Varieties of Modern English: The Truth Behind the Myth By Julie C. Pelto and Juan C.Boyadji INTRODUCTION The main objective of this paper is to raise awareness of the differences between the two major varieties of English. Are these differences important? If so, where do they lie? This paper will explore what we know about this issue and what our tenets are. In order to achieve this aim we will group these differences into distinct areas of linguistics, namely: grammatical, orthographical, lexical and phonological, briefly clarifying their origin and reason. 1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Language is constantly changing. Yet, there are historical reasons that triggered the unequal development of the English language on either sides of the Atlantic. Settlement and colonial times The common beginning dates back to Shakespearean language, when English was under the process of standardization, i.e. spelling conventions as we know them today were starting to arise. It is by this time the first settlers arrived at Jamestown(1607) and Plymouth(1620). The separation of the English-speaking people in two distant and radically different geographical contexts, added to the fact that communication was scant, played a crucial part in the separate development of the language. In the New World items which did not exist in the Old World had to be named. These basically referred to geography and agriculture. Most of these terms were borrowed from the Native American peoples. The different ways in which pronunciation developed: 1 • Variation in pronunciation occurred in different directions on both sides of the Atlantic. • Some original pronunciation patterns were kept in North American English while change occurred in British English. • Patterns which were under transformation continued to do so in the same way. At this point in time changes in the language were minimal due to several reasons: • • • • stable political/economic bonds the worldwide prestige of British English an increase in literacy during the XVIII C. common reading material (both educational and recreational) Indolence and thereafter At the beginning, contrary to what one would expect, the new nation needed to keep a strong standard for the sake of unity. Thus, language underwent no major change. Yet, some years later (ca.1800), having achieved this goal, linguistic differences were to be stated pursuing individuality. Noah Webster suggested these changes through what he called ‘spelling pronunciation’, where an attempt was made to bring pronunciation and spelling together. Industrial Revolution also contributed to these variations since inventions occurred in parallel in Britain and America and were named at the same time independently. Furthermore, differences in the political systems created new vocabulary specific to each. 2 but sometimes these differences are oversimplified. In addition to this. lexical and grammatical borrowings occur in both now. -or In general. E.The XX C requires Britain and the US to reinstall long-lost ties. The major areas of differences in spelling are: • -our vs. 2. “-or” is used in USEng. ORTHOGRAPHICAL VARIATION Orthographical differences between the two varieties are well known to teachers. particularly the great world wars. where “-our” is found in BritEng. the mass media as a multi-cultural source of linguistic influence have played an integral part in the levelling of the two varieties.g. As a result. mainly due to political affairs. BritEng behaviour colour BritEng /USEng USEng behavior color Some exceptions are glamour. saviour and savour. -er BritEng /USEng calibre USEng caliber center fiber goiter liter luster meager meter miter niter philter reconnoiter 3 BritEng centre fibre goitre litre lustre meagre metre(length) mitre nitre philtre reconnoitre . where the “-our” is still usual in USEng • -re vs. -am BritEng /USEng aerogramme gram kilogram program(computer) • -ise/-yse vs. -ize/-yze (suffixes) BritEng /USEng USEng -yze -ize USEng aerogram USEng catalog dialog BritEng gramme kilogramme programme program BritEng -yse -ise E. E.g.g.sabre saltpetre sceptre sombre spectre theatre saber saltpeter scepter somber specter theater • -ence vs. -og The spelling “-ogue” can be found in both BritEng and USEng.) offence pretence • -ogue vs. whereas “-og” is only found in USEng. -ense BritEng defence BritEng /USEng USEng defense license(n. BritEng BritEng /USEng catalogue dialogue • -amme vs. 4 .) offense pretense licence(n.) license(v. g.analyse paralyse criticise realise • -llvs. critisize realize -l. At times.g. “ll” being acceptable only in USEng. E. BritEng BritEng /USEng enrol fulfil USEng enroll fulfill An exception here is skilful (BritEng only).g. BritEng BritEng /USEng counsellor traveller USEng counselor traveler An exception worth noting is jewellery (BritEng)/ jewelry (USEng only) • -l vs.