I. but cavalry or riding in a battle is never mentioned in the Rgveda. 34 Cf.1]” (Scharfe 1989: 197).2-3) which unambiguously refer to riding. rider. not to horseback riding as interpreted by Grassmann.24.1ff. there are many references to chariot racing.36 This does not mean that riding was unknown to the Rgvedic ˚ ˚ people. 15..’ [RV 5. ˚ he mentions five further places in the Rgveda which have been suspected to refer to riding. in peace as well as war. Webster in Wace & Stubbings 1962: 457.10. just like in ˚ Homer aph’ hípp¯ n ‘from the horses’ always means ‘from the chariot’.40 They are relatable to the Yaz I culture of southern Central Asia. Apastamba-Srautas¯ tra 20.”39 This textual evidence agrees with the archaeological testimony for the arrival of mounted nomadism to the Indo-Iranian borderlands. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. .. They are generally grouped with the . hippeús. also Scharfe 1989: 193: “Riding was known even in the time of the Rgveda but was still uncommon. Zimmer 1879: 291-292. The Yaz I culture in turn seems to have come from the steppes of Ukraine and southern Russia and appears to signal the arrival of Proto-Iranian speakers to Central Asia. T. but references to riding are very few.37 Even the sacrificial horse of the Vedic a´vamedha is yoked to a chariot immediately before its immolation. Patroclus) and as such may go back to the companions (equeta > hepét¯ s) of the Mycenaean king (wanaks). B. Liddell & Scott 1940: 833b s.162.17 and 5. for the cavalry-men are mainly conspicuous through falling off their horses.35 Similarly.62. 270).262).3]” ˚ 38 Cf. noblemen who according to Linear e B texts (PY Sa 787. cavalry. 790) had chariots. as a force antithetical to the main strength of the army.61. Tydeus. Ganz s sekundär scheint mir die Deutung auf Morgenstern und Abendstern.. Here the warrior was buried together with his weapons and his car at the Littauer 1981 (reprinted in Littauer & Crouwel 2002: 439-451). 45 Piggott 1992: 47.10 Journal of Indological Studies. s s sans parler des passages qui semblent indiquer qu’il y avait à l’origine deux chars des A´vins [fn. 243] Die A´vin auf dem Streitwagen RV VIII 5. it is not a new one. dem Wagenlenker und dem Fechter. Daher wurden auch die Nothelfer.. whether for solemn parade and festive or ritual display. who summarizes and gently rejects the proposal: “Cornelius voyait dans les A´vins le cocher et le s guerrier noble sur le char de guerre hypostasiés en divinités — l’équipage d’un char consiste de deux personnes. except by Stig Wikander s (1957: 78). which c.. Die Besatzung eines Streitwagens bestand nämlich regälmässig aus zwei Männern. dass die Himmelssöhne Zwillinge von verschiedenen Vätern seien: nur der eine ist Sohn des Himmelsgottes.. s Although I had come to this idea independently.. 1500 to c. 509]. 1000 BCE led to the formation of the long-lasting Scythian/Saka culture of the Eurasiatic steppes. der andere stammt von einem sterblichen Manne. Eher könnte der Morgenstern als der Wagen gedacht gewesen sein. [p. — Wenn auf manchen alten Abbildungen des Streitwagens der Wagenlenker weggelassen ist. Der Wagenlenker war gewöhnlich auf Erden von geringerem Rang als der Streiter. so ist das zeichnerische Abkürzung: gerade der Bogenschütze auf diesen Bildern braucht ja beide Hände für die Waffe und kann sich nicht mit den Zügeln abgeben. Den Indern erschienen sie als die beiden Kämpfer auf einem Streitwagen. stets als ein Paar geschaut. die rasch wie die Wagenlenker zur Stelle waren. auf welchem beide Göttessöhne standen. — Mais. so wird sie und mit ihr ihre Voraussetzung.. gemeinindogermanisch sein. les différences qu’on peut déceler entre les deux divinités ne rentrent pas dans le cadre de cette explication. the team may have consisted of the aristocratic owner of a one-man proto-chariot and his groom. the chariot warrior mostly shot arrows from the car.. They spread to Siberia as well.” 44 In India. new radiocarbon dates have put the beginning of the Yaz I culture down from c. 28. 1350 BCE (cf. or for the more risky exploits of hunting or war. Da diese Genealogie bei Griechen und Indern übereinstimmt. Cattani 2004 [2005]: 312-313). the chariot warrior.” Yet Cornelius has been completely ignored in subsequent studies of the A´vins. mais de rang différent. 81-83. who drove the horses and took care of them and assisted in other ways as well: “the driving of the chariot with its trained and mettlesome pair of horses demanded a skilled charioteer. La religion védique II. p. Here the close team-work necessary between high-ranking warrior and passenger meant that the two were often of equal social status.. 42 Cf. der Stand des Götterpaares auf dem Streitwagen. die aus lettischen˚ Liedern erschlossen wird..44 and the charioteer. 41 Cf. 1).”45 The existence of a two-man team associated with the chariot46 in the Sintashta-Arkaim culture of the southern Urals (c.43 The chariot team normally consisted of two men. 2200-1800 BCE) is suggested by a burial at Sintashta (see fig.. while in Greece the warrior fought on foot and used the chariot for transport. qui pourtant est la moins artificielle qu’on ait proposée jusqu’à présent. who concentrated on fighting or hunting. Ceci expliquerait et l’équivalence des A´vins et leur différence (voir plus bas). Their dual number seems to be largely due to s their being the divinized chariot team. 43 Explaining the A´ vins as the divinized chariot team is one of the leading themes of the present paper. . 16 & 17 (2004–2005) or thong and/or wood and not preserved archaeologically41 — and therewith mounted warfare. Sie sind die himmlischen Nothelfer.: Bergaigne. Parpola 2002a: 68. Das hat zu der Sage geführt. 2002b: 246-248. his conclusion about the Proto-Indo-European origin of the A´vins and the chariot needs adjustment: “Neben dem Himmelsgott tritt am klarsten das Götterpaar der beiden s ‘Himmelssöhne’ hervor.42 The A´vins and the Dioskouroi are twins. In the meanwhile. Nos. but has already been proposed by Friedrich Cornelius (1942: 64-65 and 243) — of course. 46 Initially. After Gening et al. 72. . Parpola) a 11 Figure 1: Reconstruction of the burials 10 and 16 in the area SM south of the Great Kurgan at Sintashta. 154 fig. 1992: I. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A.The N¯ satyas. one was a fighter and the other took care of horses: according to their standing Homeric attributes (e. Güntert (1923: 258): ‘kampftüchtig?’. while another man was buried together with a pair of horses and a burning fireplace in an upper chamber. if confused. The Rgveda. Mayrhofer 1996: II.is debated.48 Of the Greek Dioskouroi. just like n¯ ´ asatya. 39. ‘In battle the knight. Poludeukes was good at fistfighting (pùks agathós).3. has¯ rath¯ and Atharvaveda 8. 6. 5.8 and 5. The corresponding passages of a t a ı . LIV 1998: 409-410. with references). The meaning of the words sú-makhaand makhá-.8 and 7. differentiates between the two A´vins: “one of you is respected as the s ˚ victorious lord of Sumakha. Nos.7.49 This passage suggests that divó náp¯ t¯ is an elliptic dual. 55 Cf. Mayrhofer 1996: II.54 In the Rgvedic verse just quoted the “victorious ˚ lord of Sumakha” appears to be the chariot-warrior. t a´ .9.g. 54 Cf. 2005. further Taittir¯ya-Br¯ hmana 1.16) has savyasthas¯ rath¯. ´ ´ ´ savyes. 144-155. 48 Satapatha-Br¯ hmana ´ a 47 Detailed . Oberlies 1993: 172 n.237).4.47 In the Vedic religion. Güntert 1923: 259.2.1. a u ¯ . “[t]he rule of protecting the knight is formal. 5. of the same womb (standing-place). and so are the chariot fighter [savyasthár-] and the driver [s¯ arathi-] .23 índrah savyas. . and when the charioteer risks his life in saving his master.3.12 Journal of Indological Studies.9. 51 Cf.. -makhas.4 jisnúr v¯ m anyáh súmakhasya s¯ rír divó anyáh subhágah putrá uhe. munificent’ — a characteristic expected in a victorious warlord). since they stand on one and the same chariot: hence s it is for the A´vins”. Insler 1996: 183. 39. Iliad 3.9. When. Eitrem 1902: 6. derived as it seems to be from the charioteer member of the a the pair.” (Hopkins 1889: 196. the king goes to the house of his charioteer s s s (samgrah¯tár-). combat’ and makhésasthai ‘to fight’.‘safe return home’51 and belongs to the same team. . In the Indian epics. but this context suits the old etymology that connects them with Greek mákh¯ ‘battle. ˚ the K¯ nva redaction (7. 1992: I. too. 49 RV 1. a ı ı a .. he “prepares a cake on two potsherds for the A´vins.3. while Kastor was good at taming horses (hippódamos). N¯ Proto-Indo-European root *nes-52 as the Greek agent noun Nést¯ r — known from Homer o as a hippóta and a masterly charioteer53 — and refers to the charioteer’s task of bringing the hero safely back from the battle. for the two A´vins ı ´ are of the same womb. Eggeling 1894: III. 288 (the other principal meaning suggested by some contexts is ‘bountiful. too. he does so because he ‘bears in mind the rule’. transl. the charioteer and the chariot fighter are expressly equated with the A´vins. o 52 Cf. or. Cf. 7.17. . Got¯ 1991: 980. must be guarded by the charioteer’. The M¯ dhyandina redaction of the SatapathaBr¯ hmana has the compound savyas. Iliad 23. and the other as the fortunate son of heaven”. Cf. arathih.4. Frame 1978: 96-99. 30. 62.3. ˚ 50 A similar case is the elliptic plural Castores ‘Castor and Pollux’ of Latin (which lacks the dual) for the Greek dual tô Kástore (cf.3.4.2.. 3).55 e description in Gening et al. transl.1. 125ff. 2001: 114. n.1.1. 53 Cf.t a .1 a. . LIV Add. ‘ever must the man of the war-car be guarded’. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) bottom of the grave. a . .181. in the royal consecration.301-350 and 638-642. hrs¯ rath¯ in 5. ´ a . . Mayrhofer 1996: II.8.8.is a derivative of *nasatí. based on the name of just one member of aa 50 ´ asaty¯ . h¯ s candrám¯ h s¯ ı. It is an honorable office for young knights so to ‘guard the wheels’ of a great champion. in a letter from Tušratta. xxxix. The knights pay little attention to them.. anug¯ h or anucar¯ h . addressing each other “brothers”. transl. for your chariots. very well”. Of these.The N¯ satyas. comprising not only the family or clan but hired troops.. These bhrta or mercenaries form the third group behind the knight. although. we must make three divisions. But between these two — the family friends or near relations guarding the wheel. for your horses. 57 EA Moran 1992: xvi.. regularly included in the stereotyped salutation formula.56 For example. a. He is the captain of a large family body.. and the foot-herd behind.. but socially beneath him. pad¯ nug¯ h — stand the nearer ‘followers’ of the a a. Arzawa (to the west of Cilicia). for your warriors. knight. Around him are certain followers and retainers. For you may all go well.. and stand to them in a merely formal relation. often his inferiors in age. explainable only on such an assumption. Moran 1992: 43. ç¯ ra. But in the vast hosts depicted in the Epic. The 56 Cf.. Assyria. Babylonia.. 19 = BM 29791. . supposing him to be a prince or high noble.57 In the great epics of India.. and for whatever else belongs to you. The well-born knight. is separated by various grades from those around him. usually one knight each at the sides of the car.. for the rest of your wives. Mitanni. to Nimmureya the king of Egypt. Parpola) a The A´vins and dual kingship s From the beginning chariot was one of the foremost symbols of royalty. for your country. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. The great importance attached to the chariot by the kings is evident from the fact that it is. this formula has the following wording: “For me all goes well. we find knights or kings standing at the head of whole hosts. In nearest proximity is the charioteer.. the king of Mitanni... of the clannish corps of an older age.. 13 The Amarna archive of Egypt has preserved 44 letters of the fourteenth century BCE where the rulers of Egypt. sometimes v¯ra (though this may not imply u ı nobility). may all go very. for your sons. those immediate followers representing what remains a. but his equals in rank. his friend it may be. the situation is very similar: “The knight of the war car: A few words in regard to the personal position of the knight of the chariot. Alašia (Cyprus) and Hatti (the Hittite country) correspond with each other more or less on the basis of equality... These are no humble followers. The knight is the head of his clan. First and nearest stand his ‘wheel-guard’. xxiii.. There seems to be a certain personal familiarity between these ‘followers’ and their knight. They are of no importance ˚ except as a mass. For your household. along with horses. for my sister. 62 A Syrian seal from the early half of the second millennium BCE shows a chariot pulled by two horses and driven by a charioteer behind whom stands another man. ¯ . Falk 1994: u a a. while the victorious soldier could take all other booty.10. 96. with charioteers not armed for battle. driving chariots not covered with overshields and yoked with two horses. ¯ ´ a˙ a ´ ´ S¯ nkh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 16. a 66 These are called ugra. naddhas¯ rath¯n¯ m vitatavar¯ th¯ n¯ m caturyuj¯ m. also the illustrations in Littauer & Crouwel 2002: 55.14.1 tr¯ni sat¯ ni r¯ japutr¯ nam ubhay¯ lohakavac¯ n¯ m samnaddh¯ n¯ m sama a a. var¯ th¯ n¯ m triyog¯ n¯ m..10.68 300 meat carvers and charioteers. Frequently we find thousands running from one mounted hero. . 78-81. the sacrificial horse is escorted during its year-long roaming abroad by an army 4 x 100 men of different social classes.1 tr¯ni sat¯ ny ar¯ jñ¯ m samnaddh¯ n¯ m asamnaddhas¯ rath¯n¯ m vitataa u ´ u ı. Piggott here quotes Akkadian and Egyptian evidence of the second millennium BCE. 76. a u ´ u ı. Littauer & Crouwel 2002: 59. Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 15.2.5.‘powerful.. Taittir¯ya-Br¯ hmana 3. driving chariots covered with overshields and yoked with four horses.1 tr¯ni sat¯ ni s¯ tagr¯ man¯n¯ m asamnaddh¯ n¯ m asamnaddhas¯ rath¯n¯ m a u ´ u ı. noble’ in Apastamba-Srautas¯ tra 20.5.2-4. a a 68 V¯ dh¯ la-Srautas¯ tra 11. Nos. though here a u ´ u the army is only protecting the horse during the night preceding the first day of the actual horse sacrifice. ´ a a a.16.4.1. . each group of 300 is divided into four batches. who drive on off-track 58 Hopkins 59 Cf. u u 65 V¯ dh¯ la-Srautas¯ tra 11. u a a. signifying ‘victory’” suggests military use. 62 Cf. Mycenaean paintings show two men in a chariot.20-21 jet¯ labhate s¯ mgr¯ mikam vittam / v¯ hanam tu r¯ jñah. for which cf. ¯ ´ u 67 V¯ dh¯ la-Srautas¯ tra 11. 73. ”58 The importance of the chariot as a symbol of nobility is clear from the above quotations. a a a ı a.63 In most texts describing the Vedic horse sacrifice. According to the V¯ dh¯ la-Srautas¯ tra. 75 on each of the four sides of the horse.5. 95. driving chariots covered with overshields and yoked with three horses. .10.ı a a a a ı a . 63 Littauer & Crouwel 2002: 28-29.5. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) knight in his chariot is equal to an army. Cf.64 The most detailed description of this army is given in V¯ dh¯ la-Srautas¯ tra 11.8. . with charioteers armed for battle. ´ ´ Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 13. a ı a a u . there are 4 x 300 chariot teams a u ´ u and 4 x 300 footmen. u a a. a ı a. . a a a . 61 Piggott 1992: 47. a a. 60 Piggott 1992: 57. . 64 Cf. Gautama-Dharmas¯ tra 10. 69.67 300 heralds and headmen not armed for battle. 59 We have also seen that “the chariot crew was normally two”60 and that “the two were often of equal [aristocratic] status”61 .13-14. 1889: 203-205.65 (2) 300 non-royal warriors66 armed for battle. ..1. ´ a a a. Apastamba-Srautas¯ tra 20.. ´ a u a . The four different kinds of chariot teams are the following: (1) 300 royal princes armed for battle who are clad in bronze mail on both sides. while “the motif of ‘vanquished enemy beneath the team’s hooves’ .14 Journal of Indological Studies. The vehicle of a defeated adversary went to the king.10. . The N¯ satyas. One kingly knight sometimes drives for another.1. and princes in distress adopt this mode of life by preference.73 In India. ¯ . “Often.‘off-track cart’. 15 . Sanjaya. He only served for political purposes. hemabh¯ nda. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. the vipathá. The a . u a a.71 and they were widely worshipped in Greece as “the two kings” (ánake)72 . a 70 Hopkins 1889: 195. a a 69 V¯ dh¯ la-Srautas¯ tra 11. the Buddhist tradition parallels the universal emperor wielding supreme polit[a]vitatavar¯ th¯ n¯ m dvi-yog¯ n¯ m. Unlike basileús (originally gw asileús). .. indignation . which appears to have denoted a local chief or a respected man rather than a king. a . Burkert 1985: 212. Nilsson 1955: I. Parpola) a carts [yoked with one horse].” (Hopkins 1889: 195) According to the Sanskrit epics..233 Zeû ána. Of kings the charioteers were not thought unequal to high station.. as seen from Çalya’s .”70 Having thus argued for the connection of the chariot and kingship and for the normally two-man occupation of the chariot. Farnell 1921: 186. For dual kingship among early Germanic tribes.3. one inferior to the knight’s in the war-car. ˚ ´ a˙ a ´ vipathá-. see Wagner 1960 and Ward 1968: 50ff. if not a corruption u of vipathá. But the social position of the charioteer is. 217-218. the Dioskouroi were counted among the greatest gods. and two outside horses ı . shares his old king’s hermitage.. the knight is a a his own driver. also Odyssey 16. as Krishna for Arjuna and Çalya for Karna. Benveniste (1993: 310-312) considers (w)ánaks (Mycenaean wa-na-ka) as the most important royal title of the early Greeks.. . and the horses had gilded trappings. their images accompanied the two kings of Sparta on war expeditions. According to Herodotus (5. The reading viprthu in S¯ nkh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 14. .. .. Sparreboom 1983: 151f. and passes his time in the stable.. 203-205. and driven by one driver apiece (p¯ rsnis¯ rathi)... as far as I can see. rath¯). Bethe 1905: 1098ff. 188. 407. .. the dialogue shows the position of the ordinary charioteer to be properly that of a high servant. Wagner 1960: 235f. a suggestion not made before.cart of eka-vr¯ tya in Atharvaveda 15. cf.. I think that among the features that the A´vins share s with their Greek counterparts we should even include the dual kingship. Thus Nala becomes chief hostler.2. 73 On the dual kingship of Sparta.72. however.. fastened to the axle-end (p¯ rsni). a. On ı a ı a a u ´ u ı. cf.1 tr¯ni sat¯ ni ksattrsamgrah¯t¯ nam vipathapatt¯n¯ m [read: vipath¯n¯ m]. accurately describes the largest chariot used”: “for each car were two polehorses. cars” as chariots drawn by four horses and driven by three charioteers. (w)ánaks is applied even to gods. and Nakula takes service as a horseaa trainer.. in particular the Mah¯ bh¯ rata. 71 Cf.. 72 Cf. directed by one driver (dhuryayor hayayor ekah .10. Among the Dorians of Sparta and Peloponnesos in general.. though this ideal “probably . cf. the old charioteer. Each car was accompanied by ten or by fifty elephants. Bethe 1905: 1088.75). a battle-cars were ‘like guarded cities’.69 The Indian epics Mah¯ bh¯ rata and R¯ m¯ yana contain exaggerations describing “all the a a a a . suggests the meaning ‘not˚ broad’ = ‘narrow’ = one-man chariot. especially the Dioskouroi (cf. açvaç¯ l¯ . in an address to Zeus Dodonaios). ´ a ı r. Rau 1957: 117ff. the priesthood”. but if he leaves the household life and retires from the world. a S¯ ndily¯ yana and Gautama prescribe different rituals in 8.80 both before a and after the v¯ japeya. ˚ (v¯ japeya) is a sacrifice of the Br¯ hmana.103. Brhaspati.1 yam br¯ hmana r¯ j¯ na´ ca puraskurv¯ran sa v¯ japeyena yajeta. vol. r a . their charioteers so that they could oversee that the king did not commit any sin”.74 The idea of such a dual kingship manifests itself above all in the integral connection of ksatrá. of Warren 1896: 43). ´ a... the sacrificer announces that he will a ´ win the race with the help of Brhaspati. a . he will become a Buddha. will become a Universal Monarch. Then the purohita mounts the chariot and makes the king repeat the hymn Rgveda 10. . the king ˚ of gods. