‘Noses in the Orchestra: Bodies, Objects, and Affect in Sophocles’ Ichneutai’ in The Materialities of Greek Tragedy M. Telò and M. Mueller eds, Bloomsbury (2018)
June 10, 2018 | Author: Anna Uhlig |
Category: Documents
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Contents List of Figures List of Contributors Acknowledgments Abbreviations
Introduction: Greek Tragedy and the New Materialisms Mario Telò and Melissa Mueller 1
viii x xi
1
Stone into Smoke: Metaphor and Materiality in Euripides’ Troades Victoria Wohl
17
Morbid Materialism: The Matter of the Corpse in Euripides’ Alcestis Karen Bassi
35
3
Orestes’ Urn in Word and Action Joshua Billings
49
4
Weapons as Friends and Foes in Sophocles’ Ajax and Euripides’ Heracles Erika L. Weiberg
63
5
The Familiar Mask A. C. Duncan
79
6
The Other Side of the Mirror: Reflection and Reversal in Euripides’ Hecuba Ava Shirazi
97
Memory Incarnate: Material Objects and Private Visions in Classical Athens, from Euripides’ Ion to the Gravesite Seth Estrin
111
The Boon and the Woe: Friendship and the Ethics of Affect in Sophocles’ Philoctetes Mario Telò
133
Noses in the Orchestra: Bodies, Objects, and Affect in Sophocles’ Ichneutae Anna Uhlig
153
2
7 8 9
10 Speaking Sights and Seen Sounds in Aeschylean Tragedy Naomi Weiss
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vii
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vi
Contents
11 Electra, Orestes, and the Sibling Hand
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Nancy Worman
185
12 Materialisms Old and New Edith Hall
203
Notes Bibliography Index
219 269 293
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9
Noses in the Orchestra Bodies, Objects, and Affect in Sophocles’ Ichneutae Anna Uhlig
In the opening scene of Sophocles’ satyr drama Ichneutae (“The Trackers”),1 Apollo presents the satyrs’ patriarch, Silenus, with an attractive proposal. In a scenario familiar from the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the god’s beloved cattle have been stolen. But unlike in the hymn, Apollo has decided to outsource the work of locating his herd and promises Silenus a golden crown and his freedom if he can secure their safe return. Silenus, in turn, hands off the dirty work to his sons, the half-human, half-equine satyrs who make their appearance in the orchestra soon after the god’s departure. A lacuna makes the satyrs’ entrance difficult to reconstruct, but they seem eager to embark on the hunt, and to earn the enticing reward promised by the god. Soon Silenus is directing their search, instructing them to sniff out the cattle like dogs, as if taking literally Apollo’s description of his own failed attempts to “dog-hunt” (κυνηγετῶ 21) for his lost herd. While the text here is also quite fragmentary, what remains of the speech preserves much of Silenus’s emphasis on the satyrs’ sense of smell as the means by which they will track down the cattle (91–99): φησίν τις; .[ ἔ.οικεν ἤδη κ[ ἄγ’ εἷ.α δὴ πᾶσ. . .[ ῥινηλατῶν ὀσμ[ αὔρας ἐάν πῃ πρ[ non plus 15 ll. ] διπλοῦς ὀκλάζω[ν . . . . . . . . . . . . .]ν. ὕποσμος ἐν χρῷ .[ non plus 15 ll. ] οὕτως ἔρευναν καὶ π[. . . . . . . . . . .]. ἅπαντα χρηστὰ κα[ὶ . . . . . . . . . .]λειν.
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Does someone say? . . . now it seems . . . Come, then (everyone?) . . . nose-tracking (by scent?) . . . if somehow the breeze . . . crouching down doubled . . . guided by smell, skin close to (the ground?) . . . thus the search and . . . everything good and . . .
The satyrs must, Silenus insists, “track with their noses” (ῥινηλατῶν), and it is likely that the next word, which begins with ὀσμ[, also has something to do with smell.2 Somewhat more speculatively, the reference to breezes (αὔρας) in the following line may refer to smells carried by the wind. And then, to drive home the point, Silenus declares that the satyrs will be ὕποσμος (97), a rare word, found here for the first time, meaning something like “subject to, ruled by smell.”3 This passage, and the subsequent focus in the play on the satyrs’ sight and then hearing, might seem to invite consideration of sensory perception, but I believe that Sophocles’ interest in the satyrs’ senses, and their smelling noses in particular, can equally well be explored under the rubric of affect. Indeed, sensory perception, and scent in particular, has been at the heart of many studies of affect, since, as Teresa Brennan observes, it “is critical in how we ‘feel the atmosphere.’”4 And while one might generally associate affect with what we call “emotion,” many branches of affect theory function with a somewhat broader definition that, as Seigworth and Gregg state, “marks a body’s belonging to a world of encounters.”5 It is in this spirit that my own thinking about affect has developed, as a way of gaining better purchase on how the fantastic bodies of satyrs are created through their interactions with (other) objects in the theater. In the Ichneutae passage just examined, Silenus’s interest in the satyrs’ sense of smell is also unmistakably an interest in their bodies. In order to be “ruled by smell,” Silenus instructs his sons to crouch down, doubling over their bodies (διπλοῦς ὀκλάζων), and to move “skin close” (ἐν χρῷ) to better follow the scent of the cattle along the ground. The latter phrase, used elsewhere by Sophocles of shaving,6 highlights the satyrs’ own fleshy form by identifying their skin (χρώς) as (one of) the means by which the scent will be encountered. The somatic component encourages a pointedly physical understanding of the satyrs’ resemblance to a pack of hunting dogs. Silenus’s instructions might otherwise have remained a compelling verbal metaphor and no more, as is the case when the Chorus of Aeschylus’s Agamemnon describe Cassandra finding the scent of past bloodshed like a dog,7 or when Athena praises Odysseus for sniffing out Ajax’s tracks in Sophocles’ Ajax.8 In Ichneutae, by contrast, the satyrs’ physical adjustment, adopting the downward facing posture of hunting dogs, parlays the
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verbal metaphor into a visual/corporeal one. The satyrs are, in a sense, transformed into dogs before the audience’s eyes.9 The physical metamorphosis of the satyrs is put on prominent display in a mimetic dance celebrating the Chorus’s new canine physiques.10 The dance is vividly described by their father who emphasizes the novelty of the satyrs’ physical posture. “What is it, this new manner of bending over towards the ground to dog-hunt?” Silenus asks, “What is this act of yours?” (τίν’ αὖ, / πρόσπαιον ὧδε κεκλιμ[ένος] κυνηγετεῖν / πρὸς γῇ; τίς ὑμῶν ὁ τρόπος; 124–26). In addition to noting their “dog-hunting” posture, Silenus compares the satyrs to hedgehogs (127) and farting monkeys (128). Even as they insinuate a degree of bathetic inelegance that may or may not have been an accurate description of the dance, the comments re-enforce the bestial nature of the satyrs’ appearance, and ensure that attention remains firmly fixed on the form of their newly transformed bodies.11 The dance turns the satyrs’ bodies into a conspicuous spectacle for both Silenus and the audience alike and invites us to contemplate the unaccustomed forms that their transformation has brought about. The hunting dance described in Pindar’s famous hyporcheme, in which the singer instructs an unidentified dancer to “imitate” a horse or dog with his twirling foot (fr. 107ab. 1–3), not to mention vase iconography, reminds us that the mimetic animal dancing of the Ichneutae Chorus was neither unprecedented, despite Silenus’s repeated protestations of novelty, nor limited to the realm of satyr drama.12 But the physicality of the dance, its celebration of the bodies’ altered appearance, and Silenus’s insistence that the Chorus have transformed themselves in a way that he has never seen before, asks us to think about how theatrical bodies—and satyrs bodies in particular—can be remade through interaction with the world around them.
