I.Laboratory Training Groups A. History By: Angel Balibrea In 1947, the National Training Laboratories Institute began in Bethel, ME. They pioneered the use of T-groups (Laboratory Training) in which the learners use here and now experience in the group, feedback among participants and theory on human behavior to explore group process and gain insights into themselves and others. The goal is to offer people options for their behavior in groups. The T-group was a great training innovation which provided the base for what we now know about team building. This was a new method that would help leaders and managers create a more humanistic, people serving system and allow leaders and managers to see how their behavior actually affected others. There was a strong value of concern for people and a desire to create systems that took people's needs and feelings seriously. T-groups were widely used in church training programs from the 60s into the 80s and since 2000 have been resurrected in several church networks. There also seems to be a renewed effort coming from NTL about T-group training. B. Description A T-group or training group (sometimes also referred to as sensitivity-training group, human relations training group or encounter group) is a form of group training where participants themselves (typically, between eight and 15 people) learn about themselves (and about small group processes in general) through their interaction with each other. They use feedback, problem solving, and role play to gain insights into themselves, others, and groups. A T-group meeting does not have an explicit agenda, structure, or express goal. Under the guidance of a facilitator, the participants are encouraged to share emotional reactions (such as, for example, anger, fear, warmth, or envy) that arise in response to their fellow participants' actions and statements. The emphasis is on sharing emotions, as opposed to judgments or conclusions. In this way, T-group participants can learn how their words and actions trigger emotional responses in the people they communicate with. Many varieties of T-groups have existed, from the initial T-groups that focused on small group dynamics, to those that aim more explicitly to develop self-understanding and interpersonal communication. Industry also widely used T-groups, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s, and in many ways these were predecessors of current team building and corporate culture initiatives. A T-Group is not a group discussion or a problem solving group. The group's work is primarily process rather than content oriented. The focus tends to be on the feelings and the communication of feelings, rather than on the communication of information, opinions, or concepts. This is accomplished by focusing on the 'here and now' behavior in the group. Attention is paid to particular behaviors of participants not on the "whole person", feedback is non-evaluative and reports on the impact of the behavior on others. The participant has the opportunity to become a more authentic self in relation to others through selfdisclosure and receiving feedback from others. The Johari Window is a model that looks at that process. C. Objectives of T-Group Learning: The T-Group is intended to provide you the opportunity to: •Increase your understanding of group development and dynamics. •Gaining a better understanding of the underlying social processes at work within a group. •Increase your skill in facilitating group effectiveness. •Increase interpersonal skills •Experiment with changes in your behavior •Increase your awareness of your own feelings in the moment; and offer you the opportunity to accept responsibility for your feelings. •Increase your understanding of the impact of your behavior on others. •Increase your sensitivity to others' feelings. •Increase your ability to give and receive feedback. •Increase your ability to learn from your own and a group's experience. •Increase your ability to manage and utilize conflict. D. Methods: One way of describing what may happen for a participant is: 1. Unfreezing habitual responses to situations -- this is facilitated by the participant's own desire to explore new ways of behaving and the trainer staying non-directive, silent, and providing little structure or task agenda. 2. Self-generated and chosen change by the participant. 3. Reinforce new behavior by positive feedback, participants own assessment of whether what is happening is closer to what she/he intends, supportive environment, trust development. E. Sources of Change in Groups: •Self-observation - participants give more attention to their own intentions, feelings, etc. •Feedback - participants receive information on the impact they have on others •Insight - participants expand self-knowledge •Self-disclosure - participants exposes more of themselves to others •Universality - participant‘s experience that others share their difficulties, concerns or hopes •Group Cohesion - participants experience trust, acceptance & understanding) •Hope - participant see others learn, achieve their goals, improve, and cope more effectively •Vicarious Learning - participants pick up skills and attitudes from others •Catharsis - participants experience a sense of release or breakthrough F. The role of the trainers: •To help the group and individuals analyze and learn from what is happening in the group. The trainer may draw attention to events and behavior in the group and invite the group to look at its experience. At times the trainer may offer tentative interpretations. •To offer theory, a model or research that seems related to what the group is looking at. . focusing on "here & now" rather than the "then & there". Naval Ordinance Test Station at China Lake. author of crime novels.g. II. e. clinical.g. influence. •To avoid becoming too directive. California. T-Group Trainers/Teachers By: Karla Mae Molina Robert Tannenbaum attorney. To remain silent.S. •To offer training and coaching in skills that tend to help the learning process. etc. e. and with . EIAG. Appears to be the first non-degree training program in O. or personally involved. On occasion being willing to offer feedback and challenge a participant. and the creator of a series of novels 1952-1953: He conducted the what would now be called ―TEAM BUILDING‖ at the U. •To be willing to disclose oneself. The term vertically structured groups was used with groups dealing with ―personal topics organizational topics. •To not offer structure or an agenda. to be open with the group.D.. allowing the group to experience its anxiety about acceptance. etc. feedback skills.•To encourage the group to follow norms that tend to serve the learning process. Chris Argyris born July 16. New Jersey. and a Thought Leader at Monitor Group A faculty member at Yale University (later at Harvard). USA an American business theorist. 