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) ical power with the buddha. and roll back the clouds of sin and folly of this world. ˚ ´a. and the Br¯ hmana is brahman. Gonda 1966: 62ff.75 This dual kingship is associated with the chariot76 and therewith the A´vins for. L¯ ty¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 8. . a . and bráhman. and indicates the idea of a Buddha having universal spiritual ‘sovereignty’ . L¯ ty¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 8. In the chariot race of the v¯ japeya sacrifice. hands over the bow and the quiver to the king.24. a . inasmuch as Brhaspati sacrificed with it. ˚ 80 Cf. ˚ It seems that the v¯ japeya sacrifice was prescribed for the royal purohita. amítr¯ m apab¯ . ´ a. I. in which the king ˚ asks Brhaspati to help him roll over his rivals.. .11 sá v¯ esá br¯ hmanásyaiva yajñah / yád enena b´ haspátir áyajata bráhma hi ´ ´ a a . for a a . . .79 a .. the charioteer and purohita of Indra. blesses the weapons and the chariot with its horses.rite of Brhaspati. over humans and gods.78 In Rgveda 2. slightly modified transl. the sacrificer was supposed to perform the savá.4 b´ haspate pári d¯y¯ ráthena raksoh¯ ´ ´ ˙ r ı a a˘ adham¯ nah / prabhañján sén¯ h pramrnó a .. Brhaspati is often mentioned as an excellent charioteer and winner of ˚ ˚ races. Indeed.. ˚ Brhaspati is brahman.” 75 Cf. the priesthood. also Piggott 1992: 56: “As for its use and social status. Scharfe 1989: 112ff.11. a u a a . 47ff. a a a 79 Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 5.16 Journal of Indological Studies.wielding supreme spiritual power.174. a r .‘political power’ . the Vedic ratha was certainly the prerogative of chieftains (‘kings’) and their entourage of archer-warriors. p.. In the battle hymn called ápratiratha-.¯ aa s 81 Cf.‘sacred power’.13-14.81 a ˚ 74 Thus 64 brahmins tell Gotama’s father King Suddhodana: “You will have a son. ˚ ˚ ´ ´ ´ yudh¯ jáyann asm¯˚ a akam edhy avit¯ ráth¯ n¯ m. the two concepts being represented by the king and the royal chief priest. . a. acs cording to the Jaimin¯ya-Br¯ hmana (3. .” (Introduction to the J¯ taka. a u ı a . the Satapatha-Br¯ hmana states that “this a . brhaspatisavenaiva purast¯ d uparistac ca pariyajeteti dh¯ nañjayyah. Harvey (1990: 16) notes:“This paralleling a of a Cakkavatti and a Buddha is also made in relation to other elements of Gotama’s life.11. . Standing u ˚ behind the chariot.94 pur¯ r¯ jabhyah purohit¯ eva rath¯ n samgrhnanty aupadrasty¯ ya: ned ayam ı a a a a a . if he continues to live the household life.” 77 Jaimin¯ya-Br¯ hmana 3. ˚ p¯ pam karavad iti. ˚ which the purohita recites next. And he.12. Hopkins 1889: 95-106. ˚ b´haspátir bráhma hi br¯ hmanó.1.77 The ¯s a A´val¯ yana-Grhyas¯ tra (3. “formerly the kings’ chief priests used to be ı a .. warding off enemies and helping our chariots. . ¯ . 76 Cf. Nos. the puróhita-.11. It also indicates that Gotama renounced the option of political power in becoming a Buddha.1.94). is asked to “fly around” in his chariot. he makes the king put on the coat of mail.. 78 RV 10.12) details the royal purohita’s duties in the battle. 73.12. ˚ 90 Schlerath 1960: 10-12. . dear son. aa ı .1 krát¯ dáksau ha v¯ asya a u . a ´ s¯ a a . ˚ 89 RV 1. Geldner notes that while the dívo nap¯ t¯ elsewhere are aa the two A´vins. aa a ˚ 92 Geldner 1951: I. a . ˚s a yám a´vin¯ suhav¯ rudravartan¯ purorathám krnutháh pátny¯ sahá // a ı a .6. sa´akaiva bráhm¯ kart¯ ksatríyah. 688-9.11. Murray 1934: II. 85 Gonda 1959: 115 with copious references. and keeping the car straight.” 86 Cf. by cunning doth charioteer prove better than charioteer. a . s Das Königtum im Rig.157. ˚ 83 In 82 Cf.4. is the address in the first half of verse aa .4.. Weber 1893: 768-770. but the men know not how to devise more cunning counsel than thine own self. . .sacrifice that Brhaspati became the purohita ˚ ˚ of the gods. and he suggests that Mitra and s Varuna are meant instead.5. Hopkins (1889: 197) notes on the basis of the epics: “The art of the driver consisted not alone in driving well and fast. 8. 380. once “the two sons of heaven” are addressed as kings (r¯ j¯ n¯ ).87. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. a . it became the proper name of one of them. 91 RV 3.10... His true art consisted in wheeling and turning. Taittir¯ya-Br¯ hmana 2.6c átho ha ksatrám ádhi dhattha ugr¯ .5cd dívo nap¯ t¯ vidáthasya dh¯bhíh ksatrám r¯ j¯ n¯ pradívo dadh¯ the.. Eggeling 1885: II. plans or arts. In the Rgveda. Parpola) a 17 and it was by performing the brhaspatisavá.2. the A´ vins had been kings.und Atharvaveda (1960).11 ná tám r¯ j¯ n¯ v adite kúta´ caná n¯ ho a´ noti duritám nákir bhayám / ´. . a . Nirukta 12.85 The A´vins are also called purudámsa(s)s ˘ 86 ´ ‘having many skills’ which is etymologically related to the Greek epithet polud¯ es en¯ ‘having many counsels. 93 RV 10. 88 In the view of ancient experts of old legends. RV 1. a .88 although they are mentioned as bestowers of royal s power89 — especially because they make the king’s chariot victorious. aa a .. Bernfried Schlerath finds no evidence for the A´vins being themselves kings. .1. . In his book.The N¯ satyas.ı ı a . 87 See Schmitt 1967: 159-161.301ff.” (transl. 7. King Nestor. in bringing the car rapidly about.. and a´vin¯ in the second half of this verse. Y¯ ska. Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ 4. 517).5-6.90 However. gives counsel to his son Antilochus who takes part in the chariot race at Patroclus’ funeral games: “The horses of the others are swifter.´ . “this attribute ˚ ˙ often refers to their skill in chariot driving”.84 Dasrá‘having marvellous skill’ is one of the most distinctive epithets of the A´vins.39. lay thou up in thy mind cunning of every sort.93 As s s a ˚ Pañcavimsa-Br¯ hmana 17. 84 The king and his brahmin purohita are equated with “will” (krátu-) and “intelligence” (dáksa-): “and the . Iliad 23.87 There is a problem with the dual kingship of the A´vins proposed here. 8.92 R¯ j¯ nau ‘O two kings’.. Wherefore come.1. . 6.5. and the noble is the doer” (Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 4.91 aa a In his discussion of this verse. very wise’. 11 in the A´vin hymn Rgveda 10. 172.9.. ´ priesthood is the conceiver. transl. to the end that the prizes escape thee not. cf.38.63.6.3. for this indeed was but the foundation of his science. they do not seem to fit the context here. a . cf.5. ˚ Zeller 1990: 78. ´ ´ mitr¯ várunau .39. Mayrhofer 1992: I. a a a. 270). himself a wise and experienced charioteer. 178. and in the s epic times. 712.1: r¯ j¯ nau s a aa punyakrt¯ v iti aitih¯ sik¯ h. s am s . so as to attack the antagonist with such speed from all quarters that the chariot seemed to advance from all sides at once.82 The charioteer83 and the royal priest were expected to be wise and crafty. 13 shows that they were regarded as protectors a a of the truth: “they are true and not false (na-asatya)”.120. of c. the A´vins are invoked to guard against the breach of a treaty. 1380 BCE. pact of friendship’95 and of váruna. says Aurnav¯ bha. . 515f.probably ‘oath. . Around 1380 BCE. primary meaning of mitrá.) is ‘contractual alliance. Latin v¯ rus ‘true’. the two A´vins are mitr¯ a. ¯ 100 On the Am@ša Sp@ntas. . a .‘sagen’ in LIV 1998: 630f. An s ˚ etymology of the name N¯ satya quoted by Y¯ ska on Nirukta 6. expressly invoked in verse 9 of the A´vin hymn Rgveda 6. verse 13.. the Mitanni Aryans invoked Mitra and Varuna. when Assyrian traders operating from Syria and Cappadocia imported tin from Central Asia. The dual deity Mitra-and-Varuna seems to be a double of the A´vins. together with Mitra and Varuna. Güntert 1923: 271. where deified social principles . portant for illiterate tribal societies — were associated with the A´vins. .96 Thus these personified social concepts — im. . ers therefore had all these deities in their pantheon before they entered South Asia. 1996: II. 354f.18 Journal of Indological Studies. cf.97 In Zarathuštra’s s religion. 96 The meaning and etymology of Varuna’s name is a much debated issue (cf. too. ˚ vant¯ utá dhármavant¯ . . are aspects of the highest god Ahura ¯ Mazd¯ . such social principles.). 228. The Dioskouroi. Greek eré¯ ‘I shall speak’ etc.35. Farnell 1921: 193. Indra and the N¯ satyas as their oath divinities. 101 Cf. see especially Narten 1982. LIV Add. see especially Brereton 1981.8. a ¯ a . 192. Paul Thieme (e.62. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) the first half also addresses Aditi. [spoken] truth’ and is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *ver. Brereton 1981: 63ff. s ˚ Mitra and Varuna as doubles of the A´vins s . Agr¯ yana (saty¯ v eva n¯ saty¯ v ity aurnav¯ bhah / satyasya pranet¯ r¯ v ity agr¯ yanah). On Mitra and the meaning of his name. Ward 1968: 26f. oath’ (Avestan urv¯ ta-). see also especially Brereton 1981: 16ff. and virtues are aspects of Aššur. the highest god: they can be compared to the advisors surrounding the great king. says . 99 On the Adityas.(n. Nos. The Indo-Aryan speaka . including miTra-. . Mayrhofer 1996: II. a double which s . a e o 97 The N¯ satyas are. 98 See Parpola 2002a: 87-90. . a a a ¯ a . true speech’. Ideological influence is evidenced by the Syrian and Egyptian motifs adopted in seals of the Bactria and Margiana Archaeological Complex. 94 Geldner 95 Cf. ´ s avárunaAccording to the K¯ nva hymn Rgveda 8. I have suggested98 that the personification of the Vedic Adityas99 and the Avestan a Am@ša Sp@ntas100 was inspired by the Assyrian religion. In RV 8. Güntert 1923: 194. oath deities sworn by in the Mitanni treaty a .g. . . Mitra and Varuna are .35. Mayrhofer . ‘accompanied by Mitra and Varuna as well as by Dharma’. 1973: 347) has suggested that váruna.. 1951: III.101 The Assyrian religion is likely to have influenced ProtoIndo-Aryan religion during the late 20th and early 19th century BCE. aa were oath deities. 2001: 174) and is etymologically related to vratá.originally meant ‘true speech. Geldner94 suggested that this half verse was originally ¯ composed for an Aditya hymn and relates to Mitra and Varuna.12 and 1. The a a .‘solemn ¯ promise. and Indra. to speak with truth’ (*uerh1 .‘to speak solemnly. “they are promotors of the truth”. 7 and 5.3 a´vín¯ v adhvary¯ Aitareya-Br¯ hmana 1.18.2. a s a .. both denoting ‘chariot warrior’. . fig. 1). 106 Cf.10 a´ vín¯ dhvary¯ 4. *Prasth¯ tár.‘chariot wara rior’ suspected to be the proper name of a Mitanni king is part of the title of the pratiprasth¯ tár.107 where the s s adhvaryu’s title suggests that he originally functioned as the charioteer concerned with the way (ádhvan-). These terms were also employed as proper names.8: a u ¯´ .‘one having an impetuous chariot’ provides a widely ac.in RV 1. 107 Cf. if indeed they can be interpreted as *savyašth¯ tár..106 ı a´ a´ might characterize their owners as caring for chariot horses.6.5 a´vínau hí dev¯ am adhvary¯ ast¯ m.. a . Mayrhofer 1974: 23f. an¯ u¯ a ı ¯ .1 a´vín¯ dhvary¯ SB 1.2.1: 131.5.2. e. Proper names are also made by forming ratha into the end of a compound. ˚ cepted example. the knights are classified as ‘those that have chariots’. 105 Cf. ´ s a u.and Priyáratha.3. 686.ı u. “[t]he chariot gives the honourable title of rathin and atirathin to the knight. The association of the chariot with royalty was retained among the Proto-Indo-Aryans of Mitanni as well as the Vedic and Epic Indo-Aryans. as Vrkaratha . ‘superior chariot-men’.and *prasth¯ tár-. 103 Schlerath (1960: 108) apparently did not understand this relationship to constitute a dual kingship: “Nach dem Vorbild von Mitra und Varuna sollte man auch ein irdisches Doppelkönigtum gelegentlich erwarten. The chariot was a most prominent status symbol in the Sintashta-Arkaim culture.103 Yet the A´vins.12 asvinau v¯ adhvary¯ . Srutáratha. a .10 a´ vínau vaí dev¯ am ´ ´ s a s a .The N¯ satyas.2. ´ ˚ 110 See Velze 1938: 89-91. 109 Cf. Parpola) a ´ early on overtook the A´vins’ royal function.1. where double burials of the chariot warrior and the charioteer or groom are in evidence (see above. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. according to whom in the Indian epics.” . ´ ´ ´ ´ s a s 110. etc.122. 2004 [2005]). a ´ ´ adhvary¯ 4. s Br¯ hmana 2. 2. .1: 107. such as *Pr¯t¯ sva and *Priy¯ sva..105 Some other Mitanni proper names.36.6: 170. Cf. an¯ . 9.” ˚ .4) actually s a . also Hopkins (1889: 183). Mitanni Aryan kings bore such 19 names as Sauštattar and Parsatattar.18 a´vín¯ dhvary¯ TB 3. Parpola 2002a: 78. u a u .7.. as the deified chariot-team corresponding to the Dioss kouroi.priest who along with adhvaryú.. Schmitt 1967: 244. 210: 15 a´vín¯ u. sambharatas.2 & Gopathas a u.13-15 a´vinau vai dev¯ n¯ m bhisaj¯ v a´vin¯ v adhvary¯ tasm¯ d adhvary¯ gharmam a a a. 108 Cf.. Vedic texts equate the A´vins with this priestly pair. but the evidence for it is presented more fully in this paper.9.13. Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ 1. describes the relationship between Mitra and Varuna as that prevailing between the king .110 102 I have mentioned this hypothesis briefly in earlier papers (Parpola 2001.g.1 & Taittir¯ya-Aranyaka 5.4: 68.is in charge of the Vedic pravargya offera ing to the A´vins.1.4. 3.108 The Rgveda109 and later Vedic and Epic texts contain numerous ˚ proper names which refer to the chariot or its parts and to the horse.17. 104 See Parpola 2002a: 77f. Katha-Samhit¯ 28. ı ¯ . s adhvaryavam. ´ ´ Aranyaka 3. and his priest.9.8.8. seem to be the original deities of dual kingship. ‘very superior chariot-men’.5: 159.104 King Tušratta / Tuišeratta = *Tvaišaa a ratha = Rgvedic tvesá-ratha. Taittir¯yau. 1992: I.102 The Satapatha-Br¯ hmana (4.2. 9. and these two forms are connected with Mitra and Varuna.112 s s In another verse of this latter hymn. e. Cf. cf.. shining’. According to Homer (Odyssey 23. whose name means ‘white’. ˚ ´ ´ ´ a 3. .66)...1ab áha´ ca krsnám áhar árjunam ca ví vartete rájas¯ vedy¯ ´ . Nagy 1979: 198-200. Zethon and Amphion. On this basis it seems o ol¯ likely that the A´vins were conceived of as the pair of horses yoked to the sun’s chariot. ´ s Lampetí¯ and Phaéthousa. Brereton (1981: 54) translates this verse as follows: “In the lap of p¯ ajah .” He adds: “In the last two lines.77. ˚ ˚ ˚ cakríyeva. ˚ AV 7.132) also mentions the feminine equivalents of these names.g. the other one is .113 Here the sun is conceived of as one divinity having two forms. ˚ u heaven.‘black’. In Rgveda 7. RV 1.. shining without limit. it is invisible. as the names for the daughters of the sun-god H¯ e elios. Nos.58. the chariot of the A´vins goes around the heaven and earth s ˚ 111 ¯´ in one day. One would expect the original number to have been two. the fire) According to the Rgveda.185. Lüders 1959: II. The Dioskouroi are called leúkippoi ‘possessing white horses’. the white day sun and the black night sun. the sun is further said to show the colours of Mitra and Varuna in the lap of heaven: his one appearance is infinitely white.” We shall return to this movement of the sun later on. Arjuna’s charioteer is the wise and crafty Krsna.1ab) “the white day and the black day” — (the pair ˚ of) light and darkness115 — manifestly turn around. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) The A´vins and Mitra-and-Varuna as the day sun and the night sun (the moon or s . s .115. Kirfel 1920: 20f. .8cd rátho ha v¯ m rtaj¯ ádrij¯ tah pári dy¯ aprthiv¯ y¯ ti sadyáh.9. the sun). the sun’s ı .115. Their Theban counterparts. Eitrem 1902: 42ff. av¯ ı . s náyant¯ sud´s¯kam á´vam). s ˚ According to the Rgveda (6. hoí t’ ¯o E¯ pôloi ágousi).e. The mightiest warrior of the P¯ ndavas is Arjuna. RV 1. whose name . his horses roll (back) up. are connected with the two members .20 Journal of Indological Studies. once leukóp¯ loi s a .3cd). .3b (´vetám . mentioning only the darkness as one of the two sides of the sun (cf. ˚ 112 RV 111 RV . S¯ rya takes on the (visible) appearance of Mitra and Varuna (for it) to be seen. 688-691.˚ krsnám anyád dharítah sám bharanti. Burkert 1985: 212. Cf. . black. which may refer to the seven rays of the sun (cf. when its bright side shows. ı 116 RV 6.78. ˚ ´ ¯ a yám á´v¯ sah suyújo váhanti). a a a. the poet describes the movement of the sun from east to west during the day. . o ‘possessing white colts’ (Pindar. Muir 1874: V. árjuna. the chariot of the Dawn is pulled by two male colts called Lámpos and Phaéth¯ n. pári dy¯ aprthiv¯ yanti sadyáh.3 bhadr¯ á´v¯ harítah s¯ a s a ˚ uryasya . 113 RV 1.. Seven is a rather unnatural number as chariot horses. ˚ ˚ ´ gatam ráthena s¯ uryatvac¯ . who likewise ` ´ are twin sons of Zeus and horsemen. or to the seven months of the year. 240f. 115 rájas¯ is elliptic dual. Kirfel 1920: 20). The other. s ı abhih.1. both names o meaning ‘bright. Güntert 1923: 261 & 269f.47. cf. Pythia 1.9). when. Homer (Odyssey 12. or to the seven heavenly rivers. RV 10. The one face of him (is) . In the Rgveda.”116 The colour terms here used of day and night. a s . the goddess Dawn is said to drive a beautiful white horse˚(i. are “the two white colts of Zeus” (leuk¯ p¯ o Diós). the chariot˚of the A´vins and its various parts are often said to be golden (cf.5 tán mitrásya várunasy¯ bhicákse s¯ ´ a u .. ˚av¯ ´ ´ ´ ´ 1. Parpola 2004 [2005]: 114f.246 Lámpon kaì Phaéthonth’. . and from west to east at night..‘white’ and krsná. uryasya ra´míbhih.1d˚ví vartete áhan¯ ı . the dark one.. ˚ of the chariot team in the Mah¯ bh¯ rata. and perhaps this is an s older image of them than the chariot team of warrior and charioteer driving the sun’s chariot.107.37. while in ı r´ı ˚ ´ Rgveda 7.4cd she has ascended a chariot drawn by well-yoked horses (¯ ad rátham svadháy¯ yujyám¯ nam asth¯ a a . Güntert 1923: 269f. .7cd áto ráthena suv´ t¯ na a gatam s¯ kám s¯ ´ ´ ´ ¯ ra a .105. ˚ ˚ chariot is usually pulled by seven horses. just like the chariot of the sun (cf. 114 Cf. because its dark side is turned toward men. In the asvina´astra to the A´vins. 114 Some verses of the Rgveda suggest that the sun is the chariot of the A´vins. the same is said of the sun’s horses.47. RV ˚ 1. uryo r¯ pám krnute dyór upásthe / anantám anyád rú´ad asya ˚ ´ .). .9ab téna n¯ saty¯ s a a . a a u . RV 1.. 44. 528). Renou (1960: 303) points out that this verse continues ideas of the Rgveda. ˚ 1917: 182-184. which is quicker than the mind and ˚ at the yoking of which is born the daughter of the sky (i. RV 6. a II. a ˚ ´ j¯ ˚ divá ubhé áhan¯ sudíne vivásvatah. A´vins and their sister-wife. 118 Krsna 117 Cf.117 The Y¯ davas worshipping this trio are descended from s a the Yadu clan. by Varuna let Mitra in the morning open out” (transl. ˚ 120 RV 7. offenbar macht.12. opposes Indra in the Govardhana myth.80.39. also Atharvaveda 9.120 In Rgveda 10.1ab tvám agne váruno j¯ . ı ı ˚ of the two sides of the sun (cf. ˚ Dunkel kommt. the white day and the black day = night).13). In .7cd. those worthy of worship (the gods or ancient sages.2 is the father of the A´vins.80. Originally Krsna’s teammate was undoubtedly his elder brother. a . while rájas¯ are ‘the two realms’. who is white in colour.39. which are different from each other.24): “Of thy rush-work (íta) I unfasten what was tied on. transl. also Ward 1968: 62-63. . ayate ı . the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. and put together the black and the red colour (nákt¯ ca cakrúr usás¯ vír¯ pe krsnám ca várnam arunám ca sám dhuh). fire. a note on RV 5. ˚ 119 According to RV 1. ´ ´ r¯ av¯ tiraj jyótisagnís tám¯ msi. ayase yát tvám mitró bhavasi yát sámiddhah. where the fire is said to ˚ become Mitra when it is kindled (in the morning). s who according to Rgveda 10. RV 3. which belonged to the first immigration wave of the Rgvedic Aryans. . ˚ Balar¯ ma.4a mitró . . .3. the deities of the agnihotra sacrifice — which. the fire god Agni has during the day and night: “This Agni becomes Varuna in the evening. 729. where. .1c vivartáyant¯m rájas¯ sámante. is an early variant of Parpola 2002c.3cd). where the Vasisthas praise Usas as one who turns around the darkness . Sieg (1923: 11) takes sámante not as an adjectival attribute ˚ of rájas¯ but as a substantive referring to the day and night.