1. Fashioning bodies Before following the transformed bodies of the Ichneutae Chorus any further, it will be helpful to consider what one means by the term body. I pursue this question with respect to two distinct, but related objects, a general definition of the body, and a more circumscribed description of the unique bodies of satyrs as they appeared in dramatic competition at the fifth-century Great Dionysia. My approach to the first, more broadly conceived category of body is grounded in the work of Bruno Latour, who calls for a new language of bodies that reflects the affective relationships that constitute our lived experience.
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Rather than rely on the traditional post-enlightenment model of bodies and subjects, Latour argues that we must learn to account for what he calls a “multiverse of articulated propositions.”13 The multiverse is comprised of the vast array of affective experiences that, when recognized (or, as Latour puts it, articulated),14 contribute to the construction of what we otherwise call a body. The body, he explains, is “an interface that becomes more and more describable as it learns to be affected by more and more elements. [. . .] There is no sense in defining the body directly, but only in rendering the body sensitive to what these other elements are.”15 The body, in other words, cannot be considered as a singularity. It only exists as a product of affective engagement. For Latour, the affective construction of the body is an ongoing process which is never fully completed.16 Moreover—and this point is of particular importance for my thinking about satyrs—the ongoing construction of a body is a collaborative project that makes use of tools and instruments which are integrated into that body by means of affective engagement. Latour thus rejects the customary boundaries that distinguish between inside and outside, self and other. The “external” objects that give shape to a body, by honing or teaching its sensory capacities, become a part of that body, no different than the muscles and sinews that have been taught to walk, run, and dance.17 The illustrative example that Latour offers to describe his rather unconventional definition of the body pertains, coincidentally, to how people train their sense of smell for work in perfume houses, namely by honing their olfactory sensitivity through the use of a smelling kit containing particularly extreme examples of various types of scent.18 This smelling kit, which trains the body to be what in the trade they metonymically call a “nose,” should, Latour argues, be treated as “coextensive with the body.”19 The kit is, in other words, as much and as authentically a part of this newly fashioned smelling body—the professional “nose”—as the flesh and blood agent who does the smelling. One might also consider the way that tools hone the muscles of other types of professionals while becoming veritable extensions of their bodies: chefs and their knives, dancers and their shoes, astronomers and their telescopes. For those of us who spend much of our lives with books, such a radical notion of the body finds expression in the way that our own perceptions are honed by powerful affective engagements with the texts that we study, so much so that these external objects can indeed be incorporated into our corporeal form (above and beyond our hunched backs and myopic vision). Latour’s observations are compelling in their own right, but I am drawn to his theoretical framework here because it serves as an exceptionally powerful tool for thinking about satyrs, and those of Sophocles’ Ichneutae in particular,
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for whom it is the affective engagement of their noses, trained to the ground by the scent of Apollo’s lost cattle, that reshapes and thus extends the boundaries of the body. But the smells that the satyrs are tracking are not the first external forces to be amalgamated into the composite bodies of the hybrid Chorus. Before the dramatic action has even begun, the human choreuts must be transformed into satyrs. They must take on, by means of theatrical costume, the somatic attributes—shaggy beard and equine ears, equine tail and jovially erect phallus— that define the mythical creatures. This basic fact is true of all figures who appear in mimetic guise, whether in the theater or elsewhere, but I believe that there are certain attributes of theatrical satyrs that make this point particularly salient for the questions I am exploring here. There are two “external objects” that help to construct the bodies of the satyr Chorus in the theater of Dionysus. In the upper register, there is a distinctive mask adorned with the satyrs’ characteristic facial features.20 In the lower position, a perizôma, a specialized type of shorts made of fur or leather that allows the human choreut to acquire the satyrs’ equine tail and erect phallus. Whereas the theatrical mask has enjoyed the lion’s share of scholarly attention,21 I believe that the all-too-often neglected perizôma holds the key to understanding the satyrs’ dramatic form.22 Reveling in anything coarse and crude, satyr drama is always eager to draw attention to the nether regions, even when it comes to theorizing about costume. We have a good sense of what the perizôma looked like through the striking frequency with which it is depicted in fifth-century vase painting. In contrast to the mask, the perizôma is represented in these images as a costume on the body. Since vase painters almost invariably depict worn masks as “melting,” the object blending seamlessly with the body of its wearer, it can, with rare exceptions, only be identified when not in use.23 The perizôma, however, is only seen when worn. It retains its marked status as costume even when performing its mimetic function. The disparity is beautifully illustrated by a famous bell crater attributed to the Tarporley painter which, although somewhat removed from the context of fifth-century Athens, nevertheless exemplifies its iconographic idioms (Fig. 9.1).24 The three choreuts on the vase, represented just before or after a performance, all wear the distinctive perizôma of the dramatic satyr. Two of the figures hold their masks, which are easily identified as such, but the mask of the third, which is worn, has melted and become indistinguishable from the body of the choreut.25 When one examines the lower register, however, the perizômata worn by all three choreuts are clearly demarcated as costume and the craftsmanship behind the garments is emphasized by conspicuously rendered details. If the popularity
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Fig. 9.1 Three choreuts in satyr costume. Apulian red figure bell krater attributed to the Tarporley painter (c. 410–380 BCE). NM47.5, Nicholson Museum, the University of Sydney.