1923 in Newark. was one of the first to conduct team building sessions with CEO and the top executive team Make extensive contributions to theory and research on laboratory training. Professor Emeritus at Harvard Business School. OD and organizational learning Douglas McGregor Social psychologist who became the President of Antioch College He was a professor of management at MIT and his name is linked most often with Theory Y. . First behavioral scientists to address the transfer problem and to talk systematically about and to help implement the application of T-Group skills in complex organizations. A. 1947: then at the University of Texas at Austin.I.D. but their designs soon emphasized T-groups. where he took his M. Combined the case method with the laboratory method. where he took his Ph. 1964: He stayed at the University of Texas as a professor 1992: receiving an LL. Herbert Shepard made a significant contribution to Organization Development He held faculty posts at several universities including M. the two initiated a series of two-week laboratories attended by all members of ―middle‖ management.D an American management theoretician He did pioneer work the field of organizational dynamics. Robert Blake Development Blake was born in 1918 1941: studied psychology at Berea College.T. organizational exercises and lectures.. . University of Virginia. where he received his doctorate in Industrial Economics 1960: He founded and directed the first doctoral program in OD at Case Western Reserve developed a residency in administrative psychiatry at Yale University School of Medicine President of the Gestalt Professional Institute of Cleveland and The Institute. Along with Shepard at Baton Rouge. D. (3) managed from the top. in psychology from Florida State University 1957: received a Ph. from the University of Texas Jane Mounton and Robert Blake 1950-1960: Robert Blake and Jane Mouton worked together at the psychology department of the University of Texas. to disseminate their ideas on organizational effectiveness. to (4) increase organization . Richard Beckhard a pioneer in the field of organizational development 1967: He co-launched Development the Addison-Wesley Series and began development and management Organization the Organization Development Network 1969: published his classic work.A.. They are known primarily for the development of the Managerial Grid as a framework for understanding managerial behaviour. They subsequently set up a company. Scientific Methods Inc. (2) organization-wide. Organization Development: Strategies and Models He helped to define organizational development as: "an effort (1) planned. Jane Mounton studied pure mathematics and physics at the University of Texas 1951: received an M. widely organizational as a consultant pioneer of and the regarded contemporary field of Leadership studies. social worker with a PhD. 1925 an American scholar. she was known for her advocacy of effective human resource development paid and volunteer . Warren Bennis born March 8. and behavioral scientist. . using behavioural-science knowledge". First person to be an NTL staff member doing OD work and having been trained almost exclusively in the social work field.and for non-traditional organization design and development.effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the organization's 'processes'. An organizational consultant. author. He is one of the major figures associated with the evolution of the OD field Eva Schindler-Rainman one of the few volunteerism pioneers to gain popularity both within and outside of our field. III. we are doing one of three things: (1) We my be offering a suggestion that helps accomplish the objective of the group. Function Roles of Group Members A. In general. This can also take several forms. or (2) how individual roles may be slowing group progress. B. Group members and leaders who understand there group-member roles and their effects can use this understanding to increase group effectiveness. the style of the leadership. giving information. the nature of the group's task. One of the most recognizable individual roles is the "blocker. the group motivation towards fulfilling the task are all important to an effective group. in the third are we are playing an individual sold. In the second instance we are playing a group-building or maintenance role. such as suggesting ideas. In the fist are we are playing a group-task role which may take many forms. such as trying to harmonize a strained relationship or encouraging participation e other group members. the personal characteristics of the members." This individual attempts to block constructive suggestions of other group members. or seeking opinions from other group members. which is also recognized in several forms. the physical setting. Finally. The understanding must be great enough so that the leader of group members can recognize (1) the role(s) which need to be played when the meeting bogs down. The size of the group. we are playing a role or roles. (2) we may be trying to maintain or improve the social relationships within the group or (3) we may be trying to satisfy our own psychological needs. Introduction By: Joan Orillo Group effectiveness depends upon many things. There are many more. Classification of Members Role The following analysis of functional member roles was developed in ayo with tin First . and thus slows the group's progress. Whenever we make a suggestion or offer a confounding in a meeting. Group Task Roles. Their purpose is some individual goal which is not relevant either to the group task or to the functioning of tin group as a group. 1. regulate. A similar analysis operated in faculty efforts to train group members in their functional roles during the course of the laboratory. highly relevant to the problem of group training.National Laboratory in Group Development. Their purpose is to facilitate and coordinate group effort in the selection and definition of a common problem and in the solution of that problem. Group Task Roles The following analysis assumes that the task of the discussion group is to select. They are designed to alter or maintain the group way of working. The Initiator-Contributor suggests or proposes to the group new ideas or a changed way of . It follows closely the analysis of participation functions used in coding the content of group records for research purposes. Participant roles here are related to the task which the group is deciding to undertake or has undertaken. of course. This category does not classify member-roles as such the "participations" denoted here are directed toward the satisfaction of the "participant's" individual needs. to strengthen. Individual Roles. 2. The roles are identified in relation to functions of facilitation and coordination of group problem-solving activities. and perpetuate the group as a group. Group Building and Maintenance Roles. 1947. 1. 