¯ Kau´ikas¯ tra 66. while it becomes Varuna when born.12 a téna y¯ tam mánaso jáv¯yas¯ ´ ´ ¯ a ı a rátham yám v¯ m rbháva´ cakrúr a´vin¯ / yásya yóge duhit¯ s s a a . the two contiguous ones. Whitney 1905: a . Parpola) a 21 means ‘black’. cf. .3. aj¯ a a. .1.118 s If the white day and the black night are the two A´vins.63. Krsna. “Es ist somit ı ı zu übersetzen: (die Usas). rising.13 sá várunah s¯ yám agnír bhavati sá mitró bhavati pr¯ tár udyán.e. 122 Atharvaveda 13. ˚ .The N¯ satyas. . their association with the red s dawn119 as their sister-wife is most natural: the three are mentioned together for example in Rgveda 7. cf. a u . ˚ and the light...121 Vivasvant is the sun-god. . . — Cf..3. .9. in the morning. The early vaisnava trio of Balar¯ ma (called just R¯ ma a a a .. in the Mah¯ bh¯ rata). the A´vins are asked to s ˚ come with their chariot manufactured by the Rbhus.. . Here rájas¯ is elliptic dual.1.3. he becomes Mitra. RV 10. after a reference to the alternation of the black day and the bright day. ˚ In the Atharvaveda (13.17. yajñíy¯ sah mentioned in b) a . and ˚ which therefore probably worshipped the A´vins in preference to Indra.9. in my opinion. die alle Wesen .5.18 (pronounced while letting down the door. . like a king ´ ´ s s a (defeats his enemy): áha´ ca krsnám áhar árjunam ca ví vartete rájas¯ vedy¯ .e. Laksmana and S¯t¯ — actually seems to go back to the trio of the two a ıa . ˚ by the trio of R¯ ma.5) comments on the identification with Varuna: “Wohl weil er aus dem . RV 5. 7. it is said that the newly˚ born fire defeated with his light the darkness.” 121 RV 10.3. and their sister whom the elder brother marries — duplicated a a .”122 Thus Mitra and Varuna are the sun and the . ˚ ´ agnír bhavati yát sámiddho.73..1a. mentioning only the darkness as one ı. Whitney 1905: II. ˚ have created the night and the morning. Geldner˚(1951: II.37. / vai´v¯ naró j¯ ı abhih ayam¯ no ná a . . the dawn) and Vivasvant’s two beautiful days (i. . ‘die da die beiden Nachbarinnen die beiden Räume wechseln lässt. Oldenberg . uncovering: [thee] pressed together s u .” In my opinion this is confirmed by RV 6. Mitra and Varuna are connected with the two forms that . the strong .3. . uryo j¯ yate pr¯ tár udyán. v¯ run¯ r¯ .7. ´ 11.1: 69. a .3 atrim ı a . a . Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ 1.33-34 ahor¯ tre eva te a a .2-3 v¯ run´ r¯ . the moon could conceivably represent the nocturnal counterpart of the day sun. the agnihotrá-.8. cf.4 maitrám v¯ áhar v¯ run´ r¯ . it may . While the RV emphasizes their similarity. for the translation.3 & 2. . the morning and evening star are much less significant phenomena to qualify as royal symbols. . . Instead of the fire.. ¯ atrih ı ´ atrir várunah.8: 27. Jaimin¯ya-Br¯ hmana 1. 125 RV 10. also AitareyaBr¯ hmana 8.1.11 & 2. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) the gharma offering to the A´vins.5.81.10: 157. a . Kirfel 1920: 24 and Whitney 1905: I.7-8 ahor¯ tré vaí mitr¯ a avárunau. 6.7: 56.8.19 ahor¯ tré vaí mitr¯ ´ a . It was not recognized in the RV. a development that could have taken the gharmá. ˚ exercise complementary authority as kings. ´ ´ tir¯ya-Samhit¯ 2. a a¯ a . . 127 Cf. . . Tait.13-14 áhar vaí mitró r¯ a . Veda.4.88. a ahor¯ tr¯ v ity eke. 126 Cf.13). . as other scholars have suggested (cf. and “[t]his opposition emerges entirely within the young . 49).3.10. Cf.10. Pañcavimsa-Br¯ hmana 25. of him is the rising sun born in the morning.ı a avárunau.13 agner v¯ adityo j¯ yate. ¯ atrih ı ´ a avárunau.alias pravargyà-. .¯ [= mitr¯ varunau] / ahar vai mitro r¯ trir varunah. . 1. ´ a . . see Dumont 1939 and especially Bodewitz 1976. well have existed in Rgvedic times already. ´ ´ ı ´ mitró ’har ájanayad váruno r¯ . two A´vins127 are equated with day and night in the Br¯ hmana texts.123 The agnihotra is performed at sunset and sunrise. Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ 3. the YV and the Br¯ hmanas contrast them” (p. “Agni is the head of the earth in the u ˚ night.14 & (without accents) Kapisthala-Katha-Samhit¯ 6. though they are connected with the Dioskouroi in the classical (but not the earliest) Greek tradition as well as with the ‘sons of God’ in the Baltic folk songs.2.5. and for instance Oberlies (1998: 192 n. the very concept of ‘complementary’ involves ‘difference’.1 ahor¯ tré vaí mitr¯ ı a . .8: .7. Nos.4.10.4. However. 1. .. .20-21 & 4. Aitareya-Br¯ hmana 4.7. 446. a .5” (p. gives a characterization of the sun and moon (to whom the hymn is addressed) that rather well fits in with the youthful A´vins: “these two playing young ones by their magic power move eastwards and s westwards around the ocean”. “The most frequent opposition of a . the Atharvaveda and˚ the Yajurveda reflect not only post-Rgvedic development. 124 For 123 For . Cf. The sun and the fire — the day sun and the night sun — thus seem to be the cosmic and atmospheric phenomena that the two A´vins as the dual kings were originally conceived s of as representing. the rising sun and the moon are not infrequently seen together in the sky in the morning.10 ahor¯ tré v¯ a´ vín¯ .ı a a s a a a s . Besides.1ab p¯ rv¯ parám carato m¯ yáyaitaú sí´ u kr¯ antau pári y¯ to’rnavám. Atharvaveda 7. above on ˚AV 13. a .8.´ . 3.1 maitrám v¯ áhah.129 In comparison to the sun and moon.3. 2.88.3: 52. Parpola 2002a).6ab m¯ rdh¯ bhuvó bhavati náktam agnís tátah s¯ ´ ´ u a a a .10 a a a a . this can be seen as a natural later development with these deities of the dawn and dusk. 53).3. but also ideas and conceptions ˚ prevalent among the Indo-Aryan speakers who came to South Asia before those associated with the family books of the Rgveda (cf.14: 84. ˚ 129 Atharvaveda 7. to s Agni (Fire) and S¯ rya (Sun).28.9 ahar vai mitro r¯ trir varunah. The wording leaves ˚ no doubt about the connection between this verse and AV 13..4:49. . Nirukta 12.”125 Both Mitra and Varuna126 and the . this type is that between Mitra/light and Varuna/dark”. 1.1: tat k¯ v a´ vinau / . 209) notes that although the contrast between Mitra and Varuna was built up systematically after the Rgvedic period. also Y¯ ska. Katha-Samhit¯ a . 2000a.10. . . ´ 128.9: 129. ´ atrih várunasya s¯ yám. u a a ´ s ¯ ´.3 .6.5. . a ı a a ahor¯ trau vai mitr¯ varunav ahar mitro r¯ trir varunah. . a a 128 Brereton (1981: 45-62 and 127-149) argues that in the Rgveda “Mitra and Varuna are paired because they . in addition.13 (cf. . a . a a .1.124 In Rgveda 10. not because they are the opposites of each other. The only possible exception might be RV I 115.2 mitrám áhah. Taittir¯ya-Br¯ hmana 1.1. ıd a . Güntert 1923: 280).4.128 s a .22 Journal of Indological Studies.312: 130. see van Buitenen 1968 and Houben 1991. .81. These were the D¯ sas later encountered by the Rgvedic a ˚ Aryans. also Parpola. cf.132 ‘Fire’ is therefore called váhni. Around 1700 BCE. cf. Macdonell ˚ ˚ ˚ 1897: 96-97. They have also been equated with the zodiacal stars of 130 Gemini. who had the Soma-drinking Indra as their 130 On the astral identifications.‘driver. and the dual deity Mitra-andVaruna came into being as a double of the A´vins. As I have argued in detail elsewhere. As Agni conveys the offerings to the gods. Parpola) a place independently in Greece and the Baltics. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A.134 Their religion fused with the Harappan religion ´ ´a to become the foundation of Saiva-S¯ kta Tantrism. who meanwhile had developed the horse-drawn chariot.‘offerer’. Gonda 1959: 80-81. he is “the charioteer of the rites”. convey by carriage’.1 and elsewhere hótar. and in whose religion the A´vin twins had replaced the earlier twins. the D¯ sas spread to South Asia during the a final phase of the Indus Civilization. 2005). ´ ´. but would nevertheless like to offer the following as my present understanding of the main outlines of Indo-Iranian religious history.2-3 rath¯ adhvar¯ am. ı ır an ¯ . also Sparreboom 1983: 17. by a wave of Proto-Indo-Aryan a speakers. in press. I do not pretend to have solved all the old problems.1. in Central Asia and beyond. 134 Cf. Taking first over the rule of the Bactria and Margiana Archaeological Complex. called a´vayújau.131 the purohita of the gods.‘to drive in a chariot. and especially the critical observations of Hillebrandt (1927: I. they were in close contact with the Assyrians.9. charioteer’. the promiscuous primeval couple. In India. a different astral identification took place: the A´vins were associated with one of the calendrical asterisms consisting s s of two stars.4 brahmán-. the ı first man and first king. 23 Agni is the divine priest. a 133 See Parpola 2002b.The N¯ satyas. While s this early wave of Proto-Indo-Aryans were ruling the Bactria and Margiana Archaeological Complex.5. and the chief deity of their pantheon was Yama. Bethe 1905. the Bactria and Margiana Archaeological Complex declined due to desiccation and the arrival of another branch of Proto-Indo-Aryan speakers. and their language was early Proto-Iranian. 92.5. 60-64) with the reply of Güntert (1923: 266-276. The D¯ sas were followed.9. from the root vah. . in order to show that the reconstruction suggested here has considerable heuristic power. on the same lines is Got¯ 1991. 86. the twin brother of Yam¯. also RV 3. o 131 RV 1. the Tazabag”yab Andronovo people of Choresmia. 132 Taittir¯ya-Samhit¯ 2. Ward 1968: 15-18. and took over their royal function. who became the ruler of the dead. s .133 the first wave of Aryan speakers apparently came to Central and South Asia during the latter half of the third millennium. Vicissitudes of the pattern in the history of the Indo-Iranians The above-sketched pattern has undergone some changes over the course of time.4 adhvaryú.and RV 4. cf. at this phase.138 adom’. since their onomastics a. the first wave of immigration (connected with the Turva´a s ¯n and Yadu. Asura ‘lord’. Asura Varuna became Ahura Mazd¯ . with its (S¯ mavedic) strophic structure. Zarathuštra’s reformation led to religious upheavals in Iran. Nos. . cf. Thieme 1960: 308. The pair of MiTra and Ahura is the Avestan counterpart of Vedic Mitra-and-Varuna. the P¯ ru u and Bharata clans. goes back to Proto-Aryan and is attested . as a loanword *asera ‘lord. but may also have been reimported by the Proto-Iranians. the principal epithet of Varuna. 378. I should like to clarify that I no more reckon with an “Atharvavedic wave” coming to South Asia before the traditionally assumed two Rgvedic waves.137 In Zarathuštra’s pantheon. occur except in first syllables. ˚ Indra had established his supremacy in this incoming group of Old Indo-Aryans. a. and Anu and Druhyu tribes) is ˚represented by the K¯ nvas and A˙ girases. 137 Cf. the pravargya s a and ˚ agny¯ dheya rituals) and their doubles Mitra-and-Varuna was still important. ‘Lord Wisa . Mayrhofer 1996: II. medh¯ 135 Cf. who had meanwhile developed mounted warfare and thereby gained military supremacy. By the time of the second Rgvedic immigration around 1300 BCE. likewise Yima of the older D¯ sa a . the Atharvaveda agrees well with the assumption that this collection continues traditions of the first wave of the Rgvedic Aryans. in whose religion the cult of the A´vins (including S¯ mavedic songs. prince’ in Proto-Finno-Ugrian (the Volgaic and Permic languages). the s¯ man singers par excellance. the A´vins and Mitra-and-Varuna still had the upper s . 16 & 17 (2004–2005) leading deity. Bloomfield 1899:74) in . Stanley Insler (1998: 16-17) has shown that ¯n the principal authors of the Atharvaveda were the K¯ nvas and the A˙ girases. e. Koivulehto notes that “the IE -uof the second syllable could not be replaced by the corresponding FU -u-. who quickly overpowered their predecessors in the Vedic area of South Asia — while Proto-Tantrism continued outside the Vedic area.24 Journal of Indological Studies. differs from the family books (cf. The second Rgvedic wave was probably mobilized by the arrival of a fresh wave ˚ of Aryan speakers to Central Asia and Iran from the north. the cognate word. although I did so until recently (cf. 135 hand.” 138 Both Avestan mazd¯ . seem to go back to the earlier D¯ sa tradition (cf. vocabulary. ´ ´a Atharvaveda. layer.. Parpola 2002b). ´ ´ a aa. a 136 Cf. originally. Indra had become a regular member of the Proto-Indo-Aryan pantheon by the time the Mitanni Aryan rule started in Syria. I maintain that within the Rgveda. and since their poetry. Parpola 2004 [2005]. with Avestan references. Koivulehto 2001: 247. however. namely the Proto-Iranians. around 1500 BCE.136 .g. a etc. The sorcery elements of the a . agrees with the Mitanni Aryans. and the ˚ evidence suggests that. Renou 1960) and of the royal rites of the purohita (cf. like Saiva-S¯ kta Tantrism. Joki 1973: 253. In the Veda. whose supreme symbol is fire. ´ ‘wisdom’. Indra lost his supremacy there. There was still a power struggle going on between Indra and the older Proto-Indo-Aryan gods when the first wave of Rgvedic Aryans came to South Asia in 1600 BCE. a The importance of Varuna (cf. still ˚ Parpola 2004). Mayrhofer 1992: I: 147f. Parpola 2002a: 56-61). and Mitra-and-Varuna were restored to power. They eventually superseded Proto-Indo-Aryan speakers everywhere except in South Asia. Kobayashi 2004: 153). which had survived at least in Nuristan. because labial vowels could not.and Vedic medh¯ go back to Proto-Aryan *mnz-dh¯ (cf. — The A´ vins.1c. Güntert (Arische Weltkönig 57) has drawn attention to the fact that Mithra is — partly. ee . cf. Ap¯ m pati — not least as the ruler of the a. Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 125. cf. sumedh¯ 4 times) and prácetas (21 times)”.95. .5d sat¯ am n¯ am ¯ ˚a 144 Kaus¯taki-Br¯ hmana 18.3-4. in the shape of a wild boar.” 146 The etymon is attested in Finnic. one with s ˚ ´ ´ ´ ´ aritr¯ . Koivulehto 1999: 216.2). Atar est le compagnon fidèle de Mithra. 147 Cf. Perhaps it would be better to say: they are both.The N¯ satyas. Joki 1973: 339. have a ship. Varuna is the night and fire .‘to be(come) powerful’. In the Veda. 320f. Agni is medh¯ k¯ rá. while “Varuna is also called s a .142 Varuna. According to the Kaus¯taki-Br¯ hmana (18.116. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A.c. médhira (8 times. cf..12. and especially Güntert 1923: 289 and Kuiper 1976: 34f. RV 8. l. MiTra’s name eventually came to mean the sun. ˚ ˚ ‘Lord of the Song’. fire. cf. 777. .91.8) and médhya. where depalatalization took place. I should add — painted with the same colours as the Vedic Indra..is also an epithet ı a ı r ˚ ˚ of Agni. the vájra-wielding Indra. n.‘wise’ (RV s a a ˚ 5. Indra’s charioteer is Brhaspati.1. cf.11. was undoubtedly in imitation of Mitra-and-Varuna.145 ˚ the chariot warrior. the priest of the gods). . which Varuna crosses in a boat. ‘son of the waters’. sam). Ap¯ m Nap¯ t is another name of a.. painted with the colors of the ancient God Victory (*Vrthraghna). RV 7. as M¯ tari´van. 140 Cf. Mayrhofer.): ProtoIndo-European *wag’.9 sa v¯ eso ’pah pravi´ ya varuno bhavati. s ´ vi´vavíd 4 times).143 . too. s .88. also Benveniste & Renou 1934: 72 n. Cf. This agrees with the fact that Apam Nap¯ t. I: 51f. In addition.(RV 10. a hundred oars (RV 1. axe’146 . whose kingship thus also comprised the priestly function. Macdonell 1897: 97.141 while in the Veda.144 In Iran.139 As we have seen. Saami and Mordvin. nocturnal sky conceived as a heavenly ocean or rivers.‘to break’ (cogently argued by Watkins 1995: 408-413) and PIE *weg’. Lüders 1951. the solar god of the day. MiTra is a warrior god wielding the vazra as his weapon. According to RV 10. .ı the waters. vi´vávedas. 142 Cf.ı .goes back to Proto-Aryan is cons firmed by its presence in Proto-Finno-Ugrian as *va´ara ‘hammer. the sun becomes Varuna after it has entered a . a . Fire. Findly 1979.9). was originally an epithet of Indra himself. 145 Cf. on certain occasions. . avam atasthiv¯ . and in front of him runs the god of victory. is called Ahura and a ι is coupled with MiTra in the Avesta. . Two competing etymologies have been proposed for Proto-Aryan *vajra (cf. Güntert 1923: 273f. V r Traγna. 492. . ˚´ ˚ veda váruno yáth¯ dhiy¯ a a). Narten 1982: 61 and 123. Schmidt 1968: 239. is connected with the waters as their lord. occupies the slot of MiTra. 3: “En outre. In the Avesta. 143 Cf. Parpola) a 25 is connected especially with Agni. Thieme (1957: 34): “H. In the Veda. 139 For Agni’s wisdom.. Brhaspati or Brahmanaspati. Agni knows everything.” ¯ 141 Yašt 13. like Varuna (ví´vam˚sá a s s . and ˚ the creation of the dual deities Indra-Brhaspat¯ and Indr¯ gn¯ (b´haspáti. too.147 Brhaspati’s becoming a separate purohita-figure. Krick 1982: 304. In any case. the slayer of Vrtra. the purohita of the gods. On account of the palatalized sibilant the word was borrowed from Proto-Aryan or Proto-Indo-Aryan rather than Proto-Iranian. side140 of the dual divinity Mitra-and-Varuna alias Day sun-and-Night sun alias Sun-and.. médhira and prácetas”. That *vajra. a the fire god Agni and is conceived of as a horse-shaped sun-fire in the waters. Gonda 1959: 85-91. there is no sound reason for the ‘suspicion’ that ‘Mithra has taken the place of Indra’ ˚ (Güntert).52. . Mayrhofer 1996: II. . who points out that Agni is “called Asura (9 times) and ‘wise’: vi´vávedas (10 times. ˚ 151 mentions “the nectar in the waters.157. 155-160.‘master’.is a s ¯ s a folk-etymological transformation of earlier *Atarí´van. each of these three associated with a different group of forefathers. Hillebrandt 1927: I. atal¯ ˚ ˚ ˚ ˚ mentioned besides Yama and Brhaspati.14.. the divine charioteers and atal¯ s ´ divine physicians.19a apsv àntár am´ tam apsú bhesajám.152 Bhesajáa . ˚ ˚ 152 Cf. for 156 Stanley Insler read a paper on this topic in 1985 (cf. ave´ . it resembles the Rgvedic verse (by Medh¯ tithi K¯ nva) 1.6.derivative of the root i. The latter part of the compoud..9. RV 1.29.154 Most explanations of M¯ tari´van’s name.1. above. a . The rest of this paragraph is based on Insler’s formulations received by e-mail (cf. starting with that offered in the Rgveda. M¯ ı is a divinity r ´ a a .190. ˚ In several passages M¯ tarí´van is the name of Agni.23.. where the latter part is a a similar -van. Whitney 1905: a ı II. Watkins 1995: 256. n. who brought the hidden fire (Agni) to men from heaven or who produced by friction the hidden Agni. so Insler conluded that in some a s 148 In RV 10. to my mind convincingly. and he has a close connection with the waters.¯se ‘to master.23 yán m¯ ´ ı ´ atal¯ rathakr¯tám am´tam véda bhesajám / tám índro apsú pr¯ sayat.157 s s it has a direct equivalent in Avestan isvan. ˚ ´ M¯ ı with the Kavyá-.2) he is a form of a s ˚ Brhaspati (the purohita and charioteer of Indra). 153 Cf. RV 1.” (transl.47ab (= RV 10. . Weber 1892: 787..14. Macdonell 1897: 51. p. which M¯ tal¯ knows — that Indra made enter into the waters. ˚ other etymologies (excluding that of Insler). asa s ˚ sume it to be a compound where the first part is the locative singular of the word m¯ tára 155 156 ‘mother’.14.).153 M¯ ı. ˚ to possess medicines (cf. ˚ remedy.23. 643).5. it is preceded by a word ending in -m. 18. ˚ 150 AV 11. .‘lord’.. ´ ‘medicine’ and the chariot associate M¯ ı with the A´vins. ´ ´ atal¯ a a). but this paper has not been printed so far. 346.11c m¯ tarí´ v¯ yád ámim¯ta m¯ tári ‘he (Agni) became M¯ tari´ van when he was formed in his a s a ı a a s mother’. when the horses are bathed in water. Occasionally Varuna too is said . Nos. n.1. rule’. chariot-brought. “The immortal ı r .24.23. 154 See Macdonell 1897: ˚71-72.3ab (m¯ ´ ´ ı atal¯ kavyair yamó ángirobhir b´ haspátir rkvabhir v¯ vrdh¯ náh).‘to go’.. a a The compound formation has an exact parallel in pr¯ tar-ítvan-.‘to master’. see Mayrhofer 1996: II.148 One of the three occurrences in ˚ ´ the Atharvaveda149 mentions the chariot-brought immortal medicine known to M¯ ı that atal¯ is in the waters150 . í´van-.is a hypocoristic abbreviation of M¯ tarí´van-. In the form M¯ ı. RV 3. and once (RV 1. the medicine in the waters” — this is recited at the v¯ japeya rite before the chariot-race.6a yuvám ha stho bhisáj¯ bhesajébhir. has preserved the original unreduplicated root i´. ı´ ı´ ı´ etc. In about one third of the occurrences of the name M¯ tari´van.6.).26 Journal of Indological Studies. proposed that M¯ tarí´van. r . atal¯ 149 Atharvaveda 8. which a a. this name is attested a atal¯ for the first time in the funeral hymn Rgveda 10. whose name is derived from kaví.‘master of fire’. ¯svara.‘poet’. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) ´ Indra’s charioteer in the Epic is called M¯ tali.5 (M¯ ı was born out of m¯ y¯ 11. 151 RV 1. who is menatal¯ a s tioned 27 times in the Rgveda (mostly in books 1 and 10) and 21 times in the Atharvaveda. . 