of the perizôma as a subject for vase painters attests to the outsized role of this particular costume in the theatrical imagination of fifth-century Athenians, its explicit representation as a costume in use suggests that this general fascination was due, in no small part, to its ability to stimulate thinking about how crafted objects transform bodies. Such an inference is given further support by the form of the perizôma itself, the material epitome of somatic hybridity. Satyrs themselves are hybrid figures. They are, most obviously, a combination of man and beast, but satyrs combine disparate, even oppositional elements in many other ways as well; as François Lissarrague has so elegantly explored, insofar as they are the paradigmatic internal other of the Athenian imagination, their very being comes to represent the union of seemingly antithetical qualities.26 The perizôma reflects this essential
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hybridity in its combination of human and equine anatomy—the upright penis in the front perfectly balanced by the dangling tail in the back. But it also, when worn, draws attention to the more complex hybrid body constructed through the combination of the human flesh of the choreut and the leather—the flesh of a dead animal simulating human flesh—of the perizôma. This hybrid nudity constitutes the essential definition of the perizôma in vase iconography, where the presence of the costume is signaled by the line that simultaneously separates and joins the body of the choreut and the new, artificial body created by the perizôma. It is useful here think of the hybrid nudity of the perizôma in contrast with the so-called stage nakedness so familiar from comedy. In comedy, nakedness is represented by a full-body suit that covers the actor’s entire body, with the exception of hands and feet.27 Even “nude” limbs are covered by fabric, which is always conspicuously marked as costume in the vase representations.28 By contrast, the perizôma combines with the exposed limbs of the choreut to represent a truly composite body; part mimetic, part “real”; part covered, part exposed; part animal, part human; part dead, part living. The perizôma is both the symbol of the coordinated function of choreut and costume and the means by which it is achieved. It embodies the fusion of human actor and object out of which the basic bodies of theatrical satyrs are formed. Because satyr drama is defined by the presence of a Chorus of satyrs, the two elements of the basic costume, mask and perizôma, represent essential components of the genre, transforming the Chorus members, who will have portrayed any range of figures in the preceding three tragedies, into the expected and reliable satyrs of the fourth play. But my generalized picture of the basic construction of the satyr body is incomplete, since it does not reflect the vast range (or multiverse, to use Latour’s term) of additional objects that are employed within individual plays. As Rebecca Lämmle has explored, satyr drama engages in a “serial poetics” in which each new theatrical iteration represents a blend of familiar attributes cast in compelling new light.29 In many plays the use of supplementary dress and other objects, items which we may call “secondary costumes”, helps to differentiate the satyrs, adapting them to the particular mythical narrative into which they have been inserted.30 Be they the torches of Aeschylus’s Prometheus Pyrkaeus, the goat skins of Euripides’ Cyclops, or the hammers of Sophocles’ Pandora, these secondary costumes function as further extensions of the satyrs’ bodies, transforming them from their accustomed status as rustic attendants of Dionysus into the new roles, and bodies, that they inhabit only for the duration of any given performance.
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Through their hybrid status as bodies shaped by perizômata, and through their penchant for honing their form by further incorporating the additional “external objects” of secondary costumes, satyrs, more than any other creatures of the fifth-century Athenian theater, embody Latour’s composite form. Their very bodies are the products of affect, physically created through engagement with the materials that surround them.