3. C. The member-roles identified in this analysis are classified into three broad groupings. Such participants are. and solve common problems. Each member may of course enact more than one role in any given unit of participation and a wide range of there solos may be played at times by the group "leader" as well as by various members. The roles in this category are oriented toward the functioning of the group as a group. insofar as such training is directed toward improving group maturity or group task efficiency. define. or tries to coordinate the activities of various members or subgroups. The Information Seeker asks for clarification of suggestions made in terms of their actual adequacy. a new way of organizing the group for the task ahead. 9. The Orienter defines the position of the group with respect to its goals by summarizing what has occurred. offers a rationale for suggestions previously made. 5. It may take the form of a suggested solution or some way of handling a difficulty that the group has encountered. The Evaluator-Critic subjects the accomplishment of the group to some standard or set of . 7.regarding the group problem or goal. not primarily upon relevant facts or information. and tries to deduce how an idea or suggestion would work out he adopted by the group. The Coordinator shows or clarifies the relationships among various ideas and suggestions together. The Opinion Seeker asks not primarily for the facts of the case but for a clarification of the values involved in a suggestion made or in alternative suggestions. 2. 3. 6. Or it may take the form of a proposed new procedure of the group. The emphasis is oo his proposal of what should become the group's view of pertinent values. The Elaborator spells out suggestions in terms of examples or developed meanings. 4. The Opinion Giver states his belief or opinion pertinently to a suggestion made or to alternative suggestions. or raises question is taking. 8. for authoritative information and facts pertinent to the problem being disbursed. points to departures from agreed-upon directions or goals. The Information Giver offers facts or generalizations which are "authoritative" or relates his own experience pertinently to the group problem. The novelty proposed may take the form of suggestions of a new group goal or a new definition of the problem. attempts to reconcile disagreements. and in various ways indicates understanding and acceptance of other points of view. etc. The Energizer prods the group to action or decision. or writes down the product of discussion. relieves tension in conflict situations through jesting or pouring oil on the trouble waters. distributing materials) or manipulating objects for the group (e. 11. A given contribution may involve several roles and a member or the ―leader‖ may perform various roles in successive contributions. and suggestions." the "logic. ideas.. He indicates warmth and solidarity in his attitude toward other group members.g. The Recorder writes down suggestions. and accepts the contribution of others. 2. The recorder role is the ―group memory. . offers commendation and praise.) 12. Group Building Maintenance Roles Here the analysis of member-functions is oriented to those participations which have for their purpose the building of group-centered attitudes and orientation among the members of a group or the maintenance and perpetuation of such group-centered behavior. makes a record of group discussions. etc.standards of group-functioning in the context of the group tasks. attempts to stimulate or arouse the group to ―greater‖ or ―higher quality‖ activity. 10. agrees with.. rearranging the seating or running the recording machine. Thus he may evaluate or question the "practicality.g. The Procedural Technician expedites group movement by doing things for the group— performing routine tasks (e. 1. The Encourager praises." the "facts.‖ D." or the "procedure" of a suggestion or of some unit of group discussion. The Harmonizer mediates the differences between other members. 7. The Follower goes along with the movement of the group.) or by proposing regulation of the flow of communication (―Why don't we limit the length of our contributions so that every one will have a chance to contribute?‖. the prevalence of ―authoritarian‖ and ―laissez faire‖ points of view toward group functioning in the group. and inappropriately chosen and inadequately defined group task. by disciplining himself to maintain group harmony. or by ―coming half-way‖ in moving along with the group. A high incidence of ―individual-centered‖ as opposed to ―group-centered‖ participation in a group always calls for self-diagnosis of the group. The outright . The Group-Observer and Commentator keeps record of various aspects of group process and feeds such data with proposed interruptions into the group's evaluation of its own procedures. whatever the diagnosis. including the group leader. 6. etc. serving as an audience in group discussion and decision. E. The diagnosis may reveal one or several of a number of conditions —low level of skilltraining among members.) 5. 4. The Gate-Keeper and Expediter attempts to keep communication channel open by encouraging or facilitating the participation of others (―We haven‘t got the ideas of Mr. “Individual” Roles Attempts by ―members: of a group to satisfy individual needs which are irrelevant to the group task and which are non-oriented or negatively oriented to the group building and maintenance set problem group and member training. and morale. more or less passively accepting the ideas of others.‖ etc. The Compromiser operates from within a conflict in which his idea or position is involved. a low level of group maturity. etc. it is in this setting that the training needs of the group are to be discovered and group training efforts to meet these needs are to be defined. discipline. He may offer compromise by yielding status. admitting his error.3. The Standard Setter or Ego Ideal expresses standards for the group to attempt to achieve in its functioning or applies standards in evaluating the quality of group processes. X yet. giving directions authoritatively. struggling to prevent his being placed in an ―inferior‖ position. 2.―suppression‖ of ―individual roles‖ will deprive the group data needed for really adequate self diagnosis and therepy. 6. The Agressor may work in many ways—deflating the status of others. or feelings of others. ―feeling. acts. The Help-Seeker attempts to call forth ―sympathy‖ response from other group members or from the whole group.‖ . The Self-Confesor uses the audience opportunity which the group setting provides to express personal. reporting on personal achievements. horseplay. etc. The Dominator tries to assert authority or superiority in manipulating the group or certain members of the group. 4. joking aggressively. of asserting a superior status or right to attention. 7. The Blocker tends to be negativistic and stubbornly resistant. etc. disagreeing and opposing without or beyond ―reason‖ and attempting to maintain or bring back an issue after the group has rejected or bypassed it.