(word medial) analyze paralyze Both USEng and BritEng accept the “ll” spelling. BritEng BritEng /USEng USEng 5 . -p. E. -eUSEng kidnaper worshiping BritEng In general. USEng favours the spelling pronunciation. where “l” is a possible spelling in both varieties. “l” being being found only in USEng. -ll (word final) The opposite case is also found. the more complex spelling is also acceptable in USEng.(plus suffix) BritEng /USEng kidnapper worshipping • -ae-/-oe.vs. E. • -ppvs. LEXICAL VARIATION To begin with. We will divide the vocabulary lists in groups attempting at some systematisation. E. keep the “e” in both varieties. although a non-“e” spelling is the more common case in USEng. we must consider that there are several areas of difference between British and American English as well as reasons for them. in-/imBritEng /USEng embed encase enclose endorse enquire ensure USEng imbed incase inclose indorse inquire insure BritEng 3. 6 .vs. elision of e Verbs which finish in “e”. when adding a suffix. BritEng BritEng /USEng acknowledgement judgement ageing likeable • -xion vs.g. -ction BritEng /USEng connection deflection inflection reflection retroflection USEng USEng acknowledgment judgment aging likable BritEng connexion deflexion inflexion reflexion retroflexion • en-/em.archaeology foetus gynaecologist archeology fetus gynecologist • -e + suffix vs. WORD bathroom cute dumb good regular school to ship Meaning in common ‘a room with a bathtub or shower and sink’ ‘endearing’ (kittens. special offers) ‘average’ (as in size). train. Often. leads to sometimes rather touchy misunderstandings. nice’. habitual’ ‘institution of education at elementary level’ ‘to transport by ship’ Additional meaning in USEng. cheeky’ ‘trousers’ ‘exhaust pipe of car’ ‘to make angry’ Secondly there are those words that carry an additional meaning in one of the two varieties due to a particular sense or usage. of adult people) ‘stupid’ ‘valid’ (as of tickets. ‘consistent. this is a limited list. these words are also relatively few. plane or truck’ 7 . etc. including universities’ ‘to transport by ship. being the same word. ‘room with toilet only’ ‘attractive. yet useful to bear in mind. These are the ones we prefer to highlight due to the fact that. domestic’ (= US homey) ‘nervous’ ‘underpants’ ‘scarf’ ‘to scold’ USEng meaning ‘ugly’ (of people) ‘bold. Not surprisingly. full of nerve. Fortunately. the additional meaning responds to a metaphorical extension of the common meaning. and bearing semantic differences. WORD Homely Nervy Pants Muffler to tick off BritEng meaning ‘down to earth. yet a very important one to know when teaching. charming’ ( e.g. These words are also very important because they can likewise cause communication problems between speakers of the two varieties. ‘normal’ ‘all institutions of education. puppies) ‘mute’ ‘fine.The first and most important group of words comprises those that differ radically in meaning. directs. connotation. all styles all styles negative or neutral Common Finally. the last group comprises different words altogether for the same concept or item. mind the gap. 8 . This group in contrast.WORD Meaning in common Additional meaning in BritEng frontier leader to mind rug smart surgery ‘a wild open space’ ‘one who commands. there is a group of words which. poetic or formal (fall used instead) less common. mind the children ‘a thick wrap or coverlet’ ‘a thick carpet. yet one can detect by these words which variety of the English language one uses. accounts for the majority of the differences between British English and American English. Misunderstandings are not as frequent as in the categories analysed previously. poetic somewhat formal (maybe used instead) Positive Uncommon common. dexterous) to fancy (meaning to like or want) fortnight perhaps quite (as in quite good) row (meaning quarrel or disturbance) BritEng usage common. this list is also quite short. usually wool’ ‘intelligent’ ‘well-groomed’ ‘a medical operation or ‘an office of any doctor’ operating room’ Thirdly. Luckily. is in front’ ‘to heed. sly) Uncommon uncommon (archaic). guides. or are used with a dissimilar frequency. informal common. obey’ ‘border between two countries’ ‘an editorial’ ‘to look after’ as in e. WORD autumn clever (meaning smart. This is valuable for teachers to become consistent models of whichever variety of English they choose to teach. either convey a different style. having shared meanings. positive USEng usage uncommon. all styles common.g. usually negative (i.e. Food and Cooking USEng alligator pear appetizer baked potato beer Bell pepper biscuit Blood sausage bowl (e.) pepper scone black pudding basin bap. green. hors d'oeuvre jacket potato lager/ale (red. for pudding) bun can chips cookie cracker crepe custard dessert eggplant hamburger meat jello jelly molasses pitcher pudding roast (noun) stove To broil zucchini BritEng avocado starter. others are known. Some of these terms are not normally understood in the other variety.The following is just a sample list. yet are used to a lesser extent.g. roll tin crisps biscuit biscuit (savoury) pancake egg custard pudding aubergine mince jelly jam treacle jug custard joint cooker to grill courgette Household items USEng BritEng 9 . They are presented here according to the semantic fields they belong to. etc. antenna apartment apartment house/building attached home bathtub buffet couch/davenport faucet flashlight floor lamp garbage can garden living room outlet/socket sheers to call (by telephone) washcloth yard Aerial flat block of flats semi-detached house bath sideboard sofa tap torch standard lamp dustbin vegetable or flower garden sitting room power point net curtains to ring face flannel garden Clothing and Accessories USEng (women’s) underpants backpack/backbag baking soda barrette bathrobe billfold braid changepurse diaper garter jumper knickers overalls pantyhose purse smock suspenders sweater (pullover) BritEng knickers rucksack bicarbonate of soda hairslide dressing gown wallet plait purse nappy suspender dress worn over blouse knickerbockers dungarees tights handbag overall braces jumper 10 . tuxedo undershirt vest dinner jacket vest waistcoat Commerce USEng attorney automated teller machine (atm) bill desk clerk (hotel) drug store/pharmacy hardware store installment buying liquor store mortician realtor to make a reservation trade (noun) traveling statesman BritEng lawyer cashpoint note receptionist chemist’s shop ironmongers hire purchase off-license store undertaker estate agent to book custom commercial traveller Transportation USEng asphalt/blacktop baby buggy flatcar (railway) gas (gasoline) muffler (on a car) pedestrian underpass pullman car (railway) sidewalk station wagon subway trailer/camper/mobile home truck BritEng Tarmac pram (perambulator) truck petrol silencer subway sleeping car (paved street side) path estate car underground railway/tube caravan lorry 11 . a number of irregular verbs have become regular. At the level of educated speech and writing. which to our understanding is what should be present in classroom education.Miscellaneous USEng AM area code bar Brit cart emcee game (sports) generator line monkey wrench rookie sophomore to check zero BritEng medium wave dialing code pub. which do exist. tend to be fairly trivial when considered from the point of view of understanding. while remaining irregular in BritEng. • Derivation 12 . on a team) second year student to tick nought 4. as teachers one must be aware of these differences in order to be prepared when working with sources of each variety.1 Verb Formation • Irregular Verbs In USEng. For practical reasons. GRAMMATICAL VARIATION There are important differences between the two varieties concerning the use of auxiliaries and modal verbs. public house Briton trolley compere match dynamo queue spanner first year member (e.g. there are relatively few differences in grammar between BritEng and USEng. we will divide these into their different grammatical categories. Those. Non the less. 4. it is more common in USEng. to pressure (BritEng to pressurise) to room I room at that house. Shan’t is even less common in USEng. humidify.1 Modal Auxiliaries • Shall Verb to author to host to sky-rocket E. BritEng I shall tell you later Shall I drink this now? I shan’t be able to come. uglify -ize: burglarize. the most common way of expressing this idea is by using would both in BritEng and USEng. hospitalize.New verbs are constantly created from adjectives and nouns in both varieties: e. She has authored three books. Otherwise. Although this process is common to both varieties. In its hypothetical sense. being replaced by will (or should in questions with first