2. Satyrs, cattle, and other things And yet, as we have already seen, the satyrs of Sophocles’ Ichneutae do not transform themselves by means of secondary costumes. Their transition from “normal” band of satyrs to the hunting dogs of Apollo is unusual in two respects. Firstly, it is effected entirely through the “basic” bodies of the Chorus, the hybrid construct of human choreut and primary costume (mask and perizôma). Secondly, and perhaps more radically, the satyrs’ transformation takes place in the orchestra, during the course of the play, in front of the audience rather than before the drama begins (backstage, as it were).31 The exposure of the satyrs’ metamorphosis, made all the more conspicuous by their elaborate mimetic dance, situates the malleability of the satyrs’ bodies at the heart of the dramatic action. The foregrounding of the satyrs’ sensory experience, through scent above all, frames their transformation as something that happens through affective interaction with the external world (all the more so when we recall how many ancient theories of sense perception entail the physical interaction of sense organ and sensory particle).32 Within the structure of Ichneutae, it is the task of the transformed satyr-dogs, now the “trackers” of the play’s title, to seek out the sensory object that has trained their noses in this canine fashion.33 For the spectator, whose gaze has been directed to the performative construction of the satyrs’ new form—and who has, to use Latour’s terminology, articulated the affective engagement that has given their bodies new shape—the hunt takes on a deeper significance. It is a search for the “kit” that is now a part of the “noses” in the orchestra. The unseen cattle, whose bodies have joined together with the satyrs by means of scent, can be understood as a kind of metaphorical secondary costume, an added element that adapts their bodies to the circumstances of this dramatic iteration.34 Like the tracks of Apollo’s cattle, the trail that I follow toward the unseen costume-bodies of Ichneutae leads backwards, beginning near the end of our extant fragments with Cyllene’s response to the re-fashioned satyrs as they near
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the conclusion of their search. As they approach the nymph’s mountainside dwelling, the satyrs once again perform a raucously mimetic dance, leaping about the orchestra like the hunting dogs they have become, urged on by Silenus’s “dogdriving whistle” (κυν. ο. ρ.τικὸ. ν σύριγμα 173). The play’s emphasis on affect has shifted from smell to sound,35 and Cyllene reprises the “dog-hunting” language of the earlier scenes, but now with regards to the satyrs’ vocal expressions (231– 32).36 More importantly for my present purposes, the speech contains the play’s most pointed discussion of costume, and is thus a particularly acute provocation to further contemplate the construction of the Chorus’s bodies (221–32): θῆρες, τί. [τό]νδε χλοερὸν ὑλώδη πάγον ἔν�[θ]ηρο�ν ὡρμήθητε σὺν πολλῇ βοῇ; τίς ἥδε τέχνη; τίς μετάστασις πόνων, οὓς πρόσθεν εἶχες δεσπότῃ χάριν φέρων, ὕ..ι �νος αἰεὶ νεβρίνῃ καθημμέν[ο]ς δορᾷ χερ[ο]ῖ ν� τ�ε� θ�ύ�ρ�σ�[ο]ν� εὐπαλῆ φέρων ὄπισθεν εὐίαζες ἀμφὶ τὸν θεὸν σὺν ἐγγόνοις νύμφαισι καἰπόλων ὄχλῳ; νῦν δ’ ἀγνοῶ τὸ χρῆμα· ποῖ στροφαὶ νέα�ι� μανιῶν στρέφουσι; θαῦμα γὰρ κατέκλ�[υ]ο�ν ὁμοῦ πρέπον κέλευμά πως κυ�ν�η�γετ[ῶ]ν ἐγγὺς μολόντων θηρὸς εὐναί[ου] τ�ρο�[.]ης,
225
230
Beasts! Why do you attack this verdant wooded hill, home of wild things, with such shouts? What is this skill? What is this change from the labors which you used to complete on behalf of your master, always (drunk?), clad in fawn skins and carrying the thyrsoi easily in your hands, shouting “euai” behind the god with your kindred nymphs and throng of goatherds? But this (τὸ χρῆμα) now I do not recognize. Where are these new twists of mania turning you? I was astonished to hear a shout just like that of dog-hunters closing in on a beast in its lair . . .
The play between absent and present costumes is neatly encapsulated in Cyllene’s address to the satyrs-dogs. Like Silenus observing their earlier mimetic dance, Cyllene comments on the satyrs’ odd and unaccustomed behavior, noting the new skill (τέχνη 223) that their bodies display.37 But in contrast to Silenus, Cyllene makes a pointed observation about costuming when she questions the absence of the satyrs’ typical paraphernalia: the fawn skins and thyrsoi of their Dionysian identity, items that could be called their standard bacchic secondary costume. Cyllene’s words conjure the image of the satyr Chorus in another guise,
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clad in the accoutrements of Dionysiac celebration. But the bodies before her in the theater hold nothing in their hands (χερ[ο]ῖ�ν) and are covered not by the skins of deer (νεβρίνῃ [. . .] δορᾷ) but by their own naked hides, the hybrid construct of choreut and perizôma. Cyllene’s projection of an absent secondary costume calls attention to the unorthodox way in which the Chorus has been transformed. The new features of their bodies are apparent from the satyrs’ deportment, and their bowed posture, which raises the equine tails of the perizôma into the air, emphasizes the bestial features already present in their hybrid form. But the source of this change—a different sort of absent costume— remains unseen. Amidst the suggestive language of Cyllene’s speech, the use of the term χρῆμα is particularly intriguing. As Cyllene contemplates the satyrs’ unfamiliar appearance, she proclaims her bafflement at their new form: νῦν δ᾽ἀγνοῶ τὸ χρῆμα, which I have translated (or perhaps avoided translating) as “but this now I do not recognize.” It is difficult to know exactly how to construe the usage here. The term χρῆμα has a wide range of meanings stemming from the root sense of “something that is needed.” It can denote inanimate objects, most often money, as well as the more abstract sense of “affairs.”38 