‖ ―ideology. whether through boasting. 5. whether through expressions of insecurity. The Recognition-Seeker works in various ways to call attention to himself. nongroup-oriented.‖ :insight. This domination may take the form of flattery. nonchalant. personal confusion or depreciation of himself beyond reason. 3. showing envy toward another's contribution by trying to take credit for in. etc. 1. expressing disapproval of the values. and more or less studied forms of ―out of field‖ behavior.‖ etc. This may take the from of cynicism. attacking the group or the problem it is working on. acting in unusual ways. The Playboy makes a display of his lack of involvement in the group's processes. interrupting the contribution of others. ‖ ―labor. the ―housewife. The groups come together and share their lists. Inter-group interventions are integrated into Organizational Development programs to facilitate cooperation and efficiency between different groups within an organization. the Special Interest Pleader speaks for the ―small business man. the teams meet separately to make a list of their feelings about the other group(s). Conflict resolution meetings are one common inter-group intervention. Finally. They should put down thoughts. Then the groups meet and share their lists. Intergroup Team Building Interventions By: Bryan Jay Orpiada By: Patrick Gueta Intergroup Team Building Interventions intends to increase communications and interactions between work related groups to reduce the amount of dysfunctional competition and to replace a parochial independent point of view with an awareness of the necessity for interdependence of action calling on the best efforts of both the groups. IV. Groups are put in different rooms. attitudes. Blake. usually cloaking his own prejudices or biases in the stereotype which best fits his individual need. For instance. The task of each group is to generate two lists. Shepard and mouton came up with a method which is used between groups that are strained and overly hostile. The process is to obtain commitment from the leaders of each group on their willingness to find procedures that will improve inter group relations. perceptions and feelings about the other group. predict what the other group will say about them. different group leaders are brought together to get their commitment to the intervention. departmental interaction often deteriorates in larger organizations as different divisions battle for limited resources or become detached from the needs of other departments.‖ community. This type of intervention helps to gradually diffuse tension between groups caused by lack of communication and misunderstanding.‖ and so forth. Next.8. the teams meet to discuss the problems and to try to develop solutions that will help both parties. Intergroup Problems in Organization V. First.‖ the ―grass roots. No comments or . discussions. Inter-group conflict . A. These issues are ranked in terms of importance. The sub-groups report to the larger group. the groups meet in separate rooms and build two lists. On the basis of the report back and all the other information gathered. assign responsibilities for each step and record a date by which the steps ought to have been carried out. They set priorities and together they take action for resolving the problem. separately compiles two types of lists namely a positive feedback list. Sub groups are formed with members from each group. The groups or the leaders assess how the group is doing their action plan. The two groups come together and share their lists. If yes. The groups reconvene to discuss their reactions to what they have learned about themselves from what the other group has said identify issues that still need to be resolved between the two groups. With this method the two groups work together effectively. each group. The two groups come together and share the lists. In this method. there is no discussion. a bug list and an empathy list. they set priorities. They follow up the intergroup team-building activity to monitor it. the group proceeds to: generate action steps for resolving the conflict. The method can be used with more than two groups where the hostility between the groups may not be extreme or severe. and they generate action steps and assign responsibilities. Steps in Intergroup Team Building Interventions The leader of the two groups is asked if they want an ameliorative mechanism for the solution. The two groups come together to share each other the information on the list. after comparing it they together list the issues which should be resolved. except for seeking clarification. Now the groups discuss the areas of disagreement and friction separately and make a list of priority issues which is usually much smaller than the previous one. The total group generates a list of major problems and unresolved issues between the two groups. only clarity. The two groups come back together and share their list. who then discuss and work through each item. A follow up meeting is convened to ensure that the action steps have been taken. B. Training. Groups often must work with and through other groups to accomplish their goals 2. There might even be acts of sabotage against the other group. a microcosm group composed of members representing a spectrum of ethnic backgrounds. can create programs and processes targeted at specific problems. 1. stereotyping. Microcosm Group A microcosm group consists of small number of individuals who reflect the issue being addressed. The quality of the relationships between groups can affect the degree of organizational effectiveness. Intergroup Relations Interventions Intergroup Relations Interventions By: Cherry Joy Flores The ability to diagnose and understand intergroup relations is important for OD practitioners because. Groups within the organization often create problems and place demand on each other. solve communications problems. constipated. This group. increasing interaction and communication under favorable conditions and finding a super – ordinate goal that both groups desire. and races can be created to address diversity issues in the organization. A. and address dysfunctional political process. assisted by OD practitioners. VI. Rotating members of the group. Using the idea of a common enemy outside the group that both groups dislike to bring them closer. For example. and 3. smooth the transition to a new structure.1 Application Stages . etc are helpful strategies that have been used to deal with inter-group conflict. omicrocosm groups have been used to carry out organization diagnoses. Each group begins to praise itself and its products more positively and believes that it can do no wrong and the other can do no right. A. distorted and inaccurate communication and stoppage of feedback and data input. integrate two cultures.Inter group conflicts are characterized by perception of the other as the ―enemy‖. In addition to addressing diversity problems. cultures. training is provided in group problem solving and decision making. . implement. Dissolve the group. Convening the group also draws attention to the issue and gives the group status. Identify an issue. design. Convene the group.2 Results of Microcosm Groups The microcosm group intervention derives from an intergroup relations theory developed by Alderfer and has been applied by him to communications and race-relations problems. career development. OD practitioners may help the group diagnose. 