person subjects). when it occurs in a main clause with a first person subject followed by a conditional clause. • Should USEng I will tell you later Should I drink this now? I won’t be able to come. slenderize • Conversion Another way of forming new words is by simply changing a word’s grammatical class. USEng tends to be more productive than BritEng. decimalize.2 Auxiliaries 4. Prices are sky-rocketing this week. Two verb-forming affixes which are somewhat more productive in USEng than in BritEng are: -ify: citify.g. We hosted a meeting last week.2. frost – defrost. Noun an author a host a sky-rocket pressure a room 4. Older BritEng I should enjoy living here if I could afford to. This modal verb is rarely found in USEng except in legal documents or in very formal styles. again.g. rubberize. symbol – symbolize. should is used mainly by older speakers and writers of BritEng. • Would BritEng/USEng I would enjoy living here if… 13 . ripe – ripen. ) You shouldn’t have said that. implying encouragement. BritEng Used he to go there? (modal aux.. I used to go there every day when.) Dare I tell the truth? (modal aux.2. BritEng I went there every day when I was young. (modal aux. BritEng USEng You ought not/oughtn’t to have said that. Need I say more?. e. Do I dare (to) tell the truth? I don’t dare (to) tell the truth.(aux. In BritEng either the simple past or the verb with the modal used to are used.) 4. This situation has USEng/BritEng Do you need to be so rude.) You needn’t be so rude. Should is used instead.) He used not to go there. • Dare and Need Both these auxiliaries are rare in USEng and only occur in set phrases.) • Ought to USEng/BritEng Did he use to go there? He didn’t use to go there..g.2. This use is much less common in USEng where please is used instead. BritEng can use this verb either as a modal auxiliary or a lexical verb. 14 . (modal aux.3 Have and Have Got A commonly accepted grammatical difference between BritEng and USEng lies in the disparate use of these forms to indicate possession. Note that this is also possible in USEng. You don’t need to be so rude. This modal verb is rarely used to form questions and negatives in USEng. (modal aux.2 Auxiliary Do Do can be used in BritEng for polite commands or requests. • Use(d) to In USEng is only treated as a lexical verb in constructions such as questions and negative sentences. I dare say… .. BritEng Need you be so rude? (modal aux.. In BritEng its use in questions is restricted to the older generations.) I daren’t tell the truth. Persons under 18 need not apply. USEng I would go there every day when… I used to go there every day when. as in: Do sit down.In USEng would can be used to express a characteristic or habitual activity in the past. 4. Do go on. He acted like a real fool. USEng Do you usually/ever have fresh cod? Copulative verbs seem. BritEng allows the direct object to precede the indirect object. act. BritEng/USEng I wanted to come in. This use is restricted to BritEng. BritEng John gave me it. That sounds like a bad idea. look and sound can be followed directly by an indefinite noun phrase in BritEng. USEng I wanted in. USEng/BritEng It seemed like a long time. BritEng It seemed a long time. BritEng USEng to battle with/against (the enemy) to battle to check up on to check out to fill in (a form) to fill out to meet to meet with to prevent to prevent from to protest at/against/over (a decision) to protest to stop to stop from to talk to to talk with/to 15 .g. This would not be the case in USEng. • USEng/BritEng John gave it to me. In BrtiEng want must be followed by an infinitive. This very verb can be used in the sense of need with an inanimate object in BritEng. so that what once was exclusively used in each variety is no longer so. That sounds a bad idea. • There are a few verbs.4 Verb Phrases • In structures with a direct object and indirect object where both are pronominal. The house wants painting. ‘Have you got coffee?’ can be heard on both sides of the Atlantic in more informal styles. which collocate with different prepositions or prepositional adverbs in USEng and BritEng. • The verb want can be followed directly by the adverbs in and out in USEng. E. BritEng Do you have fresh cod? 4. The only noticeable difference in the usage of these forms at present is when have is used to express usual possession.changed over the last few decades. He acted a real fool.2. the lanky Californian Lanky Californian teenage tennis star tennis star. there are a few such nouns which have this property in one variety but not in the other: BritEng to be in hospital to be at/go to university 4. Tony Blair. BritEng places personal attributes after the person named whereas in USEng they tend to precede the name.3 Articles to visit with There are a number of count nouns in both varieties which do not require an article when used in an abstract-generic sense. while in BritEng it is more frequent than as……as. British Prime Minister Tony arrived in Washington today. to go by car.to visit 4. mainly used at the beginning of a clause. So……as is fairly infrequent in USEng.4 Order of attributes USEng to be in the hospital to be at/go to a university Usually. we’ll stay Now we don’t go there so much (as we used to) 16 . in the written form. often without a definite article: BritEng USEng John Smith. arrived in Washington today. especially in newspapers. BritEng The River Thames The River Avon USEng the Mississippi River the Hudson River Blair 4. to be at church. Something similar can be found in the naming of rivers. the British Prime Minister. tournament today. in spring. BritEng USEng It is not as far as I thought it was As long as you’re happy.g. usually with certain verbs or prepositions: e.5 • Subordinators The complex subordinators as………as and so…………….as are used with different frequencies in the two varieties. won another major John Smith won another major tournament today. However. we’ll stay Now we don’t go there as much (as we used to) It is not so far as I thought it was So long as you’re happy. yet vary in specific ones.………… Much as I would like to go. it began to rain Go to his office directly you arrive 4. the first as may be dropped: BritEng USEng As strange as it may seem.…… As much as I would like to go. one must be aware of the variations in their usage. Strange as it may seem. Out as in: She lives just round the corridor.2 Others are used identically in most contexts both in BritEng and USEng. BritEng/USEng I haven’t seen him for weeks USEng in weeks 17 ..1 Some differ in form maintaining the same meaning and context.6.……. Around 4. The majority of such cases occur in expressions of time. the use of after would be appropriate in these cases in USEng. a.duration of time.That one isn’t so nice (as the other) • That one isn’t as nice (as the other) In cases where as………as may be preferred in BritEng and used at the beginning of a clause. It began to rain Go to his office directly after you arrive Immediately we went. • In BritEng.….. 4. BritEng behind out of round USEng in back of out around as in: I put it behind the shed. in back of as in: He threw it out of the window.6. BritEng USEng Immediate after we went. the adverbs immediately and directly can function as subordinators.6 Prepositions Knowing that these are one of the last and most difficult features of the language to master. In these cases.3 Other differences which are not related to time also should be taken into account. BritEng He works by day and studies at night. BritEng uses the preposition to and past the hour while USEng also can use of. USEng He works days and studies nights. I’ll do it on Sunday.The presence or not of a specific preposition. also differs. at Christmas (the season.6.for ages in ages b. as in at the weekend. till and after. a. 18 .BritEng speakers use the preposition at.In expressing clock time. I’ll do it Sunday. the use of in and on. • on is usually omitted before a specific date or day of the week that indicates a time removed from the present in USEng.In non-temporal contexts. BritEng The seminar started on Aug 23rd. whereas USEng speakers generally use over in such cases as well as on the weekend. • USEng The seminar started Aug 23rd. the noun must be in the plural. meaning ‘time when’ with holiday seasons. not the day). BritEng/USEng twenty to three USEng only twenty of three twenty till three five after eight five past eight 4. c. BritEng to be in a team to live in a street to be in a sale (to be on sale means simply for sale) b. USEng to be on a team to live on a street to be on a sale at is generally absent before temporal nouns indicating repetition or habitual action. å8/.2. acclamatory. PHONOLOGICAL VARIATION Differences at the phonological level are both systemic –in phonemes and allophones-. inversion of the noun and the words this. • RP /E/ vs. top. 5. E Ø category.g. In BritEng temporal prepositional phrases. auditory. ∗ ∗∗ GA stands for General American. and the preposition is deleted in the uninverted forms: next Sunday. BritEng a week this Tuesday