155 Cf. 157 Otherwise the root occurs in Sanskrit only in the reduplicated form: ¯s.9a). which is attested twice in the G¯ th¯ s. Stanley Insler has.3ab). Otherwise M¯ tari´van is mostly spoken a s ˚ of as an Indian counterpart of the Greek Prometheus. RV 1. s a RV 10.in Avestan (apart from one name). a ´ . r ná ˚ 163 Cf. to Bhrgu.implies affinity with Greek phlóks (gen.141. The Bhrgus are not only a priestly clan closely associated ˚ ˚ with the fire as its discoverers for mankind. kindle’. who in the shape of an eagle carried off the mead — which corresponds with the honey-beer originally connected with the A´vin cult rather s Narten 1960. 162 Cf. In this specific case. *¯ tara s a a ‘fire’. RV 3.1b devásya ˚bhárgah sáhaso yáto jáni. where the old comparison .. M¯ tari´van s a s ˚ 160 brought the fire.has replaced agní. r a s a . a. 27 .6. Macdonell 1897: 140f.. whose name is likely to have originally meant ‘robber’. a The etymology of M¯ tarí´van’s name suggests that it goes back to Proto-Aryan times.‘to steal.93.ı ˚ 160 Cf.16.14ab etám v¯ m stómam a´ vin¯ v akarm¯ ´ . sam¯dhé.271. apart from the precious reminiscence of the theft of fire by M¯ tarí´van. ˚ with the Homeric Phlegúai or Phlégues ‘name of a people’ is rejected as unlikely. bharad bh´ gave m¯ tarí´ v¯ . a s The myth has a close parallel in the Greek myth of Prometheus. . ˚ ´ pári m¯ tarí´v¯ gúh¯ sántam havyav¯ . see e. the charioteer (of the sacrifice).¯ s a a r ataksama . 164 RV 1. . there is no myth among the Iranians about the theft of fire from the gods because fire is the creation and protected offspring of Ahura Mazd¯ . .20b bráhm¯ karma bh´ gavo ná rátham.The N¯ satyas.60. M¯ tari´van also kindled the a s ˚ 161 hidden fire for the Bhrgus. a s a m¯ tarí´v¯ . Mayrhofer 1996: II. a ˚ s a a aham ı ˚ .10 úd astambh¯t samídh¯ n¯ ´ ´ ı a akam˚ rsvó agnír bhávann uttamó rocan¯ am / yád¯ bh´ gubhyah an¯ ı r . ˚ bh´gavo ˚ rátham.. particularly as the Avesta is a much smaller corpus. The a ¯ different uses of the word m¯ tarí´van. the fire-drill). where agní. RV 1.in the Rgveda show quite clearly that the original a s ˚ meaning of the word had been lost.‘effulgence’. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. rob’ that is often used in connection with M¯ tarí´van. It is unreasonable to expect that every compound in Vedic has a cona s gener in Avestan and vice verse. 158 Cf. furthermore. Watkins 1995: 256 n.93.e.. The reason for this reworking was that the first part of the compound. RV 4..124) compares with the following gloss of Hesychius: phlegúas = aetòs ksanthós ‘fiery red’.162 The word bh´gu. connection with bhárgas. which characterizes Agni when it is born out of power (i. phlogós) ‘flame’ and phlég¯ ‘burn. .1 váhnim ya´ ásam. However.is considered etymologically related with the word r ˚ ˚ bhárgas. On the Bhrgus.158 M¯ tari´van’s double association with the a s a s origin of the fire and with the chariot (as Indra’s charioteer) is parallelled by the chariotdriving A´vins’ association with the fire-drill. had become obsolete in the Vedic language.3ab hiranyáy¯ arán¯ yám nirmánthato a´vín¯ .6ab anyám divó m¯ tarí´ v¯ jabh¯ r¯ ´ ´ ¯ a s a a amathn¯ d anyám pári syenó ádreh.m *¯ tarí´v¯ that was reinterpreted as . ˚ 161 Cf. 10.. just as atar.g. ı ..159 According to the Rgveda.‘fire’ has completely supplanted *¯ tar-.184.163 M¯ tari´van’s theft of Agni is coupled with the eagle’s theft of Soma in Rgveda 1.5. which Pokorny o (1959: I. Parpola) a original verse line there existed the sequence .164 a s ˚ This latter myth has a close parallel in the Greek myth of the nectar-bringing eagle of Zeus and in the Nordic myth of Odin. ˚ 159 Cf. s . but are also mentioned as chariot-builders in the Rgveda. etymologically related to the root math. these words seem to have a cognate in Greek.39. over the course of time. v¯ japeya [which is a sacrifice of the Br¯ hmana and of Brhaspati.172 In the u .8. Parpola 2002b. 165 Cf. Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 5. 174 The change was probably conditioned by conceptions about kingship prevailing in South Asia before the ´ arrival of Indo-Aryan speakers.”168 The performer of the v¯ japeya sacrifice. His connection with the charioteer s . a a . 166 Cf.g. assenting’. the ‘younger brother’. Rau 1957: 108-109. the situation was reversed.means both ‘charioteer’ and ‘bard’.g. 168 Cf. Nos. 172 Cf. the main deity of the D¯ sas. For he who performs the royal consecraa u tion becomes the king. 170 Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 12. By performing the a . s ´ aj-.28 Journal of Indological Studies.3. the purohita of the gods. and the office of the king is the lower. Macdonell 1897: 114. 2004. the herald.. 167 Traditionally. ı a . These two diametrically a Kuhn 1859. .has been understood in an emphasizing meaning ‘fully. and unsuited for kingship is the Br¯ hmana. the dual kingship. samr¯ is the throne170 . A´vins. the preverb sam. sam-gír. Varuna has preserved his old title samr¯ literally ‘co-ruling’. Weber 1892: 766-7. amr¯ ¯ . following. ´ ajis the king in his youthful aspect — he is the yuvar¯ ja.could not have been originally used in the basic meaning of ‘(together) with’ — cf. and a that of the samr¯ j the higher.166 the diurnal counterpart of the fire associated with the night in the dual deities of Mitra and Varuna and the . Cf. the charioteer gives the hero advice and encourages him in battle by singing of the feats of his ancestors. paramount lord or sovereign’. ajFormally there is no reason why sam. the chariot warrior as the ‘mundane’ king was the ‘elder brother’ and more important than his charioteer and priestly adviser. at note 208. . “the royal a . a and the same was probably the case with the Harappan “Proto-Mahisa”. ..12-13). However. below.1. 798. ˚ ´ cf.165 The eagle is likely to be the sun. one becomes the samr¯ j. ´ suggests dual kingship. Indian epics.3. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) than with Indra’s drink Soma.4 asand¯ ´ ´ ´ a ıvad vái s¯ ajyam.11].‘agreeing together. hence s¯ tá. cf. Weber 1892: 766-770. completely’ and the ´ compound sam-r¯ is translated in the dictionaries as ‘universal or supreme ruler. SB 5. 169 Taittir¯ya-Br¯ hmana 1. who goes to war. ´ a . 171 Cf.. the yuvar¯ ja’s ruling father who stays at home. Rau 1957: 108-109. The horse (á´va-) is often said to belong to Varuna.. According to the Satapatha-Br¯ hmana (5. who becomes a a ´ ´ is not supposed to stand up in front of anybody169 — the symbol of the samr¯ ajaj-. was associated with death. consecration (r¯ jas¯ ya) is only for the king.1.171 he offers to Varuna and gives a horse as a sacrificial gift. etc. 173 Cf. Originally.1.174 The chariot warrior. thus Sambara (= Yama). is apparent from an episode in the royal consecration: when the king goes to the house of the s¯ tá-.— and the samr¯ stands for a the senior king.9. e. and this fits well to the title of the priestly member of .3.173 That u Varuna and Ahura Mazd¯ eclipsed Mitra in kingship becomes understandable through the a .2 ná kám caná pratyávarohati.167 a title which in itself .1.5.1. e. ´ aj-. is called a vípra ‘[sacred] poet’ in RV 6.4.1-6). “On the other hand Varuna at at . 179 Cf. with day and night but also with life and death as early as Proto-Aryan times is suggested by the Greek evidence. Farnell 1921: 181. samr¯ .176 The crown prince’s title pratihita. Heesterman 1957: 129f. . probably denotes the chariot s a warrior and is attested as the name of one Mitanni king.— may be reflected in the preverb práti in the title pratiprasth¯ tár-. 180 Odyssey 11. There can be no doubt whatever that Mitra’s characteristic rôle is that of a king and not that of a priest: the evidence of the RV is overwhelming and confirmed as genuine by the Avesta”.180 Corresponding to the idea that one of the 175 Cf. one member of the priestly pair specifically connected a with the A´vins. night. ´ From Varuna’s being the samr¯ in the sense of the ruling king (cf. ´ ´ Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 4.. and enjoy equal honours with the Gods”. .178 which was the . the second part of his title. in Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 11.298-304. the 29 youthful crown prince (pratihita-) is given a bow and arrows as his patrimony by his father the king.. darkness and Varuna are all connected with death. mitráh ksatrám ksatrápatih). . The Dioskouroi and A´vins as saviours and funeral gods s The A´vin twins and Mitra and Varuna thus stood for the two sides of kingship and s . e.1.3.g. However. consecration as varunasavá-). Renou 1960: 301.. he came to be considered as the king and the representa. Thus. Varuna is a master of magic. . 176 Cf. .179 That the two A´vins were connected not only s . . albeit in the nether world.— which is parallel to puróhita. Heesterman 1989. Parpola) a opposite aspects or phases of kingship — warrior and ruler —175 are symbolized by the rising young sun. According to Homer. .The N¯ satyas. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. the ruling power. originally Mitra represented kingship and Varuna priesthood. In the Atharvaveda. transl. of the solar god. 2.177 As argued above. in the royal consecration. 81ff. . worshipped in the morning in a standing posture. . ´ ´ (várunah samr¯ . worshipped in the evening in a seated posture. the Dioskouroi “have this honour from Zeus.4. 178 Cf. Varuna continues being called samr¯ it is Mitra who is connected with the ruling power . the sun and the fire. domain of the royal purohita. they pass from death to life and life to death on alternate days. . Rodhe 1946: 58ff. and the setting old sun. also the royal aj. and he thereafter drives off in a chariot to capture a hundred cows. In the Veda.. while a a . . *prasth¯ tár-. 177 Thieme 1957: 8 n. tive of ksatrá-. priesthood (cf.. patih .10-11.3 (in contradistinction to Indra who slays Vrtra ˚ with his mace). .68. day and night. and Mitra the purohita and bráhman-. in both countries. avec une singulière clarté révèle l’origine commune des Dioscures et des A´ vins.¯ . .7 yuvám vándanam nírrtam jaranyáy¯ rátham ná dasr¯ karana sám invathah / ksétr¯ d a vípram ´ ´ a a . the ocean from which Bhujyu is saved probably also symbolizes death. The rejuves nation accomplished by the A´vins is several times compared to the renovation of an old s chariot. . and that this is due to common heritage is shown by the fact that. In other words. Nos. s . s a vándan¯ ya. Baunack 1899.117. ul s ad ¯ a ˚ 187 RV 1.185 In another hymn. ´ ´ am a apag¯ .8c yuvám vándanam rsyad¯ úd u˚ ´ ´ ad ¯ pathur.. . the A´vins were largely psychopomps and revivers of the dead.189 Eitrem 1902: 6.188 i. 185 RV 1. 183 “Le trait qui. Kaks¯vant.181 In Greece and India. a a a . . ´ am . ´ . the A´vins were often funerary divinities efs fecting the regeneration of the dead can be seen from the help they rendered to Vandana. Vandana and several other persons whom the A´vins rescued from distress or a s rejuvenated. Zeller 1990: 67f.. Vandana had become decrepit with old age. a . Zeller 1990: 62-68.5 susupv¯ sam ná nírrter upásthe s¯ ´. Bethe 1905: 1091-2.e.135.39. This is quite plausible. 184 RV 1.ı Cyav¯ na.119. . as saviours. . ham úd dar´at¯ upáthur vándan¯ ya. est leur s activité comme sauveteurs des hommes en détresse sur mer . transl. Harvey 1990: 52). though they were lying buried as if dead.116. Les ancêtres des Grecs et des Aryens habitaient probablement des territoires peu éloignés de la mer. . dar´atám níkh¯ tam úd upathur a´vin¯ ˚ a a ¯ 186 RV 1.30 Journal of Indological Studies. belonging to the celestials.182 even though the Vedic people no longer had direct contact with the sea. grave. s˚ . 182 Cf. the A´vins dug him up like s a buried ornament of gold. as “healers” and “saviours”. At the same time.187 i. his regeneration out of the ground (also: womb) is compared to the skilful repair of an old chariot that threatens to fall into pieces.112.184 Vandana had been buried and was like one who sleeps in the lap of the goddess of destruction (i. . ˚ ˚ janatho vipanyáy¯ prá v¯ m átra vidhaté damsán¯ bhuvat. the equestrian twins were conceived of as saviours. ˚ 189 Cf. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) Dioskouroi is immortal.186 The A´vins lifted Vandana up so that he s could see the sun.183 That. represented by night and the ocean of the nocturnal sky (cf. Samyutta-Nik¯ ya 1. beautiful to look at. . they were also invoked by people in peril at sea. the dug-up Vandana is compared to a dug-up hidden treasure.5b úd vándanam aírayatam svàr drsé. 181 Cf. the Buddhist comparison ˚ a person or being as consisting of just the five khandhas to a chariot of consisting of various parts put together in a functional relationship (see Milindapañha 25-28.. . he rested like the sun in darkness. a ¯ . 11cd yád vidv¯ s¯ nidhím iv¯ ´.. uryam ná dasr¯ támasi ksiyántam / subhé rukmám ná a ´ . Warren 1896: 129-133. ˚ 188 RV 10.e. s A funerary function for the A´vins is suggested by the stories of Atri.. The A´vins dug Vandana up from a pit.). vraisemblablement les bords septentrionaux de la Mer Noire” (Michalski 1961: 11). a dead person). and the other mortal and belonging to the deceased. live. Michalski 1961: 11. too.e. sometimes one is depicted with a white horse and the other with a black horse. In the 23rd song of the Iliad. 193 Sparreboom 1983: 50 (1985: 45). deceased aristocrats were buried with their horses and chariots.190 The chariot was thus intimately involved with burial rites. King Nestor tells of another funeral chariot race. but Willem Caland. 1914: 484-6. when describing the funeral of Patroclus. too. in his doctoral dissertation on Chariots in the Veda.116: “O you two who had triumphed with (your) strong-winged (horses) urged ˚ to a fast course or through the incitements of the gods. 192 Sparreboom 1983: 78 (1985: 73).6-8). find ´ some indirect evidence: according to the Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra (11. unquestionably the best expert on Vedic funeral customs and on Vedic ritual in general.The N¯ satyas.192 He did. 1992. 506. divided and placed at certain intervals along the route. although “in the Vedic ritual. ‘Siamese twins’ of whom one held the reins while the other used the whip. belonged to the pre-Christian traditions of the Baltic people as well. In the athletic contests in honour of the dead hero. but in a different way.5 & 9. his belongings were divided as victory prizes. performed by riders on the day of the burial. reports (verses 171-2) that four horses were cast upon his pyre. The prize consisted either of money placed on the top of the goal post. 194 One thousand well-nourished cows plus one hundred is the price of the race in Rgveda 10. s Rgveda 1. left turns were generally considered inauspicious or associated with funerary ceremonies”. just as in the Greek funeral a race. The burial day ended in a drinking bout. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. (your) ass won a thousand (cows)194 190 See Gening et al. was involved in the funeral. The chariot. or of property of the deceased. ˚ 191 Caland . could not quote a parallel from India. On this occasion. Evidence for funeral horse races in India One would expect a funeral chariot race to have survived in ancient India as well. when he was beaten by the sons of Aktor. Parpola) a Funeral horse races in Greece and in the Baltics 31 In the Sintashta-Arkaim culture of the southern Urals. actually maintained that “a connection with funeral ceremonies cannot be demonstrated for Indian racing practice”.102. and was probably assumed to take the dead hero to the other world. Willem Caland191 has drawn attention to the fact that a comparable horse race.193 I believe that a reference to a funeral chariot race has survived in a hymn to the A´vins. and the most important of these contests was the chariot race described at length in this song. a left turn is a u made at the turning post in the chariot race of the v¯ japeya rite. Marcus Sparreboom. however. Homer. ‘Give way. commented upon this verse. They made the course from Agni. 161. to him they said. as an alternative first verse. we two will win this. 197 Geldner 1951: I. .203 to the sun. however. 195 RV 1. therefore at the Açvina (a litany) to Usas is recited. since the last words of this stanza. ‘Let me have a share here. in various ways. calmed down’ (‘propitious’ is the translation of Keith 1920: 203. This verse is rejected. Zeller201 and Pirart202 .195 S¯ yana.’ ‘Be it so’. ´ ¯s a a ´ aj¯ yamásya pradháne jig¯ ya. he replied.7. therefore at the Açvina (Çastra) (a litany) to Agni is recited. would guarantee that .. and had started. Such a race won by the A´vins with asses is described in Aitareya-Br¯ hmana 4. h¯ -. t a repeated mention of Agni would cause the sacrificer to fall into the (funeral) fire (agnim apatsyat¯ti). 199 Gonda 1981: 55. which contains a thousand s a´ s verses: “The gods did not agree as to this [praise of a thousand verses]. 203 “Because the gods made the course from Agni.199 Witzel200 . therefore the ¯ beginning (verse) is addressed to Agni in the Açvina.. 108. but curiously no scholar seems to have interpreted the phrase ´ “Yama’s prize-contest” (¯ j¯ yamásya pradháne) as referring to a funeral chariot race. we two . 153. will win this. have.’ ‘Be it so’. Pirart.13 agnír hót¯ grhápatih sá r¯ a etc.’ ‘Be ¯ it so’ (they said).2 v¯lupátmabhir asuhémabhir v¯ dev¯ am v¯ j¯ tíbhih sa´ ad¯ n¯ / tád r¯ ´ ´ ´ ı. the turning pillar of the race). 200 Witzel 1984: 257.. ‘Let me have a share here. O N¯ satyas”.’ They said coming to agreement ‘Let us run a race for it. however.32 Journal of Indological Studies. the Açvins followed him. They followed after Usas. 98-100.. 202 Pirart 1995: I. he would reach the goal (k¯ s. holy (face) of the sun in heaven’. a an¯ .196 Geldner. .’ ‘Be it so’ (they said). aa though Yama is the god of death and the Yama hymns of Book X were used in funeral ´ rites. The context is the ‘praise to the A´vins’ (¯ svina-´astra-). Oldenberg. They . followed by Gonda 1981: 99). ‘Give way. his who wins shall it be’. ‘Agni is the hotar. ˚ The Aitareya-Br¯ hman˚ (4. which some authorities prescribe. For ¯ her they made a share herein. Nos. ¯ ´ ´ diví sukrám yajatám s¯ uryasya ‘(I revere) the shining. which is characterized as sant¯ ‘appeased. the initial stanza of this ´ litany is addressed to that god: RV. Agni took the lead first.15. a u asabho n¯ saty¯ sahásram a a ¯´ .116. the lord of a aj¯ ˚ . It seems ı ¯ ´¯ a that this verse is also considered inauspicious in contrast to the approved verse. a ¯a ˚ 196 Oldenberg 1909: I. among others. born by that one of the Dioskouroi twins who is the o “tamer of horses”.7s a . 198 Renou 1967: 12. the lord of the house (grhapati). As these deities were running the race. a . For him they made a share herein. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) in Yama’s prize-contest.‘to triumph’ used here of the A´vins with regard to the chariot race. Gonda. 6.7) mentions RV 10. the lord of the house. agním manye pitáram the house. she replied..’” (Gonda 1981: 99).197 Renou.198 a a .3. to her they said. The Rgveda specifies that the A´vins won a thousand with their ass in Yama’s prizes ˚ contest. 9.a ˚ agním apím.. 201 Zeller 1990: 111. makes the significant observation that the verb sad. is derived from the same Indos European root as the name Kást¯ r. ‘Let this be mine. because the a. let this be mine. 125. He has to dress himself in the skin of the ass and eat a piece of the sacrificial victim cut out of its penis (cf.24. With a horse chariot Indra ran the . For him they made a share herein. the Açvins attained. With ruddy cows Usas ran the race. they did not dare to say to him ‘Give way’.31. 205 Aitareya-Br¯ hmana 4. transl.32. the Açvins attained it. only the horse and the goat are involved in fetching the clay for a . at a crossroad.. — The a u clay for making the ukh¯ pot used in˚the agnicayana ritual is fetched with three animals.20)”. With an ass chariot the Açvins won.. in this version of the myth. therefore has he virility and possesses a double seed. race. to Usas.7-9. there is a ruddy glow. for it is connected with Indra. has come. may they drink Soma. “rejects the statement of others who say that in reciting to the Sun one should use seven metres as in the recitations to Agni. ‘Let me have a share here. the Açvins attained it. “which is quite naturally to be recited after s u ¯´ ´´ sunrise (SS.20. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. Parpola) a 33 followed after Indra. when dawn . The text stresses the generative power of the ass. Gonda 1980: 290). 