5.The process of using a microcosm group to address organizationwide issues involves the following five steps: 1.The microcosm group can be disbanded following successful implementation of changes. Provide group training.Once an issue is identified. 4. and evaluate changes. This typically involves writing a final report or holding a final meeting. Team-building interventions also may be appropriate. and promotion program. 2. 3. This will increase the likelihood that organization members will listen to and follow the suggestions they make. developed a job posting. This may result from an organizational diagnosis or may be an idea generated by an organization member or task force.Once the microcosm group is established. A. The most important convening principle is that group membership needs to reflect the appropriate mix of stakeholders related to the issue. A microcosm group that addressed communications issues improved the way meetings were conducted. the microcosm group can be formed. Members also need to be perceived as credible representatives of the problem.This step involves finding a systemwide problem to be addressed. Address the issue.This step involves solving the problem and implementing solutions. A key issue is gaining commitment in the wider organization to implementing the group‘s solutions. and conducted new-employee orientations. The two groups are assigned to separate rooms and asked to write their answers to the three questions. the two groups are encouraged to establish norms of openness for feedback and discussion. A time is set for the two groups to meet-preferably away from their normal work situations. describes the purpose and objectives of the meeting. One formal approach for accomplishing this. The two groups are presented the following or similar questions: ―What qualities or attributes best describe our group?‖ ―What qualities or attributes best describe the other group?‖ and ―How do we think the other group will describe us?‖ Then. together with the managers of the two groups. conflict among departments is necessary and productive for organization. More research on this intervention is needed. A consultant external to the two groups obtains their agreement to work directly on improving intergroup relationships. partly because it is difficult to measure parallel processes and associate them with measures of organizational processes.1 Application Stages A basic strategy for improving interdepartmental or intergroup relationships is to change the perceptions (perhaps. 1. This applies where there is little interdependence among departments and conflict or competition among them can spur higher levels of productivity. 4. and formulate plans for improving the relationship. Intergroup conflict is neither good nor bad in itself. consists of a ten-step procedure. 3. explore the perceptions the group have of each other. The consultant. more accurately. and in some cases.to develop better mutual relationships. 2. originally described by Blake and his associates. B.A dearth of research exists on microcosm groups. B. . Resolving Intergroup Conflict The intergroup conflict intervention is designed specifically to help two groups or departments within an organization resolve dysfunctional conflicts. misperceptions) that the two groups have of each other. The task of the two groups is to analyze and review the reasons for the discrepancies.2 Results of Intergroup Conflict Interventions A number of studies have been done on the effects of intergroup conflict resolution. at least one follow-up meeting is scheduled so that the groups can report on actions that have been implemented. When it is clear that the two groups thoroughly understand the content of the lists.5. a great number of misperceptions and discrepancies have been brought to light. 9. Only the two representatives are allowed to speak. there was much mutual distrust. 7.S State Department officials-high-level administrative officers and officers in foreign service. open discussion is encouraged between the two groups. After completing their lists. The actual or implicit question is not whether the perception of the other group is right or wrong but rater ―How did these perceptions occur? What actions on the part of our group may have contributed to this set of perceptions?‖ 8. and.‖ . and their joint aim is to develop an overall list of remaining and possible sources of friction and isolation. blocked communications. 6. The emphasis is on solving the problems and reducing the misperceptions. B. they separate again. negative stereotyping. In later study. 10. When the two groups have gone as far as possible in formulating action plans. identify any further problems that have emerged. In his original study. they meet to share both the identified discrepancies and their problem-solving approaches to those discrepancies. By this point. ―Each ‗side‘ perceived the other as more threatening than any realistic overseas enemy. free. and hostility between the two groups. The two groups are asked to develop specific plans of action for solving specific problems and for improving their relationships. the intervention seemed to improved relationships so that the two groups ―at least understood the other side‘s point of view. Because the primary focus is on the behavior underlying the perceptions. as well as the areas of common agreement. Initially. Blake reported vastly improved relationships between the union and management. A representative from each group presents the written statements. Bennis used Blake‘s basic design to improve relationships between two groups of U.