PASTICHE1 IN TURKISH CINEMACinema has always been a popular entertainment form in Turkey. The late meeting of the Turkish audience with the TV broadcasting comparing to the West may be attributed to the cinema¶s being a unique mass entertainment instrument and popular culture medium (Ulusay, 2002). In Turkey, a film industry in which production, distribution, and release mechanism work just properly never existed. However, especially in the Yesilçam (Greenpine) Period, cinema reached a dynamic relationship with the audience through the actresses and actors and also with the genres that made the national industry possible be institutionalized. Turkish cinema mostly consists of showing of foreign films and the products of the American cinema have great share and, like in the other places of the world, dominant in Turkish market, too. The integration process of Turkey both to the global capitalism and the European Union, Turkish sector is aware of the fact that, it has to establish its own parameters to cope. But, before we take a look at the Turkish cinema and place of pastiche in it, we have to have a short look at the cinema as an µart¶. The word µcinema¶ is the shortened form of word µcinematographie¶. Lumiére Brothers gave their own inventions the name µcinematographe¶, which in Greek means µwrites/graphs the motion/action (µkinema = motion, graphein = write). According to Nijat Özön, it is not only Lumiére Brothers, but also the ones who made variety of cameras (receivers) in the age of innovations at cinema used words that meant µmotion, activity, 1 Pastiche: a piece of art, music, literature, etc. which intentionally copies the style of someone else's work or is intentionally in various styles, or the practice of making art in either of these ways 1 via the support of audio. 2 .). However. And since people are not the part of this production process. Having mentioned the art of cinema very superficially now let us denote briefly the history of Turkish cinema. emotions. line. Art of cinema is expressing the thoughts. or listener (the audience). color.d. there is an outcome in this process. no matter how they are successful in reflecting the reality as it is. Another commonlyused word. n. besides cinema. 2008:3). The significance of cinema different from the other motional arts (dance or drama) is its being capable of reflecting all the movement in the nature. this purpose is influencing.S. This outcome is reached by different instruments in different types of art: with word. since they all projected the liveliness as it is (Özön. no matter how hard tried. touching the emotions. is µmovie¶ which is the shortened form of µmotion picture. as Walter Benjamin puts it. Dance and drama can only create the motion just for one time and in one space. In accordance with this instrument. they may lose the right perception of reality (Adorno. spectator. etc. moving picture¶ and generally used in the U. has a great impact of the decay of aura by reproducing again and again this piece of work (Benjamin. The movie artists employ variety of techniques to display the work (Özön. events with the motion pictures ±if necessary. n.d. the technique is chosen.vividness¶. If they are tried to be produced again. audio. presence of them is unique.) Taking into account that every work of art has a purpose (although some claim that art does not need a purpose while performing). the outcome will not be exactly the same. creating a different sense of the world for the reader. movie theatre. 2008: 10). As Yusuf Kaplan points out. The first feature film of Turkish. Muhsin Ertu rul. Sedat Simavi: Pençe (1917) and Casus (1917). established by Seden Brothers in 1922. In 1928. was began to be filmed in 1916 and it was not completed until the end of the First World War. who would leave considerable marks on the film industry in the coming two decades. in few years. Ayastefanes¶taki Türk Abidesi¶nin Y k l (1914). Those films were: Bir Facia-i A k (1922). Ate ten Gömlek (1923) and K zkulesi¶nde Facia (1923). was established by pekçi Brothers. its method of production was unique in terms of professionalism and Kemal Film produced four long films all of them directed by the same person. Himmet A a¶n n zdivac . 2003) Till 1928. unfortunately lasted only two years. was a documentary movie of an Ottoman army officer. film screenings spread to big cities of the whole Empire. the Turkish cinema was completely ineffectual. The first screening of a movie was made in Beyo lu at the beginnings of the 1897. The first long films were made and finished by National Defence Association which were directed by a journalist. The young Turkish Republic which was established in 1923 was more interested in Western-oriented Turkish music. theatre and opera than the cinema. The first movie made by a Turkish. Kemal Film. The venue choice was not a coincidence. After the first screening. However.Brief History of Turkish Cinema Cinema came to Turkey in the Ottoman Period almost the same year with the West. Beyo lu was chosen due to its cosmopolite structure. pek Film. a new production company. Bo aziçi Esrar (1922). was the first film production company and. (Kaplan. Fuat Uzk nay. this company held 3 . And it was really compatible with the official efforts of making the Turkish society an µimagined community¶ in which the Turkish intellectuals played an important part. A lot of small businessmen coming from Anatolia settled in Ye ilçam Road in Istanbul and established film production companies. (Kaplan. prevented any type of competition to rise. (Actually the topic of this paper begins to develop from this point. the more we can get into the issue of pastiche. 