6. May they be delighted. the form of Usas.devoted to S¯ rya.206 204 That Indra. in the S¯ rya division (SS. They say ‘In that ¯ there are here recitations to Agni.. he replied.. has replaced the sun-god. S¯ rya together with dappled horses.. the A´vins together with their wonderworks. the goddess of ˚ destruction. therefore at the Açvina (Çastra) (a litany) to Indra is recited. therefore it as neighing aloud and resounding is the symbol of lordly power. accept s s ´ a˙ a ´ gracefully.is recited at the dawn ending an ‘over-night’ (atir¯ trá-) Soma sacria ¯´ fice. 4.”205 s The asvina-´astra.. 9. Caland u ˚ 1953: 243). On the other hand. which is a counterpart of the asvina-´astra-. to whom is devoted the prag¯ tha 7.18)” a u (Gonda 1981: 99-100).’ ‘Be it so’ ¯ (they said). he is here the least swift of all beasts of burden. is clear from the praisa formula prompting the hotr priest to recite the offering . passim).3. the Açvins attained. recite the offering verse!” (S¯ nkh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 9. Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 6. who would be expected in this contest taking place in the morning. the ass and a ´ the goat (cf. The author of the Aitareya-Br¯ hmana (4. ˚s verse for the Soma drought of the overnight service: “Let the hotr worship the A´vins . O generous one’. and dawn represents rebirth. a . (It is) because the Açvins won the race. . one that has lasted a whole day (here representing a full life) and continued throughout the following night. By means of a mule chariot Agni ran the race.12.. This additional deity s . be drunk. in that the Açvins won. the horse.. Usas and the A´vins. therefore is his speed outworn.. is obviously not regarded as the equal of the three other gods. Night represents death. notwithstanding the repeated admonition not to pass over him in recitation (AiB. and this seems to be the reason why the A´vins s drive a chariot pulled by asses in the funeral race of Yama. In that the Açvins ¯ won the race the Açvins attained it. neither Indra nor S¯ rya are included among the gods of the morning litany u (pr¯ tar-anuv¯ ká-).9-10). a a s a ¯´ . Keith 1920: 202-4.1-11.1. therefore they conceive not. May the A´vins do thus.28. to Indra. Notice that no mention is made of the number of the metres to ¯s ´ ´´ be used for Indra. as he drove on he burned their wombs. 206 A Vedic student who has violated his vow of chastity should sacrifice an ass to Nirrti. his energy spent..26f. then why do they call it the Açvina?’ . Hotr. Agni together with his red horses.The N¯ satyas.10f. Oldenberg 1917: 332-3. The Açvins won the race..204 to him they said. therefore. in discussing the division of the asvina-´astra. He prefers only three metres. u .5.20. therefore they call it the Açvina . Usas together with the red ˚ (cows). ‘We will win this. he whose back is ghee.20. P¯ raskara-Grhyas¯ tra 3.’ ‘Be it so’. tr. 9.. A´vS. but they did not take the strength of his seed. Therefore they call it the ¯ Açvina. here it is said of s ´ the he-ass that it “whilst being one.ı .3.7c and 8.1b yuñj¯ am a´vin¯ rátham). is . goes (well).73. transl.210 s The number one thousand is connected with the sun. so he attains in safety the world . ˚ ´ s a ráthe. Oldenberg 1917: 76f. the going to (the world of heaven). In the Indus . Eggeling 1894: III. (cf. cf. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) ¯ s The symbolism of the asvina-´astra. s a a a . 204).1. 212 Aitareya-Br¯ hmana 2. the peacock seems to have been assumed to carry the dead to heaven.2. RV 10.”208 The Suparna bird. which is said to have a thousand rays — often understood as cattle.). since it is the same except for some modifications (cf. the world of heaven is at a distance of a thousand journeys of a horse hence.3. transl. .7.... RV 6.. gardabhó v¯ryàvattamah).3. 211 as follows: “A thousand [verses] should be recited for one desiring heaven. — ‘upon this course.. a . of heaven. transl. (The Çastra) should include the Suparna [the ‘good-feathered’ bird]. he should recite. ´ ¯ a. This verse. ´ s ¯ am the Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ (3.”207 These conceptions are behind the ritual prescriptions concerning the way ¯´ of reciting the asvina-´astra: “Having eaten of ghee. the securing. Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 6. Varuna’s messenger at the seat of Yama209 and thus connected with death. and the Solar Maiden: “Now when Savitr gave S¯ ry¯ to Soma. also Gonda 1981: 91f.ı 208 Aitareya-Br¯ hmana 4. transl. S¯ nkh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra s u ¯´ 9.6. a bird.suits well the funeral context. a . Suparna is a bird. so he when oiled goes.46. 209 Cf. In this context. Keith 1920: 446. a .. Keith 1920: 202. . for “the Açvina is ¯´ . a ´ ´ ´ ˙ ´ yuñj¯ am r¯ ath¯ ˘ asabham yuvám. a .. he made over u a ˚ to his daughter whether she was Praj¯ pati’s (or his own) on marriage this thousand (of a making the gharma pot of the pravargya ritual of the A´vin cult. Just as in this world s a cart or a chariot.17. the . asabham .6: 7.20). ‘Yoke ye two the ass. “Then [he addresses] the ass.63. a a . S. a 211 This˚is said in connection with the morning litany (pr¯ taranuv¯ ka) addressed to the A´ vins. ˚ 210 Cf. a . for the horses pulling their airborne chariot are compared to birds. (they serve) for the attainment of the world of heaven. a . the chariot of the gods.123. is modified from an address to the A´vins in RV 8. Keith 1920: 147.. to the Adhvaryu and the Sacrificer. he thereby lays vigour into ´ the ass” (Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 6.7: yuñj¯ am r¯ s ath¯ .34 Journal of Indological Studies. Nos. . V¯ jasaneyi-Samhit¯ 11.. 1900-1300 BCE).4.85.. because the Rgveda Br¯ hs a ˚ manas introduce its exposition by associating it with the marriage of Soma (the Moon) .1. .13). the king. XI. like it becoming a winged one. ye showerers of wealth!’ . With this chariot of the gods he attains in safety the world of heaven.7ab a v¯ m váyó ’´ v¯ so váhisth¯ abhí práyo n¯ saty¯ vahantu. when oiled. with (V¯ j.13. also RV 1. doubly impregnates” (cf. Cf. Birds are connected with the A´vins.’ he says this ı a .¯. He should call (making a posture) as of an eagle about to fly up. too. which flies to heaven.23). ath¯ ˚ 207 Kaus¯taki-Br¯ hmana 18. The Aitareya-Br¯ hmana explains the thousand verses a . civilization and in the Cemetery H culture of the Punjab (c.16) states that “the ass is the most virile animal of all” (sárvesam pa´un¯ . but should be a a s ´ a˙ a ´ also valid for the asvina´astra.”212 The A´vins as gods of regeneration and marriage s ¯´ The funeral context of the asvina-´astra has gone unnoticed. Through Sukany¯ . had . The embryo is equated with the fire — the embryo of the waters hidden in the a´vattha wood. The myth is fully related in the Brhaddevat¯ (6. . for her all the gods came as groomsmen. even S¯ ry¯ S¯ vitr¯. sahasrena a a. The angered sage caused . r arranged marriage for his daughter’ — this whole world . references. Tokunaga 1997: 118-120). u assumed the shape of a mare. 216 RV 10. In RV 10. Cf. Similarly.is folk-etymologically explained to have got its name because the fire stood 213 Kaus¯taki-Br¯ hmana 18. transl.t of the clods.5. but in haste had emitted his seed on the ground. who gave his beautiful daughter Sukany¯ to the sage in atonement. the mother of the divine twins. a a Cyavana made the A´vins rejuvenate him: Cyavana was thrown into water (or: pool of youth on the Sarasvat¯). and yet are included in the Yama songs of the Rgveda ˚ related to funerals and ancestor worship. having become renewed in her. ed. the King. translation modified from that of Keith 1920: 300. the marriage context is also very relevant here. The birth of the N¯ satyas is here folk-etymologically connected with the nose (nas. Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 4. a-./ a n¯ s-).t ´ a problems for Sary¯ ta. ‘Let us run a race for this thousand’. 7. . they said. and ´ a was offended by the people of Sary¯ ta M¯ nava — they threw clods of earth at him (the word los.2-3.13. s ı and he emerged young again. so that he may be born in the tenth month.216 Sarany¯ . then the Açvins were victorious by means of the ass. Parpola) a 35 verses) that was in the possession of these deities. left if a girl child).”213 Actually. 215 Sloka verses of the Sunahsepa legend recited at the royal consecration. the A´vins are asked to place an embryo in the wife s ˚ by means of a golden fire drill. 214 The mythical explanation of the cup of Soma offered to the A´ vins at the morning pressing (¯ svinagraha-) s a´ also links marriage and rejuvenation.214 Regeneration implies re-entering the womb: “A son is a light in the highest heaven.t ˚ comes together on such news”. los. a-citi-). a ˚ ˚ see further Bloomfield 1893: 172-188. Keith 1920: 444-5. Caland 1919: 251-257 with further a ı a . having become a germ (he enters) the mother.120-128. he sacrificed with a thousand cows (the same number that the A´vins s won in the race).1-2. according to Aitareya-Br¯ hmana ´ ´ a .17. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A.7. Cyavana. the bright-shining sun-god Vivasvant.184. is also used of the earthen ‘bricks’ of the funeral monument. Keith 1920: 202).´ . who had assumed the shape of a stallion.”215 It seems no accident that the Rgvedic verses which tell about the birth of the A´vins s ˚ start with the words: “‘Tvas. the Aitareya-Br¯ hmana (4. a a. The s ´ ı fire-drill consists of a female plank of sam¯ wood and of a male stick of a´vattha wood — s s and a´vatthá. they ran the race. he is born in the tenth month. kum¯ r¯m j¯ y¯ m vindeya. which figures prominently in Vedic rites of human fertility: material representing a seed is inserted into one of the nostrils of the wife (right nostril if one desires a boy child.7): “Praj¯ pati a a a . Tokunaga 1997: 266-7. a ı. Finally.ı gave his daughter to Soma.The N¯ satyas. . . She became pregnant with the A´vins when sniffing the s seed of her husband. What is less than a ¯ thousand is not the Açvina. therefore he should recite a thousand or more” (transl.1. a sage decrepit with old age lay ghostlike on the ground. Jaimin¯ya-Br¯ hmana 3. . ´ yajeyeti.127 — 7. He thus got all his three wishes fulfilled: punaryuv¯ sy¯ m. for her u a a ı ¯ wedding ceremony he made this thousand (of verses) which they call the Açvina (Çastra).1. for the conclusion of funeral rituals aiming at rejuvenation and the attainment of heaven coincides with the beginning of new life in the impregnation which takes place at a wedding. used here a . The husband enters the wife. though a s a a s . a Cf. This seems to refer to the fact that this cosmic hill was a.15 probably equates aditya and k¯ sth¯ on account of the identity of sun and axis mundi. n. a 1992: I. one body with two heads. 22. therefore it is also called the a.5c b¯ húbhy¯ m agním ayávo ’jananta ‘the Ayus generated the fire with their two arms’. the two A´vins are equated with the two nostrils (n¯ a s asike a´vínau) — but the s . However. 345f. saving people by helping them make s the dangerous. the A´vins may have been understood to be one person: the often recurring s ritual formula devasya tv¯ savituh prasave ’´vinor b¯ hubhy¯ m. eyes. four arms and four legs (cf. a.”221 a.6. same chapter also equates the two ears with the two A´vins and the eyes with the two cups of the A´vins. . they are like the Dioskouroi. the cosmic mountain... s s 218 The twin sons of Aktor. who beat Nestor in a funeral chariot race (cf.) ‘stick’ and k¯ th¯ ..) in the dual. In my opinion giri without further qualifications denotes the primordial hill. a..217 The A´vins are deities of both death and (re)birth. themselves and decided on the matter by means of a chariot race. On the N¯ satyas’ connection with the nose. a a ¯ ˚ ı 219 Jaimin¯ya-Br¯ hmana 1. see Parpola 2004 [2005]: 123f.5 on k¯ sth¯ being identified with suvarga loka.638-642). Iliad 23.7. of whom one is immortal and the other mortal. 174-6.. “According to Caland. a a. Because this cosmic mountain was used as the turning-post (k¯ sth¯ ) in the chariot-race of the gods. a ´ ´ In Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 12. cf. later mostly identified with Meru.. the axis mundi. a . 221 Bodewitz 1990: 235. Bodewitz 1990: 61.’ . these are mentioned in the dual and would thus have four arms. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) s (-tthá. 6 the mountain probably is the sun. the seers) [produced] in the rock the fire that was fanned with their two s ¯ arms’. 220 K¯ sthá. Weber (1892: 773. whether the beings having those parts stood in the singular. “The mountain” as the turning post and the axis mundi The Jaimin¯ya-Br¯ hmana contains another case where the gods did not agree among ı a .e. transl. as. They appear in the morning and evening.. Mayrhofer ´.218 In this. This concerns the ¯ appropriation of the ajya lauds: “They said: ‘Let us compete in a chariot-race for them and make the mountain the turning-post. 1.) ‘turning post’ may have the same or different origin. Nos. or death and life: Janus-like. and who visit both the heavenly abode of the gods and the nether world in turn. the speakers of Vedic Sanskrit generally spoke of body parts that come in pairs (hands. 540-1).1. also regarded as the worldtree and used as the stick in the churning of the ocean. at the junctures between night and day. Nirukta ¯ 2. a stick (k¯ sth¯ [sic for k¯ stha]220 ). also TB. Auswahl. liminal passage. Krick 1982: 158-9. etc. because they made the mountain the turning-post.105.3.36 Journal of Indological Studies. speaks of just two arms of the A´vins. therefore that (mythical) mountain is called a stick (k¯ stha). a 217 Cf.”219 Bodewitz comments: a.24. n.(f. their white-and-black appearance unites these opposites.7c té b¯ húbhy¯ m a a.. 1) suggested that in India. RV 2. RV 10. ˚ dhamitám agním á´mani ‘they (i. as Werner Knobl has pointed out to me. had.9. according to Aristarchus. or space in between”. Murray 1925: II.. too. I agree with Thomas Oberlies (1993) that they are very much “gods of the middle position..(n. .14. dual or plural: cf..< -sthá-) in it one year in the shape of the horse (á´va-). 226 Cf.and manthin. Geldner (1951: a . 227 See Sieg 1923: 3ff. ˚ ˚ III.. verily having reached the end of the day. in a very late text. verily having reached the end of the night he inverts himself. Sieg 1923: 1-2. . Von Letzter weiss man nichts Gewiss. which are explained to represent the sun and the moon: “thereby they make them invisible. this Vedic conception is partly similar to the later theory. Parpola) a 37 In the Epic and Pur¯ nic cosmography. who a impersonate the two A´vins: they go around the sacrificial stake.111. with further references.5.cups of Soma. whence no one sees yonder sun and moon when they go forward (eastwards). so lange sie nicht wieder als das Tagesgestirn sichtbar wird. their apparent risings and settings are caused by their appearance to the view of the inhabitants of the Bh¯ ratavarsa (who live a .3.. he inverts himself. 225 Transl.44.und untergehenden Sonne oder der Tages. night above.7cd a yán náksatram dádrse divó ná ´ ´ ¯ ´ púnar yató nákir addh¯ nú veda. 334) translates: “Wenn das kommende Tagesgestirn (noch) nicht sichtbar geworden ist.227 .228 Having gone round to the front (of the stake). chariots in circles around the world mountain Meru. day above. The A´vins complete their circuit (vartís-) around the world in one day. just like the s sun. Keith 1920: 193.” 223 Mah¯ meru a 222 Cf. weiss niemand etwas Sicheres von dem wieder Gehenden”. also der auf. 224 Cf.226 This conception can be traced back to the Rgveda: ˚ particularly clear is the earlier cited verse RV 1. ı ¯ . According to the Aitareya-Br¯ hmana (3.7. because Mount Meru is mentioned just once in the Veda.222 This idea of the world mountain is supposed to have come from the ancient Near East. Sieg 1923. 228 Cf.224 However. This is enacted in the Vedic ritual by the adhvaryu and pratiprasth¯ tar priests. the idea of a world mountain is also present in the conception of a turning post as the axis mundi. thus he makes day below. covering with their hands s ´ the sukra. in Taittir¯ya-Aranyaka 1. that they think of him ‘He is setting’. the sun and the moon never really rise or set. too. which speaks of the bright and dark ˚ sides of the sun as visible forms of Mitra and Varuna. In a . Again in that they think of him ‘He is rising in the morning’. it turns its bright side downwards (towards the earth) in the morning in the east.115. . with this comment: “Der Gegensatz der kommenden und wider gehenden. since according to it. RV 10. the sun and other heavenly bodies drive heavenly a.”225 The sun (or the single wheel of the sun’s chariot) is understood to have a bright side and a dark side. thus he makes evening below.The N¯ satyas. south of Mount Meru) in the morning. In my opinion. Speyer 1906. “The (sun) never really sets or rises. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A.und Nachtsonne. they uncover Kirfel 1920: 129f. it turns this bright side upwards (towards the sky) in the evening in the west.223 and because the Vedic people had a different astronomical conception that excludes the theory of the world mountain. and their disappearance behind the mountain in the evening.4). .38 Journal of Indological Studies.2-3). 235 See Joki 1973. master of magic songs and a water deity. Eggeling 1885: II. 1948: 47.1 = 8. . and offer them while standing in front: thereby they make them visible. for the Mistress of the inimical North. The Sampo was locked up by the Mistress in the rocky mountain of the North behind many locks. Kemppinen sees the maiden of the North. transl. Anttonen 2000: 166-9. cf. epitomized in Lönnrot’s Kalevala. Setälä 1932: 129-146. Nos. the maker of the sky and its luminaries. 8: 147. see Kuusi 1949 (in Finnish with a German summary).1. 231 See Setälä 1932: 242-4. As many others (cf.10.231 The two hero brothers have been compared with the Dioskouroi (who rescue their sister Helen) and the A´vins: they woo and rescue the solar maiden s 232 locked in the northern mountain.ı . Heinrich Lüders saw a striking parallellism between Väinämöinen’s opening the mountain of the north with a magic song and thus releasing the heavenly luminaries.234 ˚ Early Aryan loanwords in Finno-Ugrian languages and the N¯ satya cult a The Finno-Ugrian languages have a considerable number of early Aryan loanwords.. and the Sampo all as symbols of the sun which was locked in the mountain of the North in winter. The Mistress of the North followed the boat of the robbers. 322-332. 234 Lüders 1959: II. 8. fleeing by boat. also Satapatha-Br¯ hmana ı a ..3: 81. a . Kirfel 1920: 25f. 233 Lüders 1959: II.6. Koivulehto 1999. whose beautiful daughter is wooed by him and his brother Väinämöinen. The most widely supported interpretation sees in the Sampo a world pillar that rose from the northern mountain to the pole star. 283-284. the maiden of gold made as her substitute by the smith. 524-560.2.1.ı 230 For a typological analysis of the original folk songs. 510-537. 20) and the Taittir¯ya-Samhit¯ (6. having the rotating starry heavens as its cover. 561-575). 177. whence every one sees yonder sun and moon when they go backwards [westwards]”. the Katha-Samhit¯ (27. a . This magic mill grinding out all kinds of riches was created by a heroic smith. have the Sampo as one of their central themes.18. Similarly Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ (4.18 and Kaus¯taki-Br¯ hmana 7. ´ 18).2.229 The Finnic folk epics of the Sampo and related themes The pre-Christian epic songs of Finnish folk poetry. Harva 1943. 2003. Caland 1912: 119f. but the epic heroes of the south came and stole it.6. 2001. In the ensuing struggle.235 229 Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 4. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) (the cups). Sieg 1923: 3.233 and the opening of the cave of Vala and the release of the light and the cows by Brhaspati or A˙ giras using the sacred song or n ˚ expression of truth (rta-). eventually in the shape of a giant eagle carrying warriors on her back. on the one hand. 521. 