Cyllene’s use of the word here seems to refer, at least superficially, to the behavior of the satyrs (looking forward to the στροφαὶ νέα�ι� of the line’s end); that is, to the general disposition of the Chorus— their appearance, dancing and singing—in a variation of the “affair” sense of the word. But following so closely on the heels of a discussion of the satyrs’ familiar, but absent, accoutrements, it is hard not to hear a further sense of physical object, possessions—or even of, as English theater idiom so appropriately dubs them, stage properties, props. One can readily hear both registers in Cyllene’s broadly phrased exclamation, since they are, in fact, two sides of the same coin, as the nymph herself has made clear. She cannot understand what the satyrs are doing and, or perhaps because, she does not see their customary possessions. Sophocles’ use of the term χρῆμα elsewhere in the play further complicates our understanding of Cyllene’s unusual turn of phrase.39 In the opening exchange between Apollo and Silenus, a tightly paired twofold usage raises the question of whether, and how, animals can be considered χρήματα. Apollo is the first to make use of the word, speaking of τὸ χρῆμα as he encourages Silenus to take up the task of retrieving his cattle (44). Gaps in the papyrus make the precise reference of word difficult to determine, but it seems clear that he is speaking either of his cattle or of the reward (μισθός) that he will offer for their return.40 Silenus repeats the term almost immediately in his response to the god, expressing his eagerness to “dog-hunt the thing”: ἄν πως τὸ χρῆμα τοῦτό σοι
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κυνηγ�[έ]σω (50). Silenus thus quite clearly applies the term to Apollo’s cattle, the object of the hunt. His language either echoes Apollo’s earlier phrasing or, perhaps more intriguingly, reframes the god’s economic discourse by equating the wages of Apollo’s hired hands to the monetary value of his lost animals.41 Whatever the specific nuances of this first, double usage of the term, the exchange situates the bodies of living creatures within the discourse of χρήματα. Like the reward that Apollo offers, the cattle at the heart of the play are, in a certain sense, objects. But so, too, are the satyrs themselves. Apollo and Silenus’s blending of animate and inanimate objects colors the implications of Cyllene’s speech to the satyrs, whom she addresses as θῆρες (“beasts”)—the first word she utters on stage. By foregrounding the satyrs’ own bestial status, Cyllene calls attention to the blurry boundary between the satyrs and the object of their hunt.42 The nymph twice describes the satyrs’ unusual (canine) hunting sounds as if they were targeting beasts (ἔν�[θ]ηρο�ν 222; θηρὸς 232), echoing the vocative θῆρες with which she begins her address. The domesticated cattle are not, properly speaking, θῆρες, which refers specifically to wild creatures, but they are, at least according to Silenus, χρήματα, the term which Cyllene applies to the Chorus’ new bodies. The somatic analogy between the Chorus and the object of their hunt is thus twofold, the bodies of both are simultaneously animal and object. The blending of animate and inanimate bodies in Ichneutae finds its most explicit and decisive expression in the form of the lyre—the object that the satyrs find in place of the cattle they have been searching for. Like the Chorus themselves, the lyre is an old body given new form. A tortoise transformed into a musical instrument, the lyre is a once-living animal fully assimilated to the realm of objecthood but still capable of finding voice by joining with the bodies of others—with the musician, who plucks the strings with his fingers, but also with those who hear and, like the satyrs, are “carved” or “shaped” (δι[α]χαράσσεται 261) by its sound. Like the cattle, the lyre is an unseen force working upon the satyrs’ bodies, entering and shaping them through their ears.43 The satyrs struggle to understand how the voice they have heard can come, as Cyllene asserts, from something dead (299–300): Χo. Κυ.
Chorus But how can I believe that this voice bellows from something dead? Cyllene Believe it. For now that it is dead, it has a voice, but when alive the beast was mute.
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Cyllene’s retort, an adaptation of Hermes’ own language from the Homeric hymn,44 classifies the tortoise as a θήρ, yet another animal in the play’s everexpanding bestiary.45 The satyrs, still unable to fully comprehend the nymph’s meaning, pick up on the term and launch into a catalogue of bestial forms that the instrument might take: a cat or a panther (303); a weasel or a crab (305); a dung beetle (307).46 The satyrs’ humorous comparisons recall their father’s earlier mockery of their own canine dance, and, as then, the ludic buffoonery masks the sharper point that the very definition of the body is at stake in this play. Cyllene launches into a more schematic description of the lyre, detailing the components—pegs, knots, holes, and skin (δέρμα 314)—of Hermes’ new “possession” (κτέανον 313) and the satyrs finally come to embrace the instrument’s “-plucked voice” (οψάλακτός� τις ὀμφὴ 329).47 The object now interacts with their bodies in a different way, not “carving” them in fear but “lengthening their smooth knobs in pleasure” (τὸ� λεῖον φαλακρὸν ἡδονῇ πιτνάς 367).48 As the satyrs are more strongly joined with the lyre, their affective experience shifts to the sexual excitement that so often characterizes their encounters with anything new. And it is now, when its composite nature has come fully into view, that the satyrs declare the lyre too to be a χρῆμα (372–76): οὐ γάρ με ταῦτα πείσεις, πως τὸ χρῆμ’ οὗτος εἰργασμένος ῥινοκόλλητον ἄλλων ἔκ�α�ρ�ψεν βοῶν που δοράς [γ’ ἢ] ’πὸ τῶν Λοξίου. ·
375
You will not persuade me that whoever fashioned the thing (τὸ χρῆμ’) of glued hide, dried the skins of any cows other than those of Loxias.