2003: 740) With the shift to the multi-party regime in the 1950s.) In this period. The more we can see this imitation process. with the ³Music Revolution´ in Turkey. say. all features of the Western-style theatre were used. Since there was only one director. the industrialization program in the country promoted the liberal economy. social. political atmosphere radically changed in Turkey. obviously. (Kaplan. indeed. almost all western-oriented theatre products were performed in front of cameras. since the increase in the cost of production with the shift to the sound film. Directors who marked this period (and onwards) and became a source of 4 . Moreover. At that time the Turkish theatre was under the great influence of Western theatre. Muhsin Ertu rul was the only director of that period and only worked in times when the season in the theatre was ended. By just changing the names of the characters. the strict censorship that was inspired by the Italian Fascist governments did not let Turkish cinema develop. This tendency prevented harshly any development in technique in the film-production which might cause a sense of national cinema. cultural. 2003: 741) This caused the film industry in Turkey to blast as Ye ilçam Cinema.the whole monopoly in Turkish film industry for the coming fifteen years. economic and. their reflecting the opinions of the single partied state was really natural. Supported by the Marshall Aid. composed of a cinematographic narration. At f Y lmaz. Influenced primarily by the French directors and taking into consideration the aesthetic concerns. and Ömer Lütfi Akad together formed a new film movement: Ulusal Sinema Hareketi. Ömer Lütfi Akad. A need for a national cinema in which elements of the Turkish tradition exist showed itself to decide the cultural rudiments and the aesthetic principles of the Turkish cinema. This movement was a short-lived one and tried to synthesize the West and the East. Those conditions also affected the film industry in Turkey. At f Y lmaz. 2003: 741) 1960 military coup in the country caused the µreturn of the repressed¶ in Freudian terms. Osman Seden may be called as a µstar creator¶. was the forerunner of a new era in the Turkish cinema. he was doing some formal experiments on eroticism and violence in Turkish cinema with Dü man Yollar Kesti (1959) and Namus U runa (1960). Metin Erksan. whose films were ±for the first time. At early times. Erksan broke ground in many movies one of which being Sevmek Zaman (1965). Halit Refi . At f Y lmaz was adapting popular films for melodramas and comedies early on. since he was the director of typical Ye ilçam movies. He. and Memduh Ün. Osman Seden. started to treat elements of the Turkish folkloric culture. 5 . Cultural and political conflicts made their marks on the period between early 1960s and late 1970s. Memduh Ün deserved his name as a successful director with Üç Arkada (1958) and he contributed to the development of the language of Turkish cinema. (Kaplan. The examples of movies from the movement are: Refi ¶s ehirdeki Yabanc (1962). Metin Erksan can be seen as the successful implementer of pastiche movies in terms of the techniques used. composition and form of edition. Metin Erksan. then.inspiration for the next generations were Ömer Lütfi Akad. Dü ün (1974). at the late 1960s the introduction of TV in the country the spread of video rapidly all over the country caused a considerable decline in the qualified film companies. and At f Y lmaz¶s Kozano lu (1967).com/turk-sinema-porno-dunyasi-32-gun. Karaca Kaan. (Kaplan. It was started by directors and critics Yücel Çakmakl . 2003: 742) As opposed to this movement another movement based on the Islamic foundations came into the scene: Milli Sinema Ak m .html 6 . Bir Türk¶e Gönül Verdim (1969). given the existing conditions of politics and ideological conflicts combined with the lack of state support did not let a healthy film industry survive. Akad¶s Hudutlar n Kanunu (1966).2 2 http://www. In order to overcome this serious problem in the industry. however. While the number of TVs at houses was increasing. Irmak (1967). Erksan¶s Sevmek Zaman (1965). everything about the erotic era in Turkish cinema started in the midst of the 1970s. and Diyet (1975). In addition to this. Actually. and Fatma Bac (1973).Haremde Dört Kad n (1965). According to an actress of these films. This movement provided important films and vivid culture to emerge. The period between 1974-9 is known as µErotic Years in Turkish Cinema¶. it was the erotic wave that enabled Turkish cinema to survive at this harsh period. most of the producers in the film industry oriented towards the pornographic wave in the Turkish cinema. The erotic films that could not be shown on the single channel at those times were spreading. K z l rmak Karakoyun (1967). Gelin (1972). and Köro lu (1968). Salih Diriklik and Mesut Uçakan and brought some good films