‖ Although no hard data were obtained. where necessary. When the two groups have worked through the discrepancies. the two groups reconvene. formulate additional action plans. Third Party-Peacemaking Interventions A. and perceptions among group members. facilitating their diagnosis of the conflict and how to resolve it. Conflict can enhance motivation and innovation and lead to greater understanding of ideas and views. include differences in personality. destroying necessary task interactions among group members. issues underlying a conflict are latent and do not . B. Conflict can arise over substantive issues. Conflict is inherent in groups and organizations and can arise from a variety of sources. such as work methods. such as personalities and misperceptions." An episodic model is shown in Figure 39. These third-party interventions help the parties interact with each other directly.VII. as well as competition for scarce resources. conflict resolution interventions often involve resolving labor-management disputes through arbitration and mediation. When applied to substantive issues. however. That ability to facilitate conflict resolution is a basic skill in OD and applies to all of the process interventions. or it can emerge from interpersonal issues. When conflict involves interpersonal issues. OD has developed approaches that help control and resolve it. task orientation. cyclical stages known as "episodes. On the other hand. pay rates. it can prevent people from working together constructively. Third-Party Interventions By: Armand Salangguit Third-party intervention focuses on conflicts arising between two or more people within the same organization. Third-party intervention varies considerably depending on the kind of issues underlying the conflict. At times. An Episodic Model of Conflict: Interpersonal conflict often occurs in iterative. The methods used in such substantive interventions require considerable training and expertise in law and labor relations and generally are not considered part of OD practice. and conditions of employment. this method may help to achieve a temporary cooling-off period. For example. The first strategy is to prevent the ignition of conflict by arriving at a clear understanding of the triggering factors and there after avoiding or blunting them when the symptoms occur. such as reducing their dependence on the relationship.present any manifest problems for the parties. and developing additional sources of emotional support. For example. however. Conflict can be constrained by informal gatherings before a formal meeting or by exploration of other options. An interpersonal conflict may be concealed under a cause or issue that serves to make the conflict appear more legitimate. something triggers the conflict. Conflict has both costs and benefits to the antagonists and to those in contact with them. and so the cycle continues with the next conflict episode. The first three attempts to control the conflict and only the last approach try to change the basic issues underlying it. . the overt conflict is only a symptom of a deeper problem. Then something triggers the conflict and brings it into the open. The episode model identifies four strategies for conflict resolution. then senior management can warn them that conflict will not be tolerated during the introduction of the latest new product. Unresolved conflict can proliferate and expand. It also can be limited by setting rules and procedures specifying the conditions under which the parties can interact. ventilating their feelings to friends. The second control strategy is to set limits on the form of the conflict. The third-party consultant may work with the people involved to devise coping techniques. And again. However this approach may not always be functional and merely may drive the conflict underground until it explodes. As a control strategy. a rule can be instituted that union officials can attempt to resolve grievances with management only at weekly grievance meetings. making it overt. For example. Frequently. if conflict between the research and production managers is always triggered by new product introductions. the unresolved disagreement usually becomes latent again. Because of the negative consequences of that behavior. a violent disagreement or frank confrontation can unleash conflictual behavior. The third control strategy is to help the parties cope differently with the consequences of the conflict. These methods can reduce the costs of the conflict without resolving the underlying issues. Among the tactical choices identified by Walton do those having to do with diagnosis. relevant phasing of the stages of identifying differences and of searching for integrative solutions. the formality of the setting. The following ingredients can help third-party consultants achieve productive dialogue between the disputants so that they examine their differences and change their perceptions and behaviors: mutual motivation to resolve the conflict. the third-party consultant must decide on an appropriate role to assume in resolving conflict.The fourth method is an attempt to eliminate or to resolve the basic issues causing the conflict. the personality and conflict styles of the individuals involved. and the careful selection of those who should attend the meeting are all elements of this context. facilitating dialogue of interpersonal issues might include initiating the agenda for the meeting. the appropriateness of the time for the meeting (that is. Consideration of the neutrality of the meeting area. and the participants' readiness to work together to resolve the conflict. and the role of the consultant. the context of the third-party intervention. the issues and attendant pressures. coordinated attempts to confront the conflict. equality of power between the parties. As Walton points out. Group-process observations can also be used. although it is often the most difficult to achieve. usually through preliminary interviewing. giving feedback and receiving comments on . The specific tactic chosen will depend on the diagnosis of the situation. "There is little too he said about this objective because it is the most obvious and straightforward. acting as a referee during the meeting. For example." C. In addition. One of the tactics in third-party intervention is the gathering of data. Facilitating the Conflict Resolution Process: Walton has identified a number of factors and tactical choices that can facilitate the use of the episode model in resolving the underlying causes of conflict. reflecting and restating the issues and the differing perceptions of the individuals involved. The context in which the intervention occurs is also important. open and clear forms of communication. and productive levels of tension and stress. Data gathering provides some understanding of the nature and the type of conflict. a meeting should not be started until a time has been agreed on to conclude or adjourn). It is different from the intergroup team building intervention in that three or more groups are involved. The third-party consultant must be sensitive to the situation and able to use a number of different intervention strategies and tactics when intervention appears to be useful. B. providing suggestions or recommendations.