232 Kemppinen 1960.6. .230 The magic mill Sampo shares with the vault of heaven the standing epithet kirjokansi ‘having a decorated lid’. a . a .1. ´ a a . the treasure fell into the sea and broke into thousands of pieces.4. Ilmarinen. this word coming from Mitanni Aryan. husband’ (cf. D¯rghatamas’ horse hymn RV 1. for the Near Eastern chariot warriors s were called ma-ri-ia-an-nu. which contains several diagnostic sounds having divergent developments in different branches of Indo-European: Proto-Finno-Ugrian *´ata. for their slaves. the word for ‘hundred’. man’).244 That it indeed came from Proto-Aryan and not from some other branch of IndoJoki 1973: 311. wooer’.239 This word is important for the early history of the A´vin cult. . beer and the N¯ satyas a Proto-Finno-Ugrian *mete ‘honey’. The word is also an appellative meaning ‘man.8a ánu tv¯ rátho ánu máryo arvann.237 One of my major new insights put forward in the present paper is that many of the loanwords taken over from Proto-Aryan into the Finno-Ugrian languages are related to the cult of the N¯ satyas.238 Finno-Ugrian peoples of the Volga-Urals region were once ruled by an Aryan-speaking elite. lovers or wooers243 of the sun’s daughter s S¯ ry¯ . s a a a a. 330 (references to skepticism concerning this etymology are also given). go to the man’). Parpola) a 39 For instance. ˚ márya.85. 239 Cf. was borrowed.2b máryo ná yósam abhy èti pa´ c¯ ´ s at. Koivulehto 2001: 248. because *u was restricted to the first syllable (cf. ˚ 243 RV 10.‘mortal.8c s¯ ry¯ a a´ vín¯ var¯ 9b a´ vín¯ st¯ m ubh¯ var¯ ´ ´ ´ ´ u ay¯ s a a. too. like *merya-.The N¯ satyas. suggests derivation from Proto-Aryan *mártya. Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 112f. Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 114f. ˚ 244 Cf. Mayrhofer 1996: II. Joki 1973: 297. The word could not become *metu in Proto-Finno-Ugrian.. while its cognate in Saami means ‘south’: these northernmost Finnic peo´ ¯ ple took their southern neighbours as war-captives and used their ethnic name. 238 This insight proved to be powerful heuristically. Joki 1973: 280. Koivulehto 2001: 247f. 2005. 241 Cf. can only come from the Aryan branch. ı a ˚¯ 242 E.115. *asura. u a Honey.242 The chariot-driving A´vins are the husbands. RV 1. and I am citing them throughout also as evidence for the antiquity of the a cultic features concerned.240 In the Rgveda. the Dawn. also marlan kajaš ‘(woman) to marry.g. Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 111f. 237 Cf. for immediately after submitting the first version of the present paper to the T¯ h¯ Gakkai on the 28th of April. Arya-. I discovered one more previously unrecognized o o Proto-Aryan loanword in Finno-Ugrian and could include this new finding (and several less successful leaps to this direction) in a new version submitted on the 8th of May 2005..is used of a ‘young man’. Joki 1973: 283-5. It goes back to Merya in the Old Russian “Nestor’s Chronicle” and to early Proto-Aryan *meryo-.236 Modern Finnish orja means ‘slave’.> PFU *asera). .163. Koivulehto 2001: 248. Katz 2003: 123f. 240 Cf. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. both as a ‘(chariot) warrior’241 and as ‘lover. Thus the Cheremis call themselves Mari. before the late Proto-Aryan sound change of Proto-Indo-European *e into *a. lit. s modern Finnish sata. and today have ethnic names with an Aryan etymology. (the meaning ‘mortal’ given here is incorrect. from early Proto-Aryan *medhu-. English slave similarly comes from the ethnic name of Slavs. 236 Cf. .added to the past a a . honeycomb’. with the prefix ud. P¯ li makkhik¯ . a drink also associated a a with the A´vins.11: 79. Hillebrandt 1927: I.t Komi si´). we were not aware that the same etymology for Mari šište ‘wax’ etc. also madhu´esa. u . with which they are mentioned in many passages. sur¯ was (mare’s or any other) milk fermented with honey.¯ ˚ etc.9c) has madh¯ cchista-.45. Caland 1896: 162. past participle of the verb sis.f. which Baudh¯ yana prescribes to be celebrated when the erection of a .249 Another rare occasion when sur¯ is consumed in Vedic ritual is a a the sautr¯ man¯ rite. 251 Cf. In Khotanese Saka. . in ProtoAryan times. Prakrit macch¯ f. Rgvedic máks. transl. Udmurt su´ < *´u´t. a a .. á.? and . which in the Aryan branch alone (cf. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) s European. hoard. They only are said to be fond of honey (madh¯ yu. — The traditional Proto-Aryan reconstruction is *mekš.10 ed. 8-9.60. s says Baudh¯ yana. a a. “Drinking this. is shown by the Komi compound ma-si´ ‘beeswax’..106. Younger Avestan maxš¯ f.. All v¯ japeya charioteers receive an abundance of alcoholic sur¯ .not known from any Iranian language. 481-491.f.60. (1985: 43).. where Komi ma goes back to Proto-Permic *mo from Proto-Finno-Ugrian *mete. 10. a kumiss. s .(cf. (cf.10). the a brahman priest who represents Brhaspati. Mari šište. r .248 After the chariot race of the v¯ japeya rite.‘wax’ recorded in the Sabdakalpadruma. pile’. for *mekši-. but cf. 737.f. The Komi compound has an exact counterpart ´.f. s . s a ˚ 249 Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 11.250 Iranian evidence suggests that. hur¯ means ‘fermented a . Cf. Sanskrit ci-) has the meaning ‘to collect.6) and are a compared with bees (10. The mid-Volga region has been famous for its honey-forests. Aikio & Kallio.112. especially RV 4. 245 Gorresio) in a description of the drunken revelry of the monkeys in the honey-forest Madhuvana. Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 114f. Cf. corresponding to Sanskrit sis. ´ a u 250 Cf. had been briefly proposed earlier by Blažek (1990: 43). the divine purohita and charioteer. m¯ dhv¯) or u a ı 247 drinkers of it (madhup¯ ). Mayrhofer 1996: II.3 mádhvah pibatam madhupébhir asábhir utá priyám ¯ .).> *makš.251 This is suggested also by the facts that the A´vins were offered a drink of hot s 245 The critical edition of the R¯ m¯ yana (5.‘what is left over’. 287). receives a ˚ golden vessel full of honey. in other words. and beeswax one of its principal trade products. They give honey to the bee (1..”.21 cp. Sparreboom 1983: 48f. a.. ´ participle. ´s ´ .. Rgvedic máksik¯ . who in turn was not aware that this had been done still earlier by Katz (2003: 224.40 Journal of Indological Studies.‘beeswax. Mayrhofer 1996: II. The latter part of the compound s ´ s s s is Proto-Volga-Permic *´išta ‘beeswax’ (Mordvin šta.ı a the funeral monument has been completed.40.. Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 115-125. Honey-beer was the only kind of alcoholic drink in Russia until the days of Peter the Great. a . 247 Proto-Finno-Ugrian has *mekše ‘bee’ from early Proto-Aryan *mekši. they sit down enjoying themselves and being exalted”.. Nos.. ˚ a ´ ¯ mádhune yuñj¯ th¯ m rátham / a vartaním mádhun¯ jinvathas pathó d´tim vahethe mádhumantam a´vin¯ . 248 Macdonell 1897: 49-50. ˚ a a ı ı máksa.t in Sanskrit madhu-´is. cf. 246 Cf. in press). attested in the R¯ m¯ yana (5. They have [in their chariot] a skin[bag] filled with honey. cf. which appears to come from Late Indo-European *mekþi from Proto-Indo-European *metkw i < *medh(u) ‘honey’ + the verbal root *kw i-.246 s “Of all the [Vedic] gods the A´vins are most closely connected with honey (madhu). Mayrhofer 1996: II.as prize. madhupéya-.116. Joki 1973: 265.) ‘ritual drink offering’ in Vedic. 41 .252 s . mentions in verse 5 súr¯ m mádhu a ˚ which corresponds to Avestan (V¯d¯ vd¯ t 14.3d -áta a y¯ tam madhupéyam a´ vin¯ . had to be mixed with milk and honey. u a a a. p¯ nam vai pey¯ h / annam v¯ jah. 260 In the marriage hymn Atharvaveda 14. Aryan (*yeva) into Proto-Finno-Ugrian (*yüwä). 256 Cf.6cd ´ ´ ´˙ r. 2005.34. RV 1. e. Mayrhofer 1996: II. too.. 85-119. a is of Indian origin. The last quarters of the verses are idenad ˚ a a ´ a˘ u a tical except that the latter has mádh¯ n¯ m instead of súr¯ y¯ h (cf.7cd k¯ rotar¯ chaph¯ á´ vasya v´ snah satám kumbh¯ m asiñcatam súr¯ y¯ h. 253 Cf.41.(m. . 255 Cf. . ´ ath¯ nnam. which is food.17) huraii˚ v¯ maδ¯ uš (cf.256 Twelve péya. sur¯ was beer made of germinated rice and barley. Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 18. RV 1. Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 127.comes from the Old Indo-Aryan root *vaj. 404-5. ˚ ˚ ´ s ´˙ ´ saph¯ á´vasya v¯ jíno ján¯ ya satám kumbh¯ m asiñcatam mádh¯ n¯ m. 450ff. a. Mayrhofer 1996: II.2. 2. Mayrhofer 1996: II. u . 482). An Atharvaı a a vedic hymn ascribed to Brhaspati (who is mentioned repeatedly in it). when offered to the A´vins and to Mitra and Varuna. a peya. . Hillebrandt 1927: I. 258 RV 10.‘to be powerful’.254 Sur¯ . Joki 1973: 317. of course. especially pp.1: 1. see Hintze 2000. .. 6 tayor ubhayor aptyai.. 257 Cf. 117. 4. from Proto-Indo-European *weg’. 10.The N¯ satyas. and the word for ‘barley’ has been borrowed from early Proto.258 s V¯ ja ‘generative power’ and the new year feast a ´ aja-. V¯ attested only in nominal and verbal derivatives. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. .offerings are to be performed during the year preceding the v¯ japeya sacrifice. 254 Cf. has been borrowed into the a Permic languages of the Urals as *sur (Udmurt sur. but beer was probably also made of barley in Proto-Aryan times. S¯ nkh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 15. and bear-killing’.255 Finnish peijas from Proto-Finno-Ugrian *paiyas denotes a ‘ritual drinking bout in connection with marriage. 303). funerals. The main prize of the v¯ japeya is v¯ 259 vigour or power generating new life and a 260 ´ aja.denotes a drink. ı e a a a @ ¯ 252 Cf. ann¯ dyak¯ masya.6. and that the Soma drink. 737. Barley is sacred to Varuna. ´ . . and the sur¯ is purified with a filter made of horse hair. p¯ nam vai p¯ rvam a a . a. and the Avestan text N¯rangist¯ n expressly states that hur¯ is made of mare’s milk. ´ ¯ a s a a s a ˚ ˚ 259 For an exhaustive study of v¯ ´ aja. 3. ¯ . a . Hillebrandt 1927: I. 5. which has become péya. a . Komi sur) ‘beer’.gibt es keinen Anhalts2 punkt”). . RV 1. v¯ jena yaksyam¯ nah ´ a˙ a ´ ´ u a a a a a. It goes back to Proto-Aryan *paiya-s. with the milk of the herbs and with progeny and riches (verse 70). the bride is commanded to win v¯ ja being girded threefold with a the milk of the earth. .‘to be(come) powerful’.11b devébhir y¯ tam madhupéyam a´ vin¯ .261 mare’s milk’..51 m¯ s¯ n¯ m eva r¯ pam pey¯ h samvatsarasya a a u aa a u . saradi v¯ japeyah. 261 Cf. The A´vins are also said to have produced one hundred vessels of sur¯ from the hoof of s a 253 the horse. a honey drink of which the A´vins partake. a ac ad s a˘ a a. u . Parpola) a milk mixed with honey in the pravargya or gharma ritual. LIV 1998: 601-602 (“Für den Ansatz *h weg’ . in Komi there is also the compound ma-sur ‘honey-beer’. Koivulehto 1999: 223. Koivulehto 2003.257 As a neuter noun.g. a In Vedic times. r¯ pam v¯ jah. Rice. 540f. purast¯ t samvatsaram peyair yajñakratubhir yajate. a . ˚ dem Knauf versehen auf der Erde (stehen)” (Geldner 1951: I.1.1.12 atha godh¯ an upa sprsati / svàr dev¯ aganméti.266 The v¯ japeya is to be performed in the autumn. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) ´ The v¯ aja. . games and prognostications about the new year. cf. is a derivative from Proto-Finno-Ugric *kekrä. both times in connection with the sacrificial pillar. a protoform of Sanskrit cakrá-.2. transl. This word is a .264 a a The v¯ japeya texts emphasize the v¯ ja’s identification with food. .13. the year is compared to the (solid disk-)wheel (cakrá-).265 and all growth and a a vegetation on the earth depends upon the sun.¯ . 263 Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 5.164.1. Ascending the sacrificial stake instead of the turning post may represent a syncretistic a a u . .48. a 262 According to Aitareya-Br¯ hmana 5.˚Koivulehto 2000.3. 346).6b casalam yé a´ vay¯ p¯ ´ ´ s u aya táksati /.42 Journal of Indological Studies.262 and the sacrificer ascends it. wenn sie˚ mit am . (asau v¯ asy¯ dityo y¯ pah). the sacrificer’s) sacrificial post is the sun over there” a . . 33. . cycle’. Biardeau 1989). ‘wheel. Sparreboom 1983: 16.¯. ´ a .162. for v¯ ja-peya is the same as anna-peya (food and drink)”. borrowed from early Proto-Aryan *kekro. the top-piece of the sacrificial pillar is called casala-.¯ ¯ In the v¯ japeya. Rau 1983: 22f. 270 Cf. called casala.(from Proto-Indo-European kw ekw lo-).28.and made of wheat. 2001: 249. ˚ v¯ japéyena yájate.271 The ˚ original meaning is thought to be the disk-like front part of a boar’s snout. since the sacrificial ˚ stake played an important role in those rituals (cf. ˚ ˚ ´˚ ´ casalavantah sváravah prthivy¯ “Wie die Hörner der gehörnten (Tiere)˚ sehen die Pfosten aus. wins food. 266 Cf. After the chariot race of the v¯ japeya. Thite 1968: 31-34. 271 RV 1. a 264 Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 5. 268 Cf. Vilkuna 1968: 244-259. *kekrä developed into geavri meaning ‘a circular thing’.ı . Nos.270 Casala and Finnic *kärsä ‘pig’s snout’ . “his (i.10ab srng¯ n¯véc chrngínam sám dadrsre ´´ ˙ a. The combination of the sun and food as a the prize or goal of the v¯ japeya has led to the suggestion that the race was originally part a of the new year celebrations at winter solstice.as the prize and goal of the v¯ japeya is represented by the top-piece of the a ´ ¯ a sacrificial stake.268 Kekri.8. 38.6.e.2. RV 3. 265 Cf. This meaning is certain in Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ 1.267 Its purpose would have been to infuse the nature with new generative power. . cf. circle. absorption of the rituals that prevailed in South Asia before the arrival of the Rgvedic Aryans. where it is said that “this earth was in the begina . from earlier *kekräj. 36. ı ´ ˙ . The Finns have celebrated kekri in late autumn at the end of the agricultural year with feasting.269 In Saami. Having reached the top. saying “We have reached the sun. he touches the top-piece made of wheat. O gods!”263 “And as to why he touches the wheat: wheat is food.¯ . svàr hy èsa gachati yó ´ ´ ´ a a um¯ . 267 Kuiper 1960: 240. 269 In RV 1. a ladder is erected against the sacrificial post.´ attested twice in the Rgveda. Eggeling 1894: III. Gonda 1966: 86. . and he who offers the V¯ japeya. 34.10 and Krick 1982: 151 n. where soil thrown up by the boar must be used.. Proto-Finno-Ugrian *kärsä ‘pig’s snout’ is probably a front vocalic variant282 of earlier 272 Cf.< . branches’). cf.278 According to the Satapatha-Br¯ hmana (14.6. to draw furrows’. -pa / -pä.ı avad vái var¯ hásya casalam t¯ ıyám ágra as¯d . Avestan karša.yád a ¯ ı . to draw furrows.2. the meanings ‘to plough’ and ‘to dig up soil with snout (as pigs do)’ are ¯ recorded throughout the language family. For a drawing of the y¯ pa and the casala (which does resemble u . a a a.1. avat¯ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ¯ var¯ hávihatam up¯ agním adhattá im¯ evá tán n¯ ar¯ d – asy¯ enam m¯ ay¯ m ádhy¯ a asy¯ am ap¯ a .273 Indo-Aryan cars. Burrow & Emeneau 1984: 67 no. one must use soil dug up by u. Mayrhofer 1992: I. 538f. . The gharma pot is the vessel in which heated milk is offered to the N¯ satyas. I .3: 90. n.279 Correspondingly. row’.¯ -¯ la-) of the root cars. 275 For the Proto-Dravidian root *ulu. 277 Biardeau (1989: 43) points out that the word múkha.f. Praj¯ pati in the shape of a boar brought up in his mouth (mukha)277 when diving to the a ´ bottom of the primeval ocean. with cognates in Estonian.goes back to Proto-Aryan *carš.2. ˚karhia. a adhatte – tásm¯ d esa a . she was dug up by a boar called Em¯ sa.13). sò ’sy¯ h pátih praj¯ ´ ´ ´ a am u.ı .¯ the story and thus confirms the meaning ‘snout’. among whom the A´vin cult prevailed. RV 8. Mordvin and Mari (in the Volgaic languages the meaning is ‘brushwood. a .).in the other variant of ´ . Krick 1982: 154. 280 Cf. atr¯ a ´ ´ ´ var¯ h¯ vímradata – esá hy àsy¯ m¯ am bibhárti. Krick 1982: 145-155.274 The pig’s habit to scratch the earth is often compared to ploughing. ‘the last furrow of a field’).. Greek télson n. 279 Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 14. a .g. 276 Cf.1.from Proto-Indo-European *kw els. Parpola) a 43 ning as large as the snout of a boar”272 . a boar’s snout and the earth in the context of the establishment of sacred fires. cf. 393 with further references.‘to drag. and formation of front and back vocalic word pairs is common in Finnic. The myths concerning the boar Emusa s . 688. seem to go back to the K¯ nvas. .77. ˚ 282 On account of the vowel harmony (considered to be a Proto-Finno-Ugrian feature). ¯ .281 a. most suffixes have front and back vocalic variants in Finnish (e. a 280 a boar for making the gharma pot.11 t¯ em¯ sá iti var¯ há új jagh¯ na. ‘fura . 319f. a aya a atr¯ . cf.275 The Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ (1. who was her husband. and 319f. Hittite gul-ša-an-zi ‘they incise’. For a translation and commentary see Krick 1982: 149f. . ´ ´ ´ Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ 1. With the meaning ‘pig’s snout’ the word can be ´ explained as a dissimilatory development of earlier *carsala-. cf. field’ (RV 10. of the eight book of the Rgveda — representing the first immigration wave of the Indo˚ Aryans. Krick 1982: 152. the beginning the earth had just the measure of a span.´ ¯ .‘to drag.¯ the snout). apatih.m. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A.‘mouth’ corresponds to casala. ‘ploughing./ kars. LIV (1998): 347f. 274 Cf.276 According to the corresponding passage of the Katha-Samhit¯ (8. also Old Indo-Aryan krsí. sometimes there is semantic divergence .6. sometimes the meaning remains the same. . a derivative (with the suffix .< early Proto-Aryan *cerš. Praj¯ pati. 273 Cf. etc. Mayrhofer 1992: I.The N¯ satyas. in a . 278 Cf.11). the size of the earth was in the beginning as much as the creator god . 281 Cf. plough’. . As a possible new Proto-Finno-Ugrian loanword from Proto-Aryan karš. see Biardeau 1989: 42. The gharma offering seems to have started with the K¯ nva family a a. *kerš. LIV Add (2001): 100.‘to draw furrows’ (cf. karhita by ‘to harrow. scrape’. would like to suggest Finnish karhi < *karši ‘harrow made of logs ˚ breaking off branches’. -lla / -llä.3) speaks of the a .2). SSA 1 (1992): 312. SKES I (1955): 162.4-6 y¯ a . yát táto várs¯yah kury¯ vájro bh¯ tv¯ yájam¯ nasya pa´un ávatis. a a ˘ a´ ı sò ’vl¯yata – tásya v¯ etád ánunadyai yác casalam prthum¯ trám k¯ ryàm – prthum¯ trám hí tád ágr¯ as¯t . hed – índro vái vrtr¯ vájram údayachat – ad u a a s¯ t aya . the hair. SKES II (1958): 262b.´ . the opponents) down with a toss (of his head): he does not even think he has struck. 288 Cf.< Proto-Indo-European *kw olso-. the Avestan text ibid. ˚ ˙ ´ ¯ ¯ a .70-72 “Grass-land magnate Mithra we worship .¯ ˘ a ´ ´ ´ ´ ı . RV 1. kyárza ‘pig’s snout’) and from Finnish into Saami (gœrsse ‘pig’s snout).‘pig’s snout. grim. mingling (lit. Ingrian kärsä ‘(pig’s) snout.drujam mašy¯ nam).with *-rs.” (Transl. but the RUKI rule seems to be very early. agressive.287 o ˇι a ι The popularity of this image in later Iran and Armenia is attested in the numerous names containing the word ‘boar’ (var¯ z). a boar that kills at one blow.. and strong. in the Avesta the god of victory. cf. This is a new etymology.. s urozi ‘castrated hog’ is reconstructed as *(v)ora´ ‘boar’ and this is derived from early s Proto-Aryan *vor¯ zha ‘boar’. Macdonell 1897: 41. Avestan karša. s¯ dhy¯ yajñám ah a a . a n a ˘ a´ ı atyámanyanta tésam v¯ etád yád upáris. nor has he the impression he is hitting anybody. hollow of a pipe or ladle’. ˚ a . the brains. . and the blood of men false to the contract.. 108). Finnish tyhmä ‘stupid’ and tuhma ‘naughty’). n. ˚ . iron fore-feet. Cf. kärsa) ‘pig’s snout’. 109.in ProtoFinno-Ugrian can best be explained by assuming that Proto-Finno-Ugrian at this stage did not yet have the phoneme *š. which is conceived of as a demon286 — the boar seems to have been appreciated in the Bactria and Margiana Archaeological Complex. The word has been borrowed from Finnic into Russian (kyárzya. Gershevitch 1959: 107. Yet the Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ (3. male boar with sharp fangs and sharp tusks. e. ‘furrow’) from early Proto-Aryan *koršo.¯ ˙ ˙ ˙ ´ ¯ ¯ a ˙ gulim¯ trám k¯ ryàm – a˙ gulim¯ trám hí tád ágr¯ as¯d – a . because Indra raised it as a vajra against Vrtra: índrasya casalam – yé vái dev¯ . . Lydic kärz(ä) ‘pig’s snout’. SSA 1 (1992): 478a. he knocks them (lit. Vepsian kärz ‘pig’s snout’. ac casalasy¯ n˚ . Koivulehto 1999: 216. . iron tendons. Within the Finno-Ugrian family. the springs of vitality.61. 286 Cf. V r Traγna.¯ ´ ˘ ´ ´ to Indra. is unapproachable. Joki 1973: 296.4: a .3-8) while dealing with the casala in connection with the making of the sacrificial pillar. cf. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) *karsa283 from Proto-Aryan *karša. 67. the etymon is found only in the Finnic branch. . speckle-faced.44 Journal of Indological Studies. Karelian kärsä ‘(pig’s) snout.121. in front of whom flies Ahura-created V r Traγna in the shape of a wild.m. 514f.77. he who mingles) together on the ground the bones. and iron jaws.288 compare also the half-Iranian (with Iranian Mihira a (cf.11. beak of a vessel’. Yašt 10. also ibid. as he (= V r Traγna = boar) catches up with the opponent(s). until he has smashed even the vertebrae.284 Another word connected with the pig has been borrowed from Proto-Aryan into ProtoFinno-Ugrian: the protoform of Finnish oras ‘boar. castrated hog’ and Mordvin uro´. furrow’ (cf. which during its peak phase has produced among other things a magnificent ceremonial mace head depicting the boar —. no extra-Finno-Ugrian source has been proposed for the word before. the pillars of life.ı a ˚ 119. now Kobayashi 2004: 149). says that it belongs . 284 Finnish kärsä ‘(pig’s) snout’ (attested since 1745). has iron hind feet. Estonian kärss (gen. an iron tail. Sammallahti 1988: 482. another alternative is to assume that the word was borrowed so early that the RUKI rule did not yet apply (*karsa).99. Nos. 10.yád ı a . t¯ . Benveniste in Benveniste & Renou 1934: 35. he cuts to pieces everything at once.. 8. 106.g. runs in the shape of a boar (var¯ za) in a front of MiTra and cuts down men false to the contract (miTr¯ . 1. 283 Jorma Koivulehto has (orally) suggested that the replacement of Proto-Aryan *-rš.7.6.¯ ˚ 287 Cf. Mayrhofer 1996: II. 285 Cf. at least not in this cluster (for *š. 69 (Cyrus as a beast more ferocious than the ee ee ee . even the vertebrae. to my knowledge.10. beset by passion — simultaneously by manly valour —. 490). a animató ’grhnat tásm¯ d animató – yád índra udáyachat tásm¯ d aindrám.285 While in the Rgveda Indra has an inimical relation with a´ ˚ the boar. beak of a vessel’. Votyan kärsä ‘pig’s snout.´ . as it exits in Balto-Slavic as well (on the RUKI rule.9. . 60.. . ¯ a. this is the meaning”.¯ hymn is recited290 and the chariot is made to roll forwards. the fire. “Because the front (of . the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A.” The commentary translations are mine. dvit¯yam ´ a u a s a s¯ a ı . a. 25) called Mah¯ gnisarvasva comments: casalahom¯yam rathamukhahom¯ rtham a .¯ are prescribed). also Mayrhofer 1996: II. Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 10.50).¯ 290 Cf.¯ copper. ratham casalahom¯yam .51.g. united with (a plate of) . ´ a u 291 Cf.¯ . transl. e. where the offerings s . rope.¯ s tion on the front (of the chariot). . On analogy with the sacrificial pole.¯ . ı . According to the ´ Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra (10. 441). Bhavasv¯ min’s commentary (Vivarana) exa a a . ı . is fixed to the tip of the pole at the very front of the char. i. Some other chariot-related terms in Proto-Finno-Ugrian Besides *kekrä ‘wheel’ and *kärsä ‘pig’s snout’ as the copper front-plate of the chariot pole.4. .e...denotes ‘rays of the sun’ and ‘reins’ connected with the charioteer and the 294 A´vins. among other things.‘string.50 athaitasminn evaik¯ da´ e ’hni dv¯ da´ ay¯ hna upakalpayata . . Kashikar 2003: II. Caland refers to chapter 10. and a chariot for the sake of the offering upon the casala. RV 8.¯ the word casala denotes the tip of the chariot provided with a ‘snout of the chariot’. cord’. ı . Parpola) a < MiTra) proper name of the famous astronomer Var¯ ha-mihira. as usual. The offerings which are performed there are called casala offerings. Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 10.54. a 3. the fire is carried forward while the apratiratha . 294 Cf. beginning with]. The “excellent bh¯ sya on the agnipra´na (X)” (Caland a.”292 .54.¯ a casalam ucyate / mukhahom¯ rtham ity arthah (Caland 1913[-1923]: III. s Volga-Finnic *warsa ‘foal’ has been considered as a relatively young loan ¯ wild boar) and 72 (Atar. a 1913[-1923]: III. ´˙ s s ´˘ ı˙ a˘ ˚ 45 . . 60).289 On the twelfth day. later takes the place of V@r@Traγna).The N¯ satyas..¯ s ı .291 Different kinds of offerings follow.293 Old Indos c s Aryan ra´mi.¯ iot. ¯ rathacasalaval lohabaddham rath¯ gram casala´abdenocyate / tatra kriyam¯ na hom¯ s casalahom¯ h / tadartho a . 292 Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 10.¯ the sake of these (offerings) is the casalahom¯ya (chariot). “(The word) casalamukh¯yam (means) ‘for the sake of the offerings at the front of the chariot’: ı .7.. ratha´ casalahom¯yah (Caland 1913[-1923]: III..¯ .. Thus the boar symbolized by his snout always goes in front of the chariot-warrior... index p. index p. the sacrificer a u should procure for the rituals of the twelth day. The Indian tradition has preserved an indication of how the god of victory in the shape of a boar goes in front of MiTra — the original chariot-warrior. among other things “he offers five oblations on the front part of the chariot [rathamukhe] respectively with the [five] formulas [recorded in Taittir¯ya-Samhit¯ ı . . casala. on the eleventh day of the fire-altar ritual. bhuvanasya pate .¯ the chariot) has copper fixed to it.¯ ı ı a ı plains the term casalahom¯yam as follows: casalahom¯yam / lohabaddhatv¯ n mukham casalavad bhavat¯ti . index p. Krick 1982: 336f. 693. Koivulehto 2001: 250 (cf. a second hotar priest for reciting the battle hymn called ápratiratha. it is ‘provided with a casala’ and called casala.¯ . One is Proto-Finnoa Ugrian *re´mä ‘rope’ from early Proto-Aryan *re´ mi. ´ a u 293 Cf. a hot¯ ram apratirathasy¯ nuvakt¯ ram .¯ a´ .. . who lived in northwest a India around AD 600.21a (to the A´ vins) ra´ m¯mr iva yachatam adhvar¯ m úpa. this means that the top-piece.35. there are other early Finno-Ugrian loanwords from Proto-Aryan that can be associated with the chariot and thereby with the cult of the N¯ satyas. it is for the sake of the liba. 289 Cf. The chariot (to be procured) for . . 303 Cf. 305 Cf. . cf. Apastamba-Srautas¯ tra 18. is given to the adhvaryu priest in the horse sac.is first attested in the Atharvaveda (8.. Joki 1973: 337.ı a . the charioteer of the King of the Gods? For I find the same great talent in the valiant B¯ huka.298 namely ´ ´ ubara. 306 Cf.). . cf. the loan direction might also be the opposite. u 302 which corresponds to Natakuvera in P¯ li. ..‘reed’.3.307 The sacrificial gifts regularly given at the v¯ japeya also include 17 niskas. niská-. 366f. Koivulehto 1999: 226f. ˚ is here “deformed” like Kubera). 8.4. e SSA 1 (1992): 444.. The first part of these bahuvr¯hi compounds a ı . such as Finnish kupa. The oldest attestations are Maitr¯ yan¯ Samhit¯ 2. and his skills are wondered at by his own old charioteer: “When V¯ rsneya heard a .306 A necklace of gold or silver. 366f.305 the latter is a .4.. N. ences in Rau 1983: 28.?’ ..296 The ˚ ˚ etymon is used of the virile stallions that pull the chariot of the A´vins. 352). van Buitenen 1975: II.303 This word is involved in the proper name of King Nada Naisidha of the . and says that day by day Nada takes Yama southwards.69.3.5. the chief of robber bands. 301 Cf.. Mayrhofer 1992: I.1ab a v¯ m rátho ródas¯ badbadh¯ nó hiranyáyo v´ sabhir y¯ tv á´ vaih. other refera . and the association with a chariot is visible from the name that Kubera’s son has according to Epic sources: Nalak¯ bara. denotes the material of which the convex chariot railing was made: nada-. Mayrhofer 1996: II. riches.11. ´ Satapatha-Br¯ hmana. on the Finno-Ugrian side there are other apparently related words.11 and the Katha-Samhit¯ 10. a ‘Is this M¯ tali. 297 Cf.10. 304 Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 2.) cites these names.2.” (transl. Mayrhofer 1996: II. 300 Cf. RV 7.69.12-15. Mah¯ bh¯ rata 3. Horsch 1966: 26f.301 The leader of warring bands had a chariot. famed for his skills as a charioteer.28) as the proper name of Kubera Vai´ravana.299 The word k¯ Old Indo-Aryan k¯ 300 chariot-box. 385f.304 corresponding to the Epic king Nala Naisadha. Setälä and Jalo Kalima. ¯ ´ a˙ a ´ ´ u u 296 This 295 Cf. Cf. .7-8.308 a . . all meaning ‘convex’. nada-. he wondered about B¯ huka’s horsemanship. having the general sense of something round or convex (cf.. 308 Cf. kupertaa etc. 575f. later the Hindu god of s ..1. B¯ huka knows the same tricks that Nala knew. kúbera-..3. Yes. . Mayrhofer 1992: I. for I see that a B¯ huka’s horsemanship is equal to Nala’s. stallion’.‘male. nala. rifice.1-2 equates King Yama with the g¯ rhapatya fire and Nada Naisidha with the ´ a a . where Nala serves as King Rtuparna’s charioteer with the adopted name B¯ huka (he a a a . southern fire. nala-. but does not connect them with the chariot railing. ˚ ˚ 298 Finnish kupera (attested since 1791). the roar of the chariot and saw the driver’s control of the horses. . kupare. ´ a . . bull. . a s . urs ‘stallion’ — on account of -rs-. SSA 1. kuber. a 307 Cf. Mayrhofer 1996: II. 302 Mayrhofer (1992: I.297 s I would like to propose a possible new etymology for Finnic kupera ‘convex’. Joki 1973: 337. ´ ¯ a. which is rare in early Finno-Ugrian.46 Journal of Indological Studies. ı a r. Karelian kupera.1. Krick 1982: 438... 299 As the Indo-Aryan words are etymologically unexplained. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) from Iranian (Scythian) — comparing Ossetic wyrs. The variant form kúbera. Nos. has already been proposed among others by E. a a Or could it possibly be King Nala.. Sparreboom 1983: 152 and 56f. Ingrian kupp¯ ra.295 but *kärsä ‘snout’ suggests that *warsa could be a similar a borrowing from Proto-Aryan *vrsan-/*vršan. Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 13. a . 1992: 443f. S¯ nkh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 15.denotes the convex railing of the ubara-.: “The k¯ bara is the heavy curved top or rail of the framework which u ran around the front and two sides of the platform of the car to protect the occupants standing on it”. the centerpiece a genuine hulalu-stone mounted on gold.310 The text uses the expression niska. While prescribing this laud. and so has been griv˘na. among many other gifts on the occasion of his wedding with Tušratta’s daughter. 314 Cf. .6. . the garland is worn in front (on breast). Rgveda 1. we have a Proto-Aryan loanword in Finnic *niska ‘neck’.105 quoted above (cf. . but rejected the comparison on account of the *š problem.. .12) states that it belongs to Indra and symbolizes the necklace. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. . the necklace i. u niskam manim srajam [srajam most mss. . . cf.‘chariot warrior’. . world pillar’. etc. .‘wearing a niska on one’s neck’) vs. .mani. This is important for interpreting the magic mill of the Finnish folk epic. pole. the king of Egypt. ˚ Mitanni Aryan words that have been etymogically identified in the Akkadian documents of the Near East: mani-nnu ‘necklace’ has the same Hurrian suffix -nnu as the earlier discussed mariannu. Livonian n¯’sk) and as a Finnish loanword widely in Saami (North ı Saami nis’ke ‘neck’. where mention is made of charioteers ˚ ´ ¯ ahas¯ (váhnayah) and their vehicle (v¯ a) — words fitting the ajya lauds which derive their . 311 Cf. a 3. and if we can explain the .goes back to Proto-Aryan *niška-.‘wearing a mani necklace on one’s neck’) is one of the few ı . substitution of Proto-Aryan *š with Proto-Finno-Ugrian *s in the same way as in *kärsä < *karša-. Maní. Niská. the Sampo. . . meaning ‘pillar. 54. the Jaimin¯yaa ı Br¯ hmana (2. 39 (pieces of) gold leaf. .1 and Jaimin¯ya-Br¯ hmana 1. Estonian niska [< Finnish]. a . of monetary unit. from early Proto-Aryan.313 The difference in meaning (Proto-Indo-Aryan ‘neck-ornament’ vs. .and glosses it with sraj-. is Finnic *sampas (Finnish sammas. ˙ maham indra ya ojasety aindram bhavati / niskasya haitan mane r¯ pam / tasm¯ n a ˘ . 309 name from the chariot race (¯ jí-) of the gods. Pañcavimsa-Br¯ hmana 7.311 The Mitanni king Tušratta describes in detail over 20 maninnu necklaces that he has sent to his son-in-law Nimmureya. also Rgvedic niská-gr¯va. Rau 1974: 52f. . Sampo originally denoted the world pillar: a related word.10-12 corresponding to Rgveda 8. therefore a . 310 Jaimin¯ya-Br¯ hmana 2. and 1992: I.1-3. *kekrä.312 Old Indo-Aryan niská. 312 See EA 25 in Moran 1992: 73f.122. it with me on several occasions. Lydic nišk(e). : sraja ed. Parpola) a 47 ¯ The third ajya laud of the mah¯ vrata rite is to be sung on the verses Jaimin¯ya-Samhit¯ a ı . 48. Vepsian nišk.‘necklace’ (cf. 509. cut: 37 genuine lapis lazuli stones.12 ı a 309 Cf.has been used in Vedic India also as a kind ı .).The N¯ satyas. ˚ Old Slavonic griv˘na ‘neck-ornament’. Karelian niska. boundary stone. Mayrhofer 1996: II.] purast¯ d bibhrati. The word has been linked etymologically to Sanskrit niská.2. Mayrhofer 1996: II.instead of plain niska.by Blažek (1990: 41) without further comment.314 ı The world pillar and the churning of the milk ocean We have seen that Proto-Finno-Ugrian had borrowed the word for wheel. SSA 2 (1995): 224-225. .” ˘ 313 The etymon is attested only in the Finnic branch (Finnish niska. 293. note 219). Koivulehto has considered the etymology and discussed .14 mani-gr¯vá.´ . ı a. ´ Votyan niska. a ı a . An example: “1 maninnu-necklace. Finnic ‘neck’) is parallelled by Proto´ ı Aryan *gr¯v¯ ‘neck’ (cf. sampas.e. 48 Journal of Indological Studies, Nos. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) Estonian sammas, sambas). Its derivation from Proto-Aryan *stambha-s ‘prop, post, (cosmic) pillar’, first suggested in 1930, is now widely accepted.315 The Sampo was understood to be a a magic mill grinding out any grain and other material wealth for its owner. Martti Haavio has compared the Sampo to the Indian epic and pur¯ nic myth of the churning of the milk ocean, in which the cosmic mountain was a. used as the churning stick and all sorts of treasures were produced.316 Above, I have already quoted Henk Bodewitz to the effect that the turning post (k¯ s. h¯ -) of the divine a. t a chariot race represents the cosmic mountain as the churning stick (k¯ s. ha-) of the cosmic a. t ocean. The chief product from the churning317 of the milk ocean was the nectar of immortality. The Vedic domestic ritual describes a ceremony of receiving honoured guests, called arghá-.318 That this ceremony goes back to Proto-Aryan times is suggested by the Finnish compound arvovieras ‘honoured guest’, with Proto-Finno-Ugrian *arva ‘price, value’ from Proto-Aryan *argha ‘price, value’.319 The guest was offered a drink which consisted of sour milk (dádhi-) and honey (and ghee); its name madhuparká- or madhumantha- suggests it was churned.320 This drink can be connected with the horse and the A´vins. A famous horse of the s Rgvedic period is Dadhikr¯ van: its name contains the word dádhi- ‘sour milk’. The a ˚ same word is found in the name of Sage Dadhyañc, whom the A´vins decapitated and s revived with a horse’s head, so that he would be able to teach them the secret of “honeyknowledge”, madhu-vidy¯ . This secret amounted to reviving the dead, and probably ina volved a drink of immortality containing honey and sour milk. In the Finnish folk epic, the mother of a dead hero asks the bee to fetch honey from the highest heaven so that she can revive her son. A unique grave in the mid-Volga region near Samara contained a human skeleton, which had the skull of a horse instead of a man. This archaeological find from the Sintashta-Arkaim horizon — probably representing the Proto-Aryan culture — parallels the Vedic myth of Sage Dadhyañc.321 315 Cf. Kalima 1930; Mayrhofer 1996: II, 753f.; Koivulehto 1999: 230. Kalima and Koivulehto point out that original st- has been replaced with s- also in some very old Baltic and Germanic loanwords in Finnic. 316 Haavio 1967: 189-203; cf. Anttonen 2000: 168. For the pur¯ nic myth of amrtamanthana, see Rüping 1970. a. ˚ 317 The A´ vins are associated with churning (manthana-) also by fire-churning or fire-drilling, which symbols izes the generation of offspring. 318 Cf. Hillebrandt 1897: 79. 319 Cf. Joki 1973: 251; Koivulehto 1999: 216. 320 Cf. Hillebrandt 1927: I, 476-7. 321 Cf. Anthony & Vinogradov 1995; Carpelan & Parpola 2001: 121f. The N¯ satyas, the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. Parpola) a The turning post of the chariot race as the world pillar The v¯ japeya sacrifice culminates in a chariot race. The sacrificer touches the two a wheels and ascends the chariot with the formula, “At the impulse of God Savitr, may I ˚ win v¯ ja through the v¯ ja-winning Brhaspati”. At the same time, the brahman priest puts a a ˚ his arms on the wheel and ascends it. This chariot wheel had been placed horizontally on the top of a post consisting of a chariot axle and fixed in the ground at the starting point of the race, on the border of the sacrificial area. The brahman priest recites the formula, “At the impulse of God Savitr, may I ascend the highest vault through the v¯ ja-winning a ˚ Brhaspati”. When the race starts at noon, the brahman priest sings the v¯ jin¯ m s¯ man322 a a. a ˚ and either he himself or some assistant turns the chariot wheel on which he is sitting three times sunwise.323 Here the formula equates the rotating chariot wheel on the top of a chariot axle expressly with the highest heaven, to which the brahman symbolically ascends. We obtain a model corresponding to the conception behind the magic mill of the Finnic poems, the cosmic pillar supporting the rotating, star-decorated vault of heaven, Finnish sampo from 49 Proto-Aryan *stambha-. The Vedic concept of “world pillar” or “axis mundi” is associated with the verb sta(m)bhand its variant ska(m)bh-. In the long Skambha hymns of the Atharvaveda (10,7-8), the cosmic pillar, which props heaven and earth apart from each other, is praised as the ultimate principle behind everything and identified with the bráhman. The noun stambha- is also used of the axle of the chariot.324 In the Jaimin¯ya-Upanisad-Br¯ hmana, the atmosphere separating heaven and earth is ı a . . compared to the axle keeping the two wheels apart.325 According to the Rgveda, Indra ˚ 322 Gr¯ megeya-G¯ na 11,2,30 on S¯ maveda 1,435 = Jaimin¯ya-Samhit¯ 1,42,9 (not in the RV): avir mary¯ a a a a ı a ¯ ¯ . a ˚ v¯ jam v¯ jino agman. a . a 323 Cf. Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 11,8 g¯ yati brahm¯ v¯ jin¯ m s¯ ma / tam ya eva ka´ ca parikarmy avestayati / ´ a u a a a a. a s ¯ .. . ¯ ´ a dh¯ vanty ajisrtah; Apastamba-Srautas¯ tra 18,4,3 c¯ tv¯ le rath¯ ksakrtim k¯ s. ham nikh¯ ya tasminn audumbaram a u a a a .¯ ¯ . a. t . . . ˚ s¯ . rathacakram ˚saptada´aram pratimuñcati, 8 devasy¯ ham savituh prasave brhaspatin¯ v¯ jajit¯ v¯ jam jesam ity a . a a a a . . . . ˚ 10 tasya cakram trih pradaksinam audumbaram rathacakram brahm¯ rohati, 9 tam aha v¯ jin¯ m s¯ ma g¯ yeti, a a a. a a ¯ . . . . . . ´ u. ¯ aa avartayati, 11 vartam¯ ne brahm¯ g¯ yati. L¯ ty¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 5,12,9 p¯ rvenagn¯dhr¯yam sth¯ na nikh¯ t¯ a a a a. a u u .¯ ı ı . ¯ sy¯ t, 10 daksinena m¯ rj¯ l¯yam antarved¯ti sandilyah, 11 tasy¯ m audumbaram saptada´aram rathacakram a a aı ı ´¯ . . a s¯ . . . . . . pratimuktam sy¯ t, 12 tadabh¯ ve yat kim ca rathacakram, 13 tasmin b¯ h¯ adadhy¯ d devasy¯ ham savituh prasave a a u¯ a a . . a . . satyasavaso brhaspater v¯ jino v¯ jajito varsis. ham adhin¯ kam ruheyam iti, 14 rathesv ajim dh¯ vatsv avir mary¯ a a a . a a ¯ . .t . ¯ . ˚ iti g¯ yed ... 18 parivartayan g¯ yet parivartya g¯ yed g¯tv¯ v¯ parivartayed g¯ yato v¯ nyah parivartayet. a a a ı a a a a . 324 Cf. án-aksa-stambham ‘so as not to interfere with the axle-tree’ in Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 3,6,4,10-11 (cf. ´ a . . Eggeling 1885: II, 164; Sparreboom 1983: 156). The noun viskambha- denotes a ‘beam running parallel to . the axle of a cart’ in Paippal¯ da-Atharvaveda 20,26,5-6; Pañcavimsa-Br¯ hmana 6,5,14; L¯ ty¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra a a a. a . ´ u .´ . 1,9,23, and Dr¯ hy¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 3,1,21 (cf. Sparreboom 1983: 74f. and 149). a a . ´ u 325 Jaimin¯ya-Upanisad-Br¯ hmana 1,20,3 tad yath¯ k¯ sthena pal¯ se viskabdhe sy¯ t¯ m aksena v¯ cakr¯ v evam ı a a a. . a´ . aa a . . . . a 50 Journal of Indological Studies, Nos. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) “has with his might separated from each other heaven and earth, like the wheels are separated by the axle”.326 Here the demiurge separating heaven and earth from each other is Indra, but the Rgveda ascribes this same feat to many deities. I discovered this by ˚ going through all the numerous occurrences of the verbs sta(m)bh- and ska(m)bh-, with or without the preverb vi- ‘apart’. The association with the chariot, however, suggests that this feat originally belonged to the A´vins, to whom Vasistha prays in the Rgveda thus: s .. ˚ “May your golden chariot, forcing apart the two worlds (heaven and earth), come here with virile horses!”327 If the axle of the A´vins’ chariot is the world pillar keeping heaven s and earth apart, the A´vins should be driving around so that the wheels of their chariot s are horizontal, parallel to level ground. This would be in accordance with the world view according to which the sun’s single wheel turns its luminous side towards heaven during the night and towards earth during the day. According to Rgveda 1,185,1d, “day and ˚ night turn around like two wheels”,328 and in the Mah¯ bh¯ rata, the two wheels of Krsna’s a a .. ˚ chariot are compared to the sun and the moon.329 The sun and the pillar In the chariot race of the gods — won by the A´vins — the course was from Agni, s the fire, to S¯ rya, the sun. The Rgveda also speaks of “races which have the sun as u ˚ 330 their prize” , and the chariot of the A´vins is called “sun-finding”331 . The goal in s ´ . . h¯ -), which the Br¯ hmana texts equate with the as a the v¯ japeya race is the turning post (k¯ t a a . world of heaven.332 In many Rgvedic hymns, the sun is the cosmic pillar.333 The sun ˚ etenemau lokau viskabdhau, “As two leaves might be propped apart by means of a peg, or two wheels by means . of an axle, so these [two] worlds are propped apart by means of this [atmosphere]” (transl. Oertel 1896:98). 326 RV 10,89,4cd yó ákseneva cakríy¯ sác¯bhir vísvak tasthámbha prthiv¯ utá dy¯ ´ ´ a´ ı ım am. . . . ˚ a s ˚ 327 RV 7,69,1ab a v¯ m rátho ródas¯ badbadh¯ nó hiranyáyo v´ sabhir y¯ tv á´ vaih. ´ ¯ a. ı a r. . . ˚ s ˚ 328 RV 1,185,1d ví vartete áhan¯ cakríyeva. Cf. RV 6,9,1ab áha´ ca krsnám áhar árjunam ca ví vartete rájas¯ ı ı .. . ˚ ˚ ˚ ´ vedy¯ . . abhih 329 Mah¯ bh¯ rata 5,81,15 “The chariot shone like the blazing Doomsday fire and traveled like a bird, with two a a wheels resembling sun and moon to adorn it” (transl. van Buitenen 1978: III, 359). — I would like to compare the sun and the moon as chariot wheels to the round plates made of gold and silver, which are placed above and beneath the gharma vessel (that represents the sun) in the pravargya ritual sacred to the A´vins; these two s surrounding plates have counterparts also in the royal rites of the Veda. 330 svàrm¯lhesv ajísu, RV 1,63, 6; 1,130,8; 1,169,2; 8,68,5. See now Hintze 2000: 78-81; 84; 133. ı. . ¯ . ˚a 331 RV 7,67,3d svarvíd¯ vásumat¯ ráthena. a ˚ 332 Cf. Taittir¯ya-Br¯ hmana 1,3,6,5 v¯ ´ ´ ´ ´ ı a ajino v¯ . dh¯ vata k¯ . . h¯ m gacchatéty aha / suvargó vái lokáh k¯ . . h¯ / ajam a ast a . ¯ . . ast a ´ ´ ´ ´ suvargám evá lokám yanti / suvargám v¯ eté lokám yanti yá ajím dh¯ avanti / pr¯ añco dh¯ vanti / pr¯ n iva hí a a˙ ¯ . . . a . suvargó lokáh. . 333 RV 9,74,2a speaks of the sun as “the supporting, well-raised pillar of the sky” (divó yá skambhó dharúnah . . ˚ ). The two Agni hymns, RV 4,13 and 4,14, have an identical last fifth stanza in which it is wondered ` sv¯ atatah . ˚ how is it possible that the sun does not fall from the sky, though it is not fastened nor bound – as the pillar of ´ the sky it protects the firmament (án¯ yato ánibaddhah kath¯ . a ayám nyà˙ n utt¯ nó ’va padyate ná / káy¯ y¯ ti n˙ a a a . The N¯ satyas. it coms pares her to one who has victoriously reached the goal with the horsechariot. one is reminded338 of “A´oka’s pillars”. the hub of heaven (i. like a builder arat¯ ı .45.. he raises his arms336 and recites the formula. ´ s svadháy¯ kó dadar´a divá skambháh sámrtah p¯ ti n¯ a . mev¯ tis.2ab.1. propping up the light of the sun.2cd. becoming the highest of all lights” (úd astambh¯t samídh¯ n¯ ı a akam rsvó ’gnír bhávann uttamó . 338 Cf. man v¯ j¯ ny àkram¯t and RV 9.17 a v¯ m rátham duhit¯ s¯ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ¯ a. Agni has made his light shine upwards like Savitar. 50) in his introduction to the hymn notes: “Das Hauptthema ist der Sonnenauf.334 This fits the idea that the sun in its daily course turns around at sunrise and sunset. suvah].6. ˚ ´ ´ a a amanyanta hrdbhíh sám u sriy¯ n¯ saty¯ sacethe. Baudh¯ yana-Srautas¯ tra 11. had árvat¯ jáyant¯ / ví´ve dev¯ ánv ars a .e. ˚ ´ ródasyoh). In RV 1.59. and accordingly the rising sun should represent the turning post in the chariot race won by the A´vins.36.” 335 Cf.. 336 Cf.3. a a . with the cosmic mountain Meru in the microcosm of Tantric Yoga. transl. the Brhad-Aranyaka-Upanisad.5. The V¯ r¯ ha-Grhyas¯ tra prescribes a tree or a caitya aa u ˚ (i. cf. 6-7 antam gatv¯ b¯ h¯ udgrhnati suvar dev¯ m aganm¯ mrt¯ ´ ˙ a u a a u a˘ a a ¯ . mann a v¯ jy àkram¯t sasav¯ The term k¯ . a funeral monument) as appropriate marks for the bridegroom to make a sunwise Figure 2: Reconstruction of the top of A´oka’s s pillar at Sarnath.12-14. Having reached the top. alltägliche. “the sky became fixed like a well-erected pillar” (sth¯ eva súmit¯ drmhata ´. 334 According to RV 5. . For the phrase describing the reaching of the goal. “Rising high by means of fuel.. Parpola) a seems to become the cosmic pillar at sunrise. a . Their occurrence 51 in connection with the st¯ pas makes one suspect that they are survivals u of an ancient tradition of erecting a turning post for a funeral chariot race near the funeral monument. Inevitably. According to RV 4. ´ ı a a . 337 we have become immortal.is a´ ı ı ars ı an. 6b.74. and Geldner (1951: I.17 speaks of the goddess Dawn as ascending the chariot of the A´vins after these had won the chariot race for her marriage. also the ‘thousand-spoked wheel’ (sahasr¯ ra-cakra-) on the top of the spine (meru-danda-) equated a . Agni as the sun) shines an¯ ´ with the Vasus (¯˚rdhvám bh¯ núm s¯ u a . In RV 3. cf. a am). a´ ´ méteva dh¯ mám stabh¯ yad úpa dy¯ u . der erste Sonnenaufgang nach langer Regenzeit und trübem Himmel. Keith 1914: 108.1c k¯ .335 The v¯ japeya sacrificer climbs the sacrificial post after his victorious a race. sondern wie Grassmann und Oldenberg richtig erkannt haben.11: 80. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A.” The v¯ japeya in many ways emphaa sizes the image of the sun or wheel at the top of a post. ars ˚ ˚ derived from the root kars. Satapatha-Br¯ hmana 5. ˚ars ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ¯ a RV 9. when Rgveda s ˚ 1. cf. RV 1. un a .116. when its light separates heaven and earth. u 337 Taittir¯ya-Samhit¯ 1. gang. Bareau 1975: 177. . ˚ ˚ dyáuh). .8b k¯ . . to the gods.7. After Agrawala 1964: fig.. which are called stambha-339 and s have the solar “dharmacakra” on the top (see fig.10ab.e. uryasya stabh¯ yán divó vásubhir aratír ví bh¯ ti). Mayrhofer . a akam). .9e.¯ ˚ ˚ abh¯ ma. 2).2cd..and refers to a furrow drawn on the ground at the goal of the race. Agni is the head of the sky and ´ ´ ´ the navel of the earth: he became the hub of ˚ these two worlds (m¯ rdh¯ divó n¯ u˚ a abhir agníh prthivy¯ áth¯ bhavad a a .t a ı s a . aber nicht der gewöhnliche. ˚ 339 Cf. “We have come to the heaven [or: the sun. which in its rudiments can be traced back to ¯ . 342. he has raised his smoke to the sky to prop it (¯ rdhvám bh¯ núm savitév¯ sren u a . man. 1992: I.2d. In RV 10.. ˚ ´ rocan¯ am). .2.. In fact. Agni has propped up the ˚ ´ vault of heaven. ˚ (raises a pillar to prop up the roof). a uryasya k¯ .116. 344 Taittir¯ya-Br¯ hmana 1.343 The newly lighted fire is a Figure 3: The cakkavatti r¯ j¯ with his inaa signia including the dhammacakka on top of a pillar in a relief of a st¯ pa at Jagu gayyapeta. the brahman priest mutters battle hymns. .341 The funeral monument and the chariot wheel The st¯ pa is the funeral monument of the Budu dha as the spiritual emperor. see Krick 1982: 301ff. .326-333).as denoting the world ruler and as a reminiscence of the nomadic lifestyle of the early Indo-Aryan speakers. in which Brhaspati is prayed to for help ˚ and victory.8 rathacakram pravartayati / manusyarathenaiva devaratham pratyavarohati. Cf. .52 Journal of Indological Studies. The term cakravartin for the universal emperor342 is connected with the Buddha in the story of his first sermon which equalled the dharmacakrapravartana.. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) turn with his chariot after an eastward start. mounts a divine chariot.6. Simultaneously. 345 Cf. 1989: 51-55. ˚ . 3). Sparreboom 1983: 70-71. 100 BCE). setting the wheel of law rolling. . According to the Taittir¯ya-Br¯ hmana. by means of a human chariot. when he takes the bride and the nuptial fire to his own house after the wedding. a sign marking an old funeral or previously used as a turning post. also Caland 1899. where Nestor points out the turning post to his son Antilochus as being a dead tree trunk flanked by two white stones. agny¯ dheya. . . . 343 For a thorough description and discussion of this episode.4 . the sacrificer.1. iti pr¯ ñcam pray¯ pya pradaksinam avrtya yath¯ rthalaksanyam vrksam caityam aa u a a a ¯ . taken in a procession from the g¯ rhapatya hearth a ¯ to the ahavan¯ya hearth. whose insignia include the dharmaaa cakra on the top of a pillar (see fig. After Agrawala 1964: fig. heta. the royal priest of the gods.344 While rolling the wheel. Nos. ˚ ˚ vopatis. . . . Krick 1982: 327. the brahman priest rolls a chariot wheel (or alternatively a whole chariot) forwards so that the wheel turns around three times. . 97. .340 This has a parallel in the Iliad (23. personifying Brhaspati.345 340 V¯ r¯ ha-Grhyas¯ tra 15. see Scharfe 1987. equal to a cakkavatti r¯ j¯ .t 341 Cf. 342 On the term cakravartin. where it is to be placed ı upon the hoofprint made by the young horse that leads the procession.. This is obviously related to the turning of the wheel on which the brahman priest is sitting. this means that ı a . Andhra Pradesh (c. ˚ A similar episode is also known from the ´ Vedic ritual of establishing the sacred srauta fires. ı a . 1. Trita and his two brothers. This splendid horse arises from the womb of the waters. a-citi or sma´ana-citi. 354 Cf. roam thirsty in a desert and find a well.6 yásmin ví´ v¯ ni k¯ a cakré n¯ ´ ´ ´ s a avy¯ abhir iva srit¯ / tritám j¯ t¯ saparyata ´ a ı .347 According to Rgveda ˚ 1. 353 Cf. at 351 Cf. they left Trita in the well. is from the early third century) and since there are some striking structural similarities (concentric circles of walls.346 ˚ In this hymn..13 — 10. not a funeral monument. as given by Yama and as first yoked by Trita and as (its chariot) first mounted by Indra. Krick 1982: 306-311.6 also ˚ ˚ in a similar situation. He a . the sacrificer recites verses of the praise hymn to the victorious horse who is brought to be sacrificed. a 347 On 346 Cf.184. which is its other meaning.4.8.. .¯ was saved when he supernaturally saw the Traita song and praised Parjanya with it.17 tritáh k¯ ´ ´ an sa r ¯ .g. 5. also for an annotated translation of the hymn. which is here called k¯ .The N¯ satyas. Watkins 1995: 464-468.t ´ layout was.. Parpola 2002b: 310-312. RV 8. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A. 11-12. á. Hillebrandt 1929: II. M¯ nava-Srautas¯ tra 10. Baudh¯ yana-Sulbas¯ tra 16. ˚ ˚ 349 Cf.348 Trita’s case ˚ is similar to that of Vandana and others saved from a pit or distress by the N¯ satyas.. and a the pit here denotes the grave. But after the two had slaked their thirst.. the horse is praised as having been created by the Vasu gods out of the sun. los. 136) points out that the assumed composer of RV 1. covered him with a chariot wheel (rathacakrenapidh¯ ya) and went away. Hillebrandt 1927: II. the nave in a wheel. 352 Macdonell 1897: 68.3. Macdonell 1897: 67-69. appears in the Rgveda ˚ as a companion of Indra. and Kuwayama 2002: 44-68 & pl. 307. n. Taittir¯ya-Samhit¯ 5. RV 1.3.6. . e. Since these st¯ pas were only u constructed during the first two centuries of the Christian era (excepting the st¯ pa of N¯ g¯ rjunakonda. but saved from distress by Brhaspati. A funeral monument that has a round . upe ’vahito dev¯ havata utáye / tác chu´r¯ va b´haspatih .5).354 It is true that the rathacakra-citi is a fire altar (for one who wants to annihilate foes).105.11. according to the Satapatha-Br¯ hmana (13. which are not found in the earlier st¯ pas. u´ ˚ ´ vrajé g¯ ná samyúje // avo .353 The chariot wheel is one u of the Vedic citis. but only a builder of a fire altar was entitled ´ s¯ to a funeral monument. . ¯ Trita Aptya. a thick outermost wall and a wheel-like plan comprising a hub with spokes). was in RV 1. Trita was put down in a pit.41. 307-311. as a. Kuwayama considers these round st¯ pas as loans from Augustan Rome — similar circular u u tombs of stone or brick were built in Imperial Rome and its provinces.7. u Ekata and Dvita. only used by the easterners a .351 In the K¯ nva hymn to Varuna. “Trita is described as one in whom all wisdom is centred. Parpola) a While the horse leads this procession carrying the fire. 350 Geldner (1951: I. Jaimin¯ya-Br¯ hmana 1.350 is understood as a well. Trita see. and has a Proto-Aryan background. Rgveda 1. but point out that the wheel-shaped citis of the Veda do provide us with Indian antecedants. 348 Cf. thrown into a pit. ´ ´ ı a u a u . k¯ pa.163. — I do not deny that Kuwayama’s thesis has considerable likelihood.”352 He is like the brahman priest (Brhaspati) sitting upon the chariot ˚ wheel. Some ancient st¯ pas have the ground plan of the wheel.349 In a later version of this myth the word used for the pit.105. Trita descends into the well 53 and gives water to his brothers. ı a .2.106.7. Cf.17. mentioned in this hymn as the yoker of the horse.105. which u a a . Kutsa. 900 BCE. and for instance in the famous Arzhan kurgan of the early Sakas in Tuva. the dawn. Proto-Aryan was spoken in the Sintashta-Arkaim culture of the Volga steppes and the southern Urals. the Atharvavedins even preferring a round one.14. The twins were funeral deities who saved the deceased from the distress of the grave — this was especially the function of the charioteer. and the deified two-man chariot team of the chariot warrior and his charioteer became the model for a dual kingship and the “twin sons of the sky”. Yet several Vedic S¯ tras give the option of making the funeral monument either u four-cornered or round. 16 & 17 (2004–2005) and others worshipping asuras (demons). and the horse. Caland 1896: 141f. who carried the worshipper to the world of heaven (the solar world) in his a divine chariot in the morning.8. the chariot. s u s u . the marya. and the night-sun. the main divinities of the pantheon. the n¯ satya. They were also deities of (re)generation and fertility who “rejuvenated” old and decrepit people by making them re-enter the womb in connection with marriage ceremonies — this was especially the function of the warrior. was hiding as a man. and the husband of his beautiful sister. dated to c. for it is attested in the ceremonial centres of the Sintashta-Arkaim culture of the southern Urals around 2000 BCE. the daughter of the sun or sky. Nos. while the worshippers of gods make them fourcornered. which denoted the turning post of chariot races and the world mountain around which the two A´vins. cf. The chariot and its mythic lore spread to the Proto-Greeks and Proto-Balts as well as to the Proto-Finno-Ugrians of the mid-Volga and mid-Urals.355 The wheelshaped ground plan harks back to Proto-Aryan times. The sun and the fire represented these white and black aspects of the sun. symbolized by the wheel. as the day and night aspects s of the sun. who was the prototypical wooer and bridegroom. this culture developed the horse-drawn chariot. or fire. By 2000 BCE. Kau´ikas¯ tra 85. 355 Apastamba-Sulbas¯ tra ¯ ´ u 13. Night and darkness symbolized death. Hiranyake´i-Kalpas¯ tra 25. Particularly important is the term stambha. . The night sky was imagined to be an ocean.54 Journal of Indological Studies. The worship of the divine twins or the sun and the fire was associated with the sunrise and sunset. and the generation of light at early dawn by means of a fire-drill symbolized the generation of new life. which were understood to be moments of birth and death.or horse-shaped embryo in its womb. Many of the Proto-Aryan loanwords surviving in Finno-Ugrian languages testify to the N¯ satya a cult. who were ruled by a Proto-Aryan-speaking elite. make their daily circles. Conclusion Some of the main theses of this paper may be briefly summarized. 358 References Agrawala.). The dual kingship was preserved in India. What happened to the divine twins after the Proto-Aryan period has been already sketched above (pp.). Its preparation involved churning. Their cult involved the worship of fire and the sun. B. Vinogradov 1995. Anthony. 137). Veikko 2000. in the team of the king and the purohita. which was conceived of as seed that could revive the dead. while the Buddhist st¯ pa has preu served some salient features of the Proto-Aryan burial mounds. The enigma of the sacred pillar: Explaining the Sampo. Antiquity 69 (264): 554-565. The product was the “nectar of immortality”. although it has not been recognized as such. Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan. Mayrhofer 1992: I. Horse. going daily around the central world mountain as the day and night sun. (Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph 26: I. 165-192 in: Nils G. C. Joki 1973: 323. 356 Cf. were the original churners. at funerals and marriages.‘god’ (cf. Aikio. (Religionsvetenskapliga skrifter. as well as chariot races. the asuras. Holm et al. & N.) Åbo: Åbo Akademi. wagon and chariot: Indo-European languages and archaeology. 357 In the Veda. ———— 1998. 94-113 in: Victor H. and gave rise to the myth of “the churning of the milk ocean”. the Chariot and Proto–Aryan Religion (A.The N¯ satyas. David W. Chakra-dhvaja. and this . and at the turning points of the solar year. god’ > Sanskrit deva. a mixture of sour milk and honey. Anthony. 358 It would be interesting to have the polo grounds of northern Pakistan examined archaeologically to see if any evidence of such turning posts could be found. Proto-Finnic *taivas ‘sky’ from Proto-Aryan *daiva-s ‘sky. 47. Proto-Finno-Ugrian *asera from Proto-Aryan *ásura. 1995. D. Perhaps the twins themselves. 1964. (eds. including especially the generation of fire with a fire-drill and regular morning and evening drink offerings poured into fire. The opening of the Eurasian steppe at 2000 B. As this term indicates. E. C.) Washington. the wheel and the aa chariot remained supreme symbols of kingship in India. their stambhas probably going back to ancient turning posts of funeral chariot races. David W. Pp. in press. Birth of the chariot. and in Buddhism as the recognition of a spiritual emperor besides the universal mundane emperor. then replaced by devas and asuras.: Institute for the Study of Man. the cakkavatti r¯ j¯ . Could the often anthropomorphic stone stelae connected with the burial mounds of the Eurasiatic steppes be interpreted as turning posts of horse-races (or even earlier races of bullock carts)? .has already been referred to above (n. I. Die Sprache. Review of: Katz 2003.). Pp. have the magic power of making things invisible. Anttonen. The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age peoples of eastern Central Asia. Mair (ed. Vasudeva S. characteristic would fit deities of the night. Ante & Petri Kallio. Archaeology 48 (2): 36-41. Parpola) a 55 The divine twins were worshipped at the liminal passages of dawn and dusk. divinities associated with the day356 and night357 respectively. Ethnography is a heavy rite: Studies of comparative religion in honor of Juha Pentikäinen. The favourite drink of the twins was honey-beer.27-33) and need not be repeated here. and especially Varuna. 742f. The wheel-flag of India. ———— 1978. (Die Religionen der Menschheit. Baunack. Paulys Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. The Rgvedic Adityas. La religion védique d’après les hymnes du Rig-veda. Brill. III]: 4 The Book of Vir¯ . 3 The Book of the a a Forest. Indoeuropäische Institutionen: Wortschatz.) Strassburg: Karl J. (Orientalia Rheno-Traiectina. a .) Paris: F. 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