to reveal. the interest in the movie theatre was declining.videofoz. (Vardan. State ± Cinema Relationship in Turkey One of the most striking features of the post-1980 period in turkey was the change in the attitude of state towards the cinema. according to them. Following the Güney tradition in Turkish cinema. Inspired by Italian neo-realism Güney issued the topics familiar to the Turkish society and tried to create a new and original language of cinema by using his very own way of telling things.Another factor that enabled Turkish cinema to survive in the 1970s was the so-called µnew wave¶ at the top of which Y lmaz Güney played a big part. It may be possible to observe this change in the intervention of the army to the ³sex films´. Ökten made movies that contributed to Turkish cinema in many ways including (almost for the first time) irony. Umut (1970). Zeki Ökten directed a unique-first film called Askerin Dönü ü in 1975 in which psychological elements were applied. Erden K ral. gave the needed hope as its name. 2003) The censorship issue in Turkey is the indicator of the relationship between the state and the cinema. since. His second movie. 2003: 744) Other directors who did a lot for the development of the new cinema in Turkey are erif Gören. and Ömer Kavur. started a new period in Turkish movie. Although the 1961 Constitution softened the censorship a 7 . Later. The regulation 1939 about the control of films and their screenplays brought some strict rules to this medium. Zeki Ökten directed the movies called Sürü (1978) and Dü man (1980) which were scripted by Güney. (Kaplan. when Y lmaz Güney was in the prison. those films were the responsible of the corrupted morality in the society. (Ulusay. As Gramsci indicates it does not matter right or wrong. still. In the history of the Turkish cinema. prohibition of especially politically-themed films prevails. Generally. Video and Music Works ended the censorship in the process of screenplay. the need for pastiche films showed itself for the preservation of the Turkish language and the cultural elements.little bit. Starting from 1990s. In 1986. 2002) Pastiche in the Turkish Cinema If someone is to talk about cinema in any country. The Censorship Committee was applying twofold checking system to the movies both in the screenplay and in the process of shooting. this articulation forms the ideas and consequently the behaviors. once again. Moreover. this process is 8 . made the issue of censorship in the cinema meaningless. since those factors decide how the social subconscious is shaped. the law on Cinema. this common sense has the possibility to adhere the individuals to the system. Although it may be full of contradictions. 1971 and 1980 military interventions tightened up the censorship again. we can witness a much more libertarian atmosphere in the film-making. Nonetheless. µcommon sense thinking¶ is established in the society by means of the received things and this common sense enables us to deal with the daily life in terms of the dominant ideology. the increase in the liberal claims and the private channels¶ dealing with the µtaboo¶s in the society. That is why it is important to analyze the place of pastiche in the Turkish cinema. talking about the relations of different cinemas with the cinema of that country and the issue of imitation are necessary. At this point. For instance. the Indian films also attracted the Turkish audience at that period because of being the part of the Middle Eastern culture that seems familiar to them as the Egyptian ones. 9 . Müzeyyen Senar. especially in the southern Turkey where the Arabic-speaking citizens were high in number. (Özbek. songs with Turkish lyrics were written to those films in order to preserve the language. but also it signals a new era in the country¶s cultural history at this point. The screening of the Egyptian movies was prevented until 1957. ³Hollywood films gained attention in the theatres of the big cities and the Egyptian films attracted the Anatolian theatres´ says Özön. (Ulusay. The Arabic songs were banned and instead. made the government of that period concerned about the future of the Turkish language and forced them to take some steps towards the language reform. Taking into account the popularity of those Arab films and the music in them. famous singers such as Münir Nurettin Selçuk. especially the musicals. 1997) The great impact of the Egyptian films on the Turkish cinema and the audience increased during the Second World War period via the American films¶ reaching to the country through Egypt at that period.very much related with the introduction of Arabesk culture in the process of modernization. 1962) The characteristics of the Egyptian films were used frequently in many Ye ilçam movies. (1962: 277) The movie A k n Gözya lar is not only important for Turkish cinema. (Özön. in 1940s and 1950s. and Zeki Müren were in the leading role of that kind of films. 