‖ IX. Partnering Partnering is a variation of team building and strategic planning having the objective of forming ―an effective problem-finding/problem-solving management team composed of personnel of both parties. she or he must have professional expertise in third-party intervention and must be seen by the parties as neutral or unbiased regarding the issues and outcomes of the conflict resolution. helping the individuals diagnose the issues in the conflict. intervention. Behavior Modeling . Organization Mirror Interventions By: Laila Dela Cruz The organization mirror is a set of activities in which a particular organizational group gets feedback from representatives from several other organizational groups about how it is perceived and regarded. Organizational Mirror Intervention A. too much conflict can be dysfunctional for both the people involved and the larger organization. Finally.the feedback. He or she also must recognize that some tension and conflict are inevitable and that although there can be an optimum amount and degree of conflict. This intervention is designed to improve the relationships between groups and increase the intergroup work effectiveness. and follow-up. VIII. The third-party intervener must be highly sensitive to his or her own feelings and to those of others. and the focus is to assist the unit that requested the meeting. The third-party consultant must develop considerable skill at diagnosis. thus creating a single culture with one set of goals and objectives for the project. INTERPERSONAL INTERVENTIONS A. and helping the parties do a better job of diagnosing the underlying problem. representatives of other workrelated groups typically participate rather than the full membership. The ability to clearly explain the impact of an observed behavior on the individual. Coaching and Mentoring These activities frequently grow out of team-building and intergroup interventions. 2. The ability to accurately reflect both content and feelings of another‘s communication. C. Mentoring and Coaching Skills D. meaningfully and appropriately. 4. The ability to involve another. The problem solving approach consists of three phases-problem identification. . and they emphasize individual examination of personal career and life plans and then discussion of individuals‘ analyses and plans in small groups. and because problems with interpersonal relations are common in organizations. D. Participative problem solving. The ability to describe behavior of self or others in specific concrete terms and to avoid generalizations or inferences drawn from observed behaviors. Positive reinforcement. Behavior description. The ability to compliment another in sincere and authentic manner.1 Mentoring: Create an open and supportive climate for discussion. the observer or the organization. behavior modeling is an important training option. The OD consultant can be in a position to provide guidance for formal mentoring programs while coaching by an employee‘s immediate superior focuses on job performance. Justification. in the process of solving a work-related problem. problem solving and implementation. Life and Career Planning Life and career planning workshops are less process oriented than T-group experiences. 5. 3. 1. B. consisted of five behavioral skills. It is not an OD intervention but we believe I should be added to practitioner‘s repertoire because it is such an effective tool. For improving interpersonal skills. A simple problem-solving model underlies most behavior modeling training. Active listening.Behavior Modeling is a training technique designed to improve interpersonal competence. manager. 2 Coaching: Simple Process Preparation Discussion Active Coaching Follow-up X. Demonstrate good listening/follow-up skills. and that an individual‘s behavior is context specific. Large Group Interventions XI. there are many ‗‗types‘‘ of role theory. The model is based on the observation that people behave in a predictable way. Role theory By: Vanessa Esperanza Papna By: Benigay Charlie Ann S. expectations. Although the word role (or roll) has existed in European languages for centuries. It became more prominent in sociological discourse through the theoretical works of George Herbert Mead. Each social role is a set of rights. The theory posits the following: B. Propositions about Social Behavior . Depending on the general perspective of the theoretical tradition. Jacob L. norms and behaviors that a person has to face and fulfill. Moreno. The theatre is a metaphor often used to describe role theory. Provide constructive feedback and advice.g. duties. mother. Role theory is a perspective in sociology and in social psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting out of socially defined categories (e. based on social position and other factors. Two of Mead‘s concepts – the mind and the self – are the precursors to role theory.. D. as a sociological concept. Role Theory A. the term has only been around since the 1920s and 1930s. and teacher). and Linton. a part to be played.. Some theorists have put forward the idea that roles are essentially expectations about how an individual ought to behave in a given situation. 5. The anticipation of rewards and punishments. teacher. behavior associated with a social position. 3. In sociology there are different categories of social roles: 1. which can be contrasted with the more micro level approach of the symbolic interactionist tradition.g. Social differentiation: e. they consider the role "legitimate" and "constructive"). When individuals approve of a social role (i. on one side there is a more functional perspective. A key insight of this theory is that role conflict occurs when a person is expected to simultaneously act out multiple roles that carry contradictory expectations. Cultural roles: roles given by culture (e. 6. account for why agents conform to role requirements. or a script for social conduct.g. which are commonly known and hence determine expectations. or a typical behavior. Roles are occupied by individuals. Others have suggested that a role is a characteristic behavior or expected behavior. The division of labor in society takes the form of the interaction among heterogeneous specialized positions that we call roles. 4. while others consider it means how individuals actually behave in a given social position. This type of role theory dictates how closely related individuals‘ actions are to the society. Substantial debate exists in the field over the meaning of the "role" in role theory. as well as the satisfaction of behaving in a prosocial way. guided by social norms. taxi driver 3. Social roles included "appropriate" and "permitted" forms of behavior. situation-specific roles: e. priest) 2. who are called "actors". as well as how empirically testable a particular role theory perspective may be. and will also incur costs to punish those who violate role norms.e. Changed conditions can render a social role outdated or illegitimate.1. A role can be defined as a social position. 2. they will incur costs to conform to role norms. in which case social pressures are likely to lead to role change.g. In terms of differences among role theory. eye witness . club member – this is an intrapersonal role conflict. There is an evolution of social roles: some disappear and some new develop. mother. 