The tortoise’s body has found its paradoxically immortal voice in death by joining her hollowed shell together with the dried skins of Apollo’s cattle. The satyrs’ hunt for Apollo’s cattle has led them to an entirely different kind of body.49 The lyre’s skin (δοράς), formed of the χρῆμα after which the satyrs have been · searching, stands as a correlate to the fawn skins of the satyrs’ unworn secondary costume, its variegated appearance (302) mimicking the proverbially dappled patterning of young deer.50 Indeed, as Tim Power has observed, the lyre itself is a common accessory (what I have been calling a secondary costume) of satyrs in vase painting.51 At the same time, the lyre’s hybrid construction, formed of the bodies of tortoise and cattle, also mirrors the costumes that the choreuts do have on, the perizôma which amalgamates their bodies with the tanned skins of
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chattel. In this final marked use of the term χρῆμα, Sophocles invites us to consider the composite nature of the play’s (and the genre’s) satyr Chorus, creatures whose basic bodies are formed through the new anatomy of their hybrid costumes and then further transformed for each new play, often through the application of secondary costuming. Rather than literally employ such secondary costumes, Sophocles’ Ichneutae calls attention to their absence, and in so doing allows us to reconsider the ways in which the satyrs’ bodies are joined with other objects that serve this same role. The parallels between the satyr Chorus and the lyre that they inadvertently discover on their search for Apollo’s cattle, a body into which those cattle have themselves been incorporated, is already anticipated somewhat earlier in the play when Silenus rebukes his sons for their cowardice. The fearful behavior that they exhibit, a result of the frightening new sounds that meet their ears, is itself already a manifestation of their affective engagement with the lyre,52 a transformation that mirrors in the aural sphere their earlier mutation into dogs by means of their noses. Silenus’s indignant response offers an account of the ways in which the satyrs’ bodies are themselves objects of craft, and are reformed in concert with the objects around them (145–60): τί μοι ψ[ό]φον; φοβ[. . .]. κα[.] δειμαίνετε μάλθης ἄναγνα σώ[μα]τ�’ ἐκμεμαγμένα κάκιστα θηρῶν ὀνθ�[. .]ν [π]ά�σῃ σκιᾷ φόβον βλέποντες, πάν[τα] δειματούμενοι, ἄνευρα κἀκ�όμιστα κἀν�ε[λε]ύθερα διακονοῦντες, σώ�ματ’ εἰ[σ]ιδ[ε]ῖ�ν� μόνον κα�[ὶ γ]λ�ῶ�σσα κα[ὶ] φ�άλητες. εἰ δέ που δέῃ, π�ι�σ�τ�οὶ λόγοισιν ὄντες ἔργα φεύγετε, τοιοῦ�[δ]ε πατρός, ὦ κάκιστα θηρίων, οὗ πόλλ’ ἐφ’ ἥβης μνήματ’ ἀνδρείας ὕπο κ[ε]ῖται παρ’ οἴκοις νυμφικοῖς ἠσκημένα, οὐκ εἰς φυγὴν κλίνοντος, οὐ δειλ[ο]υμένου, οὐδὲ ψόφοισι τῶν ὀρειτρόφων βοτῶν [π]τήσσοντος, ἀλλ’ α[ἰχ]μαῖσιν ἐξει[ρ]γασμένου [ἃ] νῦν ὑφ’ ὑμῶν λάμ[πρ’ ἀ]π�ορρυπαίνεται [ψ]όφῳ νεώρει κόλακ[ι] ποιμένων π[ο]θέν.
145
150
155
160
What noise (sc., do you hear)? . . . you are afraid, filthy bodies molded of wax, most vile of beasts . . . you see a fright in every shadow, you are scared of everything. You behave like you have no sinews—filthy, slavish. You are mere bodies to see: mouth and phalluses. If anything is needed, you are faithful in
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The Materialities of Greek Tragedy
your words, but flee from action. Most vile of beasts! Yet born from such a father, one who set up many memorials to his bravery in his youth, fashioning them in the homes of nymphs. A father who did not turn to flight, who was not frightened, nor cowered in fear at the sounds of livestock in the mountains, but who made use of spears whose luster you now befoul because of the new gentle sound of shepherds somewhere.
Silenus lards his abuse with mention of the satyrs’ bestial character (κάκιστα θηρῶν, ὦ κάκιστα θηρίων), highlighting one of the features that aligns them with the other animal/objects that they will encounter. But the passage is, above all, a description of, and meditation on, the satyrs’ own bodies as constructed, hybrid forms. I will highlight just two points from this amazing passage. Firstly, when Silenus accuses his sons of being “filthy bodies, molded of wax” he may, as most modern critics have concluded, be referring to their cowardly “softness,” but he is also pointing to the fact that their bodies are, indeed, fabricated and, in the case of the mask, quite literally molded out of workman’s materials.53 As Andreas Antonopoulos has recently argued, the mention of bodies of wax “makes allusion to contemporary plastic art” and the wax effigies that were then popular in Athens and elsewhere.54 This sense of the Chorus as artistic creations is echoed in Silenus’s subsequent, and, I would argue, parallel, insult, that the satyrs are mere bodies (σώ�ματ’ . . . μόνον 150), where the specification κα�[ὶ γ]λ�ῶ�σσα κα[ὶ] φ�άλητες (151) points to the two elements of the basic satyr costume—the mask and perizôma—which the Chorus are indeed wearing.55 My second point is that in drawing a contrast between himself and his sons, Silenus presents yet another picture of absent secondary costume, namely the spears that he claims to have employed in his youthful exploits, which the satyrs are now tarnishing through their cowardly performance. Silenus’s military identity is, in this description, a matter of external objects. Not only the spears, but also the memorials (the mnêmata) which he, in a particularly odd bit of phrasing, fashioned in the houses of nymphs—almost as though creating them through sexual congress. Where the tortoise will engender the sexual response of the satyrs only after becoming a composite χρῆμα, Silenus’s sexual adventures produce offspring (the satyrs themselves?) that are already objects. Silenus may not employ the term χρῆμα in his speech, but his rebuke to his sons exhibits the same complex blending of animate and inanimate bodies that Sophocles associates elsewhere in Ichneutae with that term. His passionate diatribe gives clear expression to the play’s larger contention that such a binary cannot be sustained (any more than one can sustain the binary between human
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and beast when one looks at the satyrs) and paints a picture of bodies that are conglomerates of animate and inanimate, hybrid accumulations, like the theatrical satyrs constructed of the perizôma worn atop human limbs.