USEng a week from this Tuesday • 5. GA /Ø8/ for spelling “-ory”. GA /å8 E. not being the case in USEng. /Ø8/ is likely to occur when orthographic “o” and “au” are followed by fricatives. the preposition from is often deleted in BritEng. lot. GA /Ø8/ ó Ø In GA. dog. • Saturdays we go to church.g. during January last. that.: Hot. These do not appear in USEng. last January. laboratory. E.1 Vowels • • RP∗∗ /ó/ vs.and non-systematic –in the choice of phonemes for particular words-.2 Differences in the use of phonemes in words 5. long.On Saturdays we go to church. next or last. the velar nasal or /r/. E. /oU/ EU/ EU U /aU/ more front in GA U /eI/ more close in GA I flapped /t/ /l/ always dark in American English 5. Yet in phrases denoting a period of time from or after a given one. RP stands for Received Pronunciation 19 .g. can occur in formal styles: on Sunday next. ó /EU vs.1 Differences in the phonemic inventory & phonetic realizations • • • • • • No /ó/ in GA∗. ó å8 RP /ó/ vs. testimony. I E RP /antI-/. cemetery. GA /æ/ (orthographic "a" generally followed by two consonant å8/ å8 letters). RP GA 20 .2. board. ceremony. E. Clerk.2 Consonants • RP ‘r’ pronounced only before a vowel. /semaI-/. • • 5. docile. E. I I I I semicircle. GA /antaI-/. mirth. process. stationery.• RP /E/ vs. GA /eI/. stew. brass. RP /å8 vs. GA /å8 E. å8 ~8 • • • • • • • • • 5. education. strawberry. new.g. reptile.g. Z /j/-dropping in GA. enthusiastic. E. progress. GA keeps the original (final) stress while RP has fronted stress. E antiquary. å8/ ~8r/. February. centenary. monastery. EU/ å8/. E. E. vitamin. GA ‘r’ pronounced in all contexts. blackberry. /semI-/ vs. tour. 8 RP /å8 vs. Berkshire. anticommunist.2.g. E.g. GA /oU/.g. E. EU å8 RP /æ/ vs. privacy. French) origin. E. simultaneous.g. Derby. mobile. presbytery. I I RP /EU vs. GA /e/. GA /dZ/. example. RP ballet debris garage • GA ballet debris garage Some words have first-syllable stress in GA but stress elsewhere in RP.g.g.g. GA /e/ for spellings “-ary” and “-ery” or “-erry”. • In some words of foreign (esp. E. versatile. GA /~8 E. mere. class. E. arbitrary.g. E. I RP /i8/ vs. RP /E/ vs.g. E U RP /I/ vs. evolution.g. command RP /aI/ vs. GA /aI/. module. patronize. GA /E/.g.3 Differences in stress. RP /dj/ vs. card. 1993. The English Language: A Historical Introduction. 21 . apart from not being reduced. A Common Language – British and American English. Cambridge University Press. R.ham Ports. MARKWARDT. In GA. 1996. 2000. HUGHES. 1964. A. Brian. Bibliography BARBER. Charles. QUIRK. RP laboratory capillary GA laboratory capillary • Some eponyms (place names) bear a secondary stress in GA. FINAL REFLECTION All what we have seen so far leads us to a simple question that we should all ask ourselves: “How should we as teachers deal with varieties of the English language in the classroom?” Although it is preferable to adopt one variety and be consistent with it.. TRUDGILL. A few of these words have different stress patterns.mouth 6. Arthur. English Accents and Dialects. there is secondary stress on such syllables (see ‘Differences in the use of phonemes in words’ above).address adult magazine • address adult magazine Many words ending in –ary. Birmingham Portsmouth Birming. Edicions Universitat de Barcelona. Peter. BBC. We hope this scant guide will help you work along these lines. English Phonetics and Phonology for Spanish Speakers. -ory and –ery have reduced or compressed pronunciations in RP. we need to be aware of others and acknowledge them all as having equal status. Arnold. H. Being aware of the major areas where differences lie is essential to fulfil this goal.. MOTT. International English. 1982.. Online Resources http://www. Accents of English. 1994. Cambridge University Press.effingpot. Juan Carlos has studied in England and holds a TCL Cert. 1990. Edward Arnold. Cambridge International Dictionary of English. C. Peter. 22 . 1995. HANNAH. Hamish Hamilton/The Economist Books. Jean. July 1989. C. WELLS. Longman.com/index. WELLS.). English Teaching Forum. 1980.html Julie Pelto and Juan Carlos Boyadji Both are IPA graduates and teacher trainers in Phonetics and Phonology as well as teachers in private and public education. SWAN. J.PROCTER. TRUDGILL. J. Oxford University Press. Michael. 1996. The Economist Style Guide.. Paul(ed. Julie is American and holds a certificate in Linguistics (Cornell) and is an MA Ed. candidate (UCUDAL). Cambridge University Press. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Practical English Usage.