2008: 78) The first one of them became a great example for its successors with the box-office record: Muhsin Ertu rul¶s Allah¶ n Cenneti in 1959. Similarly. While Ye ilçam was really close to the American cinema. the consumers got the chance to have different alternatives. The most significant Indian movie was Raj Kapoor¶s Awara (1951). increase in the number of channels and growing video market in the 1980s. The art films from all around the world met with the Turkish audience at that time. (Ulusay. however. With the prevalence of the TV ownership. (1993: 39) Therefore.The success of Eastern melodramas in Turkey and the similarity between the Ye ilçam. eventually Aware became a cult in Turkish cinema and a good material for the future Ye ilçam movies. especially the French and the Italian cinemas became popular starting from 1960s and 1970s in terms of representation as a ¶pastiche¶. it was at the same degree distant to the European cinema (by European films. The Islam religion has a great influence on this Middle Eastern culture and as Feroz Ahmad asserts Islam and Ottomanism together charm all Muslim world at the top being Egypt and India. 2008: 127) In Turkey. zmir. never turned its back to the Europe in the process globalization. Turkey got involved in a close relationship with the US by Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid. Hereupon it is necessary to refer the place of American and European films in Turkish pastiche. the examples of the Indian movie affected the Turkish movies. Egypt and Indian films can be traced back to historical and cultural terms. Named in Turkish as Avare was vocalized by the Ye ilçam dubbers and shown with its original Indian songs. The film festivals in the big cities like stanbul. although they were not so many in number. we mean the µart films¶). After the WWII. and Ankara presented an opportunity to understand what is going on in the world 10 . in thriller Onur Ünlü¶s Polis (2006) and Turgut Yasalar¶s Sis ve Gece (2006). the 21st century. The movie frames the life of a 14-year-old girl who lives in a wooden hut in a watercourse that leads to the Bosporus with his illegally-working father and grandfather confined to bed. the girl. in youth films Olgun Arun¶s Ç lg n Dersane (2006) and Mesut Taner¶s Ne eli Gençlik (2006). In terms of science fiction Çetin nanç¶s Dünyay Kurtaran Adam (1982) which was not only inspired but also used some scenes from George Lucas¶s Star Wars keeps its place as a unique example. from the beginning can be seen as the µgolden era¶ of the Turkish cinema. Hayat Var is seen as a reformist movie that combines the active film models all around the 11 . ³Hayat Var´ In the last part of this paper. Hayat. I will mention Reha Erdem¶s Hayat Var (2008) as a really successful and prominent example of pastiche in the contemporary Turkish cinema. The potential that was formed by that festival audience caused independent companies to be established in 1990s enabling more and more screening of the films that are not in the mainstream trend. tries to cope with all the difficulties and harshness of the life in her own way. and lastly the art films of Nuri Bilge Ceylan and Zeki Demirkubuz. in action Osman S nav¶s Kurtlar Vadisi: Irak and Pars: Kiraz Operasyonu (2006).cinema. documentaries like Tolge Örnek¶s Gelibolu (2004) and Ömer Ali Kazma¶s Eski Aç k Sar Desene (2003). (2008: 115) The examples of these pastiche (or hybrid) movies are: in horror Hasan Karacada ¶s Dabbe (2005) and Tan Tolga¶s Gomeda (2006). (Ulusay. 2005) According to Nejat Ulusay. because it is not a direct imitation. in my opinion. 12 . by looking at this example. By now the movie got an important international award besides its nominations in the international and local festivals: in 2009 in the Berlin International Film Festival.world according to the authorities. in this movie. And an interesting point about the movie is. it can be said that Hayat Var has the capacity to be a universal movie at the same time succeeds to be an example of a national movie by not violating the national model. because it has different characteristics of the world cinema and the films of the successful directors. My Only Sunshine) is actually both a pastiche movie and not. In other words. it won the award of the reader jury of the ³Tagesspiegel´. one can contently say that. In the end. it is fostered from the tendencies in the world cinema and becomes a Turkish movie. It is not. makes something new not only for the Turkish cinema but for the world cinema also. It can be said that Erdem. It is a pastiche. the music is made by Orhan Gencebay. Hereupon. Hayat Var (in English. the Turkish cinema has come to a place that is now compatible with the world cinema ± thanks to the technique of pastiche. N. Eri im ve Çe itlilik (eds: Mine Gencel Bek and Deirdre Kevin). ³Sinema´. N. stanbul: Artist Reklam Ortakl Yay nlar Özön. Sinema Sanat na Giri . W. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Bas mevi 13 . (2002). (2003) ³Türk sinemas ´ in Dünya Sinema Tarihi (ed: Geoffrey NowellSmith). T. (n.W. (2005) ³Türk sinemas ndaki dönü üm ve Eurimages´. (1962).d. M. Y. Kültür Bakanl Ulusay. The Making of Modern Turkey.d.). N. in Türkiye Cumhuriyeti¶nin Temeli Kültürdür II.). Ankara: T. ³The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction´ in Illuminations Kaplan. (2008). Seattle: University of Washington Press Özön. ³How to Look at Television´ in The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture Ahmad.References: Adorno.C. (1993). F. London: Routledge Benjamin. (n. stanbul: Agora Kitapl Ulusay. 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