Conclusion If, as Latour asserts, the body is a composite, accumulative creation born of affective engagements that hone and refine the capacity to live in the world, the dramatic world of Sophocles’ Ichneutae gives an ever-evolving shape to the hybrid bodies of its satyr Chorus through their interactions with other similarly hybrid forms, other χρήματα that challenge the distinction between living body and inanimate artifact. Through their affective engagement with these “external objects,” the satyrs incorporate new elements into their own bodies, new skins to create ever more complex forms of composite nudity. The hunt that began with their noses, and then eyes and ears, extends to encompass the entirety of the theater. The process of forming a body is, as Latour observes, one without end. Thus, it is perhaps fitting that Ichneutae survives to us only as a fragment, a play without an end. We have no final form to consider, no happy conclusion to the satyrs’ hunt. We are free to imagine them in the never-ending process of giving shape to their bodies, of honing and extending themselves through the other objects that they meet.
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Notes to pages 151–156
257
84 85 86 87
Seigworth and Gregg 2010, 3. On this point see Uhlig’s chapter. EN 1170b6–7. Griffero 2014, 4. Harman (2005, 95) uses “black box” and “black hole” as interchangeable images of the material object: see the Introduction. 88 This is a concern of contemporary novelists: see, for example, Morrison 1992, 3. I owe this reference to Dorothy Hale.
Chapter 9 1 Fr. 314 Radt. 2 Hunt proposed the supplement ὀσμ[αῖσι (“by scents”). 3 As is common, the singular is used throughout the passage to refer to the satyr collective. 4 Brennan 2004, 9; see also Introduction. 5 Seigworth and Gregg 2010, 2. 6 Aj. 786; see Finglass 2011, 368. 7 1093–94 ἔοικεν εὔρις ἡ ξένη κυνὸς δίκην / εἶναι, ματεύει δ’ ὧν ἀνευρήσει φόνον (“It seems that the stranger is keen-scented, like a dog, and is searching for the blood of those she will discover”). The scent of blood is later picked up by the Erinyes, who are also compared to hunting dogs, in the trilogy’s final play (Eu. 246–47). On dogs in the trilogy, see Heath 1999 and Wilson 2006. 8 7–8 εὖ δέ σ’ ἐκφέρει / κυνὸς Λακαίνης ὥς τις εὔρινος βάσις (“Your step leads you well, like that of a keen-scented Lacanian dog”). The divergence of the Ichneutae Chorus’s dance from the behavior described in this passage, as well as at A. Eu. 244–58, is discussed by Zagagi (1999, 190–91). 9 There is no evidence to support the claim of Walton (1935) that the Chorus wore canine masks and costumes. See Ussher 1974, 133–34; Maltese 1982, 25; and Zagagi 1999, 189. 10 Seidensticker (2003, 110–17) discusses the importance, and possible forms, of dance in satyr drama. 11 Griffith (2013, 266) notes how the satyrs’ “ ‘mimetic’ habit [. . .] quite often leads to reference being made to the Chorus’s bodily gestures and movements and/or to the instrumentation and character of the musical accompaniment, that is, in general to the performative qualities of their self-presentation.” 12 See the judicious discussion of Naerebout (1997, esp. 108–9); see also Steinhart 2007. Griffith (2013, 269) nevertheless emphasizes the satyrs’ “visually novel choreographic adventure” at lines 124–220. 13 Latour 2004, 214.
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258 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31
32 33
34
35
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Latour 2004, 209–13. Latour 2004, 206. Latour 2004, 210–11. On a similar conception of the body in Philoctetes, see Introduction and Telò’s chapter. Latour 2004, 206–7. Latour 2004, 207. On the satyrs’ mask, see Duncan’s chapter. The most important study remains Frontisi-Ducroux 1995. See also Calame 1986; Halliwell 1993; Wiles 2007; Meineck 2011; and Duncan’s chapter in this volume. Kossatz-Deissmann 1982 is the only dedicated study of the dramatic perizôma. On the use of the shorts, without phallus and equine tail in athletic competitions, see Bonfante 1989, 546–48, 559–64; McDonnell 1993; Shapiro 2000; and Thuillier 2004. Pickard-Cambridge 1968, 185. Csapo 2010a, 42. On the mask as a prosthetic object, see Duncan’s chapter in this volume. See, most recently, Lissarrague 2013; see also Voelke 2001. See Compton-Engle 2015, 21–24. Compton-Engle 2015, 24. Lämmle 2013, 245–91; see also Seidensticker 2003, 103: “Whereas tragedy presents ever new Choruses in the same or similar roles, satyr play presents the same satyrs in ever new roles, often already advertised by the plural title of the play.” Seidensticker 2003, 103. Comparable, perhaps, is the onstage transformation of the Chorus, albeit by means of a secondary costume, in Aeschylus’s Theoroi, where the satyrs appear to take up “new playthings” (νεοχμὰ [. . . .] ἀθύρματα ̣fr. 78c 50), on which see Ferrari 2013, 205–8, and Lämmle 2013, 313. On ancient theories of smell, see recently the contributions in Bradley 2014. As will be clear, I do not agree with Zagagi (1999, 189–90), who argues that “it must be clear that the canine behavior of the satyrs has one purpose and one alone: to enliven the scene of pursuit by means which are as dramatic, realistic, and economical as possible. Once this aim has been achieved, the task of the canine pantomime is at an end, and the satyrs return to their natural and original dimension.” Nor does Zagagi specify when in the text this “aim” should be understood to have “been achieved.” The dramatic self-consciousness of satyr drama, particularly with regards to music/ dance and costume, is explored by Kaimio et al. (2001) and, with respect to music and dance, by Griffith (2013). Power (2018) explores the musical self-consciousness of Ichneutae in particular. On the sonic landscape of the play, see Guida 2013 and Power 2018.