2.4. He also has to arrange his different social roles as father. Internal and external expectations are connected to a social role. in case of deviance. sometimes they have to face different roles at the same time in different social situations. For example the feminist movement initiated a change in male and female roles in Western societies. father. Norms of behavior are a set of behavior that is usually used by the group members. Merton distinguished between intrapersonal and interpersonal role conflicts. . Social sanctions and rewards are used to influence role behavior. 3. In cultural changes new roles can develop and old roles can disappear – these cultural changes are affected by political and social conflicts. etc. woman. determining a social situation. These three aspects are used to evaluate the own behavior and the behavior of other people. as human in a natural system 5. a foreman has to develop his own social role facing the expectations of his team members and his supervisor – this is an interpersonal role conflict. For example. Heinrich Popitz defines social roles as norms of behavior a special social group has to follow. Social differentiation Social differentiation got a lot of attention due to the development of different job roles. Robert K. Role behavior is influenced by following aspects: 1. In their life people have to face different social roles. C. negative sanctions follow. The norms. Category of Social Roles Cultural roles Cultural roles are seen as matter of course and are mostly stable. bio-sociological roles: e. Gender roles: as a man. husband.g. Bio-sociological Roles Bio-sociology is the study of the evolution of social forms and the development of social behavior in terms analogous to or correlated with biological studies. woman and third gender. the study of biological and social factors' relations. Gender roles differ according to cultural-historical context. He argues another proponent of role theory is that people accept their own roles in the society and it is not the society that imposes them. Androgyny. Nevertheless the expectations and norms are predetermined by the social role." "feminine or gendervariant or gender neutral behavior. some express more. for example. The foreman has to avoid corruption. and are therefore the product of socialization. shall-expectations. There are differences of opinion as to which observed differences in behavior and personality between genders are entirely due to innate personality of the person and which are due to cultural or social factors. hairstyles. team members and supervisors). Situation-specific roles Situation-specific roles develop ad hoc in a given social situation. or body characteristics. Gender expression refers to the external manifestation of one's gender identity. he should satisfy his reference groups (e. clothing. has been proposed as a third gender. and some nonWestern societies have three genders – man. or to what extent gender differences are due to biological and physiological differences.Ralph Dahrendorf distinguished between must-expectations. with sanctions and rewards and can-expectations. . through "masculine. with sanctions. and while most cultures express two genders. Gender Roles A gender role is a set of social and behavioral norms that are generally considered appropriate for either a man or a woman in a social or interpersonal relationship. Bio-sociological role is the scientific study of the interrelationships of social species and their relationships with the environment. and he can be sympathetic. Others societies have been claimed to have more than five genders. with rewards.g. In contrast to role conflict. For example. Role Confusion Role confusion is a situation where an individual has trouble determining which role he/she should assume. Role Strain Role Strain refers to the felt difficulty in fulfilling role obligations. the tension in role strain comes from just one role. Role Conflict Role Conflict results when an individual encounters tensions as the result of incompatible roles. say. She may be expected to spend a great deal of time taking care of her children while simultaneously trying to advance her career. various derivatives and additional concepts have developed. or as a friend or associate. showing collegiality and familiarity. Returning to the example of a mother. if a graduate student were to attend a department party at a professor's home.D. For instance. an overly demanding spouse (or religion. if she were to find that she is unable to fulfill her obligations as defined by. a mother who is employed full-time may experience role conflict because of the norms that are associated with the two roles she has. As a result. Role Distance Role Distance is the effectively expressed pointed separateness between the individual and his putative role. Additional Concepts Role Theory has been a fruitful approach to understanding humans and society. The individual is not denying the role but the virtual self that is implied in . she would experience role strain. exhibiting deference or respect. The role expectations may be beyond what she is able to achieve or may push her to the limits of her abilities. where tension is felt between two competing roles. or child). the student may find it difficult to determine if he/she should act as a student toward the professor. "I'm just doing this to put myself through college. Immediate audiences figure very directly in the display of role distance.") It is often possible to determine incidents in which role distance might be displayed solely on the grounds of the performers' gross age-sex characteristics. There are two ways of establishing role distance: 1. which can be displayed through indifference (e.the role for all accepting performers. the self disappears completely into the role.") 2. actors need an audience or a co-conspirator for role distancing to work.g. For example. a demonstration of qualifications and capacities for performing it 3. a waiter saying. the maturing adolescent who is forced to ride a merry-go-round may display role distance by acting as though the ride does not challenge her physical abilities or frighten her. an active engagement or spontaneous involvement in the role activity at hand. Joking about the situation (e. a visible investment of attention and muscular effort . that is. A seventeen year-old boy riding a merry-go-round (especially with peers) will likely display significant role distance. Role Embracement Role Embracement refers to the complete adoption of a role. the young merry-go-round rider saying. This may be displayed by riding backwards or leaning dangerously from her horse. The concept of role distance provides a sociological means of dealing with one type of divergence between obligation and actual performance... Isolating one's self from the contamination of the situation. an admitted or expressed attachment to the role 2. "I can do this with my eyes closed. When a role is truly embraced. Three things seem to be involved in the earnestness with which people assume roles or the degree to which they embrace a role: 1.g.