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Notes to pages 161–166
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36 On the mimetic nature of the satyrs’ approach as dogs, see Griffith 2013, 266–68, and Antonopoulos 2015, 250–52, and 2014, 57–63, on the canine names that they are called. 37 Griffith 2013, 270, and Power 2018, 360. 38 The phrase τί χρῆμα is found often in drama and generally means little more than τί (LSJ s.v. II.2), but the use of the definite article argues against that being the case here. On the periphrastic usage, which is often applied to animals and thus perhaps influenced Sophocles’ unusual formulations in Ichneutae, see Bergson 1967. 39 Sophocles employs χρῆμα four times in Ichneutae, far more frequently than in any of his other extant works. The word is found once (Aj. 288; Ant. 1049; El. 390; Tr. 1136) or twice (OT 542, 1129; Ph. 1231, 1265) in the canonical plays, most often in the form τί χρῆμα or with the clear sense of “affairs.” Χρῆμα is found an additional five times in fragments (excepting Ichneutae). The two uses in fr. 88 Radt (Aleadae) both have the unambiguous sense of “money,” as does the single instance in fr. 254 Radt (Creusa). The periphrastic form is used at fr. 401 Radt (Meleager) to refer to the boar (συὸς μέγιστον χρῆμ᾽). Fr. **219.9 Radt is too lacunose to render sense. 40 Maltese 1982, 70. 41 Compare the Chorus’s exclamation at 191 (ἔνι β[ο]ῦς, ἔνι πόνο ̣[ς [“There’s a cow, there’s labor”]) and Silenus’s rejoinder at 207–8 (κἀξίχνευε ̣καὶ πλού[τ / τὰς βοῦς τ ̣ε κα[ὶ] τὸν χρυσὸν . . . [“Track down the riches, both the cows and the gold”]). On the relationship between Apollo and Silenus/the satyrs, see Zagagi 1999, 182–89. 42 Voelke (2001, 54–60) and Lämmle (2013, 436–40) explore the complex range of the satyrs’ animal nature. 43 Power (2018, 350) notes that “the complete invisibility of the lyre certainly would have been a powerful means of involving the audience affectively in the stage action.” On materiality and invisibility in Aeschylus, see the chapter by Weiss. 44 H. Merc. 38 ἢν δὲ θάνῃς τότε κεν μάλα καλὸν ἀείδοις. See the discussion of Borthwick (1970, 373–74). 45 Cf. 292 where the fragmentary θηρευμ[ likely describes the tortoise as the object of Hermes’ hunting. 46 On the comic nature of the satyrs’ riddles, see Zagagi 1999, 211. 47 On the resonances of the musical terminology, see Power 2018, 356. 48 On the reference to masturbation, see Voelke 2001, 213, and Slenders 2005, 45–46. 49 Guida 2013, 144. 50 Griffith (2013, 270–71) and Power (2018, 359–65) link the language and the later reference to the instrument’s multiplicity (αἰόλισμα 327) to New-Musical discourse. 51 Power 2018, 357. 52 Power (2018, 348) notes that the invisibility of the instrument “dials up the ‘fear factor,’ ” a technique that may have been paralleled in Sophocles’ Inachus. 53 Hall (2006, 99–141) offers an elegant exploration of drama as a plastic art.
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54 Antonopoulos 2013, 84. 55 Kaimio et al. (2001, 54) see a similar reference to costume, though only to the perizôma, at 366–68.
Chapter 10 1 On the meaning and role of opsis in Aristotle’s Poetics, see esp. Halliwell 1998, 337–43; Konstan 2013; and Sifakis 2013. 2 Sofer 2013, 12. In De Anima, Aristotle explores the close relation between “mental images” (phantasmata) and objects that are actually perceived (427a18–432b14). 3 See Webb 2009 on enargeia (“making absent things present”) and phantasia in ancient rhetorical theory; see also Plett 2012. Zeitlin (1994) and Torrance (2013, 63–134) explore the play between word and image in Euripides’ ecphrases, and in fifth-century tragedy more broadly. 4 Ar. Ra. 907–1297, esp. 923–38; Vit. A. 2, 7, 9, 14. On Aeschylean spectacle, see Taplin 1977, esp. 39–49. Taplin (2016) convincingly argues that Aeschylus was already experimenting with innovative uses of stage objects in the Achilleis trilogy, which probably dates from the first twenty years of his career (perhaps as early as the 490s). 5 Vit. A. 14. Translation by S. Burges Watson (https://livingpoets.dur.ac.uk/w/ Life_of_Aeschylus (accessed 15th January 2018)). 6 Vit. A. 7. 7 Vit. A. 9; Poll. 4.110. 8 On off-stage objects functioning as props in Greek tragedy, see Mueller 2016, 6: “because of the horizon of semiotic possibilities created by the genre’s more general reliance on stage props to create meaning, it seems . . . likely that regular theatergoers would have been capable of intuiting a prop’s action before seeing the object itself— before registering it, that is, as a visual sign.” 9 Steiner 1994, 50–60; Lissarrague 2007, and 2009, 25; and Chaston 2010, 67–130. Cf. Zeitlin 1994 on how the fifth-century tragedians, especially Euripides, engage with their audience’s experience of visual arts. See also Estrin in this volume on the interaction between stage objects and real objects in Euripides’ Ion. 10 On the emphasis on noise here, see Stanford 1983, 55–56, and Gurd 2016, 75–76. 11 Griffith 2017, 125–27, esp. 127: “The audience is swept along and aurally bombarded by the Chorus’s multiple short syllables (resolved dochmiacs and iambics) and extensive onomatopoeia, an assault that is in its own way rhythmically exciting and engaging— and one must assume that it was melodically appealing and suspenseful as well.” 12 Cf. E. Alc. 87, Andr. 1211, Supp. 87, 605, Tr. 1325, Ph. 1351, Or. 963, 1467. On κτύπος and other percussive words used in tragic performances of lament, see Weiss 2017, 248–49, and 2018a, 41, 136–37.
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